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There was a small town near the shores of the sea; it was a topical climate with mixture of occasional rainfall, hot summer & even pleasant atmosphere with low heat & humidity. The whole town was encircled with the backwaters of the rivers. With such a classic whether there was also a short coming which could wipe out the whole town. The tornado’s quite regularly hit the surrounding towns so the impact of it would hit this small town too. Owing to the increasing trouble of these the people had started to flee from here. While there were people in towns who were the survivors of these who took shelter in this town.
Today two different people both who were survivors of the same town moved into this new place but both were strangers & poles apart. One was calm & patient while the other was fierce & impatient but both were always inevitable & destructive in nature if meddled with, with a slight deviation, the calm one had the ability to choose either go ahead & wreck everything but the fierce person didn’t had that choice once a step taken forward has to feel the burnt.
Even if these two people’s ways were different and always repulsive in nature, they both were away from their people it was a test of survival for them in this place. They had none to share what they felt, none to listen to their talks, none to see their pain hidden in their heart. But destiny could not stop itself posing them infront of each other. He, who was fire and she, who was water did face each other will they ever overcome there obstacles & blend in one another without terminating the other.
Seeing is believing is said for the human sense sight but at this time of the day when darkness is all you could see around and light is something alien and hard to visualise what is there in front of you that doesn’t mean you are lost or blind? Just like everyone my other senses come to my rescue. Exactly now when I cannot see anything through my eyes I could hear the roars of the ocean everytime it hit the banks indicating I am standing right infront of the vast expanse of the ocean. Petrichor, the scent of rain filled my lungs predicting the approaching rain, the touch of which would cease my burning but I am not ready to taste the freedom from this fire. In addition to these I know how to eradicate the darkness as I have the capacity to turn on the light even at the darkest times of life.
The rain can come down to the earth anytime and I have to take shelter before that but still I wait at the banks waiting for the darkness to break into dawn. This has been my routine from past week to sprint around the seashore of this sea at the darkest hour before the dawn and wait for the moment of darkness breaking into the dawn. To watch the sun to gain its position high in the sky, paint his colors over the world showing his supremacy to kill darkness of life. It is not only the sun but also me who feels that has spread my color all over the world.
Slowly the sun made its way out of his den painting the whole sky bright redish yellow with its rays. Consuming the gloomy night and spreading the light bringing new hope & a beginning of bright fresh life. Once I had witnessed the magnificent sight of sunrise my concentration went towards my sense which had alerted about the approaching rain. But now there was no sign of it, that left me astonished as rain is one thing I just hate it and my senses have never been wrong in identifying them. Leaving that thought aside I make my way back to the hostel which has become my new home from where I will have to attend my first day of my master’s classes today.
Not before I had turned my eyes get struck to the sight of a girl in bluish white suit running away something was there about her unknown which made me watch her till she disappeared from my vision. I have been coming here from past 5 days but never did I saw any girl at this time of the hour. She did turn back once but I could not see her face. Just then I heard my cell beep reminding me of the time & I headed back still I couldn’t stop myself to watch at the way she ran off.
Some things never change every where the seniors welcoming the juniors especially in there own innovative way. I had just entered the gates of my college when a group of people naming themselves as seniors blocked my way. They were many more already in queues who were dancing as puppets of seniors. I had a strong urge to teach them a good lesson but I couldn’t just barge in and destruct everything but that would only catch the attention of everyone. Now itself I can feel many eyes on me, that always annoy me.
Against my wishes I simply follow there orders to stand in the queue and wait for my turn to come. Just then there was absolute silence as everyone’s attention was on the entrance maybe another junior’s who are trying to dorge away from these ragging session? But No. when I look at the entrance I could only see a beautiful mesmerising alluring blue eyes of the girl, they captivated me in its pools as deep as oceans that I can get lost in them. It was a picture painted in blue theme, every essence of her oozed as serene beauty. I could no longer see the world around me just her only; everything around her seems to vanish away from my view. As if in the whole world it is you and me alone, with my every breath, with my every heartbeat clearly wanting to be with you. Her earrings kissed her cheeks everytime she kept walking her bangles made sounds of waves in the ocean which was matching her light blue & white mixed dress. Is she the same one whom I saw in the beach today, looks like she is as even at that time she wored the same dress, the same gait, the same care free strides. Today I felt like I got a whole new world to live in.
I don’t know when my legs take me away from the crowd towards the object of my interest but I was pulled back by something. When I turn to see what that was I saw it was the guy next to me who pulled me back, he was saying something which I failed to hear it. I turned back my gaze to her; she was not there; I turn around everywhere only to find her in front of those seniors. I moved in a way to have clear view of her face without any interruption. Her eyes had a gleam of naughtiness which I didn’t know for what.
I felt another nudge in my hand to jolt me into the reality. It was again the same guy but now I heard him say “Man, what are you doing come back and stand here, don’t mess with seniors. See how these girls got them in trouble.” The word Girls made me look at them again to find another girl beside her. All of them were watching her ignoring the pleasant beauty of mine. They were questioning them, that is when I got to know her name is Geet & the girl whom I just noticed her name is Pari.
Geet, the name rang in my ears inveigling my heart with unknown bliss. Such a melodious name she has got that I could only hear and speak her name throughout the remaining life of mine. My heart was showing its presence more than ever with her first visual itself, weaving many desires which could bind me into something which I never was bound to. Thoughts are flying high freeing it self from the strings of my mind. Spirit is flowing in a direction which it had never crossed but it surged without bothering about any hindrance. Wish I could just embrace this moment in myself, to witness a new facet of the dreams. Her eyes were revealing more than she could every voice out surprising me at the things which it could conceal. I was eager to be with her which made my heart to live.
Dilon mein tum apni betabiyan leke chal rahe ho.
My revive was broken when the guy next to me was biting his nails in nervousness as he was worried for the girl next to Geet, as he was muttering “Please God save Pari from these ragging’s” but what I saw actually amazed me as that girl Pari stood fearless while my Geet stood behind her hiding herself from the situation. Such a contrary thing it was happening I was not scared for Geet as I knew she could come out the situation without any help where as the guy next to me was praying for Pari while the girls were doing just the opposite. But Geet’s eyes shone bright, calm & undeterred confidence trickled in her every stir though she portrayed as fearful infront of everyone. She held on to the facade of a timid girl duping around the others. Her face can deceive everyone but her eyes couldn’t as they told every story of hers. She was not a meek girl, none could scrum her into doing things against her wishes, but why does she have to do things like that.
Apparently the situation in the hand was the senior’s portrayed themselves as generous enough to give us the option to whether we want to get ragged or not. Well that was not a real option though as a person would be asked to light the candle once they did it they would say since you have lighted it that means you have accepted to be ragged. So now the candle was placed in the middle of the stand and the girls were asked to light that. I was more interested to see the play as I read her eyes which had the mischievous glint in it. And just I guessed the fun started Geet’s face turned was something everyone could not miss as it turned pale with fear and she clutched Pari’s hand & fainted next second.
For a second even I got worried but then the wink confirmed all my doubts. Getting the clue Pari played along shouting “Geet…….what happened Geet…get up… get up…. Please someone get some water.” After a while she stood drawing everyones attention to herself. When the seniors questioned her, the reply just shook everyone but I was just lost in that melody and couldn’t stop the smile. Geet replied as a scared kitten shuttering and trying to hard to form even a word that “I burnt it …. I burnt it”. Well ever Pari was confused so enquired “what did you burn Geet.” “B…..B……Blub” But looks like seniors were not falling for her drama as she was asked to light the candle now.
I was now curious to know more about her plan as the naught sparkle twinkled in her eyes. She with trembling fingers tried to light the candle but stick failed to burn. Geet said “It is not burning so can I leave for the class sir.” Finally not able to withstand the bugging kitten they let go of her. We will trap her someother time is what I heard a senior whisper into another senior. Her eyes showed she had won this play but that play was not only for her but for everyone there. With a confident & smiling face she left, actually she was concealling more may be she would have danced at her victory but stayed quite because of the people around her.
After she left what happened was really a boon to others as none were able to light the candle with the sticks and were given a green signal to leave to class without any interruption as none of the juniors revealed that the stick had been damp. Actually what had happened was when Geet had feel on the ground the box had feel down in moist grass, which none of them saw at that time. Now the seniors were getting suspicious why none are able to light it are they acting? Then one of them noticed the wetness of the sticks. So when it was my turn they changed the rule if you light it only then you will be set free.
I never had lost any game or battle then how could I just bow down when it was the question of lighting a candle. I made my hands covered there vision of the candle and the stick and within seconds I lit the candle without any trouble. What did they thought that this is the only stick through which the light could be generated. There are other ways to do that & winning over me is not going to happen ever. Without any further delay I dropped the match box in the nearby bin & went to the class with a stride which meant not to be stopped by anyone.
I was joined by the guy who came running towards me while he said “Hey man, slow down, how did you do that”. I didn’t stop but started to move towards my designated class. When he came in front of me introducing himself “Hi, I am Yash and you are” “Maan” was the only thing which I said and entered my class to see Geet in the same class of mine.
Another lecture starts from today, well that is one thing I always disliked but still I have never let the other person to feel that I am not one of the keen listener as I don’t ignore them but just bear there words which some or the other time has been useful. This time I had a silver lining say it a distraction or attraction which would last for atleast a little while.
I entered the class to witness Geet who sat at the front bench with her was Pari, looks like both are friends that they are sticking together. Class was almost full any time the classes would start as the time to start was nearing. I sat away from everyone as I was never a man who needed company.
My loneliness didn’t last for long as it was accompanied by the slim nerd with broad forehead and wide cheek bones that narrow to a small chin with the naroow frame spectacles guy Yash I wished it was Geet beside me but this time I have to bear with this one as the guy, yes Yash was behind me and had followed me to the place where I had selected to sit. Well there was a special thing at this position and that was the view I would get, from here I could see the professors & behind the dias was a glass on which the image I could see was of the reflection of Geet.
Time passed a person came said something and then my eyes went back to Geet who was busy in writing and then she was lost in seeing something when I glanced where she was looking at I saw some other person who stood at the podium. I wonder where the other person went but before I could ponder about that my eyes went on the pen which was just about to touch the curvy glossy lips of hers.
Constant bugging of Yash gained my attention as he was mentioning something about some Economics, business and management I glared back at him to stop him from irritating me. As I take a quick look at the platform to witness yet another different person there. Have I started seeing things, was that a mirage or did the face of the person change like chameleon?
I wanted to see what was happening around so I kept watching him but as the person was a lean bald guy he wasn’t covering the glass behind giving me more access t0 my distraction she was time & again glancing over her lace tied around her wrist. It took a minute more to realise she was getting bored maybe that’s why she was checking the time. That is when I checked the time which said 3 and half hours has been passed since I have been sitting here in this place. That means this is the 4th class of the day & I haven’t heard a word from anyone.
Suddenly Geet’s face had shone and next second there was a long ring indicating the end of the first session and once the unknown professor left the room she & Pari flew from there may be they were hungry. Half n hour of break like everyone I too headed towards the canteen to check what I can get to fill my appetite. I had got one plate of food and sat away from the crowd when I saw my hearts leisure pursuit the blue girl getting her plate filled with food.
I saw them looking at the whole canteen to check for a place just then Yash who was just behind them showed the table where I am sitting. He wanted to watch her everymove but staring like that when the other person was watching straight back at you was not manners and that too when I held the fire to consume her.
My eyes were unwilling to obey my order to look anywhere but her. Then somehow I managed to concentrate on the food but it was just for a second then it was back on her. Fortunately this time she was looking at something else at the other end. She was looking at that direction more intently making my inside to burn. I turned my gaze towards her vision and that enraged me again as Geet was looking at the seniors and one of them who was leading the ragging session was heading to our table. I wouldn’t mind breaking his bones or even burning him to show him the glimpse of hell.
He was just a feet away from his table when the ground under him vanished as he lost balance and swan through the air bang his nose to the ground. He was carrying a plate of food he had picked it up on his way and all of it he had been carrying in his hand fell on his head and finally even the plate hit his head giving him the award he deserved. That’s when I noticed the wet floor and the caution board kept to be careful as the floor was slippery.
A slight giggle caught my ears out of the whole laugh going around the canteen and that was from none other than the girl who sat infront of me. She was trying very hard not to laugh as it would only instigate the others and bring us under their scanner. But even then she couldn’t stop the smile that escaped against her wishes and adored her lips. The twinkle in her eyes which held the power to hypnotise even a saint.
It was the first time she sat so close to me and I was failing to stick to my previous decision of not to stare at her but when did the heart listen when God’s such a exquisite creation was right before my eyes. She had her eyes fixed on the table I just didn’t know what is so interesting out there on it while I couldn’t move my gaze from her. I wished she looked up to me at least once so that I could read what she was thinking. Maybe she didn’t noticed me till now as she was busy with the laugh she got to see here but before I could make that statement sink into my heart she raised her lashes to meet my molten eyes to lose the whole world around us or to find a new way together.
Change is the only thing which is constant in life and is the same thing which I am experiencing now. My sense’s which has always been active in alerting me of my surroundings has changed its allegiance. My eyes never leaves the sight of her as it only tries to find more about her while I always search to hear her melodious voice in every sound that hits my ears, I wait for the moment of slight touch of her veil every time we have bump into one another. It takes every ounce of my will to resist from tasting this forbidden fruit. She is all bent to change me as she smells like a dew drop making me to hate the thought why I hated that before.
The fact which I always certain about eradicating the darkness & lighting it seems to be lost with the way my life had taken a turn. My day which always used to start with the sprinting before the breaking of dawn to keep me fit and focussed has also changed. Now after sprinting I would do my exercise using fire to help me keep focus on the issue that is on the hand. Every day I try new ways with fire I would light up the edges of the stick with fire and swinging the blazing stick in different ways so as to wipe out that vision which has plastered to my eyes.
That day when our eyes had met, the world around me had just ceased to exist. Those deep blue eyes held me captive in her spell that I felt I wandered into a place where every thing was so serene that I didn’t know whether I was lost before or am I getting lost now. I was looking deep into violet & green mixed pupils of her to find what all secrets that could unfold infront of me. But what I found was a haze image of person’s face which started to disturb the tranquilly of those orbs a bit later what I saw was it was not just the disturbance but vanquishing the glow with the flame of that persons mere presence which turned into my face. That was the harsh reality of mine which broke my trance and I had left the table in a rush leaving everyone to ponder anything what they wish.
I would now rather light up the whole place to make me remember the fact of my presence in anyones life would only harm everyone. How could I forget why I am all alone? I break one another stick that was in my hand with the rage which had only amplified the concealed fire in me. I have led lonely life because of this reason, when ever I have lost focused I have not only lost my dearest and nearest but also have felt the burnt of it my own self. How unlucky am I to even not retain a companion for even a small part of this long life. With these thoughts cruising in my mind everytime I would never know when the dawn breaks & the day starts. But with my starting ignorance with the surroundings one had not left to remind me about my college and that was Yash who used to call me with his stupid problems.
Exactly now I got a call from Yash making me realise the time as even the sun elevated high in the sky failed to be gain my attention as I was busy fight with the inner battle. I switched on the Bluetooth and without a second delay he started his cribbing.
That reminds me of the act of last night when I had held the light in my hand & had snapping the fingers lighting it & switching it off with my thoughts running about the past and trying to get the things straight in present.
“15 minutes.” I reply and make my way to start yet another day just like past 8 months but before I leave this shore I put of the fire which I had set around the place. Out of all these things against me this is one thing that I am glad of this deserted place to give me my privacy.
As always my eyes search that place where I had seen her on the first day but as every other day even today I couldn’t see her there maybe it was just by chance that she was here that day. I again console my heart which still wants to see her against my will. And in these 8 months every single day didn’t end without an encounter of ours but every time I shifted my course away from her as those eyes held something which could not be comprehend. During the classes I try to gauge her reactions but she didn’t let me through her lashes making it difficult to read her.
Things which made these encounter possible were Yash & Pari and their budding love story. There talks left me know more about Geet, how she is, how even she came here after losing her family. How lonely she has become now and how she is coping with her life. What her aims are, how she has influenced Pari to be more focused about the future. I get to hear each and every word about them from Yash.
There is not a single place in the college which doesn’t remind me of our encounter and just a week ago when Geet was searching for Pari near this fountain at the entrance of the college where I am standing that was the time we met again face to face to let me read her mind through her own blue eyes.
This time when the cover of her lashes had been shed for my view all I could see was the same mischief gleam in it. But what is she upto now, did that senior again became the scapegoat of her acts. She has been enjoying that senior’s state to an extent which none knew except me as always after every fall of his she had walked away with a winning stride. One thing which even I didn’t know was did she do anything which always landed him in trouble or was that a pure coincidence that whenever she was present he was embarrassed with one or the other thing.
Last time I had accompanied Yash to the mall as girls wanted to do there shopping while Yash wanted to join them and I also went along with him. Once they had roamed alround the mall we had settled down in the food court to fill the hunger of stomach. The seating arrangement was in a semi circle round the table and at one end was Geet next to her was Pari and next was Yash, after him I sat.
I smiled looking at the them planning for the seminar which I didn’t even know there was I never had to bothered for any academic activity as even before I realise the need of the work it would have been done for me too. Yash was someone who used to do it for me I never did ask him for but he simple did it for me and then it become a silent treaty that he used to hand over all the assignments to me. I could have asked him the reason for it but then I never indulged in talking with anyone not even Yash, who was my hostel roommate.
Pari loved Yash but always gets irritated with his “I am scared attitude” college works were not an issue but handling the world or people was something he always held a back foot. I guess this was the reason Yash always used to be with me scared to be alone, scared that he might just get into trouble and I tagged with him because he never asked any questions about me but just used to bug me with non stop talking about the college or Pari or her friend Geet. That was much more than a vital reason to actually tolerate him and his actions.
There was sudden hustle bustle in the food court, apparently some waiter was pushed by someone making all the food in his hand to spilled on the ground and that person was none other than our same senior who had lead our ragging session. The owner was all set to bash the waiter & dismiss him from the job as he thougt the waiter couldn’t even handle his customers properly, creating disturbance to them and also damaging his places aesthetics.
And this senior of ours who was having fun in this trouble just was leaving creating the mess and while crossing over the table next us the kid who sat there was supposed to have her milk in the bottle but the kid opened the cap in a way that all the milk erupted out of it spilling it all over the place along with the wetting the pants of our beloved senior in turn making him embarrass infront of all the people. At that time her eyes showed “you deserve it” look.
Today too her eyes conveyed the same thing to me but who deserves that, was that me or was that someone else. I was still searching for answers when a loud laughter hit my ears and that was of Yash & Pari who came running & laughing even before I could ask them they started to narrate that the gardener was having trouble why water stopped suddenly coming in his pipes while watering the plants and then he tried to twist them in all direction water gushed out like a stream which unfortunately showered on our same darling senior.
Once Yash was here I moved out to our hostel when Yash again started his pleading to accompany him to Pari’s house as she had challenged him “Yash if you love me you have to come to my hime without getting scared of my owner who stayed next door. Only then I will talk to you.” Did I needed this pleadings no defiantly no, but still how would I just give in so I gave him “I am not interested” look and then I finally agreed to him.
We knocked at the door of the girl’s home late at 12 midnight as it was quite a distance we had to travel. There was hesitation quite visible on Pari’s face as she opened the windows to check who is banging the door at this hour. I could clearly see one was shocked while the other pretended to be shocked as she was not afraid of facing any situation. As it was a season of rain many would come inside the front yard for shelter but now it wasn’t raining either and even if it was entertaining an outsider at this hour was not safe.
We stood at a distance so when she checked the window none were visible, then she had a confused look thinking who banged on the door. Just when she thought to close the window and return to bed we came out of the shadows scaring her a bit as she asked who it is. But only thing she heard was her own sound and crackle sound of the dry leaves.
Surprise was the word Yash screamed making her squeal in shock but then she was happy to find her love leaving his inhabitation self.
Surprise was the word Yash screamed making her squeal in shock but then she was happy to find her love there leaving his inhabitation self and visiting her.
“Yash is this the way you come. There is a calling bell which you could always use then why were you banging the door like that. You just scared the hell out of us.” Pari growled on Yash.
“I don’t know why she gets scared suddenly of such little things.” said Pari referring to Geet’s action.
“Yash left a sigh once Geet left as he can have his little talk with Pari now without interruption. Now you will do as I say” Yash whispered.
Looking at them I thought they need a little more privacy so….
I left that place at once and started to move backwards when I heard something rather say some sound. That made me realised that the path I choose leads to the back yard of the house where Geet went. The thought that she is there was enough for me to move more faster my mind constantly warned me not to go and face at this time but when did mind had any say in front of this heart.
My luck was not with me today as suddenly there was lighting followed by a noisy thunder. Normally boys liked these situations where girls would be scared and cling to boys but here it was a different story as I despised rain. Seeing the pouring rain my legs freeze at the place I was safe under the shelter in the pitch darkness where no one knew anyone would exist. Even in the most solitary life I have an angel who had descended from the heaven whom I could gaze till my hearts content.
Geet was in her light violet velvet suit stood admiring the sky above. I stood as far as possible but my eyes could view her from head to toe, I guess she was also standing below some shelter as there was not a drop of rain falling on her. She was not only admiring it but also waiting for the rain to fall as the moment she stretched her palm a drop fell on it, she did the same again and again collecting the drops of the rain in her palm. It looked as if the rain was waiting for the orders of her to fall. Once it was full she let them drop on the ground making the sound like pearls were falling off from the necklace as they didn’t just fall but also they had another path to follow.
She was the commander in chief imposing the flow of rain. Slowly the drops of rain increased & made its way from her shoulders to her long silky hands gliding over them to reach the small little fingers of her just before they descended to reach there fellow droplets. If that was the sight I beheld unknown to her next set of her acts just made my insides move as molten lava.
The water which blessed themselves touching her forehead slid through the sides measuring the length of her sleek neck before they disappeared into the fabric. The view brought him of my revive giving me a reality check about my act. I was not supposed to look at her like this minutely. She has always hid behind the mask of a meek girl and now thinking no one is here she would have let those masks off her face.
She might have not been this free had she known about my presence here. But I didn’t have it in me to turn back from her. This time I wanted her to decide and it would be easy on me to feel her rejection than turning back from her. With this decision I let my legs lead towards the magnetic pull.
I couldn’t have stepped in rain too so I stood at the rim of the shelter making my presence known to her. Passing the message towards her clearly that she is not alone to let her barriers down and baring her oneself to me. She stood in the middle, hands out stretched to let the rain drench her. Even after making my presence evident she didn’t deterred was she so involved in her own world that what is happening around, who is there beside her didn’t matter or was she giving me a treat by letting me to witness her subtle movements of unparalleled grace.
Rain which had drenched her whole form gave a shiny effect to her. With a determination which none could stop her to express herself today neither the rain nor my presence. She bent her back in a semi circle swinging her hands in a way that looked like a white rainbow twinkling in the moon light. Was she dancing with rain or was rain dancing with her, was she following it or was that following her moves was all I could ponder about as she and rain matched steps with each other.
Unknown to me “Geet” came out from my lips it came out just as a whisper and I doubt whether my own ears heard it or not. But as the name left my lips the rain just came to end like it was waiting for me to utter and it would stop and with not a drop of rain pouring her whole concentration turned to me. I stood there waiting for her reaction, would she walk away as I do or…. I didn’t know what to expect. She slowly closed the distance between us and stood right in front of me.
Her eyes held an unknown compassion which I could not understand. I felt a sudden chill spreading around me was it the dip in the temperature or was it her who was cooling my fire in me. My eyes closed for a brief second to hide the things which it may give away if I look deep into the blue ones it may questioned me anything. There were many things which my heart wanted to convey but words were just not enough to express them. Many emotions were binding me with you bring in a new flavour sweeping us into a different world. This is the riddle which could not be hidden within me or with in her or even the world.
I was still entranced in her when I felt her chilled hands touch my cheeks sending shiver down my body. It took only a second to ignite the fire in me; it took lot of efforts to break the shackles to let my hand to stretch so that I could feel that creamy skin. She closed her eyes to engrave the feel of me on her hand, so did I wanted to engrave it. I was just an inch away when she trembled back and before I could comprehend anything or hold her she collapsed on the ground & like how the water gushes out when the gates of the dam are opened the rain poured out on her.
What happened was something has happened with me many times before too when ever I have left my confines things has gone messy. That is the reason why I have to be alone & none are allowed to be with me. My mother left me giving birth to me to live in this world all alone; my father was there only till that another natural calamity which shook more than half of the village when I was a small kid. From that time all I have led is a life alone each day was like a year or even more than that.
Relatives were there to support me but even that didn’t last for more than few days as they would fell into deep troubles due to me. So I had spent most of my life in an orphanage far away from everyone who was my family once. This was my curse which I am still burdened with. And today that has spread to Geet, she fell the moment I thought to ignore my curse but it was all present to remind me of the repercussions if avoided.
I still stood the same way gazing at her fallen state; I couldn’t gather enough courage to even check her. What if she also just left because of my mistake? It would have been better to be away than to live in guilt for becoming an endangered curse to someone else. With the sudden enormous sound of water gained the attention of Pari & Yash so they came out to check the reason for it and all they could see was Geet lying in the pool of water while I had lost my voice to tell anything to them.
I started to take my steps away from her whereas Pari was trying to revive Geet by patting her cheeks. Yash asked her to pull under the shelter first so that she wouldn’t catch cold. They tried to rub her legs & hands it was turning little blue due to chillness of water. Yash looked back at me to ask what happened but what would I reply, there was nothing to tell it was all my fault to have agreed with him to accompany Yash to her place.
My strides were moving fast to just hide myself away from everyone especially from those blue eyes mermaid of my life. I push all the things in front of me & put everything on fire with my own hands but would that reduce the blaze in me. Ripping of my self also didn’t reduce the helplessness in me. Why should I be compled to live a life like this with no love no happiness all alone nothing pleasing can exist around me? Why it is that anything that wants to give me bit contentment would turn into ashes before I could embrace it. Why can’t I hold a little bliss in my palm?
All I had heard was they were taking her to the nearby doctor, I so wanted to check on her but it was best with me not going near her. I waited at the shores waiting for the sun to break the darkness, which was actually trying to consume me within it. After what seems like eternity I just couldn’t wait more but wanted to know if she was fine, I decided I would only see from far & then will move out before anyone would actually notice my presence.
I stood at the doorway hearing that melodious voice of speaking to the doctor which was a relief till I heard there talks. The doctor was quite upset about something but what was the fault of Geet in all these things which happened.
“Geet, I am telling you last time you have to be careful, I can’t hide these things everytime. It was just pure luck that your friends bought you to me, what would have happened if they would have taken you to other doctor.” Doctor was scolding sternly.
“Doc, I would have managed it.” Geet answered meekly.
“Right the way you just managed it today. I have answered others as you got dehydrated but I want answers from you now? What happened & how did it happen if you had taken all the precautions.” Doc questioned.
“2 days, what will I do here for 2 days? I am perfectly fine & I would like to take your leave now as I need to attend the class.” Replied shocked Geet on the sudden order passed by her doctor but when did she listen to others.
“No, you are my friend, so bye.” Geet stromed out of the room after saying that.
There talk left me in thinking what was it that they were talking about was she hiding something or is she under some medication due to some disease. But if I question the doctor she would definitely not spit out the truth. Doctor must have known Geet for a quite a period and that’s why she was so comfortable & then also she hid the truth with Yash & Pari also that too even before she consulting Geet. I should follow her to know more but after what happened yesterday night I need to be very careful & stay away from her.
I have been observing her more meticulously from past few hours but nothing actual changed in her ways neither in action nor in words. Still we didn’t speak neither she nor Yash or Pari actually asked me about that night. It was as if nothing happened, don’t know what Geet said to them but they were actually being careful with Geet, making sure that she had lot of liquids. They didn’t let her give presentations in seminar also but only person who regretted that was me as I couldn’t hear her.
Yash asked me to help them in the last seminar and the group discussions for the year before college breaks for the exams so that Geet could take proper rest. I agreed but I didn’t know what I am supposed to do so he gave some notes which I had to go through & speak about them. Seminar was said to be on one of the topics in some subject which we read but the group discussion was just a practice session so that everyone would get good exposure to the presentation skills. I actually wondered what am I going to do as I had not an iota of idea how these are done but this would help Geet is all I know so I had to do it.
Seminar finished & I don’t exactly remember what all I have to say. Seeing my capabilities with words they had given me a small part. Was that a 5 min material which I finished it in 2 minute or was that only a 1 minutes one for which I too 2. But whatever it was that ended without much hanky panky. Well one hurdle was crossed & the other awaited. Yes the group discussion would start in a while, groups were made. Pari, I & few other class mates were selected and made the group. The topic was read out it was “Myth”.
With that few started to oppose it & many started to agree with it. But when I heard what all they were discussing I couldn’t stop my self from putting my view in it.
“How could you say that God is a myth” I questioned.
“If he was there then people would not have suffered unnecessarily, take your example are you not an orphan… why?? because God took away your parents that too in a natural calamity which was controlled by God.” Pari replied.
“It was not the God who controlled these calamities they are done by the people who are posses the power to protect the nature and people in this world.” I counter replied.
“Oh you are a believer of those grandma bedtime stories in which God entrusts some power to three people who were termed as guards of the earth but these people quarrelled among themselves to attain the supremacy over the human beings. If only one is left they would be invincible who could be termed as equal to God.” Pari questioned.
The whole discussion was heating up between Pari & Maan and everyone present there were just a mute spectators as they didn’t know where it all would go to. Some had heard these stories in there childhood from there elders but then with time all these things were termed as only story.
“Yes I am a believer of it but that is not the whole truth what all things they would have to undergo for being a guard is not known to many. Life span of these persons would be more than 400 years which they should be spent away from everyone if those powers are entrusted. These powers would be there curse but also a boon, which could be used to restrict many calamaties. And humans never get to know what things were averted but can only know & rememeber when these gaurds fail. Yes they fight among themselves but are these fights for gaining supremacy or to gain freedom from those things is still a mystery which none have been able to know it till now.” I said.
I would have said many more things but I was stopped by the sapphire eyed girl who pleaded me through her eyes to not say a word more and how could I utter a single word after that. My tongue was now tied with her plea so I let every other person to continue with the discussion and in no time the hour flee so did the students from the class.
This was the last class for the year and students would forget about all these talks is what I could wish for as many were worried about their individual exams or was excited for the farewell party of the seniors which the juniors had organised for. I don’t know whether I blabbered more than required or was my speech revealed more than necessary things.
Pari responded “He started” pointing all the blame towards me.
“I know who started what even I was here only. Now do you think about yourself Maan what were you doing talking all these stories.” Geet turned towards me questioning but she was shocked and continued “Now where did he go?” as I was not there standing but had started to move out of the class saving my self from there questioning eyes.
Today is the farewell party girls were dressed in red & white combination where as boys were in red & black combo. For a change juniors had planned to rag the seniors on there own farewell which was led by Pari & group, well I knew whose idea this would be. Time has changed so had the relations too in past 10 months seniors have become more friendly and supportive, thus playing pranks with them would not be a trouble and anyways they are leaving the institute so the coast is clear for fun.
Party was in the open air hall in the grounds of the college which had a stage at one end where Geet was speaking to Pari who stood beside her with today’s event manager & at the far end was the fountain where I stood gazing her every move. She looked angelic in that white salwar of hers as blue veil adored the slender creamy neck. Yash was running behind Pari helping her out with all his love and I was standing away from everyone feeling glad that atleast there are people whom I would love and they are infront of me.
People dressed in vibrant colors were already to enjoy & have fun as the party was about to start. Whereas things don’t happen as you wish for and who knows that better than me and exactly the way I had the intrusion there was a sudden hassle alround the place everyone were running into the college that’s when I witnessed the tornado coming towards us.
I stood waiting the tornado to come to me as what can it do to me carry & through me somewhere that’s it right. However when it was just a yard away from the ground when it stood still as if something stopped its way. When I look around the ground there is no one present but my eyes stopped at one place where a girl lay may be unconscious and it didn’t take a minute to know who that was as she is Geet only girl who was in her blue while everyone was in red & white.
I flew away from the college far away from the place where I burnt her with my own flames as I was not able stand any more minute at that place; how long do I have to face the same thing again and again. Everytime when the sadness has engulfed me I have always consoled my heart that it isn’t my mistake everyone has to go through these pains in their long-lasting life. Heavy as this heart feels now with the overwhelming emotions I stare at the Sun which is all set to take a dip in the vast expanse of ocean but now I have nothing to hold on to there is a deep stillness which has settled in me as the world has moved but I haven’t.
With the increase in the pour even ocean seems to be more intended to swallow me within as I hit the first waves of the huge mass. It left me shocked as I could hold to anything, I felt like I am moving without my own will. Today there was only one will that was to try every possible way to put off this blaze. Even the thought has not left my mind I was hit by another way, now it seemed as if I was floating in it and next second I was submergered in it. I want to go deep into it so I tried to find the ground and started to walk into the depth of it.
As I stepped deep within my luck just flew away because the water which was soothing my soul just sweeped in making a space between me & the water mass. Same like Geet had created when we were in the college, was she here or was it someone else who possessed the same power. “Geet …” my lips took her name as a whisper and just as that day today also rain which had been pouring stopped and my attention went towards the form in the shadows.
“Yes … Maan we can but are you willing to be with me till the end. Will you love me without any of my ability to control water? Will you love me….?” She replied with uncertainity.
“Maan, you need to let go this fear and worry nothing will happen to us. Yes, we will have to work hard to survive now.” She pressed her ear to my chest while she continued “But together we will surpass every hurdle that comes in our way. This isn’t yours anymore but mine now so stop troubling it.” She said refering to my heart also showing her dominance over me.
“Shh…You don’t have to voice it Maan, your face convey’s it all, every thought that your heart analyzes, every notion it evaluates, every outcome it concludes. You are just as open book to me as I am to you.” Geet declared her point.
By the time I was back Yash was up and had sat up against the rock as I hand over a bottle of water to him. He seemed surprised and undoubtly happy about something.
“You guys are making fun of me and we are all worried for you. I wouldn’t have been awake had I sleept last night, but after that storm had eloped you guys there isn’t a place where we have not searched you. Today I thought lets look at the opposite direction too and here I found you guys.” Yash explained the reason of his presence.
“Carry him, I can walk we will get more oppurunities going forward.” Geet smiled winking at me.
And today this diary answered me why I could never hear what they were worried about was that about the mess or about me contolling my powers as both could read each other face without voicing a word from their mouth. Today I am very happy reading that my parents too had powers like me, actually defeated the air power and that’s why I their daughter am gifted with power of air.
She grew faster than we could think and tomorrow is her 18th birthday and I couldn’t see her confused and worried anymore uncessarily too. Yes even her face revealed every secret of hers. And that’s why I decided to place this diary in a place where she could get her hands on it.
“When were we separate from eachother Geet.” Papa buttered Mama so easily. | 2019-04-22T16:52:49Z | https://jeevanap.wordpress.com/incredible-fusion/ |
N.B. If any minutes were taken of the meeting in 1985 then they have long since been lost. These two articles, authored by Katherine, cover all of the content of her talk, and more.
As anthropologists, most of us would agree with Bruner that "our first responsibility is to respect people's accounts of their experiences as they choose to present them" (1983:9). However, those of us interested in historical anthropology face a special challenge since we are rarely able to draw upon indigenous accounts of everyday life. Even when we are able to use such texts, the problem of ethnographic authority remains (Clifford 1988:8; Clifford and Marcus 1986). Considerable work is being done in historical anthropology in reconstructing indigenous histories by using the early narratives of Western observers. However, such efforts have obvious problems of observer bias (see Cohn 1987:136-171; Said 1978; Savage 1984). Furthermore, as in the descriptions discussed in this article, the outside observers have sometimes recorded opposing opinions. How are we, as anthropologists writing today, to assess such conflicting appraisals? Using the case of textiles in 19th-century northern Thailand, I should like to suggest that by reconstructing the political economy of a society, we can evaluate contradictory historical descriptions.
From Veblen (1912) and Simmel (1957) to Weiner and Schneider (1989), an appreciation of the varied manner in which textiles symbolize social distinctions has been longstanding. As Bourdieu has written of symbolic goods in general, textiles can be an integral part of the "infinitely varied art of marking distances" (1984:66; see also Barthes 1984; Sahlins 1976). Often the distinctions are extremely subtle. Writing of the use of fashion, Barthes notes the importance of details as "concentrated meaning" (1984:185). For Barthes, just a detail can change an object's meaning: "a little nothing that changes everything; those little nothings that can do everything" (1984:243). However, more than just symbolizing distinctions, textiles have also been shown to constitute and consolidate social differences through their often vital role in a society's political economy. In his pioneering article on tributary textiles in the Inca kingdom, Murra notes not only that "no political, military, social, or religious event was complete without textiles being volunteered or bestowed, burned, exchanged, or sacrificed," but also that cloth served as "a primary source of state revenues" (1962:722).
insights into the semiotics of consumption and an important methodology for historical anthropology.
Others have made a similar point (see Schneider 1987 for an excellent review of the cultural, economic, and political significance of cloth). As Weiner and Schneider summarize, architects of centralizing polities have awed spectators with sartorial splendor, strategically distributed beautiful fabrics amongst clients, and exported the textile output of royal and peasant workshops to earn foreign exchange" (1989:2).
Contradictory assessments of dress also occur in 19th-century descriptions of northern Thai dress. The anonymous author of one of the earliest surviving accounts remarked on the lack of class distinction in women's clothing: "It is curious to notice the uniformity and universality of the female dress. The higher classes vary the style a little by inserting a very showy strip of wrought silk next above the bottom piece" (Bangkok Recorder 1866). Twenty years later, an American missionary working in northern Thailand wrote in almost identical wording: "Rich and poor all dress alike, except that the higher classes vary the universal style a little by inserting a very showy strip of wrought silk into the skirt near the bottom" (Cort 1886:348).
Thus, depending upon the archival source, contemporary scholars can reach opposing assessments of the character of these earlier societies. Research on textiles in mainland Southeast Asia is just beginning (see Brown 1980; Cheesman 1988; Fraser-Lu 1988; Lefferts 1988, 1990; Prangwatthanakun and Cheesman 1987). Prangwatthanakun and Cheesman's Lanna Textiles: Yuan, Lue, Lao (1987) is the only full-length work on textiles in northern Thailand; as such it is an important preliminary study, especially useful for describing some of the items woven and the techniques used. In this article, I examine the broader social context of textile consumption and production, drawing upon two major kinds of sources, archival and oral. The archival sources include consular reports (primarily British), 19th century newspaper accounts, travelogues, and works by American missionaries. In addition I have interviewed hundreds of villagers over the age of 80 living throughout the Chiang Mai Valley of northern Thailand.5 I use archival sources primarily for insight into the consumption, production, and acquisition of textiles by the elite; I rely more heavily on oral histories for insights into the everyday life of villagers. Based upon an understanding of the social processes of textile production and consumption, I argue that the controversy generated by the contradictory opinions of certain 19th century observers of northern Thai society can be resolved in favor of those who asserted that there were dramatic differences of dress and class in the northern Thai semiotics of consumption.
The Chiang Mai Valley was the site of the largest and most important of the northern Thai kingdoms. These kingdoms were located in the region today called northern Thailand but called "Western Laos" by 19th century missionaries and other foreign observers. The courts of the various principalities were located in the mountain valleys of Chiang Mai, Lamphun, Lampang, Phrae, Nan, and Chiang Rai, each today serving as a provincial capital. Although these kingdoms were independent, they had been tributary to the neighboring kingdom of Burma for several hundred years. During the 19th century, they were tributary to the central Thai court at Bangkok; thereafter they were incorporated into Thailand.
This article is divided into two parts. In the first, I examine the cultural significance of textile consumption in 19th century northern Thailand. I present some of the surviving descriptions of dress, ranging from the daily wear of commoners to the state robes of the ruling lords, and subsequently expand the discussion from dress to other applications of textiles, arguing that there were dramatic differences between peasants and lords in this broader sphere as well. In the second part of the article, I describe how this differentiation between elites and commoners was revealed in the social process of textile production. Focusing on the two most important textiles used; cotton and silk, I consider the overall importance of textiles in the political economy of these northern Thai kingdoms, noting the role of tribute and slave labor in the acquisition of textiles by the elite.
Previous studies have shown that 19th-century northern Thai society was divided into three major social statuses: the aristocrats (jao), the freeholders (phrai), and the slaves (khiikhaa). The aristocracy was internally differentiated by economic and political power. The greatest power and prestige were concentrated in those lords who occupied the five top positions in each of the kingdoms, while lesser members of the aristocracy whose inheritances had dwindled were barely separable from the peasantry at large. Free villagers were all liable to perform corvée labor and pay tribute to the ruling lords, but they were internally differentiated according to economic class. The wealthiest villagers rivaled many members of the aristocracy; in fact, many had royal titles and intermarried with the lower levels of the aristocracy. Villagers spanned the economic continuum, from those with land and numerous animals down to those who were destitute or landless beggars. The difference between slaves and free villagers was also often a gray area. Elite slaves sometimes worked very closely with their lords and received more benefits than ordinary commoners. On the other hand, the conditions for ordinary slaves were generally worse than those for commoners since the former were at the mercy of the lords. (For more on 19th century northern Thai social structure, see Bowie 1988; Calavan 1974; Ganjanapan 1984.) Nonetheless, although portions of this social spectrum overlapped, there were significant differences in lifestyle from one end of the spectrum to the other.
To give an idea of the purchasing power of a rupee at this time, some indications of wage rates are suggestive. Although very few statistics on northern Thai wage labor rates survive, I was able to find three references in the archival sources.16 According to the British trade report of 1894, porters were paid 12 to 15 rupees per month, assuming they carried an average load of 15 to 20 viss; about 54 to 73 pounds (Archer 1895). Some figures on the wages paid to laborers in the teak industry also survive. According to W. J. Archer, the British vice consul, Khamu workers who could once be hired for 40 to 60 rupees a year (and their food) could in 1894 no longer "be had under Rs. 70 to Rs. 90 a year" (1895). Writing five years later, Acting Consul J. Stewart Black gave somewhat lower wage figures, while also lamenting the increasing costs. He noted that Khamu workers were paid 30 to 50 rupees per annum, in addition to their food, which cost about 5 rupees per month, or an additional 60 rupees per year. Black wrote that in 1899 some teak laborers were being paid as much as 120 rupees (food included) and went on to castigate the native villagers for their indolence, commenting that "not even the attraction of what is to him [sic] a small fortune will induce them to undergo for any length of time the hard labour and isolation of forest work" (1 900).17 Thus, forest workers in the teak industry were earning anywhere from 90 to 120 rupees per year (including the value of their food), or about 7 to 10 rupees per month. Such wages paid to forest workers were considered a "small fortune." Although the wages paid to porters were higher, it should be noted that portering such heavy loads required tremendous stamina and could be done by only the strongest villagers. Furthermore, such employment was seasonal.
According to oral histories, the wages paid to agricultural workers were less. Many villagers cited rates of one win (approximately one-seventh of a rupee) per day for agricultural labor at the turn of the 20th century.18 Archival sources suggest that wages for teak workers averaged one-quarter to one-third of a rupee per day and those for porters averaged half a rupee per day. Villagers also recalled that in the early 20th century one rupee could buy a full set of clothing, including a homespun shirt and pair of pants or skirt.
Clearly, the aristocracy's most luxurious clothes were not likely to serve as daily casual wear. Nonetheless they marked a significant distinction in purchasing power and social status between the elite and ordinary villagers. A tin jok skirt border that cost 60 rupees represented at least four months' wages for the best-paid porter and over a year's wages for agricultural workers. Everyday peasant dress already represented anywhere from two to seven days' wages and thus constituted a considerable expense for the ordinary wage laborer.
The ruling lords of the northern Thai kingdom also had distinctive regalia, including umbrellas and spittoons. Whether a formal sumptuary code existed is, as I mentioned earlier, unclear. However, even without the evidence of sumptuary laws, I believe that there is considerable indication of significant class differentiation through dress.19 With the exception of state robes and regalia of rank, differences in dress may well have formed a continuum of wealth rather than a clear-cut differentiation based on status. Poorer members of the aristocracy, less able to afford the most elaborate of clothes, would have blended with those below them. Conversely, wealthier members of the rural elite, especially those who had intermarried with the lower ranks of the aristocracy, would have dressed more ornately. Nonetheless, overall, when one considers the cost of elite dress in light of the economic situation of poor villagers who were begging, stealing, or patching their simple clothing, a dramatic distinction emerges.
Textiles were used not only for dress but also for a variety of household items and on various ritual occasions. Such uses of textiles also revealed considerable differences according to wealth. Although the poorest villagers often did without, ordinary villagers used textiles for making mattress and pillow covers, blankets, bed sheets, and mosquito nets. In general the mattress and pillow covers were plain indigo or black with red stripes or trim. Bed sheets were plain white or white with a red stripe or checked pattern; fancier sheets had embroidery and in some cases more complex weaves. Mosquito nets were woven on special large looms, and many informants complained about how heavy homespun cotton mosquito nets were to wash.
Cloth also figured importantly in the lives and rites of the elite. In addition to owning more and fancier clothes, the elite had more and better household items. Instead of just having enough mattresses, pillows, and other bedding items for the family, wealthier families had additional bedding sets for guests. Furthermore, the guest bedding was considered an object of display and so was more likely to have embroidered ends and complex, time-consuming weaves. Even today wealthy village families usually have wood cabinets with glass doors along the wall of the main room of their home to showcase guest bedding sets.
The possession of ornate pillows was another particularly significant attribute of elite households. Although Thais had a variety of pillows, the prestige pillows were usually triangular and were used for daytime reclining. Their importance was highlighted in a British official's passing remark that such pillows were "to be seen in every house of any pretensions" (Lowndes 1871).25 Furnishing their palaces, the northern Thai princes displayed numerous luxury items such as foreign-made weapons, chandeliers, mirrors, lanterns, curtains, reclining pillows, and even imported carpets (Taylor 1888-1930:73; Younghusband 1888:63-64). In 1830 Richardson noted the presence of Indian and Chinese carpets (1829-36:63), and in 1885 Ernest Satow recorded that the ruling lord of Chiang Mai had European furniture and "a number of gaudy Brussels carpets" (1885-86:51).
The full extent of the differences between commoners and aristocracy was most visible when members of the ruling elite traveled in state or participated in public ceremonies. Royal barges had large cloth canopies: the royal barge of the central Thai king, according to one observer, featured "a canopy of cloth of gold where the King sits on a golden throne wearing a gold embroidered coat and golden shoes" (Dodd 1923:289). The royal entourage often consisted of scores of boats, the rowers all clad in matching uniforms. The elite also traveled by horse or elephant, the animals gaily festooned with decorative textiles. On state occasions, the highest ranks of the nobility used gold and silver decorative caparisons. Mary Cort noted that the gold elephant trappings were "worth thousands," whereas the silver trappings were "worth hundreds" of rupees (Cort 1886:349).
In addition to making public prestations such as those at the Kathin ceremonies, the elite would have given considerable amounts of textile goods away during any other life-cycle or calendrical ceremonies they might hold. Thai ceremonials usually included a merit-making component in which gifts, including monastic robes and embroidered pillows, were given as offerings to the monks (see Davis 1984). Archival sources also note the use of textiles as gifts to visiting dignitaries: the gifts given to Satow, a British official, by the ruling chief of Lampang included velvet mattresses, pillows adorned with Chinese brocade, and silk skirts (Satow 1885- 86:206). Thus, not only did the peasants and the lords differ considerably in terms of dress and household possessions, but they also differed in the extent to which they donated textiles on ritual occasions.
In this article thus far I have depicted significant differences between the elite's and the peasants' uses of textiles. I have described a range of dress: from the stolen and the hand-me-down, from the threadbare and the patched, from the simple cottons of commoners to the state robes of the ruling lords. I have also outlined some of the different uses of textiles in village households as opposed to the court. Here, I should like to show how the differentiation was manifested not simply in the consumption of textiles but also in their production.
As will become clear, both accounts are true; the differences lie in the type of fabric being woven.
Most clothing was made from cotton. However, contrary to what is commonly assumed, weaving was not a universal household industry; only certain villagers in certain villages wove (see Bowie 1988, 1992). The weaving of simple cotton cloth was spread quite widely throughout the Chiang Mai Valley, and certain districts were especially known for their concentrations of weavers. Those districts that had a reputation for cotton weaving in the past, especially the San Kamphaeng and Bo sang districts, have maintained their reputations down to the present. Furthermore, oral histories reveal weaving to have been a highly specialized activity, with different villagers involved in the different phases of production. By far the most commonly produced cloth was a plain white cotton, often later dyed with indigo. The villagers most likely to produce such cloth were the poorer ones, who wove both for their own household needs and for sale or hire. Such village weavers were more likely to find weaving an onerous obligation from which others were freed.
From the simplest and plainest of homespun white cloth to the most elaborate designs using imported fibers, the value of the fabric gradually increased. Striped or plaid cloth involved more work and skill, in both weaving and dyeing, than plain cloth and was consequently valued more highly. Cloth woven with imported threads, most often used for women's phaa sins, was more expensive than the domestic handspun cotton. The wealthier the village weaver, the more likely she was to weave the more time-consuming decorative items such as colored skirts or striped sheets. The more elaborate the design, the more likely the weaver was weaving for pleasure with a "cool heart."
The more complex the weave, the more likely that the weaver was affiliated in some manner with the aristocracy, as war captive, slave, or member of the court. Virtually each of the areas known for weaving is associated with an ethnic minority brought into the Chiang Mai Valley as war captives sometime during the 19th century. Baan Ton Hen is a Khyyn village; San Kamphaeng (particularly around the original district town of Baan Oon) is also known as a Khyyn area. The Khyyn are a population who originally lived in the Chiang Tung area: Chiang Mai led attacks on Chiang Tung in 1849, 1852-53, and 1854, and it seems people were brought back on these occasions (Wilson and Hanks 1985:29). Over half of the people living in the Lamphun region are said to have descended from war captives (Freeman 1910:100). Chom Thong town has a Lawa population, many of whom served as temple slaves. Unfortunately, I was unable to acquire any information about the ethnic background of villagers in Baan Aen since the entire village was forced to relocate when a hydroelectric dam was built.
Unlike villagers, who had to weave, trade for, or buy their clothing, the ruling lords were able to extract raw cotton, woven cloth, and dyestuffs as tribute. Their ability to levy tribute on broad sectors of the population provided the aristocracy with a quantity of cotton cloth no single producer could hope to match. Interestingly, the majority of villagers who sent cotton or cloth as tribute appear to have been hilltribe populations, such as the Karen and the Mussur (today more commonly called the Lahu). One of the Karen villages that Captain Thomas Lowndes visited in 1871 had just taken its year's taxes to Chiang Mai: "it consisted of Rupees 2, 2 blankets, and 40 viss of cotton" (1871). Richardson also noted tribute of cloth paid by the Karen during his travels in 1830 (1829-36:37, 45). Captain McLeod found that the KaKuis had to make presents of mats and cloths to the lords (1836:57). McGilvary commented that much of the raw cotton being purchased by the Yunnanese traders came from the Mussur; although he did not specifically mention tribute, it is likely that the Mussur too would have been expected to offer tribute to the ruling lords in the form of raw cotton or finished cloth. While the aristocracy were able to make apparently generous donations on ritual occasions, much of what they gave was in fact the contribution of others.
Thus, the aristocracy appear to have been able to extract raw cotton, simple cotton cloth, and complex cotton weaves through political means. Tribute afforded them both raw cotton and cotton cloth, and the labor of war captives seems to have provided them with complex weaves such as tin jok skirt borders. Although silk was considered a more valuable fabric, cotton cloth nonetheless had a variety of uses in royal households. The tin jok borders, even those made of cotton, would have marked their wearers as wealthier than ordinary villagers, who only wore plain skirt borders. Possession of textiles ranging from mattresses to elephant headpieces made from complex woven cotton would have similarly served to add to the prestige of their owners. Such cloth could be used as rewards for favored underlings or as gifts for visitors. In addition, cotton cloth made possible the public display of largess involved in merit-making ceremonies, since monks' robes were typically made from cotton.
It is also possible that royalty were involved in the cotton trade. There was considerable demand for raw cotton by Yunnanese traders and some demand for cotton cloth in Burma (Bowie 1992; Hill 1982; Reid 1988:91). British vice consul Archer mentioned in his trade report of 1894 that "women's cloths of coarse cotton, woven by the Laos [were] sought after in Burma as being very durable," although he added that the export was not very considerable (1895). Such cloth, together with silk goods, could also have been offered as tribute to other kingdoms. However they used it, lords - because they could exact tribute and slave labor - found it much easier to acquire cloth than did commoners, who had to weave fabric themselves or find some other means of acquiring it.
Archival sources also indicate that royal slaves were involved in silk weaving. The British official A. H. Hildebrand noted, "There is a good deal of trade capable of being done also in silk garments and silk fancy work, at which the slaves and others are great adepts" (1875). It is not clear whether these slaves lived solely at the court or also in slave settlements established to produce cloth for the court. Silk weaving is known to have been done in only two areas outside the court itself: the towns of San Kamphaeng and Hot (and their immediate environs). While silk weaving continues to this day in San Kamphaeng, in Hot only traces survive in archival sources and in the memories of the town's oldest residents. No information survives to explain why Hot, a town some 70 kilometers from Chiang Mai, would have been a center of silk production and weaving, or why the industry died out. (Villagers said it was because the cocoons scared easily and so had died.) However, in San Kamphaeng a senior member of one of the prestigious silk-weaving families recounted the local version of the history of silk weaving in his area. According to his account, lords victorious in war would capture various kinds of artisans and resettle them in their own kingdoms. Thus, silversmiths were settled near the south end of Chiang Mai town, lacquer ware artists in another location, and weavers in San Kamphaeng. This account indeed suggests that the silk weavers in San Kamphaeng may have been royal slaves weaving at the behest of the court.
Some idea of the potential scale of royal weaving was given by D. J. Edwardes, who wrote that the ruling lord of Chiang Mai had 300 slaves weaving cloth for him (1875). It appears that these Chiang Mai silks were marketed in Burma. In his summary of the Chiang Mai kingdom, Lowndes commented: "Weaving and embroidery are the principal handicrafts, the silk putsoes [phaa nung] are much sought after by the Burmans, as they wear three times as long as those of Burmese manufacture" (1871). He made a similar point about the silk woven in Hot, noting that it was "said to be very strong and durable" and adding, "A thitgoung [headman] showed me a putso that he had had in wear for 7 years, and it was by no means worn out" (1871).
In San Kamphaeng, where silk production has continued to the present day, raw silk was imported from Luang Prabang, Laos, and later from Mandalay, Burma. Raw silk was also routinely imported by the Haw traders coming from Yunnan, China (Hill 1982; see also Bowie 1992).
The geographical distribution of raw materials had social implications. Since sufficient quantities of cotton grew in upland regions of northern Thailand to be readily exported, cotton was more accessible to ordinary villagers and could, in turn, be extracted by the ruling lords through tribute. Since silkworms were not abundant in northern Thailand, raw silk had to be imported. Silk's scarcity heightened its price and its prestige value, serving to concentrate silk weaving in the hands of the court. Aristocratic control of silk production was further aided by the fact that the silk fiber is very fine and hence is far more difficult and time-consuming to weave than cotton.
A comparison of cotton and silk production, then, reveals important contrasts. While cotton was exported, silk was imported into northern Thailand. While cotton was generally woven by freeholding villagers, silk seems to have been woven by slaves and members of the aristocracy. While villagers, except those who begged or stole their clothing, had to obtain textiles through direct economic means, aristocrats were able to augment their own production through the political means of tribute and slave labor. Furthermore, because poverty was widespread and not all villagers grew or wove cotton themselves, many villagers faced hardships in acquiring clothing of any kind for their families.
Understanding the process of textile production helps contemporary readers gain insight into the cultural meaning of cloth to 19th century northern Thai. Once we understand the chronic poverty of most villagers and the difficulty with which villagers obtained even the simplest of cotton cloth, the significance of cloth in daily life and in village rituals becomes clearer. Simultaneously, we can begin to enter the cultural world of 19th century villagers to learn the social meaning of the difference between clothes made of cotton and those made of silk.
Understanding the productive process also helps us appreciate the manner in which textiles were interwoven with royal authority. Because of their coercive power, the lords were able to exact cloth as tribute from freeholders and labor from slaves. Their political position reinforced their economic position, since the textiles - and other goods - they acquired through tribute and slave labor were apparently marketed for revenue. The revenue and surplus textiles they acquired through the labor of others, in turn, reinforced their political position. By sponsoring large, conspicuous merit-making ceremonies in which they gave robes and pillows to monks, the lords enhanced their prestige and, ironically, created an image of generosity. The fine silks in which the lords dressed themselves symbolized not only their distinction from the poor but also their own relationship to the political economy of the kingdom.
Combining oral histories with archival sources, this article has examined textile consumption and production in 19th century northern Thailand. If we have an understanding of the social process of textile production, the "concentrated meaning" (Barthes 1984:185) of northern Thailand textiles becomes more apprehensible. Such apparently minor details of fashion as the use of a silk skirt border - or, as one early observer phrases it, "a showy strip of wrought silk" - can no longer be interpreted as meaning that "rich and poor all dress[ed] alike" (Cort 1886:346). Important differences in dress, household possessions, and ritual prestations separated the aristocracy from the peasantry. These differences signified profound differences in the relationship of each to the political economy. Thus, the semiotics of consumption in northern Thai society is illuminated by an understanding of its political economy. This article on the consumption and production of textiles in 19th century northern Thailand has been at once a description of the social context of textiles and an exercise in historical anthropology. The evaluation and appropriate application of archival sources present a challenge to every historical anthropologist, since these sources are replete with omissions and distortions. However, by interweaving oral histories with archival sources, we can recapture much of the fabric of the past. Oral histories enhance the archival sources by contributing some sense of the lived experiences of the unrecorded majority. This article has shown how developing a better understanding of a society's political economy can provide an independent means to assess the opinions of outside observers of indigenous societies.
Acknowledgments. This article emerges from my dissertation fieldwork on 19th century political economy, conducted from 1984 to 1986 under the auspices of the National Research Council of Thailand with a grant from the Social Science Research Council. Subsequent fieldwork specifically on textile production was conducted during the summer of 1989 with a grant from the Graduate School of the University of Wisconsin, Madison. I would like to thank Cornelia Kammerer, Jean De Bernardi, Nicola Tannenbaum, Patricia Cheesman, Songsak Prangwatthanakun, Kristine Hastreiter, Kate Bjork, Hugh Wilson, and the American Ethnologist reviewers for their various contributions toward the research and writing of this article.
1 Edwardes' summary raises questions about Anthony Reid's conclusion that in Southeast Asia, "the difference in dress between rich and poor, servant and master, king and commoner, was less marked than in pre-industrial Europe, where each man's station and even vocation could be read in the prescribed style of dress" (1988:85).
2 The distinctions of dress appear to have been quite subtle at times. Crawfurd wrote, "The better classes permit the ends of the dress to hang loosely in front, but the lower orders tuck them under the body, securing them behind" (1987:313).
Although the older men in northern Thai villages sport tattoos, the practice has fallen out of vogue among the current generation of northerners. For more on the symbolism of tattoos, see Nicola Tannenbaum (1987).
4 In the course of my interviewing I also encountered villagers who made mention of sumptuary rules with regard to housing and clothing, but they were unable to recall any of the specifics. The quotation cited suggests not only that sumptuary laws existed but also that they varied by ruler and kingdom.
5 During dissertation fieldwork in 1984-86, I interviewed more than 500 villagers over the age of 80 living in about 400 villages throughout the Chiang Mai Valley. I repeatedly asked villagers for their recollections of life when they were young as well as for their memories of what their parents and grandparents had said about life in their days (see Bowie 1988). This article emerges from accidental observations made during my dissertation research. During the summer of 1989 I interviewed another 100 villagers, specifically asking about textiles.
6 Considerable confusion is caused by the various linguistic borrowings of the 19th century English language sources, which alternately use Indian, Burmese, and central Thai words to describe northern Thai clothing. Thus, terms such as phaa nung, lungi, and putso are used in ambiguous ways. In general, these terms refer to the lengths of cloth worn by both men and women on the lower half of the body. The lengths may be sewn into a tube (as in the phaa sin) or twisted into a thick cord worn between the legs (as in the phaa toi). To add to the confusion, the usage of these terms has changed over time. During the 19th century, phaa nung referred to the length of cloth worn on the lower part of the body by central Thai men and women alike, corresponding most closely to the phaa toi worn by northern Thai men. Over time the meaning has changed to refer to the tubular cloth, or phaa sin, worn during the 19th century by northern Thai women and now worn by women throughout the country.
8 Bock, writing in 1884, observed, "A few Lao women are beginning to wear tight-fitting jackets, cut to the shape of the figure, with equally tight sleeves, something after the style of the 'ladies' jerseys' recently so fashionable in Paris and London, and involving no small amount of labour to get on and off" (1986 :327). Writing at about the same time, Cort made a similar observation: "Some are beginning to wear jackets or waists, but the usual style is for the women to have a brightly colored cotton or silk scarf tied around their chests just under the arms" (1886:348).
9 The indigo-dyed cotton daew chador and indigo shirts now identified as stereotypical of the Thai peasantry appear to have been of recent vintage, dating from about the turn of the century. Ironically, the blue farmer shirts (sya moh hoom) now worn by university students and Thai officials to demonstrate Thai nationalist pride seem to have been popularized by Chinese merchants. The daew chador has more in common with Chinese-style loose-fitting pants than with the traditional phaa toi. Additional support for the view that jackets became more common as the century progressed are provided in a few passing comments. In 1868 Henry Alabaster detailed his recollections of people's dress ten years earlier, noting: "I remember that ten years ago at any of the great festivals which attracted there 40 or 50,000 spectators, almost all wore but one garment - or a sarong and scarf. Now almost every one adds thereto a cotton or silk jacket" (1868). Stringer, writing in his trade report of 1890 specifically about northern Thailand, commented, "The wearing of singlets and coats of European pattern by the men and cotton jackets by the women is becoming more common" (1891).
10 That cloth was highly valued elsewhere in Southeast Asia is also reflected in the following Burmese proverb: "If you are on the way to an ahlu [merit-making ceremony], do not wear your jacket; carry it and put it on when you arrive; it lasts longer that way" (Nash 1965:232).
11 "A comment on the poverty of temple slaves in Burma supplies further evidence that the sheer amount of cloth in one's clothing was an indication of economic status: "They are poor these slaves, the men wear no brilliant putsoes and the women wear no vest beneath their jacket" (Rangoon Gazette Weekly Budget 1899b).
12 The value of cloth is also suggested in a northern Thai rhyme describing the payment that three women received in return for sexual favors: "Miss Kum asked for silver, Miss Huan asked for cloth, Miss Noja asked for an elephant. Hurry up and finish Doctor" (Bristowe 1976:127, cited in Patel 1990:127). Cotton's value as a commodity is seen too in the fact that there were traveling minstrels who literally "sang for their cotton." A favorite form of village entertainment in the past was soh, witty and often bawdy repartee between a male and a female singer, with musical accompaniment. One especially popular form of soh was the soh kep nok, or "singing repartee to collect birds." In villages with surplus raw cotton, this soh would be performed as soh laek fai (singing in exchange for cotton). Each village household wishing a performance would build a tree as a stage prop, with cotton representing the birds in the tree. At a certain point in the plot, the male singer would then "shoot down" all the cotton birds and put them in his bag. Having collected all the cotton balls, the performers would then move to the next house where they had been invited to perform, again receiving cotton as payment. (For more on the soh kep nok performance itself, see Shim- bhanao 1982-84).
13 Nineteenth-century paintings have been preserved at Wat Phumin in Nan and Wat Phra Singh in Chiang Mai.
14 Because during times of peace Chiang Tung and Chiang Mai were closely linked by trade as well as by cultural and linguistic similarities, I include these descriptions of Chiang Tung in the discussion of northern Thailand. Kun or Khynn is the name of the ethnic group living in the region around Chiang Tung (Keng Tung), many of whom were brought to Chiang Mai as war captives and resettled there.
15 Stringer wrote that Manchester chowls, "of which four different sizes are sold, fetch from Rs. 20 to Rs. 24 per corge of 20 pieces, and the Bombay goods, also sold in four sizes, fetch from Rs. 17 to Rs. 20 per corge" (1891). Chowl is another word for phaa nung. According to T. Carlisle's 1899 trade report, chowl was "the Indian name for the Siamese 'phalai' or 'paley,' that is the 'phaanung' or lower portion of the Siamese costume printed and furnished with a glaze" (1900). In other words, it was a length of printed cloth some three to four meters long. A possibly higher figure for the price per length was given by Alabaster, who suggested that if the British could manufacture sarongs to sell retail at about 4 to 6 shillings apiece, they might find a market in Thailand (1868). Since the rupee was valued at 13 pence in 1895, this would suggest a cost of 3.7 to 5.6 rupees per length. However, I have no figures with which to calculate the shilling/rupee exchange rate for 1868.
16 James Ingram has done a remarkable job of gathering wage labor rates for central Thailand (1964).
17 1t is interesting that while remarking on the indolence of the natives, Black commented that it was "not uncommon to find Khamoos working for foresters who had failed to pay their wages for 5-6 years" (1900).
18 Until the early part of the 20th century, the Burmese rupee (called the taep in northern Thai) was the dominant currency in northern Thailand. The Siamese (central Thai) baht only became the standard currency thereafter. The baht equaled 100 satang. The exchange rate between the Siamese baht and the Burmese rupee fluctuated but was about 80 to 90 satang per rupee (according to interviews and Archer 1895). Since a win equaled 12 satang, it was approximately equivalent to one-seventh of a rupee.
19 The significance of sumptuary laws is ambiguous. On the one hand, the presence of such laws suggests an elite strong enough to have them passed; on the other hand, it also suggests an elite whose status is being undermined. It has been argued that in England, where a variety of such laws were passed, they represented not the strength of the aristocracy but its weakness vis-à-vis the growing fiscal strength of the bourgeoisie. Sumptuary laws have even been interpreted as the protectionist tactics of a local bourgeoisie protecting domestic production against foreign imports (see Hooper 1915). They have also been interpreted as paternalistic efforts by concerned governments to protect their citizens from profligacy (Phillips and Staley 1961).
21 Far more remains to be said about the raw materials needed for dyeing. For more on this and other dyes, see Prangwatthanakun and Cheesman (1987) and Fraser-Lu (1988). See Schneider (1976) for a fascinating discussion of the importance of dyes in the political economy of Europe.
22 A few of the traditional ordination pillows have survived. I saw one that was among a villager's last remaining unsold treasures; it had been made by his mother for his initiation. A triangular pillow made of black satin cloth, it had gold thread embroidered into a flower design at the points of the triangle.
23 Cloth that has been worn as a woman's phaa sin can be very powerful symbolically. Soldiers often wore pieces from their mothers' phaa sins to protect them in battle, with the idea that their mothers had done the most to give them life and would do the most to protect them. This symbolism becomes even more intriguing when considered in light of the famous myth of Queen Chamathevi. She wove pieces of a phaa sin into a hat for a suitor to ensure that his arrows would fall short of their mark and he would thus fail in his quest for her hand in marriage. The stratagem worked.
24 Textile production seems to have been a more important and more widespread part of the village household economy in northeastern than in northern Thailand. Consequently, I believe, cloth goods figured more prominently in wedding celebrations in the northeast.
26 The Pali word kathina means a piece of cloth that in former times was donated to a temple for making robes; alternatively, it means the wooden frame on which the cloth was traditionally sewn into robes (Davis 1984:200).
27 Even today kathin ceremonies are "most often sponsored by government agencies, private companies, and wealthy families" (Davis 1984:200).
28 The central Thai king, King Mongkut, wore robes of yellow silk while he was a monk (Feltus 1924:53).
Rich people didn't know how to spin or weave. They bought their clothes ready-made or hired other people to weave their cloth for them. Rich people were too lazy to weave for themselves. But some rich people were stingy; they wove their own clothes instead of hiring poor people.
30 lronically, Prangwatthanakun and Cheesman suggest that in the past "every woman owned at least one tin chok for special occasions" (1987:12). Because these borders required so much skill to weave and were so expensive to buy, I am quite skeptical of this claim. I think that only the wealthiest of villagers, or villagers who were themselves expert weavers, would have owned a tin jok.
31 Hildebrand did not specify how the slaves of the second chief were employed; however, we know from Bock's account that one of the second chief's wives had her slaves spin silk. Hildebrand wrote, "The second chief's source of income is not so calculable; he derives a good deal from the labor of his slaves, of whom, with his wives and children, he never has less than 600 under his roof, and the number outside would probably double this amount" (1875).
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Understanding how landscape factors, including suites of geographic and environmental variables, and both historical and contemporary ecological and evolutionary processes shape the distribution of genetic diversity is a primary goal of landscape and conservation genetics and may be particularly consequential for species involved in ecological restoration. In this study, we examine the factors that shape the distribution of genetic variation in a leguminous shrub (Caragana microphylla) important for restoration efforts on the Mongolian Plateau in China. This region houses several major bioclimatic gradients, and C. microphylla is an important restoration species because it stabilizes soils and prevents advancing desertification on the Inner Mongolia Plateau caused by ongoing climate change.
We assembled an expansive genomic dataset, consisting of 22 microsatellite loci, four cpDNA regions, and 5788 genome-wide SNPs from ten populations of C. microphylla. We then applied ecological niche modelling and linear and non-linear regression techniques to investigate the historical and contemporary forces that explain patterns of genetic diversity and population structure in C. microphylla on the Inner Mongolia Plateau. We found strong evidence that both geographic and environmental heterogeneity contribute to genetic differentiation and that the spatial distribution of genetic diversity in C. microphylla appears to result partly from the presence of a glacial refugium at the southwestern edge of its current range.
These results suggest that geographic, environmental, and historical factors have all contributed to spatial genetic variation in this ecologically important species. These results should guide restoration plans to sustain genetic diversity during plant translocations.
Unraveling the factors that influence spatial genetic variation and population structure is one of the fundamental goals of ecological and landscape genetics . Patterns of genetic differentiation often reflect spatial variation in gene flow, and landscapes can influence gene flow through geographic and environmental variation and their combined effects [2–4]. Isolation-by-distance (IBD) is the correlation of genetic divergence and geographic distances, while isolation-by-environment (IBE) is a correlation between genetic divergence and environmental dissimilarity [5, 6]. IBE can result from environmental differences between populations that generate divergent selection, which reduces dispersal success between different environments, or from biased dispersal, which leads to higher dispersal rates between more similar environments [2, 3, 6, 7]. Thus, both IBD and IBE represent important ways in which landscape heterogeneity influences genetic structure in natural populations [3, 8, 9]. Inherently, geographic and environmental isolation are not mutually exclusive, and spatial genetic divergence among populations can result from reduced gene flow associated with both geographical and ecologic factors [2, 7, 8, 10]. The rise of modern spatial statistical methods and the increasing availability of high-resolution geographic and environmental data layers now make it possible to accurately describe geographic and ecological landscapes and to simultaneously estimate the effects of IBD and IBE on spatial genetic divergence [5, 6]. Understanding patterns of IBD and IBE is particularly important for species of conservation concern or that are involved in ecosystem management, because the outcomes of conservation strategies may depend upon properly managing genetic diversity.
One such species is Caragana microphylla, a perennial sandy grassland and desert deciduous shrub species belonging to the legume family (Fabaceae). Native to temperate Asia, including Siberia, Mongolia, and China , C. microphylla is a widely distributed shrub species in the northern steppe and agro-pastoral ecotone of China. On the high plain of the Inner Mongolia Plateau, C. microphylla is a key component of the shrub steppe landscape, and on the sandy land of the steppe it is a dominant species of vegetation . The species has been valued for its tolerance to heat, cold, and drought and for its resistance to wind erosion, sand burial, and hail storms. It has been used as a pioneer leguminous shrub species for vegetation rehabilitation and stabilization of widely degraded and degrading grasslands in China, because of its ability to serve as a windbreak and its capacity for carbon fixation, nitrogen fixation, and nutrient accumulation in sandy soils , and it can also be served as supplemental livestock forage with high nutrient value . Genetic variation and population structure of wild C. microphylla from the Inner Mongolia Plateau have been evaluated by different marker systems, including AFLPs, RAPDs, and microsatellites [13–17], but no previous studies have quantified the contributions of IBD and IBE to spatial genetic divergence in this system. However, better understanding population dynamics in species like this is an important goal for restoration ecology, ecosystem management, and landscape and conservation genetics. Studies like this one are critical for identifying the factors that shape the distribution of genetic variation in species undergoing assisted dispersal and recolonization so that genetic diversity can be managed properly .
The Inner Mongolia Plateau is characterized by pronounced biophysical gradients, presenting an opportunity to investigate the effects of multiple geographic and environmental factors on population connectivity. A temperature gradient runs roughly North-South, while a precipitation gradient runs from arid regions in the Southwest to wetter regions in the Northeast. An ecotone largely tracks the precipitation gradient, transitioning from desert in the Southwest to grassland (high meadow and steppe) in the central plateau and forest in the Northeast, with pockets of shrublands and sandy lands in the Southeast. Here, we evaluated population genetic divergence of C. microphylla across its entire geographic range on the Inner Mongolia Plateau, using a set of 22 polymorphic microsatellite markers, four cpDNA sequences and 5788 SNPs generated through genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS). The major goals of this study were (i) to characterize genetic variation and population structure in C. microphylla, and (ii) to quantify the relative contributions of geographic factors (IBD) and environmental clines (IBE) to genetic differentiation in this important restoration species.
We collected samples from 221 individuals of C. microphylla at ten sites throughout the natural distribution of the species in the southern Inner Mongolia Plateau of China (SZW, ZXB, DL, XH, and QYH), central Inner Mongolia Plateau (XU and DU), and northeastern Inner Mongolia Plateau (EWK, CB, XBY) (Additional file 1: Table S1 and Fig. 1). Together, these sites cover a wide range of climate space, giving us good power to detect environmentally-driven spatial genetic variation (Additional file 1: Figure S1). Sample sizes ranged from N = 18 to 24, with a mean of N = 22 (Additional file 1: Table S1). Total genomic DNA was extracted from leaf tissues using the Qiagen DNeasy Plant Kit, according to the manufacturer’s protocol (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany).
We genotyped all samples at 22 microsatellite (simple sequence repeat; SSR) markers (Additional file 1: Table S2) that were developed by Han using the method described by Lian et al. (Additional file 1: Table S2). PCR amplification was conducted in a total volume of 25 μL including 40 ng DNA, 1 × buffer, 3 mM MgCl2, 300 μM dNTPs, 0.6 μM forward primer and reverse primer, and 1 U Taq DNA polymerase (TaKaRa, Shiga, Japan). The forward primers were tagged with a fluorescent 6-FAM or HEX label to produce flourescent-labeled PCR amplified fragments. PCR was performed on a Mastercyler gradient thermocycler (Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany) using the following procedure: 10 min at 94 °C, followed by 10 touchdown cycles of 45 s at 94 °C, 60 s at 65 °C (−1 °C per cycle), and 60 s at 72 °C, then 35 cycles of 45 s at 94 °C, 60 s at 55 °C, and 60 s at 72 °C, and a 10 min final extension step at 72 °C. An ABI3730xl DNA Analyzer (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA) was used to capture amplified products by a fluorescence detection system for SSR markers. Fragment sizes were determined using an internal size standard (LIZ500, ABI, USA), and the output was analyzed using GeneMapper software (Applied Biosystems).
Four cpDNA regions, including trnL-trnF, psbA-trnH, psbB-psbH and trnG, were amplified for all 221 individuals. The primers and methodology for amplification of these four DNA regions via PCR were described in Taberlet et al. , Demesure et al. , Hamilton , and Shaw et al. , respectively. Sequences were generated with an ABI 3730XL DNA Sequencer (Applied Biosystems), and edited, assembled and aligned in Geneious (v7.1.7, http://www.geneious.com/). All cpDNA sequences were deposited in Genbank (accession numbers KU564257 to KU564268).
A total of 127 samples from ten populations were used to generate the genotyping by sequencing dataset (GBSseq; Additional file 1: Table S1). Individual DNA libraries for each of these samples were prepared using the restriction enzyme ApeKI according to the protocol in Elshire et al. . Libraries were then sequenced using paired-end sequencing across 3 lanes of Illumina HiSeq 4000 (BGI, Shengzhen, China). The quality of the raw read data was examined using FASTQC . GBS data assembly, mapping, and SNP discovery were performed using Stacks v1.23 . In the absence of a reference genome for this species, RADSeq loci were assembled de novo using the ‘denovo_map.pl’ pipeline in STACKS. We used a parameter combination recommended by Mastretta-Yanes et al. : minimum read depth to create a stack (−m) = 3, number of mismatches allowed between loci within individuals (−M) = 2, and number of mismatches allowed between loci within each catalogue (−n) = 2. All other parameters were kept at default values. Those loci present in at least 80% of individuals at each site were retained in the final dataset, and loci with minor allele frequencies lower than 0.05 were removed. GBS genotyping of the samples from population SZW resulted in significant missing data, so this population was removed from the GBS dataset. GBS-seq raw data were submitted to the NCBI Sequence Read Archive (SRA) with reference number SRP071628.
All 22 microsatellite loci were tested for deviation from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. We calculated common metrics of genetic variation, including average number of alleles (Na), observed and expected heterozygosity (Ho and He), and global and pairwise FST. Both global and pairwise FST were tested for significance based on 9999 permutations. All calculations and statistical tests were conducted using GenAlEx v6.5 .
We used the software STRUCTURE to infer the probability of assignment to distinct genetic clusters for all 221 individuals in the ten sampled populations . The analysis was performed using the admixture model and with the option of correlated allele frequencies between populations. Ten runs were conducted for each value for the number of genetic clusters (K), with K ranging from 1 to 10. The length of the burn-in for the Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) replications was set to 10,000, and data were collected every 1000 steps over a total length 100,000 MCMC steps in each run. We identified the optimal value of K using the method developed by Evanno et al. as implemented in the software Structure Harvester .
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) sequences were edited and assembled using SeqMan software (DNASTAR, Inc., Madison, Wisconsin, USA). Multiple alignments of the DNA sequences were performed with Clustal X , with subsequent adjustment in Bioedit . Haplotype (Hd) and nucleotide (π) diversities were calculated from aligned DNA sequences using DnaSP v5 . We conducted an analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) and tested for significance based on 1023 permutations in Arlequin v3.0 . A haplotype distribution map was constructed using ArcMap v9.3 (ESRI, Inc., Redlands, California, USA), and a haplotype network was constructed in NETWORK v4.678 using Medicago sativa as an outgroup.
Observed and expected heterozygosities (Ho and He) were calculated using the package Adegenet v2.0.1. in R (www.r-project.org). Both global and pairwise FST were calculated and tested for significance based on 9999 permutations using Genepop v4.0 . As with the microsatellite dataset, we also performed STRUCTURE analysis on our GBS dataset, using the admixture model and the same MCMC parameters as before.
We used climate-based ecological niche models (ENMs) at multiple time periods to investigate whether current and past climate suitability is a relevant factor shaping observed patterns of genetic differentiation among populations of C. microphylla. Ecological niche modelling was carried out in MAXENT v3.3.3 . A total of 53 occurrence points, obtained from the literature [13–16] and our own sampling, and 19 GIS data layers at 2.5 arc min resolution for present-day bioclimatic variables, obtained from the WorldClim database (http://www.worldclim.org), were included in the analysis (Additional file 1: Table S3).
To estimate the distribution of C. microphylla at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), we projected the model obtained by our present-day species-climate analysis onto the LGM using data layers for past climate constructed under the commonly used Model for Interdisciplinary Research on Climate (MIROC v3.2) scaled down to a 2.5 arc min resolution and obtained from WorldClim. To model the suitability of C. microphylla under a future climate scenario, we acquired data layers (2.5 arc min resolution) predicted for the year 2080 under, again, the commonly used general circulation model MIROC from WorldClim. As with the LGM scenario, we projected the present-day ENM onto the future climate layers to explore how the predicted distribution of C. microphylla may be affected by ongoing global climate change. The performance of the model prediction was evaluated using the area under the (receiver operating characteristic) curve (AUC) calculated by MAXENT. Model predictions were visualized in ARCMAP v9.3 (ESRI, Redlands, CA).
To investigate the roles of geographic and environmental factors in spatial genetic differentiation, we tested for isolation by distance (IBD) and isolation by environment (IBE) using all three marker types collected in our study. In all analyses, population pairwise genetic distances were represented by matrices of pairwise FST / (1-FST) as recommended by Rousset . Geographic distances were represented by the logarithms (log10) of geographic distances between all pairs of populations. For the environmental predictors, we downloaded the 19 bioclimate variables from the WorldClim database (www.worldclim.org) at 0.5 arc min resolution and then reduced covariance by performing spatial principal component analysis (PCA) analysis on the raster layers using the R package ‘RStoolbox’ . We retained the first three PC rasters that resulted from this analysis and extracted the value of the data point on each raster at each of the coordinates for our sampled populations. To quantify IBD and IBE, we performed multiple matrix regression with randomization (MMRR) using the R function ‘MMRR’ . We also tested for covariance between geographic and environmental distances with a Mantel test using the R package ‘vegan’ . In each analysis, 10,000 permutations were used to generate a null distribution for significance testing.
To further evaluate IBD and IBE, we also performed a complementary analysis, generalized dissimilarity modelling (GDM). GDM is a statistical technique that uses nonlinear matrix regression to model spatial patterns of biological dissimilarity, including genetic distance, between sampling sites against differences in geographic and environmental variables . GDM uses an I-spline turnover function for each predictor variable to quantify: (1) variation in the rate of genetic turnover along each environmental and geographic axis (the shape of each spline) while controlling for all other variables, and (2) the curvilinear relationships between genetic distance and geographic and environmental distances [46, 47]. The maximum height of each spline corresponds to the relative importance of the associated predictor .
Genetic distances for each model were the same FST / (1-FST) matrices used in the MMRR analysis, and geographic distances were based on the geographic coordinates of each sampling site. For the environmental predictors, we used the same three PC rasters as in the MMRR analysis. After fitting the GDM model to these data, we visualized spatial patterns of genetic turnover by projecting the GDM model onto the PC rasters. This assigns a color value to each cell on the raster based on its predicted genetic composition, and greater differences in the colors between cells indicate greater predicted genetic differences. All of the GDM analyses were performed in the R package ‘gdm’ .
Twenty-two microsatellite markers were used to evaluate genetic diversity across 221 individuals of 10 populations of C. microphylla (Table 1). The mean number of alleles per locus (Na) ranged from 5.318 in population XBY to 8.091 in population DU (Table 1). Mean observed heterozygosity per population (Ho) ranged from 0.416 in CB to 0.693 in QYH, and mean expected heterozygosity (He) values ranged from 0.490 in XBY to 0.708 in DU. We did not detect significant deviations from HWE in any of the 22 loci.
A total of 11 different cpDNA haplotypes (H1-H11) were identified based on 7 polymorphic sites detected in four cpDNA sequences (Table 1). Haplotypes H1 and H2 were the two most common haplotypes, found in 70% and 50% of C. microphylla populations, respectively (Fig. 1b). Haplotypes H3, H6, and H10, on the other hand, were found in only one population each (Fig. 1b). Haplotypes H8 and H4 were identified as the most ancestral and youngest haplotypes, respectively. The populations ETW, CB, and XBY had the lowest haplotype diversity (Hd) and nucleotide diversity (π) with only one haplotype (H8) observed in each population. The highest diversity was observed in population SZW (Hd = 0.771 and π = 0.47; Table 1).
Overall, 5788 SNPs from our GBS reads were retained for 106 individuals from 9 populations after quality control and filtering steps. Mean observed heterozygosity (Ho) per population ranged from 0.196 in CB to 0.303 in XH, and mean expected heterozygosity (He) values ranged from 0.247in CB to 0.308 in XH (Table 1).
Global FST among all 10 sampling sites based on our microsatellite dataset was 0.115. The pairwise estimates of genetic differentiation (FST) across all 10 populations ranged from 0.017 (ZXB vs. XH) to 0.139 (XBY vs. QYH) (Additional file 1: Table S4). All C. microphylla population pairs were significantly differentiated from each other except for the ZXB and XH pair, for which FST was not significantly different from zero. Comparisons between regions revealed little structure between the central (DU and XU) and northeast (CB, EWK, and XBY) populations (mean FST = 0.071) nor between the central and southwest (QYH, SZW, DL, XH, and ZXB) populations (mean FST = 0.073), but did reveal higher differentiation between the northeast and the southwest populations (mean FST = 0.138). The population XBY showed the highest degree of genetic differentiation from other populations (mean FST = 0.171), followed by populations CB (mean FST = 0.168) and EWK (mean FST = 0.138).
For cpDNA, global FST among all sites was 0.360. About 76% of pairwise FST estimates among C. microphylla population pairs were statistically significant (Additional file 1: Table S5). Pairwise comparisons between regions revealed similar patterns compared to the microsatellite results. The mean genetic differentiation between northeast and southwest populations was FST = 0.64, followed by southwest vs. central populations (mean FST = 0.48), and northeast vs. central populations (mean FST = 0.17).
For our GBS dataset of 5788 SNPs, global FST among the nine sampling sites retained in this dataset was 0.246. Pairwise comparisons between regions revealed similar patterns compared to the microsatellite and cpDNA results (Additional file 1: Table S6). The mean genetic differentiation estimates between southwest vs. central populations and northeast vs. central populations were FST = 0.164 and FST = 0.168, respectively. Whereas, the mean genetic differentiation between northeast and southwest populations was FST = 0.350.
STRUCTURE analyses performed on both our microsatellite and GBS datasets indicated that the best supported number of clusters was K = 2, according to the ΔK methods for identifying the optimal number of clusters (Additional file 1: Figure S2). The probability of membership to either of the two clusters (A and B) was geographically structured among populations and regions (Figs. 1, 2). Specifically, the membership proportions in the STRUCTURE analysis revealed a significant geographic pattern in which individuals in populations mostly associated with cluster A (i.e. SZW, ZXB, XH, DL, and QYH) were more common in the southwest of the Inner Mongolia Plateau (41°N - 42°N; Fig. 1a, 2a), while individuals in populations mostly associated with cluster B (i.e. EWK, CB, and XBY) were found in the northeast of the Inner Mongolia Plateau (48°N- 49°N; Fig. 1a, 2a). In the central region of the Inner Mongolia Plateau (44°N - 45°N), two populations (XU and DU) showed intermediate probabilities of assignment to either cluster, based on the microsatellite dataset (Fig. 1a, 2a). This could result from potential admixture, shared ancestry, or demographic factors. Of the two central populations, although the XU population is more southerly, it shared genetic cluster assignments (35.6% in cluster A and 64.4% in cluster B) more with the populations in the northeast of the Inner Mongolia Plateau than with those in the southwest. The DU population, on the other hand, showed more similar genetic assignments (72.3% in cluster A and 27.7% in cluster B) to the populations in the southwest of the Inner Mongolia Plateau, even though it is geographically closer to the northeast populations (Fig. 1a, 2a). In contrast, the assignment probabilities for individuals in these populations based on the GBS dataset (Fig. 1c, 2b) were much more closely aligned with cluster A (the southwest populations) compared to those based on the microsatellite data (Fig. 1a vs. 1c; Fig. 2a vs. 2b).
Three climate-based ecological niche models were constructed using 19 bioclimatic variables for three time periods: present day, the last glacial maximum (LGM), and the future (year 2080) (Fig. 3). The model based on present-day data showed strong support based on the receiver operating curve (AUC > 0.95), suggesting good model fit to the underlying data. The present-day predicted distribution of C. microphylla is consistent with its presently observed distribution (Fig. 3b). In total, precipitation had a greater influence on C. microphylla than temperature, as indicated by jackknife resampling of the regularized training gain (Additional file 1: Figure S3). Compared with its current distribution, the estimated distribution of C. microphylla during the LGM was much smaller, based on projection of the present-day model onto past climate layers, suggesting that a significant expansion occurred after the LGM from the southwest to the northeast of the Inner Mongolia Plateau (Fig. 3a). The ENM projected onto the future climate scenario for 2080 suggests that climate change will result in a significant reduction of the species’ potential range (Fig. 3c), resulting in a retraction to a small zone of climatically suitable habitat in the southwest-central part of C. microphylla’s current distribution.
The spatial PCA that we performed on the 19 bioclimate data layers returned three PC rasters that explained >85% of the total bioclimatic variation. Factors loadings showed that PC1 was primarily described by temperature variables (Bio1–11; www.worldclim.org), while PC2 was derived from precipitation variables (Bio12–19; www.worldclim.org). PC3 was driven by three variables – precipitation seasonality (Bio15), mean diurnal temperature range (Bio2), and temperature annual range (Bio7) – and therefore represents an environmental seasonality and range of variation axis.
Multiple matrix regression with randomization (MMRR) analysis suggested that genetic differentiation showed a significant pattern of both IBE and IBD for all three molecular datasets (Table 2 and Fig. 4). For each of the microsatellite, cpDNA, and GBS datasets, the model was a significant fit to the data (p < 0.001for each; Table 2), and explained a large proportion of the total variance (R2 = 0.685, R2 = 0.696, R2 = 888, respectively; Table 2). The signal of IBE in each dataset was driven by PC1 (temperature variables), which had a significant association with genetic distances in all three cases (p < 0.01 for each model; Table 2). PC2 and PC3 did not have significant correlations with genetic distances for any of the three molecular markers (p > 0.05; Table 2). IBE was slightly stronger than IBD in the cpDNA (IBE = 0.515, IBD = 0.361) and GBS datasets (IBE = 0.564, IBD = 0.444) and was considerably stronger than IBD in the microsatellite dataset (IBE = 0.702, IBD = 0.260; Table 2). Geographic distances were moderately correlated with distances in PC1 (Mantel’s r = 0.685, p = 0.001) and PC3 (Mantel’s r = 0702, p = 0.002) but showed no correlation with PC2 (Mantel’s r = 0.044, p = 0.553).
Generalized dissimilarity modelling (GDM; Ferrier et al. 2007) analysis also revealed significant patterns of IBE and IBD in all three of our molecular datasets (Table 3). Overall, the models were a significant fit to the data (p < 0.01 for each model) and explained a large proportion of the deviance in the data structure, with 77.95% of deviance explained for the microsatellite dataset, 74.81% of deviance explained for the cpDNA dataset, and 89.18% of deviance explained for the GBS dataset. Deviance explained values for non-linear models are analogous to R2 values for linear models. Concordant with the results of the MMRR analysis, GDM revealed significant associations between genetic distances and PC3 distances for each dataset (p < 0.05; Table 3). IBE was stronger than IBD in the microsatellite dataset (IBE = 0.561, IBD = 0.132; Table 3) but slightly weaker than IBD in the cpDNA (IBE = 0.473, IBD = 0.627; Table 3) and GBS (IBE = 0.622, IBD = 0.717; Table 3) datasets. In general, maps of spatial turnover in genetic composition generated by GDM show similar patterns for the microsatellite and GBS datasets (Fig. 5).
China’s Inner Mongolia Plateau contains dramatic clines in several bioclimatic variables that are critical for plant growth and community assembly and also exhibits spatial heterogeneity in various soil properties and characteristics , making it an excellent landscape on which to examine the geographic and environmental drivers of population genetic structure. This region contains high elevation arid steppe and sandy soils ecosystems that are traditionally understudied in landscape genetics and phylogeography. The need to better understand population dynamics in key species in these ecosystems is pressing because the entire region is heavily threatened by soil erosion, desertification, and ongoing climate change .
In this study, we utilized large genomic datasets, including 22 microsatellites, cpDNA sequences from four gene regions, and 5788 SNPs, to characterize patterns of range-wide genetic differentiation across biophysical clines in C. microphylla, an important species for ecological restoration efforts, on the Inner Mongolia Plateau. We found that genetic diversity (haplotype diversity, nucleotide diversity, average number of alleles, and heterozygosity) was distributed across the range of the species, with more centrally located populations typically showing higher levels of genetic diversity than populations nearer to range edges, particularly to the northern range edge of this species (Table 1 and Fig. 1). This spatial pattern of genetic diversity is fairly common in many different and diverse taxa . While genetic variation can have many other spatial distributions, this “abundant center hypothesis,” in which central populations harbor greater diversity appears to be one scenario that is observed fairly frequently [51, 52]. Under any scenario, better understanding the spatial distribution of genetic variation is central to developing improved management plans for maintaining genetic diversity and for predicting the impacts of potential threats to genetic diversity .
The exceptions to this general pattern in our study system were found in the southern populations that we sampled. Several of these populations (e.g. DL, SZQ, XH, and ZXB) harbored among the highest levels of haplotype and nucleotide diversity (based on our cpDNA dataset), allelic diversity (based on our microsatellite dataset), and observed heterozygosity (based on our microsatellite and GBS datasets; Table 1 and Fig. 1). This pattern may be explained by the historical distribution of C. microphylla. When the ecological niche model that we constructed was projected onto past climate layers from the last glacial maximum (LGM), it suggested that suitable habitat for C. microphylla was much more limited, compared to present day, and was primarily restricted to an area in the southwest corner of C. microphylla’s current range. This suggests that a northward expansion following glacial retreat after the LGM allowed C. microphylla to achieve the distribution it has today. Glacial refugia often harbor greater genetic diversity, particularly in plants [53–55], and that appears to be the case here as well, demonstrating how biogeographic histories can influence patterns of genetic diversity observed today.
To investigate how contemporary landscape factors affect patterns of genetic variation in C. microphylla, we conducted a landscape genetic analysis in which we employed complimentary linear and non-linear matrix regression analyses to quantify patterns of IBD and IBE. Multiple matrix regression with randomization (MMRR) and generalized dissimilarity modelling (GDM) revealed strong evidence that both geographic and environmental factors play important roles in structuring genetic variation in this system. Overall, the results of our MMRR and GDM analyses were highly concordant, but there were some minor differences (Tables 2, 3). Some of these differences are likely due to the linear vs. non-linear regressions used in MMRR and GDM, respectively [44, 46]. Whether the observed differences result from GDM over-fitting the model or MMRR under-fitting the model is not currently known. In any case, our results can be viewed as strong evidence that IBD and IBE are both significant patterns of genetic differentiation in C. microphylla, even if their precise strengths are uncertain, and therefore geographic and environmental factors are both important contributors to the genetic structuring of populations in this system.
There were also slight differences among our three genetic datasets. If we average the results for the MMRR and GDM analyses, we find that IBE played a considerably stronger role than IBD in structuring genetic variation in the microsatellite data (βIBE = 0.196 vs. βIBD = 0.631), but IBE and IBD were much more balanced in the cpDNA (βIBE = 0.494 vs. βIBD = 0.494) and GBS datasets (βIBE = 0.581 vs βIBD = 0.593). There is no clear reason why microsatellite markers would be expected to have lower IBD than cpDNA or GBS markers. There is an interesting possibility that chloroplast DNA, which is uni-parentally inherited through seeds, could show a different spatial pattern from nuclear DNA, which is bi-parentally inherited through seeds and pollen, if dispersal in seeds and pollen are subject to different controls. For instance, if different animals disperse seeds and pollen, which is commonly the case, or if pollen is wind dispersed while seeds fall onto the underlying terrain, then we would expect that patterns of spatial genetic variation in cpDNA and nuclear DNA could be very different . For C. microphylla, which has pollen dispersed by wind and insect pollinators , we would expect that nDNA markers would show a greater signal of IBE compared to IBD, because geographic factors would be much more limiting for seed dispersal. In fact, we do see that IBE is slightly higher than IBD for our nuclear microsatellite and GBS datasets, while IBE and IBD are very similar in our cpDNA dataset, but this difference is fairly subtle.
The GDM and MMRR analyses both detected a significant signal that variation between populations in environmental PC1 drives the pattern of IBE. This signal was highly significant (p ≤ 0.02) and explained a large proportion of genetic variation (β = 0.383 to 0.565) in all three of our genetic datasets in the results of both MMRR and GDM analysis (Tables 2, 3). Signals for PC2 and PC3 were not significant in any dataset under either analysis. PC1 captured variation in the bioclimatic temperature variables in our environmental GIS dataset. Hence, our results suggest that IBE in C. microphylla is primarily driven by differences in temperature variables between populations. Both phenology and leaf emergence are linked to temperature cues in C. microphylla [57, 58]. Flowering period in C. microphylla lasts less than 30 days, and shifts in flowering period occur under different experimental temperature treatments . This suggests that differences in temperature regimes between populations may cause differences in phenology which lead to reduced overlap in flowering period and, therefore, reduced gene flow. This pattern of reduced overlap in reproductive timing has been referred to as ‘isolation by time’ and may be a key factor driving genetic structure in this system.
Thus, overall, our study presents a strong case for a role of both historic and contemporary factors, including both geographic and environmental variables, in generating the currently observed patterns of spatial genetic variation in C. microphylla. For plants involved in ecological restoration, like C. microphylla, understanding these patterns is critical, because restoration work inherently involves moving plants between areas (even if they are geographically close). For instance, in this system, populations exhibit genetic differentiation between environments with different temperature regimes, and therefore restoration efforts should focus on transplanting between areas with similar environmental conditions. Plants adapted to different thermal climates may flower at the wrong time or out of sync with the local population, reducing the effectiveness of transplant efforts. Because C. microphylla also show geographically driven genetic differentiation, plants that are transplanted from distant sites that are environmentally similar could be effective at introducing genetic variation into struggling populations . Hence, better understanding the factors that shape genetic variation in these species is critical for preventing unintended consequences of reintroductions and translocations and for guiding conservation plans to produce the best possible outcomes. Specifically, the knowledge generated by studies like ours can contribute to managing how genetic variation is distributed in these species, the probability of individuals surviving and becoming established under various climatic factors, and the chances of maintaining genetically healthy populations.
We thank Prof. Tieliang Shang Guan, Shanxi University, for the sampling and identification of the plant material and the UC Berkeley Geospatial Innovation Facility for providing GIS software.
This research was funded by a grant from the Agricultural Science and Technology Innovation Program (ASTIP-IAS10) of China. The funding body did not play a role in the design of the study and collection, analysis, and interpretation of data and in writing the manuscript, but just provide the financial support.
All cpDNA sequences were deposited in Genbank (accession numbers KU564257 to KU564268). GBS-seq raw data were submitted to the NCBI Sequence Read Archive (SRA) with reference number SRP071628. The SSR genotypes datasets and the other rest of the dataset used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Z.W. conceived and designed the study, B.X., and J.L., collected samples, B.X., G.S., J.L., and Z.W. performed the experiments, Z.W. and I.W. analyzed the data, Z.W., B.X., G.S., X.W., and I.W. drafted and revised the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final version of this manuscript.
All the plant materials were sampled by us. The sampling of plant materials was complied with the Convention on the Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora and national and local laws. All the materials were identified by Prof. Tieliang Shang Guan, Shanxi University.
Andrews S. FastQC: a quality control tool for high throughput sequence data Babraham. Cambridge: Bioinformatics; 2010. Available at https://www.bioinformatics.babraham.ac.uk/projects/fastqc/. | 2019-04-21T12:38:55Z | https://bmcplantbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12870-017-1147-7 |
Initiated by Joint Chiefs of Staff Chairman General Nathan Twining and Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke, and then presided over by General Thomas Power, Director of the Joint Strategic Target Planning Staff (1960-1964), SIOP-62 mapped out a synchronized nuclear attack by the U.S. Air Force, Navy and Army combining strategic bombers, Polaris submarine-launched missiles and Atlas ICBMs in an ‘alert’ force of over 1,706 nuclear weapons and a ‘full’ force of over 3,240 nuclear weapons delivered to 1,060 targets in the Soviet Union, China and allied states. In this Plan there was little or no distinction made between Communist states that were at war with the United States and those that were not. Some sites (Designated Ground Zeroes – DGZs) would be struck by two or more weapons, and included both military installations and urban-industrial areas. The alert force would target 199 cities and the full force would target 295.2 The planners estimated that the total human deaths from such an attack would be 108 million in the Soviet Union and 104 million in the PRC as well as several million in satellite states,3 while Kaplan estimated that 175 million Russians and Chinese would be killed by the ‘alert’ force and 285 million would be killed by a ‘full’ force, and an additional 40 million more injured.4 To make such threats credible, the Departments of Defense (DoD) and Energy (DoE) and the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) conducted visible tests of new nuclear weapons in various atmospheric conditions in a twenty test series between 1946 and 1963. Even after the limited test ban treaty was adopted, they continued with underground tests.
General Thomas Power presided over the creation of SIOP-62 as Commander in Chief, Strategic Air Command (1957–1964) and Director, Joint Strategic Target Planning Staff (1960–1964).
As nuclear intimidation continued, and as other nations sought to gain ‘parity’, the global nuclear industry grew. It was clearly understood in these early decades that the dual-use of nuclear materials in nuclear energy generation and nuclear weapons served to establish and maintain national influence in the international arena. Since 1945, the supply and procurement of uranium together with coal (for steel production) has been a good indicator of a nation’s capacity to both rapidly increase its energy production with the potential to produce munitions and, for those states already with the capacity, to produce and enhance a nuclear weapons arsenal. High-energy power generation was an index of a nation’s war-making potential underlining the link between mining and militarisation.
In the following I seek to explain why and how the Australian government in 2014 has concluded a uranium trade deal with India that is in breach of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) by tracing the development of a nuclear nexus between India, Australia, Japan and the United States. Just as it was in the early cold war, this trade in nuclear materials is informed by interlocking and mutually reinforcing economic and geostrategic interests that have long undermined international disarmament initiatives. I argue that changing climatic conditions caused by emissions intensive energy production, however, demand a fundamental re-thinking of this paradigm.
Of the 67 reactors under construction globally as of July 2014, at least 49 were experiencing delays and eight had been under construction for 20 or more years. China too, having planned before 2011 to replace heavy carbon emitting coal-fired power stations with nuclear power stations, stalled and re-assessed its position after 3.11.8 For the most part, China (along with the US, India and Germany) has boosted its renewable electricity generating capacity so that by 2013, it produced through wind, solar and hydro power over 1000 terawatt hours – the equivalent of the total power generation of France and Germany.9 In Japan, nearly four years after the Fukushima Daiichi meltdowns, 46 other nuclear reactors remain shut down. The Nuclear Regulatory Authority (NRA) approved the restart of two reactors in Sendai, Kyushu on 10 September 2014 and Mayoral consent was secured in October.
Until 2014, along with China, Japan has also seen a boom in mostly solar and wind electricity generation. But this has been stalled by utilities who have refused to take an influx of renewable power into the grid or to reduce electricity prices.10 With fewer nuclear plants scheduled for construction around the world than for shutdown, however, the nuclear industry faces the likely prospect of contraction11 and replacement by rapidly advancing renewable energy options, including solar, wind, tidal, hydro and possibly geothermal power over the longer term.
New mining leases were approved in Western Australia, Queensland and New South Wales, and Queensland Premier Campbell Newman broke his electoral commitment not to permit uranium mining by inviting uranium mining companies to commence exploration operations. The new (Queensland) Mineral and Energy Resources (Common Provisions) Bill 2014, for example, passed on 9 September 2014 authorizes a Coordinator General to overrule community objection rights to ‘State significant projects’ including coal, bauxite and uranium mines, or to limit them to concerns unrelated to environmental protection.13 This Act gives virtual immunity to large companies exploring for uranium deposits in the Mitchell and Alice River basins in Cape York and the Gulf country. Encouraged by these positive signs, along with other Japanese, Chinese and Indian investors in uranium projects in Australia, the major French energy corporation Areva recently bought a 51 percent share in a joint venture with Australian uranium miner Toro Energy for exploration in the Wiso Basin in Northern Territory.14 In other words, federal and state governments in Australia have been approving exploration licenses and the opening of uranium mines at a time when the global nuclear and uranium industry was marked by decline and exit.
While some of the larger corporations chose to wait for uranium demand to rise, many in the Australian uranium mining industry scrambled to reprioritise, turning to the newly emerging market of nation-states tipped for rapid economic expansion. India attracted attention due to its high-growth economic potential, geostrategic positioning and nuclear ambitions. As then Prime Minister Howard had done in 2007, ‘energy starved’ India’s ‘power crisis’ is again being widely portrayed in desperate terms,15 while the solutions are presented as economic expansion and greater energy consumption by a growing middle class.16 In addition to coal exports, Australian politicians, in consultation with business representatives in the uranium and minerals sector, have framed the push for uranium trade with India as a ‘moral duty’ and ‘humanitarian responsibility’ to improve living standards of India’s impoverished people.
Over the nearly four years since the Fukushima disaster, the Japanese government and corporations have actively courted more than 20 countries for the purchase of Japan’s nuclear technologies. Agreements had been reached with Jordan, Vietnam, South Korea and Russia under the Kan and Noda Democratic Party Japan (DPJ) governments, and the export of nuclear technology remained central to the Abe government’s economic plans. Two more nuclear technology agreements with Turkey and the United Arab Emirates have since been reached,19 and six more are under consideration – with India, South Africa, Mexico, Brazil, Saudi Arabia and Bangladesh. Despite the continuing negative effects of ongoing radioactive contamination dispersal from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant, the Abe government remains intent both on nuclear startups in Japan and on promoting its exports of nuclear technology to other countries.
A similar initiative followed on 5 September 2014, when Abbott and Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi signed the Australia-India Nuclear Cooperation Agreement in New Delhi. It was the culmination of the efforts initiated by the Howard government in 2006,22 carried forward by the Gillard government in 2011–2012.
After India’s ‘Smiling Buddha’ Pokhran-I nuclear tests in May 1974, when the Indian government declared that it intended to harness nuclear energy to manufacture nuclear weapons, the Australian government (and many other countries including the US) placed a ban on exporting uranium to it (France and Russia continued to sporadically export uranium under a safety clause). India had built its clandestine nuclear weapons program using imported Canadian reactors.
Since Nehru, India has justified its indigenous development of civil and military nuclear capacity and fuel and its refusal to ratify the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) by pointing to the nuclear weapons held by existing nuclear weapons states. It has argued that the NPT is a flawed agreement that reflects the hypocrisy of the nuclear weapons states in refusing to seriously engage in disarmament while expecting non-nuclear weapons states to abstain from possession. In 1975, partially in response to the Indian tests of the previous year, the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) initially comprising seven nations (United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, Japan, France, Canada, West Germany) was formed to prevent the diversion of nuclear materials used for commercial and peaceful purposes for the production of nuclear weapons. NSG members were obliged to cease trade with governments that did not submit to international inspection. India and Pakistan were included. Despite the bans, India went ahead to conduct its Pokhran II nuclear tests in May 1998. These were followed by Pakistan’s tests two weeks later. UN Security Council Resolution 1172 of June 199823 expressed grave concern and demanded that both countries foreswear further tests and abandon their nuclear weapon ambitions.
expressed grave concern and demanded that both countries foreswear further tests and abandon their nuclear weapon ambitions.
Despite the resolution’s unanimous adoption and threat of sanctions, the turning point was when the George W. Bush administration (2001-2009) chose to prioritize U.S. bilateral relations with India over any unified front to counter nuclear proliferation. The US–India energy agreement of July 2005 opened the way for other states, such as Australia, to engage bilaterally with India.
Meanwhile in October 2008, the Singh government overcame stiff opposition in parliament to secure national and international backing for the signing of the US–India ‘1-2-3’ Nuclear Cooperation Agreement.This Agreement stipulated that India would open its civilian nuclear facilities to inspection by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and delineate its civil and military facilities so as to ensure US-origin fuel would not be used for military purposes. In return the US would supply nuclear fuel and nuclear technologies (six reactors) and gain greater access to the Indian nuclear market.
As unanimous approval from the 48 states of the NSG was also required, the US and India lobbied hard and secured an unprecedented waiver of NSG export guidelines so as to permit nuclear commerce with India despite its non-NPT signatory status. Having granted the exception, several NSG members then negotiated bilateral nuclear accords with India (including France, United Kingdom, South Korea, Canada and Kazakhstan). In 2008 the Singh government purchased 300 MT of uranium ore concentrate from Areva of France, in 2009 2000 MT of uranium oxide pellets and 58 MT of enriched uranium dioxide from JSC Tvel/Russia, also in 2009 2100 MT of uranium dioxide concentrate from NAC/Kazakhstan and in 2013 2000 MT of uranium ore concentrate from NMMC Uzbekistan.27 While details are yet to be finalised, the deal with Australia in 2014 would secure for India a steady, reliable, high-grade uranium supply from the world’s largest known uranium deposits (its uranium resources are about 28 percent of the world total).
While details are yet to be finalised, the deal with Australia in 2014 would secure for India a steady, reliable, high-grade uranium supply from the world’s largest known uranium deposits (its uranium resources are about 28 percent of the world total).
In November 2010, in a joint statement signed by US President Obama and Indian PM Singh, it was agreed that negotiations would begin between Nuclear Power Corporation India Ltd (NPCIL) and US nuclear energy companies in return for implementing India’s full membership of the NSG in a ‘phased manner’. India agreed to accommodate the demands of General Electric and Westinghouse, which sought strict adherence to the CSC31 by diluting the CLNDA to reduce both suppliers’ liability and the time period for exercising right of recourse in the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Rules 2011.32 The US-India Business Council, PM Modi and industry executives from the Nuclear Power Company of India Ltd. (NPCIL) also devised an insurance package to indemnify the American suppliers in the event of a nuclear accident for the maximum liability amount stipulated in the CLNDA (INR 1500 Crore/$250 million).33 This was to encourage US/Japan companies (among others) to collaborate in building new nuclear reactors to allow India to ‘achieve its full blown potential’.34 In short, India would take as close to full liability for nuclear accidents as possible in return for receiving the benefits of NPT and NSG membership without the full obligations expected of its members. In doing so, the integrity of the NPT was further compromised.
Given that Australia’s uranium mining and export accounts for less than 1 percent of its hundred billion dollar mineral export business (iron ore, bauxite, coal, copper, nickel etc),36 however, these decisions by Australian leaders risked significant political capital over what has been a highly contentious issue in Australia’s recent political history.
the NPT non-nuclear-weapon states agree never to acquire nuclear weapons in exchange for which the NPT nuclear-weapon states agree to share the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology and to pursue nuclear disarmament aimed at the ultimate elimination of their nuclear arsenals.
Nuclear weapons states have had the primary responsibility to ensure disarmament of their own arsenals so as to prevent nuclear non-proliferation among other states. The export controls regime of the NSG and enhanced verification measures of IAEA (International Atomic Energy Association) Additional Protocols are ostensibly to end every possible means to acquire nuclear weapons. While Article Four of the NPT provides ‘inalienable rights to every non-nuclear weapon state’ to pursue nuclear energy for power generation, India is neither a member of the NPT nor a Non-Nuclear Weapon State and there is no provision in the NPT which permits for signatories to form nuclear cooperation agreements with Non-NPT states.
India quite rightly has pointed out the hypocritical approach of the nuclear weapons states in approaching the NPT regime. As the Indian External Affairs Minister Pranab Mukherjee stated in 2007, India was not an NPT signatory because it considers the regime to be not one of ‘universal, non-discriminatory verification and treatment’.37 In the same statement, Minister Mukherjee also claimed that India had an ‘impeccable record on non-proliferation… [was] a leading advocate of the elimination of all nuclear weapons… [and was an adherent] to the values of peace and non-violence’. India’s ‘impeccable track-record on non-proliferation’ was a catch phrase coined by President Bush in 2005,38 and reiterated by both PM Modi and PM Abbott in 2014.
Treating India as an exceptional case and a de facto nuclear weapons state makes even more conspicuous the selective imposition of sanctions or favour upon other non-NPT signatory nuclear weapons states such as Pakistan and Israel, or NPT signatory non-nuclear weapons states such as Iran.39 But the self-interested and strategically motivated application of the NPT was not new, nor was it limited to the US and its allies. The Soviet Union supplied China with the necessary technologies and skills to develop its own nuclear weapons capabilities, as China then supplied Pakistan. In turn, Pakistan also supplied other states that aspire to obtain nuclear capabilities. All were in a chain reaction, however, to U.S. threats to China and ultimately to the Soviet Union, in the early decades of the Cold War. While it is debatable that uranium and nuclear technology supply to India by others might serve to deter contemporary Chinese or Pakistani nuclear aggression, it has not served to prevent Indian conflicts with either of those two nations in the past. In any case, the use of nuclear trade as a strategic instrument does not ensure greater security or stability of the international community broadly defined, and this sort of leverage is not a valid use of the NPT.
So despite PM Abbott’s assurances that ‘suitable safeguards’ were in place to guarantee that Australian uranium would be used for ‘peaceful purposes’ and for ‘civilian use only’, as the former Director General of the Australian Safeguards and Non-Proliferation Office John Carlson points out, the Agreement departs from two principles of Australia’s 1987 Safeguards Act (section 51):40 the acquirement of ‘consent to reprocessing’ from the Australian government prior to the separation of plutonium from spent fuel; and the ‘right of return’ of nuclear materials supplied in the event of a breach of the agreement.41 Instead, the Agreement defers to the US-India nuclear cooperation agreement in which India would reprocess in facilities built with the assistance of US companies, and leaves open the question of how separated plutonium would be used or how arbitration would apply to settle disputes.
Ten of India’s twenty nuclear facilities are beyond the regulatory authority of the IAEA and India only selectively recognises IAEA safeguards for specific foreign supplied reactors and facilities. India also refuses to submit to suppliers inventory reports and accounting processes for nuclear material flowing through the nuclear cycle. As the IAEA is not able to fully inspect India’s dual-purpose (civilian and military) indigenous reactors and facilities for reprocessing, enrichment, retransfers to third countries, research and development or the production of tritium (used as a trigger for weapons), India is not fully accountable to either the IAEA or the supplier nation with which it has a bilateral agreement with in-built IAEA norms.
So even if India adheres to Australia’s requirements that its uranium be used solely to supply civil nuclear reactors for electricity generation that may be inspected by IAEA as per the nuclear safeguards agreement, Australia’s (or any other NPT members’) uranium export to India effectively supplements or liberates limited supplies of Indian uranium for military uses.42 Nor could, in the unlikely discovery of the ‘misallocation’ of some Australian origin uranium toward military use, the IAEA force compliance. In fact, whether or not India accounts for the flows of Australian material in its nuclear fuel cycle, it is impossible to verify whether it has actually adhered to the safeguards.
Australian Minister for Resources and Energy Martin Ferguson, Adani group founder Gautam Adani, Queensland Premier Campbell Newman in India in 2012.
As has been recommended by the United Nations (UN), World Health Organisation (WHO), International Energy Agency (IEA), Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC), and recognised by the World Bank and the European Investment Bank, the rapid phase out of coal-fired power stations is essential if the world is to meet the now seemingly optimistic carbon emissions reductions necessary to keep planetary warming below 2 percent of pre-industrialisation levels.46 While two hundred licenses for coal-fired power stations have been revoked by the Supreme Court of India recently, many Indian overseas coal projects are still underway.
There are a number of flaws underpinning the logic of this activity between political leaders and nuclear industry executives. PM Abbott insisted at the time of signing the nuclear deal with India that the Agreement would be safe. In fact, the Abbott government has committed to selling uranium to an ambitious nation that barely conceals its intentions to expand its nuclear weapons arsenal and has refused to become a full signatory to the NPT and, along with the US, China and Pakistan, has not ratified the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).
Prime Minister Modi is a pro-business politician and hardliner on Pakistan and Muslim populations in India and favours a security policy based on nuclear deterrence. The BJP holds a commanding majority in the lower house of Parliament. There is little reason to assume that Indian relations with Pakistan – or indeed with China – will soften by furnishing India with greater means to project its military power in the region. The surge of fundamentalist and jingoist forces in South Asia and rising military budgets and tensions between India and Pakistan on the one hand and China and the US, Japan and its allies on the other, aggravate the security situation in the region. Further, India has been waging an on-going long-term campaign against an insurgency within its borders, and it cannot guarantee against theft of nuclear-related materials.
Fourth, the option of nuclear power as the ‘clean’ alternative is nothing of the sort. Although the fission operation of nuclear power stations may be ‘cleaner’ than coal-fired power stations in terms of carbon emissions, and although the heat from fission may produce more energy and less waste per volume of uranium than coal, many problems remain unresolved. These include the safe storage of long-lived nuclear waste, long build time of reactors in proportion to rapidly accelerating effects of climate change, enormous financial costs, use and contamination of vital resources required across the nuclear cycle from mining to waste production (including water and fossil fuels),55centralised monopolisation of power management necessitated by nuclear power generation, excess heating of the atmosphere through the discharge of excess heat through water and air, danger to ecologies downwind or downstream from venting while refueling reactors, and increased potential for large-scale and long-term damage from accidents.
Given the advances of wind, solar, tidal and geothermal energy production which have become cheaper and more productive, as field-tested in China, Germany,56 Spain and other countries, and the abundance of these sources of energy in countries like Australia, the myth of base-load power is less sustainable than it was in the heady renaissance days. India’s pitch to rapidly increase economic growth has been embraced by the transnational nuclear industry as it represents an opportunity to expand the nuclear industry, and an opportunity to diversify from reliance on the Chinese market. But when typical cost-benefit analyses are extended to include the actual costs of the above-mentioned scenarios (nuclear weapons exchange, public health effects from industrial pollution from uranium mining and nuclear reactors, nuclear reactor disasters, nuclear waste storage, renewable energy alternatives), in an already fragile ecology in India, India’s nuclear energy plan reflects neither deep commitment to climate change mitigation nor serious concern for India’s impoverished populations.
Why does the Australian, Indian, the United States and Japanese governments (among others) and their affiliated transnational corporations, continue to accelerate nuclear related operations despite these significant obstacles?
It is unlikely that the Japan-India Nuclear Cooperation Agreement went unsigned because of any putative scruple Japan may have about selling nuclear technologies to India as a non-NPT nuclear weapons state. As the Modi and NPCIL accommodation of American supplier demands demonstrates, the liability clause can be flexible. It remains unlikely, however, that India will consent to opening all of its reactors for inspection.60 Rather, it is likely that Japan is awaiting an American executive decision on the liability issue and the possible inclusion of India into the NPT as a nuclear weapons state, since prior agreement would appear to abrogate Japan’s NPT obligations.
That PM Modi reasserted India’s customary ‘no first use’ policy does not mean that he does not intend to stockpile and bolster India’s nuclear arsenal. The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) estimates that India possesses 90 to 110 nuclear weapons.61 In June 2014, the IHS (Information Handling Service) Jane’s military research group identified what they believe to be a new uranium hexafluoride (enrichment) facility at the Indian Rare Metals Plant near Mysore. As with its other military plants, this plant is not within IAEA safeguards. Estimated to be operational by mid-2015, it would produce roughly double the amount of enriched fuel (160 kilos a year enriched to 90 percent purity) required for India’s ballistic missile nuclear submarine fleet.62 The IHS analysts surmise that the surplus could be used for thermonuclear weapons (mixing enriched uranium and plutonium stockpiles).63 It could also be used to fuel nuclear submarines, space satellites, tactical and intermediate ballistic missiles, and multiple warhead Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (Agni V ICBM MIRVs) with the ability to reach cities in China and Pakistan. India joins the US, Russia, UK, France and China in possessing the ICBM with MIRV, leaving Pakistan further behind in terms of weapons parity, particularly in navy, air and ground forces, and missile capabilities.64 As India seeks to rival China, it could further destabilize relations with Pakistan by intensifying the ongoing arms race between the two. Regional tensions could be further exacerbated by Pakistan’s border skirmishes with Afghanistan and Iran over its support of the Taliban in Afghanistan.65 Along with increasing tensions involving US-Japan-India and China, this is precisely the scenario that NPT members have tried to avoid by subscribing to IAEA safeguards.
Since the late 1950s, there have been elements in the Japanese government (led by Abe’s grandfather and former Prime Minister Kishi Nobusuke) who have advocated the procurement of tactical nuclear weapons as an entitlement under the nation’s right to self-defence as stipulated in the UN Charter. Although the US has long discouraged Japan’s nuclear weaponisation with assurances of extended nuclear deterrence, in 2003 US Vice-President Cheney stated that Japan’s possession of nuclear weapons could be tenable if it were aligned to US strategic deterrence policy.68 As an NPT signatory, Japan has accumulated the fourth largest stockpile of ‘civilian’ plutonium, the largest stockpile of any non-nuclear weapons state.69 Despite reprocessing programs having been closed down by many other countries, Japan claims that its significant nuclear reprocessing and fuel fabrication program is for ‘energy autonomy’ by which it means ‘closing the nuclear fuel cycle’. This relies upon the ability to separate plutonium from spent fuel and reprocess and fabricate it ‘upwards’ so as to produce more plutonium than is consumed, thereby facilitating an endless loop of fuel production and consumption. In this scenario, the Japanese government regards spent nuclear fuel and stockpiled plutonium as an ‘asset’ rather than a ‘debt’.
This ability should not be understood as solely for the reduction of reliance on foreign fuel imports or even of nuclear waste. In 2009, Ernest J. Moniz, an MIT professor and United States Secretary of Energy in 2014, admitted that uranium, once thought to be scarce, was now so abundant as to raise doubt over the necessity for nuclear fuel reprocessing.70 As of March 2011, despite the recommendations by the Japan Atomic Energy Commission and the Science Council of Japan of both direct disposal and limited surface storage of spent nuclear fuel in dry casks over fuel pool storage and reprocessing, the Japanese government would not rule out the reprocessing option. If the closed fuel cycle ever did eventuate, it would negate Japan’s dependence on the import of vital energy resources (uranium, oil, natural gas) so as to achieve ‘energy autonomy’. This would drastically reduce fuel costs and would also reduce vulnerability to sanctions should Japan breach the NPT (or other international agreements) in its decision to ‘go nuclear’.
Japan’s long-term investment in co-developing this high-level technical capability has made it the second most powerful missile power in the world, and the only nation outside the US with both low and upper-tier defences reputedly capable of intercepting missiles beyond the Earth’s atmosphere.72 Given this long-term commitment, it was not surprising that the Abe government in 2013 decided to declare the constitutional right to participate in ‘collective security’ operations with the US and other allies.
This technology, and Japan’s ambiguous intentions concerning nuclear and space weaponisation, means that the US and Japan, in collaboration with partners such as Australia and India (in sea-going operations in particular), could potentially integrate not only their BMD systems but also their nuclearized capabilities. As South Korea and Taiwan have also expressed interest in reprocessing their spent nuclear fuel (as have other states such as Saudi Arabia), these developments carry strong potential for proliferation.
One of the major implications of this distributed form of ‘self-defence’ is that US Pacific Command would further extend the pre-emptive strike capacity of its global nuclear strike force. With Japan’s recent release of space assets for military use (reconnaissance, communications, navigation, early warning) in collaboration with the US, this further augments the current period of US ‘nuclear primacy’ and a return to the conditions prior to 1963 when the Soviets had developed long-range bombers to deliver their nuclear payloads over US territory. Nuclear primacy transcends the concept of Mutually Assured Destruction in its ability to win a nuclear war, which the US is proposing to do by eliminating retaliatory capability with a single massive attack called ‘Prompt Global Strike’.
Under the Australia–India uranium trade agreement, India will use Australian yellow cake to diversify its nuclear program. If and when the Japan–India Nuclear Cooperation Agreement is concluded, it will supply the nuclear technology India requires to build its industrial capacity and indirectly enhance its nuclear arsenal. Negotiated almost simultaneously and in coordination, both of these Agreements, together with and following the US–India nuclear agreement, tacitly legitimise India’s nuclear status and assist in its ambitions for greater international influence. Australia and Japan, both NPT and NSG members, have become complicit in India’s nuclear weapons program and partially responsible for increasing the risk of nuclear accident in India, and for potentially aggravating nuclear rivalry in Asia.
India claims to need more electricity for domestic and industrial growth as well as to lift a significant population out of poverty. Yet there are many factors which create the conditions for the advance of India’s poor, just as there are many forms of alternative energy generation beyond nuclear and coal which would be safer, more reliable and powerful if given comparable investment and with smart power grid distribution networks.76 To the extent that governments and corporations continue to invest in nuclear power construction and reprocessing as a source of ‘renewable energy’, they diminish the potential to stem the destructive and exponentially increasing effects of climate change.77 China, Germany, the United States, India and even Japan are presently leading the world in investing in renewable energy technology. Yet, with the exception of Germany, this is being done in parallel with plans to expand nuclear power production.
The ongoing contamination from radiation dispersed from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant came, in part, from Australian uranium.78 When the benefits of uranium trade are weighed against the potential and actual costs and damages from uranium mining, the actual risks of nuclear reactor accidents and mismanagement, the decline in costs and advances in renewable technologies, potential nuclear weapons use (broadly defined) and proliferation, and the steady production of nuclear waste, it becomes clear that state-corporate policies to expand the industry are ill-conceived.
In 2014, as in 1945 and throughout the intervening decades, uranium mining, nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons remain ineluctably tied to the formation of a global power structure of nation-states and transnational corporations and instrumental in their overarching ambitions.
Adam Broinowski is an ARC postdoctoral research fellow at the School of Pacific and Asian History, College of Asia and the Pacific, The Australian National University. His recent work includes a chapter, ‘Sovereign Power Ambition and the Realities of the Fukushima Nuclear Disaster’ in Nadesan/Boys/McKillop/Wilcox (eds.), Fukushima: Dispossession or Denuclearization?, The Dispossesion Publishing Group, 2014, and a forthcoming article, ‘Conflicting Immunities: Priorities of Life and Sovereignty amid the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster’, European Journal of Contemporary Japanese Studies, December 2014. His book, Cultural Responses to Occupation in Japan: The Performing Body during and after the Cold War is forthcoming in 2015.
Recommended citation: Adam Broinowski, “Undermining Nuclear Non-Proliferation: Energy and Security Politics in the Australia–India–Japan–U.S. Nuclear Nexus,” The Asia-Pacific Journal, Vol. 12, Issue 46, No. 2, November 1, 2014.
1 R. A. Paulsen, The Role of Nuclear Weapons in the Post-Cold War Era, Maxwell Airforce Base: Alabama Air University Press, 1994, pp. 1–11.
2 William Burr (ed.), ‘The Creation of SioP-62: More Evidence of the Origins of Overkill’, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing book No. 130, 13 July 2004.
3 Government of United States of America, Joint Chiefs of Staff, ‘Berlin Contingency Planning’, June 1961, National Security Archives.
4 F. Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983, p. 269. To what extent they calculated the ‘bonus kills’, as General LeMay put it, from radiation exposure is unclear, but it was likely a very conservative estimate.
5 For example, Uranerz Energy Corporation announced a net loss in the second quarter of 2013. See, ‘Uranerz Records Q2 Net Loss of $4.45 million’, 11 August 2014.
6 See Suzuki Tatsujiro in Mycle Schnyder and Anthony Froggat (eds.), World Nuclear Industry Status Report 2014, 18 August 2014, pp. 4, 76, 155; Aaron Sheldrick, ‘Global nuclear power contribution falls to lowest since 1980s’,Reuters, 29 July 2014; Jim Green, ‘Uranium – how low can it go’, Business Spectator, 29 May 2014.
7 Schneider and Froggatt, ‘Executive summary and conclusions’, World Nuclear Industry Status Report 2013, July.
8 David von Hippel, James H. Williams, ‘Nuclear safety concers with China’s growing reactor fleet’, NAPSNet Policy Forum, 28 October 2014.
9 John Mathews and Hao Tan, ‘China shows there is more to renewable energy than fighting climate change’, The Conversation, 11 September 2014.
10 Daniel Cusick, ‘Power companies in Japan move to restrict solar’, Scientific American, 2 October 2014.
11 Aaron Sheldrick, ‘Global nuclear power contribution falls to lowest since 1980s’, Reuters, 29 July 2014.
12 Paddy Manning, ‘Producers bullish on Japanese demand’, Sydney Morning Herald, 18 December 2012.
13 Andrew Picone, ‘Mining companies now have more rights than the community in Newman’s Queensland’, SBS News, 1 October 14. Between 2013–14 and 2017–18 Australia’s uranium production is projected to increase by 32 per cent to total 9590 tonnes, as supported by the Alliance Resources’ Four Mile mine in South Australia, ore extraction at Ranger uranium mine and Toro Energy’s Wiluna mine in Western Australia. Other additional mining operations such as Cameco’s Kintyre and Yeelirrie projects as well as potential projects in Queensland are not projected to begin until 2017–18. Government of Australia, BREE, Resources and Energy Quarterly, October 2013, p. 26.
14 ‘Toro signs NT deal with AREVA’, The West Australian, 29 September 2014.
15 The World Bank estimates that nearly 400 million Indians have no access to electricity. World Bank, ‘Energy’.
16 At the recent opening of a coal mine, Prime Minister Abbott was quoted as declaring ‘Coal is good for humanity, coal is good for prosperity, coal is an essential part of our economic future, here in Australia, and right around the world.’ Editors, ‘Coal is good for humanity’, The Australian, 15 October 2014.
17 ‘Nuclear power in the USA’, World Nuclear Report, 23 October 2014.
18 Mitsubishi CEO Kojima Yorihiko quoted by Rick Wallace, ‘ Billions to flow from Shinzo Abe visit, says Mitsubishi chairman’, The Australian , 7 July 2014.
19 Editor, ‘Exports that defy reason’, Japan Times, 20 April 2014.
20 The Defense Ministry of the Abe government has sought a 3.5 percent increase to ¥5.05 trillion for the fiscal year of 2015, an unprecedented military budget for the nation. Takenaka Kiyoshi, Reuters, 29 August 2014.
21 P. Kallender-Umezu, ‘Japan Quietly Builds Limited Counter-A2/AD Capabilities’, 17 September 2013, Defense News.
22 The Howard government proposed the expansion of uranium mining and uranium exports, establishment of a uranium enrichment industry, and construction of 25 power reactors. Others in Australia propose 20 nuclear by 2050. See Government of Australia, Prime Minister and Cabinet, 29 December 2006, ‘Uranium mining, processing and nuclear energy – opportunities for Australia’.
23 United Nations, UN Security Council Resolution 1172.
24 For more discussion on this, see C. Rovere and K. Robertson, ‘Australia’s Uranium and India: Linking Exports to CTBT Ratification’, Security Challenges, Vol. 9, No. 1 (2013), pp. 51–61.
25 ‘China wants Australia’s uranium’, ABC, 17 October 2005.
26 ‘Reliance Arm paid $3.45 million to UXA for uranium exploration’, The Hindu Business Line, 28 May 2008.
27 Later, it was admitted that Indian projections are overly ambitious, and they would scale down from 20,000 MWe of new nuclear capacity to 11,080 MWe by the year 2020.
29 IAEA, Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage, International Atomic Energy Agency.
30 Government of India, ‘The Civil Liability For Nuclear Damage Act’, 2010.
31 Editors, ‘U.S.-India Business Council Statement on Nuclear Liability Law’, Reuters, 30 August 2010.
32 Government of India, ‘Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Rules 2011’.
33 Indrani Bagchi, ‘India gives US insurance plan for nuclear plants’, The Times of India, 13 March 2014; Kapil Patil, ‘Untying the Civil Nuclear Liability Knot in the Indo-US Nuclear Deal’, Nautilus Institute, 30 September 2014.
34 Kapil Patil, ‘Untying the civil nuclear liability knot in the Indo-US nuclear deal’, NAPSnet policy forum, 30 September 2014.
35 Paul Meyer, ‘India and the meltdown of Canada’s nuclear non-proliferation policy: Ottawa abandons principled position for greater access to India’s economy’, Reuters.
36 Editors, ‘Yellow cake fever: Exposing the Uranium industry’s economic myths’, Australian Conservation Foundation, April 2013, p. 27.
37 Editors, ‘India dismisses NPT as ‘flawed’ treaty’, The Times of India, 23 March 2007.
38 Demetri Sevastopulo, Caroline Daniel, Jo Johnson, ‘India nuclear deal takes Congress by surprise’, Financial Times, 19 July 2005.
39 Yusra Mushtaq, ‘A Blatant Violation Of NPT’, 26 September 2014, Eurasia Review. See also, IAEA, Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, ‘IAEA Topic 2: The Implementation of the NPT for the Non-Supporters of this Treaty’.
40 Government of Australia, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, ‘Australia’s uranium export policy’.
41 John Carlson, ‘Is the Abbott Government abandoning Australia’s nuclear safeguards standards for India?’, The Interpreter, 1 October 2014 (part 1) and (part 2).
42 K. Subrahmanyam, ‘India and the nuclear deal’, The Times of India, 12 December 2005.
43 Crispin Rovere, ‘Australia–India nuclear treaty: a non-proliferation disaster’, Australian Strategic Policy Institute, 14 October 2014.
44 Comprising six open-cut pits and five underground mines, the Carmichael mine will cover an area seven times that of Sydney Harbour. Despite warnings from the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority and UNESCO that this will place it ‘in danger’, plans to dredge and dump about 3 million cubic metres of the Reef into a wetlands sanctuary to make way for port expansions for 480 additional ships to access 330 million tonnes of coal per year from this mega-mine will use 12 billion litres of fresh water per year and will affect the habitat of humpback whales, sea turtles and dugongs. With 130 million tonnes of carbon dioxide produced every year for ninety years, this will cancel out the Queensland Direct Action target of 131 million tonnes of carbon dioxide reduction. Adani Enterprises has a dubious track record including illegal large-scale exports of iron ore at its port and numerous cases of environmental pollution. It has also been a significant supporter of the Bharatiya Janta Party. Deutsche Bank, HSBC, Citi, Morgan Stanley and possible JP Morgan Chase and Goldman Sachs have refused to fund the project while the ‘big four’ Australian banks seem to be giving their approval. India is the third largest producer, consumer and importer of coal in the world and the fourth largest energy consumer in the world. See, Mary McCarthy, ‘Darwin and Adelaide likely export hubs for Queensland uranium’, ABC Rural; Ben Pearson, ‘ Carmichael coal mine impacts will be felt for generations,’ ABC Environment , 28Jul2014, William Rollo, ‘Carmichael Coal and Rail Project: Queensland mine gets Federal Government approval’, ABC News, 29 July 2014; Candace Dunn, ‘India falls back on imported fossil fuels’, Business Spectator, 15 August 2014.
45 ‘Indian activists take on Adani coal mine’, Geelong Advertiser, 9 October 2014; ‘Ramping up against coal’, Beyond Zero Emissions, September – August 2012.
46 In support of the claim for the rapid shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy and energy savings, the United Nations’ Secretary General Ban Ki-moon stated ‘We need to limit global temperature rise within 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. This is what the international community has recognised as the upper limit of safety. Beyond 2 degrees, the consequences will be unpredictable, highly dangerous and perhaps irreversible’. See, United Nations, ‘Secretary-General’s remarks at Climate Leaders Summit’, 11 April 2014. It is estimated that at least two thirds of proven fossil fuel reserves must stay in the ground and that carbon utilities and infrastructure must be developed beyond 2017 as 80 percent of cumulative emissions allowable between 2010 and 2035 are already locked into existing power plants, factories, buildings and services. In addition this will result in significant positive in health effects, job production, biodiversity conservation, energy independence and stronger sovereignty and resilience. Although several countries have moved to end public finance for coal and other fossil fuels, Australia has yet to do so in a significant manner. See WHO – 7 million premature deaths linked to air pollution and Climate Change – IPCC Response Strategies.
47 Editors, ‘A new engagement: The Indo-Australian nuclear deal signals a paradigm shift in the quality of the relationship between the two nations’, The Hindu Business Line, 8 September 2014.
48 Neeta Lal, ‘India’s Nuclear Energy Imperative’, The Diplomat, 8 October 2014.
50 Joby Warrick, ‘Obama and Modi announce agreement on U.S.-India efforts to fight global warming’, Washington Post, 30 September 2014.
51 Government of the United States, The White House, ‘U.S.-India Joint Statement’, 30 September 2014.
52 M. V. Ramana, ‘Indian activists detained for protesting against India-Australia uranium agreement,’ Dianuke, 5 September 2014.
53 While there are conflicting reports, in contrast to studies based on dose estimates in accordance with institutional levels (such as the ICRP), an Indian Doctors for Peace and Development (IDPD) epidemiological study found in 2007 that living within 2.5kms of the mining operations increased rates of illness (2118 households) and was upheld by the Jharkhand High Court in 2007. This was supported by a study in 2004 by Koide Hiroaki who found the level to be 10mSv/y around the mine and over 1 mSv/y in the villages. The UCIL managers have used the As Low As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA) principle to set permissible radiation exposure limits and precautionary measures and have shown disregard for the conditions of indigenous peoples living in the area. See, Shakeel ur Rahman, ‘Study on Health status of Indigenous people around Jadugoda uranium mines in India’, IDPD.
UCIL Chairman Diwakar Acharya denied any correlation and blamed ordinary socio-economic factors (malnutrition). Stephanie March, ‘Australia to sell uranium to India but at what cost to its people?’, ABC 7:30 Report, 3 September 2014; Uranium Corporation of India hopes to get renewal of Jaduguda mine lease soon PTI, 6 October 2014; Rakteem Katakey, Tom Lasseter, ‘India’s Uranium Boss Says Deformed Children May Be ‘Imported’,’Bloomberg, 24 July 2014.
54 Mari Yamaguchi, ‘Sendai reactors vulnerable to eruptions, state-picked volcanologist says’, The Japan Times, 18 October 2014.
55 France, which until recently has drawn roughly three quarters of its energy supply from nuclear power stations, uses 40-50 percent of the nation’s mostly fresh water supply to cool its plants.
56 Germany, for example, prior to the Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011 was heavily reliant on nuclear and fossil fuels. Over the past decade, however, its use of renewable energy mainly from solar and wind, has tripled. In 2013, however, renewable energy accounted for 24 percent of the nation’s total electricity supply. Despite government subsidies of roughly EU 16 billion, the Government claims to have created new businesses worth 40 billion euros per year and created additional employment to 400,000 people. Emily Steward, ABC, 29 October 2014.
57 See for example, Jeremy Rifkin, ‘No nukes!’, Los Angeles Times, 29 September 2006.
58 Nagao Shigeru, ‘Why Japan needs India as a Strategic Power’, Defence and Security Alert, 26 October 2014.
59 Vince Scappatura, ‘The U.S. “Pivot to Asia”, the China Specter and the Australian-American Alliance’, Asia-Pacific Journal, Vol. 12, Issue 36, No. 3, September 9, 2014.
60 Bhattacharjee, S., A. Sasi, ‘Japan wants slice of the nuclear pie, warms up to liability law’, Indian Express, 12 June 2014.
61 Editors, SIPRI Yearbook 2014.
62 Along with the P-5 states, India and Pakistan also continue to develop new systems capable of delivering nuclear weapons and are expanding their capacities to produce fissile material for military purposes. India conducted successful tests of the 5,000-km Agni-V, India’s first ICBM. Along with its shorter-range Prithvi missiles, India’s 2,000-km K-4 SLBM and its Agni-I (700-km), Agni-II (2,000-km) and Agni-III (3,000-km) missiles were tested under Strategic Forces Command in March 2014. It is still to test the 750-km K-15 SLBM in India’s first indigenous nuclear-powered submarine the INS Arihant in sea trials in late 2014. Rajat Pandit, ‘Pakistan surges ahead of India in nuclear stockpile: Report’, The Times of India, 17 June 2014.
64 Pakistan possesses roughly the equivalent nuclear weapons as India, which serves as a cheap deterrent in the face of India’s overwhelming conventional superiority. Nevertheless, Pakistan is developing shorter-range cruise missiles to evade ballistic missile defence and is planning a long-term build-up of its nuclear arsenal and delivery systems, including tactical short-range missiles, as a ‘full spectrum deterrent’. See for example, Tim Craig and Karen DeYoung, ‘Pakistan is eyeing sea-based and short-range nuclear missiles, analysts say’, Washington Post, 21 September 2014; Kyle Mizokami, ‘If Pakistan and India clash: 5 Pakistani weapons of war India should fear’, The National Interest, 24 August 2014; Kyle Mizokami, ‘If Pakistan and India went to war: 5 Indian weapons of war Pakistan should fear’, The National Interest, 16 August 2014; Amin Saikal, ‘Pakistan must de-escalate conflicts with three of its neighbours’, Canberra Times, 4 November 2014.
65 Amin Saikal, ‘Pakistan must de-escalate conflicts with three of its neighbours’, Canberra Times, 4 November 2014.
66 Kageyama Yuri, ‘Japan pro-bomb voices grow louder amid nuke debate’, Associated Press, 31 July 2012.
67 Adam Westlake, ‘Surprisingly Japan declines 16 UN outlawing nuclear weapons’, Japan Daily Press, 23 October 2012.
68 M. Mochizuki, ‘Japan tests the nuclear taboo’, Non-Proliferation Review, vol. 14, no. 2, July 2007.
69 M. Pomper and M. Toki, ‘Time to stop reprocessing in Japan’, Arms Control Today, January/February 2013.
70 Matthew Wald, ‘U.S. Panel shifts focus to reusing nuclear fuel’, New York Times, 23 September 2009.
71 Missile shield deployments are currently in Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, Greenland, Britain, Norway, Japan, South Korea, Australia, Poland, the Czech republic, Turkey, Georgia and potentially in Ukraine.
72 Chester Dawson, ‘Japan shows-off its missile defense system’, Wall Street Journal, 9 November 2012.
73 While Japan may have a powerful missile system integrated with the US, one should not overlook the US-initiated NATO interceptor missile system that incorporated the U.S.–Germany-Italy Medium Extended Air Defense System (MEADS) and NATO’s Active Layered Theatre Ballistic Missile Defence (ALTBMD) program and is being deployed in the ongoing military build-up in Eastern Europe. See for example, ‘SM-3 BMD, in from the sea: EPAA & Aegis Ashore’, Defense Industry Daily, 13 October 2014.
74 Government of the United States, Department of Defense, ‘Nuclear Posture Review Report’, April 2010.
75 K. Lieber and D. Press (2006), ‘US Primacy in Foreign Policy’, Foreign Affairs, March/April, pp. 42–54.
76 Andrew Picone,‘Queenslanders have more reason than ever to be concerned about uranium mining in the sunshine stateMining companies now have more rights than the community in Newman’s Queensland’, SBS News, 1 October 2014.
77 Yusra Mushtaq, ‘A Blatant Violation Of NPT’, Eurasia Review, 26 September 2014.
78 Dave Sweeney, ‘Fukushima: Australia’s Radioactive Rocks And Responsibility’, New Matilda, 29 August 2014. | 2019-04-23T12:36:28Z | https://www.globalresearch.ca/nuclear-proliferation-in-the-australia-india-japan-u-s-nuclear-nexus/5415955 |
Surgery affects people in a variety of ways, but as you begin to emerge from anesthesia, you’re likely to want to alert your nurse to any issues you may have. LASIK eye surgery is done in offices all over the country by experienced eye surgeons and you need to be in a position to discover a great surgeon to work with. It has turned into a popular technique for the intent of correcting all types of eye issues. When you’re considering LASIK eye surgery you have to make certain you have all of the info you want to create an educated decision. When you’re considering LASIK eye surgery you should receive all the facts so as to make an educated choice.
LASIK surgery is merely among the most popular eye surgeries today. LASIK eye surgery has gotten an enormous amount of favorable publicity. It can be less stressful if you are familiar with the process.
Lasik is an outpatient procedure, but your physician may supply you medicine that will allow you to relax. Before you choose whether or not LASIK is best for you, you want to select the opportunity to speak with an eye surgeon about all of the info involved with LASIK. LASIK is almost universally regarded as one of the most significant investments a person can make in their wellness and higher quality of life. Although LASIK is a kind of surgery, it’s done at our center with a minimally invasive technique, resulting in rapid healing, and a high degree of succeeding. LASIK is performed while the person is under local anesthesia in the kind of eye drops and usually takes about ten minutes to complete. Custom made Lasik employs a distinctive scanner to yield an extremely detailed, virtual map of your eye. Customized LASIK It is also called the customized wave front LASIK.
The treatment may expose the man to numerous symptoms. You could also conclude that such treatment isn’t easy to do, not enjoyable and not pleasant. Complications While getting laser treatment seems like the best solution for vision troubles, it is necessary to know it’s not without certain risks. Definition Many people decide to have laser eye therapy, also referred to as refractive surgery, to increase their sight so that they no longer have to wear glasses or contact lenses.
My surgery is now scheduled for the exact first week in September! Rather than relying on Internet reviews when you’re interested in LASIK surgery, use reliable resources to come across surgeons that are qualified to supply you with the highest degree of care. If you’ve heard a good deal about Lasik Singapore vision surgery but are already a small tentative inside taking step one, it’s vital to point out not everybody is going to be suitable to have the surgical procedure. In most instances, the process will take under a quarter hour. You have to enquire about the other laser-assisted procedures too and learn which one would suit the very best for you. One of the absolute most well-known procedures is named Laser Assisted in-situ Keratomileusis or LASIK. To assist you better understand the sorts of laser vision correction procedures readily available today, below are some brief descriptions of every one of the most frequent vision troubles.
Talking with Your Surgeon Prior to the Surgery The surgeon you’re working with should make a bid to go over the whole procedure. You and your refractive surgeon will discuss the treatment options that are correct for you. Your LASIK surgeon can provide you more specific details about your specific risks during your LASIK consultation. The LASIK surgeon utilizes a computer to fix the laser for your precise prescription.
The surgeon is going to have to take more time completing the LASIK surgery procedure to make sure that the optimum eyesight is accomplished. He will then reshape your cornea with the help of the laser. An excellent eye surgeon will also speak to you about possible financing choices. A great eye surgeon will give you references and all the information that you need to create an educated decision about the process and the way you believe you will recover afterward.
Doctors find it impossible to pay to get listed. The physician might also have prescribed few medications and likewise some eye drops. Nonetheless in case you experience bleeding you always need to get an examination form your physician. At your consultation, your physician can tell you all about the surgery and what it is you’re ready to anticipate. Most doctors can offer you with a mild sedative that might be taken before the LASIK surgery commences. Many LASIK doctors offer you free, no-obligation consultations so you may get to understand them and decide if LASIK is best for you. Therefore, it’s crucial that you find the appropriate Los Angeles Lasik doctor.
If you are thinking about Lasik at the current time then now would definitely be a very good time to pay a visit to a laser eye surgery center. LASIK with IntraLase is considerably more costly than LASIK with Microkeratome. Wavefront lasik involves the intralase which basically means the flap is made using a laser rather than a blade. Wavefront LASIK is presently one of the most well-known options as it can increase the truth of laser guided surgery. Lasik is really a surgical procedure whereby the surgeon utilizes laser beams to fix the unevenness of your cornea. LASIK has a rather substantial success rate and luckily complications are astoundingly rare. If you are searching for LASIK in Boston, there are quite a lot of clinics offering many different eye services.
Make sure that you get to understand your surgeon. At exactly the same time, the surgeon ought to be highly skilled in order to use such advanced equipment. So the ideal collection of your surgeon has become the most significant factor in your eye operation. During a pre-operative evaluation, the eye surgeon will provide you with an eye exam used to determine if you’re an excellent candidate for the process. Well, eye surgeons are operating a business enterprise.
Laser surgery is much more popular today and the prices have a tendency to be only a little greater. Laser eye surgery is an amazingly secure and efficient procedure that could get rid of the need to wear glasses or contact lenses. It can be quite pricey, so it pays to do your research to find an affordable and experienced surgeon you can trust with your eyes. It is one of the most advanced procedures performed today to correct vision problems.
In the start of the surgery, your surgeon is going to have you lie back on a reclining chair. The Lasik surgeon will inform you that it’s forbidden to drive your vehicle shortly after the surgery. To conclude, keep in mind that you don’t necessarily wish to employ the least expensive LASIK surgeon out there.
You come back home a few days following the lasik surgery. LASIK eye surgery is very good for men and women who are bored with wearing eye glasses and contacts everyday. Before you are accepted for Lasik eye surgery, your health care provider is going to have to execute several test. Prior to getting LASIK eye surgery, however, you want to understand a few things so that your LASIK experience is a good one. If you wish to try out lasik eye surgery Minneapolis, then it is preferable to look at the reviews online before you choose the surgeon.
Much like any profession, some surgeons are somewhat more skilled than others which includes not just surgical expertise, but in addition diagnostic expertise also. Should your surgeon uses a laser throughout the surgery, the computer is suitably set so the laser will acquire rid of the accurate quantity of corneal tissue. Fully investigate before selecting your surgeon, because it’s also possible that the absolute most expensive surgeon would not be as skilled and professional. So it is recommended to prefer the most experience surgeons It’s also possible that the absolute most experienced surgeon demands more than the above mentioned maximum prices. A great Lasik doctor also continually tests her or his healthcare equipment to make sure they are working correctly. The Lasik eye doctors could also consist of extra costs for brand-new systems they use within the surgery. Now you must visit the lasik eye surgery doctor to see whether you’re a candidate for lasik.
Try to remember, the typical price of LASIK surgery a vary based on your geographical area and the precise provider you select. LASIK eye surgery is performed to correct farsightedness, nearsightedness, in addition to other eye disorders like astigmatism and presbyopia that’s a state that describes the impaired ability to focus because of aging. It can be performed for $1500 at a reasonable eye clinic. It is a minor surgical process that is offered across the world. It is a good choice to enhance your vision. If you’re interested in having Lasik eye surgery, and are an acceptable candidate, you should be in a position to spend money on the procedure.
Since LASIK surgery is a very competitive market you might even be in a position to negotiate your own discount. LASIK eye surgery is among the most popular elective procedures done today. It continues to gain popularity in the US and Canada because it is effective and affordable. Lots of people wish to go for lasik eye surgery since they are tired of wearing glasses, and don’t have enough time for contact lenses.
When you choose the surgery don’t expect to get it done for many weeks. Lasik eye surgery is the most frequently suggested treatment for myopia in the USA. It is among the safest in the world. Denver LASIK Eye Surgery isn’t a new practice.
With corrective vision surgery, regardless of what the results of the surgery is, is just what you are likely to live with. LASIK surgery can at times under-correct or over-correct the issue of myopia or, rarely, can help it become worse. The Lasik eye surgery was initially executed in 1991 in the usa and since that time it has come to be remarkably popular.
From time to time, surgery might need to be redone in order to supply additional corrections. Laser surgery is for men and women who cannot tolerate medications. Additionally, you might have to delay having surgery if you’re pregnant or are nursing. You wouldn’t would like to find out that you cannot see after the surgery, as it would defeat its own intent. One other great thing about Lasik surgery is that it’s an outpatient procedure. Deciding whether you would like to undergo Lasik eye surgery is a really important choice.
You don’t need to have LASIK surgery and consequently, you should have a very in depth discussion with your ophthalmologist before you opt to have the procedure. The very first step to carry out before selecting a LASIK surgery is to research intensively on the benefits and disadvantages of the process. It will only provide a temporarily improved vision. It has a very high success rate. If you have made the decision to undergo a LASIK surgery, the next step to take into account is choosing the correct surgery centre to ensure the operation is going to be carried out smoothly.
Once you’ve had your LASIK surgery, you will possibly wish to recommence your regular activities almost instantly, but you should be cautious. You always ought to remind yourself that Lasik surgery is intended to aid in improving your vision. LASIK surgery may be used for those with mild, moderate or severe myopia. Of the different forms of refractive surgery, it is probably the most popular. It is the most well-liked method for correcting visualization difficulties caused by refractive error, in which the eyes fail to focus light appropriately. When you choose to have Lasik surgery, the following thing you need to consider is choosing the ideal Lasik surgery clinic. It’s not cheap to get Lasik eye surgery, but another part is comparatively cheap for something which may have a dramatic influence on their everyday lives.
No surgery, no matter how common or simple, is absolutely free from risk. In some instances, refractive surgery may be required. Plastic surgery cares for the reconstructive aspect whereas cosmetic surgery addresses the aesthetic aspect. It has become increasingly popular not only among celebrities, but also among the average people who are either looking for treatment that can halt the signs of aging or can help you get that flat belly that you always wanted. It’s also advisable to keep in mind that surgery isn’t risk-free. Eye surgery may be an alarming prospect. LASIK eye surgery isn’t an exception.
Because of the unobstructed view of the cornea, surgeons are somewhat more comfortable in achieving the degree of customization they want which results in better vision. Some surgeons might mislead you with claims that they’ve been doing such surgery for at least 15 decades. You have the ability to pick a LASIK surgeon by adopting some steps like ascertaining credentials. You need to talk to your Lasik eye surgeon to understand the length of time your recovery time will be. There are lots of lasik eye surgeons you can select from. For certain, you will regret later if you select an incompetent Denver Lasik Eye Surgeon.
The expense of a strabismus surgery would vary based on many factors. You would need to understand that LASIK surgery costs is nothing like purchasing a physical item at a department shop. The price of LASIK will change from surgeon to surgeon too. Fortunately, LASIK costs in the last two years have stabilized somewhat, but the complete out-of-pocket cost still varies dependent on what treatment you’ve done.
If you were told LASIK is your only option you may require another opinion. By speaking to your health care provider and making certain you’re qualified for LASIK, you’ll have a greater possibility of getting the best outcomes. Lasik, nevertheless, is generally an extremely safe procedure. Lasik is definitely the most preferred corrective eye surgery for quite a few, and so it’s critical that you decide on an eye surgeon with a good deal of expertise and who’s using the very best medical equipment available. LASIK is the simplest and safest approach to knock out your bulky spectacles. LASIK (laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis) is among the most popular and powerful elective medical procedures out there. Even the very best lasik md desires some simple details about the patient’s medical history so as to carry out the surgery properly.
If your physician won’t tell you, find a different one. After the process is done most individuals are advised by their doctors to return to work three days later. The physician will ask the patient to lie back on the operating table and set the eye beneath the laser. Following your exam, the physician or his staff can help you choose frames. Some doctors will need you to wear an eye patch over the eye that had surgery although others will just prescribe a great deal of rest. Now if you’re not a physician or nurse or have had problems with your elbows you might not understand what your ulnar nerve is.
Bear in mind, you’ll need to use a doctor in your network if you wish to be covered. Your doctor needs to order several tests to find out whether your gallstones are symptomatic (causing symptoms) ahead of making a recommendation for surgery. To completely eliminate risks, you will need to locate a dependable doctor for the operation and you want to do constant care of your eyes after the process is completed.
Exactly like with any sort of medical procedure there are things to think about before undergoing any form of surgery and LASIK is just the same. Cataract surgery is a sort of corrective eye surgery, which is utilised to clear the vision of someone. Furthermore, the secondary surgery isn’t a guarantee that you will reach your preferred appearance. Non invasive surgery is performed by employing laser beams to correct the issue. Lastly, you might demand a revision surgery with a different surgeon if your initial surgery ends in a lopsided, unnatural or simply unflattering appearance.
Should you do an extremely thorough pre surgery consolation with your surgeon you should have the ability to rule out any potential risk factors that would turn you into a terrible candidate for LASIK eye surgery. Also, on rare occasions special surgery may be done in order to replace the fluid within the eye. Corrective eye surgery might not be a big surgery that expects you to stay in the hospital, but you ought to plan on taking at the very least a day off of work to let your eye or eyes recover. Conclusion While it may seem to be the miracle you’re looking for, it’s important to be able to make an informed decision on both the best option and the potential temporary (or permanent) side-effects. There are various sorts of laser eye surgery and so you need to speak to your eye doctor to discuss what is appropriate for you as well as your ailment. Simply take a while and research the LASIK center you are thinking about for laser eye surgery. If you’re considering having laser eye surgery to correct your vision, you will need to likewise be conscious of all of the potential side effects and outcomes connected with the surgery.
As to whether you are appropriate for LASIK surgery, leave this to your physician. There are many sorts of Lasik surgery too. It is nothing new and has been around for quite some time now. You may also learn what kind of LASIK surgery is going to be performed since there are a number of distinct techniques currently being utilized to enhance the eyes of folks wanting laser surgery.
There are things that you’ll need to get before you leave for your surgery so that they are prepared for you once you come home. Be certain to research a bit before you’ve got your surgery, so you can better understand the procedure. Discount surgery is like a discount parachute. Other people aren’t wild about surgery just because of how the procedure scares them. If you are thinking about vision correction surgery, you should talk to your ophthalmologist to find out whether the surgery is best for you. Laser vision correction surgery also works best for those who fear blood as a result of an important procedure. Thus, a laser vision correction surgery stipulates the fastest approach to your eyes’ healing procedure.
1 quick trick is to go for LASIK, and you’ll be able to go without bifocals then. LASIK is different for everybody. LASIK, on the flip side, does so. A lot of people often wonder if Raleigh LASIK is perfect for them.
Some people decide to have one eye operated on at one time, although other men and women prefer to find both eyes done during the identical appointment. To put it differently, if your eye is damaged in a car crash and you require the assistance of an eye doctor, it’ll be covered. A vital part of the eye is the cornea. Just one eye will be treated at a moment. The other eye needs to be treated with another Lasik after a couple of days.
LASIK can be a good alternative for many athletes and non-athletes too. however, it needs to be an informed option, Dr. Everett states. Because LASIK is performed on the cornea, we will perform measurements to make sure your cornea is healthy, the corneal surface is absolutely free from irregularities, and confirm that there is sufficient corneal tissue readily available to take care of your prescription. LASIK has evolved in the past several decades, Dr. Everett states. All lasers LASIK reduces the danger of particular complications caused because of the use of microkeratome.
LASIK has evolved in the past several years, Dr. Everett states. LASIK is almost universally regarded as one of the most significant investments a person can make in their wellness and higher quality of life. For quite a while, LASIK is getting more complex as it can certainly now accommodate many kinds of patients with different eye issues and requirements. LASIK demands the invention of a lamellar flap by microkeratome. LASIK One of the most frequent procedure to fix the vision is LASIK.
At the end, you will want to learn how to decide on the ideal procedure for you. Nevertheless, don’t be worried if you’re not acceptable for the LASIK procedure. Deciding to have vision correction procedures like LASIK and PRK is a substantial step. Deciding to get vision correction procedures like LASIK and PRK is a huge step.
Our lasik eye surgery group of doctors are the best experts to provide a thorough assessment and a tailor a treatment plan to suit your requirements. Our lasik eye surgery team are definitely the most skilled specialists to evaluate your eyesight and provide a prescribed therapy. Our lasik eye surgery group and our staff are top notch experts to rate your vision and supply a treatment protocol.
Accuracy There are a few of the best doctors who provide the Lasik treatments to their patients so they can attain an excellent and far better vision. There are a few of the best doctors who provide the Lasik treatments to their patients so they can reach a good and much better vision. Your Midwest Eye Consultants doctor together with your eyewear consultant will also suggest a high definition lens that will supply you with the finest visual clarity.
Today if you’re interested in vision correction surgery you can decide on a bladeless LASIK. Laser eye surgery is the most recent innovation in eye surgery therapy. It Now is dedicated to providing the best vision correction expertise and customer care in Brooklyn Park. Though Lasik treatment may sound risky, with the newest technology used at our facility, our group of professionals are ready to supply a safe surgery to ensure no harmful side effects could impact your vision. Not only does it restore your vision to the fullest, it can also prevent you from getting the constant headaches that you have been getting for which you have started to use spectacles. There are some who opt for the LASIK treatment for receiving their vision.
The most critical part of LASIK surgery is a great preoperative evaluation. It is performed on approximately one million eyes every year in the world and it is no different than any other surgery, but its drawbacks may be a little different than others. It is no different than any other surgery, but its drawbacks may be a little different than others. Lasik Laser Eye Surgery has caused a good deal of hope andexcitement to a lot of men and women. Lasik surgery treatment Laser eye surgeries in Los Angeles are commonly utilised to take care of shorts and close to sightedness along with astigmatism.
The entire surgery is completed in one step utilizing single laser, thereby, taking only few seconds to complete the surgery. Additional surgery or’ enhancement’ may be asked to take pleasure in the most effective possible outcome of a LASIK. For Femto-lasik surgery that is additionally a bladeless surgery, we use the exact same Visumax machine and a different type of software for producing femto lasik flap. When it has to do with corrective vision eye surgery, there are many choices to select from.
As soon as you have located a surgeon you’re interested in contacting from our directory of LASIK and cataract surgeons, we welcome you to critique the surgeon’s profile and compare their qualifications with different doctors you’re contemplating. Your surgeon will work with you to help determine when you are able to go back to your sport whilst ensuring the very best possible outcome. Surgeons generally advise that the very best alternative for eye surgery is Lasik. With The Blend Zone, your surgeon can ablate the surface that is equivalent to your pupil size in dim light, reducing the chance of post-surgery vision difficulties. You want the very best surgeon you’ll be able to find, the most innovative equipment available and a team you may trust. Very best lasik surgeons have struggled to consider lasik surgery procedure which is not just bladeless but flapless. Lasik eye surgeons in Los Angeles usually elect for the procedure as it’s quick together with safe for everybody.
If you’re contemplating LASIK surgery, among the most crucial points to think about is the very best approach to come across the perfect LASIK surgeon. LASIK surgery is just one of the most frequent forms for vision correction available today. Lasik Laser Eye Surgery has caused a great deal of hope andexcitement to numerous women and men.
The surgery shouldn’t be painful, but there’s a little smell of burning during using the laser, which can allow it to be an unpleasant experience for the individual. All surgeries have their advantages and disadvantages, and Lasik eye surgery is the same. When you opt to have Lasik surgery, the following thing you need to consider is choosing the very best Lasik surgery clinic. Now, Lasik eye surgery is extremely common. It is a relatively new ocular procedure designed specifically for people who are nearsighted. It is a very complex operation involving the most delicate part of the eye, the cornea.
Much like any profession, some surgeons are somewhat more skilled than others which includes not just surgical expertise, but in addition diagnostic expertise also. They might mislead you with claims that they have been doing such surgery for more than 15 years. Third, to discover certified and expert eye surgeon is critically vital for Lasik eye surgery. When you have chosen the eye surgeon you will work with it’s important to get a very long conversation about just what the procedure will consist of, which means you understand just what to expect prior to, during and following the procedure. You must discover an expert eye surgeon, with a superior experience and success rate in LASIK surgery.
Surgery is done at Umhlanga. Furthermore, the surgery isn’t fit for every individual. Over three million cataract surgeries are finished in the US itself. Cataract surgery is just one of the most regularly done surgical procedures in the global world of health science. Cataract eye surgery isn’t an exception.
When you’re considering LASIK you will want to speak to your present eye doctor to learn if you’re an excellent candidate and receive a referral to an eye surgeon. In years past the very first step in LASIK consisted of developing a flap in the cornea working with a metallic blade (microkeratome). For example, Wavefront LASIK is quite costly. LASIK has a rather large success rate and luckily complications are astoundingly rare. The term Lasik implies using laser rays underneath the corneal flap to enhance the form of the cornea in order to correct defects in eyesight.
When you’re considering LASIK for your vision correction requirements, you ought to take the opportunity to find a LASIK evaluation to make certain you are a superb candidate for the process. Lasik can be a complicated procedure based on the level of your vision impairment, but always a procedure that may be accomplished. People today consider LASIK for an assortment of explanations.
What Is So Fascinating About Lasik Eye Surgery Reviews?
Laser surgery is the most commonly used methods among them. Laser eye surgery is an amazingly secure and efficient procedure that could get rid of the need to wear glasses or contact lenses. In case you’re contemplating undergoing laser eye surgery, here’s a rundown on the fundamental facts that you want to know prior to deciding to have one. Laser eye surgery is easily the most successful type of eye corrective surgery. It truly is one of the wonders of modern medicine. When you’re planning to undergo laser eye surgery, ensure you have selected the proper surgeon.
The surgeon will ask an assortment of questions regarding the health care history of the individual. When you satisfy the eye surgeon personally, you should ask some questions in order to find a notion about his expertise in refractive surgery. You may also speak with your eye surgeon about the financing choices available so that you don’t need to be concerned about the total price tag of the process.
Laser therapy and plastic surgery is able to help you remove them permanently. If you are searching for a treatment for pink eye, we’ve got a list of the greatest treatments. Natural treatment for pink eye may also be used. Plan A Visit To Your Surgeon In order to choose whether eye laser treatment is the perfect selection for you the first thing which you’ve got to do is to seek the advice of your surgeon. Immediately after surgery patients are usually provided with antibiotic eye medication and lubricating eye drops to be utilized in these days, and might also have to put on a protective eye patch.
In the majority of cases, it’s much better to finance or put off the procedure until the money may be procured for greater technology and attention instead of settle for cheaper inferior technology or level of service. Additionally, there are other distinct kinds of laser-based procedures like CK, LASEK, and PRK. Nowadays, it’s not unusual to hear people are choosing surgical procedures for correcting various vision difficulties. By now it must be apparent that all LASIK procedures and surgeons aren’t equal. LASIK procedure is most appropriate for astigmatism, nearsighted, farsighted and several different difficulties. Procedure of Laser Eye Surgery Laser eye surgery, also called blade-free LASIK, is a surgery which uses excimer laser to fix the vision of someone. Remember that LASIK isn’t always the ideal procedure for everybody.
You should make certain the surgeon is well qualified if you would like to get the ideal eye doctor. To provide you with a prosperous lasik surgery outcome, you must pick the best surgeon that will help you achieve better and clearer eyesight. Bear in mind you should also be searching for the very best LASIK surgeons in your region. Even in the event that you can’t appear to get any of the greatest Lasik surgeons around, there are directories accessible to aid you in your search. When you’re searching for the ideal Lasik surgeons to help improve and fix your vision, it seems sensible you don’t wish to compromise. Tell your optometrist or ophthalmologist that you wish to understand who the ideal lasik surgeons. If you’re looking for the very best LASIK surgeons in Lee County, think about the skilled physicians at Elmquist Eye Group who are qualified to offer you the highest degree of care.
LASIK surgery has gotten highly popular over the previous 5-10 decades. Finding the ideal Lasik doctor is essential in deciding where and when to have the surgery. Picking A Surgeon You should select a surgeon that specializes in refractive correction if you wish to have laser eye surgery. Although it may appear simple, in addition, it requires a surgeon with amazing expertise in lasik procedure since there is no room for any minor error.
If you’re thinking about LASIK surgery, among the main facts to think about is the way to come across the perfect LASIK surgeon. Lasik Surgery is among the most recent and most advance vision treatments, available in the industry today. It is just one of the most well-known procedures out there today. If it comes to LASIK eye surgery, there aren’t any right answers.
Lasik surgery was designed within IBM. It is considered an elective surgery and is one of the most common eye surgery procedures performed because it is quick, simple, and affordable with amazing results. Only for instance, it might not be able to give to perfect vision but it will definitely provide you a better one. Lasik eye surgery is now a regular procedure that huge quantities of people have already undergone. If you’re looking for a capable Lasik eye surgery in Rochester.
Eye surgery may be an alarming prospect. There is going to be many more fees and extras you will need if you would like the ideal eye surgery. Laser eye surgery is not appropriate for everybody and there are likewise some non laser vision correction choices available.
You’ve decided you are prepared to have LASIK. Itas important to consult with your ophthalmologist in depth to learn whether LASIK or any other refractive procedure is most suitable for you. LASIK can be a good choice for many athletes and non-athletes too. Driving at night might be an issue for any number of those who get LASIK. LASIK has grown into one of the most popular elective surgery procedures in the States. LASIK, surgery to reduce or eliminate the demand for eye glasses, has become quite popular over the previous 5-10 decades.
The usefulness of advertising for the role of picking a surgeon is restricted, however. Eye surgeons that are affiliated with teaching hospitals generally stay current on all the most recent procedures and breakthroughs in their field, instead of private practice eye doctors who might see a great deal of clients but don’t keep on top of the greatest new procedures. When you satisfy the eye surgeon personally, you should ask some questions in order to find a notion about his expertise in refractive surgery. If you are searching for a LASIK surgeon, the very best eye doctor is a person who has performed several thousand eye operations already. To begin with, the LASIK surgeon will produce a flap from the cornea. The best method to discover the perfect Boulder lasik surgeon for you is to visit and speak to lots of eye surgeons and after that go for the best one. There are a number of Boulder lasik surgeons which will flood you with a great deal of information during and following the operation.
Our surgeons have other selections like PRK as a replacement for correcting your vision. You shouldn’t feel that if you consulted a surgeon, you’re obligated to find the expert services of that surgeon. A superb surgeon will have further understanding of the most up-to-date and advanced technology is normally the ideal choice for you to think about. In the modern Internet-centric world, locating a very good surgeon has turned into much easier. Following are a couple of aspects to consider before selecting a superior refractive surgeon. You’re fortunate to get many great surgeons in San Antonio so you’re seeking the ideal LASIK surgeon with the very best value.
Unfortunately, not everybody is a candidate for Lasik. Speak to Your Ophthalmologist About LASIK You might be a candidate for LASIK if you’ve got good general health and don’t have any eye diseases. If you’re curious in the event that you will earn a fantastic LASIK candidate, there are a few considerations which should weigh into your choice. Typically, if all the following apply to you, you ought to be a very good candidate for LASIK. Suitable LASIK candidates need to have a prescription that has remained stable for more or less a year. Keep reading to see whether you’re a possible candidate for LASIK surgery.
If you’re a candidate, he can coordinate with surgeons in the region to ensure your eyes are taken care of so you may have a prosperous outcome that satisfies your expectations. It is critical that you discern whether you’re a possible candidate for LASIK surgery or not. What’s more, potential candidates have to be well educated about the advantages and dangers of the procedure and have realistic expectations about the possible outcome. Ask your surgeon to check out when you’re a possible candidate for monovision.
Lasik surgery isn’t as complicated as many folks think. If you aren’t qualified for LASIK surgery, our surgeons can assist you in finding an alternate procedure that’s ideal for your personal needs. LASIK surgery is accustomed to the treat refractive errors brought on by a misshapen cornea. Lasik eye surgery has been invented in many forms. It can be a very rewarding procedure, but is not an optimal solution for everyone. Now it can be performed within a span of a few minutes with help of laser. It can put a quick end to all that.
The surgery is most suitable for healthy patients that are at least 18 decades old. Before it can take place, potential candidates need to undergo various tests to determine lasik surgery compatibility. There are several suitable alternative eye surgeries available for patients of all of the needs.
If you’re considering LASIK, you can wonder if you’re a candidate for the process. If you’re not a candidate for LASIK, you’ve got many different choices. Don’t forget that even if you’re not a candidate for LASIK, there’s another procedure like PRK, which can help treat your refractive errors and supply you with the vision you’ve always desired.
As one of the quickest and best vision correction treatments currently available, LASIK is now an extremely popular alternative for people trying to correct refractive errors like nearsightedness, farsightedness, and astigmatism. LASIK provides an exciting chance for folks who depend on glasses or contact lenses to better their vision. LASIK has come to be the alternative of choice for more than two million eyes each year. If you’re prepared to take the next step and figure out if LASIK is best for you, first, we have to determine your candidacy.
LASIK can be accomplished with monovision. LASIK has turned out to be a secure and efficient procedure. LASIK is a fine-tuned procedure which has been utilized for more than 20 decades now. LASIK can be a risky operation. LASIK is a delicate procedure and just a seasoned ophthalmologist can figure out if you’re a perfect candidate for LASIK, dependent on your general wellbeing, the status of your eyes and your distinct condition. LASIK has turned out to be a secure and efficient procedure for clearer vision. LASIK employs an instrument commonly referred to as a micokeratome.
LASIK is a health procedure. Additionally, LASIK can take care of a greater array of vision errors. Before LASIK is performed you will have to undergo a string of diagnostic tests to establish the stability of your vision.
Lasik can help people with bad vision. Lasik is the greatest thing in their opinion. In the same way, LASIK isn’t advised for extreme farsightedness, since the form of the eye makes it hard to correct. While LASIK is easily the most popular kind of laser eye surgery, it isn’t for everybody. Then LASIK just could be the thing for you. Although Lasik is among the simplest surgeries in medicine, patients ought to know of its expectations before undergoing the surgery.
Make certain to ask your doctor all questions concerning the surgery if you’re thinking about moving toward the next step. Cataract surgery is just one of safest and most prosperous surgeries that may be done. It’s essential to be conscious that the surgery isn’t a guarantee of perfect vision, and a few patients may require extra surgery to further increase their vision. In truth, it’s the most frequently selected vision correction surgery available.
Consult a TLC-affiliated eye doctor for a completely free LASIK consultation to decide on if you’re a LASIK candidate. If you’ve been told that you’re not a candidate for LASIK, we welcome you to come in for a totally free VIP exam. To schedule a complimentary consultation to decide whether you’re a suitable candidate for LASIK, please contact Laser Eye Center. Pay a visit to your eye doctor for a comprehensive consultation to find out when you’re a perfect LASIK candidate. Not everybody is a great candidate for LASIK. It is possible to learn more about whether you’re a very good LASIK candidate in a consultation at our Toronto practice.
In the event you decided to have the LASIK surgery, you must learn if you’re a LASIK candidate in a visit to an ophthalmologist. LASIK surgery is accustomed to the treat refractive errors due to a misshapen cornea. LASIK eye surgery contains 3 steps. It has been performed on more than one million of people in the world. It may dramatically improve your life and the way you see it.
You’re not a great candidate when you have degenerative or autoimmune diseases, if you’re pregnant or nursing, or when you own a condition that deters or slows healing. A lot of people are regarded as good LASIK candidate, but some people don’t meet the criteria. 1 thing you ought to be conscious of is only a skilled ophthalmologist can tell you when you’re even an excellent candidate for Lasik surgery. Keep reading to see whether you’re a prospective candidate for LASIK surgery. It is very important that you discern whether you’re a prospective candidate for LASIK surgery or not. Also a perfect candidate has to be a quick healer and don’t have any disease that may impact wound healing like lupus, rheumatoid arthritis and HIV. Ask your surgeon to check out when you’re a possible candidate for monovision.
Just like with any surgical procedure, however, it’s important to make certain that LASIK is the proper fit for your distinctive vision requirements. Lasik is the best thing in their opinion. Then LASIK just may be the thing for you. Because LASIK isn’t right for everybody, we screen potential candidates very carefully to guarantee they meet the correct qualifications. You also can’t get LASIK should you have dry eye syndrome, since the surgery can help it become worse. Over 30 million procedures are performed worldwide, and increasing numbers of people are considering LASIK everyday!
Lasik Candidate – Is it a Scam?
Speak to your LASIK surgeon to learn if you’re able to get LASIK at your present age. LASIK has been shown to have long lasting benefits, with a high level of safety. Before LASIK is performed you will have to undergo a string of diagnostic tests to figure out the stability of your vision. LASIK is a health procedure. LASIK is not advised for everyone that has a systemic wellness problem or an autoimmune disorder, which can impact the healing process after LASIK. While LASIK might not be a possibility for everybody, there are still plenty of means to increase your vision! Customized LASIK is intended to treat both lower order abnormalities such as far sightedness and astigmatism in addition to higher order abnormalities that can result in blurriness, halos, and other kinds of vision troubles.
Experience matters in regards to performing LASIK. At present, LASIK is among the most frequently performed healthcare procedures in the nation, and it has a fantastic record of succeeding. While LASIK has become the most popular kind of laser eye surgery, it isn’t for everybody. While Custom LASIK is utilized to take care of an extensive variety of refractive errors, not everybody is going to be a perfect Custom LASIK candidate.
LASIK enables people to perform the majority of their everyday tasks without corrective lenses. LASIK takes around 15 minutes to finish, with minimum discomfort, and yields incredible outcomes. For obvious reasons LASIK has many advantages over the conventional prescription glasses and contact lenses to repair your eyesight. The only means to decide if LASIK is best for you is to come in and go over your choices with our LASIK Optometrist. LASIK is the most frequent eye procedure, and is thought to be among the safest elective procedures in modern medication. In the same way, LASIK isn’t suggested for extreme farsightedness, since the form of the eye makes it hard to correct. Before Custom LASIK is performed you will have to undergo a set of diagnostic tests to ascertain the stability of your vision.
Deciding on A Surgeon You ought to choose a surgeon that specializes in refractive correction if you would like to have laser eye surgery. The best surgeons will have the newest technology, a pleasant staff, and great bedside manner. Even in the event you can’t appear to find any of the ideal Lasik surgeons around, there are directories accessible to aid you in your search. If you’re searching for the best LASIK surgeons in Lee County, consider the skilled physicians at Elmquist Eye Group who are qualified to provide you with the maximum level of care.
Surgeons should be prepared to analyze the facts of your procedure and answer any questions which you may have. Your surgeon and your principal care physician may need to consult with one another as a way to guarantee you’re fine for LASIK. Some surgeons might mislead you with claims which they have been doing such surgery for over 15 decades. Picking out the ideal surgeon can be done through an assortment of processes. Most surgeons acknowledge that the main security issues in laser vision correction are associated by means of the mechanical device used to create the corneal flap. Even in case you can’t seem to acquire any of the best Lasik surgeons around, there are directories accessible to assist you in your search. There are a great deal of other great LASIK surgeons in the country.
You should make certain the surgeon is well qualified if you would like to locate the ideal eye doctor. You prefer to go for an eye surgeon who focuses on safety and the proper upkeep of the person. The eye surgeon will assess the form and thickness of your cornea, refractive errors, pupil dimensions and your general general health to find out if you’re candidate for LASIK. It’s very simple nowadays once you receive the best Lasik eye surgeons. If you’re looking for a LASIK surgeon, the very best eye doctor is a person who has performed several thousand eye operations already. Lasik eye surgeons in Los Angeles usually elect for the procedure as it’s quick in addition to safe for everybody.
In case you have, and you still think it’s theright action to do, then the upcoming logical step is tostart searching for a LASIK surgeon. When you’re searching for a Lasik Surgeon in Beverly Hills, you’ve got a great deal of distinct options. The LASIK surgeon employs a computer to fix the laser for your particular prescription. Lasik San Diego surgeons will explain the particulars of the process on your very first visit.
Surgeons should be ready to examine the facts of your procedure and answer any questions that you can have. A seasoned surgeon might be more expensive, but sure is well worth it. You shall always go for the more experienced Lasik eye surgeon as compared to a different surgeon.
When you choose to have Lasik surgery, the following thing you need to consider is choosing the ideal Lasik surgery clinic. Lasik Surgery is the most frequent term employed for the process. Lasik eyes surgery shows affect inside a few minutes alone and is utilised to treat near sightedness in addition to farsightedness.
Lasik is thought to be a cosmetic or elective surgery so might not be addressed by the insurance policy policy policy company. Lasik is thought to be a cosmetic or elective surgery so might not be covered by the insurance policy policy company. LASIK has been a benefit for the bulk of individuals trying to find a safe, convenient approach to make the most of their vision. The number of LASIK varies. Call to learn how much you are able to save on LASIK with one of the very best rated LASIK surgeons on earth! If you would like to find out more about our Orange County LASIK results, we are going to be delighted to provide them to you.
Lasik is a relatively easy and quick procedure. LASIK is a kind of refractive eye surgery. Lasik is considered to be a cosmetic or elective surgery so might not be covered by the insurance policy policy company. Lasik is a very skilled procedure and demands an extremely skilled Lasik Surgery doctor. If you’re thinking about getting LASIK or PRK, here is what you have to know.
LASIK is a surgical procedure, it’s essential to follow together with instructions from your wellbeing care provider. LASIK is almost universally regarded among the most vital investments an individual can make in their wellness and greater quality of life. Lasik is an outpatient procedure, but your doctor may supply you medicine to help you relax. If you’re contemplating getting LASIK or PRK, here’s what you need to find out. | 2019-04-20T04:18:00Z | https://www.eyesr.us/2018/07/page/2/ |
We’ve been to Bar La Grassa a handful of times. It is one of my favorite places to go out to share a special meal. Why? I am universally pleased by fresh pasta and that, combined with Bar La Grassa’s bustling atmosphere makes for an enjoyable dining experience.
When it is just the two of us, we usually choose to sit side-by-side at the long counter that separates the kitchen’s front line from the central dining room. An open-kitchen in a nice restaurant is no longer uncommon, but spending the meal perched directly at eye-level with the kitchen staff in the midst of busy preparation makes for a fascinating, voyeuristic experience for a diner who is interested in the process behind the product.
To me, the front-row vantage point is a marvel. There is constant, well-choreographed motion. Each person moves though the rhythms of their kitchen duties with the calm agility that comes from practice and repetition.
This kitchen’s output is impressively efficient and quite tasty. Bjorn has occasionally ventured into somewhat adventurous territory, ordering the braised rabbit and sweetbreads that make their way on to the menu. Tonight, we decided to share a few small plates, so he stuck to the meat-free options.
Everyone and their brother crows from the rooftops over the Lobster and Soft Egg Bruschetta at Bar La Grassa. I have no doubt that its is amazing. I’ve found that the other somewhat uniquely topped bruschettas are also fun to try. We sampled the Gorgonzola Picante Bruschetta with Peperonata. The thick slices of bread, grilled before our very eyes are rustic and ample, and the slight char is lovely. For once, a bruschetta that has enough bread to hold its toppings! It’s the little things in life, isn’t’ it?
Our second pasta selection, from the “filled pastas” category on the menu was the Mushroom and Tallegio Agnolotti. We both liked this dish though by the end, I thought the mushrooms were over-salted. The wrapped-candy-shaped Agnolotti were tender and filled with a perfectly lovely Tallegio. This was Bjorn’s favorite dish of the meal.
One of the feats Bar La Grassa has somehow managed to accomplish is to be at once swanky and unpretentious. To me, this is the perfect combination of characteristics for a restaurant in the Minnie Apple, the hip-n-homey heart of the Midwest. The the restaurant has the typical “see and be seen” vibe of an upscale restaurant yet the hosts are welcoming and always find us a place even when the median fashion sense of the restaurant’s clientele eclipses ours. I have, in fact, seen and said a quick “hello” to Minneapolis food personality, Andrew Zimmern during a previous visit with Bjorn and my mother. In contrast to the overall swankiness, I’ve dined next to a couple decked out in Minnesota Golden Gopher gear from head to toe. The highfalutin to homespun contrast also comes through in the restaurants serving ware. If you are looking at your plate, you might think you are dining in the humble kitchen of an Italian Grandmother rather than the spacious dining room of Isaac Becker, a James Beard Award-winning chef. All the food comes out on heavy, standard-issue restaurantware plates with all varieties of patterns. There is also the pleasant contrast between the kitchen’s credentials to price. The head chef and the restaurant have received plenty of accolades, however, it is possible to have an appetizer, a few small plates and a few glasses of wine or beer and dessert, and still spend under one hundred bucks. And to leave totally satisfied.
We don’t often order dessert, but because of sharing small plates, we still had room. We selected the luscious, Dark Chocolate Pot de Crème with a Hazelnut Nougatine which was a magnificent finish to our meal. I love the fact that it was served in a little canning jar. I stole this idea from Wise Acre Eatery and used it all summer to serve individual portions of salad and condiments. I loved the Pot de Crème. What a treat.
We have found that Bar La Grassa consistently offers a solid Italian dining experience. Bar La Grassa’s execution and noble parentage thoughtfully contrasts with its “room at the counter” welcome and good value. Given the opportunity to gawk into a high-end kitchen while dining from a menu curated by a James Beard award-winning chef, will we go back? You betcha.
*For the record, I used my phone without flash to capture these quick shots, so they are a little lower in quality, but I’m not going to be that person who totally irritates her dinner date and other guest by noticeably photographing her meal. But really, who isn’t documenting absolutely everything these days? If Adam Roberts from Amateur Gourmet does it, why can’t I?
I’m crazy about growing-my-own-everything in my backyard and making bread, pasta, cheese and beer from scratch. I follow approximately 40 food blogs [and counting…], I’ve spoken to Anthony Bordain* and I’ve introduced myself to Andrew Zimmern. Cookbooks by Brenda Langton, Sophie Dahl and Ina Garden frequently show up on my cookbook stand. Even so, this post could do away with any possibility of earning recipe-developer cred or gaining respect as a highfalutin foodie. I’m sharing a recipe that is based on my favorite dish at Noodles and Company. Noodles and Co.?! Yes. So what? I did my best rendition of Noodles and Company Pesto Cavatappi and it was totally delish.
To make this dish, I started by roasting tomatoes and making a batch of basil pesto. These are two steps that you can complete in advance since you can store both pesto and roasted tomatoes covered in olive oil in the fridge for a few days for use in multiple dishes. If you roasted a bunch of tomatoes based on the recipe I posted last week, this dish is an excellent way to use the leftovers. Please refer to my method for making wonderful Basil Pesto and Roasted Tomatoes recipes in the linked posts. It takes an hour to roast tomatoes, so if you haven’t done that in advance, start there first. FYI, Noodles and Co. doesn’t use roasted tomatoes, so roasting the tomatoes is optional for this recipe. I think roasting the tomatoes is worth the effort. Shriveled, roasted tomatoes make their presence known in the dish with a sweet, concentrated tomato flavor. They also contain less liquid to dilute the basil-y, Parmesan cheese-y, garlic-y goodness of the pesto. If you’d rather, you can simply add grape tomatoes to the sauté pan (more on that in a minute), and sauté the ripe red beauties until they are softened and bursting, and adjust the amount of pasta water you use to thin the pesto to avoid having a runny sauce. Pesto Cavatappi in the style of Noodles and Company — 1 hour total time, 30 minutes active time, serves 4 — easily doubled.
Once you have made basil pesto and roasted tomatoes, the recipe is very simple and comes together quickly. Cook half a box of curly cavatappi noodles in salted water according to the package directions to a little less than done. At the same time, mince and sauté two cloves of garlic and 8 ounces of sliced, clean, button or cremini mushrooms in a little olive oil. If you are not using roasted tomatoes, you can add a few handfuls of grape tomatoes during this step. I think a minced, sautéed shallot would also fit the flavor profile. Once the veggies are mostly cooked, you can add a splash of white wine to the hot pan to develop flavor and get all of the good cooked bits off the pan–I didn’t bother with this, even though the official Noodles and Co. Cavatappi claims to contain white wine. Its presence or absence is not noteworthy. When the noodles are nearly cooked, drain them, reserving some pasta water. Next, toss the noodles, pesto and sautéed veggies together in the sauté pan, and stir gently. If you are using roasted tomatoes, they should be added at this point. I also added two big handfuls of baby spinach, which is not in the Noodles version of this dish, but is a tasty, healthful addition to this meal. I added a little of the pasta water to thin the pesto and to allow the Parmesan cheese in the pesto to melt. When everything is covered in a light coating of green and the spinach has begun to wilt, add a touch of milk, half and half or cream and stir until incorporated.
I served my pesto cavatappi topped with a little grated Parmesan cheese.
To really bring the Noodles and Company flavor home, you can also sprinkle on a little chopped Italian flat leafed parsley. I did not. There is so much flavor in the verdant pesto, and the sweet tomatoes which are roasted with garlic and thyme and layers of garlic flavour from each component of this dish I didn’t think more herbs were needed. To truly capture the Noodles and Company Pesto Cavatappi, add a little parsley, finely chopped.
While making this meal I realized that having luscious pasta available as fast food can be bad for your health. As much as I enjoy Noodles and Co. now and then, I know what makes it taste so good: olive oil, cheese and cream, [or half & half or milk if you use my recipe]. That stuff should be reserved for extra special meals. I think it is wonderful pasta to enjoy occasionally. Just don’t start going to Noodles and Company, ordering Pesto Cavatappi and thinking that’s everyday food unless you are an Olympic swimmer, marathoner, or someone else with extreme calorie needs. This recipe is fit for a special meal, or if it is just an average Tuesday, served in a smaller portion alongside a salad. Our Pesto Cavatappi was really tasty, and even with my tweaks to the ingredient list it was a lot like Noodles and Company, but better, because it was lovingly made at home.
*Alright, I’ll be straight. I asked Anthony Bordain a question in a Q&A session when he was in Minneapolis on a speaking tour. My question was about the John Spencer Blues Explosion song which is the theme song to his show on the Travel Channel. He kind of blew off the question and failed to answer which I’ve interpreted in several ways that all cast doubt on his self-proclaimed interest in awesome music.
We’re celebrating our 3rd anniversary today. It is fun to look back on our wedding day which was such a perfect, awesome and fun-filled kick-off to our married life. We worked hard to fill the day with thought and meaning. We were surrounded by awesome family and friends who traveled far and wide. It turned out to be one of the greatest days–special from start to finish. It was pretty much perfect–except for my bangs in the above picture… not sure what happened there. What has followed has been wonderful. Married life is a fun adventure! Thank you Bjorn for 3 great years! I am grateful for every day I share with you.
A few weeks ago, we found ourselves in Walker, Minnesota for a friend’s wedding. Walker happens to be the town where our wedding reception took place at a historic resort and hotel, Chase on the Lake. With our anniversary approaching Bjorn suggested that we have dinner at Chase to start the celebration early. Good call Bjorn! Our meal was fabulous. We dined on the patio overlooking Walker Bay on beautiful Leech Lake, and had one of the best restaurant meals we’ve had in while. We started with a 2009 Pinot Noir, which has proven to be a good vintage. Bjorn had Surf n’ Turf– a New York Strip steak bathed in herbed butter and served with garlic mashed potatoes, roasted root vegetables and an impressive pile of crab legs. Bjorn cracked into the crab legs with gusto. We learned in Croatia, the only way to approach the shelling of shellfish is with gusto. I had a brightly flavored pesto fettuccine with veggies and a caesar salad. The meal was tasty! We enjoyed being in the place where the celebration began and raising a toast to all the fun we have ahead. Cheers!
This is the second in a short series of posts about a few restaurant experiences we’ve had around the Twin Cities in recent months.
I read about Cat Man Do a few months ago on a local food blog that I like to visit and knew it was a place we should try. Cat Man Do is a cozy restaurant in our neighborhood that offers authentically prepared Nepali food. Its menu is filled with interesting choices for vegetarians and omnivores alike. We have now eaten there twice, and we enjoyed both meals. After our first visit, I woke up the next day craving another Samosa, a savory pouch stuffed with potatoes and peas, served with a spicy-sweet sauce (not pictured) and considered going to the lunch buffet solely for the purpose of having another one. On our first visit, I tried the Chow Chow noodles with vegetables with medium spice. The noodles were pleasantly spicy, but I wouldn’t be shy about ordering them hot in the future. Bjorn tried Mo Mo, a steamed dumpling, shaped into a little coin purse stuffed with seasoned meat. On our second visit, Bjorn ordered Chow Chow with chicken, and I ordered M.A.P.P. curry with mushroom, asparagus, potato and peas which had a wonderful balance of warming seasonings. On both occasions the dining room was nearly full, about half of the diners were college age and half were couples in their twenties through middle age. This is both a fair representation of the neighbourhood’s residential composition and a testament to the tasty, enjoyable and interesting menu choices, and the reasonable price point at Cat Man Do. Cat Man Do has earned a regular spot on our Saint Paul dining rotation. We enjoy the satisfying, well-seasoned dishes at Cat Man Do. Cat Man Do offers different flavors and preparations than the food we make at home, with results that are no less homey, craveable, and comforting.
One rainy Sunday we went out for a drive in North East Minneapolis. We had no particular destination in mind, but we knew dinner would be involved. There are many solid options that we’ve enjoyed in visits to this neighbourhood, Psycho Suzi’s, The Modern Cafe, Northeast Social, Mill City Cafe, The Red Stag, and The Bulldog Northeast are all reliably good. On this particular evening, we ended up at the Sample Room. We’ve driven by many times on our way to listen to music at 331 Club, and finally managed to stop in for a meal.
I started by ordering a flight of wine. When it arrived I stopped taking pictures. Oops. The aptly named Sample Room offers small plates of cheese, charcuterie, pasta, salads, meat, seafood and vegetables and a variety of interesting condiments, made in-house. We started by sharing a house salad of mixed greens, aged ricotta, red onion, radish and pepitas with a red wine vinaigrette and a “Pickled Plate” which included pickled egg, an assortment of pickled veggies and mustard. For my “main” I had the fresh fettuccine with wild mushrooms and kale in a sauce of chive crème fraîche, butter and white wine garnished with shaved parmesan and cracked black pepper. I liked the fettuccine, but I didn’t love it. I am pretty spoiled these days when it comes to fresh pasta. Between living down the street from Scusi where you can get a killer fresh pappardelle any night of the week, the wonderful bowl of egg fettuccine with green garlic and grape tomatoes I recently enjoyed at Broder’s Cucina Italiana, and the pretty darned good pastas I’ve been rolling out at home, I have a high bar for fresh pasta. Maybe I’m being too hard on the noodles, the real issue I had with the pasta was the kale. I’m afraid to admit this for fear of losing all of my vegetarian cred, but I’m not sure that I’m sold on kale. Admittedly, I haven’t made much of an effort to fall for this frilly, dark, cabbage-like green. The kale on my fettuccine makes a good example of why I have a hard time jumping on the kale bandwagon — it had a mineraly-metallic taste that almost reminds me of meat. The difficult flavor and texture of kale overpowers whatever feel-good vibes eating this super-nutritious green gives me. In further damage to my vegetarian rep, I feel the same about collards. I’ll stick to spinach, thank you very much. I can’t blame the Sample Room for my personal views on the vegetable in a dish I opted to order, unless they sautéed the kale in a cast iron or aluminum pan which would be the cause of the pervading iron / B Vitamin flavor in the dish. Bjorn had crab cakes and the Bison-Pork-Beef Three Meatloaf with smoked tomato ketchup, which was recently named the “Best Meatloaf in the Twin Cities 2012” by the Citypages. Bjorn liked the meatloaf and as wonderful as it probably is, I cannot believe the Best Meatloaf in the Twin Cities isn’t made by somebody’s mother! My mother’s meatloaf would surely be a contender if she made it in the Twin Cities and I hereby give it an unofficial nomination for Best of the Twin Cities 2013. What is more, I cannot believe “Best of” rankings include meatloaf! It seems like we’re going a little far with that, but I wouldn’t have been shocked if “best bike rack” made the list, so I guess meatloaf deserves its place. The Sample Room gives you the opportunity to sample a variety of their local charcuterie, house-made pickled things, unique condiments and interestingly prepared meats and seafood offerings without committing to a massive portion or price. It is another solid spot to add to the list of reasons that that Northeast Minneapolis is one of our best ‘hoods.
Next on our Twin Cities tour is a lunch I had last week by myself at Basil’s, a slick restaurant circa yesteryear in the Marquette Hotel in Minneapolis, overlooking the Crystal Court in the IDS Center. For out-of-towners, the IDS Center is the tallest building in Minnesota, and provides office space to scores of law firms, stockbrokers, venture capital firms and consultants of every ilk. I chose Basil’s blindly, wanting to eat a salad in a calm place where I could write at noon on a Wednesday. I found my way to Basil’s on the third floor taking the elevator in the hotel lobby and requested a table for one. The host honestly seemed a little freaked about my request and spent several minutes nervously scrolling through his computer screen, uttering “uhhhh.” I didn’t know how long this would continue so I interrupted to ask if the restaurant was booked with reservations. He finally took the cue and showed me one of many open two-seater booths, which was in fact, kind of perfect for one person. I chose to sit with my back to the kitchen door, instead of facing it where he had directed me. There were a few more “uuuhs” and he told me to sit on whichever side I felt comfortable sitting. I got the feeling he was maybe a bit uncomfortable with me having lunch by myself. I waited quite a while before my presence was noted by a server. By now, my discomfort was mounting. I looked around the room and realized that the only escape was the elevator bank past the host stand, so there was no turning back on lunch without even more awkwardness. When my waitress arrived, she was warm, experienced and didn’t seem at all bothered to serve a table of one. I quickly ordered and enjoyed a few stolen moments of quiet to do my own thing. Soon my Grilled Caesar salad arrived. It was no more or less exciting than I expected, but it was totally good, and I immediately felt better about lunch.
I have noticed that nicer Italian restaurants are now grilling a head of romaine lettuce, and serving it whole in a deconstructed Caesar salad, rather than chopped or torn, with all elements combined. Nowadays, said Caesar salad is probably going to arrive with either a whole anchovy, perhaps some chopped kalamata olives or some crunchy, lacy, toasted Parmesan cheese and an artistic crouton somewhere on the plate. Maybe grilled romaine is standard everywhere else, but, it is my position that it is a newer offering in Minnesota. I surmise that serving the lettuce grilled and the salad deconstructed challenges diners and adds enough interesting possibilities for presentation and accoutrements to allow the chef to keep the ubiquitous Caesar salad on the menu without feeling like they’ve given up on their dreams. Basil’s and the grilled Caesar are both trying to be fresh. The grilled salad did so more convincingly than the aging power-lunch spot — an out-of-step microcosm in the surreal universe of the IDS Center — where silver-haired suits hesitantly broker the passage of a torch forged of intensely-burned midnight-oil during long absences from home in the western ‘burbs to smartly be-spectacled nouveau-yuppies in short trousers and argyle socks poised to board a bicycle bound for South Minne at 5:01 p.m. Me? I just wandered here looking for a salad and to seize a minute to write in the middle of a downtown workday.
I have been eating and making stir fries all of my life. Stir-frying vegetables and a protein of choice served with rice or noodles is a weeknight staple in so many homes. It is easy and flexible in that you can use whatever vegetables you have. It is also satisfying and can be quite healthy if you aren’t heavy-handed with oil in the preparation. I consider myself to be fairly adept at stir-frying vegetables to tender-crisp, but my challenge has been developing a tasty and full flavored sauce. I don’t buy stir-fry sauces, and in experimenting with the ingredients and seasonings used to develop flavor, I have served some meals in which the flavor was weak. After many trials and much error I took some guidance from others [here and here]. Now, I am finally cracking the code of making tasty stir-fry sauces from scratch that are simple and flavorful. Tonight’s Stir-fried Vegetables and Tofu with Udon Noodles in a Spicy Peanut sauce was declared a winner.
1 block of Extra Firm Tofu, with excess water removed then cut into cubes. Meat eaters might enjoy chicken, beef or pork instead of tofu, either pre-cooked, or sautéed with onions and other seasonings before vegetables are stir-fried.
There are no limits on the vegetables that would be great in this Stir Fry. Other vegetables that come to mind include cauliflower, shitake or cremini mushrooms, green peas, green onions, water chestnuts, baby corn, bamboo shoots, carrots, celery, bok choy, cabbage, asparagus, snow peas, broccolini and green beans… It will be great with just about any vegetable you like. You simply assemble an assortment of vegetables, wash them, and then chop them into nice, bite-size pieces.
This is a meal that comes together quickly once you start cooking it, so I like to get all of the vegetables ready and make the sauce before I even start stir-frying the vegetables. I whisked together the following ingredients into a spicy-peanutty sauce. You can adjust the heat up or down according to your preference by adding additional Red Chili Flakes or Garlic-Chili paste. My sauce was fairly spicy to begin with, so I decided simply to stick to my original recipe. I placed a bottle of Rooster Sauce on the table in case either of us found the spice level to be lacking.
Once the Spicy Peanut Sauce was ready and all of the veggies were chopped, I selected Japanese udon noodles from the pantry to serve with the stir-fried vegetables. I like udon noodles quite a bit. Even though udon have a light colour, they are a whole wheat noodle. They have a smooth texture and a similar size to linguine. Instead of udon noodles we often have nutty buckwheat soba noodles, rice noodles, regular whole grain spaghetti or occasionally rice. I have noticed that udon noodles are salty enough without additional salt added to the water as you would add to most pastas.
I like the way udon noodles come wrapped in individual portions. I typically make way too much pasta, and we have leftovers for days. The guidance helps.
Let me let you in on a nifty trick for preparing tofu to be cooked. When you purchase tofu packaged in water, you need to squeeze out some of the liquid so that the tofu can absorb the sauce and flavor of the vegetables. Rather than pressing tofu between plates and setting it precariously under a heavy object, which always wants to tip off and fall on my foot, someone once told me to wrap the tofu in a paper towel or a clean kitchen towel and microwave it for 2 minutes.* This process works wonderfully to remove the excess liquid from the tofu and makes it ready to absorb a flavorful sauce after being nuked on high for two minutes for 2 or three rounds. This is far easier and less dangerous for my feet. After microwaving the tofu and slicing it into bite sized cubes I started my veggies.
Other than a great sauce, the key to a good stir-fry is not to overcook the vegetables. I always start with onion, giving it a 2-3 minute head start in the pan with a small glug of oil before adding anything else. I use a large, deep nonstick pan, because I don’t have a wok. A wok or a well-seasoned cast-iron pan are very helpful to making a healthy stir-fry because the vegetables don’t stick, even if you only use a little oil. Next, I add the remaining vegetables in the order that allows everything to finish cooking at the same time without overcooking any single ingredient. If I was using carrots and celery, for example, I’d add them first, and cauliflower soon after, followed by frozen vegetables, and finishing with mushrooms, bell peppers and anything that takes only a few minutes to cook. You can probably look up estimated cooking times for vegetables in a cookbook or on the internet. I have learned through trial and error. Tonight, I was able to add most of the vegetables at the same time, reserving the broccoli, tofu and spinach to add later, since they need a shorter cooking time.
When the veggies had cooked about 2 minutes and were looking bright and well on their way to tender-crisp, I added the peanut sauce, turned the heat to low and let the whole thing cook for 4 minutes. A few minutes with heat allows the salty-spicy-sweet-citrusy-nutty elements of the sauce to meld. When I figured the vegetables and sauce needed another 4 minutes more to cook, I added the broccoli and tofu. Even though broccoli is a dense, cruciferous vegetable, it cooks quickly, and after no more than about 4 minutes, it is done. When the vegetables are done they are bright and softened, and still retain a firm bite. Tofu is great sautéed or broiled, but tonight I wanted to eat it fresh, so I cooked it just enough time to absorb the sauce and to be heated through.
When the noodles were cooked, I drained them and served them on a small platter with a few sprigs of curly parsley. Cilantro would be a suitable garnish for the pasta, if you like cilantro, but we aren’t big fans. Before serving the stir-fry, I scattered the fresh spinach leaves in a pile on the platter. I could have stirred the spinach into the veggies and sauce and allowed it to wilt, but I find that spinach is great, even if it only half-wilts under a mound of steamy vegetables.
We both enjoyed this stir-fry. It was full of spicy, peanutty flavor and a bright variety of vegetables that retained their bite. The tofu also soaked up plenty of flavor and was as easy as could be to prepare. And the pasta? Everything tastes good on a serving of steamy, al dente pasta. When you are in the mood for an easy and delicious vegetable stir-fry, consider trying this tasty recipe. The sauce and veggies are full of texture and flavor. This dish is flexible, quick and easy enough to make any night of the week.
*Thank you to the person who told me the tofu-nuking tip, whoever you are. I am so pleased that I don’t have to press tofu ever again.
My recipe takes most cues from the Pioneer Woman version. I started assembling my “cast of characters” to make sure I had enough of the main ingredients to make the recipe. If you are up for using 2 Tablespoons of Butter and a Cup of Heavy Cream in your spicy Mac and Cheese, you can follow this link back to Pioneer Woman to follow the original recipe. I’m sure it would be over-the-top delicious. I reduced the butter, used fat-free half and half, had to substitute jalapenos from a jar for fresh, and sharp cheddar for pepper jack cheese because that was all there was in the fridge. I added orange bell pepper to the ingredient list because I had one. I love making my meals into a colorful, antioxidant-rich rainbow. I am not going to pull any punches, my Spicy Mac wasn’t exactly “light,” but the slight adjustments brought the calorie-count down into a normal range for a serving of a satisfying size. I didn’t leave anything out that added flavor.
1 cup fat free half and half – I use fat free half and half because it was the only dairy we had in the fridge. Milk with a fat content of your preference, half & half or the real deal heavy cream will all work wonderfully.
The entire dish took about 30 minutes, start to finish. I began by filling a sauce pan of water with a dash of salt to boil for the pasta, and heating a skillet with a small glug of olive oil over medium heat. While those warmed up, I chopped the red onion, red and orange peppers into small chunks of a similar size. I chopped a few forkfuls of jalapenos from the jar. The next time I make this, I will of course try to have a fresh jalapeno, but if I don’t, I will probably use more of the jarred jalapenos. The jalapeno adds most of the heat, and quantities can be adjusted up or down depending on your spice tolerance. I sautéed the onion and garlic a few minutes before adding the bell pepper. At the same time, I started boiling the noodles to a little less than “done” so they could cook a little more in the sauce to become al dente. When the onions, bell peppers, garlic and jalapenos were bright and heading toward tender-crisp, I added a heaped cup of frozen corn. When the veggies were cooking, but still had crunch, I added a can of diced green chilis. Diced green chilies have become a pantry staple in our house. They are mild and they add a smoky complexity to Southwest and Mexican soups and stews without too much heat. When the veggies were nearly done, I turned off the heat in the skillet, and drained the pasta. The sauce is extremely simple, which is a plus. This is the perfect macaroni and cheese to make when you don’t have the time, or the desire to monkey around making a roux. I simply added the fat free half and half and cheese to the skillet and stirred it gently into the vegetables. A skillet retains heat for a long time, so it was warm enough to warm the “cream” and melt the cheese. Finally, I added the pasta to the skillet. I stirred gently to combine the pasta, veggies and sauce in the skillet. Per Ree’s advice, I added a little extra cheese to thicken the sauce a bit. Instead of the two pats of butter from the original recipe, I stirred in just the tiniest bit of butter. You could totally leave the butter out and you probably wouldn’t miss it, even though the silkiness it adds to the sauce is quite nice.
Channeling Pioneer Woman, I served the Spicy Mac right from the skillet, frontier style. We enjoyed the rainbow of veggies, the warming spiciness and of course, the cheesy, comforting macaroni noodles. Ah, we’re home. When I make this again, I would probably up the spice a notch or two… something red, a little Smoked Paprika, Cayenne Pepper, Chili Powder or Chili Flakes, perhaps?
The Spicy Mac also passed the lunch test. We both enjoyed a second serving with a small salad for lunch the next day. Ree Drummond suggests this as a dish to be served alongside a juicy steak. I might just do that the next time I need a meatless dish when my pardner is grilling steak. We both thought this Mac & Cheese stood well all alone. I recommend serving it alone with salt and pepper on the table and a cold beer, or a tall glass of milk.
*I like to welcome myself home with Mac & Cheese, I also like to eat Mac & Cheese when I’m dining alone, when we have something to celebrate, on a rainy day, and for no reason at all. If you’ve been here before you will note that Mac & Cheese in all forms is my favorite.
A bunch of veggies roasted, steamed or sautéed and served with some type of pasta is a meal we eat every week. Sometimes we eat it on multiple days. It is easy, and it can be absolutely yummy and healthy, if its made it right. There are infinite variations, and every time we make this we both think it is pretty great.
We keep vegetables on hand, both fresh and frozen. We almost universally have mushrooms of some type, fresh spinach and broccoli in the fridge. We keep them on hand because they are wholesome and extremely versatile, but even more importantly, because I really love these veggies. I can’t imagine what I’d eat during a week that I do not eat mushrooms and broccoli. Frozen peas make a frequent appearance on our plates too. There are a few short months in the year where we might have fresh, home grown and farmer’s market peas, but the rest of the year, frozen peas are quick to make and taste great. I am partial to fresh spinach. A huge bag of washed spinach is cheaper than lettuce. You can add a few handfuls to soup, pasta, quinoa, or even a packaged frozen entrée, if you eat them. Spinach adds calcium, antioxidants, flavor and if the food is warm, it cooks in a few minutes after you add it. I am not a big fan of frozen bricks of pre-cooked spinach. I think they might be the reason spinach got such a bad rap. It works fine for spinach dip, but it is otherwise, too dark and mushy for me.
The first key to a pasta meal being a healthy, lovely meal is veggies. Veggies! Vegetables are the absolute most powerful tool to healthful eating. They fill you up and they are full of good things like calcium, potassium, antioxidants and fiber with a very low-calorie count. The key is to try every veggie you can, get them fresh from a good source, or preserved in a wholesome manner, make sure they are prepared in a way that doesn’t ruin them and pile them on 3/4 of your plate. I love vegetables, which makes this easy. If you don’t, just try them, one at a time. Make a lot of the ones you like, and give the rest a chance. They are an acquired taste, but they are satisfying when they are the center of your meal. Tonight I sautéed garlic and a diced shallot in a little olive oil, then added mushrooms. When the mushrooms began to brown, I added a splash of pasta water, and then covered to pan to allow the broccoli and peas to steam. I didn’t cook the spinach at all. I placed two large handfuls into the bottom of the bowl I used to serve the veggies. When I added the veggies, the spinach wilted, but didn’t totally lose its shape or get soggy. I frequently roast veggies, and recently, I’ve also been steaming them in my Mom’s Bamboo steamer that she has had since the 1970’s. The entire key to veggies is not to overcook them to use a light touch with oil, salt or other seasonings. They don’t need it.
The next step to making this meal, of course, is the pasta. I make homemade pasta, and I have yet to post about it. It is delicious, but I’ll admit, I like to eat pasta a little more often than I have time to mix it and roll it out. I consider it to be a process to go through for a special occasion. Tonight, we had organic, whole grain angel hair pasta, cooked al dente, according to package directions. If you ate whole wheat pastas a few years ago and found it dry, grainy and generally too serious, you should try them again. There are whole grain pastas that have a delicious nutty texture, there are even some whole grain pastas that have no noticeable difference from traditional “white” pasta. Using whole grain adds a little stomach-filling fiber, lowers the glycemic index of your meal and helps nudge a week-night pasta meal in the direction of health. Also worth noting are fresh herbs. In the middle of winter, a big bunch of flat leaf parsley costs less than $2 at our grocery store. In the summer, we grow herbs, and buy them at the Farmer’s Market for pocket change. The addition of chopped herbs to pasta is unbelievable. Your eyes will thank you. Your tastebuds will thank you. Fresh herbs elevate a dish and only add good.
One out of two of us eats meat. I’ve said it before, and I’ll say it again: it is a good thing for Bjorn that he is a flexible meat eater. It makes it easier for me that he doesn’t expect meat to be a central part of every meal. I enjoy preparing meat for a special occasion and Bjorn makes it whenever he wants it, and he swears he gets enough. There are many meat eaters who don’t feel like they’ve had a meal if meat isn’t center stage. I think we’ve all gotten the memo advising us that people aren’t supposed to eat as much meat as we did before we knew where our next meal was coming from, or we needed to fuel ourselves through 12 hours of hard physical labor. Reframing meat as a dish that you have for a special occasion opens up a world of opportunity for meat to be a meaningful garnish. Here enters Soppressata. It is a flavorful hard salami. Just a few slices, casing removed, cut into little chunks and heated briefly puts a tasty bit of meat on the omnivore’s plate and rounds out their meal.
Finally, there is sauce. We don’t always have sauce with our pasta and veggies. I like to use spaghetti sauce, or a can of San Marzano tomatoes, torn into chunks when we feel like tomatoes. If we aren’t feeling tomato-y, I would use a touch of olive oil or butter and a sprinkling of grated cheese or nothing. Tonight I made a simple creamy sauce. This isn’t an “every night” sort of thing though. We had a little heavy cream left over from the Soufflés Bjorn made for Valentine’s day and I couldn’t let it go to waste. I melted the tiniest bit of butter and added a sprinkling of flour. Once it cooked a bit, I added the cream and let it thicken before adding a bit of pepper and grated Asiago. Just like the meat, if you are going to use butter, oil or creamy sauce, if you use a light touch, you can enjoy the richness without consuming excessive calories.
I want to live in a world where I can have my pasta and eat it too. I am finding that if I keep an eye on portions and make thoughtful choices about ingredients and preparation, I can enjoy my plate of pasta without feeling gluttonous or guilty.
If it hasn’t already become extremely obvious, pasta is one of my all-time favorite foods. There are so many variations, from basic buttered noodles to whatever-you-have-in-the-fridge, to traditional recipes: stroganoff, Bolognese, or pasta all’Amatriciana. I’m usually a “concept cook” who has something in mind [e.g. pasta with veggies] and the actual ingredients I use depend on what I’m in the mood for or what needs to be used up. I haven’t been one to follow many recipes. I enjoy the freedom of my slapdash approach to cookery, but I have tasted enough really good food in my years to know that recipes, carefully chosen ingredients, timeless techniques and even a little precision are equally as necessary in the kitchen as passion and creativity. It also pays to take a few tips from the experts. I have long loved food blogs, food magazines, food television, cookbooks and hanging out in other people’s kitchens. Reading about cooking, talking about it and observing other cooks in action are my source of inspiration. These are as much my hobbies as cooking and writing about food. I became aware of the noticeable difference that good technique and ingredients yield in restaurant meals, but the breakthrough did not occur at home until I learned about the perfect pesto.
It was just another Wednesday night. I found myself watching short programs on the Chow network on our Roku on cooking and food. There was an episode on soup dumplings,* and on the perfect beer,** and then a segment on the perfect pesto aired and changed my approach to pesto forever.
Previously, I have only had a modest appreciation of pesto. The first pesto pasta I ate was a lunch back in my teenage years at the now-shuttered Grandma’s Restaurant in Fargo, North Dakota. It was so heavily garlic-y that I was afraid of both pesto and garlic for almost a decade. I still shudder to think about how much raw garlic I consumed before realizing it would be with me for days. More recently, I have tasted a pretty good silk handkerchief in a mild, dark green pesto at Bar La Grassa. Having grown basil in our garden, I’ve also made basil and parsley pestos at home that have been fine on toasted sandwiches and roasted vegetables. None of these looked anything like the marvelous green pesto I saw that evening on the Chow network.
Back to a winter day in Minnesota… I may never duplicate Chef Laboa’s pesto, but in listening to him, I learned a few things about how to make a better pesto. First, for a pesto worthy of freshly rolled pasta, you have to ditch the food processor and use a mortar and pestle. Fortunately for me, I just received one for Christmas from Bjorn. The one he selected for me is a nice small size that I can comfortably manage to hold. It is made of non-porous porcelain and a smooth wooden handle and a red exterior that I am happy to store on the open shelves in our kitchen.
I learned from Chef Paolo that the origin of ingredients matters a lot. Basil pesto universally contains basil, pine nuts, garlic, olive oil, parmesan cheese and salt. Sure, you can make pesto out of these ingredients produced anywhere, but to begin to approximate Paolo Laboa’s pesto, you need basil that is similar to that grown in Genoa, Olive Oil from Liguria, Pine Nuts from Pisa, and carefully-selected Parmesan. And you need time. Lots of time. After watching the segment and trying to make it myself a few times I realized the making of Paolo’s pesto takes longer than it appears to take on TV.
I did the best I could gathering ingredients. It is winter, and the basil I found at the store wasn’t the best. I do believe that the Genovese basil from our garden will be an improvement on the basil available at the supermarket in a clamshell package in January. I didn’t spring for $18 Italian Pine Nuts but got some from Spain instead. I tried a few of Chef Laboa’s tips. Since Ligurian olive oil is not available to me I used light olive oil instead of extra virgin which is too strong and kills the taste of the basil. I soaked the basil leaves in water because, I learned if you don’t soak the basil there is too much chlorophyll in the leaves. I crushed the pine nuts with garlic and coarse salt and added 15 basil leaves. I put my heart into the process of grinding all of the ingredients together and then mixing in the oil. When the pesto was ready, I added a little pasta water to the pesto to melt the cheese before tossing hand-rolled handkerchiefs of pasta in the pesto. The end result of my effort did not yield the solid bright-green cream produced by Chef Laboa. Not even close. Even so, we thought the result was delicious and immeasurably better than the oily, basil-heavy, oxidized, chunky sludge that I’ve made in the food processor. If pesto is worth making, it is worth making well. Will I spend 45 minutes with the mortar and pestle to make pesto every week? Certainly not. It is a time-consuming process and a rich dish you can’t eat every week. Come summer though, when the basil is bursting forth I will make pesto again. I might not achieve “perfect” pesto, but delicious will be good enough.
*The segment about soup dumplings made me want soup dumplings which are little pouches made of dough that are stuffed with meat and fatty broth that liquefy upon cooking. Are there vegetarian soup dumplings out there? I want to try them!
**The writer of the beer segment claimed Supplication Ale by Russian River Brewing Company to be the best beer in the world. I’m sure I’d like it, but that I’d disagree about it being the best.
At some point this year, we turned a corner. Without any warning or fanfare, we found ourselves rested enough, organized enough, with enough time, and with our home and our finances in enough order to allow us to commit more than the most minimal effort to trying to do something good. It comes naturally to some at a younger age, and I truly admire those people. I have found that I am a one-thing-at a-time type who needs to have their own ducks in a row before signing on for an ongoing commitment. Better late than never, I hope. We found the first volunteer experience that suited our combined abilities in an email circulated around Bjorn’s office. The option that jumped out at us was the opportunity to prepare a dinner for 8 in our own kitchen at home and deliver it to an emergency safe house for homeless youth, ages 16-21 in our neighbourhood operated by Lutheran Social Services. The guidelines are minimal. Arrive at 7. Bring a main dish (no pork) and a few sides; no mysterious looking casseroles, please. Including a gallon of 2% milk and a bottle of juice is suggested. Dessert is appreciated but not required. We signed up for a few dates to give it a try. I had to ask right away about accommodating special diets: vegetarian, vegan, gluten-free, kosher, etc. We were told they didn’t currently have anyone with those needs. We still tried to come up with enough variety and flexibility in the menu so that a person who doesn’t eat meat, or a person who doesn’t tolerate gluten could still eat a decent plate of food.
1. This is the array of groceries and supplies we used for the first meal we prepared. We spent about $40 on groceries at Target. At my request, Lunds Grocery Store donated 3 disposable aluminum containers with lids for delivering the food. We didn’t shop for this meal at Lunds, but we do almost all of our grocery shopping there.
2. We packed a salad of iceberg and romaine lettuce with sliced cucumbers and julienned carrots. We bought a package of parmesan croutons and a bottle of Ranch Dressing for the salad.
3. This fall, Bjorn’s parents stocked our freezer with a generous supply of ground beef, steaks and a few roasts from cows raised on the family farm by Bjorn’s Uncle Stan. I cannot begin to emphasize how wonderful it is to have a supply of beef raised by a farmer we know and trust. We absolutely love to cook with this beef.
4. I taped the typed-out dinner menu on paper grocery bags we used to deliver the food. Our first meal consisted of Beef Meatballs in Spaghetti Sauce to be served on Hoagie Buns with Provolone Cheese, Roasted Potatoes seasoned with Hidden Valley Ranch Southwest Seasoning and ketchup, A Salad of Iceberg and Romaine Lettuce, Carrots and Cukes, Juice, Milk and Chocolate Chip Cookies.
5. I tried to think like a caterer when I packed up the meal. Disposable containers aren’t ideal for food presentation visually, but I think when food is packed neatly, containers are spatter-free and the contents and serving suggestions thoughtfully labeled, it helps a lot. If this is the best meal or the only meal some of these kids are eating today, I want it to be a great meal.
6. Bjorn’s meatballs, ready to bake.
7. Bjorn’s meatballs out of the oven. They smelled good.
We prepared and delivered our second meal on November 29. This time when we arrived, we were offered a tour of the house. It was fun and rewarding to see the safe house and some of the people who will eat our meal. The house is large and very clean. We enter through the backyard and after being cleared as “friendly visitors” on the security camera, we enter into the kitchen. After setting up the meal on the large counter, we were led through the dining room which has a large dining table and shelves stacked with board games. The next room is a is a livingroom with a huge, flat screen TV. Upstairs was warm. There were brightly lit bedrooms that were already full of people having a boisterous conversation. The safe house has the atmosphere you would hope: positive, clean, safe and welcoming. We were told that the house is filled to capacity every night. The staff also told us that they appreciate having a meal delivered because they don’t have to cook or go out and buy anything. It saves the program money too, obviously. Judging by our ease in finding workable dates, they are not at capacity for volunteers. They report having a meal provided 4-5 nights a week. They expressed relief that we did not prepare a Thanksgiving meal. Apparently, they had quite a few of those in the past month and were getting a little tired of Turkey and Stuffing.
1. We shopped for most of the ingredients for meal number 2 at Trader Joe’s. Again, we spent around $40. This wasn’t planned, apparently, it is the price-point of the hearty meals we conceive of for 8. The cost would be higher if we had to purchase meat.
2. These are the ingredients to prepare tonight’s meal of Baked Potatoes, Sour Cream, Chili, Mac & Cheese, Roasted Broccoli, Baguette and Butter.
3. I thought the well-labeled meal looked good the first time we delivered it, so I printed a menu and labels with serving suggestions for the second meal as well. This time when we walked in the door with our labeled bags and containers we got a “wow!” from one of the staff. I’m taking that as feedback to indicate that we’re doing okay.
4. We thought Baked Potatoes would be a hearty side, so we scrubbed some russets to bake in the oven. I love russets for baking because their peels gets meaty,chewy and crunchy, and their interior stays fluffy and light. I like to oil the peels and salt them lightly with Kosher salt.
5. When we have Macaroni and Cheese ourselves, which we do often, it is usually Kraft Dinner. We decided to bump the Mac & Cheese up a few notches and followed Martha Stewart’s recipe for Perfect Macaroni and Cheese. Here, Bjorn is stirring a roux that will become the cheese sauce.
6. We baked the potatoes wrapped in foil which worked well for keeping them warm for delivery in a small paper bag.
7. We stirred the cheese sauce into Al Dente pasta, it looked like it was creamy and delicious.
9. Disposable food containers were easy to come by for this meal on the cheap at Walgreens because it was just after Thanksgiving. We had to fashion a make-shift divider out of aluminum foil to separate the Macaroni and Cheese from the Roasted Broccoli.
10. My parents gave us a container of frozen Oatmeal Raisin cookie dough, so we made cookies again this week. My parents also purchase the milk and juice that we bring for each meal.
11. Tonight’s meal is packed, labeled and ready to go.
12. This week, we had the sense to save ourselves a serving a macaroni and cheese. We had it with a salad topped with hard-boiled eggs. Home made macaroni & cheese is so yummy. We have set “we’d prepare it for guests in our home” as the standard for the meals we prepare for the safe house, and so far, I think we’ve been consistently able to pull it off.
Meal Number 3, December 21, 2011.
1. For our third meal we had most of the ingredients and supplies on hand. What we didn’t have, we bought at Target.
2. Bjorn made beef meatballs again. It helps make a substantial meal and keep our costs at a reasonable level when we use our beef. Bjorn has perfected his meatball recipe. He seasons the meat with Trader Joe’s 21 Seasoning Salut and mixes in Egg, Breadcrumbs and grated parmesan, and as I said, they smell great when he bakes them.
3. Meatballs are also convenient because they can be baked a day ahead. After baking the meatballs, Bjorn put them into the crock pot with spaghetti sauce. I take the crock of meatballs out of the fridge and turn it on when I got home from work the night that we deliver the food.
4. We cut up and steamed carrots, broccoli and cauliflower and made a creamy-cheesy sauce with grated cheese, sour cream and mushroom soup, a little pepper and a crunchy panko bread crumb topping. It is creamy and delicious, but really, quite light. After my Mom made the same dish at Christmas with frozen vegetables, I think I would go that route in the future. It was just as tasty, it was probably cheaper and was definitely less work.
5. For dessert I made chocolate cupcakes with cream cheese frosting and Christmas M&M’s. They were yummy.
6. Again, we made a make-shift divider in the aluminum container between the cheesy vegetables and slices of ciabatta bread.
7. We boiled farfalle pasta to go along with the meatballs this week. I made a last-minute call to Kowalski’s on Grand Avenue in Saint Paul to see if they would be willing to donate some disposable containers for us to deliver the meal in this week. I barely had to finish my sentence explaining what we were doing and what we needed before the manager agreed to set out several nice, durable aluminum containers for me to pick up. Those really aren’t cheap, so it helps us a lot. It has been amazing to discover how generous store managers in our neighbourhood are when we just ask.
Not pictured with this meal are the Christmas cards that we brought along with our meal this week for the kids and the staff, each containing a $5 Subway gift card that we bought and a free 6 inch sub donated by the owners of Subway on Grand and Fairview Avenues and Selby Avenue and Victoria Street in Saint Paul. This was another example of how people are ready to help and be generous when all we do is ask. We thought our first 3 meals were a success, so we signed up to prepare and deliver 2 more in January. We are enjoying the new experience of giving a little time, and at the same time getting to be creative and engaged in a favorite hobby: cooking! | 2019-04-23T21:01:59Z | http://ourwaytoeat.com/category/pasta/ |
Q: What are the bank notes in Australia?
A: Bank notes comprise of 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 Australian dollar notes; while coins come in 5, 10, 20 and 50 cent coins, and 1 and 2 dollar coins.
Q: What are the most trusted banks or financial institutions in Australia?
A: Top big banks are Westpac, Commonwealth, ANZ and Australia Bank.
Q: What are the documents needed to open a bank account?
A: In order to open a bank account, one needs to present an identification e.g. driver’s license or passport, proof of an address in Australia, and in some cases a reference from one's previous bank.
Q: How do expats open a bank account in Melbourne?
A: Opening a Melbourne bank account is quick and simple, even for expats. However, it must be done within the expat's first six weeks of arrival in Australia. Otherwise, bank authorities may require more time and evidence of identification. In any case, an expat has to present a passport, a valid visa and another valid ID when opening a bank account.
Q: Are ATMs popularly used in Melbourne?
A: Yes. Most Melbourne residents consider ATMs as the most convenient tools for cash dispensing. Note that ATMs in the city only give out 20 AUD and 50 AUD notes, though some of the smaller ones (usually in gas stations) dispense only 10 AUD, again, only in combinations of 20 and 50 AUDs. In rare places such as casinos, one may get 100 AUD notes.
Q: What is the availability of banks in Melbourne?
A: Banks in Melbourne usually open at 9am and close at 4pm on Mondays thru Thursdays. On Fridays, they open at 9 am and close at 5pm. Most of Australia's biggest banks like ANZ, NAB, and Commonwealth have branches in Melbourne.
Q: What is the process of opening a bank account in Sydney?
A: The most important requirement for opening a bank account in Sydney is a 100-point score on identity. There are three approved forms of identification. For migrants, these three IDs include a passport, a driver's license, and a medical card. Normally, an expat who is unable to provide the three will not be allowed to open a bank account in any bank in Sydney.
Q: How much do Sydney banks charge in account maintenance fees?
A: This depends from bank to bank, but usually, monthly maintenance fees of $5 will be charged to an account holder to keep the account active. When planning to open a bank account in Sydney, it is advisable that one spend time shopping around to know which bank charges the least fees.
Q: What are the best banks in Sydney?
A: The four major and most established banks in Sydney include the National Australia Bank (NAB), ANZ, Commonwealth, and Westpac. The Commonwealth Bank, once a government bank until its privatization in the 1990s, is the most distributed bank, both in the city and the entire Australia.
Q: What is the process of registering a business name in Australia?
A: One must ensure that business name doesn't have a trade mark registered against it. All business name registrations go to the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC) External Site. Once it's registered with ASIC , it's registered nationally as well. One just need to have an Australian Business Number (ABN) in order to register a business name online through the ABN application or through ASIC Connect External Site.
Q: What is an Australian Business Number?
A: The Australian business number (ABN) is a unique 11 digit number that identifies a business or organisation to the government and community. Not everybody is entitled to one; hence, it is not compulsory.
Q: Where should foreign companies register in Australia?
A: Foreign companies must be registered with ASIC, the governing body responsible for the ongoing regulation of foreign companies.
Q: What taxes do I need to pay if I open a business in Melbourne?
A: The Australian tax year covers the period from July 1 to June 30 of succeeding year. After securing an Australian Business Number or ABN, registration with the Australian Tax Office follows for the payment of four basic business taxes in Melbourne, namely, goods and services, fringe benefits, pay-as-you-go withholding, and payroll taxes.
Q: What are the legal requirements for opening a business in Melbourne?
A: Expats who want to open a business in Melbourne should consult with the Australian Business License and Information Service (ABLIS) for information regarding the necessary licenses, permits, approvals, registrations, codes of practice, standards, and guidelines for setting up business in the city. Which particular requirements are needed will ultimately depend on the business type and target location.
Q: What are the most attractive industries for investors in Melbourne today?
A: Melbourne has many thriving industries, but as far as potential investments are concerned, the food, medical research, agricultural, tourism, cultural, financial services and manufacturing sectors are the most promising today.
Q: What are typical business hours for establishments in Sydney?
A: Generally, stores, shops, offices and other business establishments open at 9am and close at 5pm Mondays thru Fridays. Banks specifically are open from Mondays thru Thursdays from 9:30am to 5pm, and are closed on Fridays and weekends. On Saturdays, shops open a bit earlier at around 8:30am, and close a little earlier too at around 4pm. Stores that operate on Sundays are open from 9am to 4pm.
Q: What are some of Sydney's best conference venues?
A: There's a lot, especially those with an overlooking view of the world-famous Sydney Harbour. Over the last decade, Sydney has been host to many big international conferences and other major world events such as the International AIDS Society Conference and the 26th Asia Pacific Academy of Ophthalmology Congress.
Q: Does Sydney have promising franchising opportunities for entrepreneurs?
A: Yes, business franchising is a very promising industry in Sydney. In fact, there are many franchising expos held in the city every now and then, and one of the biggest has been scheduled for March 2015 at the Royal Hall of Industries on 1 Driver Avenue Moore Park.
Q: Where can people find listings for children's events in Australia?
Q: Which states have skiing resorts for families and children?
A: There are only two states in Australia with ski resorts namely the New South Wales with Perisher and Thredbo and Victoria with Falls Creek, Mt Hotham and Mt Buller.
Q: Where can families go with children in the Northern Territory?
A: The Gold Coast is a goldmine for family activities family surrounded by theme parks and the vast stretch of the ocean. Families can also travel to Cairns and be awed by the Great Barrier Reef and engage in many activities such as snorkelling, scuba diving, etc.
Q: Are public primary schools completely free in Melbourne?
A: Public primary schools in Melbourne are free, but there is usually a voluntary school levy to be paid by each student per year. Government subsidy also excludes uniforms, extra-curricular activities and other miscellaneous expenses.
Q: What types of child care facilities are available in Melbourne?
A: There are basically four types of Melbourne childcare facilities, all of which accept kids up to the age of 6. These include private centers, community centers, family day care (up to a maximum of 4 preschool kids to be cared for in the carer's home), and home care (an au pair or nanny comes to the kids' home). Additionally, there are centers offering playgroups for parents who want to be around as their children socialize with other kids.
Q: What are the usual requirements for enrolment in Melbourne schools?
A: For expat children, requirements usually include a passport, birth certificate, contact details of parents or guardians, certificate of immunization, a description of the child's health and development history, and information regarding language or languages spoken by the child.
Q: How are childcare services in Sydney?
A: One thing most expats say about child care is Sydney is that it's expensive - around $70 – 125 per child per day. On top of that, waiting lists are also notorious for being really long, especially in highly populated areas. In eastern suburbs like Woolahra and Manly, it can be almost impossible to get a slot.
Q: What sports activities are in store for expat kids in Sydney?
A: Sydney offers a lot of opportunities for kids to develop their sports abilities. West of the city center is the famous Sydney Olympic Park where kids can enjoy facilities for swimming, walking, archery, trapeze and many others. At the Sydney Park and Centennial Park, kids can learn and master cycling. Of course, there are playgrounds everywhere for the younger kids.
Q: Where do expats usually take their kids for tummy treats in Sydney?
A: Sydney locals have a big thing for cafes, and the good thing is, even kids are well accommodated. In fact, a lot of restaurants offer children a separate menu that is more suited to their tastes. China Town at the city center is known for its yum cha or lunch meals which are usually served between 10am and 3pm. Kids love them and so does the rest of the family.
Q: What is the average cost of medical insurance in Australia? need to pay for medical insurance?
A: As most expats are not permanent residents; hence not qualified for Medicare, their option is to obtain a private medical life insurance, which can cost more than 500 AUD per month.
Q: Which cities are considered to have a higher cost of living?
A: Sydney, Melbourne, Perth and Brisbane are considered cosmopolitan cities and have a higher cost of living compared to other Australian cities.
Q: What is the average rental accommodation costs?
A: Rental costs in a good location in a cosmopolitan area starts at AUD 1000 for an unfurnished two-bedroom apartment to AUD 1,300 and more for a furnished two-bedroom apartment.
Q: What do people in Melbourne spend the biggest chunk of their budgets on?
A: People pay the most for accommodation in Melbourne. In the city center, for instance, rentals can go as high as 450 AUD per week for a one-bedroom apartment.
Q: How much do basic utilities cost in Melbourne?
A: A lot of expats are still surprised to know that the city is prone to extremely cold winters and extremely hot summers. The average utility bill of an average Melbourne household is about AUD1800 a year, including gas and electricity costs, plus around 500 AUD yearly for water.
Q: Is "eating out" expensive or cheap in Melbourne?
A: Melbourne has many fine dining restaurants where bills can rack up to the hundreds, but there are also several places where people can enjoy great food for so much less. Both in the city center and in outlying areas, there are diners that offer superb food for a little more than the cost of a fast food meal. In Melbourne, 15 AUD for a sumptuous dinner is usual.
Q: How much is an apartment rental in Sydney?
A: Most of a Sydney resident's monthly cost of living goes to rent. A one-bedroom apartment in the city costs around $450 to $550 weekly, and a two-bedroom apartment will probably start at around $650 weekly.
Q: How much do people pay for household utilities in Sydney?
A: A usual electricity and gas bill in Sydney costs around $5 - 15 per week, and around $30 per week for a landline. For Internet, the range is from $40-70 monthly, depending on the period of the contract and gigabytes of data provided.
Q: How does Sydney compare with other world-class cities in terms of cost of living?
A: According to the 2011 Economist Intelligence Unit, Sydney is at least 28 % more expensive to live in than London, and around 45% costlier than New York.
Q: What is Australia's Medicare and what does it cover?
A: Medicare is a free service available to Australian and New Zealand citizens and permanent visa holders. Medical coverage include free treatment and accommodation as a patient in a public hospitals, and 75% of the Medicare Schedule fee for services and procedures if you are a private patient in a public or private hospital.
Q: Where can one find children's hospitals in Australia?
A: In Queensland, one can go to Mater Children's Hospital, Royal Children's Hospital, Herston. In New South Wales, there is the Royal Alexandra Hospital for Children, Sydney Children's Hospital and John Hunter Children's Hospital. In Victoria, Royal Children's Hospital and Monash Children's Hospital cater to any children medical emergencies.
Q: Is it recommended to get a private health insurance?
A: Expats who do not have Medicare are encouraged to get a private health insurance. And even with Medicare, there are specific treatments that are not covered such as dental and optical services.
Q: Can foreigners receive Medicare insurance cover while staying in Melbourne?
Q: What are the medical emergency assistance numbers in Melbourne?
A: For fire, police, or medical emergencies, 000 is the free hotline to call in Melbourne. However, ambulance transport is not free in the city or anywhere in Australia, but there are preneed companies that offer plans exempting holders from fees. For round-the-clock nurse-on-call services, Melbourne residents can call 1300 60 60 24.
Q: What are the health insurance options available for foreigners in Melbourne?
A: Non-Medicare-covered expats in Melbourne have three options to get medical coverage while in the city: an employer-provided company insurance plan, international medical insurance that meets requirements of the Australian medical insurance industry, and a private insurance plan purchased in Melbourne. When deciding which plan to buy, it is important to pay attention to policy provisions on pre-existing conditions, waiting periods and pharmaceutical benefits.
Q: How accessible are Sydney hospitals?
A: There are around 50 public hospitals and clinics right within the city center, and most of them provide specialist services or are connected with major research centers. Additionally, there are also many privately run hospitals both at the city center and around suburban areas. The Ministry of Health website provides a lot of helpful tips and information about health services in the city, and offers a search function for those who are looking for a medical facility near them.
Q: What are common exclusions to a typical health insurance plan in Sydney?
A: It depends on the policy and the insurer, but the most common exclusions are dental and physiotherapy care, along with ambulance transport, visual aids, and prescription drugs. Government subsidies, however, have made the prices of medicines generally cheaper in Sydney and in all other parts of the country, compared to the rest of the world.
Q: How does public health insurance work in Sydney, and does it cover expats?
A: As with any part of Australia, Sydney offers a public healthcare system to all residents through a program called Medicare. The plan, financed through taxes via the Medicare levy, covers all medical treatments received in public hospitals, and all other costs associated with treatment obtained from out-of-hospital GPs or specialists. Unfortunately, only expats who have become Australian citizens or permanent residents are covered by this system.
Q: What are the documents needed when renting an apartment or a house?
A: One must prepare proof of identity (passport/ birth certificate/ drivers license, proof of income e.i. bank statements for the last three months, previous rental agreements (if there's any) and references e.i. employer or previous landlord.
Q: What are the useful online site for finding accommodations and property rentals?
Q: How much is the typical deposit when renting a flat?
A: There is no standard for how much rent has to be paid in advance to the landlord; tenant and landlord has to come in agreement with the payment terms. But tenant must pay the first fortnight/month's rent and a bond, equivalent to a one month's rent.
Q: How much do houses in Melbourne cost?
A: Houses in Melbourne can vary wildly in prices, but as of March 2014, the median price was $652,500 for detached homes and $499,000 for apartments.
Q: What are houses like in Melbourne?
A: Houses in Melbourne are either free-standing or attached buildings, can be anywhere from a few months to 150 years old, and are typically built from concrete, timber or brick. On average, a home in the city will have four bedrooms, a maximum of two bathrooms, a kitchen, living area, and laundry room. Bigger ones have more than one living area and come with a garage.
Q: Are foreign nationals allowed to own real estate in Melbourne?
A: Yes, as a non-citizen or permanent resident, permission from the Foreign Investment Review Board must first be obtained. It usually takes 40 days for the FIRB to send a reply, but in unusual circumstances, it could take longer depending on how much time is needed to resolve the issue or issues involved.
Q: What is the most elite neighborhood in Sydney?
A: Edgecliff, Double Bay, Darling Point and Vaucluse, all found in the eastern suburbs, are the most expensive neighborhoods in Sydney, where median luxury apartments cost around $ 1.35 million.
Q: Which part of Sydney offers the cheapest housing?
A: Houses in Sydney are generally expensive, but in Tregear (near Blacktown), some properties are becoming increasingly popular for their relatively lower prices. The median house price is around $240, making the area a perfect place for families who are just starting to establish themselves in the city.
Q: What is the usual monthly interest rate for a mortgage in Sydney?
A: This depends on various factors such as the property's market value, the loaner's capacity to pay, etc. In most cases, however, Sydney mortgage homes are paid with a monthly interest rate of about 4-5%, or 5-6% for more expensive homes.
Q: What are Australia's best beaches?
A: There's Bondi Beach in Sydney to start with; Victoira has Bells Beach while new South Wales boast of Byron Bay.
Q: What are the top attractions in Australia?
A: The Great Barrier Reef, Sydney Harbour, Uluru (Ayers Rock), Australia’s wineries, Tasmania's Port Arthur are among the many attractions that draw travellers and tourists across the world to visit Australia.
Q: When is the best time to visit the Great Barrier Reef?
A: It's during June to November when the weather is mild that makes it the best time to visit the Great Barrier Reef.
Q: Any ideas for cheap but worthwhile entertainment in Melbourne?
A: There are many cheap entertainment options in Melbourne. Halftix is an agency that sells discounted tickets for tours, concerts and other events in the city, and its office is located at the Melbourne Town Hall Administration (Swanston Street around the corner of Collins Street). However, tickets can only be bought personally and strictly for cash. Ticketmaster and Ticketek are two other popular ticket agencies in the city.
Q: Do they have carting venues in Melbourne?
A: Yes. There are many carting venues around Melbourne, and particularly popular among teenage boys is Auscarts. This is a modern indoor carting venue just five minutes away from the city centre. Drivers need to be at least thirteen to be able to race, and there's a 145- 200-cm height requirement. The carts can take a maximum load of 145kilos.
Q: What types of entertainment are available for families in Melbourne?
A: There's this game called room escape that's currently making waves in Melbourne today. People come in groups and are put together in one room to solve different challenges so they can escape within a certain number of minutes. The games are fun and challenging at the same time, combining intuition, teamwork, logic, and analytical skills. Room escape is also a growing trend for corporate team-building activities. One favorite venue is Exitus located at the Port of Melbourne.
Q: What's in store for music and theater lovers in Sydney?
A: The music and theater circuit in Sydney is rich and colorful. The internationally famous Sydney Opera House is actually the number one choice for the biggest classical and pop events held by international artists in Australia.
Q: What outdoor activities are popular in Sydney?
A: With Sydney's bright and sunny weather, outdoor activities are very popular in the city, especially among the youth. There are at least 400 public playgrounds, parks and other open, natural spaces which are commonly used for sports like running and cycling, as well as for outdoor recreation like barbecues and picnics.
Q: Is Sydney a good place for garden hobbyists and those who like natural attractions?
A: Absolutely! In fact, there are 15 community gardens which are very popular among tourists and expats. These places feature a wide variety of herbs, fruits and vegetables, and lovely flowers. Of course, sunbathers and surfers will love the city's sun and beaches, along with the beautiful and sprawling national parks that surround the metropolis.
Q: What are the best means to find job openings in Australia?
A: Dailies such as The Australian and the Sydney Morning Herald regularly publish job listings and advertisements in the employment sections. The local and community newspapers also have job listings, but not extensive. Online job portals are also a good source of job listings and one can opt to register with a recruitment agencies.
Q: What information must be included in one's CV/Resume when applying for jobs in Australia?
A: A CV/Resume must consist of 2-4 pages long, which must include the candidate's contact details, complete list of work experience from the most recent to the least recent, skill set, duties within your list of positions and character reference.
Q: Which industries demand skilled workers and professionals?
A: Engineering, ICT, Biotechnology and Healthcare are among the sectors that have several opportunities for skilled workers and professionals.
Q: What jobs are most in demand in Melbourne today?
A: Employment trends come and go in Melbourne. Currently, there is a high demand for chemists, veterinarians, electrical engineers, welders, plumbers, software engineers, pastry cooks, and midwives. Foreign nationals who want to apply for a skilled migrant visa must ensure that their overseas qualifications are officially evaluated.
Q: How much do expats usually make in Melbourne?
A: How much an expat makes in Melbourne depends on the type of job he has. So far, the highest paid expats in the city are those who work in the health and medical sector, where professionals make around 4,900 to 5,000 AUD annually. This is followed by electrical and electronics trade professionals who typically rake in up to 4,800 AUD at the end of the year. Architects make around 3,800 AUD, while cleaning and housekeeping staff receive some 3,600 AUD. These are all estimates, but they create a realistic picture of how much expats are making in Melbourne today.
Q: How do people usually get to and from work in Melbourne?
A: Workers in Melbourne do not go to work on a ferry like those in Sydney, but the daily commute in the city is considered far more convenient than in London, Tokyo, or New York. However, expats whose jobs involve long-distance traveling need to be patient as it can take a while to get to Melbourne, even coming from Sydney which is about an hour's flight away.
Q: Which sectors offer the most job opportunities in Sydney today?
A: Sydney is the reigning financial hub of the country where 25% of the national GDP is sourced. Jobs are most abundant in the property and business services, manufacturing, retail, health, and community services sectors, along with information, creative and performing arts and media and technology. The city's tourism industry has also been a steady provider of employment, especially for foreign nationals.
Q: What common qualifications and skills are needed for one to work in Sydney?
A: A basic requirement is English proficiency and passing an official skills assessment for those applying for Australian working visas. More specific requirements will depend on individual visa categories and subcategories, which have their own skills evaluation programs in place.
Q: What do people usually wear to the office in Sydney?
A: Business attire for corporate workers is essentially conservative in Sydney. A dark-colored, modestly designed suit is the norm for men, and a modestly designed suit or smart dress is expected to be worn by women. This is in contrast to Brisbane and other tropical parts of Australia where people can wear shirts and shorts even to corporate affairs.
Q: What is the Australian Tax Office?
A: The Australian Tax Office (ATO) handles all taxation and any other tax related issues an expat may have.
Q: What is the GST Tax in the country?
A: There is a 10% GST in Australia, which are already included in the price of goods at purchase.
Q: Is the Tax File Number compulsory?
A: No, obtaining a Tax File Number is not compulsory. However, it is encouraged to get a TFN to avoid paying tax withheld and to be eligible for government benefits.
Q: What denominations does the Australian dollar come in, and how are they used?
A: The local currency in Australia is issued in denominations of $5, $10, $20, $50 and 100 AUD, 50 AUD, 20 AUD, 10 AUD and 5 AUD. All of these are commonly used in day-to-day transactions. The 100 AUD note, however, is less frequently used, and it may be refused by the smaller shops if you're making a small purchase. It's often wise to have more supply of the lower value notes.
Q: How much cash is a foreigner allowed to bring to Melbourne?
A: A foreigner who arrives in Melbourne carrying at least 10,000 AUD or an equivalent amount in a foreign currency has to fill out and sign a Cross-Border Movement – Physical Currency (CBM-PC) form. If asked at the border, he should also inform the officer if he is carrying any bearer negotiable instruments or BNI's, such as travel cheques, money orders, promissory notes and the like. Though BNIs have no face value, they still have to be disclosed.
Q: What credit cards are accepted in Melbourne?
A: American Express and Travelex are the two most frequently accepted cards in Melbourne. In larger stores, JCB cards may also be accepted. All of these cards can be cashed at foreign exchange centers, banks, car rental agencies and the bigger hotels. A foreigner must present a passport when cashing traveler's cheques. Major cards like Visa, American Express, MasterCard, Diners Club, etc. usually charge varying fees.
Q: What are the best options for foreign currency exchange in the city?
A: Money exchange is done in most of the key banks in the city, at small money exchange kiosks dotting Kings Cross and Circular Bay, and in hotels and casinos.
Q: Are ATMs well-distributed around Sydney?
A: Yes, everywhere in Sydney, there will be ATMs, but most are found in touristy areas or business centers. Note that most ATMs only accept international cards, both credit and debit.
Q: How often do people use cash in Sydney?
A: Credit cards are often used in Sydney for bigger purchases such as electronic gadgets and sometimes even cars, while cash is usually the only mode of payment accepted for smaller transactions such as bus ticket purchases or buying in smaller stores.
Q: What are the best online stores in the country for furniture, kitchen appliances and other household items?
A: Online sites for furniture and household item include kmart.com.au, bigw.com.au, target.com.au and IKEA.com.au.
Q: Is Australia a family-friendly country?
A: Absolutely, the country proves to be an excellent place to raise a family especially when it comes to property houses, health services and education. Children can spend recreational time outdoors in large open space and in a nearby beach while parents can benefit from various government schemes for financial emergencies.
Q: When does summer start in Australia and the subsequent seasons?
A: Summer happens during December to February. Fall/Autumn is around March to May and winter arrives by June until August. It is best to travel or relocate to Australia during Spring from September to November.
Q: Is Melbourne a good city for expat retirees?
A: Yes. In fact, Melbourne is now a top destination for retirees, along with other key cities like Sydney. This trend has even led the federal government to make a number of retirement visa types available. The first requirement for obtaining a retiree visas is that the applicant is at least 55 years old.
Q: How is the weather in Melbourne?
A: Weather in Melbourne can switch from rainy and sunny several times a day. A phenomenon known as "cool change," characterized by a sudden shift in the wind direction that causes a dramatic drop in temperature, is known to occur. On a sunny morning, it can get as hot as 40 degrees Celsius, but in a few hours, this can drop to 18 degrees Celsius. Other days, temperatures can dip below freezing points.
Q: Which parts of Melbourne are hay fever-safe?
A: A study of Melbourne municipalities shows that asthma rates are the highest in Wyndham and the lowest in Marybirnong. There is no conclusive evidence relating this to hay fever, but it may be a good point to consider. Bayside suburbs are also said to be anti-hay fever.
Q: What's the cost of hiring a removalist in Sydney?
A: This depends on the moving company and the amount of load to be moved. However, the most common rates fall between $140-165 per hour, for a service package that normally includes two professional removalists and one truck.
Q: What is one basic tip all people planning to move to Sydney should know?
A: The most basic thing to remember when moving to Sydney is sun protection. A lot of tourists and expats take this for granted, but Sydney's sun can be quite harsh, especially to those who are not used to it. Temperatures can go up to over 40 degrees Celsius on an ordinary day, and this can be very hazardous. There even schools (most, if not all) that have a strict no-hat-no-play policy, which means children will not be allowed to go out and play unless they wear something on their heads for protection. Sunscreen is a definite must, and so are cool, cotton shirts which help to regulate body temperature.
Q: Which is wiser - importing household goods to Sydney or buying new ones after relocation?
A: At the outset, household goods shipment can be very expensive, but this proves to be more economical later on than having to buy all new stuff upon arriving in Sydney. What's important is that enough research is done before choosing a shipping company, as there are many potential risks involved in goods transport. Costs are often based on weight, cubic dimensions, or both.
Q: What are the requirements for relocating a pet?
A: When relocating to Australia with a pet, one must strictly adhere to the following: an ISO 11784/11785 compliant ISO microchip, a rabies vaccination within one year of entry, blood Titer Test (RNATT) no sooner than 180 days prior to entry. (Have your veterinarian scan your pet's microchip prior to the titer test) and import Permit, a USDA (or CFIA) accredited veterinarian must then complete the Australia Veterinary Certificate for endorsement by the USDA or CFIA if travelling from the United States or Canada. All pets must travel as manifest cargo will need a health certificate issued within 10 days of travel.
Q: Do dogs and cats need to be quarantined when transported to Australia?
A: Australia requires dogs and cats a minimum of 10 days quarantine except for pets travelling from New Zealand, Norfolk Island or Coco Island.
Q: Which breeds are restricted in the country?
A: Restricted dog breeds are Dog Argentino, Fila Brazileiro, Japanese Tosa, Pit Bull Terrier, American Pit Bull and Perro de Presa Canario or Presa Canario.
Q: What are the requirements for admitting pets into Melbourne, Australia?
A: Requirements generally include a rabies blood test performed within 150 days before entry to Australia. If this requirement is satisfied, the pet will only be quarantined for 30 days. Pets may travel to Australia 2 months following the blood test, but the quarantine period will be longer.
Q: How much do dog boarding facilities in Melbourne cost?
A: Melbourne dog boarding services cost around $45-50 each. For every pair of dogs, the fee is around $75-90, depending on various factors such as location and facilities.
Q: Are there special rules for having dogs in Melbourne?
A: Yes. The most important requirement is registering dogs with the Melbourne council, and this registration is to be renewed annually. After registration, the dog owner will receive a certificate, along with an identification tag that bears the pet's registration number as well as the council's name. This tag must be worn by the animal at all times. Failure to register dogs in Melbourne can mean a fine of up to $500, while abandoning a dog can cost the owner up to $ 1,000.
Q: Are pets allowed in Sydney trains?
A: Animals are generally not allowed inside trains in Sydney, but there are three exceptions: police/security dogs, animals trained to assist disabled passengers and animals undergoing assistance training.
Q: How and where are pet-related complaints lodged in Sydney?
A: For pet-related issues such as excessive barking, property damage, people-chasing, etc., complaints may be lodged by calling 02 9265 9333. Response from a city ranger can be expected within 24 hours, and if the problem continues, a nuisance order will be served to the pet owner. Depending on the case, fines can range from $275-880.
Q: Why are vet fees very expensive in Sydney?
A: It's because there is no government subsidy for pet care in Sydney, so that pet owners feel like they are paying too much for vet services. While humans are covered by Medicare, animals are not. This is why it's important to take the time to research on different vets in the city so that comparisons may be made.
Q: At what age can children go to Primary School?
A: As early as 5, children can go to Primary school in Australia.
Q: Are state/public schools open to foreigners?
A: In general, state schools are open and accessible to foreigners.
Q: What are the high-ranking universities in Australia?
A: Based on the QS World University Rankings 2013/14, the high-ranking universities are the Australian National University (ranked 27 in the world; 1st in Australia), the University of Melbourne (ranked 31 in the world; 2nd in Australia) and University of Sydney (ranked 38 in the world; 3rd in Australia).
Q: What is the general calendar followed by schools in Melbourne?
A: Schools in Melbourne have a total four terms per school year, beginning late January up to early December. Summer and Christmas holidays are combined in one stretch.
Q: How much is the average in terms of Melbourne school fees?
A: Fees vary significantly from one school to another, so parents are advised to consult schools directly when asking for information regarding tuition fees. On average, yearly fees per private school amount to around $ 20,000. In public schools, tuition is free for permanent residents and those who hold a 457 visa. However, other expenses such as uniforms, fees for school trips, etc. have to be paid out of pocket. An enrollee classified as an international student has to pay full fees, and this status must be indicated in his or her passport.
Q: What are the best schools in Melbourne?
A: Schools in the Eastern suburbs such as Donvale, Blackburn and Park Orchards are good to consider because they are cheaper than those in the inner city, yet competitive in terms of quality of education. Note that government-run primary schools follow very strict zoning requirements. For example, parents must be able show proof of residence within a particular school zone before they can enroll their kids in a school within that zone.
Q: What is the reputation of public schools in Sydney?
A: Sydney (and Australia in general) boasts of public schools that are ranked 9th in world education survey of the Programme for International Student Assessment or Pisa. Under the same programme, UK ranks 25th and the US 17th.
Q: Do kids wear school uniforms in Sydney?
A: Yes, all Sydney schools - public, private, Catholic, Anglican, or Jewish - require students to wear school uniforms. Aside from skirts for girls and trousers for boys, a hat, sports jacket, backpack, and shorts are also included. Black, lace up shoes are the usual footwear, but they tend to be expensive in Sydney. Parents are advised to buy at least two pairs for each child before the move.
Q: Are there special requirements for 457 visa holders when enrolling in a Sydney school?
A: Yes, there are special enrolment requirements for 457 visa holders, and not all schools in Sydney accept 457 visa holders. It is important to contact a school directly and inquire.
Q: What are the most popular department stores in Australia?
A: Across the country, one can find David Jones, Harris Scarfe, Myer, Barsby's, Hanna's and Stewart's.
Q: What is the biggest grocery store in the country?
A: Woolworths and Wesfarmers are the heavyweights when it comes supermarket sales.
Q: Which online site does Aussies go to for product reviews?
A: Sites such as productreview.com.au and myshopping.com.au are the go-to sites amongst the locals.
Q: Where do I go to shop for clothes in Melbourne?
A: Melbourne is actually known for being Australia's fashion capital so there are many malls and boutiques dotting the city. In the CBD, some of the world's best designers in the likes of Louis Vuitton have shops lining the entire Little Collins Street. Melbourne Central is a popular shopping mall, along with Bourke Street Mall. For famous Australian brands, people usually troop to Emporium.
Q: Are there are any cheap shopping districts in Melbourne?
A: Definitely! DFO Outlets Centre found at South Wharf (near Yarra River's southern bank) is perfect for discount shoppers. Elizabeth Street is also perfect for backpackers looking for high-quality yet cheap outdoor products.
Q: At what times do stores in Melbourne usually open and close?
A: Shopping in Melbourne usually starts at 9am and ends at 5:30pm on weekdays, and runs from 9am (sometimes later) to 5 pm on Saturdays and Sundays. Most shops in the suburbs like Chadstone close later - usually up to 9pm - on Thursdays and Fridays. At supermarkets, opening time is usually 7am and closing time could well go beyond midnight. Of course, there are those that are open round-the-clock.
Q: What are the best places to shop in Sydney?
A: The city practically crawls with shopping districts like Westfield Sydney, Pitt Street Mall, the Queen Victoria Building, The Strand and Sydney Central Plaza. These shopping centers are joined together by pedestrian malls and walkways, and that makes it a whole lot easier for shoppers to get around. Anything, from chocolates to antiques, can be found in these shopping havens.
Q: Where are art pieces usually sold in Sydney?
A: The city has a long line of art galleries, but a very popular favorite is Aboriginal Art Galleries which features the indigenous works of more than 140 artists, including Dorothy Napangardi, Minnie Pwerle, and a lot more. Sculptures, artifacts, and more aboriginal art pieces can be found and purchased in these galleries which have two locations within the city - Queen Victoria Building and Opera Quays.
Q: What are the best places in Sydney to buy antiques?
A: There are lots of antique shops in Sydney, mostly located in shopping areas such as Paddington Double Bay, and Woollahra, especially around Sotheby’s. For cheaper antiques, the Sydney Antique Center in Surry Hills along South Dowling Street houses more than 50 smaller shops that sell all types of items, from chinaware to ancient animal carvings.
Q: What are the major telecoms in the country?
A: The biggest among the telcos is Telstra, which also owns the majority of landline infrastructure. Coming second is Optus, which is a subsidiary of Singapore Telecommunications.
A: In a month, Internet cost is around AUD 80-100, either uncapped ADSL or cable.
Q: What are the requirements to sign up for a mobile or Internet plan?
A: Requirements vary for each telcos. In general, one must have an identification with proof of address, complete contact details, a residential address, a delivery address (applicable for phones), proof of employment, study or pension benefits, and a direct debit from an Australian bank account or credit card.
Q: What telecom companies are most trusted in Melbourne?
A: Five of the most trusted telecom companies in Melbourne include AAPT Cellular One Ltd, Soul, Optus, Digiplus, and Telstra. These companies offer broadband technology, wireless broadband and 3G communications networks across the city.
Q: How much do people in Melbourne spend for telecom services in the city?
A: People in Melbourne typically pay more for telecom services than residents of other Australian cities. For example, for the average use of an ADSL broadband plan of 50 gigabytes per month, the bill may amount to around 100 AUD with a big telecom company. For a plan with a duration of less than two years, a subscriber may have to pay some 100 AUD in set up fees. For landlines, most households usually pay about 20 AUD monthly, while mobile phone plans normally cost around 70 AUD monthly.
Q: What are the free local TV stations in Melbourne?
A: Yes. In fact, there are six free TV stations, along with pay-to-view TV. The free TV stations available in the city are Channel 7, Channel 9, and Channel 10, along with ABC, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation’s national network, and Channel 31 and SBS which both feature foreign language programs.
Q: What are the best Internet service providers in Sydney?
A: Most people in Sydney use either iiNet, TPG or iPrimus which are considered the best Internet service providers in the city.
Q: Are 4G phone services available in Sydney?
A: Yes. In fact, over 75% of the city's metropolitan area has facilities that enable the use of 4G phones and other gadgets. It is projected that by April of 2015, at least 90% of the city will be able to use 4G technology.
Q: How much does Internet service cost in Sydney?
A: Different ISPs charge different rates, but usually for about the same quality of services. The monthly cost ranges from $40-70, depending on the period of the contract, with a choice of 12, 18 and 24 months, and data volume provided, usually from 20 - 500 GB. Some companies offer unlimited Internet for around $60 monthly.
Q: What are the modes of public transportation in Australia?
A: As one of the liveliest places to live, Australia has one of the extensive public transportation networks; most of its cities have trains, buses, monorail, trams and private taxis. Most expats working in the city use public transport on a daily basis, and it's the best way for travellers to get around the city.
Q: Can you travel the whole country via train?
Q: What is the process for personal vehicle registration in Australia?
A: Vehicle need to be registered right away in the owner’s state of residence (and not where the vehicle was purchased). State agencies handle the whole process, but usually it's the Road Transport Authorities, which is responsible for motor vehicle inspection and registration, and driver licensing service.
Q: How much does a cab cost in Melbourne?
A: This depends on the passenger's current location and destination. The average cost of a taxi going to or from the city center is around 55 AUD. Two other factors that affect the final bill are traffic and the time of day. Taxis in Melbourne also charge higher at night.
Q: How do people get around Melbourne?
A: Most people in Melbourne prefer to get around using the public transport system. Aside from being cheaper (only 7 AUD a day for a public transport ticket), commuters are also able to avoid dealing with fluctuating fuel prices and high parking fees (over 10AUD), not to mention traffic jams. Expats who live in outlying areas naturally have to spend more for transportation.
Q: What license does a non-local need to drive in Melbourne?
A: An expat is allowed to drive in Melbourne using the driver's license issued to him in his home country. However, this is only good for up to three months after the issuance of his Australian visa. After such period, he has to pass a local driving test to be able to continue driving in the city. If his original license was issued in Austria, Belgium, Canada, Croatia, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Singapore, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK or USA, he may simply swap that license with a Victorian license, and there will be no driving tests required.
Q: What is the traffic situation in Sydney?
A: Traffic in Sydney is busy all the time, and traveling by car is often preferable outside of weekday peak hours. City roads are most congested from 6:30AM-9:30AM, and those leading to the suburbs are the busiest between 4:30PM and 6:30PM.
Q: Do kids get discounts at public transport fares in Sydney?
A: Yes. Any passenger aged 15 years below is usually given discounts on most public transport vehicles. The age limit for discounts on Matilda ferries, however, is 14. Kids 3 years old and below can travel completely free. For Matilda ferries, the age limit is 4 years and younger.
Q: Where can people buy bus tickets in Sydney?
A: Bus tickets are available at corner shops, post offices, 7/11's, transit stores and news bureaus. Note that between 7am and 7pm, people cannot buy tickets while on board buses within the city, or in any of the key transport corridors. Sometimes, especially on weekends, tickets may be purchased from the driver on non- Prepay Only bus routes.
Q: What are the documents that foreigners need to present upon arrival in Australia?
A: Foreigners travelling to Australia need to present upon entry a valid passport or other acceptable travel document, a valid visa, and a completed and signed Incoming Passenger Card.
Q: Any recommended reference to travellers to Australia?
A: A good reference is the Lonely Planet book on AU and Citysearch.com website for Sydney attractions.
Q: When is the cheapest season to travel to Australia?
A: Winter months from June to August would be the cheapest time to travel.
Q: What are the health risks commonly associated with travel to Melbourne?
A: In terms of common diseases, there are no major risks in Melbourne today. In the last few years, however, there were minor epidemics of pertussis or whooping cough that affected children in suburban areas. As a general precaution, expats moving to the city with kids are advised to ensure that immunizations are kept up to date.
Q: What is Melbourne's weather like and what preparations are necessary for those traveling to the city?
A: Expats should remember to take along the right clothing for the city's rather unpredictable weather. Generally, it's wise to bring along enough sunscreen, a sun visor and UV protective clothing when possible, as the Australian sun can be a bit piercing.
Q: What vaccinations are advised for people traveling to Melbourne?
A: There are no special vaccinations advised for people traveling to Melbourne, but booster shots for tetanus and polio are highly recommended. Elderly expats must have flu shots as well, and those who are coming to work in medical settings should get immunization for hepatitis.
Q: When is the best time to travel to Sydney and enjoy its beaches?
A: Summer, which runs from December to February, is the best time to enjoy the city's fabulous beaches. However, temperatures can go as high as over 40°C, so sunscreen is an absolute must. From March to May, which is autumn, it can still be good and warm but not all the time for those who are mainly planning to hit the beach.
Q: Are their coach services in Sydney?
A: Yes. There are coach companies in Sydney driving to all key Australian cities and many NSW regional centers. The terminal is located adjacent to the train station in the City South. Many tourists prefer to travel by coach because it is cheaper and runs faster.
Q: What's the best way to see and marvel at Sydney's harbor and other attractions?
A: Most travelers agree that the best way is to take a ferry east from Circular Quay all the way to Taronga Zoo, Manly or west down below the Harbor Bridge, and on towards Parramatta. All of these are affordably priced and are favorites of many tourists. For a shorter route, it's best to take the ferry between Darling Harbor and Circular Quay for a ride below the Harbor Bridge.
Q: What are the types of Visitor's Visa in Australia?
A: Visitor's Visa include Subclass 976 for tourists and travellers visiting for less than three months, and for passport holders from a designated list of nations while Subclass 651 is for European/UK passport holders visiting Australia for three months or less; on the other hand, Subclass 676 is for passport holders who do not qualify for a subclass 976 or subclass 651; and Subclass 679 is for those who wish to visit a family member in Australia for 12 months or less.
Q: What is the Employer-Sponsored Work Visa?
A: There are three categories which fall under the Employer-Sponsored Work Visa: 1) Standard Business Sponsorship for employers who want to bring a working from overseas provided that they can justify that no Australian employee is available 2) Educational visa sponsored by an institution for teachers and education workers from overseas 3) Medical practitioner visa sponsored either by a hospital or by a small rural community/ local council for trained doctors.
Q: How does one apply for Australian citizenship?
A: One can apply for Australian citizenship if you have been living in Australia on a valid visa for four years immediately before applying; this should also include the previous 12 months as a permanent resident in the country and has not left Australia for more than one year in total and no more than 90 days in the year before applying.
Q: What is the population of permanent resident visa holders in Melbourne ?
A: As of 2013, almost 25% of Melbourne's population is composed of migrants from over 180 countries, and the city actually has the second biggest Asian population in Australia. There are no specific figures, however, as to how many or what percent of this population holds permanent resident status. Nonetheless, as expected, there are many embassies and consulates spread all over the city, providing immigration-related assistance to their citizens from such countries as the US, UK, Denmark, Finland, China, Taiwan, Mauritius and about 35 others.
Q: Where can a permanent resident visa holder apply for an Australian passport in Melbourne?
A: Applications may be forwarded to the Australian Passport Office (APO) in Melbourne which has moved to a new location: Level 2, Collins Square, 747 Collins Street, Docklands. The APO in Melbourne also offers Australian Passport Information Service through the hotline, 131 232.
Q: Where can fraudulent migrant visa agents be reported in Melbourne?
A: Reports may be filed in person at the Melbourne Visa Office at Casselden Place, 2 Lonsdale Street, or phoned in at the national hotline, 1800 009 623.
Q: Is it possible to enter Sydney on an ETA visa?
A: Yes, but it is only good for a three-month stay, and it does not appear in the passport as it is electronically processed and saved. ETAs are often used by people who come to Sydney on a study program, or a short-term business or tourism-related event.
Q: How long is the processing time for an ETA visa?
A: ETA visas are usually given automatically as soon as all details have been submitted. A visa grant notification will usually be sent to the applicant in seconds. However, in some cases, processing can take longer due to three possible scenarios - incorrect information has been entered in the application, the applicant has a criminal conviction, or the application has been forwarded to the Australian High Commission.
Q: What are the options for someone who wants to work in Sydney?
A: Foreign nationals who want to work in Sydney can apply for a Working Holiday visa which is good for a maximum of two years. Those who would like to live permanently in the city can forward an application to Australia’s General Skilled Migration program. The applicant will then be assessed based on a points system which takes into consideration various factors such as age, qualifications, etc. If a person gets a job offer from a Sydney-based company while visiting the city, he or she may apply for a Temporary Residence visa. However, the prospective employer must be able to provide evidence that there are no local candidates qualified for the position. If sufficient proof has been presented, the company may sponsor the worker for up to four years. | 2019-04-19T08:45:10Z | http://www.expatfinder.com/australia/expat-guides/faq |
This article is about the TV series. For other uses, see Twin Peaks (disambiguation).
Twin Peaks is an American mystery horror drama television series created by Mark Frost and David Lynch that premiered on April 8, 1990, on ABC. It was one of the top-rated series of 1990, but declining ratings led to its cancellation after its second season in 1991. It nonetheless gained a cult following and has been referenced in a wide variety of media. In subsequent years, Twin Peaks is often listed among the greatest television series of all time.
The series follows an investigation headed by FBI Special Agent Dale Cooper (Kyle MacLachlan) into the murder of homecoming queen Laura Palmer (Sheryl Lee) in the fictional suburban town of Twin Peaks, Washington. The show's narrative draws on elements of detective fiction, but its uncanny tone, supernatural elements, and campy, melodramatic portrayal of eccentric characters also draw on American soap opera and horror tropes. Like much of Lynch's work, it is distinguished by surrealism, offbeat humor, and distinctive cinematography. The acclaimed score was composed by Angelo Badalamenti with Lynch.
The success of the show sparked a media franchise, and the series was followed by a 1992 feature film, Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me, that serves as a prequel to the series. Additional tie-in books were also released. Following a hiatus of over 25 years, the show returned in 2017 with a third season on Showtime, marketed as Twin Peaks: The Return. The season was directed by Lynch and written by Lynch and Frost, and starred many original cast members, including MacLachlan.
Season one of Twin Peaks focuses on the mystery of who killed Laura Palmer (played by Sheryl Lee, pictured in 1990).
In 1989, the logger Pete Martell discovers a naked corpse wrapped in plastic on the bank of a river outside the town of Twin Peaks, Washington. When Sheriff Harry S. Truman, his deputies, and Dr. Will Hayward arrive, the body is identified as homecoming queen Laura Palmer. A badly injured second girl, Ronette Pulaski, is discovered in a fugue state.
FBI Special Agent Dale Cooper is called in to investigate. Cooper's initial examination of Laura's body reveals a tiny typed letter "R" inserted under her fingernail. Cooper informs the community that Laura's death matches the signature of a killer who murdered another girl in southwestern Washington the previous year, and that evidence indicates the killer lives in Twin Peaks.
The authorities discover through Laura's diary that she has been living a double life. She was cheating on her boyfriend, football captain Bobby Briggs, with biker James Hurley, and prostituting herself with the help of truck driver Leo Johnson and drug dealer Jacques Renault. Laura was also addicted to cocaine, which she obtained by coercing Bobby into doing business with Jacques.
Laura's father, attorney Leland Palmer, suffers a nervous breakdown. Her best friend, Donna Hayward, begins a relationship with James. With the help of Laura's cousin Maddy Ferguson, Donna and James discover that Laura's psychiatrist, Dr. Lawrence Jacoby, was obsessed with Laura, but he is proven innocent of the murder.
Hotelier Ben Horne, the richest man in Twin Peaks, plans to destroy the town's lumber mill along with its owner Josie Packard, and murder his lover (Josie's sister-in-law), Catherine Martell (Piper Laurie), so that he can purchase the land at a reduced price and complete a development project, Ghostwood. Horne's sultry, troubled daughter, Audrey, becomes infatuated with Cooper and spies for clues in an effort to gain his affections.
Cooper has a dream in which he is approached by a one-armed otherworldly being who calls himself MIKE. MIKE says that Laura's murderer is a similar entity, Killer BOB, a feral, denim-clad man with long gray hair. Cooper finds himself decades older with Laura and a dwarf in a red business suit, who engages in coded dialogue with Cooper. The next morning, Cooper tells Truman that, if he can decipher the dream, he will know who killed Laura.
Cooper and the sheriff's department find the one-armed man from Cooper's dream, a traveling shoe salesman named Phillip Gerard. Gerard knows a Bob, the veterinarian who treats Renault's pet bird. Cooper interprets these events to mean that Renault is the murderer, and with Truman's help, tracks Renault to One-Eyed Jack's, a brothel owned by Horne across the border in Canada. He lures Jacques Renault back onto U.S. soil to arrest him, but Renault is shot while trying to escape and is hospitalized.
Leland, learning that Renault has been arrested, sneaks into the hospital and murders him. The same night, Horne orders Leo to burn down the lumber mill with Catherine trapped inside and has Leo gunned down by Hank Jennings to ensure Leo's silence. Cooper returns to his room following Jacques's arrest and is shot by a masked gunman.
After solving the murder of Laura Palmer, Kyle MacLachlan's (pictured here in 1991) character of Dale Cooper stays in Twin Peaks to investigate further.
Lying hurt in his hotel room, Cooper has a vision in which a giant appears and reveals three clues: "There is a man in a smiling bag"; "The owls are not what they seem"; and "Without chemicals, he points." He takes Cooper's gold ring and explains that when Cooper understands the three premonitions, his ring will be returned.
Leo Johnson survives his shooting but is brain-damaged. Catherine Martell disappears, presumed killed in the mill fire. Leland Palmer, whose hair has turned white overnight, returns to work but behaves erratically. Cooper deduces that the "man in the smiling bag" is the corpse of Jacques Renault in a body bag.
Donna befriends an agoraphobic orchid grower named Harold Smith whom Laura entrusted with a second, secret diary she kept. Harold catches Donna and Maddy attempting to steal the diary from him and hangs himself in despair. Cooper and the sheriff's department take possession of Laura's secret diary, and learn that BOB, a friend of her father's, had been sexually abusing her since childhood and she used drugs to cope. They initially suspect that the killer is Ben Horne and arrest him, but Leland Palmer is revealed to viewers to be BOB's host when he brutally kills Maddy.
Cooper begins to doubt Horne's guilt, so he gathers all of his suspects in the belief that he will receive a sign to help him identify the killer. The Giant appears and confirms that Leland is BOB's host and Laura's and Maddy's killer, giving Cooper back his ring. Cooper and Truman take Leland into custody. In control of Leland's body, BOB admits to a string of murders, before forcing Leland to commit suicide. Leland, as he dies, is freed of BOB's influence and begs for forgiveness. BOB's spirit disappears into the woods in the form of an owl and the lawmen wonder if he will reappear.
Cooper is set to leave Twin Peaks when he is framed for drug trafficking by Jean Renault and is suspended from the FBI. Renault holds Cooper responsible for the death of his brothers, Jacques and Bernard. Jean Renault is killed in a shootout with police, and Cooper is cleared of all charges.
Windom Earle, Cooper's former mentor and FBI partner, escapes from a mental institution and comes to Twin Peaks. Cooper had previously been having an affair with Earle's wife, Caroline, while she was under his protection as a witness to a federal crime. Earle murdered Caroline and wounded Cooper. He now engages Cooper in a twisted game of chess where Earle murders someone whenever a piece is captured.
Investigating BOB's origin and whereabouts with the help of Major Garland Briggs, Cooper learns of the existence of the White Lodge and the Black Lodge, two extra-dimensional realms whose entrances are somewhere in the woods surrounding Twin Peaks.
Catherine returns to town in yellowface, having survived the mill fire, and manipulates Ben Horne into signing the Ghostwood project over to her. Andrew Packard, Josie's husband, is revealed to be still alive. Josie Packard is revealed to be the person who shot Cooper at the end of the first season. Andrew forces Josie to confront his business rival and her tormentor from Hong Kong, the sinister Thomas Eckhardt. Josie kills Eckhardt but she mysteriously dies when Truman and Cooper try to apprehend her.
Cooper falls in love with a new arrival in town, Annie Blackburn. Earle captures the brain-damaged Leo for use as a henchman and abandons his chess game with Cooper. When Annie wins the Miss Twin Peaks contest, Earle kidnaps her and takes her to the entrance to the Black Lodge, whose power he seeks to use for himself.
Through a series of clues Cooper discovers the entrance to the Black Lodge, which turns out to be the strange, red-curtained room from his dream. He is greeted by the Man From Another Place, the Giant, and Laura Palmer, who each give Cooper cryptic messages. Searching for Annie and Earle, Cooper encounters doppelgängers of various people, including Maddy Ferguson and Leland Palmer. Cooper finds Earle, who demands Cooper's soul in exchange for Annie's life. Cooper agrees but BOB appears and takes Earle's soul for himself. BOB then turns to Cooper, who is chased through the lodge by a doppelgänger of himself.
Outside the lodge, Andrew Packard, Pete Martell and Audrey Horne are caught in an explosion at a bank vault, a trap laid by the dead Eckhardt.
Cooper and Annie reappear in the woods, both injured. Annie is taken to hospital but Cooper recovers in his room at the Great Northern Hotel. It becomes clear that the "Cooper" who emerged from the Lodge is in fact his doppelgänger, under BOB's control. He smashes his head into a bathroom mirror and laughs maniacally.
On October 6, 2014, it was announced that a limited series would air on Showtime. David Lynch and Mark Frost wrote all the episodes, and Lynch directed. Frost emphasized that the new episodes are not a remake or reboot but a continuation of the series. The episodes are set in the present day, and the passage of 25 years is an important element in the plot.
Most of the original cast returns, including Kyle MacLachlan, Mädchen Amick, Sherilyn Fenn, Sheryl Lee, Ray Wise, and several others. Additions include Jeremy Davies, Laura Dern, Robert Forster, Tim Roth, Jennifer Jason Leigh, Amanda Seyfried, Matthew Lillard, and Naomi Watts.
The limited series began filming in September 2015 and was completed by April 2016. It was shot continuously from a single, long-shooting script before being edited into separate episodes. The series premiered on May 21, 2017, and consists of 18 episodes.
In the 1980s, Mark Frost worked for three years as a writer for the television police drama Hill Street Blues, which featured a large cast and extended story lines. Following his success with The Elephant Man (1980) and Blue Velvet in 1986, David Lynch was hired by a Warner Bros. executive to direct a film about the life of Marilyn Monroe, based on the best-selling book Goddess. Lynch recalls being "sort of interested. I loved the idea of this woman in trouble, but I didn't know if I liked it being a real story." Lynch and Frost first worked together on the Goddess screenplay and although the project was dropped by Warner Bros., they became good friends. They went on to work as writer and director for One Saliva Bubble, a film with Steve Martin attached to star, but it was never made either. Lynch's agent, Tony Krantz, encouraged him to do a television show. He took Lynch to Nibblers restaurant in Los Angeles and said, "You should do a show about real life in America—your vision of America the same way you demonstrated it in Blue Velvet." Lynch got an "idea of a small-town thing", and though he and Frost were not keen on it, they decided to humor Krantz. Frost wanted to tell "a sort of Dickensian story about multiple lives in a contained area that could sort of go perpetually." Originally, the show was to be titled North Dakota and set in the Plains region of North Dakota.
After Frost, Krantz, and Lynch rented a screening room in Beverly Hills and screened Peyton Place, they decided to develop the town before its inhabitants. Due to the lack of forests and mountains in North Dakota, the title was changed from North Dakota to Northwest Passage (the title of the pilot episode), and the location to the Pacific Northwest, specifically Washington. They then drew a map and decided that there would be a lumber mill in the town. Then they came up with an image of a body washing up on the shore of a lake. Lynch remembers, "We knew where everything was located and that helped us determine the prevailing atmosphere and what might happen there." Frost remembers that he and Lynch came up with the notion of the girl next door leading a "desperate double life" that would end in murder. The idea was inspired, in part, by the unsolved 1908 murder of Hazel Irene Drew in Sand Lake, New York.
Lynch and Frost pitched the idea to ABC during the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike in a ten-minute meeting with the network's drama head, Chad Hoffman, with nothing more than this image and a concept. According to the director, the mystery of who killed Laura Palmer was initially going to be in the foreground, but would recede gradually as viewers got to know the other townsfolk and the problems they were having. Lynch and Frost wanted to mix a police investigation with a soap opera. ABC liked the idea and asked Lynch and Frost to write a screenplay for the pilot episode. They had been talking about the project for three months and wrote the screenplay in 10 days. Frost wrote more verbal characters, like Benjamin Horne, while Lynch was responsible for Agent Cooper. According to the director, "He says a lot of the things I say." ABC Entertainment President Brandon Stoddard ordered the two-hour pilot for a possible fall 1989 series. He left the position in March 1989 as Lynch went into production. They filmed the pilot for million with an agreement with ABC that they would shoot an additional "ending" to it so that it could be sold directly to video in Europe as a feature film if the TV show was not picked up. ABC's Robert Iger and his creative team took over, saw the dailies, and met with Frost and Lynch to get the arc of the stories and characters. Although Iger liked the pilot, he had difficulty persuading the rest of the network executives. Iger suggested showing it to a more diverse, younger group, who liked it, and the executive subsequently convinced ABC to buy seven episodes at .1 million apiece. Some executives figured that the show would never get on the air or that it might run as a seven-hour mini-series, but Iger planned to schedule it for the spring. The final showdown occurred during a bi-coastal conference call between Iger and a room full of New York executives; Iger won, and Twin Peaks was on the air.
Each episode took a week to shoot and after directing the second episode, Lynch went off to complete Wild at Heart while Frost wrote the remaining segments.Standards and Practices had a problem with only one scene from the first season: an extreme close-up in the pilot of Cooper's hand as he slid tweezers under Laura's fingernail and removed a tiny "R". They wanted the scene to be shorter because it made them uncomfortable, but Frost and Lynch refused and the scene remained.
Veteran film actress Piper Laurie (pictured here in 1990) helped cement the Twin Peaks cast.
Twin Peaks features members of a loose ensemble of Lynch's favorite character actors, including Jack Nance, Kyle MacLachlan, Grace Zabriskie, and Everett McGill. Isabella Rossellini, who had worked with Lynch on Blue Velvet was originally cast as Giovanna Packard, but she dropped out of the production before shooting began on the pilot episode. The character was then reconceived as Josie Packard, of Chinese ethnicity, and the role given to actress Joan Chen. It casts several veteran actors who had risen to fame in the 1950s and 1960s, including 1950s film stars Richard Beymer, Piper Laurie, and Russ Tamblyn. Other veteran actors included British actor James Booth (Zulu), former The Mod Squad star Peggy Lipton, and Michael Ontkean who co-starred in the 1970s crime drama The Rookies. Kyle MacLachlan was cast as Agent Dale Cooper. Stage actor Warren Frost, father of Mark Frost, was cast as Dr. Will Hayward.
Due to budget constraints, Lynch intended to cast a local girl from Seattle, reportedly "just to play a dead girl". The local girl ended up being Sheryl Lee. Lynch stated "But no one—not Mark, me, anyone—had any idea that she could act, or that she was going to be so powerful just being dead." And then, while Lynch shot the home movie that James takes of Donna and Laura, he realized that Lee had something special. "She did do another scene—the video with Donna on the picnic—and it was that scene that did it." As a result, Sheryl Lee became a semi-regular addition to the cast, appearing in flashbacks as Laura, and portraying another, recurring character: Maddy Ferguson, Laura's similar-looking cousin.
The character of Phillip Gerard's appearance in the pilot episode was originally intended to be only a "kind of homage to The Fugitive. The only thing he was gonna do was be in this elevator and walk out," according to David Lynch. However, when Lynch wrote the "Fire walk with me" speech, he imagined Al Strobel, who played Gerard, reciting it in the basement of the Twin Peaks hospital—a scene that appeared in the European version of the pilot episode, and surfaced later in Agent Cooper's dream sequence. Gerard's full name, Phillip Michael Gerard, is also a reference to Lieutenant Phillip Gerard, a character in The Fugitive.
Lynch met Michael J. Anderson in 1987. After seeing him in a short film, Lynch wanted to cast the actor in the title role in Ronnie Rocket, but that project failed to get made.
Richard Beymer was cast as Ben Horne because he had known Johanna Ray, Lynch's casting director. Lynch was familiar with Beymer's work in the 1961 film West Side Story and was surprised that Beymer was available for the role.
Set dresser Frank Silva was cast as the mysterious "Bob". Lynch himself recalls that the idea originated when he overheard Silva moving furniture around in the bedroom set, and then heard a woman warning Silva not to block himself in by moving furniture in front of the door. Lynch was struck with an image of Silva in the room. When he learned that Silva was an actor, he filmed two panning shots, one with Silva at the base of the bed, and one without; he did not yet know how he would use this material. Later that day, during the filming of Sarah Palmer having a vision, the camera operator told Lynch that the shot was ruined because "Frank [Silva] was reflected in the mirror." Lynch comments, "Things like this happen and make you start dreaming. And one thing leads to another, and if you let it, a whole other thing opens up." Lynch used the panning shot of Silva in the bedroom, and the shot featuring Silva's reflection, in the closing scenes of the European version of the pilot episode. Silva's reflection in the mirror can also be glimpsed during the scene of Sarah's vision at the end of the original pilot, but it is less clear. A close-up of Silva in the bedroom later became a significant image in episodes of the TV series.
The score for Twin Peaks has received acclaim; The Guardian wrote that it "still marks the summit of TV soundtracks." In fall 1989, composer Angelo Badalamenti and Lynch created the score for the show. In 20 minutes they produced the signature theme for the series. Badalamenti called it the "Love Theme from Twin Peaks". Lynch told him, "You just wrote 75% of the score. It's the mood of the whole piece. It is Twin Peaks." While creating the score, Lynch often described the moods or emotions he wanted the music to evoke, and Badalamenti began to play the piano. In the scenes dominated by young men, they are accompanied by music that Badalamenti called Cool Jazz. The characters' masculinity was enhanced by finger-snapping, "cocktail-lounge electric piano, pulsing bass, and lightly brushed percussion." A handful of the motifs were borrowed from the Julee Cruise album Floating into the Night, which was written in large part by Badalamenti and Lynch and was released in 1989. This album also serves as the soundtrack to another Lynch project, Industrial Symphony No. 1, a live Cruise performance also featuring Michael J. Anderson ("The Man from Another Place").
The song "Falling" (sans vocals) became the theme to the show, and the songs "Rockin' Back Inside My Heart", "The Nightingale", "The World Spins", and "Into the Night" (found in their full versions on the album) were all, except the latter, used as Cruise's roadhouse performances during the show's run. The lyrics for all five songs were written by Lynch. A second volume of the soundtrack was released on October 30, 2007, to coincide with the Definitive Gold Box DVD set.
In March 2011, Lynch began releasing The Twin Peaks Archive - a collection of previously unavailable tracks from the series and the film via his website.
FBI Special Agent Dale Cooper states, in the pilot episode, that Twin Peaks is "five miles south of the Canadian border, and twelve miles west of the state line". This places it in the Salmo-Priest Wilderness. Lynch and Frost started their location search in Snoqualmie, Washington, on the recommendation of a friend of Frost. They found all of the locations that they had written into the pilot episode. The towns of Snoqualmie, North Bend and Fall City – which became the primary filming locations for stock Twin Peaks exterior footage – are about an hour's drive from the town of Roslyn, Washington, the town used for the series Northern Exposure. Many exterior scenes were filmed in wooded areas of Malibu, California. Most of the interior scenes were shot on standing sets in a San Fernando Valley warehouse.
The soap opera show-within-the-show Invitation to Love was not shot on a studio set, but in the Ennis House, an architectural landmark designed by Frank Lloyd Wright in the Hollywood area of Los Angeles.
Mark Frost and David Lynch made use of repeating and sometimes mysterious motifs such as trees (especially fir and pines), coffee, cherry pie, donuts, owls, logs, ducks, water, fire—and numerous embedded references to other films and TV shows.
During the filming of the scene in which Cooper first examines Laura's body, a malfunctioning fluorescent lamp above the table flickered constantly, but Lynch decided not to replace it, since he liked the disconcerting effect that it created.
Cooper's dream at the end of the third episode, which became a driving plot point in the series's first season and ultimately held the key to the identity of Laura's murderer, was never scripted. The idea came to Lynch one afternoon after touching the side of a hot car left out in the sun: "I was leaning against a car—the front of me was leaning against this very warm car. My hands were on the roof and the metal was very hot. The Red Room scene leapt into my mind. 'Little Mike' was there, and he was speaking backwards... For the rest of the night I thought only about The Red Room." The footage was originally shot along with the pilot, to be used as the conclusion were it to be released as a feature film. When the series was picked up, Lynch decided to incorporate some of the footage; in the third episode, Cooper, narrating the dream, outlines the shot footage which Lynch did not incorporate, such as Mike shooting Bob and the fact that he is 25 years older when he meets Laura Palmer's spirit.
In an attempt to avoid cancellation, the idea of a Cooper possessed by Bob came up and was included in the final episode, but the series was cancelled even before the episode was aired.
Before the one and a half hour pilot premiered on TV, a screening was held at the Museum of Broadcasting in Hollywood. Media analyst and advertising executive Paul Schulman said, "I don't think it has a chance of succeeding. It is not commercial, it is radically different from what we as viewers are accustomed to seeing, there's no one in the show to root for." The show's Thursday night time slot had not been a good one for soap operas, as both Dynasty and its short-lived spin-off The Colbys did poorly.Twin Peaks was also up against the hugely successful sitcom Cheers.
Initially, the show received a positive response from TV critics. Tom Shales, in The Washington Post, wrote, "Twin Peaks disorients you in ways that small-screen productions seldom attempt. It's a pleasurable sensation, the floor dropping out and leaving one dangling." In The New York Times, John J. O'Connor wrote, "Twin Peaks is not a send-up of the form. Mr. Lynch clearly savors the standard ingredients...but then the director adds his own peculiar touches, small passing details that suddenly, and often hilariously, thrust the commonplace out of kilter."Entertainment Weekly gave the show an "A+" rating and Ken Tucker wrote, "Plot is irrelevant; moments are everything. Lynch and Frost have mastered a way to make a weekly series endlessly interesting."Richard Zoglin in Time magazine said that it "may be the most hauntingly original work ever done for American TV."
The two-hour pilot was the highest-rated movie for the 1989–90 season with a 22 rating and was viewed by 33% of the audience. In its first broadcast as a regular one-hour drama series, Twin Peaks scored ABC's highest ratings in four years in its 9:00 pm Thursday time slot. The show also reduced NBC's Cheers's ratings. Twin Peaks had a 16.2 rating with each point equaling 921,000 homes with TVs. The episode also added new viewers because of what ABC's senior vice-president of research, Alan Wurtzel, called "the water cooler syndrome", in which people talk about the series the next day at work.
But the show's third episode lost 14% of the audience that had tuned in a week before. That audience had dropped 30% from the show's first appearance on Thursday night. This was a result of competing against Cheers, which appealed to the same demographic that watched Twin Peaks. A production executive from the show spoke of being frustrated with the network's scheduling of the show. "The show is being banged around on Thursday night. If ABC had put it on Wednesday night it could have built on its initial success. ABC has put the show at risk."
In response, the network aired the first-season finale on a Wednesday night at 10:00 pm instead of its usual 9:00 pm Thursday slot. The show achieved its best ratings since its third week on the air with a 12.6 and a 22 share of the audience. On May 22, 1990, it was announced that Twin Peaks would be renewed for a second season.
During the first and second season, the search for Laura Palmer's killer served as the engine for the plot, and captured the public's imagination, although the creators admitted this was largely a MacGuffin; each episode was really about the interactions between the townsfolk. The unique (and often bizarre) personalities of each citizen formed a web of minutiae that ran contrary to the town's quaint appearance. Adding to the surreal atmosphere was the recurrence of Dale Cooper's dreams, in which the FBI agent is given clues to Laura's murder in a supernatural realm that may or may not be of his imagination. The first season contained only eight episodes (including the two-hour pilot episode), and was considered technically and artistically revolutionary for television at the time, and geared toward reaching the standards of film.
Critics have noted that Twin Peaks began the trend of accomplished cinematography now commonplace in today's television dramas. Lynch and Frost maintained tight control over the first season, handpicking all of the directors, including some Lynch had known from his days at the American Film Institute (e.g., Caleb Deschanel and Tim Hunter) and some referred to him by those he knew personally. Lynch and Frost's control lessened in the second season, corresponding with what is generally regarded as a decrease in the show's quality once the identity of Laura Palmer's murderer was revealed.
The aforementioned "water cooler effect" put pressure on the show's creators to solve the mystery. Although they claimed to have known from the series' inception the identity of Laura's murderer, Lynch never wanted to solve the murder, while Frost felt that they had an obligation to the audience to solve it. This created tension between the two men.
Its ambitious style, paranormal undertones, and engaging murder mystery made Twin Peaks an unexpected hit. Its characters, particularly MacLachlan's Dale Cooper, were unorthodox for a supposed crime drama, as was Cooper's method of interpreting his dreams to solve the crime. During its first season, the show's popularity reached its zenith, and elements of the program seeped into mainstream popular culture, prompting parodies, including one in the 16th-season premiere of Saturday Night Live, hosted by MacLachlan.
David Lynch at the 42nd Primetime Emmy Awards on September 16, 1990, where Twin Peaks was nominated for fourteen awards. He was nominated for directing and co-writing the pilot episode.
For its first season, Twin Peaks received fourteen nominations at the 42nd Primetime Emmy Awards, for Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series (Kyle MacLachlan), Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series (Piper Laurie), Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Sherilyn Fenn), Outstanding Directing in a Drama Series (David Lynch), Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series (David Lynch and Mark Frost), Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series (Harley Peyton), Outstanding Art Direction for a Series, Outstanding Achievement in Main Title Theme Music, Outstanding Achievement in Music Composition for a Series (Dramatic Underscore), Outstanding Achievement in Music and Lyrics, and Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series. Out of its fourteen nominations, it won for Outstanding Costume Design for a Series and Outstanding Editing for a Series – Single Camera Production.
For its second season, it received four nominations at the 43rd Primetime Emmy Awards, for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series (Kyle MacLachlan), Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Piper Laurie), Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series, and Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Drama Series.
At the 48th Golden Globe Awards, it won for Best TV Series – Drama, Kyle MacLachlan won for Best Performance by an Actor in a TV Series – Drama, Piper Laurie won for Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Series, Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for TV; while Sherilyn Fenn was nominated in the same category as Laurie.
The pilot episode was ranked 25th on TV Guide's 1997 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time. It placed 49th on Entertainment Weekly's "New TV Classics" list. In 2004 and 2007, Twin Peaks was ranked 20th and 24th on TV Guide's Top Cult Shows Ever, and in 2002, it was ranked 45th of the "Top 50 Television Programs of All Time" by the same guide. In 2007, UK broadcaster Channel 4 ranked Twin Peaks 9th on their list of the "50 Greatest TV Dramas". Also that year, Time included the show on their list of the "100 Best TV Shows of All-Time".Empire listed Twin Peaks as the 24th best TV show in their list of "The 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time".
In 2012, Entertainment Weekly listed the show at no. 12 in the "25 Best Cult TV Shows from the Past 25 Years", saying, "The show itself was only fitfully brilliant and ultimately unfulfilling, but the cult lives, fueled by nostalgia for the extraordinary pop phenomenon it inspired, for its significance to the medium (behold the big bang of auteur TV!), and for a sensuous strangeness that possesses you and never lets you go." The series has been nominated for the TCA Heritage Award six consecutive years since 2010. It was ranked 20th on The Hollywood Reporter's list of Hollywood's 100 Favorite TV Shows.
With the resolution of Twin Peaks' main drawing point (Laura Palmer's murder) in the middle of the second season, and with subsequent story lines becoming more obscure and drawn out, public interest began to wane. This discontent, coupled with ABC changing its timeslot on a number of occasions, led to a huge drop in the show's ratings after being one of the most-watched television programs in the United States in 1990. A week after the season's 15th episode placed 85th in the ratings out of 89 shows, ABC put Twin Peaks on indefinite hiatus, a move that usually leads to cancellation.
An organized letter-writing campaign, dubbed COOP (Citizens Opposed to the Offing of Peaks), attempted to save the show from cancellation. The campaign was successful, as ABC agreed to air the remaining six episodes to finish the season. But due to the Gulf War, Twin Peaks was moved from its usual time slot "for six weeks out of eight" in early 1991, according to Frost, preventing the show from maintaining audience interest.
According to Frost, the main storyline after the resolution of Laura Palmer's murder was planned to be the second strongest element from the first season that audiences responded to: The relationship between Agent Cooper and Audrey Horne. Frost explained that Lara Flynn Boyle, who was romantically involved with Kyle MacLachlan at the time, had effectively vetoed the Audrey-Cooper relationship, forcing the writers to come up with alternative storylines to fill the gap. Sherilyn Fenn corroborated this claim in a 2014 interview, stating, "[Boyle] was mad that my character was getting more attention, so then Kyle started saying that his character shouldn't be with my character because it doesn't look good, 'cause I'm too young... I was not happy about it. It was stupid." This meant the artificial extension of secondary storylines, such as James Hurley and Evelyn Marsh, to fill in the space. After ratings began to decline, Agent Cooper was given a new love interest, Annie Blackburn (Heather Graham), to replace the writers' intended romance between him and Audrey Horne. Despite ending on a deliberate audience-baiting cliffhanger, the series finale did not sufficiently boost interest, and the show was not renewed for a third season, leaving the cliffhanger unresolved.
Lynch expressed his regret at having resolved the Laura Palmer murder, saying he and Frost had never intended for the series to answer the question and that doing so "killed the goose that laid the golden eggs". Lynch blamed network pressure for the decision to resolve the Palmer storyline prematurely. Frost agreed, noting that people at the network had in fact wanted the killer to be revealed by the end of season one.
In 1993, cable channel Bravo acquired the license to rerun the entire series, which began airing in June 1993. These reruns included Lynch's addition of introductions to each episode by the Log Lady and her cryptic musings.
Looking back, Frost has admitted that he wished he and Lynch had "worked out a smoother transition" between storylines and that the Laura Palmer story was a "tough act to follow". Regarding the second season, Frost felt that "perhaps the storytelling wasn't quite as taut or as fraught with emotion".
Writing for The Atlantic, Mike Mariani wrote that "It would be tough to look at the roster of television shows any given season without finding several that owe a creative debt to Twin Peaks," stating that "Lynch's manipulation of the uncanny, his surreal non-sequiturs, his black humor, and his trademark ominous tracking shots can be felt in a variety of contemporary hit shows. In 2010, the television series Psych paid tribute to the series by reuniting some of the cast in the fifth-season episode, "Dual Spires". The episode's plot is an homage to the Twin Peaks pilot, where the characters of Psych investigate the death of a young girl in a small town called "Dual Spires". The episode also contains several references to the original show. Twin Peaks actors that guest star in the episode are Sherilyn Fenn, Sheryl Lee, Dana Ashbrook, Robyn Lively, Lenny Von Dohlen, Catherine E. Coulson and Ray Wise. Prior to the airing of the episode, a special event at the Paley Center for Media was held where the actors from both shows discussed the episode.
Reviewers and fans of four seasons of Veena Sud's U.S. TV series, The Killing, have noted similarities and borrowed elements from Lynch's Fire Walk with Me and Twin Peaks, and compared Sud and Lynch's works.
Carlton Cuse, creator of Bates Motel, cited Twin Peaks as a key inspiration for his series, stating: "We pretty much ripped off Twin Peaks... If you wanted to get that confession, the answer is yes. I loved that show. They only did 30 episodes. Kerry [Ehrin] and I thought we'd do the 70 that are missing."
Twin Peaks served as an inspiration for the 1993 video game The Legend of Zelda: Link's Awakening, with director Takashi Tezuka citing the series as the main factor for the creation of the "suspicious" characters that populate the game, as well as the mystery elements of the story. The show has also influenced a number of survival horror and psychological thriller video games—most notably Alan Wake,Deadly Premonition,Silent Hill, and Max Payne.
The American animated show Gravity Falls repeatedly referenced the Black Lodge along with other elements of Twin Peaks throughout its run.
The song "Laura Palmer" by the band Bastille was written influenced by the "slightly weird, eerie" atmosphere of the show.
The series was released on VHS in a six-tape collection on April 16, 1995, however, it did not include the original pilot episode.
On December 18, 2001, the first season (episodes 1–7, minus the pilot) of Twin Peaks was released on DVD in Region 1 by Artisan Entertainment. The box set featured digitally remastered video was noted for being the first TV series to have its audio track redone in DTS.
The second season release was postponed several times, and the release was originally canceled in 2003 by Artisan due to low sales figures for the season 1 DVD. The second season was finally released in the United States and Canada on April 3, 2007, via Paramount Pictures Home Entertainment/CBS DVD.
In July 2013, it was revealed that a Blu-ray version of the complete series would be released. In January 2014, Lynch confirmed the Blu-ray release and that it would contain the pilot, season 1, season 2, and new special features, and possibly the film. It was announced on May 15, 2014, that the Blu-ray of the complete series of Twin Peaks and the film containing over 90 minutes of deleted scenes would be released on July 29, 2014.
Online, the series is available through the pay CBS All Access service in full, along with Showtime's "Anytime" service for pay-TV subscribers and its over-the-top separate service.
The original series is available for HD streaming via both Hulu and Netflix in the U.S. Hulu also offers The Return, the 18-episode continuation originally aired on Showtime, as an additional-cost subscription option for viewing some of Showtime's programming.
During the show's second season, Pocket Books released three official tie-in books, each authored by the show's creators (or their family), which offer a wealth of backstory.
The Secret Diary of Laura Palmer, written by Lynch's daughter Jennifer Lynch, is the diary as seen in the series and written by Laura, chronicling her thoughts from her twelfth birthday to the days leading up to her death. Frost's brother Scott wrote The Autobiography of F.B.I. Special Agent Dale Cooper: My Life, My Tapes. Kyle MacLachlan also recorded Diane: The Twin Peaks Tapes of Agent Cooper, which combined audio tracks from various episodes of the series with newly recorded monologues.Welcome to Twin Peaks: An Access Guide to the Town offers information about the history, flora, fauna, and culture of the fictitious town.
The Secret History of Twin Peaks, a novel by series co-creator Mark Frost, "places the unexplained phenomena that unfolded in Twin Peaks in a layered, wide-ranging history, beginning with the journals of Lewis and Clark and ending with the shocking events that closed the finale." It was published on October 18, 2016.
The 1992 film Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me is a prequel to the TV series. It tells of the investigation into the murder of Teresa Banks and the last seven days in the life of Laura Palmer. Director David Lynch and most of the television cast returned for the film, with the notable exceptions of Lara Flynn Boyle, who declined to return as Laura's best friend Donna Hayward and was replaced by Moira Kelly, and Sherilyn Fenn due to scheduling conflicts. Also, Kyle MacLachlan returned reluctantly as he wanted to avoid typecasting, so his presence in the film is smaller than originally planned. Lynch originally shot about five hours of footage that was subsequently cut down to two hours and fourteen minutes. Most of the deleted scenes feature additional characters from the television series who ultimately did not appear in the finished film. Around ninety minutes of these scenes are included in the complete series Blu-ray that was released on July 29, 2014.
Fire Walk with Me was received poorly, especially in comparison to the series. It was greeted at the 1992 Cannes Film Festival with booing from the audience and has received mixed reviews by American critics. It grossed a total of USD .8 million in 691 theaters in its opening weekend and went on to gross a total of .1 million in North America.
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Hoffman, Eric; Grace, Dominick, eds. (2017). Approaching Twin Peaks: Essays on the Original Series. McFarland Press. | 2019-04-21T21:15:44Z | https://punchaceleb.com/hot-jane-morgan/ |
I have been reflecting on some ideas around our current election system which were (originally) prompted by our pro tem appointment process. First, I think the Community Team needs to get out of the moderator-selection business. Currently, 45% of our moderators were appointed by someone from the Stack Exchange staff, and more than half (58%) our sites have yet to hold a proper election.
We need to give agency back to the communities regarding how you pick and maintain your elected leadership from the beginning and as the community continues to grow.
Is there an interest in broader election reform?
The purpose of this post is to gauge the general interest in taking a fresh look at our current electoral ideology and how you pick and maintain your moderation leadership. This isn't about working out specific implementation details or resolving every obstacle. I want to see if there is a general appetite for looking at broader reforms around how we elect and maintain moderators.
The first question to ask is: “Is this even a thing? Should I be looking at this?" Or am I stepping on customs so ingrained and sacrosanct, I should just leave it alone.
Jon Ericson has been experimenting with pro tem elections to replace moderators who have moved on. As we were looking at improvements to that process, I kept asking if we should roll that [cool idea] back into the regular election cycle?
Starting with a clean slate, I started considering how broader electoral changes might improve some of the issues around our representative ecosystem. I think we might be edging into something more capable and adaptive — so I want to see if I should continue working on this.
Here are a few issues I’ll put on the table for consideration; I'm sure there are others. This is an open discussion and trial balloon to see whether there is any interest in looking at broader electoral changes. Please feel free to add your thoughts in the answers below.
There's no reason we (the community team) need to continue picking your moderators. We've already started experimenting with pro tem elections, so I'd like to improve on that process so ALL moderators are elected by the community — including pro tems — starting shortly after the private beta.
Jon's pro tem experiments show that pro tem elections can work, so I would like to see if we can merge both processes into one, unified election ecosystem. As the distinction between pro tem and "real moderator" starts to fade— read on.
The CoGro Team (particularly Jnat and others) has been grinding away at a long-neglected backlog of sites needing moderator replacements (resignations, absentees, vetting candidates). Those delays will not likely end with the current backlog. The community team continues to be conspicuously short on resources to help communities with other issues. I believe this next bullet item can essentially free up those resources almost entirely.
Let's start with an assumption that I can simplify the election process to make it much less exhausting. The basic idea is to have much simpler, lightweight elections… more often… at regular intervals… maybe even yearly. The idea is to make elections much less epic and generational by creating more opportunity for the community to decide who they elect and retain. One way to help assure your best talent rises to the top is to provide more opportunity for avid users to apply.
This one seems like a no-brainer. Leveraging our current Q&A framework, we can model a town hall where communities are empowered to host their own event if they so choose, or skip it if they don't (with CM assistance where needed, of course).
Should "Moderator For Life" always be automatic… and FOREVER?
Our Moderator team is the best there is, bar none. Having senior moderators is important to retain valuable talent. But should communities have a say when that happens? And should they be empowered to decide if something has changed? We don't want to have a lot of needless rollover elections, so maybe we could come up with a system where long-term "senior moderators" are easily retained, while more established communities can avoid needless elections when it turns out: "Nah, we're good. We don't need another election."
I love our STV voting system; I think the single transferable vote is inspired. I’m not sure if there’s room for improvement, so I mention it here but I would largely keep the fundamental mechanism intact.
The first Skeptics election had 64 voters in total.
That's a scary number to me, any lower and I'm not sure the election would mean anything.
The previous stance by SE was always that the community needs a certain size and activity to host elections, and I don't see any reason why this would have changed. Coupling elections to graduation doesn't make any sense anymore with the way they work now, and the endless beta many sites are in, but that is something SE already knows and has worked on. I don't see any reason to change much more than the decoupling of elections from the graduation state, as graduation is now coupled to criteria many sites won't hit soon, or maybe never.
I'm personally not a fan of the town hall questions for elections. They don't provide substantial insight about a candidate to me, compared to the rather large effort they are for the community and each candidate. The most reliable indicator for a mod for me is still previous activity on the site. So I would personally consider changes there potentially good, but it's also not something I would care a lot about.
Personally, I don't have any issue with moderators being appointed by SE. Of course I've been appointed twice by SE, and later elected in both cases. I don't see any alternative to appointments in early sites, there is simply no way actual elections would work at that time. SE isn't a democracy, and I think it's a bit misleading if we style SE sites as democratic. SE still holds all the power, and while they usually don't exercise it, the community only runs the site within the constraints set by SE.
This would be a fundamental change in the relationship between the moderators (particularly the elected ones) and the company and, more importantly, the community.
I'm not sure I would have run for election - especially on Stack Overflow - if I was always having to think about re-election. I know in other walks of life elections aren't for life, but then we get the constant electioneering which distracts people from doing the job they were elected to do.
I know that Stack Exchange takes breaches of the rules around moderating very seriously and diamonds have been removed from several moderators for various reasons. Perhaps what we need is a simpler (but not necessarily quicker) process for this.
Inactive moderators - currently it seems to take too long for inactive moderators to be removed. I know that there are multitudinous reasons why a moderation might become inactive and not all of them require the immediate removal of the diamond, but should the system become more automated?
You've not logged in at all in the last months.
You've logged in but not performed any (or very few) moderator actions.
This would remove the need for the CMs to reach out (at least in the first instance) and this reminder might be enough to prompt the moderator to say "you know what, I don't have time for moderating right now and I should step down".
Unpopular moderators - I don't see this as being a reason to remove the diamond. We're not elected/appointed to be popular but to help run the sites. Sometimes that involves making decisions that might upset a number of people.
Harmful moderators - these are the cases where the moderator is taking actions that are actually detrimental to the site. These actions might be popular (at least with some sections of the community), but are against the overall ethos of the site or direction that the majority of the community wants to go. People are quick (certainly on Stack Overflow) to go to meta and raise issues they see with moderator actions, so I don't think there's a need to invent a new way to air grievances. If someone doesn't want to go public they can always raise a ticket with the community managers.
Does there need to be something that collates the meta questions (it could use the score to see how valid the rest of the community thought the complaint was) and CM tickets to show if a moderator is heading in the wrong direction before something bad happens? I don't have an answer here though.
Alright, I can see where a lot of this comes from - elections are a lot of work for the CM team, as are the pro tem appointments. I get that with a reduced team and an ever growing network, you'd want to look at seeing what can be done to reduce your load and increase overall productivity as sites are happier when they have mods to steer the ship and have the number of mods they need to keep the ship afloat. That makes sense to me.
That said, a lot of this seems to devalue a lot of the work, time and energy that mods put into their sites, most of which their community never sees. There's a reason we joke about being janitors, after all. So when I read this and see "should it be forever", and the idea of having to re-run yearly just feels like a lot of mess and disruption. I get it, you don't want to risk the idea that the community feels like the mods are the kings and queens stepping all over the populace (cue that "help, help, I'm being repressed" skit here, if you like). At the same time, all of us who have been here for a while have put a lot of ourselves into making sure the sites are awesome, and this feels very "okay thanks for coming out, putting up with all the crap, dealing with all this stuff as we step away from being present, but here's the door".
Maybe that's not charitable of me, and perhaps I am supposed to hope that my community will recognize my awesome and keep me around. But here's the rub - like I mentioned earlier, a lot of what we do and what we handle, users don't see. We're supposed to be exception handlers and janitors and all that good stuff. A sign of a healthy site is that you shouldn't see the mods unilaterally dealing with and closing all the things. So...the community might not always know that I handled infinitely more flags than my fellow mods by a hundredfold, lets say - they might only see that they personally like ModX better because they're more fun in chat.
I am not sure how to balance all of this. I get that you guys desperately need to relinquish some control because this stuff isn't tenable as things get bigger and bigger. But I am not sure that this, as I am interpreting it, is the best way to go about it.
A further thought - if you are, effectively, forcing mods to step down if they're not constantly re-elected, this kinda flies right in the face of the fact that you have said many times to mods (of elected/non beta sites, who haven't like...blown up stuff or caused giant messes) that elect to stop moderation and step down due to burnout or other personal reasons that their diamond is, effectively, theirs if they decide they wish to step back into the moderation ring again. It feels like youre doing a bit of a 180, here, instead of supporting the people you have, you're just flipping them out in favour of others. This feels like instead of supporting mods who might feel burnout, that you are trying to preempt that by potentially setting us aside.
Could we get a yearly check in meta post by the Community user asking if the site would like to have a mod election?
On some sites, a mod election may be necessary while on others the community could be perfectly happy with the mod team. In either case I don't see a harm in asking and in the second it would help the moderators know that the community is happy with what they are doing.
The reason for having the Community user post it on a schedule is that otherwise the mods may feel like the asker of the meta post is irritated with them for some reason, because if they are happy then there is no reason for an election right? While if the Community user posts it then it's just a neutral question that gets asked every so often.
I think it's worth doing a mix of what we do now on betas, and the election process.
It is. However on a new community, it's extremely useful to get things started on the right foot. The nice thing with the current appointment system is that you guys get to vet the candidates. On one hand, this hopefully means folks with the right mix of SE experience and subject knowledge expertise get picked. On the other hand, this, well, might not scale that well. Y'all can't know everyone.
On a smaller, more manageable site (the good ol' days?) it would probably be a great way to get to know the folks in the community (I'm not sure if betas get their own CM on overwatch any more) as well.
The pro-tem process also kind of got me used to being a moderator, so it's also a useful way to bootstrap members of a community who are not mods on a smaller site with different challenges. Not everyone makes it (that's true of some elected mods too), but it allows there to be a bit more diversity in the broader community of mods. Of the two "newbie" mods on Software Recs - one's a Stack Overflow mod now, and I'm a moderator on Super User, so the process might actually have helped in some way there.
Elections also seem expensive in terms of time and effort, but that's probably a CM might know better than us.
I suspect a mix - of an initial batch of hand picked moderators, with top-ups/replacements until graduation being elections - might be a good fit.
On beta sites, having elections for top-ups and replacements gives a chance for folks with the 'right' personalities to assert themselves before folks need to decide if they'd be a good candidate for moddyness.
Well, in theory, on mature sites, you're basically running elections as needed. It seems to work, and other than Stack Overflow, most sites are not going to need a massive, churning moderator team. In fact, if moderators are getting replaced often, it's more work, and maybe a sign that moderating the site is a bit too much of a chore.
They might. On the other hand, it's a massively manual process. As mentioned earlier, elections are expensive, and personally I feel running them only as needed makes sense, even when it's cheaper.
This is something that's been a problem for... quite a while. It seems to be getting a little better, but it does feel there's a point where I'd ask, "if it's short of resources, how far is streamlining going to help?".
At some point, there's a distinct lack of fat in the processes to trim.
Simpler elections sound like a good idea. On the other hand, it's worth considering if running them more often than "as needed" makes sense. On the short term, it might be worth using simpler, more streamlined elections to cut back on the backlog.
I like simpler. More often should need a clear reason why it's better.
Meta is kind of that. We also have a room on Super User for contacting mods, and it works reasonably well. There's a handful of users on many sites (who I shall not name since they would probably be embarrassed) who have an impact primarily through meta and such.
Having read through and realising I misunderstood this completely - They could - but other than initiating town hall question collection and picking the questions, the CMs act primarily to facilitate and organise. I'm not really sure that those processes mirror anything a regular mod comes across ... as a normal mod.
In a sense - the community does but I'm not very sure how devolving the process to the community would work better than it does now.
The idea of getting mods to "re-up" and letting them take a break and come back has been mentioned before. As someone who's both a mod and an ex-mod - I actually feel the value of a experienced, engaged and accessible moderator kind of goes beyond the site they actually moderate on. So, I'd feel that a mod should be a mod as long as they're able to, and willing to put in the time.
I'd say, a mix of minimum activity and an option to step down at any time would be a great compromise.
I'm not sure of a "great" system of working out when a community needs more mods short of the mods asking. As long as the flags are handled (which is a "easy" metric in terms of statistics), they're able to keep ahead of meta and there's no major/widespread drama in the community over mod teams.
Even where some of our experienced mods are less active, they do form a really useful counterbalance on some decisions behind the scenes, so "activity" is not a great metric.
That's to say, we shouldn't have moderator turnover for the sake of having turnover on a mature site.
The idea is to make elections much less epic and generational by creating more opportunity for the community to decide who they elect and retain.
This seems to be connected to your bullet point about moderators for life. Can you elaborate on that a bit? For example, if you have 3 moderators and the election comes, 3 new would be elected and if the old ones wanted to stay, they needed to nominate themselves again?
This sounds like a lot of extra work for then active moderators, who had to go through the election process while also volunteering to keep on moderating their sites.
Furthermore, as @fbueckert mentioned in a comment, moderators also have to make unpopular decisions. It shouldn't become too much of a popularity contest. I wouldn't want moderators to have to worry also about the popularity of their potential decision, because there's another election soon. If it's the best decision for the community should matter only.
Consider an "Honorary Mod" status for elected moderators.
They drift away from the site, have less time for the job, etc. This is usually accompanied by a substantial decrease in activity. They're not around much any more. They are welcome to return later.
Something bad happened and the diamond is removed.
They get hired by SE and might get an employee-diamond to replace the mod-diamond. They still have privileges, but use them much less frequently because they have network-wide responsibilities now.
They were actually doing just fine and are still active and interested, but you want them to step aside so the community can have another election.
The risk with removing a diamond from an active elected moderator is that it could cause some frustration and resentment, for both the moderator and the community. Here's somebody who's dedicated years to the site, who thought it was a lifetime position after election, and who's now being told "thanks but you're done". Even when people know intellectually that a change-up is good for a site, I anticipate that many will still struggle with it, because people are complicated multi-faceted beings, not logical machines.
Further, there are people whose wisdom and insight we want to retain access to. I could (but won't publicly) name a few individuals who I want to still be part of the mod team even if their activity greatly drops, because they bring history, particular problem-solving abilities, or special skills to the team. Currently they can remain on the team; your proposal would kick them out.
For mods who are only stepping down (or being nudged out) to make room, and (perhaps) who have served the site for some threshold amount of time to be determined, let's create an "honorary moderator" status.2 Functionally, this is similar to the case of a moderator getting hired -- the person retains access to the mod tools and chat rooms and team,1 is free to handle things when noticed or urgent, sometimes participates in mod chat, but by and large does not participate in the active moderation of the site. These honorary mods wouldn't carry a normal share of the moderation load, wouldn't count toward a quorum when an official mod panel needs to be called, and would be separated out from the active mods on moderator lists.
Should this status be for life? I don't know. I don't think we are at risk of the honorary mods overwhelming the currently-active ones, in the same way that the 15 or so employees with diamonds don't overwhelm the three moderators on a smaller site. So I think "as long as the person is active and wants to participate in this way" would be fine. I think it's also fine to go into this with that intention but knowing that we might need a time limit later -- anybody accepting the honorary diamond knows things might have to change.
I got this idea from my congregation's honorary trustees. Past presidents (it's a big job and you had to work your way up through offices usually over ~ten years) become lifetime honorary trustees. They may attend and participate in board discussions, they have access to all the official doings that officers and trustees do, and they are allowed to vote for several years. After a set time they lose the vote but retain everything else. Most of them have drifted away by then, but it's a graceful transition, not a boot. And if somebody wants to return to "active duty", we'll elect them to the board again.
1 Having your team account deleted because the community needs you to make room for another mod would be especially demoralizing, I would think -- you lose your account and body of work.
2 It can be called something else; this is an idea, not a precise suggestion. "Ex-officio", "mod advisor", "venerated elder"... ok, probably not that last one, but this is the kind of function I'm describing.
I hope this is rare, but sometimes an election is the last thing a site needs right now -- there's some issue on the site, some factional dispute or the like, and an election will be contentious and perhaps produce results we'll all regret in a few months. I'm not sure how to address this, but we should somehow "take the pulse" of the community before scheduling an election, rather than just having a fixed schedule.
Of course, if there's a problem that significant, the community and the CM team should be working together to solve it. The "are we ready for an election?" prod would surface those issues if they haven't been visible to the CMs before.
As I've always seen it, site elections are a sign of trust between the Community Team and the site itself; you effectively trust us to be able to select our own leadership without running the site and the network's good reputation into the ground in the process.
Early beta sites really haven't earned that trust. And there's also long-running beta sites which still haven't earned that trust. Appointing moderators instead of throwing it to the fickle winds of the voting public is still necessary to ensure that sites have proper leadership when they for whatever reason are unable to choose that leadership for themselves.
However, I do agree that there's no real reason for the Community Team to do this most of the time. Except for the very first moderator selection on a fledgling site, in most situations where appointing a pro-tem moderator is necessary you already have an existing moderator team, or at least part of one; these are the people that you have already trusted to know how to effectively lead the community, and whose judgement you're (presumably) already relying on when deciding who next to appoint. Why not just cut out the middle-man and let them deputize their own pro-tems?
I would still want the Community Team to sign off before giving any deputized pro-tem access to PII and such, but the majority of flags and work that would necessitate having a pro-tem in the first place doesn't involve more than just having elevated mod-level privileges (e.g. one-vote close/delete/undelete powers). The community leaders should be able to decide if and when there's need for a few extra hands while they're waiting for the next election; there's no reason to backlog the Community Team with this. If a new "real" moderator is needed urgently, we'll let you know.
We should do a better job of giving "drive-by" voters relevant information about the candidates.
Right now the election screen contains very little information about how a particular candidate interacts with a community – instead, it provides "objective" information like reputation, time on the site, candidate score, and badges, in addition to the candidate's blurb.
But besides what the candidate wishes to reveal in her bio, there's no information about the candidate's views on the site, her approach to moderation, her approach to conflict, and so forth.
This puts us in the situation where high-rep users, after a long hiatus or period of conflict with the community, can attract votes on the basis of name recognition and "good stats" from drive-by voters who got their minimum voting reputation some time ago and haven't been engaged recently. They get a notification that there's an election, and they vote, and that's that.
One way to help address this is by developing better "objective" stats that incorporate things like recent review queue activity (as opposed to years ago), recent flag count and acceptance rate (not just total count), recent meta posts count and score, and so forth, and displaying them prominently, rather than only showing metrics based primarily on rep and long-term badge achievements.
I believe a better informed electorate would help make elections less stressful for communities. I'd also speculate that this would reduce the need for CM involvement following controversial elections, though this is just a deduction with no data or even anecdote to back it up.
I like the overall idea, but I'm nervous about a few things with replacing pro-tem mods, in particular right out of private beta.
Lack of solid knowledge. The community doesn't know their candidates that well, they probably haven't seen them run into many tough situations yet.
Lack of voters. There won't be that many users yet, and if all goes well, the site will quickly grow to where most users didn't vote in that first election.
Lack of risk mitigation. If we get bitten by the previous two points, we don't have a good safety net. If a mod elected early on does turn out to be a bad choice, it's difficult to avoid a lot of drama, which is always harmful, but perhaps even more so for a site early in public beta.
All of that said I absolutely think that we should have elections eventually, and pro-tem mods should be a temporary solution, and making elections simpler and thus easier to have (e.g. for replacements) sounds great.
Have we considered the effect on private information?
I don't know if this is neutral or negative, but more people cycling through the moderator positions means more people who can see all the mod-private information, like suspension histories and PII. Everybody is bound by the moderation agreement (including after they step down) so I'm not concerned that things are more likely to leak out, but over time more people will see private communication between mods and users. This could become uncomfortable for the users involved; that "be nice" suspension of a prominent user with all the juicy details in the mod message is visible to an ever-increasing number of site users. What will the effect be? This concern already exists whenever we add a moderator, but we're opening the door wider now.
Do we care? I don't know. Just from an information-security perspective, we should ask ourselves the question.
There's one notable advantage of more users cycling through moderator teams: increased perspective among non-mods.
There are many good points here so far about concerns with having more elections. I agree with almost all of them.
If the problems with more frequent elections could be figured out, I see one big advantage: the more users who have experienced having to moderate a site, the more “forged in the fires of moderation” users we will have. I think this would be good for the sites.
Becoming a moderator has an interesting side effect: the rules look very different when you're the one trying to judiciously apply them. This change in perspective has been remarked on by and is very valuable for myself and my fellow local mods. If we could get some of that outside the set of mods, I think it would be a great benefit to a site.
After all, it's one thing for the people who control the levers judging and enforcing the rules to have a big-picture view of tending to site health and operation. It's even more valuable to have that perspective among the general membership. It makes for a lot more cooperation and a lot less friction. But, it's less likely to spread from “The Man” of lifelong mods though, and more likely to spread among non-mods by seeing other non-mods model it.
As much as the idea of standing for election every year (or whatever) gives me a headache thinking of how it would politicise every mod action, if we could somehow get more regular users to have moderator experience under the belts, I think that one thing would be of great benefit to site health.
In short, moderator experience makes for more conscientious users, and we can always use more of those. If we can figure out how to get more users real moderation experience without breaking anything or anyone else, that would be good.
I think the mod for life position works quite well, and I would not change it to have mods reelected annually, or some such.
There are plenty of cases where mods step down, or get removed and new users step up and are elected to replace them. Or in another case, a site grows and it gets more mods. That all works (could use some tweaking on the inactive mods steeping down part) but the mod for life bit is central to how our sites are run.
As others have stated changing the mod position to focus on reelections is dangerous (just look at politics).
If instead of curating the site we help run, which includes some actions that are unpopular, I was just filling my term looking to the next election, I'd always be thinking about how this would effect my votes (again look to politicians).
Take an example from our site, blender has an all new still experiential version 2.8, we are getting questions about that new version. There is an ongoing debate about whether or not 2.8 questions should be on topic yet.
If I was thinking about getting re-elected, I'd say sure ask away (that is the popular thing), however if I'm thinking about the longevity of the site, and the usefulness of the questions/answers I say no. All that is still changing, next week that button might not be there.
Ok, back to the problem of elected forever. Do we realistically expect a mod to volunteer for decades? (Some people have life to do, and simply can't.) No, nobody does.
We need to make it very clear this is an opened agreement.
Moderators are elected to help run the site for as long as they want to.
When a mod gets busy (new job, school, baby, family emergency, moves, etc) they should simply be able to leave.
No pressure, no expectations from the users or SE. They could very well be here for decades, or just a few months. Whatever it is, mods should feel free to come and go as they want.
Once a moderator of SE, always a moderator of SE.
After a moderator is elected and signs that Moderator Agreement, they should be able to return as a mod any time they want (say they finished school, or that baby grew up) even if their position has been filled. Granted they left in good standing, and have stayed even marginally engaged with the site (this does not go for the few that get asked to leave, or are kicked out).
You can't have too many mods. So if a mod who helped start the site years ago now has time again and comes back, it is a win win. There is less workload on all the other mods; there is less to learn then a brand new mod; and the site keeps its energy with "fresh blood."
Lets say there is a mod "Frodo Baggins." Frodo is more busy then he use to be, he's still on the site nearly every day handling flags and all, but if he knew he could step down, let one of the super active power users take over, and yet still be able to come back as a mod, he probably would step down.
See at that point there is no reason not to. The site benefits because the more active a mod the better, and Frodo has lost nothing by leaving.
In our current system, there is a huge disincentive to leave as a mod. If you leave, you leave all that power (even if you don't use it that much any more). Our sites suffer when semi-active mods do not want to give up their seats, because there is no guarantee that they will ever be able to come back.
So instead of forcing the mods to keep getting reelected (which has a whole host of its own problems), just remove the reasons the mods do not want to leave.
Mods keeping a re-election mindset is dangerous. Sites' quality will suffer.
Enable mods to freely step down and rejoin when they want. Solves most of the inactive mod problem, keeps sites fresh and active, and the special role mods play safe.
Any references to "The Fellowship of the Ring" or "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe" may be incidental.
The recent pro tem election on the Vi site has left me with mixed feelings.
Active member of the community.
Sporadic contributor (mostly from when the site was new). I would still consider him to be a good mod, but that's mostly based on contributions I've seen on other sites (he's a great mod on another site).
Prolific contributor on other sites, but not on ours. I think few people knew who they are (and thus if they're a good mod).
Very few/sporadic contributions on any site spread out over many years.
There wasn't really a choice: only one candidate was clearly qualified. I think no one was surprised by the outcome: candidate 1 got 72% of the vote.
It's not that I'm unhappy with the outcome; but it seems to me that the entire election process was just ... unnecessary? I'm not active on the parenting site, but looking at their election it seems there was a little bit more choice, but one candidate getting 60% of the votes seems it wasn't a difficult decision there, either.
Honestly I'm not sure if the election really improved anything over just appointing the mod. On the other hand, I don't think it did any harm, either.
Small update: one of the nominees self-deleted their account a day after the election results were announced. While we can't be sure of the reason, I think it's not unreasonable to assume that that disappointment with the election results is a factor. No content is lost and the user's contributions were sporadic, so not a huge deal; but it does highlight that elections can be a risk and have negative effects.
Okay, I am throwing a suggestion out there. It’s very rough and mostly food for thought. Also, it pertains to “running” sites with an established moderator team and probably does not translate well to sites on the scale of SO or the community of SciFi. I am aware that this goes against the premise of sticking to STV, but while STV is great, it is simply not made for what I am suggesting.
Introduce a score that quantifies how much a new moderator is needed. This can be calculated from flag-handling times, some special button each active moderator can push, or recent retirees.
Introduce a score that quantifies how suitable somebody is for moderatorship. This could cover some basic community-moderation achievements (like the moderator score in current elections) but most importantly should be based on anonymous votes by experienced users. The latter could roughly work like this: Once a user reached a certain reputation, they can nominate up to e.g. three other users for moderatorship (and change that list at any time). The value of these nomination votes could somehow mildly scale with reputation or be higher for existing moderators.
If all of the above is positive, the candidate writes a brief text to introduce themselves, is subject to questions by the community, and most importantly subject to a vote. In the latter, voters are only asked to express their approval of this particular candidate. If the result of this is positive, the candidate becomes a moderator.
No moderator elections if there are no suitable or willing candidates.
Excellent candidates can become moderators when they are ripe.
You seem to be proposing a procedure by which the whole community can remove a diamond moderator by majority vote, when there are more candidates than there are seats. A better alternative to consider is removal by a two-thirds vote of the whole community.
I suggest that if you do establish a yearly election cycle, it is a great idea to list existing diamond moderators on the ballot, and give them an opportunity to campaign, but they should be removed if they receive twice as many downvotes as upvotes.
Why? Because moderator elections are not democratic. I am not criticizing this. It is just important to keep in mind. A community cannot set the rules of its own elections. It cannot set terms, term limits, voting procedures, it cannot determine the powers of its elected officials. Robert’s Rules do not apply. The closest the community comes to establishing bylaws is voting on meta posts which propose community policy, and even then community policy cannot contravene Stack Exchange policy. The moderator agreement is with Stack Exchange, not with the community. In short, elected moderators are community representatives, sort of. But it is closer to the truth to say they are appointed volunteers, and that Stack Exchange uses elections as a way to crowd-source and automate the decision of who is safest to appoint.
So the question becomes, how can Stack Exchange crowdsource the question of which diamond moderators they should remove because they are not an asset to Stack Exchange? For that there should be a community consensus, that is, the two-thirds majority which is conventionally the minimum for removal from any office.
This procedure is detailed at “Handling Calls to Remove a Moderator”. A two-thirds vote is fairly consistent with what Robert’s Rules calls for. Robert’s Rules begin with confidential investigation by a committee that prefers charges, followed by a trial of the facts by the assembly (censure a.k.a. impeachment), and, if censure passes by a majority, a second two-thirds vote on removal then takes place.
“Stack Exchange Inc. reserves the right to terminate my privileges as a moderator at any time without warning.” This is a clause in the Moderator Agreement. Termination could presumably take place whenever a diamond moderator violates the agreement. I do not know if this procedure has documented steps that provide for a fair hearing or due process.
From the number of posts, it seems obvious there is interest. Not alot consistency what direction it should take but there is interest.
A lot of the posts opposed to reoccuring elections are about the drama (and pain) of the current process. The suggestion is for a simpler less painful process.
Long before I was active on SE, I had a mop at a couple of the en.wikipedia.org sites.
The process used at https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Wikisource:Administrators was not overly painfull, quickly removed the inactive, and provided a route to return. It is one of the most graceful and pleasant process I have seen.
It is a common occurrence on wikis to create an account, be active for a certain period of time, then become inactive. While this is to be expected due to the nature of this site, accounts with restricted access should not be left unattended for a long period of time. Users who return after an extended break may no longer be in touch with community practices or policies, which is not desirable in an administrator. Inactive accounts are also more open to account hijacking, and this may be difficult to detect as compromised if the original user is not there to notice edits they didn't make. Furthermore, the list of users with restricted access should only contain those capable of responding to queries within a reasonable period of time.
On Wikisource, an inactive sysop will generally have his or her rights removed. An "inactive administrator" is one who has not edited during the past six months and has not made more than 50 edits during the last year. Inactive users automatically lose their restricted access in their next scheduled confirmation of the voting unless the community supports continued access. Any user who has lost access due to inactivity may reapply through the regular processes.
I'm incredibly leery of this aspect. It completely changes the paradigm of moderators, and not in a good way.
I get that SE is trying to make elections take less from their staff to enact. But...that's kinda the cost of doing business in this system. If you want final oversight and control of the site, you need to keep your hands in it. Less involvement implicitly means less control. See chat and the various debacles that have happened there.
If you want to take a step back and automate the process more, while requiring moderators to stand for re-election, you're telling the community that their input and decisions matter more than the overall health of the site does. You're going to face massive backlash when you see something isn't working right, and stick your oar back in.
If you want the oversight, you need to put in the work.
There are too many words, comments, answers to read them all. So, I'm going to focus on two points. If this has already been said by someone else, apologies.
But should communities have a say when that happens?
May I suggest two years? If someone is a good fair-minded mod whose presence is unintrusive until needed or an unreliable biased person, I believe two years is sufficient time to either confirm or remove their title. If their status is confirmed, then it's guaranteed for life five-seven years. During which time, a mod can freely choose to resign whenever RL intervenes and new elections should be held, if and when the community feels that necessity. Turnovers are necessary for the well-being of any public institution, private company and workforce, the same principle applies to websites.
What about the users who have the right to vote?
Should a user who has only posted twice in five years have the same say as someone who has regularly contributed to the site? Should a user who has never posted on meta have the same privilege as someone who has participated, not every week, not every month, but at least (hypothesis) four times on meta in any given year EDIT (this could also include comments). But for candidates, I want to vote for someone who sticks out their neck every once in a while, and I expect them to have been an active member also on meta, not only on the main site.
It's a fact, but what I'm about to say will not be liked, not all users are created equal. Some have earned more of a voice than others.
I think that regular elections are simply a horrible idea. Having to go through the circus of elections on a regular basis would be a very strong incentive to step down. I am currently a mod on 3 sites (elected on two, appointed on one) so I would have to go through three elections every year if we made this a yearly thing. That would be very tiring.
I also think it is very counterproductive to make mods a more political position than they need to be. Moderators need to feel they can do their jobs, which sometimes involves making users angry at us, without fear of this leading to them losing the next election. I really don't want to have a situation where moderators will consider their actions through the distorting lens of how they would affect their reelection bid. I can't see that having a beneficial effect on the quality of moderators' work.
However, I do think it could be useful to give the community a simpler way of expressing its feelings about current moderators. To that end, I propose we have a running mod score. Each mod's profile could have two special voting buttons and each user would have the right to up- or downvote the mod (users should be able to change their vote at will). If a moderator's score falls below a certain threshold, and if the total number of votes cast represents a significant proportion of the community, that could trigger some sort of action. Perhaps a mini-election (like a vote of confidence) where users would be asked to vote on the mod retaining their position. Of course, the score should be completely ignored until enough users have voted one way or another that the score can be taken to be representative of what a large part of the community feels. The score also doesn't need to be visible to anyone but SE employees.
I think it is important that the communities feel their mods (at least their elected mods) always represent them and there should be a better way for the community to remove a mod when they feel the mod's no longer right for the job. As it stands, the only way a community can de-mod someone is by contacting SE or raising a huge stink on meta. This also means that a few vocal users who dislike a mod can have a disproportionate impact and cause all sorts of drama by complaining on meta. If we had a moderator score as I describe, that could give a much better, more objective and more representative measure of how the community really feels about its moderators.
I think these are good ideas for the smaller exchanges. Moderation on low volume sites can be difficult for only a few users to shoulder, and the community is often hard pressed to meet the numbers themselves.
Moderation of the smaller sites has been problematic in the past, so taking a slightly different angle could help keep the sites clean while also increasing interest in participation and contribution.
That said... I don't think this makes sense for the larger sites. The moderation at Stack Overflow, by far the largest site of the exchange and the lifeline of the company, is in a pretty coalesced state. Its overall process, lineage of term, and selection is being handled very well. I haven't seen really any complaints about it there, and I am an avid follower of their meta site, a frequent contributor, and have ran in a few elections. They were fair, the elected moderators have done well, there was a lot of community participation across the board, and the frequency seems balanced.
tl;dr; Good for small, avoid for large. Please do not do this for Stack Overflow.
Suggestion: stop using down votes for mod election votes (primaries1).
Does it really matter who you are against? Who you are for is what matters.
The use of negative voting in SE elections, the down vote button alongside the up vote button, remains a sign of the flaws in SE community's attitudes towards people. We have done a thing lately in trying to improve that. Carry that momentum forward.
Down votes during mod elections: not necessary.
Add up the "who I am for" votes (the up votes); we each get three in a given election. The winners will still win.
The down vote tool for questions and answers retain their utility for the things -- questions and answers -- that is this site's attraction.
People aren't things, so please stop treating them that way (in the mechanical sense).
1 primaries point edited in thanks to feed back in comments from @MonicaCellio.
I am extremely confused by this bullet point.
Our Moderator team is the best there is, bar none.
I don't know which moderator team you are referring to, and what evidence you have for it being "the best there is".
Having senior moderators is important to retain valuable talent.
It is not clear what you are saying here. Are you saying that giving talented people the option of being permanent moderators is important for keeping them? So these talented people that are such good moderators, wouldn't do it if they were not made permanent? In my opinion, that attitude alone is enough for me not to want such a person to be a moderator.
Have a say in when what happens? When a moderator becomes permanent? If you are thinking about making it possible for some moderators to become permanent, then why should the community not have a say in this? Yes they should be able to select which ones are permanent and when they graduate to becoming permanent (though I really don't understand what you're saying so maybe my answer is not relevant).
And should they be empowered to decide if something has changed?
Whether or not something has happened in the past (for example "changed") is not usually something we decide in the present.
We don't want to have a lot of needless rollover elections, so maybe we could come up with a system where long-term "senior moderators" are easily retained, while more established communities can avoid needless elections when it turns out: "Nah, we're good. We don't need another election."
So at what point have you addressed your question in bold at the beginning, about whether or not "moderator for life" should always be automatic and FOREVER? This has been one of the most confusing paragraphs for me ever to try to interpret.
It is extremely obvious that no one should be given mod privileges permanently. Someone is eventually going to develop Alzheimer's and delete every single question on their SE.
Also the atmosphere in an SE changes over the years. Those who were good moderators 10 years ago will likely not be liked when the grandchildren of millenials are writing 90% of the questions and answers here.
This is why there are ways to remove moderators (for example with 2/3 votes from other moderators). If by FOREVER in all capital letters, you mean you want to remove the capability to remove moderators, then I disagree that this would be a good idea.
Have two grades of moderators.
Ones that have to run for re-election every year (or however often you propose to have regular elections), and ones that have to run for re-election every 10 years (or whatever).
You need to have served at least 1 term as a short-term moderator, to run for long-term moderator.
The 10 year moderators would be what you seem to call "senior moderators" and naturally by virtue of the fact that their term is 10 years long, it is easy to "retain" them. But you will find that 10 years is a long time and things change a lot over 10 years, you probably want these "long-term moderators" to be for something like 5 years instead.
So should people become "long-term" moderators "automatically" ? No. Some people are good on paper but when they are given the power they turn out to be terrible. Make them survive at least one re-election before you make them "long-term", and don't have anything "permanent". The long-term moderators are given a huge number of years (for example 5) during which they do not need to run for re-election which should be plenty of incentive to do the job, and during this huge number of years, the only way they can be removed is by the existing methods (for example, 2/3 of the other moderators voting for it, though I find 2/3 strange and would think 51% is enough).
Moderator elections in beta sites?
How does the Constable badge work in the new graduation model? | 2019-04-18T10:51:00Z | https://meta.stackexchange.com/questions/316051/help-me-opine-about-a-new-election-system/316079 |
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Just a few years ago this neighborhood was all but a shambles; now it is a lively social center. Here you’ll find everything from a famous beer hall to a spectacularly renovated bookstore, as well as the city’s oldest surviving church and the remnants of the Old Princely Court, where the Wallachian rulers—including Vlad the Impaler—lived in the 15th and 16th centuries. Your walking tour ends at Hanul Lui Manuc, built two centuries ago as an inn and recently restored, where you will take a seat in the tree-shaded courtyard and relax over some favorite local appetizers—perhaps some stuffed mushrooms and a variety of sausages.
Your next destination, the Basarbovo Rock Monastery, is the only rock monastery where monks still live and worship today. Climb the narrow rock stairway to the 15th-century cloister, which is cut into the limestone cliffs high above the Lom River, and take a look at the arresting frescoes.
You’ll also spend some time in Rousse, a city with an easygoing, gracious feeling. Freedom Square, a huge open plaza, takes its name from the Freedom Monument, which soars from the center of the square; the stately Belle Epoque buildings surrounding the square attest to the city’s prosperity in the 1890s. Stroll along wide, tree-lined Alexandrovska, the main pedestrian street that links the city’s many attractive squares, encountering such landmark sights as Rousse’s grand theater, the city museum and the first movie theater (it opened in 1896).
Twice the capital of Bulgaria—before and after the Ottomans conquered the nation—Veliko Tarnovo climbs steep hills above the Yantra River, topped by the ruins of Tsarevets, the stronghold where Bulgaria’s kings ruled between 1185 and 1393. The remains of the great stone walls and towers that you see formed the historic heart of the Second Bulgarian Empire.
History lives in this town, as a quick look at the wares for sale in Samovod Marketplace will show you: Handicrafts are all made by local artisans using ancient, medieval or Renaissance technologies. You’ll have time to peruse the exceptional local pottery and textiles there before heading to Arbanassi, home to six amazing 17th-century stone churches, each one decorated with colorful and intricate frescoes.
Learn something of the multicultural history of this fascinating town at the Ethnographic Museum and visit the UNESCO-designated Nativity Church, where murals of the Nativity, the Last Judgment and the zodiac brilliantly blend religious and humanist iconography. At another of the churches, Holy Archangels Michael and Gabriel, you’ll hear the otherworldly singing of an Orthodox choir in a short concert. Your day’s adventure includes a traditional three-course Bulgarian lunch, complete with live folk music.
Drive through the scenic Bulgarian countryside to Belogradchik, a small town in the foothills of the Balkan Mountains, not far from the Serbian border. After some light refreshment at a local hotel, you’ll be ready to explore the astonishing rock formations nearby, which are over 200 million years old—and have inspired nearly as many legends! Many of the strange wind- and weather-hewn shapes have names, such as Adam and Eve, the Bear and the Castle. The outcroppings formed a natural defense for the town that was enhanced with man-made fortifications over the centuries.
Whether you choose to hike with a local expert to the top of the path or not, you’ll be rewarded with spectacular views. Your return will take you past some sights that highlight Vidin’s mixed heritage: the Orthodox cathedral, the Turkish mosque, the Konak (the 18th-century headquarters of the Turkish police) and the cruciform barracks (which date to the 1790s). The final stop will be Baba Vida, whose stern 10th-century stone walls were built on the site of a Roman watchtower.
Cross the Danube via the brand-new bridge that links Bulgaria and Romania to meet Mircea Dinescu, poet, journalist, satirist, media mogul and key figure in the revolution that overthrew Nicolae Ceausescu in 1989.
Among his surprising ventures is Cetate Cultural Harbor, a haven for artists of all sorts—poets, potters, painters, filmmakers and musicians. In 1996 Dinescu’s foundation purchased a once-grand house called Port Cetate, which had fallen on very hard times, and transformed it into a largely self-supporting farm and “cultural harbor.” Artists from all over Europe are invited to participate in workshops and residency programs, and the farm is the scene of a film festival, music camp, poetry camp and even a gastronomic arts festival.
There’s a reason for that particular focus: Dinescu makes fine wine, which you may sample, and the kitchen staff turns out delectable Romanian specialties. Stroll through the peaceful grounds and study the artwork on display before sitting down to tapas and music.
The setting may be rustic— that’s part of the charm—but the art, music, poetry, food and wine are quite sophisticated.
Today’s main attraction will be the spectacular scenery along the Danube, as you cruise a stretch of gorges known as the Iron Gates.
Later, head ashore to explore a Paleolithic site and an extraordinary well-preserved medieval fortress. All along the way, history lines the banks of the river. Keep an eye out for Trajan’s Plaque, which the ancient Romans erected to commemorate the road they anchored in the steep cliffs above the water, and Golubac Castle, built in the 14th century and attacked successively by the Serbs, Magyars and Turks. The Turks won the castle in 1458, which helped to reinforce their control of the area until 1867, when they abandoned it.
Lepenski Vir is one of the largest and most significant prehistoric archeological sites from the Stone Age, located on the Danube. It was once the epicenter of one of the most highly developed prehistoric cultures, with complex social relations and even rudimentary urban planning.
The discovery of this prehistoric settlement has changed the image experts once had about the early Stone Age, expanding scientists’ knowledge about human communities that walked the earth millennia ago.
Later, you’ll visit Golubac Castle, one of the best preserved medieval fortresses in Europe, a powerhouse that has loomed over the Danube for centuries. Unwind onboard as you cruise the breathtaking Iron Gates, an 83-mile-long (134-kilometer-long) stretch of scenic gorges that were cut through the Carpathian and Balkan mountains over eons by the Danube River. These gorges, which act as a natural border between Serbia and Romania, are among the most dramatic and beautiful sights in all of Europe.
This was one of the swiftest and most dangerous stretches of the river before two dams were built: Iron Gate I and Iron Gate II. Construction on the dams began in 1964 and took 20 years to complete; they have dramatically altered the area’s landscape, raising the water level by 114 feet (35 meters) and drowning several islands and villages.
As a motorcoach carries you through the city, you’ll see a mix of architectural styles that reveal the city’s past, ranging from Gothic, Ottoman, baroque and art nouveau to utilitarian Communist apartment blocks and modern high-rises. While Belgrade has been no stranger to political upheaval, the 19th-century Residence of Princess Ljubica and serene old residential streets speak of calmer days, as do the bustling present-day café-lined boulevards.
You’ll pass the tomb and memorial museum of Josip Broz Tito, which is located at the site of Tito’s former residence in Belgrade’s affluent Dedinje neighborhood, and visit Kalemegdan Fortress, high on a hill above the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers. Ancient Romans built the first fortress here, and successive conquerors and defenders—Slavs, Byzantines, Ottomans, Habsburgs—continued to build and destroy fortifications on this site for another 1,500 years.
Walk along the old stone walls, passing monuments and memorials (some will surprise you—poets and composers are honored here as well as military actions), for a sense of Serbia’s distant and more recent history. It’s not the only intriguing historical sight you’ll see today, however. You will also visit the Karadjordjevic Dynasty Palace and sip a glass of sparkling Serbian wine as you tour a compound of palaces built in the 1920s and 1930s. Serbia’s royal family, which is related to most of Europe’s royalty, has a strictly honorary position in modern-day democratic Serbia, but Crown Prince Alexander (who did not feel that taking the title of king was appropriate when his father died in exile in the United States in 1972) and his family still live in these palaces.
A local expert will show you the public rooms of the Royal Palace, the White Palace, the adjacent chapel and the spacious grounds.
Mount a bike and spend a leisurely half-day getting an up-close look at Belgrade, complete with lively commentary from your guide, who will tell you not just about the tumultuous recent past but also what it’s like to live here.
Ride past Branko’s Bridge, Staro Sajmište (a former concentration camp), the Palace of Serbia and Hotel Jugoslavija; after a refreshing stop at a traditional fisherman’s bar, you’ll be ready to pedal to Kalemegdan Fortress and see a bit of Serbia’s more distant past.
Welcome to Croatia! This ancient country has made a remarkable recovery from a brutal civil war, and its beautiful countryside, colorful folk traditions and delicious rustic cuisine make it a most rewarding place to visit.
Welcome to Croatia! This ancient country, which has made a remarkable recovery from a brutal civil war, is noted for its beautiful countryside and thriving folk traditions, as well as delicious simple, local rustic food. You’ll dock in Vukovar, Croatia’s biggest port, at the confluence of the Danube and Vuka rivers.
The bullet-riddled water tower stands as a reminder of the bitter Croatian War of Independence, fought between 1991 and 1995, when Croatia sought to break away from Yugoslavia. Thousands died during the siege of Vukovar, which was heavily damaged. As you take a short walk through the town now, you will see lasting signs of the conflict, but you will also see a revitalized community, determined to rebuild.
From Vukovar you’ll head to Osijek, where you’ll visit Tvrda, a military and civil complex begun in 1687 by the Habsburgs after they took the region back from the Ottomans. You’ll also learn something of Osijek’s long history—which dates back to Roman times—and stop by the Church of the Holy Cross, built by the Franciscans after the Ottomans left.
Venture into a lesser-known part of Croatia today. Set off from the port of Vukovar with your local expert, who will tell you about Vukovar’s calamitous experience during the Croatian War of Independence (1991-1995), when much of the city was shelled, and head to Osijek, the capital of Slavonia.
Osijek is an attractive town on the banks of the Drava River that combines a long history—settlement predates the Romans, who built a fortress there that was conquered by Attila the Hun— with an easygoing charm and a readiness to embrace the future. You’ll stroll through Tvrda, the baroque military and civil complex begun in 1687 by the Habsburgs after they seized the town from the Ottoman Turks, and see some of the historic highlights via a panoramic tour.
Located on opposite sides of the Danube, Buda and Pest each has a distinctive character and allure all its own. Explore this dynamic and multi-faceted city with your choice of excursions—you can see it from a local’s perspective on our exclusive walking tour, cover more ground with a panoramic tour or “Go Active” with a guided bike ride.
Vibrant Budapest, Hungary’s capital, offers an enchanting combination of East and West, old and new. Even its geography is made up of two parts—Buda (the hills) and Pest (the flatlands)—divided by the Danube. Which part will you choose to explore today? You have three options to choose from.
This panoramic tour is a wonderful way to get an overview of the city if you have never been here before. It will carry you from Heroes’ Square, created in 1896 to honor the thousand-year anniversary of Hungary’s founding and its greatest historical figures, past some of the city’s most striking architectural sights—Dohány Street Synagogue, the Hungarian National Museum, the state opera house, St. Stephen’s Basilica and the truly stunning Parliament Building—to Castle Hill, which has been called the heart of the nation.
The city of Buda began here, when King Béla built a strong keep in 1243 as a defense against Mongol invaders; a castle replaced the simple fortress, and over the centuries other castles replaced that one. The current castle is primarily 18th century; a museum dedicated to Budapest’s archaeological finds is housed there, and the Castle Hill district has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
You’ll go inside the magnificent 700-year-old Matthias Church, named for one of Hungary’s greatest kings, and then wend your way on foot to the picturesque Fisherman’s Bastion, whose seven fairytale-like towers represent the seven tribes that originally settled the region. It offers a glorious view of the city and the Danube below.
Get ready for a fun immersion in the daily life of Budapest—your local expert will show you how to use the metro (one of the oldest in Europe) to easily reach all the city has to offer. Start with a visit to one of the city’s irresistible market halls.
Stalls spill over with produce, sausages and meats, festoons of dried paprika, cheeses, and jars of honey, all of it authentically Hungarian. After you leave the market, stop for coffee and a sweet treat at Szamos Gourmet Palace, a combination pastry shop, café and chocolate maker in Vörösmarty Square. Marzipan is a favorite confection in Budapest, and Szamos has specialized in making it since the 1930s, so you might want to try some—but the shop’s truffle selection is equally irresistible. Refreshed, you’ll be ready to hop back on the tram for a visit to the gracious green spaces of Károlyi Garden, sometimes described as Budapest’s most charming small park.
You’ll ramble along the boulevards and pass the Hungarian National Museum, truly getting the feel for this dynamic city, as you head back toward the ship. Note: Budapest’s market halls are closed on holidays. If your tour lands on a holiday, we will skip the market.
Only the Netherlands and Denmark have a higher proportion of people who use bicycles for their daily transportation than Hungary, and you can spot the bright-green bikes that are part of the city’s bike-sharing program anywhere. Join a local expert to experience the Budapest bicyclists love: Wheel along the Danube past such sights as the moving tribute to the Jews shot by the Nazis on the banks of the river, the Hungarian Parliament building, St. Stephen’s Basilica and Andrassy Avenue, and swoop over the bridge to Margaret Island.
It’s a fun and active way to get out and see the city the way locals see it. In the evening, a special Captain’s Farewell Reception and Dinner will be prepared for you.
If your cruise/tour package includes a group departure transfer or if you have purchased a private departure transfer, you will be transferred to Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport for your flight home. Or you can extend your stay in beautiful Budapest with our exciting optional post-cruise extension.
Arrive at Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport.
If your cruise/tour package includes a group arrival transfer or if you have purchased a private arrival transfer, you will be greeted by a Uniworld representative and transferred to the ship.
You’ll go inside the magnificent 700-year-old Matthias Church, named for one of Hungary’s greatest kings, and then wend your way on foot to the picturesque Fisherman’s Bastion, whose seven fairytale-like towers represent the seven tribes that originally settled the region. It offers a glorious view of the city and the Danube below.Note: Visits to the interior of Matthias Church may not be possible on some weekends and Catholic holidays.
Only the Netherlands and Denmark have a higher proportion of people who use bicycles for their daily transportation than Hungary, and you can spot the bright-green bikes that are part of the city’s bike-sharing program anywhere.
Join a local expert to experience the Budapest bicyclists love: Wheel along the Danube past such sights as the moving tribute to the Jews shot by the Nazis on the banks of the river, the Hungarian Parliament building, St. Stephen’s Basilica and Andrassy Avenue, and swoop over the bridge to Margaret Island. It’s a fun and active way to get out and see the city the way locals see it.
Get ready for a fun immersion in the daily life of Budapest—your local expert will show you how to use the metro (one of the oldest in Europe) to easily reach all the city has to offer.
Start with a visit to one of the city’s irresistible market halls. Stalls spill over with produce, sausages and meats, festoons of dried paprika, cheeses, and jars of honey, all of it authentically Hungarian. After you leave the market, stop for coffee and a sweet treat at Szamos Gourmet Palace, a combination pastry shop, café and chocolate maker in Vörösmarty Square. Marzipan is a favorite confection in Budapest, and Szamos has specialized in making it since the 1930s, so you might want to try some—but the shop’s truffle selection is equally irresistible.
Refreshed, you’ll be ready to hop back on the tram for a visit to the gracious green spaces of Károlyi Garden, sometimes described as Budapest’s most charming small park. You’ll ramble along the boulevards and pass the Hungarian National Museum, truly getting the feel for this dynamic city, as you head back toward the ship.
The bullet-riddled water tower stands as a reminder of the bitter Croatian War of Independence, fought between 1991 and 1995, when Croatia sought to break away from Yugoslavia. Thousands died during the siege of Vukovar, which was heavily damaged.
As you take a short walk through the town now, you will see lasting signs of the conflict, but you will also see a revitalized community, determined to rebuild. From Vukovar you’ll head to Osijek, where you’ll visit Tvrda, a military and civil complex begun in 1687 by the Habsburgs after they took the region back from the Ottomans. You’ll also learn something of Osijek’s long history—which dates back to Roman times—and stop by the Church of the Holy Cross, built by the Franciscans after the Ottomans left.Enjoy an Ajvar demonstration in the courtyard of the monastery, a local specialty made from bell peppers, eggplant and tomatoes. You’ll also learn how to prepare vegetables in authentic Croatian style.
From there, the group will split up and head off to different nearby villages for a home-hosted lunch.Later, you’ll visit the Vucedol Museum. The basic idea behind the concept of this unique museum was integration into the terrain—the entire structure is designed to be mostly buried in the ground and only the façade is open to the landscape. Its shape, as serpentine, follows terrain, and on whose green roof you can reach the archaeological sites over the museum.
Along the path, you’ll encounter the various Vučedol culture archaeological findings that have been discovered to date, which showcase the daily life and customs during a turbulent time of the immigration of the first Indo-Europeans and their relationship with the natives, the blending of material cultures and religions. Following your time at the museum, enjoy lunch at the Goldschmidt winery.
Venture into a lesser-known part of Croatia today.
Set off from the port of Vukovar with your local expert, who will tell you about Vukovar’s calamitous experience during the Croatian War of Independence (1991-1995), when much of the city was shelled, and head to Osijek, the capital of Slavonia. Osijek is an attractive town on the banks of the Drava River that combines a long history—settlement predates the Romans, who built a fortress there that was conquered by Attila the Hun— with an easygoing charm and a readiness to embrace the future. You’ll stroll through Tvrda, the baroque military and civil complex begun in 1687 by the Habsburgs after they seized the town from the Ottoman Turks, and see some of the historic highlights via a panoramic tour.
You’ll follow up your tour with a stop in a village just outside the city for a traditional Croatian lunch hosted by local villagers.
Translators will be on hand to help you and your hosts converse, so you can actually learn a bit about one another’s lives and interests.
You’ll pass the tomb and memorial museum of Josip Broz Tito, which is located at the site of Tito’s former residence in Belgrade’s affluent Dedinje neighborhood, and visit Kalemegdan Fortress, high on a hill above the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers.Ancient Romans built the first fortress here, and successive conquerors and defenders—Slavs, Byzantines, Ottomans, Habsburgs—continued to build and destroy fortifications on this site for another 1,500 years. Walk along the old stone walls, passing monuments and memorials (some will surprise you—poets and composers are honored here as well as military actions), for a sense of Serbia’s distant and more recent history.
It’s not the only intriguing historical sight you’ll see today, however. You will also visit the Karadjordjevic Dynasty Palace and sip a glass of sparkling Serbian wine as you tour a compound of palaces built in the 1920s and 1930s. Serbia’s royal family, which is related to most of Europe’s royalty, has a strictly honorary position in modern-day democratic Serbia, but Crown Prince Alexander (who did not feel that taking the title of king was appropriate when his father died in exile in the United States in 1972) and his family still live in these palaces. A local expert will show you the public rooms of the Royal Palace, the White Palace, the adjacent chapel and the spacious grounds.
Later, head ashore to explore a Paleolithic site and an extraordinary well-preserved medieval fortress.
All along the way, history lines the banks of the river. Keep an eye out for Trajan’s Plaque, which the ancient Romans erected to commemorate the road they anchored in the steep cliffs above the water, and Golubac Castle, built in the 14th century and attacked successively by the Serbs, Magyars and Turks.
The Turks won the castle in 1458, which helped to reinforce their control of the area until 1867, when they abandoned it.
The discovery of this prehistoric settlement has changed the image experts once had about the early Stone Age, expanding scientists’ knowledge about human communities that walked the earth millennia ago.Later, you’ll visit Golubac Castle, one of the best preserved medieval fortresses in Europe, a powerhouse that has loomed over the Danube for centuries.
Drive through the scenic Bulgarian countryside to Belogradchik, a small town in the foothills of the Balkan Mountains, not far from the Serbian border. After some light refreshment at a local hotel, you’ll be ready to explore the astonishing rock formations nearby, which are over 200 million years old—and have inspired nearly as many legends!
Many of the strange wind- and weather-hewn shapes have names, such as Adam and Eve, the Bear and the Castle. The outcroppings formed a natural defense for the town that was enhanced with man-made fortifications over the centuries. Whether you choose to hike with a local expert to the top of the path or not, you’ll be rewarded with spectacular views. Your return will take you past some sights that highlight Vidin’s mixed heritage: the Orthodox cathedral, the Turkish mosque, the Konak (the 18th-century headquarters of the Turkish police) and the cruciform barracks (which date to the 1790s). The final stop will be Baba Vida, whose stern 10th-century stone walls were built on the site of a Roman watchtower.
There’s a reason for that particular focus: Dinescu makes fine wine, which you may sample, and the kitchen staff turns out delectable Romanian specialties. Stroll through the peaceful grounds and study the artwork on display before sitting down to tapas and music. The setting may be rustic— that’s part of the charm—but the art, music, poetry, food and wine are quite sophisticated.
Twice the capital of Bulgaria—before and after the Ottomans conquered the nation—Veliko Tarnovo climbs steep hills above the Yantra River, topped by the ruins of Tsarevets, the stronghold where Bulgaria’s kings ruled between 1185 and 1393.
The remains of the great stone walls and towers that you see formed the historic heart of the Second Bulgarian Empire. History lives in this town, as a quick look at the wares for sale in Samovod Marketplace will show you: Handicrafts are all made by local artisans using ancient, medieval or Renaissance technologies.
You’ll have time to peruse the exceptional local pottery and textiles there before heading to Arbanassi, home to six amazing 17th-century stone churches, each one decorated with colorful and intricate frescoes.
Rousse walking discovery tour with Ivanovo and Basarbovo monasteries.
Walk through the woods of Rusenski Lom, a protected region that is home to a wide variety of rare birds, among other wildlife, to Ivanovo Rock Monastery—once an enclave of more than 40 churches and chapels that the devout built inside caves above the Lom River Valley.
A UNESCO World Heritage Site, it is famous for its beautiful and well-preserved 14th-century murals.Your next destination, the Basarbovo Rock Monastery, is the only rock monastery where monks still live and worship today. Climb the narrow rock stairway to the 15th-century cloister, which is cut into the limestone cliffs high above the Lom River, and take a look at the arresting frescoes. You’ll also spend some time in Rousse, a city with an easygoing, gracious feeling. Freedom Square, a huge open plaza, takes its name from the Freedom Monument, which soars from the center of the square; the stately Belle Epoque buildings surrounding the square attest to the city’s prosperity in the 1890s.
Stroll along wide, tree-lined Alexandrovska, the main pedestrian street that links the city’s many attractive squares, encountering such landmark sights as Rousse’s grand theater, the city museum and the first movie theater (it opened in 1896).
Another option is a walking tour that shows you this city from a local’s perspective. This morning, you’ll disembark the ship in Giurgiu and drive through the countryside to Bucharest, where you’ll enjoy a traditional three-course Romanian lunch at a local restaurant and a panoramic city tour.
Tonight you’ll relax in the comfort of a luxury hotel located in the heart of the city, Romania’s capital and its cultural and economic center.
Bucharest began as a fortress in the 15th century, a warlike origin that set the tone for its turbulent history. It saw glory days as the summer residence of the Wallachian princes and was burned to the ground by the Ottoman Turks; then Austria-Hungary and imperial Russia fought over it for a century.
After Wallachia and Moldavia united to form Romania in the mid-19th century, Bucharest enjoyed a prosperity that was reflected in its extravagant architecture, some of which miraculously survived WWII bombing and Communist building programs. You’ll see Bucharest’s very own Triumphal Arch, which is modeled after the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, and Victoria Boulevard, lined with chic shops and handsomely restored prewar buildings—and sites where protests brought down Ceausescu’s regime in 1989. These days Bucharest enjoys a lively and eclectic cultural scene, hosting international arts festivals and concerts, and a measure of prosperity apparent in its busy cafés and thriving street life.
Perhaps no sight in Bucharest more perfectly encapsulates Romania’s 20th-century experience than the mind-boggling structure known as the People’s Palace. Nicolae Ceausescu razed one-sixth of the city to erect this enormous palace—the second-largest building in the world—which all but bankrupted the country and helped trigger his downfall.
Some 20,000 laborers worked on the building, which has 1,100 rooms in its 12 stories. Only a small portion of it is open to tours—in fact, only a small portion of the rooms are furnished—but you’ll see the vast marble-sheathed halls, huge chandeliers and basement bomb shelter that comprise an astonishing monument to the dictator’s ambition. The cost to the country was enormous, but the craftsmanship is exquisite; the dictator meant it to be a showcase of Bulgarian decorative arts, and in that he fully succeeded.
“Give a penny for the Athenaeum.” Back in the 1880s, this was the theme for the fundraising campaign that resulted in one of Bucharest’s most beautiful and most beloved buildings: the Romanian Athenaeum. Ordinary citizens, not wealthy patrons of the arts, contributed their pennies and built a jewel-box concert hall with perfect acoustics, which they cherish to this day: It’s called the spiritual and artistic heart of the nation.
Just a few years ago this neighborhood was all but a shambles; now it is a lively social center. Here you’ll find everything from a famous beer hall to a spectacularly renovated bookstore, as well as the city’s oldest surviving church and the remnants of the Old Princely Court, where the Wallachian rulers—including Vlad the Impaler—lived in the 15th and 16th centuries.
Your walking tour ends at Hanul Lui Manuc, built two centuries ago as an inn and recently restored, where you will take a seat in the tree-shaded courtyard and relax over some favorite local appetizers—perhaps some stuffed mushrooms and a variety of sausages.
Legend says that a tiny, verdant island in the midst of lovely Snagov Lake, just north of the city, contains Vlad the Impaler’s tomb. Vlad III, who ruled Wallachia (now part of modern Romania) in the 15th century, may have inspired Bram Stoker’s Dracula (and countless successor vampire novels), though he got his sobriquet “the Impaler” for the brutal methods he employed against his enemies, not for sinking his teeth into virgins.
However cruel Vlad was, the monks of Snagov Monastery held him in great esteem and are said to have buried him in their monastery after he was slain in a battle nearby. Take a boat over the peaceful waters to the serene garden and monastery to see the simple marble slab that marks the tomb, as well as the beautiful medieval frescoes that adorn the interior of the monastery.
Then continue further afield to the opulent former residence of Romania’s former leader Nicolae Ceausescu, where you’ll have a guided tour.
It’s been a quarter of a century since deposed Romanian president Ceausescu and his wife Elena were executed by a firing squad on Christmas Day in 1989, but now you can roam the opulent 80-room residence where the couple once lived, situated on 3.5 acres of grounds in one of Bucharest’s most desirable neighborhoods.
For 2018 Uniworld launched their newest Super Ship — S.S. Beatrice. The S.S. Beatrice boasts yacht-style light wood with blue and white finishes throughout, a renovated lobby featuring elegant mirrors, marble floors, a white Murano chandelier with blue shades, and a grand staircase made of nickel and black iron – a signature design element of Uniworld’s Super Ships. The ship’s redesigned lounge features sofas and chairs with hand-made upholstery, a parquet floor and upholstered ceiling panels, solar shades, and new USB ports allowing guests to charge anywhere they are sitting. The artwork throughout the ship includes pieces from Pablo Picasso, Alexander Calder and Pino Signoretto.
Additionally, S.S. Beatrice has two new Grand Suites each measuring 310 square feet and a second 390 square foot Owner’s/Royal Suite. Connecting rooms, ideal for friends and families traveling together, have also been added.
This majestic, ultra-luxurious, boutique cruise ship is the perfect base to explore the rivers from. Fabulous public areas are complelmented by lavishly appointed riverview staterooms and suites. Handcrafted Savoir® of England beds are draped in high-thread count 100% Egyptian cotton sheets and European duvets, along with a menu of pillow options. Staterooms and suites on the Rhine & Danube Decks have floor to ceiling windows opening to a French balconies.
Individually decorated suite size: 225 sq. ft.
The 130-passenger River Duchess is decorated in soft hues of blue and green complemented by soothing earth tones, providing a tranquil and elegant onboard ambiance. Enjoy spectacular and ever-changing views of Europe’s most enchanting waterways in the ship’s stylish Blue Danube Lounge, Palace Restaurant, or the La Motte Sky Lounge.
An in-depth journey offering fresh new adventures in the Old World. Sail past quaint villages and great cities on the glorious Danube, visiting baroque abbeys and medieval cathedrals, tasting fine wines and encountering new cultures. | 2019-04-26T12:56:15Z | https://www.globalrivercruising.co.uk/cruises/danube/uniworld-highlights-of-eastern-europe/ |
"Ole Miss" redirects here. For the University of Mississippi athletics program, see Ole Miss Rebels.
Not to be confused with Mississippi State University.
The University of Mississippi (colloquially known as Ole Miss) is a public research university in Oxford, Mississippi. Including the University of Mississippi Medical Center in Jackson, it is the state's largest university by enrollment. The university was chartered by the Mississippi Legislature on February 24, 1844, and four years later admitted its first enrollment of 80 students. The university is classified as an "R1: Doctoral University—Very High Research Activity" by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education and has an annual research and development budget of $121.6 million. The university ranked 145 in the 2018 edition of the US News Rankings of Best National Universities.
Across all its campuses, the university comprises some 23,258 students. In addition to the main campus in Oxford and the medical school in Jackson, the university also has campuses in Tupelo, Booneville, Grenada, and Southaven, as well as an accredited online high school. About 55 percent of its undergraduates and 60 percent overall come from Mississippi, and 23 percent are minorities; international students respectively represent 90 different nations. It is one of the 33 colleges and universities participating in the National Sea Grant Program and a participant in the National Space Grant College and Fellowship Program.
Ole Miss was a center of activity during the American civil rights movement when a race riot erupted in 1962 following the attempted admission of James Meredith, an African-American, to the segregated campus. While the university was successfully integrated that year, the use of Confederate symbols and motifs has remained a controversial aspect of the school's identity and culture. In response the university has attempted to take proactive measures to rebrand its image, including effectively banning the display of Confederate flags in Vaught-Hemingway Stadium in 1997, officially abandoning the Colonel Reb mascot in 2003, and removing "Dixie" from the Pride of the South marching band's repertoire in 2016. In 2018, following a racially charged rant on social media by an alum and academic building namesake, former Chancellor Jeffrey Vitter reaffirmed the university's commitment to "honest and open dialogue about its history", and in making its campuses "more welcoming and inclusive".
The "Dead House" was built before the Civil War and was used as a morgue during the war. Bodies were carried from the Dead House across campus to the Civil War Cemetery, which contains more than 430 graves. The building was demolished in 1958, and Farley Hall--which contains the Meek School of Journalism and New Media--was erected in its place.
The Mississippi Legislature chartered the University of Mississippi on February 24, 1844. The university opened its doors to its first class of 80 students four years later in 1848. For 23 years, the university was Mississippi's only public institution of higher learning, and for 110 years it was the state's only comprehensive university. Politician Pryor Lea was a founding trustee.
When the university opened, the campus consisted of six buildings: two dormitories, two faculty houses, a steward's hall, and the Lyceum at the center. Constructed from 1846 to 1848, the Lyceum is the oldest building on campus. Originally, the Lyceum housed all of the classrooms and faculty offices of the university. The building's north and south wings were added in 1903, and the Class of 1927 donated the clock above the eastern portico. The Lyceum is now the home of the university's administration offices. The columned facade of the Lyceum is represented on the official crest of the university, along with the date of establishment.
In 1854, the university established the fourth state-supported, public law school in the United States, and also began offering engineering education.
With the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, classes were interrupted when almost the entire student body (135 out of 139 students) from the University of Mississippi enlisted in the Confederate army, forming an infantry group nicknamed the University Greys. However, all 135 students were killed during the war, a 100% casualty rate. Most died during the battles of Gettysburg and Vicksburg.
The Lyceum was used as a hospital during the Civil War for both Union and Confederate soldiers, especially those who were wounded at the battle of Shiloh. Two hundred-fifty soldiers who died in the campus hospital were buried in a cemetery on the grounds of the university.
During the post-war period, the university was led by former Confederate general A.P. Stewart, a Rogersville, Tennessee native. He served as Chancellor from 1874 to 1886.
The university became coeducational in 1882 and was the first such institution in the Southeast to hire a female faculty member, Sarah McGehee Isom, doing so in 1885.
The student yearbook was published for the first time in 1897. A contest was held to solicit suggestions for a yearbook title from the student body. Elma Meek, a student, submitted the winning entry of "Ole Miss." Meek's source for the term is unknown; some historians theorize she made a diminutive of "old Mississippi" or derived the term from "ol' missus," an African-American term for a plantation's "old mistress." This sobriquet was not only chosen for the yearbook, but also became the name by which the university was informally known. "Ole Miss" is defined as the school's intangible spirit, which is separate from the tangible aspects of the university.
The university began medical education in 1903, when the University of Mississippi School of Medicine was established on the Oxford campus. In that era, the university provided two-year pre-clinical education certificates, and graduates went out of state to complete doctor of medicine degrees. In 1950, the Mississippi Legislature voted to create a four-year medical school. On July 1, 1955, the University Medical Center opened in the capital of Jackson, Mississippi, as a four-year medical school. The University of Mississippi Medical Center, as it is now called, is the health sciences campus of the University of Mississippi. It houses the University of Mississippi School of Medicine along with five other health science schools: nursing, dentistry, health-related professions, graduate studies and pharmacy (The School of Pharmacy is split between the Oxford and University of Mississippi Medical Center campuses).
Several attempts were made via the executive and legislative branches of the Mississippi state government to relocate or otherwise close the University of Mississippi. The Mississippi Legislature between 1900 and 1930 introduced several bills aiming to accomplish this, but no such legislation was ever passed by either house. One such bill was introduced in 1912 by Senator William Ellis of Carthage, Mississippi, which would have merged the college with then-Mississippi A&M. However, this measure was soundly defeated, despite the bill only seeking to form an exploratory committee. In February 1920, 56 members of the legislature arrived on campus and discussed with students and faculty the idea of consolidating MS A&M, MS College of Women and Ole Miss to be located in Jackson, rather than appropriate $750,000.00 of funds requested by then-Chancellor Joseph Powers which were needed to repair dilapidated and structurally unsound buildings on the campus, which was discovered following the partial collapse of a dormitory in 1917 and a scathing review of other buildings later that same year by the state architect. These funds, plus an additional $300,000.00 were appropriated to the school, which was used to build 4 male dormitories, a female dormitory and a pharmacy building, which partially resolved a longstanding issue of inadequate dormitory space for students. During the 1930s, Mississippi Governor Theodore G. Bilbo, a populist, tried to move the university to Jackson. Chancellor Alfred Hume gave the state legislators a grand tour of Ole Miss and the surrounding historic city of Oxford, persuading them to keep it in its original setting.
During World War II, UM was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program, which offered students a path to a Navy commission.
Desegregation came to Ole Miss in the early 1960s with the activities of United States Air Force veteran James Meredith from Kosciusko, Mississippi. Even Meredith's initial efforts required great courage. All involved knew how violently William David McCain and the white political establishment of Mississippi had recently reacted to similar efforts by Clyde Kennard to enroll at Mississippi Southern College (now the University of Southern Mississippi).
Meredith won a lawsuit that allowed him admission to The University of Mississippi in September 1962. He attempted to enter campus on September 20, September 25, and again on September 26, only to be blocked by Mississippi Governor Ross R. Barnett, who proclaimed that "...No school in our state will be integrated while I am your Governor. I shall do everything in my power to prevent integration in our schools."
After the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit held both Barnett and Lieutenant Governor Paul B. Johnson, Jr. in contempt, with fines of more than $10,000 for each day they refused to allow Meredith to enroll, Meredith, escorted by a force of U.S. Marshals, entered the campus on September 30, 1962.
Two people were killed by gunfire during the riot, a French journalist, Paul Guihard and an Oxford repairman, Ray Gunter. One-third of the US Marshals, 166 men, were injured, as were 40 soldiers and National Guardsmen.
After control was re-established by federal forces, Meredith, thanks to the protection afforded by federal marshals, was able to enroll and attend his first class on October 1. Following the riot, elements of an Army National Guard division were stationed in Oxford to prevent future similar violence. While most Ole Miss students did not riot prior to his official enrollment in the university, many harassed Meredith during his first two semesters on campus.
According to first-person accounts, students living in Meredith's dorm bounced basketballs on the floor just above his room through all hours of the night. When Meredith walked into the cafeteria for meals, the students eating would all turn their backs. If Meredith sat at a table with other students, all of whom were white, they would immediately move to another table. Many of these events are featured in the 2012 ESPN documentary film Ghosts of Ole Miss.
In 2002 the university marked the 40th anniversary of integration with a yearlong series of events titled "Open Doors: Building on 40 Years of Opportunity in Higher Education." These included an oral history of Ole Miss, various symposiums, the April unveiling of a $130,000 memorial, and a reunion of federal marshals who had served at the campus. In September 2003, the university completed the year's events with an international conference on race. By that year, 13% of the student body identified as African American. Meredith's son Joseph graduated as the top doctoral student at the School of Business Administration.
The Circle, including its flagpole and Confederate Monument.
Additionally, on April 14, 2010, the university campus was declared a National Historic Site by the Society of Professional Journalists to honor reporters who covered the 1962 riot, including the late French reporter Paul Guihard, a victim of the riot.
From September 2012 to May 2013, the university marked its 50th anniversary of integration with a program called Opening the Closed Society, referring to Mississippi: The Closed Society, a 1964 book by James W. Silver, a history professor at the university. The events included lectures by figures such as Attorney General Eric H. Holder Jr. and the singer and activist Harry Belafonte, movie screenings, panel discussions, and a "walk of reconciliation and redemption." Myrlie Evers-Williams, widow of Medgar Evers, slain civil rights leader and late president of the state NAACP, closed the observance on May 11, 2013, by delivering the address at the university's 160th commencement.
The university was chosen to host the first presidential debate of 2008, between Senator John McCain and then-Senator Barack Obama which was held September 26, 2008. This was the first presidential debate to be held in Mississippi.
The university adopted a new on-field mascot for athletic events in the fall of 2010. Colonel Reb, retired from the sidelines of sporting events in 2003, was officially replaced by "Rebel", a black bear, and then, in 2018, was replaced by The Landshark. All university sports teams are still officially referred to as the Rebels.
The university's 25th Rhodes Scholar was named in 2008. Since 1998, it has produced two Rhodes Scholars, as well as 10 Goldwater Scholars, seven Truman Scholars, 18 Fulbright Scholars, a Marshall Scholar, three Udall Scholars, two Gates Cambridge Scholars, one Mitchell Scholar, 19 Boren Scholars, one Boren fellow and one German Chancellor Fellowship.
The student-faculty ratio at University of Mississippi is 19:1, and the school has 47.4 percent of its classes with fewer than 20 students. The most popular majors at University of Mississippi include: Integrated Marketing Communications, Elementary Education and Teaching; Marketing/Marketing Management, General; Accountancy, Finance, General; Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Sciences, and Administration, Other; Biology, Psychology and Criminal Justice; and Business Administration and Management, General. The average freshman retention rate, an indicator of student success and satisfaction, is 85.3 percent.
University of Mississippi Medical Center surgeons, led by James Hardy, performed the world's first human lung transplant, in 1963, and the world's first animal-to-human heart transplant, in 1964. The heart of a chimpanzee was used for the heart transplant because of Hardy's research on transplantation, consisting of primate studies during the previous nine years.
The University of Mississippi Field Station in Abbeville is a natural laboratory used to study, research and teach about sustainable freshwater ecosystems.
Since 1968, the school operates the only legal marijuana farm and production facility in the United States. The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) contracts to the university the production of cannabis for the use in approved research studies on the plant as well as for distribution to the seven surviving medical cannabis patients grandfathered into the Compassionate Investigational New Drug program (established in 1978 and canceled in 1991).
The first commercial blues recording was Mamie Smith's performance of Perry Bradford's "Crazy Blues" in 1920.
The university houses one of the largest blues music archives in the United States. Some of the contributions to the collection were donated by BB King who donated his entire personal record collection. The archive includes the first ever commercial blues recording, a song called "Crazy Blues" recorded by Mamie Smith in 1920. The Mamie and Ellis Nassour Arts & Entertainment Collection, highlighted by a wealth of theater and film scripts, photographs and memorabilia, was dedicated in September 2005.
The Center for Intelligence and Security Studies (CISS) delivers academic programming to prepare outstanding students for careers in intelligence analysis in both the public and private sectors. In addition, CISS personnel engage in applied research and consortium building with government, private and academic partners. In late 2012, the United States Director of National Intelligence designated CISS as an Intelligence Community Center of Academic Excellence (CAE). CISS is one of only 29 college programs in the United States with this distinction.
The Haley Barbour Center for Manufacturing Excellence (CME) was established in June 2008 to provide unique opportunities for students interested in manufacturing. The CME is developing interdisciplinary educational opportunities within an innovative academic learning model that provides our students with the practical experiences, fundamental knowledge, and creative skill sets needed to lead the world of modern manufacturing. The CME is working with companies who express a strong desire to become industry leaders and who wish to work with CME staff and students.
The university offers the Chinese Language Flagship Program (simplified Chinese: 中文旗舰项目; traditional Chinese: 中文旗艦項目; pinyin: Zhōngwén Qíjiàn Xiàngmù), a study program aiming to provide Americans with an advanced knowledge of Chinese.
The Croft Institute for International Studies at the University of Mississippi is a privately funded, select-admissions, undergraduate program for high achieving students who pursue a B.A. degree in international studies. Croft students combine a regional concentration in Europe, East Asia, Latin America, or the Middle East with a thematic concentration in global economics and business, international governance and politics, or social and cultural identity. The program emphasizes intensive foreign language training, qualitative and quantitative skills, mandatory study abroad for a semester or more, and a yearlong senior thesis.
The University of Mississippi has several student organizations to help students get to know one another and adapt to life at the university. One organization is the International Student Organization (ISO), which organizes activities and events for international students. Notable events of the ISO include a cultural night, date auction and international sports tournament.
Named in honor of distinguished Ole Miss alumnus, former U.S. Sen. Trent Lott, the Lott Leadership Institute offers a wide range of leadership and outreach programs that work to enrich the lives and enhance the abilities of students and faculty, as well as high school students, students from other colleges and universities, and the community.
UM is a collaborator in the Mississippi Excellence in Teaching Program, designed to attract top students to teacher education programs with full scholarships and professional incentives. The goal is to attract the top high school seniors who want to become mathematics and English teachers in Mississippi. Funded by the Robert M. Hearin Support Foundation, the program is designed to create a unique “honors college style” learning experience for high-performing education students and promote collaboration between students and faculty at UM and Mississippi State University.
The World Class Teaching Program is a special program at the University of Mississippi School of Education designed to provide support to teachers going through the National Board Certification process.
The Sally McDonnell Barksdale Honors College attracts a diverse body of high-performing students to the University of Mississippi and prepares citizen scholars who are fired by the life of the mind, committed to the public good and driven to find solutions. Established in 1997 through a gift from the Jim Barksdale family, the Honors College merges intellectual rigor with community action. It offers an education similar to that at prestigious private liberal arts schools and universities, but at a far lower cost. Small, discussion-based classes, dedicated faculty and a nurturing staff enable honors students to experience intellectual as well as personal growth.
The University of Mississippi is a member of the SEC Academic Consortium. Now renamed the SECU, the initiative was a collaborative endeavor designed to promote research, scholarship and achievement among the member universities in the Southeastern Conference. The SECU formed to serve as a means to bolster collaborative academic endeavors of Southeastern Conference universities. Its goals include highlighting the endeavors and achievements of SEC faculty, students and its universities and advancing the academic reputation of SEC universities.
In 2013, the University of Mississippi participated in the SEC Symposium in Atlanta, Georgia which was organized and led by the University of Georgia and the UGA Bioenergy Systems Research Institute. The topic of the symposium was titled "Impact of the Southeast in the World's Renewable Energy Future."
The University of Mississippi was No. 18 on the 2012 Forbes Best Value Colleges list, part of the annual America's Top Colleges section. It was the only SEC school to make the Top 20 list. However, it failed to make the top 300 in best value in 2017. For the last 10 years, the Chronicle of Higher Education named the University of Mississippi as one of the "Great Colleges to Work For", putting the institution in elite company. The 2018 results, released in the Chronicle's annual report on "The Academic Workplace", Ole Miss was among 84 institutions honored from the 253 colleges and universities surveyed. In 2018, the Ole Miss campus was ranked the second safest in the SEC and one of the safest in nation. U.S. News & World Report ranks the Professional MBA program at the UM School of Business Administration in the top 50 among American public universities, and the online MBA program ranks in the top 25. All three degree programs at the University of Mississippi's Patterson School of Accountancy are among the top 10 in the 2018 annual national rankings of accounting programs published by the journal Public Accounting Report. The undergraduate and doctoral programs are No. 7, while the master's program is No. 9. The undergraduate and doctoral programs lead the Southeastern Conference in the rankings, and the master's program is second in the SEC. One or more Ole Miss programs have led the SEC in each of the past eight years.
The Army ROTC program received one of eight prestigious MacArthur Awards in February 2012. Presented by the U.S. Army Cadet Command and the Gen. Douglas MacArthur Foundation, the award recognizes the ideals of "duty, honor and country" as advocated by MacArthur. For its life-changing work in 12 Delta communities, the UM School of Pharmacy won the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy's 2011–12 Lawrence C. Weaver Transformative Community Service Award. AACP presents the award annually to one pharmacy school that not only demonstrates a major commitment to addressing unmet community needs through education, practice and research but also serves as an example of social responsiveness for others. Ole Miss continues to be the premiere destination for college tailgating as the Grove claimed second place in Southern Living's "South's Best Tailgate" contest in 2012. The William Winter Institute for Racial Reconciliation at the University of Mississippi was honored by the International Association of Official Human Rights Agencies with its 2012 International Award. This accolade from the nonprofit organization devoted to promoting civil and human rights around the world was presented in New Orleans.
The University of Mississippi's main campus is located in Oxford. There are also regional campuses in Booneville, DeSoto, Grenada, and Tupelo.
The University of Mississippi in Oxford is the original campus, beginning with only one square-mile of land. The main campus today contains around 1,200 acres of land. Also, the University of Mississippi owns a golf course and airport in Oxford. The golf course and airport are considered part of the University of Mississippi, Oxford campus as well.
The buildings on the main University of Mississippi campus come from the Georgian age of architecture; however, some of the newer buildings today have a more contemporary architecture. The first building built on the Oxford campus is the Lyceum, and is the only original building remaining. The construction of the Lyceum began in 1846 and was completed in 1848. The Lyceum served as a hospital to soldiers in the Civil War. Also on the campus, the Croft Institute for International Studies and Barnard Observatory were used for soldiers during the civil war. The Oxford campus of the University of Mississippi contains a lot of history with the Civil War. The campus was used as a hospital, but also after soldiers died, the campus served as a morgue. Where Farley Hall is now located, the prior building was referred to as the "Dead House" where the bodies of deceased soldiers were stored.
Architect Frank P. Gates designed 18 buildings on campus in 1929-1930, mostly in the Georgian Revival architectural style, including (Old) University High School, Barr Hall, Bondurant Hall, Farley Hall (also known as Lamar Hall), Faulkner Hall, Hill Hall, Howry Hall, Isom Hall, Longstreet Hall, Martindale Hall, Vardaman Hall, the Cafeteria/Union Building, and the Wesley Knight Field House.
Today on the University of Mississippi campus, most of the buildings have been completely renovated or newly constructed. There are currently at least 15 residential buildings on the Oxford campus, with more being built. The Oxford campus is also home to eleven sorority houses and fourteen fraternity houses. The chancellor of The University of Mississippi also lives on the edge of campus.
The University of Mississippi campus in Oxford is known for the beauty of the campus. The campus has been recognized multiple years, but most recently, in 2016, USA Today recognized Ole Miss as the "Most Beautiful Campus". The campus grounds are kept up through the University of Mississippi's personal landscape service.
The different satellite campuses that The University of Mississippi has are much smaller than the main campus in Oxford. The satellite campus in Tupelo started running in a larger space in 1972, the DeSoto campus opened in 1996, and the Grenada campus has been operated on the Holmes Community College campus since 2008. The University of Mississippi campus and satellite campuses continue to grow. There will continue to be progress in construction to accommodate for the large growth in student population.
Archie Manning's uniform number, 18, is the official speed limit of the Oxford campus. In March 2012, Ross Bjork was named the university's new athletics director. The other speed limit on campus is 10, for the uniform number of Eli Manning (Archie's son).
There are hundreds of students organizations, including 25 religious organizations.
The Daily Mississippian (DM) is the student-published newspaper of the university, established in 1911. Although it is located on the Ole Miss campus, it is operated largely as an independent newspaper run by students. The DM is the only college newspaper in the state that is published five times a week. The staff consists of approximately 15 editors, about 25 writers and photographers, and a five-person student sales staff. Daily circulation is 12,000. The award-winning publication celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2011–12.
TheDMonline.com is the online version of The Daily Mississippian and also includes original content that supplements the print publication - photo galleries, videos, breaking news and student blogs. Page views average up to 360,000 a month.
The Ole Miss student yearbook is a 368-page full-color book produced by students. It has won many awards, including a Gold Crown.
WUMS-FM 92.1 Rebel Radio, is a FCC commercially licensed radio station. It is one of only a few student-run, commercially licensed radio stations in the nation, with a signal stretching about 60 miles across North Mississippi. Its format features Top 40, alternative and college rock, news and talk shows.
NewsWatch is a student-produced, live newscast, and the only local newscast in Lafayette County. Broadcast through the Metrocast cable company, it is live at 5 p.m. Monday-Friday, and livestreamed on newswatcholemiss.com.
These publications and broadcasts are part of the S. Gale Denley Student Media Center at Ole Miss.
Approximately 5,300 students live on campus in 13 residence halls, two residential colleges and two apartment complexes. All freshmen (students with less than 30 credit hours) are required to live in campus housing their first year unless they meet certain commuter guidelines. The Department of Student Housing is an auxiliary, meaning that it is self-supporting and does not receive appropriations from state funds. All rent received from students pays for housing functions such as utilities, staff salaries, furniture, supplies, repairs, renovations and new buildings. Most of the residence staff members are students, including day-to-day management, conduct board members and maintenance personnel. Upon acceptance to the University of Mississippi, a housing application is submitted with an application fee. The cost of on-campus housing ranges from approximately $4,000 to more than $8,000 (the highest price being that of the newly renovated Village apartments) per academic or calendar year, depending on the occupancy and room type. Students (with more than 30 credit hours) have the option to live off campus in unaffiliated housing.
Graduate students, undergraduate students aged 25 or older, students who are married, and students with families may live in the Village Apartments. The complex consists of six two story buildings, and is adjacent to the University of Mississippi Law School. Undergraduates over 25, married students, and graduate students may live in the one-bedroom apartments. Graduate students and students over 25 may live in studio style apartments. Students with children may live in the two-bedroom apartments. Children living in the Village Apartments are zoned to the Oxford School District. Residents are zoned to Bramlett Elementary School (PreK-1), Oxford Elementary School (2-3), Della Davidson Elementary School (4-5), Oxford Middle School (6-8), and Oxford High School (9-12).
Despite the relatively small number of Greek-letter organizations on campus, a third of all undergraduates participate in Greek life at Ole Miss. The tradition of Greek life on the Oxford campus is a deep-seated one. In fact, the first fraternity founded in the South was the Rainbow Fraternity, founded at Ole Miss in 1848. The fraternity merged with Delta Tau Delta in 1886. Delta Kappa Epsilon followed shortly after at Ole Miss in 1850, as the first to have a house on campus in Mississippi. Delta Gamma Women's Fraternity was founded in 1873 at the Lewis School for Girls in nearby Oxford. All Greek life at Ole Miss was suspended from 1912 to 1926 due to statewide anti-fraternity legislation.
Today, sorority chapters are very large, with some boasting over 400 active members. Recruitment is fiercely competitive and potential sorority members are encouraged to secure personal recommendations from Ole Miss sorority alumnae to increase the chances of receiving an invitation to join one of the eleven NPC sororities on campus. Fraternity recruitment is also fierce, with only 14 active IFC chapters on campus.
The Associated Student Body (ASB) is the Ole Miss student government organization. Students are elected to the ASB Senate in the spring semester, with leftover seats voted on in the fall. Senators can represent groups of organizations such as the Greek councils and sports clubs, or they can run to represent their school (i.e., College of Liberal Arts or School of Engineering). The ASB officers are also elected in the spring semester, following two weeks of campaigning. A common tradition among Ole Miss students is that, after they vote in ASB elections, they go to local convenience stores to purchase Coca-Cola or PepsiCo brand soft drinks. Following the elections, newly sworn-in ASB officers release applications, conduct interviews, and eventually choose their cabinet members for the coming school year. The student body, excluding the Medical Center, includes 18,121 undergraduates, 2,089 graduate students, 357 law students and 323 students in the Doctor of Pharmacy program. African-Americans comprise 12.8 percent of the student body.
Nobel Prize-winning novelist William Faulkner, who attended the university but did not graduate, served as the university's postmaster from 1921 to 1924. In 1929, Faulkner wrote As I Lay Dying in the University of Mississippi Power House, where he worked as a fireman and night watchman.
Best-selling legal thriller writer John Grisham received his Juris Doctor degree at Ole Miss Law.
United States Senators Trent Lott, Roger Wicker and Thad Cochran earned their undergraduate and law degrees from the University of Mississippi, and Senator Jeanne Shaheen earned a master's degree.
NFL quarterback Archie Manning attended Ole Miss and played football for the Rebels.
Manning's youngest son, NFL quarterback Eli Manning, a two-time Super Bowl champion, also played at Ole Miss.
Mahesh Bhupathi, tennis player and winner of 4 Grand Slam doubles titles.
The university has produced three Miss Americas: Susan Akin, Mary Ann Mobley and Lynda Lee Mead.
Charlie's Angel Kate Jackson and longtime As the World Turns star Anthony Herrera attended the university.
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Nick, Bryant (Autumn 2006). "Black Man Who Was Crazy Enough to Apply to Ole Miss". Journal of Blacks in Higher Education. 53. pp. 60–71.
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For the past couple of years, my husband and I have not exchanged traditional, wrapped-and-Christmas-bowed gifts. Instead, we plan an experience.
We started our anti-Stuff celebrations because neither of us could think of a gift we truly wanted. Then we'd each be scrambling to think of something, anything, since not giving a box with a bow was unacceptable. This way, the pressure is off, and we create memories of fabulous meals and trips to vineyards, instead of piling up Stuff to fulfill a gift requirement.
I'm not against traditional gifts, especially if you know it's something the recipient will use or enjoy. But if you are at a loss for the hard-to-buy-for loved ones on your list, consider an anti-Stuff gift of consumables or experiences. Why?
Easier than picking something that comes down to personal taste, such as perfumes, sweaters, knickknacks, etc.
Word of warning: make sure the gift is something the recipient would enjoy or something in which he or she has expressed interest, not something you like or think he or she should like! That holds true with any sort of gift-giving.
Basket of consumables from the farmers' market. I've made baskets filled with locally-made items such as jam, jelly, biscotti, granola, chocolate, honey, coffee, salsa, vinegar, and olive oil.
Cooking classes. There are classes on everything from knife skills to sushi rolling to creating Tuscan feasts.
Wine and cheese pairing class. Bonus points if it's held at a gorgeous vineyard.
Zip-line tour. Send the adrenaline junkie on your list flying through the trees.
Kayaking lessons. Paddling is a great way to enjoy the local lakes and rivers.
Cave tour. Give the gift of a tour or a special event. Some caves host dinner and a concert, all underground.
Horseback riding. A day on a dude ranch is a nice way to get back to nature.
Gift certificates to the local “artsy” movie theater. They'll get to see the indie flicks without having to wait for the DVD release.
A museum membership. Members typically receive perks such as unlimited admission, invitations to previews of exhibitions, a discount at the museum's store, and invitations to special events.
Dance lessons. Just make sure you know if your recipient is a belly dancer at heart or more of the foxtrot-type.
Tickets to a performance. If it's a date-specific event, you'll need to be sneaky to make sure the recipient will be available, but tickets to concerts, plays, and other performances are memorable gifts.
Music lessons. If your brother has always wanted to channel his inner Jimi Hendrix, indulge the fantasy with a few guitar lessons.
A round of golf. If their sport costs money, buy them some time on the green, at the batting cages, or wherever the sport is enjoyed.
Tickets to a sporting event. One year I bought my husband tickets to a Dallas Cowboys football game for his birthday. I was living in an apartment complex owned by Jerry Jones, owner of the Dallas Cowboys. Tenants could purchase tickets to the game, including seats on a chartered bus to drive us the three hours to the stadium.
Lessons in their preferred activity. Find out what they like to do and where they do it. Inquire about lessons.
Art lessons. Sewing, knitting, sculpture, painting, drawing, photography, stained glass…there's no end to types of art classes.
Gardening gifts. Seeds, herbs, perennials, saplings, and bushes make great gifts for loved ones with green thumbs.
Spa services. Massages are appreciated by most people, especially if they are hunched over a computer or on their feet all day. Foot massages and pedicures are good options for those who aren't comfortable with full-body massages.
A night at a nearby bed and breakfast. Only for those who have been very good this year!
This approach isn't for everyone. I think children should get to enjoy tearing open a gift and having a few things to play with right away, rather than being told it's a gift that will be a blast…later.
But I'd venture to say there are probably a few people on your list who would prefer a thoughtful, anti-Stuff gift that reflects their interests and doesn't have to be stored, dusted, or worse, guiltily tossed in a Goodwill bin.
What do you think about anti-Stuff gifts? What types of consumable or experiential gifts are on your wish list?
J.D.'s note: For those concerned about the cost of these suggestions, be sure to check out last year's list of homemade Christmas gifts.
There are 84 reader responses to "The Anti-Stuff Holiday Gift Guide".
Great article April! We are currently trying to pay off debt and have talked about this type of Christmas this year. We want to do something special together that we will remember for a lifetime vs. something that will just fill up our closet. Thanks for the great ideas!
For parents, often the gift of time is the most precious. A day off from the kids, alone, to do whatever you want to do can be a great gift!
I would love to do this, but my family (both on my side and my SO’s side) is all about the “stuff” during the holidays. The habit to give lots of “stuff” is so ingrained in my SO (he prefers quantity to quality on top of that, like his own family) that his feelings get hurt when I tell him that I don’t want “stuff.” I try not to give too much “stuff” either, but that hasn’t always been successful because apparently everyone wants “stuff” and likes to give “stuff,” so I try to oblige and be graceful on both fronts. I hate the holidays because I’m tired of fighting the anti-stuff battle with everyone every year, so now I simply budget for it, expect to waste a bit of money, and go with the flow. These days, keeping the family peace is more important than insisting on “no stuff” since no one listens anyway. And I don’t feel guilty about tossing stuff in the Goodwill bin anymore.
Nice post! I completely agree. Unless there is something specific I know to buy, I love getting my family tickets to sporting events, concerts, or the ballet (depending on the person). I have been told that this is a good gift because it’s like telling someone you love that you want to spend another whole day with them in the future.
I’ve been trying to come up with ideas for anit-stuff gift exchanges for the adults in the extended family. We live in a fairly small town, and some involved come from 100-200 miles away to participate. I love the idea of experience gifts but find it difficult with the travel time that would be required for most. I thought maybe I’d suggest a big combined blowout for father’s day instead of Christmas including maybe a baseball game and Omaha steaks on the grill. We’ll see how the family reacts to that.
I really like this idea. My family has been decreasing material gift giving over the years and I have definitely started thinking more about experiences that I want to have rather than things I want to have. Thanks for the awesome tips! One more that might be good is charity giving – give money to a charity in the name of someone else.
Zoo memberships are great for a family (especially if you live somewhere they are open all year). My MIL gave us one last year and its been great, it even includes parking so throwing the kids in the car and going to the zoo for an hour is very doable (rather than trying to make it a whole day event and everyone getting tired and cranky!).
Last year for my parents we made a donation to buy a family in need a sheep and two chickens from World Vision. And for my brothers we gave them a monthly subscription to our own little cookie club. We don’t live nearby, so every month we mail them a dozen cookies. Speaking of which, I need to get to the post office.
These are terrific gift ideas that I can use this holiday season! I think it’s much better than buying a family member a gift he/she won’t necessarily use. I also agree with the kids still getting gifts that they can enjoy right then and there. Although, I’ve been known to give bond certificates that that can’t appreciate at the moment, but their parents appreciate. So I’ll usually buy a little gift for the kids to go along with their bond.
I wholeheartedly agree with this article. I personally would MUCH rather go somewhere and do something than get another gift that I probably will not use. My husband is ridiculously hard to buy for. He’s an electronics junkie, and I gave up on buying him anything like that a long time ago; as soon as he gets one thing a newer more updated version comes out & it’s frustrating for the gift giver. For our anniversary one year, I took us to Asheville, NC one weekend & we spent time at the Biltmore & other areas around town. That was a great time.
This year when he asked what I wanted for the holidays, I said that I’d rather us do something together because I honestly can’t think of anything.
This year we’re giving Goats, Chickens, etc to our family. Actually we’re giving them through World Vision to people who need them in honor of our family.
The best gifts are a combination of usefulness, thoughtfulness, and immediate impact.
Useful, because–like you mentioned–it won’t sit around on a shelf gathering dust. The friend will actually use it. Whether it’s a physical tool or a membership of some sort, the gift brings genuine value into their life, and they utilize it to improve whatever it is they’re doing (or would like to learn to do).
Thoughtful, because it shows you care (cue cheesy music). Seriously though, the friend gets a sense that you really know them, what they like, what they are interested in. It’s not a generic gift but something the friend cares about. Not just any food gift, but a specific country, region, or style of cooking the friend loves or wants to learn how to make.
Immediate impact, because we’re all kids, no matter what our age says. We like to tear open fun stuff, and have something to hold and look at it. Just walking up to your friend and telling them their gift starts on Monday, or to check their email to confirm lessons, doesn’t maximize the impact of the gift. But present your non-tangible (if that’s the case) gift in a visually-exciting way, and the smile is immediately formed on the face. There’s a reason some places offer to give gift cards packaged in a themed and exciting way.
Great post, and great ideas. We really try to have experiences with our kids as opposed to stuff and doing the same for adults is just as great. Thanks for some good ideas.
Our family looks on the positive side of stuff instead of banning it altogether. We make lists so that we know the recipient wants the item. Most of the items we give and receive are useful items. We will often delay purchases of things we need to replace that are not urgent so that they can be given for the holiday season.
Some examples of “stuff” we have exchanged and still love and use all the time: pizza stone, chef’s knife, winter socks, wallet, messenger bag, tupperware, expansions for much-loved and played board games, circular saw, shower curtain, and more that I can’t think about.
If we are not sure what someone likes and we would like to give them a gift, we give them homemade fudge or cookies or chocolate covered pretzels that we dip ourselves. But, with most people, if we are close enough to give them a gift, we are close enough to ASK THEM what they want as a gift.
It’s funny, I was just noticing a few of the usual crap-no-one-needs holiday gifts appearing in stores, and the thought process they use to market incredible junk is the same in that you have some sort of superficial classification or hobby for the recipient, and need to get them something… What can you get the “foodie” who has everything? Newly invented junk!
If you notice some newly invented affordable but marginally useful piece of junk for “the foodie” this year, try to resist.
The worst new junk has to be the stuff for “the student” and “the techie.” Stuff that is marketed mostly to fulfill a desire to get a gift for everyone– gaarrgh!
I forgot “the husband.” Junk created for Xmas gifts for the hubbie is usually good for a chuckle.
@stevesliva–Good point. As a foodie myself, the last thing I want is a specialized kitchen gadget that does one thing and gets used twice a year. Most gadgets don’t do anything that a chef’s knife can’t do. The thing to give foodies is food! Either as consumables or as an experience.
I am totally with you. We have switched from buying things for each other to spending good quality time with each other a while ago. I think this also leads to less fights within the family, which I believe is a general problem during the holidays. When you focus on each other rather than the potential disappointment in an inadequate gift, you will most likely collect good memories of the holidays.
I love gifts that do not have to be “stored” and are used up. As long as it’s not a restaurant that is so far away it becomes impractical (my uncle and his wife do this every year to us). I would also much rather spend a few days on a mini-vacation with loved ones than wrapping presents for them and opening another sweater.
Unless I have an exact idea of a “thing” someone on my list wants, they get gift cards or tickets or the like.
Great ideas to create a new paradigm for Christmas (or is it going back to an old paradigm?) Would love to have great Christmas *memories* rather than a pile of forgettable Christmas *stuff*.
A good gift for a baptism, Kiva Certifacate. Kiva Is a nonprofit lending organization where people can choose a person from a third world nation that is trying to start up a small business to lend money to. I think this is a great gift because it is somthing the parents can do right away and as the kid gets older and they can choose who to make a loan to when previous loans were repaid.
All great ideas. If you have to give gifts, make sure that it’s something that the person wants. My siblings & I, along w/our SOs, exchange names to cut down on the gifts (and money spending), and a list is a requirement. My BF suggested that we not buy gifts for each other this year. Instead, since I work for an airline & can fly for free, we’re taking a day trip to Washington DC – all it will cost is metro fare & food, since the museums are free. He’s never been to DC and it’s been 15+ years since I’ve been there, so I’m sure it will be a memorable experience.
On the other hand, experience gifts can be just as unappreciated as any other. I once gave a museum membership (in the town where they live) to my brother and his family, but that didn’t mean they used it: and I should have realized that it wasn’t a really good gift, since I do know them well enough to know that camping or gardening supplies would be things that they would really like. Similarly, I have been given gift certificates for massages and pedicures that I’ve never used; those just aren’t things I find fun or relaxing or a good experience.
Maybe if you don’t know a person well enough to buy something they like (or you’re not willing to buy what they would really appreciate!) then maybe there shouldn’t be a gift exchange.
Because my husband and I are in a better financial situation than some of our relatives, we regularly give gifts to people from whom we know won’t be giving gifts to us. And that feels just fine (we even keep on giving gifts to the younger folks even without a thank you note — up to high school age, we figure it’s their parents who should be monitoring that, and if they don’t, well, why punish the kids…).
And sometimes someone gives one of us a gift we didn’t expect — when that happens we don’t think we are suddenly required to reciprocate; grateful thanks for the thoughtfulness is enough, I think.
We definitely want to do something along the lines of this for my parents-in-law, who have moved closer and downsized. The last thing they need is more stuff, unless it is something readily “consumable”.
Ironically my husband and I have hinted quite a few times really what my husband and I would like is simply time off together, even to watch a movie (i.e. a iou “I will watch the kids one evening”) but no dice. If we get a sitter it costs 80-100 and so it is a gift that is most appreciated.
Along the same lines as babysitting for someone with kids, I sometimes give iou’s for chores I know someone hates doing, or a gift certificate where it can be done. For example, this year my siblings and I are combining gifts for my dad to get his two dogs groomed, because they shed like crazy and fight him on getting bathed and brushed. Out of the four kids, none of us are really home at times when the dogs most need grooming (when they shed heavily in the spring). Giving him a way to get them groomed elsewhere also means he won’t have two wet dogs hanging around the house the whole day!
I’ve also given friends “A day of cleaning” and let them pick out what things around the apartment they least like doing. Maybe they don’t mind vacuuming but hate cleaning the bathroom (or vice versa).
Another thought for anti-stuff – donations to a person’s favorite charity, in their name. My husband and I started this several years ago, as our parents have what they need and buy what they want. My mom LOVED it – and has passed on the practice within her circle as well.
After cleaning out 12 years of accumulated stuff in preparation for an interstate move, we vowed to truly focus on experience rather than stuff. Goodwill benefitted, but isn’t it a shame to just keep a bunch of stuff you never use or really needed in the first place?
I also like giving subscriptions: magazine, netflix, game sites, gift of the month clubs… giving something people can enjoy all year long.
My boyfriend and I keep extensive (like 4-5 pages, single-spaced) lists of things that we want as gifts. They are organized into categories – electronics, books, DVDs, movies, clothes, experiences, food, etc.
We give edited versions of these lists to friends and family we know will be buying us presents to ensure we get exactly what we want. When applicable, sizes and URLs for buying the things online are included.
i love your posts, April!
i hate storing stuff that i don’t use, but not all experiences are enjoyable either. i hate going to discos and clubs where people smoke so much but i would appreciate a good book or a building kit (robotics, electronics, models, crafts etc) anytime!
I love the idea of Zoo passes/museum passes. I have both and they are not only good for the locality issued, but because I travel quite a bit, they are good at many locations across the country for either free or discounted admissions. (I can get into Phoenix or columbus zoo for half price with my pass) I can use my Arboretum pass to get in free at the local botanical garden.
since both my kids live out of state I try to buy them things that ship or pack easily, but also give thought to what they want or what they would use.
While I really like the article, I do find it somewhat sad that it needs to be said at all. Isn’t this how people usually give gifts? It’s how my family has always given gifts. I’m confused.
Our exchanges are not solely items like tickets, but the gifts are never “stuff”, they are items that have either been requested/hinted at, or are items that the giver knows the recipient will love and use. It’s only “stuff” if it’s never loved or used.
It’s not a Christmas item, but for my mom’s birthday and Mother’s Day, I clean her ovens. She hasn’t had to do it in years. I do it as a surprise–I live in the same town and do it when she and my dad are at a movie or something, but sometime around those times of year.
These are all great ideas. However, almost all of them are extremely expensive. I very much want to give (and receive) gifts that don’t clutter up the home, but I also don’t want to be spending thousands of dollars on my gift giving.
You mentioned food baskets and movie tickets which are within most people’s budgets. How about something along the lines of a cooking lesson from you instead of a cooking school?
One thing that I have done over the past few years was to a take an $100 restaurant gift certificate that had been a gift, (seriously — it was over the top!) and have the restaurant split it in half, which meant we could give a $50 gift certificate away and still have a dinner out ourselves.
My husband’s family takes the romance out of gift giving, but makes sure that everyone gets exactly what the want/need. Like a new winter coat, power tool or beautiful wool slippers that will last for years. They send each other links for the exact item, size, & color, and that is exactly what they get. They generally keep requests under $100. I don’t love the practice, but it never feels bad to get the books/sweater/shoes you’ve been wanting.
I’ve been trying to make gifts for friends & family — I made beef stock from scratch & froze it, potted bulbs or tomato plants, and this year I want to make dog biscuits for the dog lovers.
I love the idea of giving and experience rather than gifts and I try to do that on birthdays. If I gave everyone an experience gift or gift card to a spa on Xmass my budget would be way over the top. Sometimes it is cheaper to give an actual gift that you know someone will like and won’t inflate the Xmass budget.
One that I haven’t seen mentioned yet: my DH and I usually are able to find some item that we both want and use the money we would have otherwise spent on gifts. One year it was a PVR, another year we combined it with other gift money we had received and bought an iMac, etc. Basically, items which are splurges. Plus, because it’s by agreement, we can wait until after Christmas and take advantage of Boxing Day sales, if appropriate.
This is something I can relate to. I never liked stuff. I just didn’t. Stuff just creates clutter and usually leaves no memories.
I am all about creating experiences. Memorable experiences last forever and add much more to our lives than things.
Gifting an experience is much more memorable. For example, my girlfriend took hot air ballooning for my birthday! It was awesome! I will remember it forever!
I am not saying that gifting useful and thoughtful things is a bad idea, but most people gift things that people don’t need or want.
Let’s us create experiences for our loved ones and let us declutter the world and our minds one experience at a time!
I love the idea of experiences instead of stuff, but please make sure that the person is actually going to be able to enjoy the experience. Years ago, my MIL gave me a certificate to a very expensive spa, that I could use to get a massage or facial, but I never used it. First, it was hard for me to schedule an appointment, because I couldn’t find anybody to watch my children. So, if you’re giving theater or movie tickets to parents, maybe an additional gift could be a babysitting night so the parents can actually go and enjoy the movie.
Also, when I looked up the prices for the spa, it turned out that all the prices were above that amount on the certificate, so I would have ended up having to pay extra to get any of their services. I’m sorry to say that the certificate went unused, because I hate to waste money, but it just didn’t work into my lifestyle.
I thought this post could use more pictures, so I just added a bunch. If I’d thought about it, I would have worked with April to find photos for all of the ideas. I think they’re great!
I agree. Last year we were struggling to figure out what my father-in-law would like for a christmas. What can you give someone who can practically buy anything he wants, anytime he wants.
Then I remembered introducing him to a vocal trio called the Puppini Sisters, and my wife just found out that they were going to be in town early the following year (2009). We bought him 4 tickets so he can bring his wife and two other friends.
What a bonus, because the “two other friends” ended up to be me and my wife because the couple they invited could not come.
Seeing my in-laws having a blast was priceless.
This year I will be giving the gift of a chartered fishing trip… I paid for the charter, and am giving it to my husband, my brother-in-law, my father-in-law, and my father….. it worked out to be the right price for a half-day trip….they can all go together and have the gift of a day spent together on a great boat on Lake Michigan!
These are great tips. Unfortunately, my family doesn’t go anywhere or do anything, so I’m stuck buying ‘stuff.’ I tell my parents to get my husband and I gift certs or something, because our tastes are so different, but they are of the ‘I need to buy things to buy things and have things for you under the tree’ mentality and it has been very hard for me to break out of that mentality as a grownup. I still love buying lots of *things* but only when I know it will have meaning or use for the recipient. We’ll see how this year goes!
Experiences are where it’s at. If I had a foodie friend, instead of putting together a basket I would get a gift card to the local gourmet/chef’s supply emporium and suggest we could go together. Most of us in my city have only a few chances a year to find an afternoon to spend together … sometimes it’s hard just to find an afternoon to spend with DH! Recently we went to a chef’s supply store, had brunch in their cafe, then spent a very entertaining hour browsing and shopping. Not only did we find a couple of tools we’d been looking for (like an oyster knife), we found some gourmet food items that let us carry that experience over.
For the rest of the family we can exchange anything homemade or recycled (thrift store, etc.) or nothing at all….usually there are beeswax candles, wine (winemakers in the family), food, plants, etc.
But this year I am thinking about getting California State Park passes for everyone since we all like to hike and the state needs the funds so they don’t close the parks!
This is a wonderful post full of great ideas for all types of people.
Re theater tickets: we gave each of our daughter’s a night out at a Broadway show (alone with Mom — a treat in itself) and presented it with a wrapped CD of the show music. We have gotten an unbelievable amount of mileage from those tickets — which, granted, were expensive.
By the way — we bought a $20 program at the show as a souvenir, and that was also a great investment. I can’t even count the times they have taken those out and read them and sang to them and talked about the show and showed them to friends and brought them to school.
I’d like to warm people against the alcohol “of the month” clubs. I got my husband a year of the microbrew of the month, and it was a logistical nightmare. In the summer the beer was skunked, in winter it was frozen. There was an “adult signature required” sticker on the box in plain sight, and still Fed Ex would dump it on the porch with no warning. One box went missing, and we’re pretty sure the neighbor kids stole it. We decided it wasn’t worth the legal risk, and will never do it again.
This reminds me of a funny story that happened to us….years ago we had signed up for a quarterly wine club, adult signature required for delivery, yadda yadda.
I love the idea but I am also with the poster (#35) that mentioned the majority of these gifts are very expensive especially when you’re talking about extended family.
So, I’ll take the somewhat opposing view and side with stuff. See, I think “stuff” has a bad name and that’s not fair. Everyone enjoys stuff if you take the time to buy OR MAKE things you know they will appreciate and use.
This does require time and planning though and most people just don’t care about that sort of thing. Really, it shouldn’t be Anti-Stuff it should be Anti-Meaningless/Useless.
Some people mentioned the “romance of gift-giving” and I appreciate that. For instance, I maintain a wish list on Amazon but, and I stress this every time I reluctantly admit I have one to my friends and family, it’s a guide to things I like not the end-all of what exactly to get me. I put a lot of effort into the things I buy my friends and family and always get great feedback on them.
My family started a tradition of a yankee swap for the adults (and the kids still get gifts). We set a price each year $50, and get one gift that most people would enjoy (or we can get a gift for a specific person but they don’t necessarily get to keep it). So we wrap the present and put it in the middle of the room, and draw numbers. Who ever gets number one pick a present from the pile and opens it. From the next person has five minutes to decide if they want to steal the present already opened or pick another present from the pile. This goes on until the last person in the group picks. When someone takes your gift, you get the option to take from someone else or go back to the gift pile. Its a lot of fun, and saves everyone some $$ if there is a large family.
@Kristy (26) – I wholeheartedly agree with your grad student suggestions. Both my partner and I are grad students and we would love something as easy as a coffee gift certificate – whether from a national chain or a local one (all our family lives 2000+ miles from us). Some people might think this was a boring or unthoughful gift, but since we try not to spend too much money on coffee out, but still love to go and do work at coffee shops, it would be perfect. Same with bookstore gift certs – whether for an academic book or something fun – even though this isn’t really an experience gift, though we both do love wandering a bookstore for a while, esp. with the luxury of having a bit of money to spend at the end.
Also, this isn’t exactly an experience gift either, but it kind of is by default of distance – last year my brother and SIL made a calendar featuring photos of their adorable bulldog. My SIL dressed him up in all sorts of seasonal outfits and then created the calendar with those photos – we love it and have it in our kitchen. Since they’re so far away, its fun to have a bit of them with us all year long.
I’m *totally* drinking the Kool-Aid on this concept! My brother and I are trying to slowly change our family’s mindset on physical gift giving.
Last year, we did a gag-gift “white elephant” exchange. Nobody receives anything of material value, but everyone enjoys hours of laughter and great memories of spending time with each other.
One exception to the rule: I have started a tradition of giving calendars with my own photography on it. For me, it allows me to share my joy and passion of photography with others. It’s useful, hand-made, and relatively cheap (~$15/calendar). FedEx Office and Shutterfly are two places that have done a wonderful job on these calendars.
Agree with Stephanie (#52) and Kristy (#26) – coffee is always the perfect gift for a student. A study basket is even better!
What a great post! Some of my extended family members are simply doing a gift card exchange (with $15 gift cards) this year because it’s so hard to buy for people. Then people can go out and get what they want.
And I often do a lot of homemade gifts. They’re useful and inexpensive. Last year our budget was very tight for Christmas, so I made some homemade hot chocolate mix (tons of recipes online) and packed it into nice, decorated mason jars for our friends. It was a hit!
One warning to those considering buying a gift for gardeners: I am a gardener, and sometimes I receive plants as gifts and don’t have a good spot to put them in my yard. If you have an idea of what plants the recipient could actually use, that would help.
I seem to be the odd one out on this, but if someone gave to a charity in my name, I would probably never speak to that person again. I am extremely particular what I support and none of my family knows who they are. Now, if giftgivers know someone is ok with that type of gift, it is a different story. Just don’t assume that a donation will please someone.
uh, ok wolfgirl, i guess you’re really particular. Unless it was a charity to drown kittens (or something equally horrible) i don’t think i’d be so angry at a person for donating in my name, even if you don’t support that charity they at least tried to do a good thing.
I have given both dinner gift certificates (with included babysitting) and massage/spa treatment gift certificates, both went over very well.
As for myself, last year I told everyone that I wanted to take cooking classes, and said that if they didn’t know what to get me, money to go toward the classes would be great. All my siblings and my mother-in-law gave toward the cause, and I don’t think that any of them were affronted that I asked for money. I made sure to gush about the cooking classes in my thank you note, so that they understood that I really appreciated the gift.
I’ve been doing this for years already, even when my children were small.
I’ve given gift cards to local movie theaters for families of employees, with gift cards for soda and popcorn.
I’ve taken my parents out to dinners and shows.
This year, husband and I will see a Broadway show (we live in metro NYC) instead of getting tangible gifts.
But if this is about financial sense, why spend money on something that’s gone in an instant, an hour or a day?
Thanks for the great ideas. My mind is spinning with ideas of how to make this year’s Christmas much more “experience” oriented!
I love these ideas! Both the combination of a fun event or activity in lieu of a gift as well as the “no clutter” idea!!
My favorite family Christmas tradition is Bingo where there’s very little money spent up front, loads of laughs, every single person can participate, and we’re all enjoying time together. Nothing can beat it!
My wife and I needlessly exchanged gifts at Christmas virtually for no other reason than to say we exchanged gifts. The gifts we gave were hardly necessities, probably some of them weren’t even wanted.
We finally came to our senses and realized we could spend all the money in the world on each other and it wouldn’t bring us closer to one another.
Since then, we give each other the gift of time. There is nothing more precious in either one of our lives, so each Christams, we plan dates throughout the year that come hell or high water, we will spend those dates together.
My husband and I haven’t exchanged Christmas gifts in over 5 years. But, we do have a Christmas budget; and use the money that we would have spent on each other to make a very nice donation to our favorite charitable organizations. We still get the joy of giving, plus we know that our gift is needed and appreciated.
Excellent post, and wonderful comments! My siblings and I have a fun tradition. Each of us picks a charity, and the others make a donation to it in our honor. I love it!! My husband and I also give gifts to a child or two from our local giving tree.
Like Cara, I have in-laws who are all about the stuff. They seem to take it personally if I say I don’t want any THINGS. In the interest of family harmony, I’ve decided to drop it.
I’m not good with Christmas gifts because in my family, Christmas was “Ki’s Day”, just like there is Mother’s Day and Father’s Day. In other words, parents would give something to their kids, and that’s it (and the kids would give something on Mother’s and Father’s Day).
Since I don’t have children, giving Christmas gift just feels completely weird to me.
Now that I’m married, I let my husband do most of the giving because it still feels awkward and unnatural to me.
Of course, it feels just as weird receiving gifts from people who aren’t my parents (I don’t even receive gifts from my parents anymore since I’m not a kid anymore).
And I have to say I’m not the type to like giving something because it’s the proper time to. When I see something a friend or family would enjoy, I get it for them right away. It could be December, I’m still not going to wait until Christmas to give it to them.
Anyway, I realise my personal experience is different from most. And I do think the gifts you mentionned really are great ieas that people would enjoy more than gifts that were bought because “you gotta buy something”.
I do agree with what someone else said though, that most of these are kinda expensive, and might not be in everyone’s budget (especially if you need to get one for everyone you know).
Great article, some useful alternative ideas.
BTW where did you get the picture of the cat? it’s a spitting image of my moggy, Milo!
For well over a year my husband (I really dislike the term ‘DH’) and kids, along with my sister and her family, have been wanting to take my Mom to a dinner and a Broadway show (she went through treatment for colon cancer). So last year, she wasn’t up to it due to the chemo.
Several other times we tried to get together (sis lives 1 and 1/2 hours north of us and mom lives 1 and 1/2 hours south of us), but since my sister has 2 young kids under 5 (my youngest is 9), she always has a sitter problem; to make matters worse, someone always gets sick at the worst time (flu at Christmas, New Year’s, what have you). My sister’s husband travels a lot and my husband works shift work, so their schedules are often conflicting!
There are also so many other obligations during the holidays like work parties, school concerts, piano recitals, fundraising events, church events and planning, decorating, shopping, cleaning, baking; it’s way too much for one person to have to do in a month or so (our husbands tend to do the bare minimun all year long!).
So many good intentions that never pan out is what frustrates me–not to mention the hundreds of dollars to have to spend for that ‘experience’. This year we decided that we would only give the kids gifts, no adult gifts…we’re old enough to buy for ourselves and are satisfied with just spending a holiday together at last!!!!
Sorry for typo above….’minimum’! Comment editor won’t work for some reason on my computer.
@Ian–That’s my cat, Mia, in the photo. She likes to “help” with gift wrapping.
The best give I ever gave involved box and bows … and nothing else.
My mother was always putting things “someplace special” and then forgetting where the special place was. One year I was desparate for a gift and out of ideas. The lightbulb went off. I wrapped the biggest box I could find, in the fanciest manner I could manage, and labeled it “Someplace Special.” She used it for 15 years before it finally disintegrated. I don’t usually get that lucky with ideas, though.
My family has a tradition of sometimes giving money. The recipient is to use the gift for something special – no paying the electric bill – and then telling the giver all about the special thing. One year my special thing was a 3 day group lecture-and-tour of a historic battlefield. Not only did I thoroughly enjoy it, I now understand US history better.
Great post April! I have been on the receiving side of this idea many times and I can tell you that it means a lot more to me and I usually get a lot more out of it.
Adopted Zoo Animal — I was a llama mama!
Wine Club Membership — This one was awesome!
Safari Trip for 2 at Safari West — Perhaps my favorite!
An idea that is always nice and from the heart is making a donation to an organization that is meaningful to that person on their behalf. One year for Christmas I adopted animals for all of my friends through the World Wildlife Fund and another year we purchased animals through Heifer International and gave that to all of our long distance family members.
Perhaps the best experience I ever gave was surprising my mother with a trip to Disneyland. She was 57 the first time she ever stepped foot in a Disney park, and even though it rained on us most of the time, we had a blast and she had the biggest smile on her face the whole day!
A lot of the above options are extremely expensive! We tend to get consumables for family, and our kids since those gifts are sure to get used.
We do like to teach our kids about giving, so we chose to start a new tradition where everyone buys a gift for each member of the immediate family. This year they are saving their allowances to purchase gifts. It’s wonderful to see them choose something so thoughtfully for each other.
I like to give a receive consumables like food, craft items for the kids, etc. or memberships since we can use those again and again.
We also shop for a child or family in need each year.
The gift I really want? To be debt-free, but I think it may take until next Christmas to get there.
This year all the adults in the family are receiving brandied pears and amarreto pears, canned this summer. Previous experience tells me they will be appreciated. Two days out of the summer for canning and I’m done with most of my list.
I have been scanning old photos (you know, before digital camaras?). I also have very old family photos. When I am done scanning, I am planning on making (or having made) photo albums for the rest of my family. Before digital, pictures weren’t shared quite as much. They will enjoy having pictures of when we were kids, or their own children, or of their great grandparents.
As someone who just graduated from college, I have to agree with the coffee, consumables gifts for students.
Gardeners appreciate gift certificates too! We don’t always have a use for plants, seeds, etc. If your buying tools make sure they are good quality and not something they already have,or they will turn into “stuff.” We used to buy my grandmother GCs to her favorite nursery. They were her favorite gifts! Every year she turned them into flowers for her garden. At past 80 she had all the stuff she needed, but had to watch her budget. It helped her to afford what she still loved.
I am most definitely anti-stuff, because I hate clutter.
The experience and memory is worth a lot more than STUFF to me..
The charity donation idea …I swear some people use it passive-aggressively. My old coworker loved to tell about how her in-laws made a donation in her name to a conservative Christian organization, when they knew perfectly well she was an atheist.
I once gave my (now ex-) husband a balloon ride. That was a hoot! Later I gave him a ride in a glider, which he also seemed to enjoy.
When asked what he wanted for Christmas, he would invariably say “money.” Grr! So, one Christmas I took my paycheck to the bank, had it cashed out in one-dollar bills, packed it into a box, and wrapped it as his present.
That was the last time he asked for money. Then he started asking for real estate.
This is an excellent post! I plan on sharing it with all of the people who absolutely insist on buying gifts for me, as I do not enjoy seeing them struggling to buy the ‘perfect gift’ when the holiday seasons roll around (especially since my birthday is within two weeks of the holidays). Anti-stuff gifts are definitely the best, as an experience with all its memories attached can be treasured for a lifetime as opposed to Stuff, which could be lost, broken, or used up.
I really like this idea. Being a big fan of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu I’d love to have a private lesson with one of the local black belts in my area.
While I love the ideas of giving gifts of experiences like tickets to the zoo, theater, etc. what do you do if you live so far away from these things that they aren’t practical? I live in a smaller town where these sort of attractions just aren’t available anywhere close. I also have three stepdaughters (19,20 and 27) that are all about things and “stuff” and would most likely not really appreciate gift certificates or food gifts. My husband and I have about decided just to give them cash, but once you put some cash in a box and stick it under the tree it just feels really impersonal.
My girlfriend and I recently did a glass blowing workshop. It was awesome.
This is another string to the bow. It won’t suit everyone, but it’ll suit others better than the usual alternatives.
I can’t afford to buy for a lot of people at once, so I make a point of not giving christmas gifts to many people. They will get enough stuff at christmas to drown in, without my contribution. I do place importance on birthdays, especially the ones near christmas, which get submerged.
However, I take my nieces to the pantomime every year. They’re talking about it for weeks, sometimes months afterwards, and it’s the kind of treat their harassed parents don’t have freedom to give them. Nothing I could afford to buy would make that big an impression on them.
Sometimes it goes wrong, though: I once bought entrance tickets (wedding present) to an attraction I knew the recipients would really enjoy. Weeks after the tickets expired, I got a polite thank you for the tickets to the recycling centre. It could have been worse: they could have mistaken it for a sewage farm. | 2019-04-24T08:58:17Z | https://www.getrichslowly.org/anti-stuff-holiday-gift-guide/ |
McMaster University (commonly referred to as McMaster or Mac) is a public research university in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. The main McMaster campus is on 121 hectares (300 acres) of land near the residential neighbourhoods of Ainslie Wood and Westdale, adjacent to the Royal Botanical Gardens. It operates six academic faculties: the DeGroote School of Business, Engineering, Health Sciences, Humanities, Social Science, and Science. It is a member of the U15, a group of research-intensive universities in Canada.
ACU, ATS, AUCC, CARL, COU, CUP, Fields Institute, IAU, U15.
The university bears the name of William McMaster, a prominent Canadian senator and banker who bequeathed C$900,000 to its founding. It was incorporated under the terms of an act of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario in 1887, merging the Toronto Baptist College with Woodstock College. It opened in Toronto in 1890. Inadequate facilities and the gift of land in Hamilton prompted its relocation in 1930. The Baptist Convention of Ontario and Quebec controlled the university until it became a privately chartered, publicly funded non-denominational institution in 1957.
McMaster University is co-educational, and has over 25,000 undergraduate and over 4,000 post-graduate students. Alumni and former students reside across Canada and in 139 countries. Its athletic teams are known as the Marauders, and are members of U Sports. Notable alumni include government officials, academics, business leaders, Rhodes Scholars, Gates Cambridge Scholars, and Nobel laureates.
As the university grew, McMaster Hall started to become overcrowded. The suggestion to move the university to Hamilton was first brought up by a student and Hamilton native in 1909, although the proposal was not seriously considered by the university until two years later. By the 1920s, after previous proposals between various university staff, the Hamilton Chamber of Commerce launched a campaign to bring McMaster University to Hamilton. As the issue of space at McMaster Hall became more acute, the university administration debated the future of the university. The university nearly became federated with the University of Toronto, as had been the case with Trinity College and Victoria College.
Instead, in 1927, the university administration decided to move the university to Hamilton. The Baptist Convention of Ontario and Quebec secured $1.5 million, while the citizens of Hamilton raised an additional $500,000 to help finance the move. The lands for the university and new buildings were secured through gifts from graduates. Lands were transferred from Royal Botanical Gardens to establish the campus area. The first academic session on the new Hamilton campus began in 1930. McMaster's property in Toronto was sold to the University of Toronto when McMaster moved to Hamilton in 1930. McMaster Hall is now home to the Royal Conservatory of Music.
Hamilton Hall was constructed in 1926 in preparation for the university's move to Hamilton.
McMaster's oldest buildings are examples of Collegiate Gothic architecture, with architectural elements such as carved ornamentation, bas-reliefs, recessed arched entryways, and ashlar found throughout these buildings.
McMaster University is in the city of Hamilton, Ontario, in the Golden Horseshoe along the western end of Lake Ontario. The main campus is bordered to the north by Cootes Paradise, an extensive natural marshland, to the east and west by residential neighbourhoods, and to its south by Main Street West, a major transportation artery. Its northern boundaries are a popular destination for walkers who use the many trails that connect the campus to Royal Botanical Gardens. While the main campus is 152.4 hectares (377 acres), most of the teaching facilities are centered within the core 12.1 hectares (30 acres). In addition to its main campus in Hamilton, McMaster owns several other properties around Hamilton, as well as in Burlington, Kitchener, and St. Catharines, Ontario.
The university owns and manages 58 buildings, both on and off campus. The buildings at McMaster vary in age, with Hamilton Hall opening in 1926, to the university's new Bertrand Russel Archives and Research Centre, which opened 25 June 2018. McMaster main campus is divided into three main areas: the Core Campus, North Campus and West Campus. The Core Campus is where the majority of the university's academic, research and residential buildings are located while the North Campus is made up of the university's athletic precinct and a small number of surface parking. The West Campus is the least developed area of the main campus, containing only a few buildings, surface parking, and undeveloped land.
Panoramic view of McMaster University's main campus from the southwest, taken on June 2008. The majority of the university's facilities are located on this campus.
University Hall is one of the oldest facilities still used by the university.
The university's campus has gone through continuous development since 1928. The main campus's six original buildings are of Collegiate Gothic architecture, designed by William Lyon Somerville, who also laid out the initial campus plan. They are now flanked by over fifty structures built predominantly from the 1940s to 1960s. The largest facility is the McMaster University Medical Centre, a multi-use research hospital that is home to the second-largest neonatal intensive care unit and the third-largest child and youth mental health unit in the country. It is connected to the Life Sciences building and the Michael DeGroote Centre for Learning & Discovery, which houses many well-funded research groups in areas of genetics, infectious diseases, and several specific conditions.
The McMaster Museum of Art holds the highest attendance figures for a university-affiliated museum in Canada.
The university's library system is a member of 31 organizations, including the Association of Research Libraries. Around 2.8 million articles were downloaded from the library system's electronic journal collection during the 2016 academic year. The university library employs a total of 138 professional, and support staff. The library's resource expenditure for the 2016–2017 academic year was approximately $11.5 million, with 81 per cent of the budget allocated to serial and e-resource subscriptions, 9 per cent on hard copy acquisitions, and 10 per cent to membership and collections support. The library system include four libraries housing 1,274,265 paper books and 3,689,973 total resources, including videos, maps, sound recordings, and microfilm. Mills Library houses the humanities and social sciences collections, with a wide range of print and digital resources. Innis Library houses content which supports the academic and research interests of the DeGroote School of Business. Thode Library houses academic material of various disciplines of science and engineering, while the Health Science Library houses books pertaining to medical sciences. The William Ready Division of Archives and Research Collections at McMaster University consist of papers of Canadian publishers; British personalities and of Canadian literary figures such as Farley Mowat, Pierre Berton, Matt Cohen, and Marian Engel. It includes the archives of Bertrand Russell, and of labour unions.
The McMaster Museum of Art's (MMA) principal role is to support the academic mission of McMaster University and to contribute to the discourse on art in Canada. The museum has the highest attendance figures for a university-affiliated museum in Canada, with 30,000 visitors in 2016. Established in 1967, the museum houses and exhibits the university's art collection. As of 2015, that collection of 5,971 pieces holds a total value of $98.7 million. The collection includes works by Gustave Courbet, Claude Monet, Camille Pissarro, Walter Sickert and Vincent van Gogh. The museum also boasts the most comprehensive collection of German expressionist and Weimar period prints in Canada.
As of March 2019, McMaster has twelve smoke-free student residences: Bates, Brandon, Edwards, Hedden, Les Prince, Mary E. Keyes, Matthews, McKay, Moulton, Wallingford, Whidden, and Woodstock Hall. McMaster's student residences can accommodate 3,685 students. The latest residence to be built was Les Prince Hall, a large co-ed building, completed in 2006. It was named for a long-time hall master in the residence system who lived with his family on campus until after his retirement in 1980. In September 2010, 50.19 per cent of first-year students lived on campus, with 15.54 per cent of the overall undergraduate population living on campus. Residences provide traditional room and board style, furnished apartment style, and suite-style accommodation. Brandon Hall houses the university's substance-free lifestyle living spaces. The residence system is supervised by Residence Life staff, who provide guidance and help the transition to university life for many first-year students. Residence students are represented by the Inter-Residence Council (IRC), which aims to build a sense of community among the residents through programming. Additionally, the IRC seeks to advocate for residence students on issues they may face, such as facilities, dining, environment, and more, and provide opportunities for residence students to gain valuable leadership opportunities. They are an integral part of the McMaster residence community.
The McMaster University Student Centre (MUSC) is the centre of student life and programming. It has a café, study space, common areas, and several administrative departments, including the CIBC Conference Hall. The MUSC contains the offices of a number of student organizations, including the McMaster Students Union and The Silhouette weekly newspaper as well as other services such as the Campus Health Centre and the campus dentist. The university has over twenty dining outlets throughout the campus, including two major residence dining facilities. The university has several vegetarian establishments, such as a completely vegetarian cafe known as Bridges Café and a farmers market stand. The university was voted as the country's most vegan-friendly university through People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) for a number of years. Several other dining outlets at McMaster have garnered awards throughout the years for food services.
As of 2010 McMaster University's DeGroote School of Business operates a 1.82-hectare (4.5-acre) site in the neighbouring city of Burlington. Consideration for the new building began in 2004, when McMaster University had announced its initial intent to construct a new arts- and technology-intensive campus in partnership with the city of Burlington. In 2009, the City of Burlington, Halton Region, and McMaster University signed an official agreement laying out the timelines and next steps for the university's expansion into Burlington. Construction began on 17 June 2009, and the official opening was on 7 October 2010. The four-story, 8,400-square-metre (90,000 sq ft) building is called the Ron Joyce Centre. The Ron Joyce Centre is home to DeGroote's MBA program and its business management program (both degree and non-degree programs).
The David Braley Health Sciences Centre at the McMaster Health Campus in downtown Hamilton. The Centre is one of several off-campus facilities operated by the university.
McMaster has a number of administrative offices at its Downtown Centre. The McMaster Centre for Continuing Education, which offers a variety of certificate and diploma programs as well as personal and professional development programs, is located within the former Bank of Montreal Pavilion at Lloyd D. Jackson Square. McMaster had also announced that construction of the McMaster Downtown Health Campus in downtown Hamilton had begun in December 2012. The Health Campus is expected to provide teaching spaces, exam rooms and clinical spaces for local residents.
The Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine is on the main campus as well as in two regional campses at St. Catharines and Kitchener. The Waterloo Regional Campus is located in downtown Kitchener, sharing facilities with the Health Sciences Campus of the University of Waterloo. The campus in St. Catharines is at Brock University's Niagara Health and Bioscience Research Complex. Approximately 30 medical students in each year of the program attend each campus. Those who apply to McMaster's School of Medicine are asked to rank their site choice (Hamilton, Niagara Region, Waterloo Region) from first to third, or no preference. Offers of admission to the medical school are made from a rank list irrespective of geographical preference. Subsequent to an applicant's acceptance, registrants to the class are placed based on their preference and geographical background. The offers given out by McMaster are bound to the assigned site.
McMaster purchased a large industrial park three kilometres east of its main Hamilton campus in 2005 with the intention of creating an array of research facilities for the development of advanced manufacturing and materials, biotechnology, automotive, and nanotechnology. In July 2005 the federal government announced it would relocate CANMET, a federal government materials research laboratory, from its Ottawa centre to Hamilton. This decision helped spearhead the development of the McMaster Innovation Park. The United Nations University-International Network on Water, Environment and Health (UNU-INWEH) is headquartered within the park. UNU-INWEH is the only United Nations agency headquartered in Ontario and the only North American host site for a United Nations University, after moving to McMaster Innovation Park on 23 April 2008.
The senate is responsible for the university's academics, including standards for admission into the university and qualifications for degrees, diplomas, and certificates. The senate consists of 15 ex officio positions granted to the chancellor, the president, the vice-presidents of the university, the senior dean of each faculty, the dean of graduate studies, the dean of adult education, the principal of McMaster Divinity College, and the chairman of the Undergraduate Council. The senate also consists of 51 other members, appointed or elected by the various communities of the university, including elected representatives of the student body. Meetings of the board of governors and the senate are open to the public.
McMaster University is affiliated with one post-secondary institution, McMaster Divinity College. The seminary is located within the campus of the university. As an affiliated institution, two members of the Divinity College sit on the university's senate, as well as appoint one representative to sit in the university's board of governors. However, the Divinity College operates with its own senate and board of trustees. Although Divinity College has the authority to confer their own degrees, students taking the College's Master of Divinity and Master of Theological Studies are awarded degrees by McMaster University. Students of Divinity College have access to the catalogue of McMaster University Library, while students of the university similarly have access to the Canadian Baptist Archives, managed by the university's library system.
The university and the divinity college were incorporated as the same institution in 1887, a result of a merger between two Baptist institutions, the Canadian Literary Institute in Woodstock, Ontario, and Toronto Baptist College. McMaster University continued to operated as a Baptist-run institution until 1957, when provincial legislation allowed for the governance of the university to pass from the Canadian Baptists of Ontario and Quebec, to a privately chartered, publicly funded arrangement. McMaster's Faculty of Theology was spun-off into McMaster Divinity College, a separately-chartered affiliated college of the university.
The total net assets owned by the university as of 30 April 2018 stands at C$1,209.1 million. The university had completed the 2017–2018 year with revenues of C$1,109.5 million, expenses of $985.7 million, for an excess of revenues over expenses of $123.8 million. McMaster's revenue comes from endowment income, gifts, fees, and annual grants from the City of Hamilton, the Hamilton-Wentworth Region, the Province of Ontario, and the Government of Canada. In the 2017–2018 academic year, the largest source of revenue for the university was tuition fees, followed by operating grants provided by the government. As of 30 April 2017, McMaster's financial endowment was valued at C$727.4 million. The financing of McMaster's scholarships and bursaries takes up 40 per cent of the endowments received. Financial Services comprises the following areas: Student Accounts & Cashiers, Financial Accounting and Reporting, and Budgeting Services.
The university has been registered as an educational charitable organization in Canada since 1 January 1967. As of 2011, the university is registered primarily as a post-secondary institution, with 70 per cent of the charity dedicated to the management and maintenance of the university. The remaining 30 per cent has been dedicated under research.
McMaster is a publicly funded research university, and a member of the Universities Canada. McMaster functions on a semester system, operating year-round on academic semesters, fall/winter and spring/summer. In the 2016–2017 academic year, the university had a total enrollment of 31,265 students; 26,780 undergraduate students, 4,485 graduate students. Programs, departments, and schools at McMaster are divided among six faculties, the DeGroote School of Business, the Faculty of Health Sciences, the Faculty of Humanities, the Faculty of Engineering, the Faculty of Science, and the Faculty of Social Sciences.
By enrolment, McMaster's largest faculty in September 2016 was the Faculty of Science, with 7,004 full-time and part-time undergraduate and graduate students. The Faculty of Humanities was the smallest faculty by enrolment, with 2,729 full-time and part-time undergraduate and graduate students. The Faculty of Health Sciences holds the highest graduate enrolment, with 1,144 graduate students. A number of university students are enrolled in interdisciplinary programs, administered by two or more faculties, including 549 graduate students. At the undergraduate level, the Arts and Science program is taught jointly by the six faculties at McMaster. Created in 1981, the program aims to provide a broad-based, liberal education, providing substantial work in both the arts and sciences. In September 2016, 278 undergraduate students were enrolled in the Arts and Science program.
The university also jointly administers several undergraduate collaborative programs with Mohawk College, of which 2,697 students are enrolled in. The university also awards degrees to graduate students of McMaster Divinity College. The Divinity College was originally the university's Faculty of Theology, before it was reorganized into a separately chartered, affiliated college of the university in 1957.
Students may apply for financial aid such as the Ontario Student Assistance Program and Canada Student Loans and Grants through the federal and provincial governments. The financial aid provided may come in the form of loans, grants, bursaries, scholarships, fellowships, debt reduction, interest relief, and work programs. In the 2016–2017 academic year, McMaster students received approximately C$100,972,910 in Ontario Student Assistance Program loans and C$40,061,756 in grants, approximately $140,981,009 in total. In the same year students received C$10,135,233.65 in bursaries.
The McMaster Model is the university's policy for a student-centred, problem-based, interdisciplinary approach to learning, a policy which has been adopted by several other universities around the world. During the 1960s the McMaster University Medical School pioneered problem-based learning (PBL) tutorials that have since been adopted by other programs and faculties within the university. PBL is now used in medicine, occupational therapy, physical therapy, nursing, midwifery, and other allied fields. Most medical schools in Canada and more than 80 per cent of medical schools in the United States employ PBL in their curriculum, and many international universities do the same.
In 1991, McMaster's School of Medicine adopted progress testing, developing the personal progress index (PPI), a system based on progress testing invented concurrently by the University of Missouri-Kansas City's medical school and the Maastricht University. The PPI is used as an objective method for assessing acquisition and retention of knowledge for students in the medical program. The PPI is administered at regular intervals to all students in the program, regardless of their level of training, and plots students' scores as they move through the program. Students typically score 20 per cent on their first examination, and increase by five to seven per cent with each successive examination. Students can monitor the changes in their scores and receive formative feedback based on a standardized score relative to the class mean. Due to the overwhelming success and research supporting the use of the PPI as an evaluation tool, it is now used in Canada, US, Europe, and Australia.
McMaster University has placed in post-secondary school rankings. In the 2018 Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) rankings, the university ranked 84th in the world and fourth-highest in Canada. The 2019 Times Higher Education World University Rankings placed McMaster 77th in the world, and fourth in Canada. The 2019 QS World University Rankings ranked the university 146th in the world and fifth in Canada. In U.S. News & World Report 2019 global university rankings, the university placed 130th, and fourth in Canada. In 2011, Newsweek had also ranked McMaster as the 15th top university outside of the United States, and the fourth best university in Canada. In Maclean's 2019 rankings, McMaster placed fourth in both their Medical-Doctoral university category, and in their reputation ranking for Canadian universities. McMaster was ranked in spite of having opted out from participation in Maclean's graduate survey since 2006.
McMaster also placed in a number of rankings that evaluated the employment prospects of graduates. In QS's 2019 graduate employability ranking, the university ranked 93rd in the world, and fifth in Canada. In the Times Higher Education's 2018 global employability ranking, McMaster placed 78th in the world, and fifth in Canada. In an employability survey published by the New York Times in October 2011, when CEOs and chairmans were asked to select the top universities which they recruited from, McMaster placed 61st in the world, and fourth in Canada.
In 2018, Research Infosource named McMaster as the most research intensive university in the country with an average sponsored research income (external sources of funding) of C$434,700 per faculty member in 2017, the highest average in the country, and nearly double the average for universities in the "Medical-Doctoral" category. In the same year, graduate students averaged a sponsored research income of $82,800, the highest out of any full-service university. With a total sponsored research income of $379.959 million in 2017, McMaster has the seventh largest sponsored research income amongst Canadian universities. In the 2015–2016 academic year, the federal government was the largest source of McMaster's sponsored research income (excluding affiliated hospitals), providing 61.4 per cent of McMaster's research budget, primarily through grants. Corporate research income account for 7.3 per cent of the overall research budget.
McMaster has been ranked on several bibliometric university rankings, which uses citation analysis to evaluate the impact a university has on academic publications. In 2018, the Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities ranked McMaster 112th in the world, and sixth in Canada. The University Ranking by Academic Performance 2018–19 rankings placed the university 126th in the world, and sixth in Canada.
Michael G. DeGroote Centre for Learning and Discovery is a multipurpose building primarily used by Faculty of Health Sciences. Along with teaching facilities, it houses several research institutes for the Faculty.
McMaster has received accolades for its research strengths, particularly in the field of health sciences. For five years in a row, McMaster has ranked second in for biomedical and health care research revenues by the Association of Faculties of Medicine of Canada. The Faculty of Health Science oversees $130 million a year in research, much of that research conducted by scientists and physicians who teach in the medical school. The Faculty of Health Sciences operates several research institutes, including the Firestone Institute for Respiratory Health, and the Population Health Research Institute. The university also operates a brain bank, whose collection includes a portion of Albert Einstein's brain, preserved and held for medical research. Researchers there have identified differences in his brain that may relate to his genius for spatial and mathematical thinking.
In addition to traditional forms of research, members of Faculty of Health Sciences have also been credited with developments within the medical practice. A McMaster research group led by David Sackett and later Gordon Guyatt had been credited for establishing the methodologies used in evidence-based medicine.
A titan arum blooming inside the McMaster Biology Greenhouse. The Greenhouse is one of many facilities used for research at the university.
Other notable research facilities include the McMaster Biology Greenhouse, and the Brockhouse Institute for Material Research (BIMR). The Biology Greenhouse holds 217 plants in a 780-square-metre (8,400 sq ft) facility, and is used as a teaching and research facility by the Department of Biology. In addition to maintaining its permanent collection, the Biology Greenhouse also grows plants for both short term research studies. The Brockhouse Institute was created in 1960 by Howard Petch, the institute was named after McMaster alumnus Bertram Brockhouse. The BIMR is an interdisciplinary research organization with the mandate to develop, support, and co-ordinate all materials research related activities at McMaster. Its membership of 123 faculty members is drawn from 13 departments in the Faculties of Science, Engineering, and Health Sciences, as well as several Canadian and international universities. Facilities of the BIMR include the Canadian Centre for Electron Microscopy, Centre for Crystal Growth, McMaster Analytical Xray Facility, Electronic and Magnetic Characterization Facility, and the Photonics Research Laboratories. The Canadian Centre for Electron Microscopy is home to the world's most advanced microscope. The Titan 80–300 cubed microscope has a magnification of 14 million and is used for material, medical, and nanotechnology research.
The McMaster Nuclear Reactor is the largest research reactor in the Commonwealth of Nations.
In addition, the university also operates the McMaster Nuclear Reactor, used for nuclear science and engineering research since 1959. The university regularly acquires an operating license for the reactor from the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission, with the latest 10-year license issued on 1 July 2014. The strength of nuclear science at McMaster was augmented in 1968 under the presidency of Dr. H.G. Thode by the construction of a 10MV Model FN Tandem particle accelerator. The 3MV Model KN single-ended accelerator was added the same year. The academic direction of the laboratory fell to the Physics Department in the early days, as it was primarily a nuclear structure laboratory. During the next 28 years, the nuclear research effort was extensive, with hundreds of graduate students trained and many publications generated. The Pool-type Reactor is used for research, educational, and commercial applications such as neutron radiography, and medical radioisotope production; Iodine-125 is used in cancer therapy. The reactor at McMaster produces 25 per cent of the world's supply of iodine-125, an isotope used in nuclear medicine to treat prostate cancer. The production of molybdenum-99 at Chalk River Laboratories has occasionally been moved to the university's reactor, when Chalk River's National Research Universal reactor is forced to shut down.
The requirements for admission differ between students from Ontario, other provinces in Canada, and international students due to the lack of uniformity in marking schemes. The acceptance rate at McMaster for full-time, first-year applications in 2018 was 52.6 per cent. In September 2014, the secondary school average for full-time first-year students at McMaster University was 87.7 per cent. Students entering McMaster's more selective undergraduate programs, including the Integrated Sciences program and the Arts and Science program, had a secondary school average of 96.3 per cent. McMaster received 28,079 applicants in the 2016. McMaster's medical school is the most competitive medical program in Canada by application numbers, with more than 5,200 applicants competing for 204 positions.
The Michael DeGroote School of Medicine has notably developed admission tests that has since become adopted by other schools. In 2001, they developed the multiple-mini interview in an effort to address long-standing concerns over standard panel interviews; viewed as poor reflectors for medical school performance. This format uses short, independent assessments in a timed circuit to obtain aggregate scores in interpersonal skills, professionalism, ethical/moral judgment, and critical thinking to assess candidates. The multiple-mini interview has consistently shown to have a higher predictive validity for future performance than traditional interviews. The multiple-mini interview process has since been adopted by the majority of Canadian medical schools, as well as a number of medical schools in the United States. In 2010, the medical school developed the Computer-based Assessment for Sampling Personal Characteristics, in order to better assess the personal characteristics of the applicant. A number of other medical schools have since adopted the CASPer test, including New York Medical College, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, and the University of Ottawa Faculty of Medicine.
In the 2016–2017 academic year, the university had an enrollment of 31,625 students: 26,780 undergraduate students, 4,485 graduate students. The student body is largely made up of Canadians, making up 90.27 per cent of the student population. International students represented, respectively, 9.73 per cent of the student population. Full-time students make up about 93.8 per cent of the student body. Among full-time students, the university has a first-time student retention rate of 90.9 per cent.
The McMaster University Student Centre plaza. The Student Centre, to the right, houses a number of student groups, including the McMaster Students Union.
The main student unions on administrative and policy issues are the McMaster Students Union for full-time undergraduates, the McMaster Association of Part-Time Students for part-time undergraduates, and the McMaster Graduate Students Association for postgraduates. In addition, each faculty has its own student representative body. There are more than 300 student organizations and clubs, covering a wide range of interests such as academics, culture, religion, social issues, and recreation. Many of them are centred on the McMaster student activity centre, the McMaster University Student Centre. The Silhouette, the student-run newspaper, is the oldest student service at McMaster University, in publication since 1929. Since 1968, the McMaster Engineering Society has published The Plumbline, the main satire magazine of McMaster University. The campus radio station CFMU-FM (93.3 FM) is Canada’s second-oldest campus radio station, and has been broadcasting since 1978. MacInsiders, a popular online student-run forum and information network, has been operating since 2007 and has over 18,000 registered members. The McMaster Marching Band, created in September 2009, is a brass, reed and percussion marching band composed of 45 graduate and undergraduate students as well as members of the surrounding community who wish to participate.
Athletics at McMaster is managed by the university's student affairs, under their athletics and recreation department. The university's varsity teams compete in the Ontario University Athletics conference of U Sports (formerly called Canadian Interuniversity Sport). The university's team sports programs include baseball, basketball, football, lacrosse, rugby, soccer, swimming, volleyball, and water polo. The first major sport game played at McMaster was in 1889, when a group of alumni from Toronto Baptist College and Woodstock College played an exhibition game against one another, sparking an early intercity rivalry between McMaster students. In 1897 the university placed all physical activity and sports under the jurisdiction of a central executive committee. The varsity teams have been known as the McMaster Marauders since 1948, through a contest run by the student newspaper, The Silhouette, to name the university's men's basketball team. In 2016–2017 academic year, McMaster had over 1,100 student-athletes in either varsity or club teams.
The McMaster Marauders football team at Ron Joyce Stadium.
The Marauders have won 11 national championships and 139 provincial champions since 1961. The men's water polo team has won the Ontario University Athletics championship 25 times, making it the Marauders' most successful team at the provincial level. The men's wrestling team has been the Marauders' most successful team at the national level, winning the Canadian Interuniversity Sport championship four times. McMaster University has graduated 34 Olympic athletes, eight Olympic coaches, two Olympic administrators and two Olympic officials. As is mandatory for all members of U Sports, McMaster University does not provide full-ride athletic scholarships.
The fireball is the emblem of the Faculty of Engineering. The emblem is based off the coat of arms of the defunct Hamilton College.
In addition to the visual representations of the institution, the university's individual departments, faculties, and schools also employ symbols to visually represent them. One such example is the Faculty of Engineering's fireball emblem, adopted by the faculty in 1960. The fireball was adopted from the coat of arms of the defunct Hamilton College.
The coat of arms consists of a shield, a crest, and a motto, together with a helmet. The shield contains an eagle, symbolic of the heavenly vision, with a cross on its breast to indicate Christianity as the inspiration for the university's vision. The chief of the shield bears an open book, a common symbol of learning. A golden maple leaf is situated on each side of the book, signifying the university's charter was granted by the Province of Ontario. The helmet, above the shield, has the open visor and forward-facing style typically used by universities. The mantling surrounding the shield and helmet represents the cloak worn over a knight's armour as protection from the sun. The crest, located above the helmet, is a stag and oak tree, which serves as a tribute to the Canadian senator, William McMaster, who also used a stag and oak on his insignias. The motto is located above the crest, as is common in Scottish heraldry.
Tihomir Orešković, 11th Prime Minister of Croatia.
Tommy Douglas, 7th Premier of Saskatchewan and first leader of the NDP.
Bertram Brockhouse, Nobel laureate in physics, for his work with neutron scattering.
Myron Scholes, Nobel laureate in economics for his work with the Black–Scholes model.
Harold Innis, contributed to the staples thesis and Toronto School of communication theory.
Stephen Elop, president and chief executive officer of the Nokia Corporation.
Cyrus S. Eaton, founder of Republic Steel and chairman of C&O Railway.
In the year 2016, McMaster University has over 184,000 alumni residing over 139 countries. Throughout McMaster's history, faculty, alumni, and former students have played prominent roles in many fields, accumulating a number of awards including Nobel prizes, Rhodes scholarships, the Gates Cambridge Scholarship, and the Lasker Award. Nobel Prize winners include alumnus Myron Scholes, awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1997 for his work with the Black-Scholes model. Two individuals from McMaster were also award the Nobel Prize in Physics, faculty member Bertram Brockhouse in 1994 for his work in neutron scattering; and alumna Donna Strickland in 2018 for her work on laser physics. Alumnus James Orbinski accepted the Nobel Peace Prize in 1992 on behalf of Doctors Without Borders as the organization's president.
Prominent alumni in the field of science include Douglas L. Coleman, who discovered leptin; Richard Bader, noted for his work on the atoms in molecules theory; Harold E. Johns, who pioneered the use of cobalt-60 in the treatment of cancer, Karl Clark, who pioneered the separation method to extract bitumen from the oil sands; Steve Mann, a researcher and inventor in the field of computational photography; Peter R. Jennings, computer programmer and developer of Microchess; and Simon Sunatori, an engineer and inventor. Notable faculty members include chemist Ronald Gillespie, who helped shape VSEPR theory, as well as David Sackett and Gordon Guyatt, whose research team was credited for establishing the methodologies used in evidence-based medicine. Notable alumni and faculty members in the field of social sciences include Harold Innis, who helped shape communication theory and the staples thesis, and sociologist Henry Giroux, one of the founding theorists of critical pedagogy. Two medical researchers, and members of McMaster had travelled in space; faculty member Dafydd Williams, and alumna Roberta Bondar, the first Canadian woman in space.
Many former students have gained prominence for serving in government. Croatian Prime Minister, Tihomir Orešković was an alumnus of the university. Lincoln Alexander, the former Lieutenant Governor of Ontario, as well as the first visible-minority Lieutenant Governor in Canada was another alumnus of the university. Canadian premiers that have graduated from the university include the former premier of Ontario, Dalton McGuinty, and the former premier of Saskatchewan, Tommy Douglas. Many graduates have also served in the House of Commons of Canada, including, Tony Valeri, the Government House Leader; and Lawrence Pennell, the Solicitor General of Canada. Roy Kellock, a Justice of the Supreme Court of Canada was a graduate from the university. Charles Aubrey Eaton, a member of the United States House of Representatives, and signor of the United Nations Charter on behalf of the United States, was an alumnus of the university.
A number of prominent business leaders have also studied at McMaster. Examples include David Braley, owner of the Toronto Argonauts and BC Lions of the Canadian Football League; Stephen Elop, former president and CEO of Nokia; Cyrus S. Eaton, founder of Republic Steel and chairman of Chesapeake and Ohio Railway; Paul D. House, current executive chairman of Tim Hortons; Lynton Wilson, chairman of Bell Canada, CAE Inc., and Nortel; Michael Lee-Chin, current chairman, CEO of AIC Limited;, Kathy Bardswick, president and CEO of The Co-operators, and Rob Burgess, former chairman and CEO of Macromedia.
A number of McMaster alumni had also had successful sports careers, including Syl Apps of the Toronto Maple Leafs; and NHL coach Roger Neilson. The university has had 34 of its graduates compete in the Olympic games, including Olympic medalists Larry Cain; Adam van Koeverden; and Mark Heese. McMaster faculty member Norman Lane was also an Olympic medalist. Several alumni of the university have also become prominent in the entertainment industry, including comedians, actors and directors. Such alumni include Eugene Levy; Martin Short; Jonathan Frid; Ivan Reitman; Dave Thomas; and John Candy.
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Systems and methods for delegating access to resources hosted in a distributed computing environment are described. In one aspect, a server hosts a set of resources. The server receives a request from a user to perform an operation with respect to one of the hosted resources. Responsive to receiving the request, the server determines whether the user has already been delegated authority to perform the operation. The delegated authority is independent of whether the user is a member of an administrators group associated with any resource of the server.
This patent application is related to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/281,083, titled “Role-Based Authorization Management Framework”, filed on Oct. 26, 2002, commonly assigned to the assignee hereof and hereby incorporated by reference.
The invention pertains to administration of network service provider hosted resources.
Administrating Web sites can be time consuming and costly, especially for entities that manage large Internet Service Provider (ISP) installations. To save time and money, many ISPs support only large company Web sites, at the expense of personal Web sites. One reason for this is because computer security has become increasingly important not only to businesses and other organizations, but also to individuals. To meet such security needs, computer and Web site security strategies must be selected and enforced for each administrative scenario. Such selection and enforcement make it considerably labor and time intensive and expensive to support personal Web sites.
FIG. 1 shows an exemplary computing environment within which systems and methods for delegating administration of a hosted resource may be implemented.
FIG. 2 shows further exemplary aspects of system memory of FIG. 1, including application programs and program data for delegating administration of a hosted resource.
FIG. 3 shows an exemplary procedure for delegating administration of a hosted resource.
Reliable, scalable, manageable, and secure systems and methods to delegate and implement remote administration of Web sites are described. In particular, an Internet Service Provider (ISP) computer server administrator utilizes the following described Internet Information Services (IIS) Delegation Administration (DA) framework to delegate specified Web site administration tasks to authorized users for execution. Such an authorized user may include, for example, a user that owns a personal Web site hosted by an ISP.
User authorization is determined in view of specified role-based access permission(s) to perform specified application operations associated with the hosted Web site. This IIS DA framework obviates existing trends involving computer security, wherein personal Web sites are not supported due to the inefficiencies of time and cost, as described above. One reason for this is because an administrator is not required to intervene (i.e., to ensure computer security and authorized access) every time a hosted personal Web site is modified or tested. Such modifications may include, for example, change of Web site content/functionality such as deployment of a new application on the Web site, etc.
These and other aspects of the systems and methods for delegated Web site administration are now described in further detail.
FIG. 1 illustrates an example of a suitable computing environment 120 on which the subsequently described systems, apparatuses and methods for delegating administration of a hosted resource may be implemented. Exemplary computing environment 120 is only one example of a suitable computing environment and is not intended to suggest any limitation as to the scope of use or functionality of systems and methods the described herein. Neither should computing environment 120 be interpreted as having any dependency or requirement relating to any one or combination of components illustrated in computing environment 120.
The drives and associated computer-readable media provide nonvolatile storage of computer readable instructions, data structures, program modules, and other data for computer 130. Although the exemplary environment described herein employs a hard disk, a removable magnetic disk 148 and a removable optical disk 152, it are appreciated by those skilled in the art that other types of computer readable media which can store data that is accessible by a computer, such as magnetic cassettes, flash memory cards, digital video disks, random access memories (RAMs), read only memories (ROM), and the like, may also be used in the exemplary operating environment.
A user such as an ISP Web site administrator may provide commands and information into computer 130 through input devices such as keyboard 166 and pointing device 168 (such as a “mouse”). Other input devices (not shown) may include a microphone, joystick, game pad, satellite dish, serial port, scanner, digital camera, etc. These and other input devices are connected to the processing unit 132 through a user input interface 170 that is coupled to bus 136, but may be connected by other interface and bus structures, such as a parallel port, game port, or a universal serial bus (USB).
A monitor 172 or other type of display device is also connected to bus 136 via an interface, such as a video adapter 174. The monitor can be utilized, for example, to present a user interface (UI) associated with the described systems and methods to delegate Web site administration, for example, by defining application access policies and rules as described below. In addition to monitor 172, personal computers typically include other peripheral output devices (not shown), such as speakers and printers, which may be connected through output peripheral interface 175.
Depicted in FIG. 1, is a specific implementation of a WAN via the Internet. Here, computer 130 employs modem 178 to establish communications with at least one remote computer 182 via the Internet 180. In a networked environment, program modules depicted relative to computer 130, or portions thereof, may be stored in a remote memory storage device. Thus, e.g., as depicted in FIG. 1, remote application programs 189 may reside on a memory device of remote computer 182. The network connections shown and described are exemplary. Thus, other means of establishing a communications link between the computing devices may be used.
FIG. 2 is a block diagram that shows further exemplary aspects of system memory 134 of FIG. 1, including application programs 160 and program data 164 for delegating administration of a hosted resource. In this implementation, application programs 160 include, for example Authorization Module 202, Delegation Module 204, Remote Client Web Site Administration (RCWA) module 206 (i.e., the “requesting application”), Execution Module 208, and Authorized Process(es) 210. For purposes of discussion, these application programs in conjunction with selected other features of the system 100 of FIG. 1, are hereinafter often referred to as the “Internet Information Services (IIS) Delegated Administration (DA) Framework, or “framework”.
The Authorization Manager 202 provides security support for delegating administration of a hosted resource of IIS metabase nodes (i.e., nodes of the IIS metabase 212). The IIS metabase 212 identifies nodes for applications, resources, or objects hosted, deployed, and/or managed by the computer 130 of FIG. 1. More particularly, the metabase is a hierarchical store of configuration information and schema that are used to configure IIS. In existing systems, only users who are members of the Administrators group can view and modify a resource represented by a metabase node. In contrast to such conventional systems, the IIS DA framework, which is now being described, allows users other than those in the Administrators group (e.g., application administrators) such as Web site owners to view and/or modify particularly specified portion(s) of the IIS metabase 212. For purposes of this description, a “user” is an individual that is not assigned to the Administrative group, although a user could also be of the Administrators group.
To this end, the Authorization Manager Module 202, via selective interaction with the Delegation Administration (DA) module 204, allows an administrative entity (i.e., a member of the Administrators group) to specify (e.g., specify via a UI displayed on the display device 172 of FIG. 1) user access permissions to nodes of the IIS metabase 212. The Authorization Manager Module 202 writes such user access permissions (i.e., policies/rules) to Authorization Policy Store 214. In one implementation, such access permissions are represented, for example, in Extended Markup Language (XML), Active Directory, Software Query Language (SQL), or some other data format.
An application queries the APS 214 (via API's 216 exposed by the Application Manager 202) at run time to confirm that a client is authorized to perform a requested operation on a resource. Authorization Manager provides APIs for managing authorization policy and validating access control and a user interface for administrators so that they can manage the authorization policy store.
An application as specified by the Authorization Policy Store (APS) 214 is a top-level node of the Authorization policy store 214. An application specifies the operations or tasks that the application can perform and declares them in the APS 214, for instance, when the application is installed. An application specification includes administrator identified application specific roles in terms of the task and operations that are needed to perform a job (e.g., in an organization). The definitions of roles, tasks and operations (methods), and scopes are stored in the APS 214. A role is an authorization or resource configuration role (e.g., an organizational permission on some set of resources). An authorization role is based on a user's job function. A resource configuration role is based on a computer's function.
A task is a collection of low-level operations. The purpose of the task is to determine which low-level operations do some unit of work that is meaningful to administrators. An example of a task might be Change Password. Tasks can also contain other tasks. For example, a task called Manage User Accounts may include the tasks Change Password, Reset Password, Disable Account, and so on.
An operation is a low-level permission that a resource manager uses to identify security procedures. Several operations may be used to perform a meaningful task. (Operations are often not exposed or meaningful to administrators). An example of an operation could be WriteAttributes or ReadAttributes. A scope is collection of one or more physical or logical resources (e.g., a folder and/or files) associated with a respective authorization policy. An application can use the scope to group resources, to map a user requested resource to a scope (e.g., when an application checks for user access), and so on.
In this implementation, the Authorization Manager 202 allows specification of zero (0) or more groups and corresponding roles for each specified group member. A group corresponds to a user's role, and an application administrator specifies the permissions that are needed by the role by granting the group permission in an ACL for an object (e.g., application, resource, etc.). TABLE 1 shows an exemplary application definition of the APS 214, which in this implementation, is in an XML data format.
Each application includes numerous attributes such as a substantially globally unique identifier (a “GUID”, e.g., d9089f17-5fa6-4ae9-bddf-8ca6cd1c06fb), a name (e.g., SiteAdminApp), and so on. Application attributes are used, for instance, to identify particular ones of the applications specified in the authorization policy store 214. In the example, of TABLE 1, the application includes a group (e.g., see tag pair “AzApplicationGroup”) to specify one or more users assigned to one or more “roles” with respect to the application. A role is a set of permissions assigned to a user to enable the user to perform a set of tasks. Each application group includes a GUID attribute (e.g., value bf9d00f0-2be3-4367-a931-680038b51d0a) and a name attribute (e.g., GroupMetabaseChangeDefaultDoc). This exemplary group illustrates a single member identified by SID: S-1-5-21-3131233723-616130271-937215924-1032. For the purpose of this example, assume that this is the SID is associated with a user, “User1”.
In this implementation, a role is applied to a set of associated objects, and then a group of users is assigned to the role.
The application of TABLE 1 includes an application group (although any number of such groups could be defined) with a scope. A scope is collection of one or more physical or logical resources (e.g., a folder and/or files) associated with a respective authorization policy. An application can use the scope to group resources, to map a user requested resource to a scope (e.g., when an application checks for user access), and so on. The following is an exemplary syntax to define a scope: <AzScope Guid=“ce010982-6b6f-4e93-804e-d04bf1ddff78” Name=“Site Access for “User1””/>. Each scope has a unique identifier (e.g., ce010982-6b6f-4e93-804e-d04bf1ddff78) and a name (e.g., Site Access for “User1”) that can be used with an Application Programming Interface (API) to access the scope. For purposes of discussion, the illustrated scope has a metabase site ID of “w3svc/1”.
A role is defined when at least one (1) task has been specified with respect to an application group having access to a scope to which the role belongs. A task is one or more low-level operations to perform some unit of work for an administrator. For instance, a task might be “Change Password.” A task can encapsulate one or more other tasks. For example, a task called “Manage User Accounts” may include tasks “Change Password,” “Reset Password,” “Disable Account,” and/or so on. TABLE 3 shows an example role definition.
The role shown in TABLE 3 includes an AppMemberLink attribute that references an application group based on its unique identifier, in this example, bf9d00f0-2be3-4367-a931-680038b51d0a. TABLE 4 shows a scope with a related role.
A role may define one or more tasks. A task consists of one or more low-level “operations” that the user is given permission to perform, together with a business rule. An operation is a low-level permission that identifies security level(s) associated with a task. Several operations may comprise a meaningful task. Examples of operations include “WriteAttributes” and “ReadAttributes”. The following example of TABLE 5 illustrates a task allowing a user to change a property (e.g., the “DefaultDoc” property) for a Web site. The task contains two operations: one to set the value of this property, and one to get the value of this property.
In the example of TABLE 5, an operation is assigned a unique identifier and a name, as is the case with the definitions of the previous attributes. One of the most important characteristics of an operation is the OperationID attribute. A task can refer to one or more operations through the OperationID. TABLE 6 illustrates how to define an exemplary task.
The example of TABLE 6 shows two operations that are referenced by one task. This is to illustrate how a policy file can be defined. It is possible to have a task that refers to multiple operations. In one implementation, however, to ensure that the IIS Delegated Administration framework works as expected, within a policy file used with the tool, a task references only one operation. In such an implementation, when an operation is referenced by a task inside a role, the operation is not referenced by a different task inside the same role. Note, however, that the operation can be referenced by a task that is inside another role. For more information on exemplary syntax of the authorization policy store, see TABLE 11, below.
A task is defined one or more operations (e.g., the two operations defined in TABLE 6) identified by their unique IDs, and a business rule, or BizRule. A business rule is also called an authorization script written in a scripting language such as Jscript or VBScript. In this implementation, scripts that are attached to a task object that is run when an AccessCheck API is called to verify that the user can execute a given method. In this implementation, the AccessCheck API is implemented by a known Private Object Security (POS) API of an operating system 158 (FIG. 1). The POS API looks at a user's group memberships in a token and compares them to contents of an Access Control List (ACL) to determine if the user has the requested access. Scripts may use information that is available only at run time, such as “time of day” or “dollar amount requested,” to make an authentication decision.
For compliancy with the Authorization Manager 202, Delegated Administration (DA) module 204 uses one set of input values when interfacing with the Authorization Manager 202 and another set of values that are the parameters for the operation that the user wants to perform with respect to a hosted resource (e.g., a Web site) via a requesting application (e.g., the Remote Client Web Site Administration Application 208). For instance, in the preceding example of TABLE 6, for the SetDefaultDoc operation, the DA 204 utilizes as input the scope name, the operation or method name, and a value that is the value of the DefaultDoc parameter referred to in the BizRule above.
The DA 204 uses configuration file 218 to determine which Authorization Policy Store(s) 214 contains the input scope and to map the input operation or method name to an OperationID. In this implementation, the configuration file 218 is an XML file that specifies/defines each method assigned to a given set of users and maps the method to the corresponding operation identifier(s) (IDs) in the authorization policy store 214. The configuration file 218 also includes method parameters, scope mappings, log file data format, and command-line templates. When mapping scope name, DA 204 obtains from the configuration file 218 the path of the authorization policy store 214 where the scope is located, and the name of the application in this authorization policy store under which the scope is defined.
After the DA 204 parses the configuration file for such information, the DA 204 initializes the Authorization Manager 202 using the store path, opens the desired application, and gets the client context object that will be used to call determine whether the user has access to the requested function/resource.
IIS Delegated Administration Framework uses a registry entry of type “String” to store the full path to the configuration file 218 (e.g., HKLM\Software\Entity\IISDelAdmin\DelegAdminMappingPath (REG_SZ)). Such a string is stored in registry 220. TABLE 7 shows an exemplary configuration file 218.
In this exemplary implementation, the configuration file 218 includes the following entries: an entry for each method that will be allowed for a user; an entry for each scope, used in a store that contains a task referring to an existing method in the configuration file 218. Each scope entry corresponds to a user that has a scope in an authorization policy store. Additionally, an entry defines desired and/or default log file data format.
In this implementation, all of the attributes except Description are utilized. If an attribute is missing from a node definition to be used by ExecuteMethod, the method will return an error. (ExecuteMethod is an APi 222 exposed by the DA module 204 to performs an operation requested by the user—if authorized).
PublicName—The method name as it will be exposed to the user, the name that the tool will validate as an entry (a parameter of the ExecuteMethod method of a Dynamic Link Library object (e.g., a COM) accessed via API 222, exposed by the DA module 204).
ExePath—Defines either the path to the executable or command-line script that will be used to execute the method requested by the user or the ProgID of a COM object that is designated to perform the operation through one of its methods.
AZStoreID—Defines the OperationID that corresponds to this method in the authorization policy store.
CmdLine—Defines the way the command line for the executable module will be built, or the name of the method if ExePath specifies the ProgID of a COM object. For an executable module, in this attribute one can specify a keyword, an attribute name/value (method, parameter, and scope attributes) and a parameter index. For more information about defining CmdLine values, see the CmdLine Field Format below.
WaitTimeout—Indicates to the DA 204 how many seconds to wait after calling a CreateProcess API before exiting and logging the result. After a successful call to CreateProcess, the tool calls WaitForSingleObject (processHandle, timeout) to wait for that process to finish. This attribute is not used if the operation is associated with a COM method.
ProcessType—Specifies the type of process to be used to execute the method. The valid values for this attribute are “COM” (to specify that a COM method will execute the method) and “CMD” (to specify that a command-line executable will execute the method).
Separator—Assists in making the output of the executable module more granular. For special characters (such as “\r” and “\n”), this field includes the escaped version of the character (for example, “%0D” and “%0A”). The tool always reads the value of the Separator field and then unescapes it, so one can specify these special characters to be recognized as separators by the tool. For example, suppose a result will be a string containing a set of IP addresses that are denied for a site, and also that the result is a string containing all of these addresses separated by a “CRLF”(“\r\n” sequence). If the Separator=“%0D%0A” is defined in the IISDAMethod node, instead of the OutputArray function returning the whole string with the IP addresses, the function returns an array of strings, each corresponding to an IP address from the result string.
Description—Adds a description of the method, which can be used in the application that exposes the method to the user. For example, it is used by the sample ASP.NET application, Admin, to display the description of the method when the user moves the mouse over a method name on the page.
If a Parameter XML tag is defined, all of the attributes except Description are utilized. If one attribute is missing from a definition of the node and the node will be used by ExecuteMethod, the method will return an error.
Name—Sent by the tool as a parameter to the AccessCheck function. The same name is be used in the BizRule of the tasks that reference the operation ID corresponding to the method where the parameter is defined.
MetabaseProperty—Can be used if the execution module will request a specific metabase property as part of its command line, for example: “adsutil.exe get w3svc/1/AnonymousUserName”. In this example, the parameter has the attribute MetabaseProperty=“AnonymousUserName” and “w3svc/1” is the MetabaseNode defined in the scope. For more information about defining a scope, see Scope Syntax below.
Description—Associates a description with the parameter. For example, an application exposing the method to which such a parameter belongs to can use this field to display restrictions imposed on the parameter values.
One can specify the interfaces that will be used to execute a BizRule inside of a task that refers to an operation by using the Interface node. The following example shows the syntax of the Interface node: <Interface Name=““Flag=” “ProgID=””/>. Interface nodes are optional, and are used when COM objects are used in the business rule of a task, which references the method. If the Interface node is defined, all of the attributes are utilized. If one attribute is missing from the node definition and the node will be used by ExecuteMethod, the method will return an error.
Name—Identifies the name of the object as it is going to be used in the business rule.
Flag—Specifies the flag that will be used to create the object in the BizRule script.
ProgID—Specifies the independent version ProgID of the COM object. The corresponding Name in this node is, in fact, an instance of this object. The BizRule uses the object only through the Name provided.
Each attribute corresponds to a parameter utilized by AccessCheck related to interfaces.
<IISDAScope PublicName=““AZName=” “MetabaseNode=” “AZStorePath=” “AZApplicationName=” “GenerateAudits=” “AuditName=””/>.
All of the attributes are utilized. If one is missing and the node will be used by ExecuteMethod, the method will return an error.
PublicName—the name provided to the user when the scope is created, and the name the user will provide to identify at what level in the metabase 212 the changes are made (because a user can have more than one site assigned, for example).
AZName—the name of the scope in an authorization policy store file that corresponds to this scope. The MetabaseNode defines the actual scope, which is, in fact, a metabase node where the user has access.
AZStorePath—the path of the authorization policy store where this scope are located. This attribute specifies the authorization policy store where the DA module 204 will search for this scope.
AZApplicationName—specifies the application, in the store, under which this scope is defined.
GenerateAudits—specifies whether an attempt to access this scope generates auditing.
AuditName—specifies the key string used in auditing to identify the object that was accessed (in this implementation, it confirms that this scope, in particular, was accessed).
Path—defines the path where the log file is stored. This attribute is utilized.
The tool returns an error if it is not present. This attribute value points to a valid and accessible folder; otherwise, the tool of this implementation does not log anything, but will generate an exception. When creating the log file for the first time, the application uses the security settings inherited from the parent folder (identified by the value of the Path attribute), which means that the identity of the COM+ application (see, other module 210) has read/write access to this folder.
Field—identifies each field in the log file, using an associated Name attribute. For more information about fields, see Log File Fields below.
The result of the ExecuteMethod (ExecuteMethod is an APi 222 exposed by the DA module 204 to performs an operation requested by the user—if authorized. The operation or task implemented by ExecuteMethod is shown as the Execution Module 208) is logged using the comma-separated values log format. In this implementation, if a logging section is not present in the configuration file 218, DA 202 does not log anything and throws an exception.
A date and time (Date field) of the request (call to ExecuteMethod).
A name of the user (User field; for example, if the ExecuteMethod is called inside an .aspx page, the name of the user to whom access to the .aspx page was granted will be logged).
A method name (Method field) provided by the caller.
A scope name (Scope field) provided by the caller.
A value of the ExePath attribute corresponding to the method (ProcessType attribute, which is an attribute of the method definition in the configuration file attribute).
A value of the CmdLine attribute corresponding to the method (CmdLine field).
Delegated Administration 204 also logs in the last two positions the result (Result field) of the ExecuteMethod function 208 and the exception information (Exception field). The exception information provides details on the context of the exception (that is, in which step of the method execution the exception occurred) and the exception code that was caught by the tool.
The sixth field, CmdLine, utilizes a special mention. In the case of an IISDAMethod node with ProcessType=“COM,” the value logged in this field is as it appears defined in the configuration file 218 in the CmdLine attribute. In the case of an IISDAMethod node with ProcessType=“CMD,” the value logged in this field will be either as it appears defined in the configuration file 218 in the CmdLine attribute or (in case the string refers to IISDACmdLineKeys) the value of the full command line of the executable module, if ExecuteMethod actually built the command line for the module before returning. This provides more information in the log file to help one figure out as many elements of a request as possible and to ease the troubleshooting process.
If there is no Field node defined, the DA module 204 logs, for example, the eight (8) fields mentioned above, and the IISDALog node is used only to get the log file path. Usually, the field name is in the form “Param1,” “Param2,” and so on, because, in addition to the above-mentioned fields that are logged by default, these are the other fields that one might find useful.
In this implementation, “Param” fields are logged after the first six fields described above. If the list of parameter values contains more elements than the actual number of Field/nodes in the IISDALog node, not all of the parameter values are logged. However, if there are fewer parameter values for a method than the number of Field nodes in the IISDALog node, the rest of the field values in the log entry will consist of a space (“ ”).
Name—Used in the command-line string as a key.
AttributeName—Specifies the name of an attribute inside the configuration file, under the IISDAMethod, IISDAScope, or Parameter nodes, to which the key refers. This attribute enables one to specify either the attribute name itself or the attribute value to which it refers.
The command-line template allows Delegated Administration 202 to support tokens inside the command-line definition for a method (the CmdLine attribute of the IISDAMethod node). Such tokens include for example, the tokens shown in TABLE 9.
In this implementation, because # and $ are used for building the command line, these characters are restricted in the sense that if there is a sequence of two of these characters (like #string# or $string$), the tool will try to find an IISDACmdLineKey node that has a Name attribute equal to “string.” This is an implantation dependent feature that can be modified as design architecture implies.
This technique of defining the command-line parameters enables one to specify environment variables, such as % SYSTEMROOT %, in the module command line. When an IISDACmdLineKey node is created, all attributes are utilized. Otherwise, ExecuteMethod will fail when trying to parse the node. For more information about defining IISDACmdLineKey nodes and how they are interpreted at run time, see CmdLine and IISDACmdLineKeys Examples.
Parameters Method—sets the parameters associated with an operation. The parameters of this method is be a variant of type VT_ARRAY (where each element in the array is be of type VT_BSTR) or of type VT_BSTR. This method is called before calling ExecuteMethod.
ParamError Method—checks whether the parameters were set correctly by the Parameters method. If the parameters were set successfully, it returns 0. Call this method to avoid calling ExecuteMethod if parameters were not set correctly by the Parameters method.
Scope name—the scope associated with the user that is requesting the execution of the operation. The application that exposes the methods to the user collects this scope from the user. For example, using the sample ASP.NET application, the user specifies the name of the site to administer. This name is stored as a session variable and used whenever ExecuteMethod is invoked. The type of the parameter is BSTR.
Method name—the name of the method that the user will try to execute. This name corresponds to the value of a PublicName attribute of an IISDAMethod node inside the configuration file. The type of the parameter is BSTR.
LogResult—Boolean value specifying whether the method is to log the result of the operation.
ExecuteOperation—Boolean value specifying whether ExecuteMethod executes the command line or calls the COM method associated with the method. This parameter is useful when one want to use ExecuteMethod up to the point where AccessCheck decides whether the user is granted access to execute the method. If one choose not to execute any method or command line (by setting this parameter to FALSE), one can leave the values of the corresponding attributes of the IISDAMethod node as empty strings. After AccessCheck returns, the result is logged.
FIG. 3 shows an exemplary procedure 300 for delegated administration of a Web site. In particular, the procedure illustrates exemplary processing that occurs when a user attempts to modify properties of a Web site, wherein the Web site is hosted by an ISP that implements the described IIS Delegation Administration Framework of FIGS. 1 and 2. Accordingly, and for purposes of illustration, the operations of the procedure are described with respect to the features of FIGS. 1 and 2. As noted above, in the figures, the left-most digit of a component reference number identifies the particular figure in which the component first appears.
At block 302, an administrative entity (e.g., a member of the Administrative group) provides one or more parameters for an operation with respect to an application and/or resources hosted by computer 130 (FIG. 1). Such provision is provided via the API 216 exposed by the Authorization Module 202 (FIG. 2).
At block 304, a user executes an application such as the Remote Web Site Administration (RWSA) application 206 (FIG. 2) hosted by the computer 130 (FIG. 1). The RWSA application 206 allows a user, such as a Web site owner, to modify, test, or otherwise administer content and/or functionality, or any other aspect of a Web site or resource hosted by the computer 130 (FIG. 1). As described below, authorization for such administration is dynamically determined by the Delegation Administration (DA) module 204. For purposes of this example, the user is not a member of an Administrator group with respect to administering the configuration and/or resources associated with the computer 130 of FIG. 1, although the user could be a member of such an Administrators group. At block 306, the user requests to perform at least an operation with respect to the hosted resource (e.g., Web site, etc.). To this end, the application (e.g., the RWSA application 206) invoke one or more of the APIs 222 exposed by the Delegation Administration (DA) module 204, to requests access to the operation. As already noted, user operation access to a hosted resource is controlled by several layers of functionality, as shown in TABLE 10.
TABLE 11, an exemplary Authorization Manager Policy Store.
command-line module or a COM method.
At block 308, the Delegated Administration module 204, determines whether the user is authorized to access the resource via the requested operation. This determination is made completely independent of whether the user is a member of an Administrators group with respect to administering the resources of computer 130 (FIG. 1). To this end, the DA module 204, via the Parameters method API 222, sets ExecuteMethod parameters. ExecuteMethod looks for an entry in registry 220 providing the path to the configuration file 218. The configuration file 218 specifies all possible methods that can be performed by all of the users and where an administrative entity can add an entry (that is, an IISDAScope node) for each user.
At this point, at block 306, ExecuteMethod reads the configuration file 218 and attempts to map the requested operation name, scope, and parameters to entries in that file. If these entries are found, the information related to the authorization policy store 214 (i.e., derived from the IISDAScope node attribute) is retrieved. The ExecuteMethod retrieves the information from the Authorization Policy Store 214 and verifies (e.g., a call to AccessCheck) whether the user has access to the specified scope, based on the method and provided parameters. To accomplish this, ExecuteMethod impersonates the caller to present a client's identity to resources it hosts on the client's behalf, for access checks or authentication to be performed against the client's identity. (Impersonation is the ability of a thread to execute in a security context different from that of the process owning the thread).
At block 310, if the user is determined to not be authorized to perform the requested operation, the user is denied access to the operation. However, at block 312, if the user is granted access to the scope and if the method referred to is in a task within the user's scope, ExecuteMethod executes a process (i.e., Authorized Process 210) or builds a Command Line 210 to execute a process that performs the user requested operation (i.e., execute via an object (e.g., a COM object) or Command Line).
For instance, the DA module 202 either builds the command line for the executable module that will actually execute the operation/method, or attempts to initialize a COM object associated with the operation and get the DISPID of the specified method. Then, DA module 202 calls either CreateProcess or the COM method associated with the operation, depending on what is specified in the first Boolean parameter. In the case of CreateProcess, DA module 202 uses the command line 210 just built and the process starts under the user context of an application (e.g., a COM application). For purposes of discussion, such an application is shown as Authorized Process 210.
At block 314, if the requested operation runs successfully, the authorized process 210 builds an output array and logs the output array to the log file 224. For purposes of discussion, such an output array is shown as a respective portion of “other data” 226. In this implementation, if the return type of the method is VT_BSTR or VT_ARRAY, all of the elements in the array are of type VT_BSTR.
TABLE 11 shows an exemplary format of the Authorization Policy Store 214. For more information about the syntax of this type of file, see Authorization Policy Store File Format.
The following examples show how a command line is built for a module, based on the settings in a configuration file 218 and the parameters passed to the ExecuteMethod and Parameters methods.
The following example shows exemplary syntax of a configuration file 218 from which the exemplary command line of TABLE 11 is derived.
In view of the above, the following actions take place to produce this command line: “SET” is used as it is because it is not delimited by # or $ characters; #mn# is replaced by “w3svc/1”; “/” is used as it is because it is not delimited by # or $ characters” #mp@1# is replaced by “AccessFlags”; and, #1# is replaced with the value of the parameter of index 1, which is 3.
The following example shows exemplary syntax of a configuration file 218 from which the exemplary command line of TABLE 12 is derived.
In summary, the following actions take place to produce this command line: “SET” is used as it is because it is not delimited by # or $ characters; $mn$ is replaced by “MetabaseNode”; #mp@1# is replaced by “AccessFlags”; and, #1# is replaced with the value of the parameter of index 1, which is 3.
The following example shows configuration file syntax from which the command line of TABLE 12 is derived.
The following parameters are passed to ExecuteMethod: (“Scope1”, “SetFlags”). The following parameters are passed to Parameters: An array containing the following strings: “1”, “1”, “1”. Refer to the configuration file syntax to understand the following discussion of how this command line is built. The value of the CmdLine attribute of the method is “SET #1# #2# #3#.” The tool looks at the first sequence delimited by two # or $ characters, in this example #1#. Because there is a number between the two # characters, the tool replaces this token with the value of the first parameter. The tool performs the same procedure for the next two tokens: #2# and #3#.
The following example shows a command line that causes an error by providing an incorrect number of parameter to the Parameters method. Configuration file syntax from which the command line of TABLE 14 is derived follows.
The following parameters are passed to ExecuteMethod: (“Scope1”, “SetFlags”). The following parameters are passed to Parameters: An array containing the following strings: “1”, “1”, “1”.
In this example, the Delegation Administration module 202 returns an error because the command line refers to a parameter with index 4 (by specifying #4# in the CmdLine attribute), but Parameters receives only three parameters. Accordingly, no command line is built.
In the example of TABLE 15, this method corresponds to a method with OperationID=1 in the authorization policy store 214. The path of the executable or command line 210 that performs the requested action is “C:\Adsutil.exe.” The command-line template for this method is “SET #mn# #1#”. The time-out for this method to be executed is 10 seconds. No separator or description is defined. The method has only one parameter, named “Flags,” which corresponds to the “AccessFlags” property in the IIS metabase. The method defines the “MyObject” object name (corresponding to an instance of the “Scripting.FileSystemObject” object) as being able to be used by the BizRule associated with the task that refers to the operation with ID 1 in the authorization policy store.
In the example of TABLE 15, the scope, defined as “www.fabrikam.com”, corresponds to the scope named “Scope1” in the store located at “C:\Store.xml.” This scope inside this store is defined under the “SecurityApplication” application. Access to this scope generates an audit using the “Scope1” name to identify the entry in the EventLog.
This template specifies that the CmdLine attribute of the “SetProperty” method can use (beside “keywords” and #D# tokens for the parameter values) only tokens that include the “mn” key, which identifies by name (using $mn$) or by value (using #mn#) the attribute with the name “MetabaseNode” defined under the “IISDAScope,” corresponding to the scope specified as a parameter to ExecuteMethod.
The following assumptions apply to this exemplary scenario: The registry entry HKLM\Software\Microsoft\IISDelAdmin\DelegAdminMappingPath (REG_SZ) is defined and contains the following string: “C:\DelegAdmin\Config\Config.xml”—the configuration file 218. The Delegadm.dll object runs inside a COM+ application (i.e., the authorized process 210) whose identity has read access to this registry entry.
This code will attempt to allow user1 to set the AccessFlags property to 1 for the site corresponding to “ScopeUser1” by calling the “SetAccessProperty” method and using the Authorization Manager APIs.
To accomplish this task, the following steps are performed inside ExecuteMethod: The specified parameters are validated. As noted in “Parameters” method syntax, a parameter for the Parameters method can be either a string or an array of strings. In this example, the parameter is accepted, because it is a string. If the parameter is rejected, the corresponding error code is logged. The object attempts to get the value of the registry entry HKLM_Software_Microsoft_IISDelAdmin_DelegAdminMappingPath. In this example, the value is defined as C:\DelegAdmin\Config\Config.xml. The identity of the COM+ application has access to this value. If the application cannot read the registry entry value, it logs an error.
Because the operation was not executed, the CMDLine field in the log file will contain the value of the CmdLine attribute of the IISDAMethod node that corresponds to the SetAccessProperty method.
After the application gains access to the configuration file, it searches the configuration file for the scope “ScopeUser1,” which is specified as a parameter. If the scope is not found, an error is logged. An error may appear even if there is an “IISDAScope” node that contains the PublicName attribute with value “www.fabrikam.com” if this node does not have all of the utilized attributes.
After the public scope name is validated, the method name is validated. The application looks for the specified method name in the configuration file 118, which is “SetAccessProperty” in this example. If the method is not found, the appropriate error code is logged. An error may appear even if there is an “IISDAMethod” node that contains the PublicName attribute with value “SerAccessProperty” if this node doesn't have all of the utilized attributes.
After the method name is found, the corresponding IISDAMethod node is read. The tool now maps the “SetAccessProperty” method to the operation defined in the AZStoreID attribute, which in this example is “1.” As specified in syntax of the policy file, only one task in the authorization policy store can refer to this method. If more than one task in the authorization policy store refers to this method, AccessCheck may deny the access to the scope. This may occur because the business rule on one of the tasks has denied the access to the scope.
Along with the attributes, the subnodes of the IISDAMethod node are read to retrieve information about the parameters of the method and the interfaces that will be used in the business rule of the task that refers to this operation (in this example, the operation with ID “1”). If an error occurs in the validation process, a corresponding error code is logged. An error can occur because utilized attributes inside the Parameter or Interface subnodes are missing from the definition of the IISDAMethod node. The number of parameters defined in the configuration file matches the number of parameters that are set before ExecuteMethod is called (using the Parameters method). Otherwise, a specific error code is logged.
The application attempts to initialize the Authorization Store object using the store path, which in this example is “C:\DelegAdmin\Stores\User1.xml” and to open the corresponding application inside this store, which in this example is “SiteAdminApp.” If one of the operations fails, the exception is caught and the result will be logged.
The application collects information about the caller (which in this example is user1) and builds the parameters for AccessCheck. The following TABLE 16 describes the AccessCheck parameters used in this example.
of this parameter for AccessCheck.
are interested in, which in this example is 1.
Flags attribute in the Interface subnode, which is 9600.
cannot be created, a specific error code is returned.
If the process of building the parameters for AccessCheck succeeds, the function is called and the result is checked. In this example, the user1 is granted access to the “Scope1” scope based on the parameters and the two XML files defined. If this function fails, an exception is generated. If AccessCheck denies access to the user, a specific error code is logged.
In general, if an error occurs while building the command line (for example, if invalid sequences, such as defining a key as #KEY$, were used, or if undefined keys were used), the application logs an error.
The described systems and methods for generating a contrast-based saliency map for image attention analysis. Although the systems and methods have been described in language specific to structural features and methodological operations, the subject matter as defined in the appended claims are not necessarily limited to the specific features or operations described. Rather, the specific features and operations are disclosed as exemplary forms of implementing the claimed subject matter.
determining whether to authorize the operation as a function of whether the user has been delegated authority to perform the operation with respect to the resource, the authority being independent of whether the user is a member of an administrators group associated with any resource of the server.
2. A method as recited in claim 1, wherein determining whether to authorize the operation is performed by a secure delegation administration framework.
3. A method as recited in claim 1, wherein the operation is associated with modification of content and/or functionality of the resource.
4. A method as recited in claim 1, wherein the resource is represented as an Internet Information Service (IIS) metabase node.
5. A method as recited in claim 1, wherein the request comprises a scope associated with the user, and a name of a method associated with the operation.
6. A method as recited in claim 1, wherein the resource is a Web site hosted by an Internet Service Provider (ISP), and wherein the user is not authorized to perform administrative activities on any resources associated with the ISP except by sending the request to the ISP for permission evaluation by the secure delegation administration framework.
7. A method as recited in claim 1, wherein the request further comprises an indication of whether the user desires to execute the operation via a dynamically built command line or via an executable object already associated with the operation.
8. A method as recited in claim 1, wherein the request further comprises an indication of whether the user desires to log a result of the operation.
9. A method as recited in claim 1, wherein the secure delegation administration framework is secure at least because it does not allow the user access to a mapping of user role-based permission to perform the operation directed to the resource.
wherein determining further comprises the application utilizing the mapping to identify whether the user has permission to perform the operation.
responsive to the presenting, identifying whether the user has been delegated a role-based access permission to perform the operation with respect to the resource.
executing the operation within a scope associated with the user.
determining whether to authorize the operation as a function of whether the user has been delegated a role-based scope of authority to perform the operation, the role-based scope of authority not requiring the user to be a member of an administrators group associated with any resources of the server.
14. A computer-readable medium as recited in claim 13, wherein the operation is associated with modification of content and/or functionality of the resource.
15. A computer-readable medium as recited in claim 13, wherein the resource is represented as an Internet Information Service (IIS) metabase node.
16. A computer-readable medium as recited in claim 13, wherein the request comprises a scope associated with the user, and a name of a method associated with the operation.
17. A computer-readable medium as recited in claim 13, wherein the resource is a Web site hosted by an Internet Service Provider (ISP), and wherein the user is not a member of the administrators group.
18. A computer-readable medium as recited in claim 13, wherein the request further comprises an indication of whether the operation is to be executed via a dynamically built command line or via an executable object already associated with the operation.
19. A computer-readable medium as recited in claim 13, wherein operations associated with determining whether to authorize the operations are secure at least because the user does not have access to user role-based permission(s) to perform the operation.
wherein the instructions for determining further comprise instructions for utilizing the mapping to identify whether the user has permission to perform the operation.
determining whether to authorize the operation as a function of whether the user has been delegated a role-based scope of authority to perform the operation, the role-based scope of authority not requiring the user to be a member of an administrators group associated with resources of the server.
24. A server as recited in claim 23, wherein the request is generated by at least one resource of the resources.
25. A server as recited in claim 23, wherein the operation is associated with modification of content and/or functionality of the resource.
26. A server as recited in claim 23, wherein the resource is represented as an Internet Information Service (IIS) metabase node.
27. A server as recited in claim 23, wherein the request comprises a scope associated with the user, a name of a method associated with the operation.
28. A server as recited in claim 23, wherein the resource is a Web site hosted by an Internet Service Provider (ISP), and wherein the user is not a member of the administrators group.
29. A server as recited in claim 23, wherein the request further comprises an indication of whether the operation is to be executed via a dynamically built command line or via an executable object already associated with the operation.
30. A server as recited in claim 23, wherein the secure delegation administration framework is secure at least because it does not allow the user access to a mapping of user role-based permission to perform the operation directed to the resource.
means for determining whether to authorize the operation as a function of whether the user has been delegated a role-based scope of authority to perform the operation, the role-based scope of authority not requiring the user to be a member of an administrators group associated with the server.
35. A server as recited in claim 34, wherein the operation is associated with modification of content and/or functionality of the resource.
36. A server as recited in claim 34, wherein the resource is an Internet Information Service (IIS) metabase node.
37. A server as recited in claim 34, wherein the resource is a Web site hosted by an Internet Service Provider (ISP), and wherein the user is not a member of the administrators group.
means for executing the operation within a scope associated with the user.
MXPA04007143A MXPA04007143A (en) 2003-08-28 2004-07-23 Delegated administration of a hosted resource.
GB2353875A (en) 1999-09-04 2001-03-07 Hewlett Packard Co Computer access control system. | 2019-04-24T11:41:36Z | https://patents.google.com/patent/US20050050354A1/en |
Purpose: Loss of integrity of either the inner or outer mitochondrial membrane results in the dissipation of the mitochondrial electrochemical gradient that leads to mitochondrial membrane permeability transition (mMPT). This study emphasizes the role of glycogen synthase kinase 3beta (GSK-3β) in maintaining mitochondrial membrane potential, thus preventing mitochondrial depolarization (hereafter termed mitoprotection). Using 3-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-4-(1-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-1H-pyrrole-2,5-dione (SB216763), an inhibitor of GSK-3β, and drawing a distinction between it and 1,4-diamino-2,3-dicyano-1,4-bis[2-aminophenylthio] butadiene (UO126), an inhibitor of extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) phosphorylation, the means by which GSK-3β influences mitoprotection in cultured human lens epithelial (HLE-B3) cells and normal, secondary cultures of bovine lens epithelial cells, maintained in atmospheric oxygen, was investigated.
Methods: Virally transfected human lens epithelial cells (HLE-B3) and normal cultures of bovine lens epithelial cells were exposed to acute hypoxic conditions (about 1% O2) followed by exposure to atmospheric oxygen (about 21% O2). Specific antisera and western blot analysis was used to examine the state of phosphorylation of ERK and GSK-3β, as well as the phosphorylation of a downstream substrate of GSK-3β, glycogen synthase (GS, useful in monitoring GSK-3β activity). The potentiometric dye, 1H-benzimidazolium-5,6-dichloro-2-[3-(5,6-dichloro-1,3-diethyl-1,3-dihydro-2H-benzimidazol-2-ylidene)-1-propenyl]-1,3-diethyl-iodide (JC-1), was used to monitor mitochondrial depolarization upon exposure of inhibitor treatment relative to the control cells (mock inhibition) in atmospheric oxygen. Caspase-3 activation was scrutinized to determine whether mitochondrial depolarization inevitably leads to apoptosis.
Results: Treatment of HLE-B3 cells with SB216763 (12 µM) inactivated GSK-3β activity as verified by the enzyme’s inability to phosphorylate its substrate, GS. SB216763-treated cells were not depolarized relative to the control cells as demonstrated with JC-1 fluorescent dye analysis. The HLE-B3 cells treated with UO126, which similarly blocked phosphorylation of GS, were nevertheless prone to mMPT relative to the control cells. Western blot analysis determined that Bcl-2-associated X (BAX) levels were unchanged for SB216763-treated or UO126-treated HLE-B3 cells when compared to their respective control cells. However, unlike the SB216763-treated cells, the UO126-treated cells showed a marked absence of Bcl-2, as well as phosphorylated Bcl-2 relative to the controls. UO126 treatment of bovine lens epithelial cells showed similar results with pBcl-2 levels, while the Bcl-2 content appeared unchanged relative to the control cells. HLE-B3 and normal bovine lens cell cultures showed susceptibility to mMPT associated with the loss of pBcl-2 by UO126 treatment.
Conclusions: Mitochondrial depolarization may occur by one of two key occurrences: interruption of the electrochemical gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane resulting in mMPT or by disruption of the integrity of the inner or outer mitochondrial membrane. The latter scenario is generally tightly regulated by members of the Bcl-2 family of proteins. Inhibition of GSK-3β activity by SB216763 blocks mMPT by preventing the opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore. UO126, likewise, inhibits GSK-3β activity, but unlike SB216763, inhibition of ERK phosphorylation induces the loss of intracellular pBcl-2 levels under conditions where intracellular BAX levels remain constant. These results suggest that the lenticular mitoprotection normally afforded by the inactivation of GSK-3β activity may, however, be bypassed by a loss of pBcl-2, an anti-apoptotic member of the Bcl-2 family. Bcl-2 prevents the translocation of BAX to the mitochondrial outer membrane inhibiting depolarization by disrupting the normal electrochemical gradient leading to mMPT.
The dissipation of mitochondrial membrane potential (∆Ψ) occurs in a process termed mitochondrial permeability transition (mMPT) . Lens epithelial cells represent an ideal model for studying mMPT because the lens thrives in a naturally hypoxic environment, and introducing atmospheric oxygen increases the formation of reactive oxygenated species (ROS), which, in turn, may cause a loss of ∆Ψ [1,2]. The current literature suggests that mMPT is mediated via the opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore [3-5]. Studies have shown that glycogen synthase kinase 3beta (GSK-3β) is immediately proximal to the mitochondrial permeability transition pore and acts as a point of integration for many protective signals . Thus, GSK-3β is a crucial enzyme involved in preventing mMPT through regulating the opening and closing of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore [7,8]. Additional studies involving ischemic reperfusion of cardiac myocytes have demonstrated that inhibiting GSK-3β can prevent the dissipation of ∆Ψ during oxidative stress [9-11].
One of the multiple protective proteins that converge on GSK-3β is the phosphorylated form of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) . Flynn et al. has previously demonstrated that after RNA suppresses ERK ∆Ψ collapses during oxidative stress in human lens epithelial cells (HLE-B3) cells. Furthermore, studies conducted on metastatic carcinoma cells have shown that phosphorylated ERK can cause GSK-3β to become phosphorylated at its inhibitory serine, thus inactivating the enzyme . Combined, these studies suggest that ERK can prevent the disruption of ∆Ψ by inactivating GSK-3β, presumably blocking the opening of the mitochondrial transition pore. However, as will be demonstrated in this study, inhibiting ERK phosphorylation can, itself, cause mitochondrial depolarization regardless of the activity of GSK-3β.
To date, the role that GSK-3β plays regarding preventing mitochondrial depolarization has not been established in an ocular system. In the current study, we demonstrate that inactivating GSK-3β activity (as monitored by its failure to phosphorylate glycogen synthase) using the pharmacological inhibitor SB216763 has a regulatory function in preventing mitochondrial depolarization. Furthermore, this study will reveal that the mitoprotection normally afforded by GSK-3β inactivation may be circumvented by inhibiting ERK phosphorylation, which culminates in inhibition of Bcl-2 phosphorylation, an anti-apoptotic member of the Bcl-2 family.
The Mitogen Activated Protein Kinase-1/2 (MEK1/2) inhibitor 1,4-diamino-2,3-dicyano-1,4-bis[2-aminophenylthio] butadiene (UO126) was purchased from Cell Signaling Technology (Danvers, MA). The glycogen synthase kinase inhibitor 3-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-4-(1-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-1H-pyrrole-2,5-dione (SB216763) was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO). The c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) inhibitors SP600125 (JNK Inhibitor II) and AS601245 (JNK Inhibitor V) were purchased from EMD Millipore Chemicals (Billerica, MA). Stock inhibitors were prepared by adding to dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) as follows: 20 mM for UO126, 16 mM for SB216763, 40 mM for SP600125, and 40 mM for AS601245. The mitochondrial dye 1H-benzimidazolium-5,6-dichloro-2-[3-(5,6-dichloro-1,3-diethyl-1,3-dihydro-2H-benzimidazol-2-ylidene)-1-propenyl]-1,3-diethyl-iodide (JC-1) was obtained from Life Technologies (Grand Island, NY). All other reagents were acquired from other commercially available sources as previously reported .
HLE-B3 cells, a human lens epithelial cell line immortalized by the SV-40 virus , were obtained from U. Andley (Washington University School of Medicine, Department of Ophthalmology, St. Louis, MO). Authentication of the HLE-B3 cell line was verified with STR profile analysis (American Type Culture Collection, Manassas, VA), which confirmed that the cell line was human and of female origin, as originally reported by Andley et al. . A copy of the STR profile is available upon request. All studies with HLE-B3 cells were performed with prefrozen stock cells (maintained in liquid nitrogen) between passages 14 and 17. No experiments exceeded five passages beyond the initial stock cell passage. The cells were maintained in minimal essential media (MEM) containing 5.5 mM glucose supplemented with 20% fetal bovine serum (Gemini Bio-Products, Sacramento, CA), 2 mM L-glutamine, nonessential amino acids, and 0.02 g/l gentamycin solution (Sigma-Aldrich) and cultured at 37 °C and 5% CO2–95% O2 . Cells were sub-cultured 4 to 5 days before the experiment and placed in MEM containing 20% fetal bovine serum (FBS). Twenty-four hours before the day of the experiment, the cells were switched to serum-free MEM. Unless otherwise specified, all experiments followed a common protocol: Cells were maintained in atmospheric O2 (about 21%) for 90 min, then switched to hypoxic conditions (about 1% O2) for 180 min, followed by reintroduction to atmospheric O2. Each experiment was executed with control DMSO-only cells (mock inhibitor treatment) and cells treated with inhibitors. The DMSO concentration per experiment never exceeded 0.05%.
Bovine eyes obtained from a local abattoir were transported on ice to the laboratory, where the lenses were removed aseptically. Bovine lens epithelial cells (BLECs) were isolated and cultured in 20% bovine calf serum–supplemented Eagle’s minimal essential medium. All studies with BLECs were performed on cells of passage 2.
Whole cell lysates were collected from HLE-B3 cultures using the hot protein extraction method as described by Henrich et al. . The cell cultures were rinsed at room temperature in final concentration: 150 mM sodium chloride, 10 mM sodium phosphate monobasic, 40 mM sodium phosphate dibasic), pH 7.4, before the monolayers were lysed with hot lysis buffer (about 100 °C), subsequently scraped into 1.7 ml micro centrifuge tubes, and immediately sonicated. The lysis buffer consisted of 0.12 M Tris-HCl (pH 6.8), 4% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), and 20% glycerol . Part of the lysate samples were removed and used to determine the protein concentration. The protein concentration was calculated by using a DC protein assay kit from Bio-Rad (Hercules, CA). The lysate samples contained 25 µg of protein, 1X SDS laemmli buffer, and 1.5 µl 2-mercaptoethanol (Sigma-Aldrich). The lysate samples were then boiled for 5 min and the proteins resolved on 12% SDS-polyacrylamide gels. The proteins were then transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane (Bio-Rad). The electrophoresis and western blot apparatus were from Hoefer Scientific (Holliston, MA).
For western blot analysis, nitrocellulose membranes were blocked with 0.1% BSA and 0.02% Tween-20 in Tris-buffered saline (TTBS) for 60 min. These membranes were probed overnight at 4 °C with primary antibodies at a 1:1,000 dilution. The blots were then rinsed in TTBS for 5 min 4X and then incubated in either goat anti-rabbit horseradish peroxidase conjugate or goat anti-mouse horseradish peroxidase conjugate at 1:10,000 dilution (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA) for 60 min at room temperature. Blots were again rinsed in TTBS (4X 5 min washes), and proteins were detected using a SuperSignal West Pico chemiluminescent kit from Pierce (Rockford, IL) . Probed membranes were visualized on a Fluoro Chem TM 8900 imager (Alpha Innotech, San Leandro, CA).
Primary antibodies were purchased from Cell Signaling Technology (Danvers, MA). The antibodies used in this study included rabbit anti-Bcl-2-associated X (BAX), rabbit anti-glycogen synthase, rabbit anti-phosphoglycogen synthase (Ser641), rabbit anti-phospho-GSK-3β (Ser9), rabbit anti-GSK-3β, mouse anti-phospho-p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinase (Thr202/Tyr204), rabbit anti-p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinase, rabbit anti-phospho-Bcl-2 (Ser70), rabbit anti-Bcl-2, and rabbit anti-phospho-c-Jun (Ser63). Rabbit anti-actin was provided by Santa Cruz Biotechnology (Santa Cruz, CA).
After the HLE-B3 cells were subjected to inhibitor treatments, the cells were stained with JC-1 to determine the mitochondrial membrane potential. JC-1 is a membrane permeant lipophilic dye that exists as J-aggregates in the mitochondrial matrix (red fluorescence) and as monomers in the cytoplasm (green fluorescence). During mitochondrial depolarization, the red J-aggregates flow out of the mitochondria and accumulate in the cytosol as green monomers . Thus, depolarization can be measured as an increasing green fluorescent/red fluorescent intensity ratio.
The JC-1 assay was performed as follows. HLE-B3 cell monolayers were maintained in serum-free MEM with or without inhibitor treatment, brought through atmospheric oxygen into hypoxia, and then later switched back to atmospheric oxygen as described above. At the end of the hypoxic exposure, the hypoxic media on cells (oxygen depleted) were poured off, and fresh (oxygen rich) serum-free MEM (with or without an inhibitor) was added containing 5 µg/ml JC-1 for 30 min in a tissue culture incubator. The stained HLE-B3 cells were then rinsed twice using serum-free MEM, and fresh oxygenated serum-free MEM (with or without inhibitor, but no JC-1 dye) was added. A random field of cells was imaged every 2.5 min for 60 min using an X10 objective on a confocal microscope (Ziess LSM410, LSM410, Thornwood, NY). The excitation wavelength was 488 nm, and the microscope was set to simultaneously detect green emission (540 nm) and red emission (595 nm) channels using a dual bandpass filter .
A caspase-3 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA; Invitrogen, Camarillo, CA) was used to determine apoptosis. HLE-B3 cell monolayers were maintained in serum-free MEM with or without treatment and brought through our experimental protocol, which included atmospheric oxygen into 3 h of hypoxia, and then subsequently switched back to atmospheric oxygen. Treatment included SB216763 (12 µM), UO126 (10 µM), staurosporine (100 nM), or 0.05% DMSO vehicle maintained throughout the course of the experiment. Sixty minutes after atmospheric oxygen was reintroduced, all samples were then lysed using our lysis buffer (0.12 M Tris-HCl [pH 6.8], 4% SDS, and 20% glycerol). Part of the lysate samples was removed and used to determine the protein concentration. The protein concentration was calculated by using a DC protein assay kit (Bio-Rad). Apoptotic activity was determined following the manufacturer’s protocol using 10 µg of protein.
Images from JC-1 confocal microscopy were separated into individual red and green channels using ImageJ (Baltimore, MD). The background fluorescence was removed from each image before the intensity was measured. The fluorescence intensity signal from each image was quantified for the entire image and expressed as the ratio of green fluorescent intensity over red fluorescent intensity. Western blot densitometry was determined using ImageJ, and related statistics was determined using GraphPad Prism 5 (La Jolla, CA).
JC-1 analysis of the DMSO mock-treated cells exposed to various cell culture conditions was implemented to determine whether environmental stress (i.e., hypoxia, atmospheric oxygen, or reversal from one condition to the other) elicited mitochondrial depolarization. Four conditions were tested: cells grown in constant atmospheric oxygen, cells switched from atmospheric oxygen to hypoxia, cells switched from hypoxia to atmospheric oxygen, and cells maintained in continuous hypoxia. Under all tested conditions, the cells did not depolarize, indicating that continuous hypoxia, atmospheric oxygen, and switching cell culture environments (hypoxia to atmospheric oxygen or atmospheric oxygen to hypoxia) do not induce depolarization (Figure 1).
To investigate the role GSK-3β plays in regulating cellular mitoprotection with cells maintained in hypoxia and subsequently exposed to atmospheric oxygen, HLE-B3 cells were treated with the GSK-3β inhibitor, SB216763. Non-phosphorylated GSK-3β is the active form of the enzyme, and in this form, the enzyme is capable of phosphorylating numerous downstream substrates including glycogen synthase (GS) . The phosphorylation of GS is thus a useful parameter for monitoring GSK-3β activity. Cultures of HLE-B3 cells were grown on 100 mm dishes until >85% confluence. Cells were treated with 12 µM SB216763 or mock-treated with DMSO (control). After 90 min in ambient oxygen, the cells were placed under hypoxic conditions (about 1% O2) for 3 h and then switched back to atmospheric oxygen (about 21% O2) for 3 h. Samples were collected from cells consistently maintained in atmospheric oxygen (control), immediately after hypoxic exposure and 1 h, 2 h, and 3 h of reexposure to atmospheric oxygen. Western blot analysis showed that the HLE-B3 cells subjected to SB216763 treatment had levels of GSK-3β and phosphoglycogen synthase kinase-3beta (pGSK-3β) similar to those of the controls (Figure 2). However, treatment with SB216763 resulted in inhibition of phosphorylation of GS. The failure to phosphorylate GS indicates the active site of GSK-3β was inactivated. The continued presence of pGSK-3β in the treated cells was because the autophosphorylation site of GSK-β was unaffected by SB216763 . A key question that we wished to address in this study was whether inhibiting GSK-3β activity positively correlated with preventing mitochondrial depolarization. In a recent related study , we observed that SB216763-treated cells monitored for mMPT using emission spectroscopy displayed suppressed mitochondrial depolarization relative to the control DMSO mock-treated cells.
A parallel experiment, using the MEK1/2 inhibitor, UO126, was also conducted on HLE-B3 cells to determine whether inhibiting ERK1/2 phosphorylation had any impact on the phosphorylation of GSK-3β and GS. Lens cells were treated with 10 µM UO126 or DMSO and subsequently placed in hypoxic conditions for 3 h. Following the hypoxic exposure, new media were added to the culture dishes, and the cells were exposed to atmospheric oxygen for up to 3 h in the continued presence and absence of UO126. Lysates of these cells were collected from cells maintained consistently in atmospheric oxygen, after the hypoxic exposure and 1 h, 2 h, and 3 h after atmospheric oxygen was reintroduced. Analysis of the western blot membranes showed marked inhibition of p42 ERK1/2 and p44 ERK1/2 (Figure 3, upper panel, left) relative to the control cells. The loss of ERK1/2 phosphorylation did not affect the relative levels of GSK-3β or pGSK-3β compared with the DMSO controls (Figure 3, upper panel, right), whereas inhibiting ERK phosphorylation prevented the downstream phosphorylation of GS. Therefore, the configuration of the ratio of pGSK-3β/GSK-3β and pGS/GS appeared identical irrespective of whether SB216763 or UO126 was used (compare the bar graphs of Figure 2 and Figure 3). Given the similarity in the profile of the ratio of pGSK-3β/GSK-3β and pGS/GS, a critical question was whether UO126-treated cells, similar to SB216763-treated cells, likewise prevented mitochondrial depolarization relative to the control DMSO mock-treated cells or whether UO126-treated cells were prone to mMPT.
Parallel studies were conducted using JC-1 analysis. HLE-B3 cells were treated with 10 µM UO126 or DMSO and then placed under hypoxic conditions for 3 h. The cells were exposed to the JC-1 dye for 30 min in atmospheric oxygen. Following the JC-1 application, fresh media with U0126 or DMSO were added to the culture plates. The cells were subsequently observed with confocal microscopy and the green and red intensities recorded every 2.5 min for 60 min. The green to red ratio of the UO126-treated cells markedly increased over the time course relative to the control cells, indicating the loss of ∆Ψ (Figure 3, bottom panel).
As discussed above, comparison of the western blots for pGSK-3β/GSK-3β and pGS/GS between the two inhibitor treatments generated profiles that were similar, if not, identical (compare Figure 2 and Figure 3). However, whereas treatment with the GSK-3β inhibitor, SB216763, likely blocked opening of the mitochondrial membrane permeability transition pores, effectively suppressing depolarization , treatment with UO126 elicited profound depolarization relative to the control cells (Figure 3, bottom panel). We therefore examined in greater detail the outcome of each inhibitor on the BAX, Bcl-2, and pBcl-2 levels.
Lysates from all experimental treatments were evaluated to determine the levels of Bcl-2, pBcl-2, and BAX. Western blot membranes from the SB216763- and UO126-treated cells relative to their respective controls indicated no alteration in the levels of BAX for the treated and control cells (Figure 4, upper panel and Figure 5, upper panel). The relative levels of pBcl-2 and Bcl-2 were not altered for the SB216763-treated cells compared with the control cells (Figure 4, middle panel). In contrast, the UO126-treated cells displayed significantly diminished levels of pBcl-2 under all culture conditions, including normoxic control, hypoxic exposure, and the reintroduction of oxygen subsequent to hypoxic exposure (Figure 5, middle panel); a significant loss of Bcl-2 was also observed but, interestingly, only during the reintroduction of oxygen phase (Figure 5, middle panel).
Of particular note, treatment with UO126 (Figure 5, upper panel, left and bottom panels) but not with SB216763 (Figure 4, upper panel left and bottom panel) prevented the phosphorylation of c-JUN, through all culture conditions. The phosphorylation of c-Jun is a useful parameter for monitoring JNK activity. That is, UO126, while effectively inhibiting ERK phosphorylation (refer to Figure 3, upper panel, left), was nonetheless equally effective in inactivating JNK activity. This observation imposed a burden of proof upon us to determine whether the ERK pathway or the JNK pathway negatively impacted the pBcl-2 levels.
HLE-B3 cells were treated with JNK inhibitors, SP600125 (5 µM, 10 µM, or 20 µM), AS601245 (5 µM, and 10 µM, 20 µM), or DMSO vehicle (control). Phosphorylated JNK is the active form of the enzyme, and in this form, the enzyme is capable of phosphorylating numerous downstream substrates, including c-Jun. The phosphorylation of c-Jun is thus a useful parameter for monitoring JNK activity. Treated and control cells were placed in hypoxic conditions for 3 h and then switched to atmospheric oxygen for 3 h. After the switch to atmospheric oxygen, the hypoxic media were removed from the cultures, and fresh oxygenated media containing either inhibitor or vehicle were added. Lysates of all the cells were collected after 3 h exposure in atmospheric oxygen. SP600125 and AP601245 markedly reduced phospho-c-Jun at all concentrations relative to the control cells (Figure 6). Further analysis indicated no change in the levels of BAX, Bcl-2, or pBcl-2 for cells treated with SP600125 or AS601245 versus cells treated with DMSO vehicle (Figure 6). A slight increase in the levels of pERK were observed with either inhibitor treatment cells relative to the control cells, the meaning of which is not immediately evident to us. However, whereas UO126 negatively impacted JNK activity (Figure 5), the JNK inhibitors did not cross-inactivate ERK phosphorylation (Figure 6). We therefore concluded that inhibition of the ERK pathway, not the JNK pathway, elicited the inhibition of phosphorylation of Bcl-2 (Figure 5).
To determine if the inhibition of ERK or GSK-3β activity influence the onset of apoptosis, an active caspase-3 ELISA was implemented. As above, the HLE-B3 cells were treated with either 12 µM SB216763, 10 µM UO126, or 0.05% DMSO. The 100 nM staurosporine concentration was used as a positive activator of caspase-3. Cells were incubated for 90 min and then placed in hypoxia for 180 min. At the end of the hypoxic exposure, the media were removed from the treated and untreated cells, and fresh media were added. The cells were then placed in atmospheric oxygen for 60 min. SB216763 and U0126 were administered throughout the duration of the experiment. At the end of this 60 min period, all samples were lysed with lysis buffer. The DMSO mock-treated cells displayed minimal capase-3 activation relative to the cells treated with staurosporine (positive control), which showed a significant increase in caspase-3 activity (Figure 7). The UO126- and SB216763-treated cells demonstrated levels of capase-3 activity similar to the DMSO mock-treated cells (Figure 7). The lack of caspase-3 activity in the UO126- and SB216763-treated cells indicate that apoptosis did not occur in the presence of either inhibitor, although the UO126 treatment elicited mitochondrial membrane permeability transition (refer to Figure 3, bottom panel).
To determine that our results (and consequent interpretations) had not been compromised by the viral transformation of the HLE-B3 cells, we repeated the UO126 treatment, as described above with HLE-B3 cells, with secondary cultures of normal bovine lens epithelial cells. Inhibition of p42 ERK1/2 and p44 ERK1/2 relative to the control cells was noted (Figure 8, upper panel). As with the HLE-B3 cells (Figure 3, upper panel, right), neither GSK-3β nor pGSK-3β (Figure 8, middle panel) was diminished, compared with the DMSO controls. Likewise, inhibition of ERK phosphorylation prevented the downstream phosphorylation of GS (compare Figure 3, upper panel, right and Figure 8, middle panel).
We further investigated the effect of UO126 treatment on BAX, Bcl-2, and pBcl-2 levels using secondary cultures of bovine lens epithelial cells. Lysates were evaluated with western blot analysis to determine the levels of BAX, Bcl-2, and pBcl-2. Western blot membranes from the UO126-treated cells relative to their respective controls indicated some lane loading variability, but no obvious loss, in the levels of BAX (Figure 8, bottom panel), similar to that of the HLE-B3 cells (Figure 5, upper left panel). As with the HLE-B3 cells (Figure 5, upper left panel), the UO126-treated cells displayed a significant reduction in pBcl-2 under all culture conditions: normoxic control, hypoxic exposure, and the reintroduction of oxygen (Figure 8, bottom panel). Of interest, unlike the HLE-B3 cells (Figure 5, middle panel) where a significant loss of Bcl-2 was noted (but only during the reintroduction of the oxygen phase), there was no dramatic reduction in the levels of Bcl-2 between the treated and untreated cells under any condition (Figure 8, bottom panel). Finally, as first observed with HLE-B3 cells (Figure 5, upper left panel), UO126 elicited the inhibition of phosphorylation of c-JUN, through all culture conditions (Figure 8, bottom panel).
Parallel studies with UO126 were conducted using JC-1 analysis. Normal bovine cell cultures were treated with 10 µM UO126 or DMSO and then placed under hypoxic conditions for 3 h. The cells were exposed to the JC-1 dye for 30 min in atmospheric oxygen. Following the JC-1 application, fresh media with U0126 or DMSO were added to the culture plates. The cells were subsequently observed with confocal microscopy and the green and red intensities recorded every 2.5 min for 60 min. As with the UO126-treated HLE-B3 cells (refer to Figure 3, bottom panel) the green to red ratio of the UO126-treated bovine lens cells markedly increased over the time course relative to the control cells, indicating the loss of ∆Ψ (Figure 9).
To establish our reference baseline, it was first necessary to demonstrate that the experimental manipulation of switching cells from hypoxia to atmospheric oxygen or vice versa, from atmospheric oxygen to hypoxia, was not, of itself, sufficient oxidative stress to elicit mitochondrial depolarization (Figure 1). Once established that the physical manipulation of switching cell cultures from one oxygen pressure to another did not impose mitochondrial depolarization, we investigated the regulatory function of GSK-3β insofar as its ability to convey mitochondrial resistance to depolarization.
First, we sought to clarify whether blocking GSK-3β’s autophosphorylation site or inactivating its catalytic active site conferred prevention of mitochondrial depolarization. To monitor the enzyme’s active, catalytic site, we scrutinized the phosphorylation of a downstream substrate of GSK-3β, glycogen synthase (GS). Our data revealed that SB216763 did not block the autophosphorylation of GSK-3β relative to control cells, but successfully eliminated the phosphorylation of GS, indicating that the catalytic site of GSK-3β was inactivated (Figure 2). Stated another way, the failure to phosphorylate GS, but not the autophosphorylation site of GSK-3β, appears to be a better predictor of whether inhibiting GSK-3β’s enzymatic activity positively correlates with blocking mitochondrial membrane permeability transition. In a recent report using the specific GSK-3β inhibitor, SB216763, we demonstrated that “inhibition of GSK-3β activity by SB216763 blocked mitochondrial membrane permeability transition relative to the slow but consistent depolarization observed with the control cells.” We concluded that inhibiting GSK-3β activity with the GSK-3β inhibitor SB216763 provides positive protection against mitochondrial depolarization .
The role of GSK-3β and how it may be influenced by upstream signaling mechanisms has been the focus of numerous studies. “There is evidence in different cell types that anti-apoptotic responses can be mediated by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and the Akt/PKB serine-threonine protein kinase, p42/p44 mitogen-activated protein kinases or extracellular response kinases (ERKs), Raf, and cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA).” To further delve into this issue, using the lens cell model, we compared and contrasted the pGSK-3β /GSK-3β, as well as the pGS /GS western blot profiles of cells treated with an inhibitor of ERK against the known catalytic site inhibitor of GSK-3β, SB216763 (refer to above). We followed up with a JC-1 evaluation to monitor whether ERK inhibitor treatment prompted mitochondrial depolarization or whether, like SB216763, inhibiting ERK phosphorylation imposed resistance to mitochondrial depolarization .
Similar to the treatment with SB216763 (Figure 2), treatment with UO126 had no effect on autophosphorylation of GSK-3β relative to the control cells, but successfully eliminated the phosphorylation of GS (Figure 3, upper panel, right). However, whereas treatment with SB216763 resulted in suppression of mitochondrial depolarization , unexpectedly, the UO126-treated cells displayed profound depolarization (Figure 3, bottom panel). We therefore sought to explain the apparent discrepancy between the similarity of the SB216763 and UO126 profiles of pGSK-3β/GSK-3β and pGS/GS and the observation that the former but not the latter (Figure 3) conferred resistance to mitochondrial depolarization.
Western blot analysis of HLE-B3 cells treated with SB216763 or UO126 showed that the BAX levels were unchanged relative to the untreated, control cells (compare Figure 4 versus Figure 5). Moreover, the BAX content of the UO126-treated normal bovine lens epithelial cells was similar relative to the control cells (Figure 8, bottom panel). These data support the notion that BAX does not play a direct role in lens epithelial cell resistance to mitochondrial depolarization. We therefore directed our attention to answering the question, “Is it the continuous expression of Bcl-2 or the phosphorylation of Bcl-2 that confers resistance to mitochondrial depolarization?” The UO126-treated virally transformed HLE-B3 cells, and the normal bovine lens epithelial cells demonstrated a propensity to depolarize (compare Figure 3, bottom panel and Figure 9). We took advantage of our observation that UO126 treatment with HLE-B3 cells instigated a loss of Bcl-2 (but only under the condition of reintroduction of oxygen (refer to Figure 5) whereas UO126-treatment with normal bovine lens epithelial cells did not diminish the levels of Bcl-2 (Figure 8, bottom panel), this although with both types of cells, a profound loss of pBcl-2 was apparent under all conditions (compare Figure 5, top panel, left with Figure 8, bottom panel). Therefore, since the bovine cells depolarized without the loss of Bcl-2, we conclude that pBcl-2 confers anti-depolarization resistance in lens epithelial cells.
Lei et al. 2002 [20-24] stated, “this phosphorylation has been reported to inhibit the pro-survival function of Bcl. This conclusion, however, is controversial as other studies have indicated that phosphorylation may enhance the anti-apoptotic actions of Bcl-2” [25-27]. Data from our study lend support to the latter statement in that the depolarization observed with UO126 treatment is caused by a lack of pBcl-2 (compare Figure 3 and Figure 5 with Figure 8 and Figure 9). The lack of pBcl-2 likely results in a loss of Bcl-2’s antiapoptotic function as reported by others. Cellular apoptosis is regulated, in part, by maintaining a balance between the levels of the prosurvival protein, Bcl-2, and the proapoptotic protein, BAX. BAX is a proapoptotic member of the Bcl-2 family. Activation of BAX causes its translocation to the mitochondrial outer membrane and induces mitochondrial depolarization. However, before BAX can initiate this process, the protein must first translocate from the cytoplasm to the mitochondria. Bcl-2 influences apoptosis by regulating the translocation of BAX to the mitochondria [28,29]. Any decrease in the levels of Bcl-2 (or in our case, pBcl-2) is likely to permit the translocation of BAX from the cytosol to the mitochondria and induce mitochondrial depolarization. Disruption of the integrity of the outer mitochondrial membrane would then be the cause of the initiation of the loss of ∆Ψ, often cited as an early predictor of the onset of apoptosis.
Previous studies in our laboratory have shown that UO126 inhibits not only ERK phosphorylation but also JNK activity (unpublished data). Studies have shown that pJNK mediates the phosphorylation of the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2 [20-25]. Thus, as this relates to the studies described here, one possible explanation for the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential could have been attributed to the loss of JNK activity. To determine whether this was the case, we analyzed JNK activity with UO126 treatment. A common measure of JNK activity is to monitor the phosphorylation of one of its downstream substrates, c-Jun, where inhibition of the phosphorylation of c-Jun indicates inactivation of JNK. The level of phospho-c-Jun was similar with SB216763 treatment relative to control cells (Figure 4). UO126 inhibited c-Jun phosphorylation (Figure 5). Moreover, the resulting inhibition of c-Jun phosphorylation with treatment by UO126 was accompanied by an apparent loss of pBcl-2, thus suggesting a potential connection between the JNK pathway and mitoprotection (Figure 5). UO126 treatment, since it inhibited JNK activity, complicated our ability to definitively interpret the data, in that our results would not permit us to immediately distinguish whether the inhibition of phosphorylation of ERK or JNK influenced the downstream reduction in pBcl-2 levels.
It therefore became necessary to determine which of the two pathways, ERK or JNK, was influencing the phosphorylation of Bcl-2. HLE-B3 cells were treated with two specific inhibitors of JNK activation. Analysis of the levels of phospho-c-Jun revealed that SP600125 and AS601245 effectively reduced the levels of phospho-c-Jun relative to that of the controls without affecting the pBcl-2 levels (Figure 6). Collectively, the data reported in Figure 5 and Figure 6 allowed us to assert that inactivating JNK does not influence Bcl-2 phosphorylation. Instead, inhibiting ERK causes the loss of Bcl-2 phosphorylation. We therefore conclude that inhibiting ERK phosphorylation overrides the mitoprotection otherwise afforded by SB216763 presumably because of the loss of pBcl-2 (Figure 5 and Figure 8).
Mitochondrial depolarization is often cited as an early indicator of the onset of apoptosis. However, our studies establish that despite the mitochondrial depolarization initiated by UO126 treatment for HLE-B3 cells (Figure 3, bottom panel) in conjunction with the loss of pBcl-2 (Figure 5), the degree of the mitochondrial membrane permeability transition was at an insufficient level to induce apoptosis in human lens epithelial cells, as indicated by the lack of active caspase-3 (Figure 7). Our result is not all that unexpected because it has previously been shown that there is considerable intracellular heterogeneity in mitochondrial membrane potential of mitochondria . In effect, the degree of mitochondrial depolarization as indicated by the JC-1 dye represents the collective states of depolarization from a heterogeneous population of mitochondria. We conclude that one must exercise caution when equating mitochondrial depolarization with the onset of apoptosis. Cellular apoptosis/necrosis should be determined only after examination with annexin V/propidium iodide, DNA fragmentation, or caspase-3 or -9 cleavage, or some combination thereof.
In conclusion, the studies presented here further support our previous assertion that GSK-3β is a critical upstream regulator of mitochondrial membrane permeability transition for human lens epithelial cells cultured in atmospheric oxygen. In this study, we have established a direct relationship between the active catalytic site of GSK-3β and the normal functioning of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore to open and close. However, inhibiting ERK phosphorylation indirectly overrides the otherwise protective influence of GSK-3β to resist mitochondrial membrane permeability transition through a concomitant loss of pBcl-2 levels leading to mitochondrial depolarization. Restated, the fact that SB216763 and UO126 prevent the phosphorylation of GS suggests that GS phosphorylation, itself, may be regulated by one of the many signaling pathways activated by ERK independent of GSK-3β. At the same time, the ERK pathway also likely independently influences Bcl-2 phosphorylation. The mechanism by which UO126 administration leads to preventing phosphorylation of Bcl-2 is currently not understood and warrants further investigation.
Recent studies in our laboratory have shown that UO126 treatment elicits a significant decrease in the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) but only upon reintroduction from hypoxia to atmospheric oxygen (unpublished observation). However, UO126 does not have an effect on VEGF expression in hypoxia-maintained cells . VEGF acts as a prosurvival factor in hypoxic lens epithelial cells by maintaining consistent expression of the prosurvival protein Bcl-2, which likely prevents the translocation of cytosolic BAX to the outer mitochondrial membrane, thus preventing the initiation of mitochondrial depolarization . Our laboratory is interested in regulating VEGF as a cell survival protein. Current studies in the laboratory are directed toward elucidating the potential role of GSK-3β in managing the sustained expression of VEGF and how VEGF expression regulates the levels of Bcl-2 and its phosphorylated counterpart as it influences downstream impact on lenticular mitoprotection in atmospheric oxygen (manuscript in preparation).
The authors express their gratitude to Lawrence Oakford for the preparation of all figures and images in this manuscript and to I-Fen Chang for technical support in obtaining the JC-1 image analysis data. | 2019-04-24T09:55:34Z | http://www.molvis.org/molvis/v19/2451/ |
2015 NBA Power Rankings: Who's on Top Heading into Playoffs?
No, Jim Mora. We're not kidding you. We, too, are excited for the NBA playoffs. After five-and-a-half months of back-to-backs, TNT Thursday nights and countless hours debating who's better and who's best, it's finally time to let the players and coaches decide a true champion.
To be sure, you'll hear no complaints from me about the season that was. The 2014-15 campaign was arguably the most exciting and intriguing one the Association has seen in some time. From the rise of the Golden State Warriors and Atlanta Hawks to the depth of competition out West to the scramble to fill out the Eastern Conference bracket, there was nary a dull moment from start to finish in the league's schedule.
That being the case, it might seem like a tall order for the playoffs to live up to the regular season that just transpired. But without a clear-cut favorite to take home the Larry O'Brien Trophy, this postseason is shaping up to be every bit as captivating as the slate that preceded it, if not more so.
Before we get wrapped up in all the best-of-seven series to come, let's look back to see how the NBA as a whole finished up by ranking each of the 30 teams based on how they played down the stretch and which players they had available.
Another year, another sad slate of basketball for the Minnesota Timberwolves. An incessant spate of injuries—from Kevin Martin's wrist to Kevin Garnett's knee to Shabazz Muhammad's finger to the ankles of Ricky Rubio and Nikola Pekovic and beyond—doomed the Wolves to their 11th straight trip to the lottery from start to finish in 2014-15.
LaVine might (eventually) be one of those teammates. The UCLA product nearly averaged 19 points, five rebounds and five assists while shooting better than 40 percent from three over his final 18 games (17 starts).
The Wolves can look forward to a summer marked by growth from their youngsters, rather than one consumed by the inevitable ouster of an anxious franchise cornerstone. That, in itself, could be enough to ignite a productive offseason in Minnesota, along with whatever the team yields from its latest lottery pick.
And if the Wolves can exterminate their infestation of injury bugs before October, they just might make something meaningful of 2015-16.
Nerlens Noel won't likely wind up as the NBA's Rookie of the Year, but unlike last year's winner (Michael Carter-Williams), the Kentucky product can probably count on a long-term future with the Philadelphia 76ers.
Noel did plenty to make up for lost time after missing what would have been his maiden campaign in 2013-14 while recovering from a torn ACL. He led all rookies in double-doubles and was the only player in the league to finish in the top 10 in both steals and blocks, all while missing a mere six of his team's 82 games.
Each game, eight Sixers staffers would track different metrics, including shot contests, hustle plays and how quickly players attacked different areas after an offensive miss and filled sections of the court defending in transition. After the game, the overall team and each player would receive a grade, 1-20, with the latter being the highest.
Brown said more than 60 percent of the time in games this season, the team finished at a respectable 16. As for Noel, more than 60 percent of the time he was better than 12 in games. But the most significant number is this: When he was an 18 or higher, the Sixers won 15 of the 18 games.
Noel may not be the star of the future for the Sixers, but if everyone else plays as hard as he does, the team should still be in good shape long-term.
The Orlando Magic were never likely to so much as sniff the playoffs this year, even in the weak East. From the get-go, their roster was more smorgasbord of useful pieces than cohesive whole and wasn't likely to move much from the former toward the latter under the uninspired auspices of Jacque Vaughn. The team's decision to can Vaughn during the season confirmed as much.
Whoever fills Orlando's void on the bench more permanently will be charged with that same daunting but doable task—of molding the likes of Victor Oladipo, Elfrid Payton, Nikola Vucevic, Aaron Gordon and the fruit of the Magic's lottery pick into an honest-to-goodness team.
James Borrego, who replaced Vaughn on an interim basis, will get a look at the gig, following a so-so second-half audition.
"I absolutely believe that I can do this," Borrego told NBA.com's John Denton. "My confidence is very high, and this position has forced me to get there. Give our players credit and our staff credit because they have helped me get through this."
Granted, Borrego isn't out of the woods just yet. According to the Orlando Sentinel's Brian K. Schmitz, Michael Malone, who was one of the finalists to succeed Stan Van Gundy three years ago, is among those eager to interview for the gig.
If there's any consolation for Orlando's post-Dwight Howard doldrums, it's that the team's job opening could be the most desirable one in the NBA this summer.
If the Los Angeles Lakers didn't, in fact, hit rock bottom this season, then they're going to need some sturdier digging equipment.
After losing a then-franchise-record 55 games last year, the purple and gold managed to fall even further in 2014-15. They registered their first 60-loss campaign and their lowest single-season winning percentage while logging more games lost to injury than 2013-14's snakebitten bunch.
Steve Nash was done before the schedule began. Rookie Julius Randle broke his leg in Game 1. Kobe Bryant's shoulder gave way in January. By the time the Lakers made it to the finish line, four more guys (i.e., Nick Young, Ronnie Price, Wayne Ellington and Dwight Buycks) would suffer season-ending injuries.
Lin really wanted this to work, entering this season with one of the most unstable career paths in sports history. And in search of feel-good stories in an unquestionably dry spell for the franchise, the Lakers hoped bringing Lin back to his birthplace would spark the sort of special stuff we all know he's had in the past.
Instead, Lin was downright disappointing night after night early in the season. He was unnerved by Lakers coach Byron Scott's lack of belief in his game and discouraged by the rising negativity all around him.
Chances are that Lin will find employment elsewhere this summer. In his place, the Lakers will likely turn to rookie Jordan Clarkson, the lone bright spot amid this year's cloudy misery, or a high-priced free agent of some sort to run point.
And, with any better luck, the Lakers will have the pieces in place to restore some of their signature shine next season.
Like the Lakers, the New York Knicks came into the 2014-15 season intending to win, even though the circumstances were ripe for failure.
Injuries and roster turnover all but assured the Knicks of a return trip to the lottery, as did the 5-36 start that the instability precipitated. Carmelo Anthony's decision to undergo knee surgery after the All-Star Game was merely another nail in New York's orange-and-blue coffin.
As miffed as many folks in the Big Apple may be with the job Phil Jackson and Derek Fisher have done in leading the Knicks so far, not everyone in town is so down on the team's prospects.
Nobody expected the season to be like this. We all expected at least to somewhat compete in the Eastern Conference. At the end of the day we wanted to make a playoff push, but that's not how the season played out.
This next season for me and for the organization and for Phil this is where we earn our money. This is where it starts. We got to put our money where our mouths (are) at. We've been put in a situation where the pieces are broken and a lot of things have been changed around here. Now we got a clean plate. We got a chance to get a top draft pick. We got a lot of money in the cap. So we got to put that to work. We got to put something together.
The Charlotte Hornets could have easily blamed their 5-16 finish to the 2014-15 season—and the playoff shortfall it sealed—on the incessant spate of injuries, but they didn't.
"This is a disappointing year. We took a step back," head coach Steve Clifford admitted, per The Charlotte Observer's Rick Bonnell. "We weren't as disciplined, we made too many mistakes, more nights when we weren't ready to play. We're not a 33-win team. And I'm primarily responsible for that."
The players, to their credit, aren't running from their failures. Lance Stephenson, for one, doesn't intend to shoot 17 percent from three forever.
"My three-point percentage was the lowest ever in history. That's terrible," Stephenson said, per The Charlotte Observer. "I have to come in and figure out how to be a better shooter. Being a good shooter will help my overall game. When people sag off of me (playing him to drive), it's harder for me to be successful.
"It's confidence—just wanting the shot to go in so bad and then you lose your confidence. That plays a major part when you don't have confidence in your shot. This summer I'm going to find my confidence."
While Stephenson spends his offseason trying to gain confidence, Al Jefferson will be doing his darndest to lose weight—before and after he officially opts into the final year of his contract.
"I've got unfinished business here. That's not even an option for me," Jefferson said, per The Observer. "Unless something dramatic changed, I can't see myself opting out, and leaving that bad taste in my mouth. And in the Charlotte Hornets' mouth. I can't walk away from that."
What could be worse than a ninth straight year without playoff basketball for the Sacramento Kings? How about another tumultuous summer, perhaps one featuring DeMarcus Cousins' departure?
Rumors are already swirling about Boogie's availability, courtesy of head coach George Karl's candid comments on Monday.
"I've had some great players and I've never had one player that I have said is untradeable," Karl said, according to CSNBayArea.com's Bill Herenda. "You always got to be ready for the possibility of a great trade that could come your way.
"I know I respect him (DeMarcus Cousins) a tremendous amount...I think our give and take and our communication has been almost on a daily basis...until we can really get to a special place together, I think we've got to continue to communicate, what he wants and what I want."
The relationship between star player and coach will be crucial to the Kings' fortunes going forward. Cousins and the Kings seemed ready to thrive early on, when they got off to a 9-6 start under Mike Malone. But Boogie's 10-game absence on account of viral meningitis gave Sacramento's higher-ups the daylight they needed to part ways with Malone. That move ushered in two months of rote mediocrity under interim coach Tyrone Corbin, before Karl came aboard during the All-Star break.
Though a lukewarm convert to a faster tempo, he has thrived in a system that emphasizes spacing, passing and movement, not unlike Mike Krzyzewski's philosophy last summer with Team USA. It isn't a coincidence that Cousins had triple doubles in two of his last three games and is ranked fifth in the league in scoring (24.1), third in rebounding (12.7) and 11th in blocks (1.75).
And, of course, first in the hearts of Sacramentans.
Coaching played a pivotal role in the Denver Nuggets' ongoing doldrums this season.
Head coach Brian Shaw continued to push his square-peg/round-hole approach by playing slow with a team and in a city for which a faster pace would have made more sense. His philosophy backfired, to the tune of a 20-39 start and a subsequent pink slip.
According to Yahoo Sports' Adrian Wojnarowski, the Nuggets' search for a long-term replacement is already underway. Melvin Hunt, the Nuggets' interim coach, will get a crack at it, though he'll hardly be the only one to get an interview. His competition will likely include former head coaches (Michael Malone, Mike D'Antoni, Alvin Gentry, Scott Skiles), current NBA assistants (Portland's David Vanterpool) and eager college guys looking to make the jump (Florida's Billy Donovan, Iowa State's Fred Hoiberg).
"I'm not a coach, but I do think we're Denver," said general manager Tim Connelly, per The Denver Post's Chris Dempsey. "We've got to play with pace, we've got to play uptempo basketball. And uptempo basketball can take on various styles. We're certainly looking for a coach that understands how we've been successful in the past and probably how we'll be successful in the future, with fast basketball and playing with pace."
Whatever hopes the Phoenix Suns had of battling for the West's No. 8 seed for the second year in a row went right out the window during a 1-10 stretch over the final three weeks of the 2014-15 season.
"I don't think that truly reflects where we are and the season we had," said Suns president Lon Babby during the team's exit interviews, according to AZCentral.com's Paul Coro.
Perhaps not, though the fact that Phoenix bobbed its way into and out of the playoff race as often as it did was reflective of an unsteady situation on the court and in the locker room.
"We didn't have all guys that were just concerned with winning," head coach Jeff Hornacek said, per Coro. That much was clear once Goran Dragic publicly demanded a trade (and got his wish) and Isaiah Thomas followed him out the door at the February deadline, albeit to a different destination.
All told, the Suns' point guard experiment didn't pay off like they'd hoped. Fortunately for folks in Phoenix, the team will be flush with cap space to restock the roster, once the front office decides how to spend its fifth straight lottery pick.
"This year was more of a humbling experience," said general manager Ryan McDonough, per Coro. "I think we'll all learn from it and get better from it and bounce back."
A busy season will give way to an even busier summer for Detroit Pistons head coach/team president Stan Van Gundy. The shocking decision to cut Josh Smith in December breathed new life into the slumping squad. The trade-deadline arrival of Reggie Jackson eventually did the same, albeit after a slump in the wake of Brandon Jennings' Achilles tear.
"We made some progress—not enough—but some progress at both ends of the floor," Van Gundy said during his exit interview, according to MLive's Brendan Savage. "Going forward, we feel like we've established a base of good young players. Over the last two-thirds of the year, which is not a small sample size, we played .500 basketball, which would have put us in the top five in the East over that time period.
"So we think things are looking up going forward."
How Detroit's fortunes fare from here on out will depend on what Van Gundy is able to accomplish from his front-office post this summer. Come July 1, Greg Monroe will be an unrestricted free agent, Jackson will be restricted, and Andre Drummond will be eligible for a sizable contract extension. Those three aside, the Pistons figure to make a pitch to at least one Michigan native: Golden State's Draymond Green.
If Van Gundy plays his cards right, his Pistons might (finally) be in position to snap their six-year playoff drought next spring.
Last year, the Miami Heat finished up in the NBA Finals, fighting an ultimately futile battle for their third straight championship. This year, their summer will start two months earlier, without a seventh straight playoff appearance.
The biggest difference, of course, is LeBron James. He left South Beach; therefore, the sands aren't quite as warm as they otherwise would be for the Heat.
But the story of Miami's demise is much broader than that. Between Dwyane Wade, Chris Bosh, Josh McRoberts, Luol Deng and Hassan Whiteside, the Heat racked up frequent flyer miles going to and from the training room to cover the cost of travel for their summer vacations.
"It's just tough, man," Deng told Bleacher Report's Ethan Skolnick. "It's just been that type of year. It seemed like the whole year, we were always fighting and dealing with something, instead of staying consistent and just kind of playing our game. I'm not making excuses or anything, but no one on this team can tell you that they've had a consistent rhythm the entire year. It's been tough to be consistent. We've had guys in and out. You have different roles."
Those roles may be more defined next season if Pat Riley has his way in the coming months. With better health and the retention of Goran Dragic and Deng, both opt-out candidates, the Heat could field one of the best starting fives not only in the East but in the entire league.
Lose either or both of those guys, though, and Miami's path back to relevance might not be so smooth.
Paul George's comeback from his devastating leg injury serves as an all-too-perfect microcosm of the Indiana Pacers' season as a whole.
Like their wounded superstar, the Pacers fought through pain, uncertainty and doubt to put themselves in position to control their own destiny at the end. Aside from George, Indiana had to survive lengthy stretches without stalwarts like David West and George Hill, along with newcomers Rodney Stuckey and C.J. Miles.
Against all odds, the Pacers hung around the muck at the bottom of the Eastern Conference playoff picture, just in time for George to return to action. His mere presence gave Indiana a much-needed shot in the arm; the Pacers won their first five games with George in the rotation, despite him never playing more than 18 minutes in a given game.
But, on the final night of the season, the calf in George's other leg gave way, as did the Pacers' postseason hopes in Memphis.
"Just came off a screen and felt a pop, but they looked at it and it's nothing more than just a calf strain," George said afterward, according to The Indianapolis Star's Candace Buckner. "It wasn't a knee injury but it's tough, you work so hard in rehab and have something else pop up. The good thing is, I know we've got a long summer and a lot to look forward to."
So do the Pacers, assuming West and Roy Hibbert—both of whom can opt out of their contracts—don't leave Naptown this summer.
Russell Westbrook's response to his first scoring title could easily double as the Oklahoma City Thunder's thoughts on this lost season of theirs.
"S---. It doesn't mean nothing," Westbrook said after OKC's season-ending win over the Timberwolves, according to ESPN.com's Royce Young (h/t Bleacher Report). "Good job. Hooray. I'm at home, watching other teams play. Doesn't mean nothing."
Westbrook's disappointment is understandable, if not downright appropriate. He wound up with career highs in nearly every counting category, including points (28.1), assists (8.6), rebounds (7.3) and steals (2.1).
But Westbrook's best efforts weren't enough to overcome devastating injuries to Kevin Durant and Serge Ibaka. Nor could general manager Sam Presti's moves make up for those losses, though the additions of Dion Waiters, Enes Kanter, D.J. Augustin and Kyle Singler should serve the Thunder well going forward.
With that supporting cast in place and its stars in better shape, OKC should find itself back in the title hunt next season.
Whether Scott Brooks is there to guide the Thunder is another story. According to Yahoo Sports' Adrian Wojnarowski, the team will evaluate its relationship with Brooks, who has one year left on his contract—much like the injured superstar whose absence doomed OKC.
Lionel Hollins' assessment of his Brooklyn Nets' chances against the Atlanta Hawks was as harsh as it was accurate.
"I don't think we have any advantages over the Hawks," Hollins said, per The Brooklyn Game's Devin Kharpertian.
That may sell his team a bit short. Surely, Atlanta doesn't have anyone who can compare with Brook Lopez's size and skill in the post. Lopez finished the season on an absolute tear, averaging 23.7 points and 9.4 rebounds over a 16-game stretch that saw the Nets go 11-5.
Nor can the Hawks claim to boast the best individual perimeter player in this series. That distinction belongs to Brooklyn, courtesy of former ATL resident Joe Johnson.
Other than those points of contention, Hollins is probably right. By and large, Brooklyn has been mediocre and uninspiring this season.
Then again, as much of a sting as Hollins' comments may have carried, they still paled in comparison to the five-alarm fire that spewed out from Paul Pierce's mouth, courtesy of ESPN Boston's Jackie MacMullan.
Lost amid the hubbub over Paul Pierce ripping the Nets a new one in public were his comments regarding the Toronto Raptors, the Washington Wizards' first-round playoff opponent.
"We haven't done particularly well against Toronto, but I don't feel they have the 'It' that makes you worried," Pierce told ESPNBoston.com's Jackie MacMullan. "There isn't a team I look at in the Eastern Conference that makes me say, 'They are intimidating, we don't have a chance.'"
To Pierce's point, the Raptors swept the Wizards in their three regular-season meetings. But the most recent two of those tiffs were decided by a total of six points.
And if the games are close between Toronto and Washington, Pierce certainly won't be one to hide from the moment, especially in Canada.
Forget about all the usual tropes about how terrible the Eastern Conference is and how that somehow degrades the Milwaukee Bucks' finish as the sixth seed. The fact that the Bucks are in the playoffs at all right now is nothing short of a Wisconsin miracle.
Milwaukee won a league-worst 15 games last season and could have plunged back to similar depths this time around in light of all the setbacks this squad suffered over the course of 2014-15. Instead, the Bucks fought through injuries (Jabari Parker, Ersan Ilyasova, John Henson), trades (Brandon Knight) and outright defections (Larry Sanders) to nearly triple their win total from a season ago.
And how, pray tell, did they do it? Among other things, behind a long-armed, switch-heavy defense—orchestrated by head coach Jason Kidd—that wound up second in the league in efficiency, per NBA.com.
These fans hate each other, too. This isn't a theory — it's scientific fact proven by years of mutual enmity between Bears and Packers fans. Now imagine that same level of anger and hostility, but on a basketball court. Spectacular, right? Joakim Noah calling Giannis Antetokounmpo soft in the playoffs could create our first Internet civil war. Now imagine future battles between Chicago South Side natives and Simeon's own Jabari Parker and Derrick Rose. I can't take it.
The Boston Celtics needed quite a bit of outside help to secure a spot in the Eastern Conference playoffs. Between the Cleveland Cavaliers resting their stars during a recent home-and-home with Boston and the rest of the East's fringes falling off, the C's benefited from a conference-wide "effort" to get them into the postseason—in addition to their own 24-12 surge over the final 36 games.
But it was another outside assist that might have given a certain Celtic the extra energy he needed to nudge this scrappy squad up the standings. According to The Boston Globe's Adam Himmelsbach, Isiah Thomas—who had his fair share of battles with the C's as a member of the "Bad Boy" Pistons in the 1980s—texted words of encouragement to Isaiah Thomas upon the latter's arrival in Beantown at the Feb. 19 trade deadline.
"This is gonna change your career," Zeke wrote. "They're one game out of the playoffs. Lead them to the playoffs."
That's precisely what the younger Thomas did while averaging 19 points and 5.4 assists off the bench.
Thomas could use a few more texts like that from his almost-namesake in the days to come, as his C's prepare to take on LeBron James' Cavs in the first round of the playoffs.
No team did more to boost its collective stock after the All-Star Game than the Utah Jazz. Once the break came and went, the Jazz went 19-10—the fifth-best record in the West—while holding opponents to a league-low 94.8 points per 100 possessions, per NBA.com.
Enes Kanter's trade-deadline departure and Rudy Gobert's subsequent explosion as a starter had plenty to do with that. For his efforts, Gobert figures to garner plenty of votes for Most Improved and Defensive Player of the Year honors.
Of course, Gobert wasn't the sole reason Utah finished with a record good enough to qualify for the playoffs in the East. Gordon Hayward's borderline All-NBA play had plenty to do with it, as did Derrick Favors'. As Grantland's Zach Lowe wrote of that duo, "They've been really good on both ends, and Hayward carried Utah's offense without much help from any perimeter threat until Rodney Hood emerged over the last 25 games."
"Clearly we sit here today in a better position than when we started," general manager Dennis Lindsey said during the team's exit interviews, according to The Salt Lake Tribune's Aaron Falk. "The group is moving in the right direction."
If three-point shooting is, indeed, all the rage in the NBA, then the Toronto Raptors are as fashionable as any team around. They finished among the top 10 in three-point makes and attempts, went 19-2 when they made more than 10 threes in a given game and became the second team in league history with five players who knocked down at least 100 treys apiece.
The only other team to pull that off? The 2008-09 Knicks.
Of course, this year's Raptors fared far better than those Knicks did. New York lost 50 games that year. Toronto, on the other hand, fell just one win shy of 50 on the other side of the ledger but still came away with a second straight Atlantic Division title and a franchise record for victories in a single season.
Next up: a first-round date with the shooting-averse Wizards, whom the Raptors swept during the regular season.
The Portland Trail Blazers aren't short of reasons to worry about their postseason prospects. Their wing depth has been decimated by injuries, with Wesley Matthews, Arron Afflalo, Nicolas Batum, Dorell Wright and C.J. McCollum all falling victim. Worse still, the Blazers will have to begin their playoff push on the road against the Memphis Grizzlies.
Halfway through the season, Portland looked like a dark-horse contender — a two-way powerhouse seasoned with rare roster continuity and some playoff experience. Their starters could hit the marks of Terry Stotts's "flow" offense while wearing blindfolds, and they had improbably sharpened into a borderline top-five defensive team.
Despite the doom and gloom around Rip City, the Blazers still have two huge factors in their favor: LaMarcus Aldridge and Damian Lillard. Those two carried Portland past Houston in last year's playoffs, combining for 55.3 points, 17.5 rebounds and 8.7 assists in a six-game victory.
The Memphis Grizzlies won't exactly be a picture of health for their first-round series against Portland, either. Marc Gasol returned from a sprained ankle in time for the Grizzlies' season finale, but he wasn't joined by Mike Conley and Tony Allen. They've been sidelined by foot and hamstring injuries, respectively, and may remain so for some time, per The Commercial Appeal's Ronald Tillery.
Those absences figure to be massively problematic for Memphis, despite the decimation that Portland has suffered. As much as the Grizzlies' universe revolves around Gasol and Zach Randolph in the middle, it's Conley, who would otherwise be charged with checking Damian Lillard, and Allen (aka "The Grindfather") who serve as the heart and soul of this squad.
There are many ways to compare the strength of the West to the weakness of the East, but perhaps none is more striking than where the Dallas Mavericks stand at season's end.
In the Western Conference, the Mavs' 50 wins were only good enough to snag the seventh seed. Were Dallas an Eastern Conference squad, it would start the playoffs at No. 3, matched up against the Bucks in the first round.
Instead, the Mavs will have to face the Houston Rockets in a series whose subplots have their own subplots.
"That's for the media to talk about," Dirk Nowitzki said, referring to the off-court drama between Mavs owner Mark Cuban and Rockets general manager Daryl Morey, per Mavs.com's Earl K. Sneed. "That's for fun little side notes, I guess, which the players don't really care that much about. It's about which team comes out at the end. Obviously, they have home-court advantage. We'd love to go down there and steal one or steal the first one, but it's going to be tough."
It'll be even tougher if Chandler Parsons—one of the sticking points in the ongoing feud between these two teams—isn't ready to play in Game 1. He missed the last six games of the regular season while resting his swollen right knee.
Head coach Rick Carlisle, though, is confident that Parsons will be available. Parsons' offensive versatility and familiarity with Dallas' Texas foe will be vital to the Mavs' attempt to spring the seeded upset.
For every transcendent superstar, there is an initial foray into the playoffs, one that sets the stage for the years to come.
In 2006, LeBron James averaged about 31 points, eight boards and six assists while carrying the Cleveland Cavaliers to a second-round loss against the Detroit Pistons. In 2010, Kevin Durant poured in 25 points per game (albeit on a subpar 35 percent shooting) in a six-game loss to the eventual-champion Lakers.
What will 2015 bring for Anthony Davis? Probably not much in the way of victories. His New Orleans Pelicans will have to contend with a Golden State Warriors squad that is coming off a historically great regular season.
However Davis fares from here on out, folks in the Crescent City won't soon forget what The Brow did to put the Pelicans back into the playoffs for the first time since 2011, when they were still the New Orleans Hornets. In what was, to date, the biggest game of his NBA career, Davis dominated the streaking San Antonio Spurs, piling up 31 points, 13 rebounds, two assists, two steals and three blocks in 43 minutes of a 108-103 win for New Orleans.
"Honestly, I know I all told ya'll before this game it didn't mean nothing, but I tried to downplay it because I didn't want to get too excited," Davis said afterward, via ESPN. "It meant a lot—and we played like it meant something.
Now, they'll have to locate their hearts and put them back in place, lest they let the Warriors stomp them from the get-go.
Physically speaking, Derrick Rose may not be the same player he was prior to his three knee surgeries. But from a confidence standpoint, he's as sturdy as ever.
"I believe I'm one of the best players in the NBA...still," Rose insisted, even after leaving the Chicago Bulls' season finale early with soreness in his left knee, per ESPN.com's Nick Friedell.
The Bulls can only hope Rose's confidence will pay actual dividends in the playoffs. With Joakim Noah, Taj Gibson and Kirk Hinrich all battling injuries, Chicago will need whatever it can squeeze out of the former MVP if it's going to be more than a dark horse in the East.
After all the ups and downs, the injuries and roster changes, the Houston Rockets wound up with the No. 2 seed in the West—which probably beats out most preseason predictions.
It's one thing to snag such prime seeding on the strength of James Harden's MVP-caliber campaign. It's another thing to capitalize on it.
To that end, the Rockets may have help on the way if they can stay alive long enough. Patrick Beverley, who was recently ruled out for the season after undergoing wrist surgery, could be back at point guard in Houston...assuming the team hasn't been eliminated by mid-May.
"I don't care about the pain. I can play through pain. I've been playing through all type of stuff the whole year, so I can play with the pain," Beverley told Fox26 Sports' Mark Berman. "I just have to get this cast off. When the cast comes off May 18, May 20th, wrap it up with tape and (I'll) be good to go. I don't care how weak it is. I don't care how strong it is. I don't care about that.
"As soon as this cast is off I'm back to business."
In the meantime, the Rockets will have to contend with the likes of Rajon Rondo and Tony Parker at the point, with the hope that whatever Harden, Dwight Howard and their supporting cast can do will be enough to see Houston through to the Western Conference Finals.
However and whenever the Atlanta Hawks' surprising season winds up, they can take pride in what they've accomplished together. Despite turmoil at the front-office and ownership levels, the Hawks managed to set new franchise records for consecutive wins (19), All-Stars (four) and total single-season victories, among other things.
In the bigger picture, the Hawks earned the respect of the rest of the league, which could pay off handsomely (i.e., via free-agent signings) in the years to come.
"I think there's been a couple of times during a game, end of games, when we're gonna win, and the other team will come up and say 'man, I love how you guys play,'" Kyle Korver told NBA.com's David Aldridge. "They just got, you can tell, they're like, I would love to play for your team. That's the ultimate sign of respect in the NBA. When you're on a team, and your team's supposedly good, but man, I'd rather be on your team. It feels good to hear that."
You know what would beat that? The Hawks' first trip to the penultimate round of the playoffs since 1970.
Remember when all the Chicken Littles huddled in northeast Ohio (and across the country, for that matter) were wondering why the sky was falling on the Cleveland Cavaliers and how they'd ever survive it?
A second-place conference finish did wonders to erase memories of the panic that set in amid the Cavs' disappointing 19-20 start. Cleveland now looks like the favorite to win the East (and a co-favorite to win it all), thanks in no small part to a second half that saw the Cavs win 34 of 43 games.
Well, maybe not right away. The Cavs should make quick work of the Celtics in Round 1.
After that, though, Cleveland's path through Chicago and Atlanta will put this team's title-contending chops to the test.
There were eight scenarios for a first-round playoff opponent for the Clippers heading into Wednesday’s final day of the regular season.
Four of the scenarios had the Clippers playing the Memphis Grizzlies for the third time in four years.
Two of the scenarios had them facing Dallas and one had them meeting Houston in the first round.
The last scenario – a scenario some would classify as worst-case – had the Clippers, the league’s second-hottest team, facing the San Antonio Spurs, the hottest.
And wouldn’t you know it, the worst case became the reality.
The Clippers, though, aren't about to complain about their cruel fate. "I'd rather go through them now while we're fresh," said DeAndre Jordan, per ESPN.com's Arash Markazi.
They'll have to hope that their own season-ending hot streak (seven in a row, 14 of 15) gives them enough juice to overcome a San Antonio Spurs squad that was riding an 11-game spurt prior to a defeat to the Pelicans in the finale.
Has there ever been a stronger sixth seed in any postseason in any sport than this year's San Antonio Spurs? All they did was win 11 games in a row and 21 of 24 prior to the season's final night. They might have made it 12 in a row and 22 of 25 if not for a poor opening to what turned out to be a 108-103 defeat in New Orleans.
"That first half was the worst we've played in a long time," head coach Gregg Popovich said afterward, via ESPN. "The Pelicans were on fire. They were committed. They were playing hard. They had a lot to play for and it showed."
The Spurs had plenty to play for themselves. A win would have locked them into the No. 2 seed in the West as the Southwest Division champions, with a first-round matchup against the Mavericks. Instead, San Antonio will begin its title defense in L.A., opposite a Clippers team that the Spurs swept out of the second round three years ago.
Tiago Splitter's ongoing calf troubles have cast some doubt on San Antonio's chances of repeating. But if the Spurs can get him back in time for the Western Conference Finals, they'll pose a serious threat to Golden State's dream season.
A great regular season guarantees the Golden State Warriors nothing more than the No. 1 seed in the West and a pitfall-filled path to the NBA Finals.
And, of course, the No. 1 spot in the last power rankings of the regular season.
To be sure, the Dubs didn't just coast their way to the top. Rather, they fought to the very end for each of the 67 wins they racked up.
Stephen Curry certainly didn't take anything for granted. Over the final 18 games of the season, the presumptive MVP knocked down 52.3 percent of his long-range looks on the way to shattering his own record for single-season three-point makes (286).
As easy as Golden State made the regular season seem, the playoffs will look like anything but that. First comes figuring out how to contain Anthony Davis. Then, the Warriors will likely have to contend with the "Grit-N-Grind" Grizzlies.
And before the Dubs can book their first trip to the Finals in 40 years, the defending champion Spurs will have a word or two to offer.
Golden State had better hope, then, that the same stroke that helped Curry knocked down more than half of his treys over the last month of the season and another 77 in a row in a single practice holds true during the pressure cooker of the playoffs.
Josh Martin covers the NBA for Bleacher Report. Follow him on Twitter. | 2019-04-25T06:33:14Z | https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2431688-2015-nba-power-rankings-whos-on-top-heading-into-playoffs |
Accueil A LA UNE Un problème réel de la Guinée qu’il faut résoudre…..
Tout porte à croire que notre pays utilise les bases de données statistiques des institutions internationales pour planifier notre programme de développement. Quoique leur système de quantification comporte souvent une marge d’erreur très large, nous en faisons quand même la référence.
D’ailleurs, celles-ci commanditent des études de prélèvement par secteur en fonction des besoins de leur programme. Et les données ont un caractère nettement spécifique donc limité strictement au besoin.
C’est à comprendre que tous nos plans de développement se basent sur le superficiel et l’échantillonnage. Nous avons un retard, pour ne pas dire un manque, statistique énorme qui représente un handicap pour toute planification en matière de développement. Que cela soit pour le fichier d’état civil, le recensement général de la population et de l’habitat, les données de la fonction publique, les élèves et étudiants, le chômage, la santé, l’armée, les étrangers vivant en Guinée etc, rien de précis et fiable n’existe.
Dans ce cas, comment peut-on résoudre un problème mal évaluer ? Comment peut-on anticiper sur les besoins et risques ? Comment faire des prévisions avec des données biaisées ou sur la base de l’inexistant ? Pourquoi il n’y a aucun lien entre nos universités et les centres administratifs de décision ?
Cet état de fait est l’équivalent du médecin qui ne réussit pas son diagnostic mais s’évertue de rassurer le patient qu’il peut le soigner.
Allez visiter la direction nationale des statistiques pour comprendre l’une des sources du mal guinéen. Sans compter que nous ne disposons ni d’institut de recherche statistique encore moins d’un centre spécialisé dans le domaine. Voyez comment nos étudiants en situation de recherche éprouvent des difficultés pour trouver des données fiables afin d’argumenter leurs travaux. Et le drame est qu’on n’en fait pas une priorité pour comprendre que nous ne prenons pas nos problèmes par le bon bout.
C’est pourquoi, nos dirigeants n’expliquent rien avec des chiffres à l’appui. Ils sont souvent embarrassés entre réciter les chiffres venus d’ailleurs donc mal assimilés (on ne leur laisse souvent pas le choix) ou ignorer et se défendre avec de la littérature même lorsqu’il s’agit de parler d’économie.
Je suggère à nos députés de faire de ce problème fondamental une priorité dans les débats au sein de l’hémicycle.
Exemple: Quelle est la part de la recherche/documentation dans nos dépenses budgétaires ?
Et si on allait enfin à l’essentiel !
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I am on record as saying I doubted that humanity as a global population could be saved from certain destruction. I have also stated that the species, Homo sapiens is probably not salvageable in its current form. However, I have also suggested that the salvation of the genus, Homo is both feasible and desirable. Let me briefly recount.
There is at this point, in my opinion, nothing that can be done to save the vast majority of humans alive today from a catastrophic demise. I am sorry. And below I will summarize my findings. The simple truth, as I see it, is that humanity has set itself on an irreversible course of destruction that is equivalent to the impact on the Ecos that the meteor or comet that crashed into the Yucatan peninsula had on the dinosaurian Ecos 65 million years ago. That is, by our activities we have brought about a geologically recognizable age called the Anthropocene in which we are the agents of the extinction of vast numbers of species, including, possibly, our own. Whenever such die-off events have happened in the past the Ecos shifted its characteristics and dynamics such that the extant species either went extinct or gave rise to new species of the same genus that were better adapted to the new Ecos. I fully expect the same kind of thing to happen in the future.
In any case the populations of critters and plants were decimated or severely reduced in number and that is what I suspect will happen to our populations. Homo sapiens must, of necessity, go extinct simply because the future environment will be extraordinarily hostile to human life. The real question is whether the genus might give rise to a new species that is better fit for the new Ecos before the very last member of the tribe extinguishes.
We are in the process of killing ourselves by engaging in an economic model based on ideas that just about everybody accepts as valid and good. What irony. The model that has been held responsible for producing abundant wealth for humankind is also responsible for destroying the life support systems upon which we depend. The problem is one of scale. When there were relatively few humans on the planet their economic activities were not as damaging. They could harvest slowly renewing resources like trees without threatening the forests. They could dump their sewage into rivers that would quickly dilute the toxins to low enough levels that they would not threaten other living things. It was a good model to establish a level of comfort in living that would not do more harm as long as the population numbers did not get out of hand. The problem is that those numbers did get out of hand. The improvements in living standards due to technological innovation made it seem feasible that more and more people could live on the land, but in truth, the extraction rates and pollution rates were accelerating beyond the capacity of the land to sustain us. So now, what was once the source of human success has become the cause of human demise. And very many people do not want to believe that because they have enjoyed benefits from BAU and want to continue to do so. See what I mean by irony?
What I want to do here is summarize the systemic relations that I see as causal factors relevant to the near future dynamics of human existence. I present a series of arguments, somewhat in the form of mathematical or logical propositions that provide “proofs” of the veracity of the arguments, that provide a chain of reasoning leading to this conclusion. These are presented in a way that suggests what might actually be done to maximize the salvation of our kind. But I have no illusions at this point that any of the actions suggested here will be undertaken. As I have written repeatedly (and will be presenting more definitively in an upcoming book) my firm belief is that humanity is not sufficiently sapient (that is the average of sapience is not sufficient) to change its behavior and set of beliefs such that it would actually adopt any of these prescriptions. Yet in the spirit of undaunted hope it can't hurt to at least state the possibilities even if they are unlikely to be regarded. One never knows. I certainly would not claim to know. Maybe something like a miracle will happen!
1. The vast majority of people will have to stop having children. The population cannot grow when the wealth production rate goes to zero and must decline when the rate goes negative, as it must.
The operative variable is a measure of wealth per capita. There exists some lower bound value of wealth per capita that can be defined as necessary for every human being to live at some level of comfort above subsistence (let's call that the “adequate” level). I base this level on the needs for food, shelter, clothing, companionship, and other factors that allow individuals to achieve a modest level of ‘self-actualization’, a condition I believe was part of the Paleolithic condition of humans when sapiens became a dominant species. Assuming a fair distribution such that each person possesses exactly their per capita share of wealth, then the number of people on the planet is limited to the amount of wealth that can be produced.
Claim: Wealth is produced by physical work and requires energy flow (free energy) to accomplish. The amount of wealth produced is proportional to the amount of energy available to do useful work and the amount of raw resources available for extraction.
The total wealth of the world is based on the accumulated wealth produced over the history of the work done less the drain on wealth due to consumption (active degradation of physical objects) and entropic decay (passive degradation) over the same time frame. Growth in wealth is defined as the positive increase in wealth or net wealth of production less degradation per unit of time. In order to maintain a steady state condition the amount of wealth growth must be exactly what is needed to accommodate the population growth over the same time frame.
Wealth derives from work done on natural resources, converting them to usable objects, including food. Among the mix of natural resources used there are those that are finite in availability. Among those most are extracted with greater effort as the supply is depleted (extraction is always per the "best first" principle). Fossil fuels are special cases of energy resources. They are finite in quantity and obey the same diminishing return laws such that the net energy available for work declines as the resource is depleted. That is, it takes more energy per unit of energy extracted and the net energy return declines over time.
Thus the growth of wealth is limited by the marginal cost of extracting resources and the marginal net energy available for extraction and conversion to human use. For example the extraction of iron ore and its conversion to steel is limited by both the depletion of ore and of fossil fuels (usually coal).
There is an upper bound on the total wealth that can ever be produced but no bound on the degradation of wealth. Since the production of wealth will ultimately decline (growth will go to zero) due to the depletion limits a point will be reached when no new wealth can be produced and only degradation will take place.
If the population continues to grow then it is clear that the wealth per capita must decline and do so precipitously when wealth production rates fall below degradation rates.
The current evidence strongly supports the claim that wealth production is now in decline, yet population growth continues. The global economic situation today is a symptom of this decline. It is true that the decline is unevenly distributed throughout the world, giving rise to the illusion that, for example, isolated pockets such as the US economy, are on the mend from the longest and deepest global recession in history. Aside from the fact that most of this illusion is produced by erroneous economic models and government statistics that are biased, the US economy is temporarily seeming to be regaining strength (that is starting to grow!) but the ground truth for millions of households is quite different from the reports trumpeted by the media.
ERGO: The wealth per capita is also in decline and that needed to sustain the adequate level of life support for every individual is already below its lower bound.
This dynamic explains the vast numbers of poor people in the world. There simply isn't enough wealth to go around. Even if we were to redistribute the existing wealth of the world (a Robin Hood action) there would not be enough to support the adequate level of living (or we could redefine adequate to be closer to and approaching subsistence rather than providing some level of comfort and joy). If the population were to continue to grow as projected, say, by the UN demographers, leading to some nine billion individuals by the end of this century, and no energy miracle emerged to compensate for the reduction in fossil fuel availability, then the per capita wealth would likely fall below subsistence. Since distribution is unequal this translates into billions of people starving to death or dying of rampant diseases (not even considering natural disasters).
2. Neoliberal, free-market, profit-driven capitalism (NL-FM-PD-C) can no longer be the operating model of economic life.
Claim: This model requires continual growth of wealth production over time. Even if it were to support the objective of providing a fair distribution of wealth (which it doesn't) it is physically impossible by proposition 1 to sustain this model. The attempt to try to maintain the model under current conditions of depleted resources will cause a cataclysmic collapse of global civilization. Moreover, however, it can be shown that each of the main components of the NL-FM-PD-C model is fundamentally flawed. It is possible that if only one or two were so flawed that the others might contribute to a new economic model that would work. But all of them are flawed and demonstration of this supports proposition 2.
Neoliberal ideology. Humans are supposed to conquer nature and convert the "abundance" of the planet to their uses. Only human satisfaction counts on this planet and that should be maximized. However, not all humans are created equal. Only the worthy elite are entitled to aggregate larger proportions of wealth as long as the working masses have adequate wealth to sustain their lesser lives. Worthiness is based on attributes such as cleverness, ambition, and drive, which are ingredients in producing wealth. Those that are responsible for wealth production are entitled to a larger share of the rewards.
These sentiments favor individualism and ignore contributions from groups or collectivism (the sentiment that the group is the unit of interest). Science, particularly evolutionary psychology and sociology now tell us this is not correct at all. Group selection played a major role in making humans what we are and group efforts and collective decisions are known to be superior to individual efforts and judgments. We humans evolved to be eusocial creatures who are able through interpersonal communications and visibility into one another's minds (our ability to model other's intentions known as ‘Theory of Mind’) is the very thing that make our species fit and produced our superior (biologically speaking) capacity to adapt. We do so in groups not as individuals.
The objectives of neoliberalism based on these sentiments are just plain wrong. However, we should note that humans are not yet evolved to perfect eusociality. Each individual, remaining a biological agent, retains remnants of individualism when pressed and under stress. Capacities for selfishness and even narcissistic tendencies are still part of the human psyche. Amplified by the culture of greed that neoliberal objectives entail, it is possible for observers of human behavior (in economic matters) to wrongly conclude that these qualities are dominant. Indeed some have argued from a misreading of evolution theory that these qualities are what made us successful (e.g. Social Darwinism's reliance on competition and survival of the fittest). Since greed and selfishness play into the neoliberal agenda and became a self-fulfilling prophesy of success in wealth production the narrative of NL-FM-PD-C has become generally accepted and is all too believable for naive minds. Yet it is counter to what science shows us is true for human evolution and the success of human enterprise. It is a myth that is self-reinforcing because it suggests to those who believe it that they have the right (and by implication the prospects) to become rich by virtue of their cleverness and efforts.
Free-market assumptions. Core to the idea of market-based economies is the dictum of laissez faire economic activities, or non-intervention by a higher authority (governments) in economic affairs. It is related to Adam Smith's ‘invisible hand’ metaphor in that individuals guided by self-interests will, nevertheless, cooperate in trade so that everyone is better off. Thus there is no need for governments to regulate those activities. The neoliberal extension holds that if governments do intervene it will distort market information and create biases that will interfere with maximizing wealth.
It should be granted that in historical and contemporary cases where governments have interfered with market mechanisms they have a mixed record of success at best, and too often abject failures. The failures of the communist planned economies are cited by nearly everyone as examples of government ineptitude in meddling in economic activities. And the criticisms are valid up to a point. Those particular experiments in collectivism were based on ignorance and bad judgement. What you cannot conclude from their failures, however, is that markets are totally capable of self-regulation. It simply does not follow from the failures that the NL-FM-PD-C model is therefore the best (and as some claim the only) one for the economy.
In fact I have already delved into the question of whether free markets are really that efficacious in solving all economic problems as is touted by neoclassical economics and neoliberal fundamentalists. Taking the systems perspective and analyzing market mechanisms I concluded in Could Free Markets Solve All Economic Problems that they really can't. There are too many flaws in the conception of free markets to cover here (please read the above post), but basically it comes down to a few basic principles. First exchange markets depend on veridical information in order to balance true costs with prices. Nothing like that exists in the neoliberal version of markets. Their version depends on competition and, therefore, proprietary knowledge that obfuscates true costs. Prices do not necessarily reflect costs (see my comments below re: profits) and therefore the equations of wealth are never balanced realistically.
In neoclassical economics trading decisions are made by rational self-interested agents. Once again science has demonstrated that this assumption is simply not met in the real world. The models of markets foisted by neoclassical economists (and that includes the so-called liberal economists like Paul Krugman) are invalid even before other assumptions are included.
Finally, and as I covered in my blog post linked to above, markets deteriorate with scales of distance and time. They degrade with complexity. Simple network models of market message flows through unreliable (human decision making) nodes clearly demonstrate that the supposed information needed for markets to “clear” declines non-linearly as the number of ‘hops’ through the network increase linearly. Information is supposedly conveyed through prices established by the decisions of buyers and sellers. When these agents are non-rational, non-privileged regarding true cost information, and are at great distances from nodes that are relevant to the value of the good being bought or sold, there is no way that the market can perform magic and get everything right.
These theoretical considerations should be sufficient to put neoliberal, neoclassical thoughts about free markets to rest once and for all. Of course we now know that science will never trump religious beliefs among low sapient individuals, which is what these ideologies are. But what about the actual experience, the evidence from daily life? Shouldn't that count for something? Consider all of the various “bubbles” and scams that have been experienced in virtually every market framework. How could such things happen if markets were truly capable of solving economic problems? Think of Alan Greespan's infamous admission that what he believed about the market place turned out to be wrong. Even with these humble pie crumbs still on his lips, he still persists in asserting that the free market is the solution to all problems. Religious beliefs are very hard to nullify even with clear evidence of contrary reality.
Possibly the single biggest fallacy perpetrated by all economic theories (neoclassical or heterodoxical) is that of “profit”. Not that profits don't actually exist, of course, but that profits need to be made continually over the long run. Profits, in natural systems, are the episodic accumulation of product in excess of production costs that occur because of unusually favorable conditions that do not represent the norm. For example when a wheat farmer has a bumper crop he can readily store the excess (over his use) against a time when crop production is sub-par. Profits can be used in this manner to smooth out the rough spots in the long run in what is otherwise a steady-state dynamic. Up until recently the primary drive for continual profit increases came from business expansion due to the growth of populations and increasing market sizes. More recently that growth has been replaced by the so-called globalization phenomenon that replaces expansion within a region with expansion to other continents; made possible by the use of transportation and fossil fuels. But the real source of profit has always been the increase in energy availability.
Human cultural evolution included the discovery of various energy flow enhancing means, either new sources of more powerful fuels or new tool technologies that increased the efficiency of both energy extraction (e.g. the water wheel) and production (e.g. the belt-driven loom). With these advantages the production of profits seemed to be perpetual. We humans seemed to have transcended the laws of nature and could generally count of making more wealth than we used up or fell apart. Thus we came to believe that profits are always feasible and became a normal part of economic theory. Unfortunately this was a misconception about how nature works. It depended entirely on the growth of energy flow, most recently from fossil fuel sources, to sustain. And energy flows, up until now, were generally always increasing. We humans came to believe deeply that profit making was the normal mode of living and something to be pursued. After all, this is how one gets rich!
But now those pesky laws of nature, in particular the first and second laws of thermodynamics, are demonstrating to us that in the very long run, it all balances out. Profit making is always temporary even if the time scale runs over many generations. We have plenty of historical evidence that is now being more correctly interpreted regarding the collapse of past societies. Namely civilizations, particularly empires, collapsed because they ran out of energy. They could no longer make profits but the momentum of continued expansion (and population growth) required that they did so. All such societies eventually turned to debt-based financing, that is borrowing against future profits when none were going to be made. Essentially they consumed their previously accumulated wealth and the people in the working classes in a desperate attempt to keep the society going. It was always a futile attempt.
Capitalism started out innocently enough. Suppose an enterprising individual (say in the Bronze age) saw a way to possibly make a profit from some new endeavor. He (historically they were generally he's) had to gather together enough resource wealth (capital) to pay for the construction of whatever production facility was needed, and to initially pay the labor. There are any number of ways to get others who have saved some of their prior profits to invest (or loan) the resources needed with the promise that there will be a profit return. They will make more wealth from such a venture than they could have done with any other use of that wealth. In other words, in order to attract capital the entrepreneur had to promise superior profits. Sometimes this didn't work out and people lost their investments. But during the rise of increasing energy flow (which meant the energy input was really cheap and almost not worth considering) and opportunities to freely dump waste products into nature's lap, more often than not, they succeeded.
But as our energy resources now begin to shrink and the pollution of our dumping is overwhelming us it should be clear that the idea of capitalism based on making superior profits was just plain ignorant. It was literally too good to be true.
There is one more assumption that is often closely associated with the whole model and that is that technology will always come to our rescue. Fundamentally this seems true on the face of it. We have always managed to invent our way out of binds in the past, so naturally we assume that we shall be able to do so in the future. Nowhere is this more the case than with energy supply, and in particular, replacing dirty carbon-based fuels with “clean” alternative energy sources such as solar PV and wind power.
The impetus to believe that these technologies are ramping up and are capable of providing sufficient power to society such that it might get along as before (as promulgated in the popular media) is generated by several factors. One is that, as I stated, throughout history we have witnessed inventions transforming our world so have come to expect that will continue to be the case. In particular we witnessed the incredible phenomenon of microelectronics revolutionizing the field of computing and communications, with costs plummeting down as the scales of components shrank (Moore's Law). There is a natural tendency to transfer the ideas of what we've seen in computing to the production of energy. That is, we imagine a technology that will allow us to generate abundant low-cost energy (high power) that will lead to a brighter future. Right now the focus is on solar and wind. Another factor driving our belief is that most of us simply cannot imagine the contrapositive. We cannot believe that all of this magic is going to come to an end. Many of us (actually most of us) are polyannish optimists and absolutely NEED to believe a solution will be found.
But the ability to hold onto such beliefs stems from a basic lack of knowledge regarding, mostly, thermodynamics (the physics of energy) and a deeper understanding of the history of technology and invention. Space doesn't permit a full explanation of why these alternative energy sources are not likely to provide what we are looking for. They may provide a small fraction of power to buy us a bit of time. But eventually when the carbon-sources are no longer viable these technologies will have to be self-sustaining, that is they will have to provide all of the power to rebuild and repair themselves. Not all the data is in, but to date that likelihood is slim. Even if they could, they would still have to produce an excess of power that would be used by the economy for other work. The current belief that efficiencies (for example) will be improving to a point where one day these technologies will provide the power fail to notice the trends in technological innovations, particularly with respect to energy. Most of our past successes have been with increasing efficiencies because the starting points for our machines were so low. Over the past few decades many technologies have been experiencing decreasing rates of improvement. We are approaching the limits of efficiency increases and even where such increases are happening it is with the inclusion of materials that are rare or expensive to make. And that is because it takes significant energy to make or extract them.
Profit desires drove us to increase efficiencies or productivity (the human equivalent) and now profit desire persists even when the possibility of increasing these is declining. Part of the economic system's shift to debt financing is because we still believe that efficiencies must increase and therefore we need to continue to invest in pursuing that agenda. But the reality is that they will not. There will be no great increase in the flow of high-power energy in the future due to technological innovation. There will be no magical increases in efficiencies that defy the laws of physics. Wishes do not make reality. Only nature does that.
ERGO: Profit making will have to go, and with it the notion of free-market capitalism. This is especially the case for rentier profits and investment profits, i.e. making money on money. But all enterprise must convert to non-profit operations. Companies that make useful things or provide necessary services will need to be taken over by employee collectives. The revenues obtained should be just enough to cover costs, including, of course, employees' salaries. Management of such companies would be in the hands of employees and no manager would make a salary much greater than the average worker's.
Such an economy is inconceivable to most people but in truth that is because they have never known any other way and the myth of profit-motivated self-interest has been the societal norm for so long it is hard for anyone to imagine that it could be different. But a non-profit based society is the evolutionary norm for Homo sapiens and under declining energy flows it will be absolutely essential. There is no profit possible other than under conditions of short-term energy surpluses. With those a thing of the past, only non-profit activities can be sustained. And then only if the activity produces something that contributes to productive lives.
3. Replace Globalized NL-FM-PD-C with Localized Collectivist Economies based on Sharing.
Claim: There is a more viable alternative to the current model of socio-economics based on selfishness and self-interest-based decisions. The new model is actually the old model for humans. It is based on cooperation, empathy, and sharing resources and wealth. It is the kind of economy that existed for many millennia before the advent of agriculture. We might call it the “Tribal” model. The model depends on tribes that are fairly local and limited in spatial scope, and therefore manageable. That is they are localized and essentially self-sufficient within their locales. This will be a necessary model.
Scale Considerations. Transportation will be limited in both rate and distance due to the declining availability of long-range fossil fuel vehicles. Machinery power will also be limited. Local production of power (most likely from hydroelectric or alternative energies if they can be shown to be self-sustaining) and limited storage capacities will necessarily limit transportation of goods. Therefore economies localized to regions, defined by the limits of transportation, will need to be crafted. The basics of life, food, shelter, water, etc. will be the main focus of the economy. Clothing, furniture, and other such personal belongings will need to be constructed from locally grown plants and trees. In most respects the only kind of lifestyle that can be supported in a low energy world will resemble small village/town assemblies of the late 1700's and into the 1800's.
Manufacturing and service providing companies will have to be employee-owned and run collectives (as above). All markets will be local. With more people having greater insight into what it takes to build something or provide a service, the value/price setting will be based on costs, including personal labor, rather than merely a market-set one based on whatever that market will bear.
Value Assessment Considerations. A new kind of accounting (or actually a very old kind) that measures value added based on energy used plus a factor for skill would be the basis for setting prices. Markets for goods and services in a localized economy would resemble the old farmer's markets and their scale would be manageable. In such a market buyers and sellers will have adequate knowledge and be able to agree prices more readily.
Cooperativity Considerations. Human beings, when not stressed by over population (density stresses) are more open and empathetic than when they feel they must compete to make ends meet. Cooperation and agreements are much more viable under a localized economic system. However, that economy must be capable of meeting all of the needs of the members. This means settlements, villages, or other living arrangements will need to be situated in habitable locations. Food production must be possible and climate cannot be too severe. It is very likely that there will be very limited choices of locations in the near future. In keeping with the idea that population size will start to shrink, and rapidly, it may be possible to find enough of these locations to satisfy supporting a breeding population in a steady-state condition. That will take permaculture engineering to work out the requirements and design the systems.
Ecos Damage Considerations. The NL-FM-PD-C model is destroying our Ecos. Coupled with the drive to consume, desire for convenience, and power/speed pursuits, we dump CO2 into the atmosphere and oceans causing global warming and ocean acidification that is disrupting the very basis of our ecosystems. The quest for profits drive all manner of chemical pollution and soil deterioration. This alone should condemn the model. Unfortunately there are stubborn minds who's livelihood depends on the extractive and polluting industries for their wealth and who, buying into the model's justification, that it produces wealth, refuse to believe the evidence. Those same minds have gained influence over the governance system so as to prevent any rational response to this situation. But the degree and rate of degradation of our Ecos is directly due to the expansion of the NL-FM-PD-C model over the globe. Moreover, the evidence that we have reached and possibly already exceeded the limits beyond which permanent damage is done has mounted. By some reckoning we have at best a few years to completely reverse our course or drive our planet into another regime, one completely hostile to our existence.
Ergo: There is a better way to live than the global NL-FM-PD-C model. That better way restores the more ancient human traits that emerged when we became sapiens and allows us to live in a cooperative, small scale community. Living in small local communities does not necessarily mean we have to live like cave dwellers with only stone axes and animal skins. It does mean that we will abandon much of the current high-tech material wealth that many consider essential, like iPhonesTM. Our societies may be able to retain some forms of technology that are essential to supporting life, such as water-driven generators for limited electricity. But I suspect when the choice between TV and food is to be made most of us will choose correctly. Wise choices about what technology to maintain and what to give up will need to be made.
4. Reduce Consumption and Production of Non-Essential Goods and Services.
Claim: The only way a new (old) socio-economic system can work is to walk away from the current NL-FM-PD-C one that depends on constant and increasing consumption. What is produced and used should contribute to sustaining the steady-state tribal economy.
By all the arguments given above it should be clear that there is no physical way to sustain a NL-FM-PD-C system. And if you can't you can't. The alternative is to radically reduce our consumption (for those who are consuming) as well as stop growing our population. We will have to give up producing worthless goods or providing worthless services. My guess is that something like 80% of the population will need to be engaged in food growing, processing, and transportation since food is the number one stuff that will be needed. With a declining population there will be no need for new building construction. More work will be put to repairing existing housing or converting some formerly commercial properties into housing for workers.
Bear in mind, however, we are talking not about some monolithic state or government. The only practical way that humans will live in the future is in those localized and limited scale tribes. My speculation is that resources will become so scarce and energy to extract any that might still exist so unavailable that no one group will be able to gain any particular advantage over others. They simply would not be able to manage in the old fashion of expanding empires, and it wouldn't matter how ruthless their leaders might be. No basic (seed) resources, no capacity to wage war and take over others who are, themselves, living in subsistence conditions. This leads to a further speculation that there will be a few of these tribes that are fortunate enough to be led by truly wise individuals. Those few may enjoy higher than average cooperativity internally and thus be more fit as a group to survive the changes that will be in store.
Perhaps for the next several hundred thousand years these tribal humans will be tested by a whole new Ecos. They will live low tech, though not necessarily stone-age, lives. We have learned a lot of science and with the right combination of cleverness and wisdom should be able to live comfortably within nature's limits. As long as we pay careful attention to how the Ecos is changing.
5. Focus on Adaptation to Climate Variations.
Claim: Dramatic, possibly catastrophic, climate change is now baked into the cake and will impact every region to one degree or another. Some areas, like the higher latitudes, will be affected more than others in terms of extreme conditions. But all will suffer climate shifts that lead to more severe storms and changes in rainfall patterns. Humans are going to need every bit of adaptive capability to live under these conditions.
Above all else future humans will need to continually adapt to changing and possibly violent climates. Not unlike the impact of the glaciation periods followed by receding glaciers in the Northern Hemisphere, climate changes are going to significantly stress the biosphere. More so than the Ice Ages, the climate changes our progeny will experience will come more rapidly and be more extreme than our ancestors experienced. Surviving and thriving under these conditions will take every ounce of wisdom that tribes can muster. They are likely to have to be semi-nomadic as growing conditions in an area change. They will have to be super observant of plant characteristics that enable them to grow under otherwise stressful conditions and select those that can be relied upon for food for planting.
Most paleoanthropologists now believe that climate changes due to the Ice Ages were responsible for driving the evolution of hominins in Africa, by changing the local conditions over thousands of years. What now appears to be a large speciation of a number of hominins, especially those events that led to the emergence of our genus, Homo was, to a large degree, driven by these climate impacts. It is conceivable that future climate changes will once again drive the evolution of the genus.
No one can predict evolution's results. However, I think it is possible to observe the major transition patterns that have occurred in prior evolutionary trajectories and make reasonable suppositions about what might come about in the future. Those transitions demonstrate that biology has always found ways for cooperation to emerge and trump mere competition. Our very bodies, as multicellular organisms, are the result of such a transition. Group selection is now favored as an explanation for the evolution of human sociality and I also add to that the evolution of sapience (the two phenomenon are tightly linked, in my view). Tribes were evolving toward stronger eusociality (hyper-sociality) prior to the advent of agriculture and the requisite need for more top-down command and control style management systems with emphasis on logistical and tactical management (and less on strategic management which is the basis of sapient cooperativity). We traded off selection for greater wisdom capacity for food security. It was a reasonable trade off given the state of scientific ignorance we lived in. But it did dampen our potential increase in sapience over the last ten millennia or so.
If it was climate adaptation that drove hominin evolution to the point of producing this emergent new psyche based on sapience, then it might be reasonable to expect that selection based on climate change could once again drive that in the direction of a new transition — human societies based on hyper-social individuals cooperating in an economic system that is not based on profit, competition, etc.
Of course none of us will ever know what will play out. We will all be dead by the time the trends are more evident. My reason for considering these issues is that part of wisdom is using our knowledge, both tacit and explicit, to shape our world as best we can given the circumstances. That is what we have always done with our quest for more energy and our inventiveness. But what we did before we did in ignorance of the consequences. Now we see what those consequences of unfettered growth and profit-taking are. If a few surviving tribes are wise enough they might use that knowledge to reshape our social structures so as to avoid the mistakes we have made along the pathway to our current condition. It is still possible that the changes in climate will be so severe that no humans will survive and our species and genus, the whole Hominini experiment will fail. We will suffer extinction as a whole tribe. Indeed the likelihood of survival of any of the still extant hominin, the great apes, is negligible, so that the planet may end up with no very smart primates at all. But I hope that is not going to be the case.
The solution to Fermi's Paradox may be very simple. The reason that no sentient beings are flitting about Earth in flying saucers is that all such beings reach a point in technological development where their wisdom is insufficient to squelch the advent of the NL-FM-PD-C economic paradigm! The latter takes hold of the minds (like memes) and dooms the species to extinction. They can then never get outside their own star systems to explore their galaxies. If we had to extrapolate from our own experience that certainly looks to be a likely scenario.
A more likely scenario is that all such beings simply exploit their energy reserves before they achieve interstellar propulsion capabilities (assuming such is even possible). It might be because of the NL-FM-PD-C meme taking over or it could be that it simply takes almost all energy just to get to the technological point of getting off the planet and further technological advancement becomes too expensive.
Regardless, I think it is extremely likely that our genus, if it manages to survive the next ten thousand years, will be a long time getting back to a technological level close to what we have today. We won't be exploring the galaxy any time soon. We will be taking a giant leap backwards, resetting our evolutionary progression. And it will be quite a while before a wiser, perhaps smarter, species derived from Homo sapiens will be looking into leaving Earth again.
Actually the relevant measure is not body counts but biomass increase per unit time. The resource consumption rate is dependent on this factor which takes into account things like demographic distribution of ages.
The term is being used here in its ideological sense. The new “liberals” believe in the supremacy of the free-market and capitalism as the very best economic model insofar as it produces enormous wealth. See the Wikipedia article for more details and read Naomi Kline's The Shock Doctrine.
Interestingly luck is never mentioned in this narrative. Yet if you read the biographies of so-called self-made people (mostly white males) you cannot help but note the significance of being in the right place at the right time and meeting the right people had on so many stories. Granted being prepared to take advantage of luck was important, but the luck itself was far more significant than the neoliberal narrative lets on.
The work of psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman (see: Heuristics and biases) and many experimental economists have decidedly demonstrated that humans, even corporate captains, are far from rational decision makers when it comes to economics.
In Congressional testimony on October 23, 2008, Greenspan finally conceded error on regulation. The New York Times wrote, "a humbled Mr. Greenspan admitted that he had put too much faith in the self-correcting power of free markets and had failed to anticipate the self-destructive power of wanton mortgage lending. ... Mr. Greenspan refused to accept blame for the crisis but acknowledged that his belief in deregulation had been shaken."
By steady-state I mean a system that is in the very long run receiving an average influx of energy that is used to produce exactly the amount of wealth that is needed to balance that degraded by consumption and entropy. This would have been the case for the earliest human tribes whether hunter-gatherers or early farmers.
My favorite analyses of civilization collapses include Joseph Tainter's The Collapse of Complex Societies and Thomas Homer-Dixon's The Upside of Down.
An unskilled worker will tend to use more energy for the same output delivered so the final price has to be adjusted accordingly. The energy being used for measurement purposes is net ‘free’, in the thermodynamic sense, which takes this into account.
I recently became aware of another “flavor” of systems based agriculture called agro-ecology. Though I have only just started investigating this concept it appears to be mostly about food production whereas permaculture addresses more holistic community living.
If you only read one book on any of the issues related to Ecos damage and its relation to the NL-FM-PD-C model I strongly recommend This Changes Everything by Naomi Klein. She has done her homework. I disagree with some of her characterizations of alternative energy being ready to take over from fossil fuels; she has cited a few engineers who produced a grand scheme several years back, reported in Scientific American, that I have already critiqued and has been criticised by a number of other energy researchers. Nevertheless, her ability to connect the dots of finance, ideologies, politics, governance failures, and geophysical realities is in the best tradition of systems thinking.
See: Maynard Smith, John & Szathmáry, Eörs (1995). The Major Transitions in Evolution, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Several other books on this topic have been written in the past few years. The field of group-based evolutionary selection is now fairly well established even if there remain some significant questions about the implications.
My own preferred explanation is that they simply don't want to be detected. If they had at all monitored activity on Earth they would more or less likely not want to get involved with such primitive beings as ourselves. | 2019-04-19T10:51:48Z | https://questioneverything.typepad.com/question_everything/2015/01/index.html |
Grinnell College is a private liberal arts college in Grinnell, Iowa. It was founded in 1846 when a group of New England Congregationalists established the Trustees of Iowa College. Grinnell is known for its rigorous academics, innovative pedagogy, and commitment to social justice.
Grinnell has the sixth highest endowment-to-student ratio of liberal arts colleges, enabling need blind admissions and substantial academic merit scholarships to boost socioeconomic diversity. Students receive funding for unpaid or underpaid summer internships and professional development (including international conferences and professional attire). Grinnell participates in a 3–2 engineering dual degree program with Columbia University, Washington University in St. Louis, and California Institute of Technology, a 2–1–1–1 engineering program with Dartmouth College and a Master of Public Health cooperative degree program with University of Iowa.
Nearly half of enrolled Grinnellians self-identify as international students or students of color. Among Grinnell alumni are 14 Rhodes Scholars, 119 Fulbright Scholars (Since 2005), 79 Watson Fellows, 13 Goldwater Scholars, and one Nobel laureate. Its alumni include actor Gary Cooper, chemist Thomas Cech, Intel co-founder Robert Noyce, jazz musician Herbie Hancock, government administrator Harry Hopkins, and comedian Kumail Nanjiani.
The 120-acre campus includes several listings on the National Register of Historic Places as well as a César Pelli designed ultra-modern student center, integrated academic complexes, and state-of-the-art athletics facilities. Grinnell College also manages significant real estate adjacent to the campus and in the historic downtown, a free-access golf course, and the 365-acre Conard Environmental Research Area.
U.S. News & World Report ranked Grinnell 11th best overall and 2nd best for undergraduate teaching among liberal arts colleges.
In 1843, eleven Congregational ministers, all of whom trained at Andover Theological Seminary in Massachusetts, set out to proselytize on the frontier. Each man pledged to gather a church and together the group or band would seek to establish a college. When the group arrived in Iowa later that year, each selected a different town in which to establish a congregation. In 1846, they collectively established Iowa College in Davenport. A few months later, Iowa joined the Union. The first 25 years of Grinnell's history saw a change in name and location. Iowa College moved farther west from Davenport, Iowa, to the town of Grinnell and unofficially adopted the name of its new home, which itself had been named for one of its founders: an abolitionist minister, Josiah Bushnell Grinnell, to whom journalist Horace Greeley supposedly wrote "Go West, young man, go West." However, Greeley vehemently denied ever saying this to Grinnell, or to anyone. The name of the corporation, "The Trustees of Iowa College," remained, but in 1909 the name "Grinnell College" was adopted by the trustees for the institution.
Josiah Bushnell Grinnell: one of the four founders of Grinnell, Iowa and benefactor of Grinnell College.
In 1882, Grinnell College was struck by a tornado — then called a cyclone, after which the college yearbook was named. The storm devastated the campus and destroyed both College buildings. Rebuilding began immediately, and the determination to expand wasn't limited to architecture: the curriculum was again extended to include departments in political science (the first in the United States) and modern languages.
Concern with social issues, educational innovation, and individual expression continue to shape Grinnell. As an example, the school's "5th year travel-service program," preceded the establishment of the Peace Corps by many years. Other recent innovations include first-year tutorials, cooperative pre-professional programs, and programs in quantitative studies and the societal impacts of technology. Every year, the college awards the $100,000 Grinnell College Innovator for Social Justice Prize, which is split between the recipient and their organization.
Grinnell College is located in the town of Grinnell, Iowa, about halfway between Des Moines and Iowa City. The main campus is bounded by 6th Avenue (which is also US Highway 6) on the south, 10th Avenue on the north, East Street on the east and Park Street on the west. The 120-acre (0.49 km2) campus contains sixty-three buildings ranging in style from Collegiate Gothic to Bauhaus. Goodnow Hall and Mears Cottage (1889) are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Immediately west of the college is the North Grinnell Historic District, which contains over 200 National Register of Historic Places contributing buildings.
East Campus dormitories connected by Grinnell's distinctive loggia.
The residential part of campus is divided into three sections: North Campus, East Campus, and South Campus. North and South Campus' dormitories are modeled explicitly after the residential colleges of Oxford and Cambridge. The four East Campus dormitories were designed by William Rawn Associates and feature a modern, LEED-certified design constructed from Iowa limestone.
All three campuses feature dormitory buildings connected by loggia, an architectural signature of the college. The loggia on South Campus is the only entirely closed loggia, featuring walls on all sides, while the loggias on East and North campus are only partially closed. From the time that the first dorm opened in 1915 until the fall of 1968, the nine north campus dorms were used exclusively for male students, and the six south campus dorms reserved for female students. The dorm halls house significantly fewer students than halls at other colleges.
Most academic buildings are located on the southwestern quarter of campus. The athletic facilities are mostly located on the northeastern quarter, and some facilities are located north of 10th Avenue.
In addition to the main campus, the college owns much of the adjacent property. Many administrative offices are located in converted houses across Park Street near the older academic buildings, and several residences are used for college-owned off-campus student housing.
The college maintains a 365-acre (1.48 km2) environmental research area called the Conard Environmental Research Area (CERA). The U.S. Green Building Council awarded CERA's Environmental Education Center a gold certification. The building is the first in Iowa to receive the designation.
During the 2000s, the College completed the Charles Benson Bear '39 Recreation and Athletic Center, the Bucksbaum Center for the Arts, the renovation of the Robert Noyce '49 Science Center and the Joe Rosenfield '25 Student Center. Internationally renowned architect César Pelli designed the athletics center, the Joe Rosenfield '25 Student Center, and the Bucksbaum Center for the Arts.
The college has recently embarked on a significant period of new construction, which is expected to last until 2034. The first phase of this construction process includes a comprehensive landscaping update, a new Admissions and Financial Aid building, and the Humanities and Social Sciences Complex (HSSC). This first phase will cost $140 million and is projected for completion in mid-2020.
Grinnell College is nationally recognized as a leading undergraduate institution. In July 2006, The New York Times included Grinnell in its profile of the 20 colleges and universities of "established or rising scholarship" which are fast becoming viable alternatives to Ivy League institutions, and is considered one of the 30 Hidden Ivies.
The 2018 annual ranking of U.S. News & World Report rates it tied for the 19th best liberal arts college in the nation and 4th for "Best Undergraduate Teaching." The College has been consistently ranked in the top 25 liberal arts colleges in the nation since the publication began in 1983. Kiplinger's Personal Finance ranks Grinnell 9th in its 2016 ranking of "best value" liberal arts colleges in the United States. Grinnell was ranked 15th in the 2015 Washington Monthly rankings, which focus on key outputs such as research, dollar value of scientific grants won, the number of graduates going on to earn Ph.D. degrees, and certain types of public service. In Forbes magazine's 2018 rankings of academic institutions, "America's Top Colleges" (which uses a non-traditional ranking system based on RateMyProfessors.com evaluations, notable alumni, student debt, percentage of students graduating in four years, and the number of students or faculty receiving prestigious awards), Grinnell College was ranked 57th among all colleges and universities, 28th among liberal arts colleges, and 8th in the Midwest.
Data from 2006 placed Grinnell at number eight among all U.S. undergraduate institutions in the proportion of graduates who go on to earn Ph.D. degrees and 15th for graduating female Ph.D. earners. Grinnell College graduates enjoy a high acceptance rate to law school; over 46% of all applications submitted by students have been accepted by law schools. Unigo.com's 2010 college rankings place Grinnell College in the "Top 10 Colleges Where the Pursuit of Knowledge Goes Outside the Classroom".
Grinnell had 171 full-time faculty in Fall 2015, 98% of whom possess a doctorate or the terminal degree in their field. At the end of each semester, students fill out course surveys which play a large role in determining faculty tenure decisions and merit raises.
Grinnell's open curriculum encourages students to take initiative and to assume responsibility for their own courses of study. The sole core, or general education, requirement is the completion of the First-Year Tutorial, a one-semester, four-credit special topics seminar that stresses methods of inquiry, critical analysis, and writing skills. All other classes are chosen, with the direct guidance of a faculty member in the student's major department, by the student.
The academic program at Grinnell College emphasizes active learning and one-on-one interactions between faculty members and students. There are few large lecture classes. In sharp contrast to all public universities and many private universities in the United States, no classes, labs or other courses are taught by graduate students.
Grinnell College expects all students to possess significant academic achievements. For example, the math department does not offer any basic-level classes such as college algebra, trigonometry, or pre-calculus, and remedial classes are not offered in any subject. However, several independent, non-credit programs assist students who need help in a specific subject. Among these programs are the Library Lab, Math Lab, Reading Lab, Science Learning Center, and the Writing Lab. While private tutors can be hired, participation in these programs is free for any enrolled student.
Grinnell has twenty-six major departments and ten interdisciplinary concentrations. Popular majors include Psychology, Economics, Biology, History, English, and Political Science. The minimum requirements in a major area of study are typically limited to 32 credits in a single department, with some departments additionally requiring a small number of classes in related fields that are deemed critical for all students in that field. For example, the biology program requires 32 credits in the biology department plus two classes in chemistry and one in math. Many students exceed the minimum requirements.
To graduate, students are normally expected to complete at least 32 credits in a major field and a total of 124 credits of academic work. To encourage students to explore courses outside of their primary interest area, no more than 48 credits in one department and no more than 92 credits in one division are counted towards this requirement.
Grinnell's commitment to the importance of off-campus study reflects the school's emphasis on social and political awareness and the international nature of its campus. Approximately 60 percent of all Grinnell students participate in at least one of more than seventy off-campus programs, including the Grinnell-in-London program and study tours of China, France, Greece, and Russia. These study programs in Europe (including Russia), Africa, the Near East, and Asia, as well as nine programs in Central and South America, provide the opportunity for research in many disciplines, from archaeology to education to mathematics. In addition to off-campus programs, Grinnell offers internship programs in such areas as urban studies, art, and marine biology for students interested in field-based learning and experience in professional settings. Second- and third-year students may apply for summer internship grants and receive credit for the experience. Semester programs in the United States include those at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Newberry Library, National Theatre Institute, and Grinnell-in-Washington, D.C.
Grinnell also has invested in several interdisciplinary programs: the Center for Prairie Studies, Center for the Humanities, Center for International Studies, Noun Program in Women's Studies, Peace Studies Program, Rosenfield Public Affairs Program, and the Donald L. Wilson Program in Enterprise and Leadership.
U.S. News & World Report classifies Grinnell's selectivity as "most selective." For Fall 2015, Grinnell received 6,414 freshmen applications; 1,598 were admitted (24.9%). Of the 41% of enrolled freshmen who submitted class rank, 81% were in the top 10% of their high school classes and 96% were in the top quarter. The middle 50% range of SAT scores for the enrolled freshmen was 640–740 for critical reading and 660–770 for math, while the ACT Composite range was 30–33.
Grinnell College's admission selectivity rating, according to The Princeton Review in 2008, is a 95 out of 99. This rating is determined by several institutionally reported factors, including: the class rank, average standardized test scores, and average high school GPA of entering freshmen; the percentage of students who hail from out-of-state; and the percentage of applicants accepted.
The primary factor in evaluating applicants is the quality of the education they have received, as shown by their transcript. Additional factors include standardized test scores, student writing skills, recommendations, and extracurricular activities.
Early decision rounds are offered to students in the fall; most students apply in January of their final year in high school. Admission decisions are released by April 1 of each year. All students begin classes in August.
The students' expectation of needing financial assistance does not affect the admission process.
Despite the growing trend of U.S. students taking five or more years to finish an undergraduate degree, Grinnell College is strongly oriented towards students being enrolled full-time in exactly eight consecutive semesters at the college, although exceptions are available for medical issues and other emergencies. To avoid being suspended from the college, students must make "normal progress towards graduation." This generally means that the student must pass at least 12 credits of classes in each individual semester, with grades C or higher, and have accumulated enough credits to make graduation possible at the end of four years, which requires an average of 15.5 credits each semester. A student who is not making normal progress towards graduation is placed on academic probation and may be dismissed from the college.
Nationwide, only 20% of college students complete a four-year undergraduate degree within four years, and only 57% of college students graduate within six years. However, at Grinnell College, 84% of students graduate within four years. This is the highest graduation rate of any college in Iowa.
Grinnell's combined tuition, room, board, and fees for the 2013–2014 academic year is $53,654. Tuition and fees are $43,656 and room and board are $9,998.
Grinnell College is one of a few dozen US colleges that maintain need-blind admissions and meets the full demonstrated financial need of all U.S. residents who are admitted to the college. Grinnell offers a large amount of need-based and merit-based aid in comparison with peer institutions. About 90% of students receive some form of financial aid. In 2013–2014, 24% of students enrolled at Grinnell College were receiving federal Pell Grants, which are generally reserved for students from low-income families. The average financial aid package is over $26,000.
With the first-year students enrolled in the 2006–2007 school year, Grinnell has ended its need-blind admissions policy for international applicants. Under the old policy, students from countries outside the U.S. were admitted without any consideration of their ability to afford four years of study at the college. However, financial aid offers to these students were limited to half the cost of tuition. International students frequently carried very high workloads in an effort to pay the bills, and their academic performance often suffered. Under the new "need-sensitive" or "need-aware" policy, international students whose demonstrated financial needs can be met are given a slight admissions edge over applicants who can't. The twin hopes are that the enrolled international students will be able to dedicate more energy to their schoolwork, and also that this will ultimately allow the college to provide higher tuition grants to international students.
Additionally, several extremely competitive "special scholarships" were set up to meet the full demonstrated financial needs for students from the following countries or regions: Africa, Eastern and Central Europe, Latin America, Middle East and Asia, Nepal, the People's Republic of China, as well as for native speakers of Russian regardless of citizenship, available every other year.
According to data for students enrolled approximately in 2008, the median family income for students was US$119,700 (74th percentile). This is somewhat lower than typical for other highly selective schools. Compared to other schools in the Midwestern Conference and to other highly selective schools, Grinnell College enrolled more students whose family income was in the lowest quintile (6.3% of enrolled students).
The school's varsity sports teams are named the Pioneers. They participate in eighteen intercollegiate sports at the NCAA Division III level and in the Midwest Conference. In addition, Grinnell has several club sports teams that compete in non-varsity sports such as volleyball, sailing, water polo, ultimate and rugby union.
Nearly one-third of recent Grinnell graduates participated in at least one of varsity sports while attending the college and the college has led the Midwest Conference in the total number of Academic All-Conference honorees in last six years.
The men's water polo team, known as the Wild Turkeys, were runners-up in the 2007 College Water Polo Association (CWPA) Division III Collegiate National Club Championships hosted by Lindenwood University in St. Charles, Missouri. They also qualified for the tournament in 2008, 2009, 2011, 2013, and 2014. The Men's Ultimate team, nicknamed the Grinnellephants, qualified in 2008 for its first Division III National Championship in Versailles, Ohio. The Women's Ultimate team, nicknamed The Sticky Tongue Frogs, tied for third place in the 2010 Division III National Championship in Appleton, Wisconsin. The success was repeated in 2011 when the men's team placed third in 2011 Division III National Championship in Buffalo.
In February 2005, Grinnell became the first Division III school featured in a regular season basketball game by the ESPN network family in 30 years when it faced off against the Beloit Buccaneers on ESPN2. Grinnell lost 86–85. Grinnell College's basketball team attracted ESPN due to the team's run and gun style of playing basketball, known in Grinnell simply as "The System." Coach Dave Arseneault originated the Grinnell System that incorporates a continual full-court press, a fast-paced offense, an emphasis on offensive rebounding, a barrage of three-point shots and substitutions of five players at a time every 35 to 40 seconds. This allows a higher average playing time for more players than the "starters" and suits the Division III goals of scholar-athletes. "The System" has been criticized for not teaching the principles of defense. However, under "The System," Grinnell has won three conference championships over the past ten years and have regularly placed in the top half of the conference. Coach Arseneault's teams have set numerous NCAA scoring records and several individuals on the Grinnell team have led the nation in scoring or assists.
On November 19, 2011 Grinnell player Griffin Lentsch set a new Division III individual scoring record in a game against Principia College. The 6-foot-4-inch (1.93 m) guard scored 89 points, besting the old record of 77, also set by a Pioneers player—Jeff Clement—in 1998. Lentsch made 27 of his 55 shots, including 15 three-pointers as Grinnell won the high-scoring game 145 to 97. On November 20, 2012 Grinnell's Jack Taylor broke Lentsch's scoring record, as well as the records for NCAA and collegiate scoring, in a 179–104 victory over Faith Baptist Bible. Taylor scored 138 points on 108 shots, along with 3 rebounds, 6 turnovers and 3 steals. Taylor went 27–71 from behind the arc. Taylor scored 109 points in a November 2013 game against Crossroads College to become the first player in NCAA history to have two 100-point games.
Students at Grinnell adhere to an honor system known as "self-governance" wherein they are expected to govern their own choices and behavior with minimal direct intervention by the college administration. By cultivating a community based on freedom of choice, self-governance aims to encourage students to become responsible, respectful, and accountable members of the campus, town, and global community.
The organizational structure of the Student Government Association, wielding a yearly budget of over $450,000 and unusually strong administrative influence, covers almost all aspects of student activity and campus life.
Founded in November 2000, the student-run Student Endowment Investing Group (SEIG), actively invests over $100,000 of Grinnell College's endowment in the stock market. The group's mission is to provide interested students with valuable experience for future careers in finance.
Service organizations are popular. The Alternative Break ("AltBreak") program takes students to pursue service initiatives during school holidays, and as of 2005, Grinnell had more alumni per capita serving in the Peace Corps than any other college in the nation. The college also runs its own post-graduation service program known as Grinnell Corps in Grinnell, China, Namibia, New Orleans, and Thailand, and has previously operated programs in Greece, Lesotho, Macau, and Nepal.
The Scarlet and Black is the campus newspaper and KDIC (88.5 FM) is the student-run radio station. The Scarlet and Black, or the S&B is the first college newspaper west of the Mississippi River and is currently in its 130th year of publication. The newspaper, typically 16 tabloid pages in length, is published in print most Fridays of the school year and online. Students primarily write the newspaper, although occasional letters from alumni or faculty are included. Funding comes from student fees and advertisers.
The school also has a monthly satirical newspaper, "The B&S", which features made-up articles about current events both on and off campus.
In April 2007, Grinnell college students founded the Social Entrepreneurs of Grinnell, a student operated microfinance lending institution. The group collects donations for the purpose of making small loans at zero interest to business owners and artisans around the world. It is affiliated with kiva.org.
Grinnell also has an entirely student-run textbook lending library on campus. Aimed at the economically disadvantaged yet open to all, it allows students to check out books for the semester for free, defraying the high cost of college textbooks. The library has no funding, relying solely on books donated. Since its founding in 2005, the collection has grown to thousands of books due to the generosity of the campus community. The library has expanded to include caps and gowns, which are lent out to graduating seniors every spring.
Grinnell hosts the Titular Head film festival.
In 2016, Grinnell students founded the Union of Grinnell Student Dining Workers, or UGSDW, to represent student workers in the College's dining hall. It was the first undergraduate student union at a private college in the United States. Since its founding, UGSDW has secured numerous wage increases and benefits for dining hall workers. In September 2017, UGSDW announced their intention to expand the union to all student workers and create "the most unionized campus in the country," which, if successful, would be another nationwide first. This effort received considerable resistance from College administration, which claims complete unionization "would negatively impact Grinnell’s mission and culture — shifting away from an individually advised, experiential, residential, liberal arts education in which work on campus plays a major educational role." UGSDW won their subsequent NLRB election by a margin of 5 to 1, but Grinnell College filed a request for review to the National Labor Relations Board. This move would likely have lead to an overturn of the Columbia decision, which affirms the right of student workers to organize across the United States. Acknowledging the possible ramifications of the College's actions, UGSDW withdrew their petition from NLRB consideration on December 14, 2018 but vowed to continue fighting for total expansion of representation on campus.
Hallie Flanagan, 1911, pioneer of experimental theatre and director, the Federal Theatre Project of the Works Progress Administration; first woman to win a Guggenheim.
Harry Hopkins, 1912, senior advisor to Franklin Delano Roosevelt, principal architect of New Deal, WPA administrator.
Joseph Welch, 1914, head attorney for United States Army during Army-McCarthy Hearings.
Gary Cooper, 1922, Academy Award-winning actor, best known for High Noon.
Amy Clampitt, 1941, poet and critic.
Robert Noyce, 1949, co-founder of Intel, co-inventor of integrated circuit (the other co-inventor, Jack Kilby, won the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics for the integrated circuit), National Medal of Science recipient.
Herbie Hancock, 1960, Grammy Award-winning jazz musician and composer.
Thomas Cech, 1970, co-winner of 1989 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, president of Howard Hughes Medical Institute.
Tom Cole, 1971, U.S. Congressman of Oklahoma's 4th District.
Edward Hirsch, 1972, poet and critic.
Bernice King, 1985, American minister, best known as the youngest daughter of slain civil rights leader, Dr. Martin Luther King and Coretta Scott King.
Ian Roberts, 1987, actor and co-founder of the Upright Citizens Brigade.
Kumail Nanjiani, 2001, Academy Award nominated writer, actor and comedian, best known for role on TV series Silicon Valley and co-authorship and performance in film The Big Sick.
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"Iowa College" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905. | 2019-04-25T14:14:42Z | http://en.turkcewiki.org/wiki/Grinnell_College |
Cytoplasmic polyadenylation is a conserved mechanism that controls mRNA translation and stability. A key protein that promotes polyadenylation-induced translation of mRNAs in maturing Xenopus oocytes is the cytoplasmic polyadenylation element binding protein (CPEB). During this meiotic transition, CPEB is subjected to phosphorylation-dependent ubiquitination and partial destruction, which is necessary for successive waves of polyadenylation of distinct mRNAs. Here we identify the peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase Pin1 as an important factor mediating CPEB destruction. Pin1 interacts with CPEB in an unusual manner in which it occurs prior to CPEB phosphorylation and prior to Pin1 activation by serine 71 dephosphorylation. Upon induction of maturation, CPEB becomes phosphorylated, which occurs simultaneously with Pin1 dephosphorylation. At this time, the CPEB-Pin1 interaction requires cdk1-catalyzed CPEB phosphorylation on S/T-P motifs. Subsequent CPEB ubiquitination and destruction are mediated by a conformational change induced by Pin1 isomerization of CPEB. Similar to M phase progression in maturing Xenopus oocytes, the destruction of CPEB during the mammalian cell cycle requires Pin1 as well. These data identify Pin1 as a new and essential factor regulating CPEB degradation.
Cytoplasmic polyadenylation is a widespread phenomenon that controls the translation and stability of mRNAs. Although some molecular details may differ according to species and/or cell type, much of the biochemistry of cytoplasmic polyadenylation that has been elucidated in Xenopus oocytes during meiotic progression serves to illustrate the general features of this regulatory process (1). A subset of RNAs that acquire a near-constitutive and typical long poly(A) tail in the nucleus undergo deadenylation in the cytoplasm where they are stored in a translational silent form (2). When the oocytes resume meiosis in response to hormonal (progesterone) stimulation, the activation of a kinase cascade culminates in poly(A) tail lengthening and the initiation of translation (3, 4). The 3′ untranslated region (UTR)-residing cytoplasmic polyadenylation element (CPE) dictates which mRNAs undergo these changes in poly(A). Cytoplasmic polyadenylation element binding protein (CPEB), an RNA recognition motif (RRM) and zinc finger-containing protein, associates with the CPE and a number of other factors, including Gld2, a noncanonical poly(A) polymerase; PARN, a deadenylating enzyme; symplekin, a ribonucleoprotein (RNP) assembly factor; and maskin, a eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) binding protein. Gld2 and PARN are constitutively active, but PARN activity is the more robust, and thus, cytoplasmic CPE-containing mRNAs are deadenylated and stored in an inactive form (5, 6). Maskin binding to eIF4E prevents the assembly of the initiation complex on the 5′ end of the mRNA, thus inhibiting translation (7, 8). Upon reentry into the meiotic divisions, CPEB is subjected to two waves of phosphorylation with two different outcomes. In the first wave, CPEB is phosphorylated by the kinase Aurora A on serine residue 174, which facilitates PARN expulsion from the RNP complex, resulting in Gld2-catalyzed polyadenylation of target mRNAs (5, 6, 9). In a second wave, CPEB undergoes six additional phosphorylation events that are catalyzed by cdk1; these phosphorylations are necessary for ubiquitin-mediated partial destruction of CPEB at the end of meiotic maturation (10).
Although several signaling events lead to ubiquitination and protein destruction, a prevalent one involves phosphorylation of S/T-P (Ser/Thr-Pro) motifs (11–13). For example, the SCF (Skp1–cullin–F-box) E3 complex directs phosphoproteins to be ubiquitinated and destroyed (14, 15). In many cases, phosphorylation-mediated protein destruction involves the peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase Pin1, which binds phosphorylated S/T-P motifs and enhances a normally slow cis-trans isomerization of the peptide bond. Pin1 is composed of an amino-terminal WW (Trp-Trp) domain that serves as a phosphoprotein binding domain and a carboxy-terminal peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase (PPIase) domain, which is essential for catalysis. Because of its broad range of target proteins, Pin1 functions in diverse cellular processes, such as cell cycle control, transcription, splicing regulation, DNA replication, and the DNA damage response (16). Not surprisingly, Pin1 activity is tightly regulated, mainly by phosphorylation, and its misregulation is associated with numerous human diseases, including cancer and neurologic disorders (17, 18).
The conformational changes induced by Pin1 affect the properties of a variety of target proteins. Nevertheless, changes in protein stability are the most common consequence (12). It has been suggested that the cis/trans isomerization and subsequent conformational change imposed by Pin1 establishes a proper three-dimensional architecture for E3 ligase (such as the SCF complex) recognition, resulting in the ubiquitination and destruction of target proteins (12, 14, 19).
We surmised that Pin1 might be involved in CPEB ubiquitination and degradation because it requires cdk1-catalyzed CPEB phosphorylation on S/T-P pairs (10). Here, we identify Pin1 as a major component of the CPEB destruction machinery. Surprisingly, we find that CPEB and Pin1 interact in arrested (immature) oocytes prior to any detectable CPEB phosphorylation. Following hormonal treatment to induce meiotic progression, Pin1 is dephosphorylated and, as a result, its activity is elevated. Coincidentally, CPEB is phosphorylated on 6 S/T-P pairs, which alters its interaction with Pin1 such that their association becomes CPEB phosphorylation dependent. By using a combination of neutralizing Pin1 antibody, Pin1 small interfering RNA (siRNA) depletion, and ectopic expression of wild-type (WT) and mutant Pin1 proteins, we find that it directly mediates CPEB ubiquitination and destruction in maturing Xenopus oocytes and cycling mammalian cells.
Regents and antibodies.The antibodies used in this study include those against Pin1 (H-123; Santa Cruz Biotechnology), CPEB (20), hemagglutinin (HA; Covance), tubulin (Sigma), green fluorescent protein (GFP; Abcam), and cyclin B1 (a kind gift of James Maller, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center). Recombinant Flag-ubiquitin was purchased from Boston Biochem, nontargeting siRNA from Dharmacon, and Pin1 targeting siRNA (Hs_PIN1_5 FlexiTube siRNA) from Qiagen.
Immunoprecipitation assays.Fifty oocytes [some injected with 10 ng of mRNA synthesized with an Ambion mMESSAGE kit and polyadenylated in vitro with Escherichia coli poly(A) polymerase (New England BioLabs)] or HEK293T cells from one 10-cm dish were homogenized in lysis buffer containing 150 mM NaCl, 1% NP-40, 0.5% deoxycholate, 0.1% SDS, 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.7), 1 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF), 1 mM dithiothreitol, and protease inhibitor cocktail (Roche). The lysis buffer in some experiments also contained 10 μg/ml RNase A (Sigma). Clarified supernatants were incubated with Dynabeads protein A (Invitrogen) premixed with Pin1 or CPEB antibody or, as a control, IgG overnight at 4°C. The beads were washed extensively with lysis buffer before elution in SDS sample buffer.
GST pulldown assays.Glutathione-Sepharose 4B (Amersham) coupled with glutathione S-transferase (GST) or GST-Pin1 and washed with 150 mM NaCl, 20 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8), 1 mM MgCl2, and 0.1% NP-40 was mixed with 1 mg of oocyte extract overnight at 4°C. The beads were then washed, and the protein was eluted with 20 mM reduced glutathione. The proteins were resolved by SDS-PAGE and visualized by Western analysis or autoradiography.
Pin1 phosphorylation and activity assays.To examine Pin1 phosphorylation, oocytes, some of which were matured with progesterone, were homogenized in 80 mM β-glycerophosphate, 20 mM EGTA, 15 mM MgCl2, 50 mM NaVO4, and a protease inhibitor cocktail. The lysate was centrifuged for 5 min at 4°C, and the kinase assay performed at 37°C for 30 min in a 50-μl reaction volume containing 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5), 10 mM MgCl2, 50 mM KCl, 1 mM dithiothreitol (DTT), 1 mM EGTA, 0.16 mCi/ml [γ-32P]ATP, and 20 μl oocyte extract. The beads were then washed, and the protein was eluted with reduced glutathione.
The method outlined by Nechama et al. (21) was used to investigate Pin1 activity. Briefly, oocytes were homogenized in reaction buffer containing100 mM NaCl, 50 mM HEPES (pH 7), 2 mM DTT, and 0.04 mg/ml bovine serum albumin (BSA) and the lysates were cleared by centrifugation at 12,000 × g for 10 min (4°C). PPIase activity was measured using equal amounts of oocyte cytoplasmic lysates and α-chymotrypsin (Sigma-Aldrich) using a synthetic tetrapeptide substrate Suc-Ala-Glu-Pro-Phe-pNa (Peptides International). Absorption at 390 nM was measured using an Ultraspec 2000 spectrophotometer. The results were expressed as the mean of three independent measurements at each time point.
Analysis of Pin1-CPEP interaction in mammalian cells.Plasmid-transduced HEK293T cells were split into four 10-cm plates and cultured for 24 h. The medium was then replaced with Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) lacking l-methionine and l-cysteine (Invitrogen) and then supplemented with [35S]methionine (6 μCi/ml) for 45 min. The cells were then washed with cold phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and replaced with fresh DMEM supplement with 10% fetal calf serum (FCS). At the indicated times, the cells were washed with cold PBS, lysed, and processed for protein analysis.
For cell cycle analysis, HEK293T cells were arrested at S phase using double thymidine block as described previously (22). Briefly, 30% of confluent cells were incubated with DMEM supplemented with 2 mM thymidine for 18 h. The cells were washed and maintained in fresh DMEM for 9 h previous to a second block with 2 mM thymidine for another 17 h. The cells were then released by replacement of the culture medium. At the different time points after the release, the cells were washed and fixed using ice-cold 95% ethanol. The cells were sorted at the University of Massachusetts Medical Flow Cytometry Core Facility.
Statistics.Values are reported as means ± standard errors of the means (SEM) unless otherwise stated; the data were analyzed by a Student's two-tailed t test with the significance set at a P value of <0.05.
Pin1 interacts with CPEB in a phosphorylation-independent manner.To investigate the possible involvement of Pin1 in CPEB destruction, extracts from Xenopus oocytes treated with progesterone to induce oocyte maturation were probed for Pin1, CPEB, and tubulin. The Western blots in Fig. 1A show that, as expected, CPEB decreased in amount as maturation progressed (10) while Pin1 levels were mostly unchanged. Because CPEB-mediated destruction requires cdk1-catalyzed, proline-directed serine/threonine phosphorylation (10), which also serves as recognition sites for Pin1, we examined a possible CPEB and Pin1 interaction. Extracts from oocytes treated with progesterone for varying times were used for immunoprecipitation of Pin1 and Western blotting for both Pin1 and CPEB (Fig. 1B). Pin1 and CPEB coimmunoprecipitated at 2, 4, and 6 h after progesterone treatment, which was coincident with CPEB phosphorylation (10). This interaction occurred in the presence or absence of RNase, indicating that RNA binding was not essential. Surprisingly, however, Pin1 and CPEB coimmunoprecipitated even from oocytes not exposed to progesterone when CPEB is not phosphorylated (3, 10). This unexpected and highly unusual result prompted us to examine this interaction further in a number of different ways. First, RNA encoding Flag-Pin1 was injected into oocytes, followed by an overnight incubation and Flag immunoprecipitation and Western blotting for Flag and CPEB. Figure 1C shows that CPEB was coimmunoprecipitated with ectopically expressed Pin1 from oocytes not exposed to progesterone. Second, to assess CPEB phosphorylation during maturation, some oocytes injected with [γ-32P]ATP and treated with progesterone for 4 h were used for CPEB immunoprecipitation and phosphorimaging; Fig. 1D shows that 32P-labeled CPEB was detected after, but not before progesterone application. Third, extracts from control or progesterone-treated oocytes were applied to GST or GST-Pin1 columns, followed by Western blotting for CPEB and tubulin as a negative control. We also blotted for maskin, a well-known CPEB-interacting protein (23) that is phosphorylated by cdk1 after progesterone treatment (8) and serves as a positive control for the GST-Pin1 pulldown (Fig. 1E). CPEB interacted with Pin1 irrespective of whether the oocytes were exposed to progesterone. On the other hand, maskin interaction with Pin1 was evident only after progesterone treatment when maskin is phosphorylated on S/T-P motifs. Fourth, to assess whether CPEB from immature oocytes might be phosphorylated, which previously went undetected, oocyte extracts were treated with calf intestinal alkaline phosphatase (CIP) and then subjected to CPEB-Pin1 coimmunoprecipitation. Figure 1F demonstrates a strong interaction between these proteins irrespective of CIP treatment. Finally, to identify the Pin1 interaction site(s) on CPEB prior to its phosphorylation, mRNA encoding HA-tagged CPEB deletion mutants (Fig. 1G) were injected into oocytes and, after overnight incubation, extracts were subjected to Pin1 immunoprecipitation and Western blotted for HA. Figure 1H (center panel) shows that the deletion of three regions, the RRMs, residues 48 to 183, and residues 211 to 290 abrogated the CPEB-Pin1 interaction. To further assess the need for these regions for Pin1 interaction, the different CPEB mutant proteins were ectopically expressed in oocytes as before. Extracts were then applied to GST or GST-Pin1 columns, followed by Western blotting for HA (Fig. 1H, right panel). As with the coimmunoprecipitation assay, deletion of the RRMs, residues 48 to 183, and residues 211 to 290 prevented the CPEB-Pin1 interaction. To identify the minimal region needed for Pin1 interaction, the three regions deleted in the experiments noted above were HA tagged and ectopically expressed by mRNA injection (Fig. 1I). Pin1 interacted with CPEB residues 48 to 183 but not the RRMs. We were unable to detect residues 211 to 290, probably because of the region's small size (∼7 kDa). We conclude that Pin1 associates with CPEB residues 48 to 183 in a phosphorylation-independent manner.
CPEB and Pin1 interact in a phosphorylation-independent manner. (A) Western blots of CPEB and Pin1 during progesterone-induced oocyte maturation. Tubulin served as a loading control. (B) Extracts from oocytes exposed to progesterone for 0 to 6 h were subjected to Pin1 immunoprecipitation in the absence or presence of RNase A and Western blotting for Pin1, CPEB, and tubulin. The input represents 10% of the total lysate. (C) Oocytes were injected with mRNA encoding Flag-Pin1 and subjected to Flag immunoprecipitation and Western blot analysis for Flag and CPEB. Control refers to nonspecific IgG immunoprecipitation. (D) Oocytes were injected with [γ-32P]ATP, followed by treatment with progesterone for 0 or 4 h, immunoprecipitation of CPEB, and SDS-PAGE and autoradiography. (E) Extracts from oocytes exposed to progesterone for 0 to 6 h were applied to GST or GST-Pin1 columns, followed by Western blotting for CPEB, tubulin, and maskin. (F) Oocyte extracts were treated with calf intestinal alkaline phosphatase (CIP) prior to immunoprecipitation of Pin1 and CPEB and blotting for CPEB, Pin1, and tubulin. (G) Schematic of CPEB deletion mutants. (H) mRNA encoding HA-tagged CPEB deletion mutants (numbered in panel G) were injected into oocytes, followed by Pin1 immunoprecipitation and Western blotting for Pin1 and HA (center panel) or chromatography on a GST or GST-Pin1 column (right panels). The asterisk denotes the HA-CPEB proteins. (I) mRNA encoding HA-tagged CPEB proteins 48 to 183 and RRM were injected into oocytes, followed by Pin1 immunoprecipitation and Western blotting for HA and Pin1. The asterisk denotes CPEB HA 48–183.
Pin1 interacts with CPEB in two steps.The data in Fig. 1 demonstrate that the interaction of CPEB with Pin1 is CPEB phosphorylation independent in immature (G2-arrested) oocytes. To evaluate the interaction of Pin1 and CPEB in vitro and the contribution of each of the Pin1 domains to this interaction, mRNAs encoding WT CPEB and the Δ48–183 CPEB mutant were translated in rabbit reticulocyte lysates in the presence of [35S]methionine. The lysates were then subjected to pulldown experiments using GST, GST-Pin1, and GST-WW and GST-PPIase proteins, which correspond to the Pin1 WW domain and Pin1 PPIase domains, respectively. As expected, GST-Pin1 interacted with full-length CPEB and not with the Δ48–183 CPEB mutant (Fig. 2A). Interestingly, full-length CPEB interacted with the GST-WW domain to the same extent as it did with GST-Pin1 but failed to interact with the GST-PPIase domain alone. As negative controls, neither of them interacted with the Δ48–183 CPEB mutant. These results indicate that the interaction between CPEB and Pin1, prior to detectable CPEB phosphorylation, requires the WW domain and the region spanning amino acids 48 to 183 of CPEB. Because CPEB has six known cdk1 S/T-P phosphorylation sites (10), we decided to investigate whether they might be involved in the Pin1-CPEB interaction after oocyte maturation. Consequently, mRNAs encoding WT HA-CPEB or a HA-CPEB mutant with alanine substitutions for the six phospho-S/T residues (referred to as CPEB-6A) were injected into oocytes that were then stimulated with progesterone. As demonstrated previously, Pin1 interacted with WT CPEB both before and after progesterone treatment (Fig. 2B). However, although CPEB-6A interacted with Pin1 prior to progesterone stimulation, it interacted only very weakly after stimulation (Fig. 2B). To examine this further, extracts from oocytes either before or after 4 h of progesterone treatment were mixed with bacteriophage λ phosphatase, which dephosphorylates S/T residues. The extracts were then subjected to chromatography on GST or GST-Pin1 columns followed by Western blotting for CPEB. As shown in Fig. 2C and D, the CPEB interaction with Pin1 before progesterone treatment was not affected by λ phosphatase treatment. Conversely, treatment of mature oocyte extracts with λ phosphatase reduced the CPEB-Pin1 interaction by more than 50%. These data suggest that CPEB interacts with Pin1 in two steps: step 1 occurs in immature oocytes and does not involve phosphorylation, while step 2 takes place after progesterone treatment and is mediated by the phosphorylation of CPEB on one or more S/T-P pairs.
A two-step interaction between CPEB and Pin1. (A) mRNA encoding WT HA-tagged CPEB or the Δ48–183 CPEB mutant was in vitro translated in the presence of [35S]methionine and used for pulldown assays with GST-Pin1, the GST-WW domain, or the GST-PPIase domain as the bait. (B) mRNA encoding WT HA-tagged CPEB or a CPEB mutant with alanine substitutions for serine or threonine residues that are phosphorylated during maturation (CPEB 6A) was injected into oocytes that were then treated with progesterone for 0 or 4 h. Pin1 was then immunoprecipitated and Western blots probed for Pin1 or HA. A mock immunoprecipitation with nonspecific IgG was also performed. (C) Extracts from oocytes treated with progesterone for 0 or 4 h were treated with λ phosphatase and then applied to GST or GST-Pin1 columns. The eluted material was probed for CPEB and tubulin. At right is a Coomassie blue-stained gel showing the integrity of recombinant GST and GST-Pin1. (D) Quantification of the three experiments in panel B. The error bars refer to SEM, and the asterisk indicates statistical significance (P < 0.05). (E) Extracts from untreated or progesterone-treated oocytes were applied to GST, GST-Pin1, GST-Pin1 W34A, or GST-Pin1 K63A columns, followed by Western blotting for CPEB. (F) Control or progesterone-treated oocyte extracts were reciprocally immunoprecipitated for CPEB and Pin1 and blotted for Pin1 and CPEB, respectively.
To assess the contribution of each of the Pin1 domains to the interaction with CPEB either before or after progesterone treatment, we altered GST-Pin1 in either its WW domain (W34A) or its PPIase domain (K63A) and used these mutant proteins for GST-Pin1 pulldown experiments with oocyte extracts before or after progesterone treatment. As shown in Fig. 2E, GST-Pin1 and both mutant proteins interacted with CPEB from untreated oocyte extracts. In contrast, when progesterone-treated oocyte extracts were used, the GST-Pin1 W34A mutant protein failed to interact with CPEB. This result reinforces the notion that the Pin1-CPEB interaction is altered upon CPEB phosphorylation and becomes dependent on phospho-S/P sites. It is worth mentioning that the Pin1 K63A mutation had little effect on the Pin1-CPEB interaction compared to the W34A mutation, which emphasizes the importance of the WW domain in the second step of the interaction. These results suggest that there may be an enhanced Pin1 affinity for phosphorylated CPEB. Because CPEB is a highly insoluble protein, we could not determine the kinetics of CPEB-Pin1 interaction in vitro with purified components. Therefore, we performed a reciprocal immunoprecipitation of Pin1 or CPEB from either untreated or progesterone-treated oocytes and blotted for CPEB or Pin1. As shown in Fig. 2F, when Pin1 was immunoprecipitated, it interacted with CPEB from both untreated and progesterone-treated oocytes. As expected, this interaction was reduced after progesterone treatment because CPEB is partially destroyed in mature oocytes. However, although the reciprocal experiment shows that less CPEB was immunoprecipitated from mature versus immature oocyte extracts, nearly the same amount of Pin1 was coprecipitated from each extract. These results suggest that the elevated Pin1-CPEB interaction after progesterone treatment might be the result of an increased affinity of phospho-CPEB for Pin1.
Pin1 is phosphorylated and inactive prior to progesterone treatment.Pin1 catalytic activity is tightly regulated under normal physiological conditions and is mediated by at least two posttranslational events: protein kinase A (PKA)-mediated phosphorylation of serine 16, which affects its ability to interact with target proteins (24), and DAPK1-catalyzed phosphorylation of serine 71, which inhibits its isomerization activity (25). An additional phosphorylation on serine 65 is catalyzed by PLK (polo-like kinase) (26); however, this phosphorylation event seems to increase Pin1 protein stability rather than affect its activity. To assess whether Pin1 activity is regulated during oocyte maturation, extracts from control and progesterone-treated oocytes were incubated with a synthetic peptide containing a Pin1 interaction site in a cis orientation attached to p-nitroanilide; Pin1 catalyzes a relatively slow peptidyl-prolyl isomerization of the target peptide to the trans conformation, allowing for chymotrypsin cleavage and release of the p-nitroanilide moiety, which is monitored by an absorbance of 390 nm of light (Fig. 3A). Figure 3B shows that progesterone treatment significantly elevated Pin1 activity compared to untreated controls.
Pin1 is activated during oocyte maturation. (A) Schematic to measure Pin1 activity (see the text for details). (B) Extracts from oocytes treated with progesterone for 0 to 6 h were used to assay for Pin1 activity as illustrated in panel A. (C) Extracts from oocytes treated with progesterone for 0 or 4 h were incubated with GST-Pin1 and [γ-32P]ATP; GST-Pin1 was then detected by Coomassie blue staining, and 32P-labeled GST-Pin1 was detected by autoradiography. (D) Oocytes were injected with [γ-32P]ATP, followed by progesterone treatment, immunoprecipitation of Pin1, and detection by Western blotting and autoradiography. (E) Oocytes and mature oocyte extracts were incubated with [γ-32P]ATP and GST-Pin1 or the GST-Pin1 S16A or GST-Pin1 S71A mutant proteins and analyzed by autoradiography. The lower panel shows Coomassie blue-stained GST-Pin1 isoforms.
To examine whether the activation of Pin1 was due to changes in phosphorylation, recombinant GST-Pin1 was incubated with [γ-32P]ATP and extracts from untreated or progesterone-treated oocytes. Figure 3C demonstrates that Pin1 was strongly phosphorylated when incubated with extracts from control oocytes, and this phosphorylation was reduced by ∼60% when incubated with extracts from progesterone-treated oocytes. To investigate whether Pin1 phosphorylation occurs in vivo, [γ-32P]ATP was injected into oocytes that were then incubated with progesterone for 4 h, followed by Pin1 immunoprecipitation. Figure 3D shows that Pin1 was phosphorylated in control oocytes but that this phosphorylation was reduced by almost 70% after progesterone treatment. To determine which residues on Pin1 were phosphorylated in oocytes, serine 16 or 71 was mutated to alanine and the same experiment as in Fig. 3C was performed. As before, GST-Pin1 was phosphorylated using extracts derived from untreated oocytes, which was reduced when extracts from progesterone-treated oocytes were used (Fig. 3E). There was no detectable phosphorylation of the GST-Pin1 S71A mutant protein irrespective of whether extracts from control or progesterone-treated oocytes were used. Interestingly, mutation of serine 16 did not abrogate Pin1 phosphorylation when extracts from control oocytes were used, indicating that serine 16 is not phosphorylated prior to maturation. However, in contrast to WT GST-Pin1, there was no reduction in phosphorylation of the GST-Pin1 S16A mutant protein when extracts from progesterone-treated oocyte extracts were used in the assay. This result might indicate that serine 16 is required for serine 71 dephosphorylation during maturation. Therefore, Pin1 is phosphorylated on serine 71 prior to oocyte maturation and is inactive. After progesterone-induced maturation, Pin1 is dephosphorylated and consequently activated.
Pin1 promotes CPEB destruction.Nearly simultaneous with Pin1 activation are cdk1-catalyzed CPEB phosphorylation, ubiquitination, and partial destruction. We suspected that these events would be linked and began to test this hypothesis by inhibiting Pin1 activity via injection of neutralizing Pin1 antibody into oocytes. Although control IgG injection had no effect on Pin1 isomerase activity during maturation, Pin1 antibody significantly inhibited its activation (Fig. 4A). To assess whether Pin1 mediates CPEB destruction, oocytes were injected with nonspecific IgG or Pin1 antibody, followed by progesterone treatment. The Western blot in Fig. 4B shows that, compared to IgG, Pin1 antibody lowered the rate of CPEB destruction. This result was also confirmed in Fig. 4C; in this case, oocytes injected with IgG or Pin1 antibody were incubated with [35S]methionine for 3 h and then with radio-inert methionine, followed by progesterone treatment and immunoprecipitation of CPEB. Pin1 antibody lowered the rate of destruction of newly synthesized CPEB.
Pin1 enhances ubiquitination and destruction of CPEB. (A) Extracts from oocytes, some of which were treated with progesterone, were injected with IgG or Pin1 antibody, and the cis-trans isomerization analysis as depicted in Fig. 3A was performed. (B) Oocytes were injected with IgG or Pin1 antibody, treated with progesterone, and immunoblotted for CPEB or tubulin. (C) Oocytes were injected with IgG or Pin1 antibody, followed by incubation in [35S]methionine-containing medium for 3 h and progesterone treatment. At the indicated times, the extracts were subjected to CPEB immunoprecipitation and analysis by SDS-PAGE and autoradiography. (D) Oocytes were injected with Flag-Pin1 or control RNA, followed by incubation in [35S]methionine-containing media for 3 h and then treated with progesterone. At the indicated times, the extracts were subjected to CPEB immunoprecipitation and analysis by SDS-PAGE and autoradiography. (E) Oocytes were injected with Flag-ubiquitin peptide together with IgG or Pin1 antibody. CPEB was then immunoprecipitated and probed for CPEB and Flag-ubiquitin (left) or Flag immunoprecipitated and probed for CPEB (right). NS refers to a nonspecific band. (F) Oocytes were injected with IgG or Pin1 antibody, treated with progesterone, and then probed in Western blots for cyclin B and tubulin.
We next performed a reciprocal experiment by examining whether CPEB destruction would be accelerated by the ectopic expression of Pin1. Oocytes were injected with Flag-Pin1 or control noncoding RNA, followed by metabolic labeling of protein with [35S]methionine for 3 h. The oocytes where then chased with radio-inert methionine and treated with progesterone for the indicated times. CPEB was then immunoprecipitated and analyzed by SDS-PAGE (Fig. 4D). Converse to the data shown with neutralizing Pin1 antibody, ectopic Pin1 expression enhanced CPEB destruction, reducing its half-life (t1/2) from 5 h in control oocytes to ∼3 h. These results demonstrate that Pin1 accelerates CPEB destruction.
The phosphorylation of CPEB leads to its ubiquitination and destruction (10, 27, 28). To assess whether Pin1 controls CPEB ubiquitination, oocytes were injected with Flag-ubiquitin peptide and IgG or Pin1 antibody, followed by a 1-h incubation with MG132 to prevent proteosome-mediated protein destruction. The oocytes were then incubated with progesterone, followed by CPEB or Flag immunoprecipitation and probing of Western blots for Flag or CPEB. Figure 4E (left panel) shows that CPEB antibody precipitated Flag-ubiquitin at 4 and 6 h after progesterone treatment when IgG was injected but not when Pin1 antibody was injected. Conversely, immunoprecipitation of Flag and probing with CPEB antibody again showed ubiquitinated CPEB when IgG was injected but not when Pin1 antibody was injected.
In Xenopus oocytes, CPEB destruction is vital for meiotic progression and cyclin B1 mRNA translation (10). To assess whether Pin1 control of CPEB destruction is necessary for cyclin B1 synthesis, oocytes were injected with IgG or Pin1 antibody as above, followed by progesterone treatment and Western blotting for cyclin B1. As demonstrated previously (10), cyclin B1 synthesis increased dramatically after progesterone treatment, which was abrogated by Pin1 antibody (Fig. 4F). These data show a close correlation for Pin1-mediated CPEB destruction, which is necessary for cyclin B1 mRNA translation.
Pin1 regulates CPEB destruction in mammalian cells.We next determined whether Pin1 regulates CPEB activity in mammalian cells. To do this, Flag-CPEB was ectopically expressed in HEK293 cells, followed by Pin1 immunoprecipitation and Western blotting for Flag. As shown in Fig. 5A, tagged CPEB was coimmunoprecipitated with Pin1. We also pulse-labeled cells coexpressing Flag-CPEB and GFP-Pin1, or GFP as a control, with [35S]methionine, followed by a chase with radio-inert methionine. CPEB was then immunoprecipitated and analyzed by SDS-PAGE. Ectopic Pin1 reduced the half-life of CPEB by >50%, from ∼6 h in control cells to less than 3 h in GFP-Pin1–expressing cells (Fig. 5B). Conversely, depletion of Pin1 with siRNA resulted in a 2-fold increase in the CPEB half-life, from 5 h to almost 9 h (Fig. 5C). Therefore, Pin1 regulates CPEB destruction in mammalian cells and in Xenopus oocytes.
Pin1 controls CPEB destruction in mammalian cells. (A) HEK293T cells were transfected with Flag-CPEB, followed by IgG or Pin1 immunoprecipitation and Western analysis for Flag and Pin1. (B) Cells cotransfected with Flag-CPEB and either control GFP vector or GFP-Pin1 were pulse-labeled with [35S]methionine, followed by a chase of radio-inert methionine for the indicated times. The extracts were subjected to Flag immunoprecipitation and analyzed by SDS-PAGE and autoradiography. (C) Cells were cotransfected with Flag-CPEB and either control or Pin1 siRNA followed by pulse-labeling with 35S-methionine and chased with radio-inert methionine for the times indicated, immunoprecipitated for Flag and analyzed by SDS-PAGE and autoradiography. The quantification of 3 experiments is shown on the bottom panel. (D) Cells expressing ectopic WT or W34A or K34A mutant Pin1 proteins (left panel) or R68/69A double mutant Pin1 protein (right panel) were [35S]methionine labeled, followed by a chase of radio-inert methionine, and then immunoprecipitated for Flag-CPEB. (E) Cells expressing ectopic full-length Pin1, Pin1 WW domain, or Pin1 PPIase domain were [35S]methionine labeled, followed by a chase of radio-inert methionine, and then immunoprecipitated for Flag-CPEB. The quantification of three experiments is shown in the right panel.
To determine which of the Pin1 domains is required for regulating CPEB degradation, we repeated the pulse-chase experiment with the Pin1 W34A mutant protein in the WW domain, the Pin1 K63A mutant protein, and the Pin1 R68/69A double mutant protein in the PPIase domain (Fig. 5D). As expected, ectopic GFP-Pin1 expression decreased the CPEB half-life as above. However, in the presence of the Pin1 W34A mutant protein, the CPEB half-life remained mainly unchanged compared to the control ectopic GFP-Pin1-expressing cells. Interestingly, neither the K63A mutant protein nor the R68/69A double mutant protein had a significant effect compared to GFP-Pin1 in that they both significantly reduced the CPEB half-life. To examine whether the Pin1 WW domain is sufficient to induce CPEB destruction, we performed the [35S]methionine pulse-chase experiment as before using ectopic expression of the WW domain or the PPIase domain. In contrast to full Pin1 expression, ectopic expression of either domain had a smaller effect on the CPEB half-life, indicating that both of the domains are necessary for full Pin1 activity.
CPEB becomes phosphorylated and partially destroyed during oocyte maturation, a phase of meiosis that closely resembles the G2-to-M phase transition in mitotic cells. To assess whether CPEB is similarly phosphorylated and destroyed at M phase in the mammalian cell cycle, HEK293 cells were transduced with Flag-CPEB and then synchronized at S phase by a double thymidine block. The cells were then released from the block and monitored for cell cycle progression by flow cytometry (Fig. 6A) and for Flag-CPEB protein levels and CPEB-Pin1 interaction. The flow cytometry analysis shows that the G2-to-M transition occurred 6 to 9 h after entry into the cell cycle. Although there was no change in Pin1 levels at any phase, Flag-CPEB protein levels diminished by 9 h post-entry into the cell cycle (Fig. 6B). This reduction was not due to altered RNA levels, as measured by reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) (Fig. 6C), or a change in translation, as determined by the polysome/monosome ratio of Flag-CPEB mRNA (Fig. 6C).
Cell cycle regulation of CPEB destruction by Pin1. (A) Fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS) analysis in HEK293T cells after release from double thymidine block. (B) Flag-CPEB transduced cells were synchronized by double thymidine block, released, and Pin1 immunoprecipitated at the times indicated and probed for Pin1 and Flag-CPEB. (C) Analysis of total CPEB RNA and the amount in polysomes (expressed as the polysome to monosome ratio), as quantified by quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR (qRT-PCR; average of two experiments) (D) As described for panel A, HEK293 cells were double thymidine blocked; 3 h prior to their cell cycle release, 10 μCi/ml [γ-32P]ATP was added to the culture media. At the indicated times, the cells were lysed and immunoprecipitated for Flag-CPEB. (E) Model for two-step interaction between CPEB and Pin1. In oocytes, unphosphorylated CPEB interacts with Pin1 that is phosphorylated on serine 71. Following progesterone stimulation, Pin1 is dephosphorylated and thereby activated; it then binds and isomerizes phospho-CPEB, resulting in ubiquitination of CPEB and its destruction.
To examine whether the Pin1-CPEB interaction correlates with CPEB destruction during cell cycle progression, Pin1 was immunoprecipitated at different phases of the cell cycle and Western blotted for Flag-CPEB. Figure 6B shows that, although there was very little interaction of Pin1 with CPEB at S phase (t = 0), a Pin1-CPEB association was clearly evident 3 h after release from the thymidine block. By 6 h and, especially, 9 h (G2 to M), when CPEB levels were low, there was a corresponding decrease in Pin1-CPEB interaction. At 12 h after the release, when the Flag-CPEB protein levels increased, there was a restoration of Pin1-CPEB association (Fig. 6B).
Because there is little information regarding CPEB phosphorylation during mitosis in mammalian cells, we double thymidine blocked the cells as before and labeled them in vivo by adding [γ-32P]ATP to the culture medium 3 h prior to release from the block. At the indicated times after the release, the cells were subjected to immunoprecipitation of Flag-CPEB, followed by autoradiography. As shown in Fig. 6D, CPEB was phosphorylated before the release, where the cells were S phase arrested. However, CPEB phosphorylation diminished by 9 h post-entry into the cell cycle, which corresponded to a reduced Pin1-CPEB interaction. These results indicate that, although CPEB is phosphorylated at S phase, it does not interact with Pin1. However, upon cell cycle progression from G2 to M, the CPEB-Pin1 interaction is evident, as was shown in Xenopus oocyte maturation upon hormonal induction. Taken together, we infer that, as shown for Xenopus oocytes, the interaction between CPEB and Pin1 leads to CPEB destruction in HEK293 cells.
Figure 6E summarizes the interaction of CPEB and Pin1. In immature oocytes, Pin1 is phosphorylated on serine 71 and therefore is enzymatically inactive. After progesterone treatment, Pin1 is dephosphorylated and then associates with CPEB that is phosphorylated on S/T-P residues. Pin1 then isomerizes one or more of these phosphoresidues, leading to ubiquitination and partial destruction of CPEB.
It may seem counterintuitive that CPEB destruction during oocyte maturation is necessary for stimulating the polyadenylation and translation of mRNAs. However, the polyadenylation of CPE-containing RNAs is hierarchical; that is, the polyadenylation of different mRNAs occurs in a temporal-specific manner that is governed by the levels of CPEB. For example, the single-CPE-containing c-mos mRNA is among the first to be polyadenylated while polyadenylation of the two-CPE-containing cyclin B1 mRNA takes place at a later time after CPEB has been partially destroyed (10, 29, 30). There are now thought to be a number of mRNAs whose time-dependent polyadenylation may be regulated by the number of CPEs they contain (31). Thus, the partial destruction of CPEB, which is necessary for oocyte development, is complex and involves multiple posttranslational modifications and recognition factors. Several phosphorylation events and two distinct pools of CPEB are involved in the regulation of its destruction. During oocyte maturation, CPEB becomes phosphorylated on 6 S/T-P pairs by cdk1, although the one on S210 is particularly important for protein destruction (10). CPEB also contains a PEST (proline, glutamic acid, serine, and threonine) domain, which often mediates the protein half-life. Within the PEST domain is a TSG (threonine, serine, and glycine) motif, which resembles the binding site for β-TrCP, the F-box protein of the SCF complex (28). Plx1, a polo-like kinase, recognizes a CPEB cdk1 phosphorylation site and in turn phosphorylates the TSG motif, which is recognized by β-TrCP that then ubiquitinates CPEB, resulting in proteasome-mediated destruction (28). Recent evidence also demonstrates that CPEB resides in two distinct pools in oocytes: one pool is bound to RNA while the second forms a homodimer through its RNA binding regions and thus does not bind RNA. The homodimers are destroyed very rapidly upon oocyte maturation, perhaps releasing essential factors to associate with the cytoplasmic polyadenylation complex (32).
In this study, we show that Pin1 is a new CPEB-interacting protein that mediates CPEB degradation. It was surprising to find that Pin1, which selectively recognizes and isomerizes phosphorylated S/T-P bonds, associates with CPEB prior to detectable CPEB phosphorylation. However, this finding is consistent with previous observations, indicating that Pin1 might have two different modes of protein interaction: a preferred one that is phosphorylation dependent and a secondary one that is phosphorylation independent (33, 34). Abrahamsen et al. (33) showed that, upon Pin1 interaction with and subsequent isomerization of protein kinase C (PKC), the conventional PKC isozymes are converted into species that are rapidly ubiquitinated following phorbol ester stimulation. Interestingly, Abrahamsen et al. also showed that the Pin1-PKC interaction is based on a hydrophobic motif in the C-terminal segment of the substrate and does not require phosphorylation, even though the interaction is strengthened when the Pin1 target sites are phosphorylated after phorbol ester treatment. This observation is consistent with our findings, indicating a two-step mode of Pin1-substrate interaction. Using a number of CPEB deletion mutants, we identified a site on CPEB corresponding to residues 48 to 183 that is necessary and sufficient for Pin1 interaction. It is worth noting that this domain (48 to 183) contains ∼30% hydrophobic amino acids, although they are not organized in any detectably conserved motif. Because the three-dimensional structure of CPEB is not known, we do not know which of these amino acids are solvent exposed and might serve as a platform for Pin1 interaction. An alternative hypothesis might be that several hydrophobic amino acids are needed to build a charged region for this interaction to occur. However, two additional regions of CPEB, the RRMs and residues 211 to 290, abrogate Pin1 interaction when deleted, which suggests that the tertiary structure of CPEB or multiple contact points are important for Pin1 binding prior to CPEB phosphorylation. Furthermore, we show that, at least in vitro, this first phase interaction is dependent on the WW domain of Pin1 (Fig. 2A). Although surprising, this first phosphorylation-independent interaction that does not induce substrate destruction may serve another purpose. Consider that Xenopus oocytes are exceptionally large (volume of 1 μl) and that CPEB must be rapidly destroyed after progesterone treatment. Therefore, to facilitate this rapid destruction, CPEB is “preloaded” with Pin1, where it may function as a molecular switch to coordinate subsequent cellular processes like maturation. Indeed, other proteins in the CPEB complex are subjected to cdk1-mediated phosphorylation upon progesterone stimulation and also might be subjected to Pin1-mediated regulation. Maskin, for example, is an eIF4E binding protein that prevents the assembly of the initiation complex (eIF4E-eIF4G) on the 5′ end of the mRNA, thus inhibiting translation (7, 8). Upon progesterone stimulation, maskin is phosphorylated by cdk1, inducing its dissociation from eIF4E, thereby ensuring the translation initiation complex assembly. CPEB destruction and maskin dissociation need to occur simultaneously to activate the translation of these mRNAs. Therefore, Pin1 assembly into this complex before progesterone treatment will ensure rapid isomerization of both CPEB and maskin for this manner.
Following the induction of oocyte maturation, nearly simultaneous CPEB phosphorylation on S/T-P pairs and Pin1 dephosphorylation of serine 71 cause the Pin1 interaction with CPEB to become CPEB phosphorylation dependent. We suspect that the affinity of Pin1 for CPEB might be higher when the substrate is phosphorylated because the ratio of immunoprecipitated CPEB to coprecipitated Pin1 is greater after maturation than before. However, this inference is somewhat speculative because we cannot perform an in vitro kinetic analysis of purified components due to the fact that it is difficult to isolate soluble recombinant CPEB.
This change in interaction sites and the isomerization of the phosphorylated residues results in CPEB ubiquitination and subsequent destruction. Accordingly, Pin1 dephosphorylation and subsequent enzymatic activation is a crucial step in CPEB ubiquitination. Although the inhibitory serine 71 phosphorylation is catalyzed by DAPK1 in mammalian cells (17), we do not know whether the same kinase acts in Xenopus oocytes. In addition, we find that serine 16 is not phosphorylated, but that its mutation abrogates serine 71 dephosphorylation during oocyte maturation. This result might indicate that serine 16 is necessary and acts as a docking site for recruitment of a phosphatase such as PP2A to Pin1 during maturation; such an enzyme could then dephosphorylate serine 71 for Pin1 activation. Irrespective of the kinase/phosphatase involved, an intriguing question is how does the Pin1-induced conformational change in CPEB control ubiquitination? Liou et al. (12) suggested that cis-trans isomerization of Pin1 substrates establishes a conformation needed for E3 ligase recognition, and possibly other regulatory proteins such as phosphatases (35, 36). Our data support this hypothesis and suggest that, upon Pin1 activation and simultaneously CPEB phosphorylation, Pin1 induces a CPEB conformational change that favors its interaction with the E3 ligase β-TrCP.
In maturing mouse oocytes, CPEB undergoes phosphorylation/destruction similar to that in Xenopus oocytes (37, 38). In mitotically cycling Xenopus embryonic cells, polyadenylation increases during M phase and decreases during interphase, which also occurs in cyclin mammalian cells (39). This observation prompted us to investigate whether CPEB undergoes an M phase destruction (like that which occurs during oocyte maturation, an M phase progression) and, if so, whether Pin1 might be involved. Indeed, Fig. 6 demonstrates that, in synchronized HEK293T cells, CPEB is partially destroyed at M phase and interacts with Pin1 prior to its destruction (as in Xenopus oocytes). However, it should not be assumed that maturing Xenopus oocytes and cycling mammalian cells are equivalent vis-à-vis cell cycle progression or by how mRNA translation is regulated. For example, oocytes are arrested at a G2-like phase and then enter M phase; there is no S phase in maturing oocytes. Xenopus CPEB is hyperphosphorylated only during the G2-to-M phase transition. At the same time, Pin1-CPEB interaction is evident before and after maturation. In mammalian cells, CPEB is phosphorylated at S phase and during other phases of the cell cycle. However, the CPEB-Pin1 interaction is only evident after cell cycle progression into the G2-to-M phase. The lack of Pin1-CPEB interaction in S phase likely indicates that the phospho-CPEB residues are not involved in recruiting Pin1. Despite the differences between these two systems, in both cases, the CPEB-Pin1 interaction is evident during the G2-to-M transition and precedes CPEB destruction. Moreover, ectopic Pin1 expression dramatically reduced the CPEB half-life while ectopic expression of a dominant negative Pin1 W34A mutant protein partially prevented CPEB destruction; mutations in the PPIase domain had no effect on Pin1's capability to promote CPEB destruction.
Fujimoto et al. (40) previously reported that Pin1 may affect the function and degradation of a target protein, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), solely by the interaction between the N-terminal activation function 1 (AF-1) domain of PPARγ and the WW domain in Pin1. In this case, the proline isomerization by the PPIase domain seemed to be dispensable. This prompted us to investigate the contribution of each Pin1 domain separately on CPEB destruction. We found that, in contrast to full-length Pin1, expression of either the WW or PPIase domain had minor effects on the CPEB half-life, indicating that both domains are needed for full Pin1 activity to promote CPEB destruction. These results may also indicate that other amino acids in the PPIase domain, such as C113, which was shown to be important for Pin1 isomerization activity (40), are needed for Pin1-mediated CPEB destruction.
Based on the functions of its interacting substrates, Liou et al. (12) suggest that Pin1 induces the destruction or inactivation of tumor suppressors but enhances the stability of proteins involved in malignant transformation. Although we have focused most of this present work on Xenopus oocytes, it is important to note that CPEB might be considered to be a tumor suppressor, and thus Pin1 could have important implications for oncogenic transformation via translation. That is, CPEB knockout (KO) mice, while not developing cancer spontaneously, contract papillomas much more readily than wild-type animals when challenged with a DNA damaging agent (41). Moreover, mouse embryo fibroblasts (MEFs) lacking CPEB do not senesce as do wild-type MEFS, but instead are immortal (42, 43). Primary human cells depleted of CPEB also bypass senescence (41, 44). Because the lack of CPEB leads to reduced translation of p53 mRNA, and because reduced p53 immortalizes primary cells, it may be inferred that CPEB can also act as a tumor suppressor. Although we do not know whether Pin1 control of CPEB destruction leads to a bypass of senescence, we speculate that it might and are presently investigating this phenomenon.
We thank Kun Ping Lu (Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard University) for kindly providing GFP-Pin1 and the GFP-Pin1 W34A and K63A mutant proteins, as well as the GFP-WW- and GFP-PPIase-encoding plasmids. We also thank Frank Eckerdt (Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, J. W. Goethe University) for kindly providing the GST-Pin1- and GST-Pin1 WW domain-encoding plasmids.
This work was supported by NIH grant GM46779. Additional core support from the Diabetes Endocrinology Research Center (grant P30 DK32520) is gratefully acknowledged.
M.N. performed all experiments, C.-L.L. generated the CPEB deletion plasmids, and M.N. and J.D.R. designed the experiments and wrote the manuscript.
Returned for modification 13 August 2012.
Accepted manuscript posted online 22 October 2012.
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The salivary gland is rhythmically controlled by sympathetic nerve activation from the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which functions as the main oscillator of circadian rhythms. In humans, salivary IgA concentrations reflect circadian rhythmicity, which peak during sleep. However, the mechanisms controlling this rhythmicity are not well understood. Therefore, we examined whether the timing of parasympathetic (pilocarpine) or sympathetic (norepinephrine; NE) activation affects IgA secretion in the saliva. The concentrations of saliva IgA modulated by pilocarpine activation or by a combination of pilocarpine and NE activation were the highest in the middle of the light period, independent of saliva flow rate. The circadian rhythm of IgA secretion was weakened by an SCN lesion and Clock gene mutation, suggesting the importance of the SCN and Clock gene on this rhythm. Adrenoceptor antagonists blocked both NE- and pilocarpine-induced basal secretion of IgA. Dimeric IgA binds to the polymeric immunoglobulin receptor (pIgR) on the basolateral surface of epithelial cells and forms the IgA-pIgR complex. The circadian rhythm of Pigr abundance peaked during the light period, suggesting pIgR expression upon rhythmic secretion of IgA. We speculate that activation of sympathetic nerves during sleep may protect from bacterial access to the epithelial surface through enhanced secretion of IgA.
Mammals possess circadian clock systems that control various physiological phenomena such as body temperature, sleep-wake cycles, and liver metabolism1, 2. Circadian clock systems are organized by a central clock called the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN)3, and by peripheral clocks located in many peripheral organs4, 5. In addition to this system, biological functions of metabolism and the immune system are also known to affect circadian rhythms6, 7.
IgA is a type of antibody that works mainly in the mucosal immune system. It is abundant in the mucus of saliva and the small intestine8. Since plasma cells produce IgA in the salivary glands, there is a large amount of IgA in saliva. Therefore, IgA plays an important role as the first line of defense in oral immunity9. Monomers of IgA form dimeric IgA (dIgA) through the J chain. This dIgA binds the polymeric immunoglobulin receptor (pIgR) on the basolateral surface of epithelial cells and forms the IgA-pIgR complex. The IgA-pIgR complex is transported to the lumen from the basolateral surface. Proteolytic cleavage occurs at the apical surface, and a fragment of pIgR becomes a secretory component (SC) that binds dIgA. In this way, secretory IgA (sIgA) combines with other SCs, and free SCs are released. As a result, sIgA binds to luminal bacteria and prevents them from accessing the epithelial surface9. Therefore, a reduction in salivary IgA levels allows bacterial access to the epithelial surface and leads to various diseases such as upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) and periodontal disease10. A few studies demonstrated that salivary IgA concentrations display diurnal variations in human experiments, and concentrations peak during sleep11, 12. However, the underlying mechanism of this diurnal variation is unknown. Therefore, signaling processes modulating IgA secretion may be controlled by circadian rhythms.
Because it is difficult to obtain an adequate amount of saliva from mice under normal conditions, some experiments used pilocarpine for parasympathetic stimulation and norepinephrine for sympathetic stimulation13. Saliva secretion is known to decrease following an adrenoceptor agonist injection compared to that upon injections with pilocarpine14. Previous studies have demonstrated that the submandibular gland expresses clock genes, which show robust circadian rhythms15, 16. Rhythmical Clock gene expression in the salivary gland is controlled by sympathetic activation via the SCN17. In addition, both mRNA and protein expression of adrenoceptors in the submandibular glands were reported to show circadian rhythm18, 19. Therefore, the timing of administration of adrenoceptor agonist injections may affect the secretion of IgA in saliva. In addition, we examined whether the SCN clock directly controls time-dependent IgA secretion via adrenoceptor activation or is indirectly controlled by the adrenal gland through sympathetic regulation. We aimed to investigate how sympathetic nerve activation affects salivary IgA secretion rhythms through control of the biological clock.
We investigated whether salivary IgA secretion reflects circadian rhythms. Submandibular glands are regulated by both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems14. Therefore, we used pilocarpine to stimulate the parasympathetic nerves and NE to stimulate the sympathetic nerves. We observed a significant increase in IgA concentration during the light phase in the NE group, but not in the control group, as assessed by one-way ANOVA and Kruskal-Wallis test (Fig. 1a,d, Supplemental Table S1). Cosinor analysis revealed significant but weak rhythmicity in control groups, whereas NE groups showed strong rhythmicity (supplemental Table S2). The mice used in Fig. 1a–c are different from those in Fig. 1d–f, since we performed independent experiments to confirm the findings.
The circadian rhythm dynamics of salivary IgA secretion. (a) Salivary IgA secretion rhythms in the case of administration of either pilocarpine (control) or a mixture of pilocarpine and norepinephrine (NE) (n = 8–10). (b) Saliva flow rhythms in control versus NE groups (n = 8–10). (c) Salivary IgA volume rhythms. Data were calculated by multiplying the results from Fig. 1a and b (n = 8–10). (d) Salivary IgA concentration rhythms in control versus NE groups (control, n = 4; NE, n = 9–10). (e) Total protein concentration rhythms in saliva (control, n = 4; NE, n = 9–10). (f) Salivary IgA concentration rhythms were normalized to total protein concentration (control, n = 4; NE, n = 9–10). (g) Salivary IgA concentration rhythms in mice fasted for 24 hours (n = 9–12). Values are shown as the means ± SEM. (a,c,d) **p < 0.01, NE group ZT6 vs. ZT18 (one-way ANOVA with Tukey post-hoc test). (f) *p < 0.05, NE group ZT6 vs. ZT18 (Kruskal-Wallis test with Dunn post-hoc test). (g) ***p < 0.001 **p < 0.01, NE group ZT0, ZT6 vs. ZT18 (one-way ANOVA with Tukey post-hoc test), #p < 0.05, cont. group ZT6 vs. ZT18 (Kruskal-Wallis test with Dunn post-hoc test).
The saliva flow demonstrated weak circadian rhythm with peak at ZT4.8 (Zeitgeber time, ZT0 represents the start of the light period and ZT12 represents the start of the dark period) for the control and ZT11.4 for NE groups (Supplemental Table S2, Fig. 1b). The total amount of salivary IgA displayed a similar rhythm (Supplemental Table S2, Fig. 1c) as that observed for IgA concentrations (Fig. 1a). Because the stimulation of the sympathetic nerve triggers saliva protein secretion14, we next investigated whether total protein concentrations in saliva show a circadian rhythm. Protein concentrations did not display a circadian rhythm (Supplemental Table S2, Fig. 1e). Therefore, salivary IgA concentrations were normalized by the total protein concentration in the sample. However, this still showed a clear oscillating rhythm (supplemental Table S2, Fig. 1f) that was similar to that for IgA concentrations alone (Fig. 1d). We showed representative data for the diurnal variations of the protein concentrations, which set ratio 1 at ZT0 in saliva (Supplemental Fig. S1a). A portion of the data in Fig. 1a and d are also used in Supplemental Fig. S1b and a, respectively. In both the control and NE groups, the protein concentration ratio did not demonstrate any significant circadian rhythm (Supplemental Fig. S1a, Supplemental Table S2). However, the diurnal variation of the salivary IgA ratio increased during the light phase compared to the protein concentration ratio (Supplemental Fig. S1b, Supplemental Table S2).
To investigate whether feeding rhythm, chewing action, or amylase secretion affect salivary IgA secretion, we measured salivary IgA concentrations in mice after a 24-hour fasting period. IgA concentrations showed similar rhythms as those observed in non-fasting mice (Fig. 1g). However, the rhythm peaks in both the control and NE groups appeared 2–3 hours in advance (Fig. 1g, Supplemental Table S2) compared to the those in the free feeding group (Fig. 1a,d). These results suggest that salivary IgA secretion displays circadian rhythm. Moreover, this rhythm is not affected by saliva flow, total protein in saliva, feeding rhythm, or chewing action. Therefore, we next assessed the IgA concentration in the submandibular gland, and found that it showed weak circadian rhythm with peak at ZT3.6 (Supplemental Fig. S2, Supplemental Table S2). These results suggest that the rhythm of salivary IgA secretion is partially related to IgA concentrations in the submandibular gland.
Because salivary IgA secretion shows a circadian rhythm, we examined whether salivary IgA secretion is controlled by the SCN. To investigate the influence of the central circadian clock on salivary IgA concentrations, we lesioned the SCN (SCNX) and compared IgA concentrations with those in the sham-operated group. We confirmed the success of the SCNX surgery using actograms for both the pilocarpine (Fig. 2a,c) and NE (Fig. 2b,d) groups. A representative histological analysis of the SCN lesion is shown in Supplemental Fig. S3, demonstrating that the SCN was completely destroyed. We prepared two sets of SCN-lesion groups (pilocarpine and NE) to account for the possibility of recovery after the SCN lesion. We found that the SCNX group still had rhythmicity of salivary IgA secretion in both the pilocarpine (Fig. 2e) and NE (Fig. 2f) groups. However, the rhythmicity and amplitude, as evaluated using the cosinor method, were dampened in the SCN lesioned group compared to that in the sham group (Supplemental Table S2). These results suggest that the rhythm of salivary IgA secretion is highly controlled by SCN.
The circadian rhythms of salivary IgA secretion in SCN-lesioned mice. (a,b) Representative double-plotted actograms of locomotor activity for one sham mouse and one SCNX mouse after pilocarpine (a) or NE administration (b). (c,d) Representative Chi-squared periodogram analysis of behavioral data for one sham mouse and one SCNX mouse after pilocarpine (c) or NE (d) administration. Straight lines in each figure indicate statistical significance. (e,f) Salivary IgA concentration rhythms in non-SCN-lesioned (sham) and SCN-lesioned (SCNX) after pilocarpine (e) or NE administration (f) (n = 4–6). Values are shown as mean ± SEM. (f) $$p < 0.01, sham group (one-way ANOVA). **p < 0.01, *p < 0.05 vs. sham ZT18. #p < 0.05 vs. sham ZT0.
It has been suggested that the submandibular gland responds to sympathetic nervous stimulation17 (Fig. 1a,d). Therefore, we investigated the relationship between the sympathetic nervous system and the regulation of salivary IgA concentrations. We administered agonists and antagonists of NE at ZT6, since the salivary IgA concentration peaks at this time point (Fig. 1a). The salivary IgA concentration increased significantly with agonist treatment, and decreased with antagonist treatment (Fig. 3a). Antagonists significantly blocked the NE-induced increase in salivary IgA concentrations. In addition, both α receptor agonist phenylephrine and β receptor agonist isoproterenol increased salivary IgA concentrations at ZT6 and ZT18. However, the observation that the salivary IgA concentration is highest at the light phase was also observed in both agonists-administered groups (Fig. 3b,c). Both phenylephrine and isoproterenol showed a circadian pattern of IgA secretion (Supplemental Fig. S4a,b, Supplemental Table S2) similar to NE-induced secretion. These results suggest that the sympathetic nerve activation-induced increase of salivary IgA secretion is caused by an activation of α, β, or both receptors.
Effects of sympathetic nerve agonists/antagonists on salivary IgA secretion. (a) Salivary IgA concentrations after application of the sympathetic nervous system agonist (norepinephrine 1 mg/kg) and/or antagonist (prazosin 1 mg/kg, propranolol 1 mg/kg, or 10 mg/kg) with pilocarpine. “+” indicates the reagent that was mixed and administered to mice, “−” indicates the reagent that was not administered to mice. (b,c) Salivary IgA concentrations when the α receptor (phenylephrine, 5 mg/kg; the numbers in parentheses are the number of samples) (b) or β receptor (isoproterenol, 5 mg/kg; n = 4–5) (c) were stimulated at ZT6 or ZT18 (n = 3–5). Values were shown as means ± SEM. (a) ***p < 0.001, **p < 0.01, vs. the NE(+)-Prazosin(−)-Propranolol(−) group (one-way ANOVA with Tukey post-hoc test). (b) *p < 0.05, ZT18 group cont. vs. PE (Mann-Whitney test). (c) **p < 0.01, iso group ZT6 vs. ZT18 (Student’s t-test).
Clock genes, which are reportedly expressed in the submandibular gland, demonstrate circadian rhythms15, 20. We show that salivary IgA secretion rhythms appear to be controlled by sympathetic activation through the SCN. Sympathetic stimulation causes circadian fluctuations and resulted in a circadian change in salivary IgA secretion. To investigate the submandibular gland’s sensitivity to and the time frame for sympathetic stimulation, we administrated NE during the light phase (ZT4) or the dark phase (ZT16), and compared the phase shift for Per2 gene abundance in the submandibular gland. When NE was administrated at ZT4, the Per2 phase advanced in a concentration-dependent manner (Fig. 4b,c, Supplemental Table S2). However, when NE was administrated at ZT16, the Per2 phase was unaffected (Fig. 4d,e). In all groups, the circadian rhythmicity of Per2 abundance, as evaluated by cosinor analysis, was maintained in vehicle- or NE- treated mice (Supplemental Table S2).
Sensitivity of the submandibular gland clock to sympathetic nerve stimulation, as evaluated by IVIS in PER2::LUC mice. (a) Experimental schedule. White and black bars indicate 12 hours of light and dark. Triangles under the white and black bars indicate the time at which the reagents were administered intraperitoneally. Bi-directional arrows under the white and black bars indicate the period of measurement using IVIS. (b,c) Average peaks of phase of PER2::LUC rhythms (b) and PER2::LUC expression rhythms (c) in submandibular glands after mice were administered the reagent at ZT4 for 3 days (n = 3–6). (d,e) Average phase peaks of PER2::LUC rhythms (d) and PER2::LUC expression rhythms (e) in submandibular glands after mice were administered the reagent at ZT16 for 3 days (n = 4–8). Values were shown as the means ± SEM. (b) **p < 0.01, control vs. NE 2 mg/kg (one-way ANOVA with Tukey post-hoc test).
Next, we examined whether NE directly affected the submandibular gland function. Under in vitro conditions, NE administration at the rising phase of Per2 rhythm significantly advanced the Per2 rhythm phase without affecting the amplitude (Supplemental Fig. S5a–c). NE administration at ZT4 in vitro caused an increase in Per1 gene abundance but not abundance of the Per2 gene in the submandibular gland (Supplemental Fig. S5d,e). These results suggest that the submandibular gland has a higher sensitivity to sympathetic stimulation through direct action during the light phase than during the dark phase. In other words, there is a time window during which the submandibular gland responds to external NE stimulation. Our results suggest that ZT4 is the approximate time during which the submandibular gland has the highest sensitivity to NE.
We investigated whether the rhythmicity of salivary IgA secretion is controlled by pIgR. The pIgR mediates transcytosis of IgA secretion; therefore, we investigated whether the abundance of the Pigr gene in the submandibular glands demonstrates circadian rhythms. We observed that Pigr abundance in the submandibular glands increased during the light phase, and peaked at ZT2.2 (Fig. 5a, Supplemental Table S2). To investigate the influence of the central circadian clock on Pigr abundance rhythms in the submandibular glands, we next performed a SCNX, which was compared with the sham group. In the sham group, there was a significant difference between ZT6 and ZT18, whereas no significant differences were observed among the SCNX groups (Fig. 5b). To determine whether the circadian rhythm of Pigr mRNA abundance is directly regulated by the Clock gene, Pigr mRNA abundance was examined using Clock −/− mice. The Clock mutation led to decreased Per2 gene abundance in the submandibular gland (Fig. 5c). The levels of Pigr mRNA increased and their rhythm was lost upon Clock mutation (Fig. 5d). These results suggest that the abundance of Pigr fluctuates with the circadian rhythm, and this may be controlled by the SCN clock and Clock gene. Therefore, the rhythm of Pigr in the submandibular glands may influence salivary IgA secretion caused by sympathetic nerve activation.
Circadian rhythm for Pigr gene abundance in submandibular glands in intact SCN-lesioned and Clock −/− mice. (a) Relative mRNA abundance rhythms of Pigr (n = 4) in the submandibular gland. (b) The relative mRNA abundance of Pigr in SCN-lesioned mice compared to that in sham-operated mice at ZT6 and ZT18 (n = 6–7). (c,d) The relative mRNA abundance of Per2 (c) and Pigr (d) in Clock −/− mice compared to that in wild-type (WT) mice at ZT6 and ZT18 (n = 4 for each group). Values are shown as means ± SEM. (a) *p < 0.05, ZT1, ZT5 vs. ZT13 (Kruskal-Wallis test with Dunn post-hoc test), (b–d) *p < 0.05, ZT6 vs. ZT18 or WT vs. Clock −/− (Mann-Whitney test).
It is well known that cortisol secretion in saliva is rhythmically controlled via the SCN clock, and secretion peaks during the early daytime hours21. External application of corticosterone or dexamethasone resets the phase activity of clock gene expression rhythms22, 23. Therefore, we investigated the contributions of corticosterone and adrenal gland activity to the NE-induced salivary IgA secretion rhythm. We prepared two sets of adrenal gland-lesion groups (pilocarpine and NE) to account for the possibility of recovery after the adrenal gland lesion. We lesioned the adrenal glands of mice, which resulted in decreased serum concentration of corticosterone (Fig. 6a,b). In sham-operated mice, groups treated with pilocarpine or pilocarpine and NE showed similar circadian IgA secretion (Fig. 6c,d, Supplemental Table S2), similar to that uninjured animals (Fig. 1a,d). In lesioned mice, pilocarpine alone or in combination with NE produced a pattern of salivary IgA circadian secretion similar to that observed in sham-operated mice (Fig. 6c,d, Supplemental Table S2). These data suggest that adrenal gland activity may not contribute to the NE-induced salivary IgA secretion rhythm.
Effects of adrenal gland lesions on salivary IgA secretion. (a,b) Serum concentrations of corticosterone in the adrenal gland lesion (ADX) group compared to the sham-operated group for pilocarpine-only (a) and pilocarpine/NE-treated mice (b) (n = 3–6). (c,d) The rhythm of salivary IgA concentrations in the ADX group compared to that in the sham-operated mice for pilocarpine-only (c) and pilocarpine/NE-treated mice (d) (n = 3–6). (a) p = 0.0952 (Mann-Whitney test), (b) ***p < 0.001 (Student’s t-test), (c) sham, p = 0.0538 (Friedman test); ADX, p = 0.0882 (Friedman test), (d) sham, p = 0.0678 (Friedman test); ADX, **p < 0.01 (Friedman test).
In this study, we observed a clear circadian rhythm for salivary IgA concentration, total IgA content, and IgA per secreted protein in the saliva of NE- and pilocarpine-treated mice. These effects peaked during the light phase. A similar rhythm was seen in the pilocarpine-only group, but there were no significant peak values. Since salivary IgA concentrations increased following an additional NE administration, this suggested that NE signaling provides timing signals instructing salivary IgA secretion. We also concluded that this rhythm was not affected by saliva flow or total protein concentrations in saliva because these factors showed weak circadian rhythms. The rhythmicity of salivary IgA secretion was unaffected by 24-hour fasting, but the peak time was delayed. We previously showed that 24-hour fasting advanced the peripheral clocks evaluated by in vivo imaging of the bioluminescence rhythm in Per2::Luc mice4. Thus, rhythm formation of salivary IgA is not required for feeding or chewing.
There are two possible mechanisms for NE-induced salivary IgA secretion being the highest at ZT6 and the lowest at ZT18. One may be NE receptor sensitivity. In addition to our observations in Fig. 5, it has been reported that the submandibular gland shows circadian rhythms for clock gene expression15, 16, 20. We previously reported that the mRNA of adrenoceptors, including the α and β receptors, showed higher levels of expression during the light phase compared to that during the dark phase19, suggesting that external injection of NE has a strong effect during the light phase. The phase shifting effect on Per2 gene expression rhythms in the salivary gland following daily NE injections was time-dependent. Our in vitro analyses demonstrated that NE directly affects clock function in the submandibular gland (Supplemental Fig. S5). Furthermore, significant advances in the phase after NE injections occurred with respect to the light phase, but not the dark phase. These data suggest that an inactive daytime period leads to a time window for external NE-induced salivary IgA secretion. The peak phases of IVIS data in ZT4 and ZT16 saline-treated groups demonstrated 2–3 hour differences between the two groups (Fig. 4). We previously reported that stress at an early inactive period caused phase advancement. Furthermore, stress at the early active period led to phase delay, suggesting that saline injection may be a stress stimulant, causing phase shifts of the submandibular gland clock.
Another mechanism involves the process of IgA secretion. It is known that pIgR mediates transcytosis of IgA9. Therefore, we investigated whether Pigr gene abundance levels in the submandibular glands show circadian rhythms. We found that Pigr expression in the submandibular glands increased during the light phase, suggesting that NE induced high salivary IgA secretion at ZT6. However, the IgA concentration in the submandibular gland showed weak circadian rhythms. These results suggest that the rhythm of Pigr abundance levels together with IgA concentration in the submandibular gland may influence the rhythmicity of salivary IgA secretion. These two mechanisms may act cooperatively to produce the observed daily rhythm of NE-induced salivary IgA secretion.
It is known that sympathetic nerve stimulation, such as through administration of isoproterenol, β-receptor agonists14, or NE decreases saliva flow. In addition, secretion of saliva is under sympathetic nervous control, and the proteins in saliva increase upon stimulation of the sympathetic nerve24. Therefore, it seems that the rhythmicity of salivary IgA secretion was not affected by the rhythms of saliva protein production. We observed that salivary IgA concentrations increased following treatment with an adrenoceptor agonist and decreased upon antagonist administration. In addition, both α and β receptor agonists increased salivary IgA secretion at both ZT6 and ZT18, and the peak in salivary IgA secretion during the light phase was still observed after treatment with both agonists. The stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system increased salivary IgA concentrations. However, it did not change the tendency for salivary IgA concentrations to be highest at ZT6 and lowest at ZT18. Pilocarpine-induced salivary IgA secretion showed a weak rhythmicity, and the highest levels were observed during the light phase. These results suggest that the sympathetic α and β receptor system mainly control the daily rhythm of salivary IgA secretion instead of the parasympathetic nerve system.
We found that the circadian rhythmicity of Pigr mRNA abundance in the submandibular glands was dampened in SCN-lesioned and Clock −/− mice. This strongly suggests that circadian signals from SCN and/or the circadian clock in the submandibular gland contribute to the NE-induced salivary IgA secretion rhythm. Vujovic et al. reported that the submandibular gland contains an autonomous clock that can persist in isolation from nervous input but is influenced by the sympathetic nervous system17. This report may support the requirement for sympathetic nerve activation for salivary clock function.
In human saliva, some substances such as cortisol, melatonin, and amylase show clear daily rhythms21, 25, 26. Therefore, we examined the possible interactions between NE-induced salivary IgA secretion and these substances. Similar to injections of NE19, 27, corticosterone caused phase-resetting in the peripheral clock of the salivary glands22, 23 in mice. Furthermore, stress decreased salivary IgA secretion in humans28. Interestingly, lesions of the adrenal gland in mice caused a pattern of pilocarpine- or pilocarpine-/NE-induced salivary IgA secretion similar to that in sham-operated mice. This suggests that NE-induced salivary IgA secretion is independent of adrenal gland function. We used the ICR strain of mice, which do not produce melatonin because of a mutation in an enzyme required for melatonin synthesis29. In this biological context, melatonin makes no contribution to salivary IgA secretion. To assess the role of amylase in the current experiments, we examined NE-induced salivary IgA secretion after 24 hours of fasting. The circadian pattern of salivary IgA secretion was very similar to that in the 6-hour fasting control group, suggesting a weak contribution of amylase to salivary IgA secretion.
It has been reported that a decrease in salivary IgA secretion may lead to URTI and periodontal disease10. We found that the amount of salivary IgA, which should increase during sleep, did not increase after disruption of the biological clock. These results suggest that salivary IgA does not increase when the biological clock is disturbed or when there is a higher risk of the aforementioned diseases. In addition, since the submandibular glands are controlled by the autonomic nervous system, salivary IgA secretion and saliva flow are modulated by sympathetic nervous stimulation compared to that by only parasympathetic nerve stimulation. Therefore, parasympathetic stimulation during the inactive sleep period may only weakly increase the basal secretion of IgA to protect from bacterial invasion. In our daily life, the sympathetic nervous system may become activated during inactive periods such as staying up late or under excessive stress, which leads to salivary IgA secretion. We speculate that activation of sympathetic nerves during sleep may protect from bacterial access to the epithelial surface through a significant secretion of IgA.
Animal care was conducted with permission from the Committee for Animal Experimentation at Waseda University (permission # 2016-A059), and in accordance with the Law (No. 105) and Notification (No. 6) of the Japanese Government.
Male ICR mice (7 weeks old) were purchased from Tokyo Laboratory Animals Science Co., Ltd. (Tokyo, Japan). For in vivo and in vitro monitoring of PER2::LUC bioluminescence, PER2::LUC mice (7 weeks old) were obtained, as previously described19, 20, 22. In some experiments, we used male ICR Clock mutant (Clock −/−) mice and wild-type (WT) mice, and confirmed the genotypes by polymerase chain reaction30. The Clock mutation in mice was identified by an N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea mutagenesis screen of circadian periods31. Mice were housed at 22 ± 2 °C with a humidity of 60 ± 5% under a 12-hour light/dark cycle. The lights were turned on at 08:00 and turned off at 20:00. Mice were fed a normal commercial diet (Catalog #MF; Oriental Yeast Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) and were given ad libitum access to water.
Mice were fasted for 6 hours before collection of saliva to exclude effects associated with feeding, and to ensure the consistency of the oral environment among experiments (except in Fig. 1g). In one experiment (Fig. 1g), mice were fasted for 24 hours to avoid any effects from feeding. Saliva was collected from the oral cavity using a micropipette after intraperitoneal injection of pilocarpine (1 mg/kg) (Wako Pure Chemical Industries Ltd., Osaka, Japan) to stimulate saliva secretion (366 ± 54 μL for 5 min) through parasympathetic nerve activation. NE and saline injection weakly stimulates saliva secretion (2.0 ± 1.0 μL for 5 min). Therefore, to examine the role of NE on IgA secretion, a mixed solution of pilocarpine (1 mg/kg) and NE (1 mg/kg) (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA.) (NE group) was used to stimulate the sympathetic nerves (232 ± 18 μL for 5 min), which was compared to the pilocarpine (1 mg/kg) injection alone group (control group). Drugs were dissolved in 1X phosphate buffered saline (PBS). PBS injection alone (0.2 ± 0.15 μL for 5 min) did not induce saliva secretion. Although we need at least 2.5 μL saliva for the IgA assay, a combination of PBS and NE injection did not yield enough volume of saliva. It has been reported that the aspiration method does not suppress the diurnal variation in salivary IgA secretion compared to the swab method in human experiments32. Therefore, we used pipettes to collect saliva. Saliva collection commenced 5 min after reagent injection. Saliva was placed in microcentrifuge tubes containing protease inhibitors and placed into an ice bath. Saliva samples were clarified by centrifugation at 16,000 × g for 10 min at 4 °C. Samples were stored at −80 °C until the analyses were performed.
We used prazosin hydrochloride (1 mg/kg) (Wako Pure Chemical Industries Ltd., Osaka, Japan) and propranolol hydrochloride (1 or 10 mg/kg) (TOKYO KASEI, Tokyo, Japan) as adrenoceptor antagonists. Phenylephrine (5 mg/kg) (Wako Pure Chemical Industries Ltd, Osaka, Japan) and isoproterenol (5 mg/kg) (Tocris Bioscience, Bristol, United Kingdom) were used as α receptor and β receptor agonists, respectively. Pilocarpine was mixed with 1X PBS and used as a control treatment.
Mice were euthanized and the submandibular glands were collected. Tissues were placed into protease inhibitor-containing microcentrifuge tubes, and incubated in an ice bath. Samples were homogenized using a micro-homogenizer and then centrifuged at 3,000 × g for 20 min at 4 °C. The supernatants were stored at −80 °C until the analyses were performed.
Salivary IgA levels were quantified using a Mouse IgA Ready-SET-Go! ELISA kit (eBioscience, Vienna, Austria), according to the manufacturer’s protocols.
The protein concentration of each saliva sample was quantified using a BCA Protein Assay Kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA), using bovine serum albumin as a standard, following the manufacturer’s protocols.
To investigate the role of the SCN on salivary IgA secretion, we performed SCN lesions on mice. As described previously20, bilateral thermal lesions of the SCN were performed stereotaxically under anesthesia using midazolam/medetomidine hydrochloride/butorphanol tartrate. After surgery, locomotor activity displayed arrhythmicity in SCN-lesioned mice. We scarified mice to assess the histology of lesion sites by staining with cresyl violet, and to verify the extent of injury according to our previous paper20. A lesion electrode was inserted into in the cerebral cortex of mice in the sham group.
General locomotor activity was recorded with an infrared radiation sensor (F5B; Omron, Tokyo, Japan) as previously published19, 20. Double-plotted actograms of locomotor activity were recorded in 6-min epochs using ClockLab software (Actimetrics Ltd., Wilmette, IL, USA). Chi-squared periodogram analysis was used to examine the rhythmicity of behavioral data with the period (20–30 hr).
As described previously19, adrenal gland lesions were made using the dorsal approach under anesthesia with midazolam/medetomidine hydrochloride/butorphanol tartrate. Briefly, the skin on the back was shaved, and an incision of about 1 cm was made parallel to the spinal cord. The adrenal glands were removed via small openings made in the left and right muscle layers of the spinal cord. To maintain ion balance, mice with adrenal gland lesions were provided with 0.9% NaCl water ad libitum. A similar operation was performed on mice in the sham group, without removal of adrenal glands.
Serum corticosterone levels were quantified using the AssayMax Corticosterone ELISA Kit (Assay Pro, MO, USA) according to the manufacturer’s protocol.
In vivo monitoring of PER2::LUC bioluminescence was performed using an IVIS kinetics system (Caliper Life Sciences, Hopkinton, MA, USA, and Summit Pharmaceuticals International Corporation, Tokyo, Japan), as previously described20. Mice were anaesthetized with a mixture of isoflurane (Mylan Inc., Tokyo, Japan) and concentrated oxygen. Anesthetized mice were injected subcutaneously on the back near the neck with D-luciferin potassium salt (15 mg/kg; Promega, WI, USA). Among anesthetic drugs, isoflurane did not affect phase and free-running period of liver clock ex vivo monitoring of PER2::LUC mice33. Images were acquired using an in vivo imaging system (Perkin Elmer, Waltham, MA, USA) with a 1-min exposure time from the dorsal- and ventral-up positions 8 and 10 min after luciferin injection, respectively. Images were obtained six times a day at 4-hour intervals (ZT9, 13, 17, 21, 1, and 5). Mice were returned to their home cages between imaging sessions. Photon counts for each tissue were analyzed using the Living Image 3.2 software (Perkin Elmer). The average photons for the six time points for each day were designated as 100%, and the bioluminescence rhythm was expressed as a percentage of each set of six points for individual organs. The peak phase, amplitude, and rhythmicity of normalized data were determined using the single cosinor procedure program (Acro.exe version 3.5)34.
In vitro bioluminescence monitoring data were analyzed as previously described34. PER2::LUC mice were euthanized by cervical dislocation for the evaluation of bioluminescence rhythmicity in the submandibular glands. Submandibular gland sections on a membrane (Millicell cell culture inserts, Millipore, Billerica, MA, USA) were explanted into a 35 mm petri dish and cultured in 3.0 mL Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM, Invitrogen, Waltham, MA, USA) supplemented with NaHCO3 (2.7 mM), HEPES (10 mM), kanamycin (20 mg/L), insulin (5 μM/mL), putrescine (100 μM), human transferrin (100 μg/mL), progesterone (20 nM), sodium selenite (30 nM), and D-luciferin potassium salt (0.1 mM). Treatment with each reagent was at a specific time point between the first and second peak. Before the reagent was added, 3.0 mL of cultured medium was transferred to other dishes at 37 °C, and the membrane was transferred to each medium in turn (1 mL reagent medium for 30 min; 1 mL wash medium for 10 min; and 1 mL remaining medium for monitoring of bioluminescence). Bioluminescence was monitored for 1 min at 10-min intervals with a dish-type luminometer (LumiCycle, Actimetrics, IL, USA). The amplitude of the waveform was calculated using R software35 from the recorded data. The phase and period length were measured using Actimetrics software for LumiCycle with sin fitting as previously described36.
Submandibular glands from ICR mice were incubated in vitro at 37 °C in modified Krebs-Ringer medium containing 0.2% glucose, and bubbled with a gas mixture of 95% O2 and 5% CO2. Krebs-Ringer medium was used in the treatment group containing 10 μM NE. Submandibular glands were incubated for 1 hour. After incubation, these tissues were collected and real-time RT-PCR was performed.
Total RNA was extracted from tissues, using phenol. Aliquots of 50 ng of total RNA were reverse-transcribed and amplified using a One-Step SYBR reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) kit (TaKaRa Bio Inc, Shiga, Japan) in Piko Real (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc, Kanagawa, Japan). Primer pairs were designed based on published data for the Gapdh, Per1, Per2, and Pigr genes. The relative levels of the target gene PCR products were normalized to that of Gapdh. The data were analyzed using the delta-delta Ct method. The primers for Gapdh were as follows: Gapdh-F, 5′-TGGTGAAGGTCGGTGTGAAC-3′; Gapdh-R, 5′-AATGAAGGGGTCGTTGATGG-3′. The primers for Per1 were as follows: Per1-F, 5′-CAAGTGGCAATGAGTCCAACG-3′; Per1-R, 5′-CGAAGTTTGAGCTCCCGAAGTG-3′. The primers for Per2 were as follows: Per2-F, 5′-TGTGTGCTTACACGGGTGTCCTA-3′; Per2-R, 5′-ACGTTTGGTTTGCGCATGAA-3′. The primers for pIgR were as follows: pIgR-F, 5′-AGTAACCGAGGCCTGTCCT-3′; pIgR-R, 5′-GTCACTCGGCAACTCAGGA-3′.
Statistical analyses were performed using GraphPad Prism software, version 6.03 (GraphPad Software, San Diego, CA, USA). Equal variance and normal distribution tests were performed to select the appropriate statistical approach. Parametric analysis was conducted by one-way, one-way repeated or two-way ANOVA with a Tukey test and Student’s t-test. Non-parametric analysis was performed by a Kruskal-Wallis or Friedman test with Dunn and Mann-Whitney tests. The data are presented as means ± SEM. The value p < 0.05 was considered significant.
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This work was partially supported by the Council for Science, Technology, and Innovation, SIP, “Technologies for creating next-generation agriculture, forestry, and fisheries” (funding agency: Bio-oriented Technology Research Advancement Institution, NARO) (S.S.), and by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (S) (26220201) from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology of Japan (S.S.).
M.W. designed and performed the experiments and wrote the paper. M.K., K.H., H.S., A.H., and H.M. performed the experiments. K.O. provided advice regarding the experiments and wrote the paper. A.N. and S.S. conceived, supervised, and designed experiments. | 2019-04-20T23:30:20Z | https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-09438-0?error=cookies_not_supported&code=f7a36948-7119-42ab-b3d8-5e517a712631 |
Methods and apparatus are described for detecting social relationships across multiple networks and/or communication channels. These social relationships may then be utilized in a wide variety of ways to support and enhance a broad range of user services.
The present application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. 119(e) to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/019,215 filed Jan. 4, 2008, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes.
The present invention relates to social networks on the Web and, in particular, to techniques for aggregating social network data from multiple disparate sources.
Many users of the World Wide Web are members of multiple networks of users, each of which is typically controlled by a service provider which exercises exclusive control over its data, including data representing connections between its members. Examples of such networks include, for example, Yahoo!®, Facebook, MySpace, Flickr, LinkedIn, Twitter, etc. Given this state of affairs, there is typically a considerable amount of data representing the social network of a given user that is not apparent or available to each of the different service providers. As a result, neither the user nor the service providers are able to leverage the full potential of the user's social connections.
According to the present invention, techniques are provided by which social relationships of individuals are identified and leveraged to support a broad range of functionality. According to a specific embodiment, methods and apparatus are provided for identifying social relationships for a first user operating in a first network context controlled by a first entity. An identity of the first user is generated with reference to a first data source associated with the first network context and under control of the first entity, and at least one external data source outside of the first network context and not under control of the first entity. A plurality of contacts having a relationship with the first user are identified with reference to the first data source, the at least one external data source, and the identity of the first user. First ones of the contacts are not identifiable from the first data source. A relevancy measure is determined for each of the contacts which represents a relevance of the relationship between the first user and the contact. The relevancy measure for each contact is determined with reference to one or more of the first data source or the at least one external data source.
According to another specific embodiment, methods and apparatus are provided for identifying social relationships for a first user operating in a first network context controlled by a first entity. A plurality of contacts having a relationship with the first user is presented to the first user. The plurality of contacts were determined with reference to a first data source associated with the first network context and under control of the first entity, at least one external data source outside of the first network context and not under control of the first entity, and an identity of the first user. The identity was determined with reference to the first data source and the at least one external data source. First ones of the contacts are not identifiable from the first data source. The plurality of contacts is presented in accordance with a relevancy measure associated with each of the contacts which represents a relevance of the relationship between the first user and the associated contact. The relevancy measure for each contact was determined with reference to one or more of the first data source or the at least one external data source.
According to some embodiments, aggregation of vitality across multiple contexts is enabled. According to further embodiments, each external data source employs a permissioning model for controlling access to information associated with the external data source. The permissioning models for the various external data sources are aggregated thereby enabling access to the information associated with each external data source according to its corresponding permissioning model.
FIGS. 1-3 are screen shots illustrating a process flow in accordance with a specific embodiment of the invention.
FIG. 4 is a simplified network diagram illustrating a computing context in which embodiments of the invention may be implemented.
FIGS. 5-18 are screen shots illustrating a process flow in accordance with a specific embodiment of the invention.
FIGS. 19 and 20 are representations of interfaces which may be employed with embodiments of the invention.
FIGS. 21-25 are mobile screen shots illustrating a process flow in accordance with another specific embodiment of the invention.
According to various embodiments of the invention, methods and apparatus are provided which are operable to detect both manifest and latent social relationships for a given user across multiple networks or communication channels, e.g., social networks, portals, communication or messaging systems, etc. These social relationships may then be utilized in a wide variety of ways to support and/or enhance a broad range of user services.
Manifest relationships may be represented, for example, by explicit connections between the user and identities or identity tokens associated with other users (e.g., in address books, contacts lists, buddy lists, etc.). Latent relationship are, in general, less explicit and may be represented, for example, by communications patterns or mutual friend connections. Embodiments of the invention leverage both latent and manifest social relationships, and represent a shift away from a “network-centric” or “channel-centric” model of connection to a “person-centric” model that works across multiple social networks, and communication and vitality channels. As will be discussed, the various types of latent and manifest social relationships may be detected in a variety of ways.
In addition, embodiments of the invention enable the aggregation of vitality from a wide variety of sources. Vitality refers to events or actions (e.g., publication of content, changes in status, installation and use of applications, etc.) corresponding to a particular individual or group of individuals, e.g., what a user's contacts are doing on the Web. Vitality may be distinguished from messaging-type connections in that, for example, an email explicitly defines a group of recipients who have permission to read the email. By contrast, vitality is a broadcast form of communication based on user actions which has an implicit set of recipients defined by a graph of social relations. This graph of social relations may be labeled and/or subdivided according to categorical labels such as “friends”, “family”, “school”, “work”, and/or many other group or organization-based affiliation.
So, the “recipients” of an individual's vitality are defined a priori, and typically receive notifications of the publication of content as it occurs for which the recipients already have implicit permission to consume the content. Embodiments of the invention which enable the aggregation of vitality allow users to see vitality events (e.g., status text updates, photo uploads, application installs, etc.) associated with their contacts across networks and/or communication channels by leveraging existing permissions and privacy models of the various networks and/or channels to access, aggregate, and display the vitality.
An example may be instructive. Two users might be explicitly connected in the Yahoo!® network in that they email each other using Yahoo!® mail. The same two users might also have several other connections, e.g., Flickr contacts, Facebook friends, Twitter followers, LinkedIn connections, etc., some of which may be characterized as manifest, and some of which may be characterized as latent. When one of the users initiates the Connections Activator (e.g., using the “Simplify Your Inbox!” button in FIG. 1), the Connections Activator first determines who the initiating user is. According to one set of embodiments, this is done by searching the current network context, e.g., the Yahoo!® network (and in particular utilizing the logged-in identity of the user on the Yahoo! network), as well as potentially leveraging the broader Web context (possibly some specified set of networks or properties on the Web), and gathering data by which the user may be identified, e.g., user profiles, pages and vitality produced on the current and other networks, etc.; any token of information which can be used to identify the user.
The identity of the user may also be determined, at least in part, by requesting input from the user himself. This may include asking the user to specifically identify other networks, other properties in the current network, or other systems to which the user belongs or on which the user is represented in some way. The various data are then consolidated into a representation of the user. This may be presented to the user as shown, for example, in the Yahoo!® Mail interface of FIG. 2.
Once the user has been identified, the next phase of activation may be initiated (e.g., using the “Activate your network” button in FIG. 2) during which the Connections Activator searches for and gathers data relating to others with whom the user interacts (on the current network, other properties on the current network, other networks or systems on the Web, etc.). These other individuals may be identified, for example, from communication patterns of the user, relationships with the user in the current context and other networks, address books, contact lists, vitality consumed by the user, etc. These data are then consolidated into representations of the people with whom the user has relationships.
In some cases, a determination may need to be made as to whether identities or identity tokens in different networks correspond to the same person and, if so, whether those identities should be consolidated into a representation of a single person or “de-duplicated.” This might occur, for example, in situations in which a person uses different names in different networks. Consolidation may be automatic, manual (e.g., with input from the user), or semiautomatic in which the system and the user can interleave actions in the de-duplication process leveraging feedback from each other in the process. This de-duplication may be done by comparing identity tokens such as, for example, names, email addresses, phone numbers, etc.
According to various embodiments, the gathering of data may be accomplished using a variety of techniques. For example, a data repository in the current network may have user profile data about the user, while another has a first name, last name, and email address of a contact. A repository in another network might have the first name and last name of that contact with other information, e.g., a phone number or a web page URL. Yet another repository in that other network might have additional information relating to the user himself. Each additional piece of information or token relating to the user can be added to the user's identity and used to identify other relevant information about the user and his relations to others. Similarly, each additional piece of information or token relating to other users may be used to augment their respective identities and to inform the construction of the social graph connecting them with the user.
The manner in which in which such information is extracted may also vary considerably depending on a variety of factors. For example, the operator of the current network context obviously has direct and consistent access to the data repositories associated with that network. However, the nature of access to information on other networks may vary significantly depending on the relationships between the networks and/or the openness of the operators of the other networks. In some cases, a commercial relationship with an operator of another network may provide direct access to that network's data, or some more restricted level of access to the network, e.g., API level access. In other circumstances, e.g., where no relationship exists, techniques such as screen scraping, image recognition, and reverse optical character recognition may need to be used. Combinations of these approaches may also be employed.
According to some embodiments, the individuals having relationships with a given user are prioritized, ranked, or sorted with reference to the relevance of the contact to the user, e.g., the closeness or intensity of the relationship, the type of relationship, or a group to which the individuals belong. These may be determined with reference to a wide variety of information including, for example, the recency, frequency, volume, and/or periodicity of communications between the individuals, the number of connections in different networks or properties, the type of networks in which the users are connected, the type of relationship (see below), etc.
Once a relationship is detected (and possibly classified and/or consolidated), the relationship may also be confirmed. This may involve an explicit invitation to confirm the relationship sent to the user and/or the other person in the relationship. In one example, this may take the form of a list of people with whom the user has relationships (possibly sorted as described above) returned to the user for confirmation of each (see FIG. 3). According to some embodiments, the knowledge of the relationships may be utilized without confirmation.
According to some embodiments, the Connections Activator utilizes a variety of information about the people corresponding to detected relationships and their interactions to determine that they have a relationship of a given type. Such information might include, for example, the nature and content of communications between the people, relationships they have with each other and other users on other networks (e.g., MySpace, Facebook, LinkedIn), demographic information, etc. For example, a detected relationship may be classified as family, friend, acquaintance, business associate, etc., based on inferences from both the static data (e.g., contact information) as well as dynamic data (e.g., communication patterns).
According to various embodiments, the Connections Activator builds a model of an implicit community of relations between human beings by mining the data about their extant relationships and communication patterns in other networks. This model, which in some embodiments is represented by a stack rank or grouping of human beings in relation to a given user, may then be used for a wide variety of purposes.
For example, knowledge of such relationships may be used to aggregate vitality. That is, by identifying relationships in other networks, and by determining that multiple identities correspond to the same individual, embodiments of the present invention may be used to aggregate vitality produced by a particular individual across multiple networks. This is to be contrasted with the current state of affairs in which, in order to consume vitality produced by their friends in different networks, users must traverse all of the different networks.
According to specific embodiments, aggregation of vitality is enabled by the aggregation of the permissioning models associated with the various sources of vitality. That is, sources of vitality such as social networks employ different models for enabling or restricting access to their users' content and information. Some employ relatively open models in which all or most members have access to some or all of the content and information of other network members. Some employ more restrictive models in which a member may limit access to specifically identified individuals, groups, or types of relations. When a user provides the Connections Activator with the requisite information for each of the networks or systems with which the user interacts, the Connections Activator is able to gain access to those networks and systems, and the content and information in those networks and systems, according to the permissioning model associated with each. By then recognizing that an individual with whom the user has contact in one context is the same person as an identity in another context, the Connections Activator is able to aggregate the vitality of that individual for the user regardless of the fact that the permissioning models in the different contexts may be radically different. Thus, according to specific embodiments, the Connections Activator enabled by the present invention effectively provides a single access control to content and information in a number of different contexts while preserving the permissioning models of each.
According to some embodiments, information relating to social connections and relationships may be used to weight other types of behaviors on a network. That is, understanding to whom a user is related, and possibly the nature and intensity of the relationship as well, can enable a wide variety of functionality.
For example, such information might be used to order, filter, or emphasize messages in an inbox, e.g., presenting emails or other communications types (e.g., voice mail, SMS, IM messages, etc.) in order from people with whom the user communicates most to people with whom the user communicates least. In another example, incoming messages could be assigned various levels of priority based on the closeness and/or type of the similar updating occurs with reference to Flickr (FIGS. 12 and 13), and then Twitter (FIGS. 14 and 15). In this way, the source user “declares” membership in the various networks and/or communication channels and the system links these various identity tokens of the source user together, thereby enabling the aggregation and/or consolidating of the source user's contacts from various contexts, the grouping and/or ranking of those contacts, as well as the aggregation of vitality and other forms of communications.
FIGS. 16, 17, and 18 show the effects of the source user imposing different levels of filtering on the contacts list (i.e., from “none” to “low” to “medium” to “high”) which has the effect of reducing the number of contacts in the list. As discussed elsewhere herein, such filtering may be done with reference to the degree of closeness or the intensity of the relationship and/or communication activity between the source user and each of the contacts.
Connections activation may occur in a variety of contexts according to various embodiments of the invention. One example is discussed above in which a user initiates the Connections Activator in the context of Yahoo!® Mail. However, it should be understood that this is merely one context in which connections activation may be useful. Other examples include virtually any messaging context, e.g., email, voice messaging, instant messaging, SMS, etc. According to a specific embodiment, it can be determined for any given communication channel whether a user has taken advantage of the Connections Activator to identify social relationships which might be used to enhance services in that channel. Further, relationships identified in other communication channels and/or network contexts may be leveraged to “activate” a new channel or context given the high probability of substantial overlap in the relationships between the different contexts. So, for example, if a user joins a new social networking site, the process of identifying people on the site with whom the user might want to connect can be facilitated using the present invention to identify relationships from other contexts which could be established in the new context.
In addition, the consolidated identities of the people with whom a user is associated can be leveraged to “fill the holes” in the contact information or address books of the user. For example, if the user's email address book has only the email address of a particular contact, additional identity tokens from that contact's consolidated identity (e.g., phone numbers, addresses, screen names, etc.) could be used to fill out other fields in the address book entry.
According to various embodiments, the Connections Activator creates an articulated graph of connections between people with weights and types connected to user actions in relation to content objects that are trackable. This connections graph can then be used as a filter in a variety of contexts including, for example, vitality generation and consumption, messaging, content consumption, content forwarding, etc.
From a set of latent and manifest relationships, the Connections Activator creates a manifest graph of relationships, and iteratively refines and improves it over time to evolve a model of who the user is, who the user is connected to, how the user relates to those connections, and the types of transactions associated with those relationships.
Embodiments of the present invention may be employed to identify and exploit social relationships and related data in any of a wide variety of computing contexts. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 4, implementations are contemplated in which the relevant population of users interact with a diverse network environment via any type of computer (e.g., desktop, laptop, tablet, etc.) 402, media computing platforms 403 (e.g., cable and satellite set top boxes and digital video recorders), handheld computing devices (e.g., PDAs) 404, cell phones 406, or any other type of computing or communication platform.
And according to various embodiments, user data processed in accordance with the invention may be collected using a wide variety of techniques. For example, collection of data representing a user's interaction with a web site or web-based application or service (e.g., the number of page views) may be accomplished using any of a variety of well known mechanisms for recording a user's online behavior. User data may be mined directly or indirectly, or inferred from data sets associated with any network or communication system on the Internet. And notwithstanding these examples, it should be understood that such methods of data collection are merely exemplary and that user data may be collected in many ways.
Once collected, the user data may be processed in some centralized manner. This is represented in FIG. 4 by server 408 and data store 410 which, as will be understood, may correspond to multiple distributed devices and data stores. The invention may also be practiced in a wide variety of network environments including, for example, TCP/IP-based networks, telecommunications networks, wireless networks, etc. These networks, as well as the various social networking sites and communication systems from which connection data may be aggregated according to the invention are represented by network 412.
Some of the characteristics of an example implementation in the context of the Yahoo!® network will now be described. At least some of the features and functionalities described below may be understood with reference to FIGS. 5-18 mentioned above, as well as FIGS. 19 and 20. According to this implementation, the user's data on the Yahoo!® network are mined to provide related services such as, for example, making recommendations on other users with which the user may be interested in connecting, or providing an easy way to populate the user's address book based on his aggregated contact list. This implementation takes advantage of the rich data that the user has in multiple places at Yahoo!® as well as outside the Yahoo!® network.
As discussed above, the Connections Activator of this implementation is operable to de-duplicate data around a contact even if it is from different sources. Examples of unique identifiers that indicate the same person are email address, cell phone number, home phone number, and first name+last name. Since the list for most users is relatively small, the risk of mistakes is acceptable and can be easily corrected by the user.
In determining a ranking for each relationship, various aspects of each relationship may be given different weights. For example, two-way relationships may be given a higher weight than one-way relationships. Contacts with similar attributes, e.g., same last name, university name, etc., may also be weighted more heavily. In addition, if an identity token (e.g., an email id or cell phone number) in the user's address book belongs to a known user in the network, then the known user's data may be leveraged to consolidate other identifiers for that user.
The goal is to generate a list of contacts—where possible getting the contacts directly (e.g., from the user's address book, Yahoo!® Messenger buddy list, etc.), but also mining other sources to augment the contact list, e.g., the user's email store as well as external sources. These aggregated data are normalized by giving rarer data higher weight. For example, if someone is using an address book they will likely have all the mobile number fields for all their contacts, so the weight associated with a mobile number may go down for that user.
Weights may be defined at a global level, but in some cases it may be advisable to allow different emphases for different sets of users to reflect their specific needs. For instance, in some emerging markets, mobile phones are more popular than land lines so the weights for mobile numbers in such markets may be deemphasized. According to a specific embodiment, the attributes which are weighted are presented to the user on a slider control (or the equivalent) along with the default weights. The user can then move the slider around and change the weights and the contact list refreshes with the new weights. When the user is done, these weights may be saved as specific to the user.
Machine learning may be incorporated at either or both of the user level and the system level. For example, the system may be configured to learn based on the contacts that a user accepts or rejects, and the categories that the user accepts, renames or changes.
Each contact recommended may include summary info (e.g., consolidated from all sources) and controls for taking action with respect to each (e.g., “Invite,” “Reject,” or “Later” buttons). The user may be enabled to accept all, reject all, and customize in between. The “Invite” button triggers an invite flow. The “Reject” button results in the contact being excluded from being shown as a recommendation in the future. The “Later” button allows the contact to be recommended again (assuming it meets the standard relevancy criteria).
This implementation of the Connections Activator may run periodically (with a configurable period), refreshing information from on and off Yahoo!® sites, and updating the relevance. Communication feeds (e.g., from mail providers and Messenger logs) may be employed to improve accuracy.
On either a user activated import, or a behind-the-scenes periodic import, this implementation of the Connections Activator retrieves data from the set of internal and/or external networks and/or systems identified or associated with the user. The Connections Activator then requests from an authentication system the appropriate set of third party credentials, which may or may not be persistently stored.
For a source user, i.e., the user initiating the import, who is identified from a globally unique identifier (GUID), the Yahoo!® internal contact lists is imported, as well as the authenticated third party contact lists that the user has approved for import. After import, certain lists can be made available to the user's address book if the user has selected that option.
The Global Contact List is an ordered list of contacts for a given source user identified via GUID. The targets in the contact list are not necessarily GUID-based, each entry including a set of identifiers that are guessed and/or confirmed to be the same entity if multiple identifiers exists for that entry. Best guesses are applied to non-registered users in order to de-duplicate them from information offered only in the source user's data, e.g., two imported entries having the same email addresses. The GUID database may be consulted to support de-duplication by identifying relationships that may not be inferable from best guess analysis (e.g., matching email address, cell phone number, first name, last name, etc.).
The import operation may be rerun to refresh the contact list. If at some point, the source user decides to opt out of a particular network or system, references to that integration source are removed from the global contact list on a subsequent import.
As discussed above, a set of weights is associated with each contact, and a total weight for the contact is calculated. Each integration source has a positive or negative weight associated with it. A high positive indicates a strong relationship, and negative indicates a weak relationship. The total weight is computed by summing all of the contributing weights for each entry. Weights are higher for entries that come from multiple integration sources, but each integration source might contribute to the weight differently.
A suggested contact list based on the de-duped and ranked global contact list is returned to the user for activation. The suggested contact list might be derived, for example, by subtracting entries from the global contact list for which the source user has already taken action, e.g., entries which are already in a two-way connection set, entries which were previously invited but either were denied or are still pending, etc.
From the suggested contact list, the source user generates a mesh of a set of targets which may or may not be registered in the Yahoo!® network. This may be accomplished, for example, by the source user marking a checkbox associated with each entry to indicate the desire to send an invitation for connection to the associated contact (e.g., an email which includes a link). A mechanism may also be provided by which the source user can indicate a desire to ignore the suggested connection, in which case that entry would no longer appear in the list.
Another form of connections activation is “mesh” activation in which a single user can activate social connections for an interconnected set of contacts. A mesh activation database stores the set of targets as well as the source user who is simply considered as one of the contacts in the group. Each entry includes 3 fields, a mesh group id, a user identifier (a GUID or some other identity token, e.g., an email address), and an action state indicating “accepted,” “denied,” or “pending.” Another table associates the mesh group id with the mesh group creation time. On creation of the mesh, the source user is in the “accepted” state by default. All other contacts or users in the mesh group are initially in the “pending” state.
When other users in the mesh group accept the invitation, they are connected to everyone in the group that has already accepted and placed in the “accepted” state. An accepting user is placed in the same state as a user that has accepted the invitation from everyone in the mesh group that has also accepted, and sends out an invitation to the remaining members of the group. When users in the mesh group deny the invitation, they are placed in the “denied” state. When all users in the mesh are either in the “accepted” or “denied” state, the mesh invitation is complete, and the non-accepting entries can then be removed.
For contacts in the pending state, invitations are resent when those contacts have been in the “pending” state for some configurable period of time, e.g., 15 days. The mesh invitation is considered completed if all users are either in the “accepted” or “denied” state, or in the “pending” state longer than another configurable period of time, e.g., 30 days. The non-accepting entries can then be removed.
As will be understood, a wide variety of user interface features may be employed in conjunction with various embodiments of the present invention (see, for example, the interfaces of FIGS. 1-3 and 5-18). According to the implementation described in the immediately preceding paragraphs, and as shown in FIG. 19, each of the proposed connections in the suggested contacts list is represented with an image, a first name, and a last name. A detailed view of each proposed connection may also be presented which includes other available information such as, for example, an email address, phone number, category, network affiliation, connection to connection, etc. Icons may also be presented which indicate whether the contact is already in a particular social network. This information is particularly relevant when the source user is inviting friends to sign up for a new social network.
Icons indicating the source of the data for a given contact may also be included, as well as mechanisms for adding or removing sources. For example, as shown in FIGS. 5-18, a drop down menu may be provided from which the source user can select from among available sources. Alternatively, a page devoted to adding or removing sources may be presented as shown in FIG. 20. The sources include the Yahoo!® network and possibly specific properties within the Yahoo!® network, external sources (e.g., other networks, social networking sites, communication systems, etc.), as well as any address book or contact information which may be resident on the user's device or remotely stored. Each may be presented in with an associated logo and source name. Detailed views for each source may be presented which include input fields by which the source user may provide any necessary login or password information so that the Connections Activator may gain access to the sources of additional data.
According to one embodiment, a control is associated with the contact list which allows the user to affect the number of contacts displayed. An example is shown in FIG. 19 in which a slider is provided which represents the range of closeness of relationships that moves from “Closest” to “All” which has the effect of filtering the number of contacts displayed based on the normalized weight scale. Initially, a default number of contacts (e.g., 50) are displayed with the default being reflected in the position of the slider.
It should be noted that the source user can enter the Connections Activator flow from various points and contexts. For example, the source user may not be a member of the Yahoo!® network. In such a case, the Connections Activator will not be able to mine existing data about the user (e.g., identity tokens) from Yahoo!® databases until the user registers. Alternatively, an existing Yahoo!® member may enter the flow for the first time or as a repeat user via a supplemental registration process. In addition, the source user can enter the flow from a variety of contexts. For example, the flow can begin in Yahoo!® Mail. Alternatively, the flow can be initiated from the user's Yahoo!® 360 page. Another alternative is the flow may be entered from the Yahoo! oneConnect mobile service. The flow may even be entered from an external network or system.
According to one embodiment, a connections activation flow may even be initiated by the system itself. For example, if a pattern of communication is detected between a particular user and a fixed group, the user can be offered the ability to use the Connections Activator to activate her connections in the typical “hub and spokes” topology (user is the hub, spokes connect the user to her connections). Alternatively, the user may create a mesh group as described above. This mesh group activation process provides an easy way for the user to communicate with this group of users, but will also send out invitations to each of the members of the group to connect with every other member of the group (if they are not already connected). By accepting membership into this group, the user agrees to be connected to every other member of that group.
According to various embodiments, the relevance of a connection may not only be based on its social nature (i.e., the “Who”), but on various other characteristics as well, e.g., its spatial aspect (i.e., the “Where”), its temporal aspect (the “When”), and/or its topical (i.e., the “What”) aspect. The relevance of these additional spatial, temporal, and topical aspects may be determined by analyzing the similarity of these aspects among contacts as well as patterns of these similarities within and among the respective social, spatial, temporal, and topical aspects. For example, embodiments are contemplated which are operable to group contacts by spatial and temporal proximity, i.e., contacts which are currently near the user's location. Spatial information may be readily determined with reference to, for example, location and/or proximity data associated with mobile devices, GPS systems, etc. Temporal information is also widely available in the various systems which may be aggregated in accordance with the invention. Topical information related to a contact is available from a variety of sources including, but not limited to, the content of the communications among contacts as well as explicit profile data (such as declared interests) expressed on a contact's profile on one or more social network services. Moreover, given the dynamic nature of the various types of metadata associated with individuals and relationships, the relevance algorithm employed to group or rank contacts may recompute the relevance measures periodically and/or in response to changes in metadata. This may result in information which is more contextually relevant to the user.
An example of an implementation embodying such concepts will now be described with reference to FIGS. 21-25. This example, referred to in the drawings as Yahoo! oneConnect, is implemented in the context of a mobile device, and is operable to aggregate not only vitality, but various forms of direct communication, e.g., instant messaging, SMS, email, voice, etc., using the contact information associated with each contact.
The screens of FIG. 21 show a flow by which contacts associated with the user's Facebook account can be aggregated along with those from other networks and communications channels using the user's login information for Facebook (screen 2102). And once the user's networks and/or channels are aggregated, a variety of different views of the available information may be presented according to various schema. For example, conversations with the user's contacts in various communication channels may be presented as shown in FIG. 22(A). In another example, the current status of the user's contacts in various networks may be presented as shown in FIG. 22(B). The information presented may also be filtered with reference to a single contact. That is, the vitality and/or events relating to a single contact aggregated from some or all of the networks and/or communication channels may be presented in a single view as shown in FIG. 22(C) by selecting that contact. The user may also be enabled to modify his current status in some or all of the networks or communication channels with which he is associated via the mechanism illustrated in FIG. 22(D).
The screens of FIG. 23 illustrate a flow by which a user may select the grouping by which he filters and/or views his contacts. As illustrated in screen 2302, options might include groups defined by the user himself, as well as “Smart Groups” which correspond to a grouping inferred by the system from any of the various data available to the system. User-defined groups might include, for example, Friends and Work groups. Smart Groups might include, for example, a group including all of the user's contacts as identified and aggregated by the system, the most recent contacts with whom the user has been communicating, contacts currently online, contacts which are nearby from a geographic perspective, etc.
By selecting Nearby contacts, the user may view aggregated vitality from his contacts sorted by distance and/or within some programmable threshold distance as illustrated in screen 2304. The user may also be presented with information regarding other people in proximity to the user but which may not yet be identified as a contact for that user. Such individuals may be identified, for example, because they also use the oneConnect service.
The nearby contacts may then be viewed by the user in a variety of ways such as, for example, in terms of ongoing conversations (2306), or current status in various networks (2308). According to some embodiments, the user may view his contacts and their vitality in terms of their most recent activity in any of the various networks and/or communication channels which have been aggregated, e.g., the “Pulse” view shown in screen 2310. The Pulse view may indicate the nature and/or content of the activity, as well as the context and the time at which it occurred. In the example of screen 2310, the nature of the activity is a change to the contact's status in Facebook.
FIG. 24 shows some additional examples of contacts presented in a Pulse view. The screen of FIG. 24(A) includes events relating to any of the user's contacts and is sorted by time. The screen of FIG. 24(B) includes events which are further filtered by geographic proximity to the user's current location. As indicated, such events might include the posting of content (e.g., photos in Flickr, social network posts), actions taken (e.g., tagging a photo, rating a song, installing an application), updating profiles (e.g., adding a job title or new contact information), etc. Virtually any activity within any of the networks or communication channels may be represented.
And because embodiments of the present invention aggregate permissioning models as described above, implementations are contemplated by which users can interact with the various networks of which they are members, as well as communicate via the various channels they employ in a single interface. An example of this is illustrated by the flow in FIG. 25 in which a user is engaging in an online messaging session with a contact in one network and is able to change mid-conversation by selecting another network.
In addition, activity inferred from data associated with a particular network or communication channel may be presented. For example, because the location of a contact's mobile device can be known (if appropriate permissions are granted), the movements of that contact in the physical world may be represented (e.g., the contact traveling from Hamburg to Barcelona).
While the invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to specific embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that changes in the form and details of the disclosed embodiments may be made without departing from the spirit or scope of the invention. For example, the contexts and data sources to which the descriptions of various embodiments herein refer should not be considered to limit the scope of the invention. Rather, any context in which social relationships may be detected and used, and any data source which can support the basic functionality described herein is within the scope of the present invention.
wherein the vitality events indicate the nature and/or content of online activities inside the first network and the one or more other networks for the particular ones of the plurality of contacts.
identifying and aggregating a plurality of identity tokens from the first data source and the at least one external data source.
3. The method of claim 1 wherein each of the first data source and the at least one external data source corresponds to one of a social networking system, a messaging system, a content sharing system, or a member network.
4. The method of claim 1 wherein identifying the plurality of contacts comprises referring to one or more of an address book, a contact list, a message sender, a message recipient, a publisher of content, a subscription to content, or social network data.
wherein the relevancy measure is further determined with reference to one or more of a frequency of communication, a recency of communication, a volume of communication, a periodicity of communication, a number of connections, a group membership, a demographic characteristic, a name, a relationship category, or a geographic location.
6. The method of claim 5 further comprising ranking the plurality of contacts with reference to the relevancy measures.
7. The method of claim 5 further comprising grouping the plurality of contacts with reference to the relevancy measures.
8. The method of claim 1 further comprising transmitting first invitations to connect with the first user to a subset of the contacts selected by the first user.
9. The method of claim 5 further comprising repeating identifying the plurality of contacts and determining the relevancy measures with reference to an additional external data source identified by the first user.
wherein aggregating vitality events from inside multiple social networks for particular ones of the plurality of contacts includes aggregating the vitality events from inside the first network and inside the one or more other networks for the one person, thereby aggregating the vitality events for the one person across the multiple social networks.
processing messages received by the first user with reference to the relevancy measures, wherein the messages include messages from the one person.
15. The method of claim 14 wherein each of the first data source and the at least one external data source corresponds to one of a social networking system, a messaging system, a content sharing system, or a member network.
16. The method of claim 14 wherein the relevancy measure is representative of one or more of a frequency of communication, a recency of communication, a volume of communication, a periodicity of communication, a number of connections, a group membership, a demographic characteristic, a name, a relationship category, or a geographic location.
17. The method of claim 14 further comprising enabling the first user to select a subset of the contacts to which the first user would like to extend an invitation to connect with the first user.
18. The method of claim 14 further comprising enabling the first user to identify an additional external data source, and presenting a revised version of the plurality of contacts, wherein the revised version of plurality of contacts is presented in accordance with a revised relevancy measure associated with each of the contacts determined with reference to the additional external data source.
19. The method of claim 14 further comprising presenting messages directed to the first user in accordance with the relevancy measures.
20. The method of claim 14 wherein a ranking of the plurality of contacts was conducted with reference to the relevancy measures, and wherein the plurality of contacts is presented in accordance with the ranking.
21. The method of claim 14 wherein a grouping of the plurality of contacts was conducted with reference to the relevancy measures, and wherein the plurality of contacts is presented in accordance with the grouping.
22. The method of claim 14 wherein each of the vitality events indicates a corresponding network, and a time at which the vitality event occurred.
23. The method of claim 14 wherein at least some of the vitality events comprise text updates that indicate changes to a status of a corresponding one of the plurality of contacts.
24. The method of claim 14 wherein the vitality events include posting of content, actions taken, updating profiles, or a combination thereof.
25. The method of claim 14 wherein the vitality events from inside the first network and inside the one or more other networks for particular ones of the plurality of contacts are filtered by geographic proximity with reference to a location associated with the first user.
comparing a first set of identity tokens or identifiers of a first one of the plurality of contacts with a second set of identity tokens or identifiers of a second one of the plurality of contacts.
aggregating the vitality events for the individual across the second network and the third network.
28. The method of claim 27, wherein the relationship or interaction in the third network is with the first user.
29. The method of claim 27, wherein the relationship or interaction in the third network is not with the first user.
aggregating the vitality events for the individual across the second network and the first network.
ascertaining that a first contact in the first subset of the contacts and a second contact in the second subset of the contacts correspond to one person.
ascertaining that a first contact in the first subset of the contacts and a second contact in the first subset of the contacts correspond to one person.
determining that an identity of an individual in one of the relationships or interactions in a second network corresponds to the same individual in a relationship or interaction in a third network, wherein the second network is one of the other networks, and wherein the third network is the first network or another one of the other networks.
wherein the first user is a member of the first social network and the other social networks, thereby aggregating the vitality events for the particular ones of the plurality of contacts across the multiple social networks.
35. The system of claim 34, wherein the at least one external data source or corresponding social network can be selected or identified by the first user, wherein login information pertaining to the at least one external data source or corresponding social network is provided by the first user, and wherein accessing the information associated with the at least one external data source is performed using the login information pertaining to the at least one external data source or corresponding social network.
36. The system of claim 34, wherein the first social network and the other social networks are each associated with a different web site.
37. The system of claim 34, wherein the first social network is a social networking site and the one or more other social networks include one or more social networking sites.
consolidating the two or more contacts into a single contact for the one person.
comparing a name or phone number of the first one of the plurality of contacts with a name or phone number of the second one of the plurality of contacts.
comparing profile data of the first one of the plurality of contacts with profile data of the second one of the plurality of contacts.
41. The method of claim 1, wherein each of the multiple social networks is controlled by a service provider.
42. The method of claim 1, wherein each of the multiple social networks is associated with a corresponding web site.
43. The method of claim 1, wherein each of the multiple social networks is a physical network.
44. The method of claim 1, wherein each of the one or more other networks is controlled by a corresponding entity.
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The purpose of this chapter is twofold: to get more detailed accounts of the benefits of the NAS (NAS or the Supergrid) and to analyze financing mechanisms for construction.
Since the data for the MacDonald publication was gathered in 2009, the price of energy generation, particularly from solar and wind (onshore and offshore), have dramatically decreased, making the NAS even more advantageous than previously projected.
We project the price of the infrastructure to be $303 billion and $442 billion. Yet, the savings in electricity generation (the cost of generating electricity from wind and solar sources is much less than traditional sources) offset the cost of building the supergrid under most reasonable scenarios of the price of undergrounding transmission lines and the price of natural gas. Therefore, the total annualized cost of generating and transmitting electricity would be likely be lower because of the NAS.
We estimated that between 649,010 to 936,111 constant jobs would be needed for construction of the transmission and generation capacity over a 30-year build time.
We analyzed financing options and make conjectures as to how the Supergrid would be financed in each region of the country accounting for projected cost and precedent of how other transmission projects were financed in each region. We do not recommend new taxes or government sponsored financing programs to build the Supergrid.
Private financing would fund most of the lines in a majority of regions. We also encourage participation from energy developers that stand to benefit from the Supergrid. Further, the Rural Utilities Services could make loan capital available to developers for the less lucrative lines that may be less attractive to private financiers.
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) loan guarantee programs.
Secure backing of federal/state governments, DOE, regional transmission organizations (RTOs)/ independent system operators (ISOs).
Reduce permitting and regulation burden.
Ensure stakeholder interests are aligned in each region.
Encourage regional and national collaboration.
The primary objectives of this analysis were to explore in more detail the economic benefits of the proposed national overlay high voltage direct current (HVDC) electric grid, and to develop a framework that could be used to update and repeat economic benefit calculations as new cost projections associated with energy generation and transmission technologies become available. This analysis provides a methodology to compute total project cost and create an updated line construction cost estimate. We used the publicly accessible Jobs and Economic Development Impact (JEDI) models provided by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) to estimate the NAS’s effect on job creation and regional economies at the national and state levels. Further, we used the results to conduct more detailed analysis with higher resolution data to estimate the economic impact of the NAS at state levels. The model includes a database of cost assumptions for varying types of transmission lines and power plants.
Due to major changes (unanticipated steep downward trend in costs of wind and solar energy generation over the last several years), it became necessary to update the input cost assumptions of the NAS compared to those used in the MacDonald et al. study. The total capital cost for the transmission system was estimated by summing the Overnight Capital Cost (ONCC), new HVDC transmission cost, and variable natural gas costs. The renewable generation ONCC figures from 2013 MacDonald et al. figures were compared to 2016 Lazard Levelized Costs of Electricity figures (referred to as LCOE or Lazard figures). The more recent study showed a dramatic decrease in ONCC for building the various renewable generation capacities. Such current LCOE are very close to the most optimistic MacDonald et al. estimates of future costs (projected for 2030, shown in Table 1), leading to an even more favorable forecast for the HVDC supergrid system.
Next, total transmission system cost was estimated. Transmission cost is a function of Line Cost ($/MW-mile) and Station Cost ($/MW). A line and station cost comparison of MacDonald et al. figures against JEDI Model figures is shown below in Table 2. While the figures for both categories were comparable, the MacDonald et al. paper used data that indicated lower station costs and higher line costs. Due to unforeseen favorable generating costs, these differences were mitigated, rendering the results very comparable.
We then combined the MacDonald et al. system design with the results from the JEDI Model (i.e. front-end stations cost) and the updated cost figures to arrive at a final comparison for the cost of the NAS system (both above and below ground) versus the system cost of the current AC grid. In the first two scenarios, a simulation of a single integrated system that could send electricity across the lower 48 states was used, as prescribed by the NAS. In the last scenario, the lower 48 states were split into district regions where energy generated in those boundaries must be used within the same boundaries (shown in Table 3). The single system was much more efficient since the scenario with the divisions requires natural gas to fill in the gaps that wind and energy cannot supply. Some regions, in the system divided in distinct regions, overproduced renewable energy while others underproduce renewable energy.
Simulations of the cost of generation sources with and without the NAS were completed, where the new system favored only the least expensive forms of electricity generation amongst offshore wind, onshore wind, solar PV, and natural gas. Coal and oil were omitted since they are more expensive electricity generators in either scenario. Our results showed that the onshore wind generation capacity, which has gone down in price recently, will drive changes in nameplate capacity more than anything else under the NAS scenario. Costs would favor solar PV generation and natural gas generation much less, while offshore wind energy generation would remain stable.
While both overhead and underground line configurations come at a cost advantage under most natural gas price scenarios, the advantage diminishes as the cost of natural gas lowers since natural gas generation facilities can be built anywhere and would require less transmission cost since they would be located closer to load centers. The breakeven point, where the advantage goes away for the underground HVDC scenario, is $4.43/MMBtu. The breakeven point for overhead lines is $2.50/MMBtu. This is assuming that the “multiplier” for the increased cost of underground lines (assuming siting and capacity are equal to that of an above ground line in the same configuration) is three times that of overhead lines. Breakeven points for other multipliers are shown in Table 4 below.
Since the usage of underground lines is not common enough to determine a commonly accepted multiplier, we performed a sensitivity analysis to find out how the breakeven point moves depending on both natural gas prices and the aforementioned multiplier. The results show that the breakeven comes at a higher price of natural gas as the multiplier increases. As mentioned before, the most likely scenario for the multiplier is approximately three, at which point the breakeven is $4.43/MMBtu. When the multiplier is two, the breakeven point of natural gas is well below $4.00/MMBtu. At a multiplier of four, the breakeven point is closer to $6.00/MMBtu. Long-term projections of the cost of natural gas are variable as many influences affect both the demand and supply of fuel costs. Expert analysts, however, predict that the cost of natural gas will be well over the 4.00/MMBtu threshold, meaning that at a three times multiplier, the NAS is projected to be economically viable in the long-term at the aggregate level.
Table 5 shows the total projected costs of building the NAS. After consulting with multiple industry experts, a three times multiplier was agreed upon to estimate the costs of transmission lines per mile. JEDI figures were also used to determine the cost of converters and substations per mile with the estimation of total mileage of transmission cables needed to construct the NAS. No consideration was given to price impacts of technology adoption.
Jobs created from installing transmission infrastructure are listed above, but only contribute a small amount of jobs compared to the jobs needed for the energy generation. Using the results from the NEWS model, developed by MacDonald et al. in the foundational paper, combined with the JEDI model, we calculated the job generation due to renewable energy infrastructure development (from transmission and generation) for each of the lower 48 states. After we combine the jobs estimates of all states with the jobs from installing the thousands of transmission facilities, we estimate that the NAS would produce the equivalent of 650,000 to 950,000 total constant jobs per year over 30 years.
The majority of energy infrastructure projects are developed by private companies that secure financing from financial institutions, institutional investors, and the capital markets. Privately financed transmission projects typically have both a debt and equity component. Projects can be structured to have either corporate financing or project financing. Corporate financing uses existing funds from a company’s operating budget to fund a project which could use revenue from existing assets or funds from a corporate bond issue. In corporate financing, the lenders and investors have recourse to the entire corporation, not just the specific asset. Project financing involves the creation of a special purpose vehicle (SPV) whose only assets and debt are related to the specific project. In project financing, the lenders or investors only have recourse to the assets of the project. Much of the NAS construction would likely involve project financing because it is conducive to multiple entities collaborating on a development.
Investment by private investors has been increasing as governments struggle to keep up with the demand for new infrastructure projects, including transmission projects. The International Energy Agency (IEA) projects $260 billion invested globally in new transmission and distribution lines through 2035. There is private capital available in the market ready to invest in quality infrastructure projects. In the first half of 2016, it was estimated there was $75 billion of capital waiting to be invested in infrastructure. The capital comes from insurance companies, pension funds, private equity, infrastructure funds, and sovereign wealth funds.
There are multiple reasons why investing in transmission lines can be attractive to investors. Cost recovery for transmission projects is regulated by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) creating an almost certain guaranteed rate of return. Cash flows from the project are typically stable and independent of energy prices or line utilization. Established transmission lines utilize proven technology and require minimal ongoing maintenance. Additionally, transmission investment is often resistant to competing investment along the same corridors. A competing investment would have difficulty obtaining financing unless there was significant load growth driving increased demand. These characteristics allow investors to accurately predict investment performance and help make transmission investment more attractive than other types of infrastructure.
Debt typically comprises 70-90% of infrastructure project financing. The primary forms of debt financing are through commercial banks, institutional private placements, and the corporate bond market. Traditional bank financing has long been a key component of infrastructure financing. Bank loans typically have lower interest rates than other types of debt financing. However, due to regulatory changes following the 2008 recession, banks are now required to secure long-term bonds to back longer-term loans and therefore banks prefer shorter loans (typically 7 years or less) due to the lower cost. This can create refinancing risk for borrowers. Bank financing is most likely to be used in the early stages of planning and construction. After completion, bank loans are refinanced by a long-term security which has lower cost as much of the construction, permitting risk, etc. has been removed. Banks tend to be more flexible in the event of unforeseen events during construction and can negotiate loan restructuring or adjust the timeframe of disbursements.
Institutional private placements are another form of debt financing that can be arranged by an investment bank. Capital would be secured from select institutional clients through a negotiation process led by a bank acting in an agency capacity. The disclosure and paperwork required is similar to issuing a public bond, but there can be more room for flexibility when creating the contract. Insurance companies, pension funds, and sovereign wealth funds are types of investors that could participate in a private placement due to their need for long-term investments.
A third form of debt financing for transmission developers is the corporate bond market. Private companies can issue bonds to support general operations or specific projects and that money can be allocated to pay for development costs. Bonds are typically more common in the later operational stages of a project when the asset is producing a steady cash flow. Bonds can be a mechanism used when refinancing bank loans at the conclusion of the construction phase.
With all types of debt financing, the credit rating of the borrower is important to secure lower cost financing. Pension funds and insurance companies often have guidelines dictating the required credit quality of their investments. Transmission developers constructing the NAS will likely rely on multiple types of debt financing. Construction of many segments of the NAS will likely be financed by traditional bank loans. Once construction is completed, corporate bonds or private placements could be used to refinance the debt. This structure would align the risks and cash flows of the project with investor expectations for each type of debt. The types of debt ultimately used for each segment will be dependent on the developer that wins the contract and their preferred financing mechanisms.
Debt holders usually require an infrastructure project to have an equity component to reduce risk and help protect debt holders from loss. Equity typically only comprises 10-30% of infrastructure financing. Equity holders take on the most risk in the project and therefore demand a higher return. Enlisting quality equity holders is often key to being able to secure debt financing at the lowest cost. Transmission developers often provide a portion of the equity in projects they construct. Aside from having a stake in the project, developers benefit from the tax savings of the depreciation generated. Additionally, private equity funds, insurance companies, infrastructure funds, and sovereign wealth funds can also be a source of equity.
In the current low interest rate environment, long-term investors such as insurance companies and pension funds are eager to invest in infrastructure projects that offer a higher return than traditional investments. However, currently only 0.8% of the approximately $50 trillion in investable assets from insurance companies and pension funds are invested in infrastructure. The lack of quality projects is the primary reason investment is not higher. Similarly, private equity funds are currently raising $30.5 billion for 43 new funds to invest in quality North American infrastructure projects in addition to the $68 billion in funds they hold, but have not yet invested. This is evidence that there are willing investors looking for superior projects like the NAS to invest in. The key for the NAS will be securing the backing of stakeholders and making the project attractive to new investors.
Private financing will likely be the primary source of funds for constructing the NAS. It will be crucial to partner with transmission developers that have a wealth of experience in securing financing and successfully completing projects. The high cost of the NAS will necessitate using a variety of debt and equity financing mechanisms for each segment of the national grid.
A new financing model has developed over the past two decades that could be used for some segments of the NAS. The Public-Private Partnership (PPP) model can take on many forms, but it involves the collaboration of government and private parties. The PPP model is particularly useful for projects where there is not sufficient private capital financing because it can use government investment to leverage additional private capital. It has become a popular model to finance transmission projects in emerging markets and is beginning to be used more in the United States. The main benefit to the PPP model is spreading risks associated with a large infrastructure project. It is important to structure the deal so that no one party takes on exorbitant amounts of risk. Spreading risk can attract investors that might not otherwise participate in a project. Private firms can provide project expertise and are often able to push projects along faster than the government. The PPP model works best when there is a stream of revenue to ensure an adequate return to investors. FERC regulations allow each Regional Transmission Organization (RTO) and Independent System Operator (ISO) to use an allocation process to dictate how costs are recovered from ratepayers for transmission developments creating a steady revenue stream once the project is complete.
There are some challenges in implementing the PPP model for transmission projects. As of January 2017, only 37 states have legislation that allow public-private partnerships. This could prevent using this model for some segments that cross multiple states if not all states allow public-private partnerships. The high regulatory burden of developing transmission projects can slow the process and discourage private investors from joining into a partnership. Projects financed with this model often work best if they have a political champion (governor, senator, etc.) helping to build support for the project. They can also help the project navigate the various federal and state agencies during the permitting process.
Historically, the PPP model has been used in the United States for transportation infrastructure projects. But there are some examples of transmission projects using a PPP financing model. The Path 15 project used a public-private partnership structure to finance and build an 83-mile transmission line connecting northern and southern California, helping to eliminate a bottleneck in the grid system. The Western Area Power Administration built and operates the line. The private company Trans-Elect assembled a majority of the project financing. In return, they were granted long-term transmission rights that will help them pay off banks and investors. As a high priority project in California, federal and state agencies expedited environmental studies and the project permitting process. This was one of the first successful PPP projects for a transmission line and it shows the cooperation involved between governments and public and private companies.
The PPP model will be used for segments of the NAS that are less lucrative and do not have as much private financing available. As with all segments of the grid, collaboration and support from federal and local governments will be important to successfully structuring PPP deals that are beneficial to all parties. This financing model will be a vital mechanism to construct the less lucrative segments allowing the entire national grid to be completed.
Traditionally transmission projects have been privately financed with little assistance from the federal government. However, infrastructure spending has come to the forefront of the national discussion so it is worth examining how a potential infrastructure spending bill at the federal level may impact the NAS. As of July 2017, no infrastructure bill has been proposed in either house of Congress, and it is likely they will focus on other issues before infrastructure. However, the presidential administration has released a framework for what their proposed policy might look like. Their policy would reduce regulations and the time needed to receive federal permits. They also propose using government investment to leverage private sector investment. This could indicate public-private partnerships will be much more common in the future. The policy also hopes to focus federal infrastructure investment on transformative projects that change the way infrastructure is designed, built, and maintained.
Many of the proposals from the presidential administration could benefit the NAS. Fewer regulations and a shorter permitting time would help expedite the project and help attract private investment. The NAS could qualify as a transformative project since it is different from the structure of the current electrical grid and promises to have both environmental and national security benefits. Lower direct federal investment in infrastructure likely means the NAS would have trouble securing federal money for construction. Nonetheless, a PPP model used for some segments of the grid could receive federal money to leverage private investment.
The uncertainty regarding federal government support for infrastructure development will make private financing a crucial component of funding the NAS. However, there are some government programs available to supplement private financing for the less lucrative grid segments.
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) issues loan guarantees to promote growth of new clean energy technology through the Loan Program Office (LPO). Title XVII of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 authorized the loan guarantees. The program applies to a wide range of technologies, including renewable energy and transmission projects. As of June 2017, there is up to $4.5 billion in funding available for projects in renewable and efficient energy. The NAS project appears to meet many of the criteria for acceptance into this program. Projects “that will have a catalytic effect on the commercial deployment of future Renewable Energy Projects” will be looked at favorably in the review process. The NAS is likely to promote additional investment in wind and solar generation because more electricity will be able to be transported over long distances to population centers. The program specifies that for transmission projects to be considered efficient, they must lower electricity losses when compared to current commercial processes in the U.S. over an equivalent distance. The HVDC technology used in the NAS would limit losses of electricity through transmission, making the technology more efficient for long distance transmission.
However, there are factors that could limit the eligibility for the loan program for certain parts of the national grid. Projects that could be fully financed by commercial banks are viewed unfavorably in the review process. Projects that receive any other assistance from the federal government (grants, loans) may not be eligible. The loan guarantee program is designed to help new technologies prove their financial worthiness so that future investment can be financed by the capital markets. This program will most likely be useful for sections of the NAS that are projected to be less profitable and therefore need government assistance to secure financing. A section of the grid constructed early in the process may also have a better chance of acceptance into the program. Financial, technical, legal, and environmental factors are reviewed in the approval process along with a review of how well the project fits the policy of the program. The DOE is accepting applications through at least September 2019, although additional submission dates may be announced in the future.
The One Nevada Line is an example of the loan program being used for a transmission project. The project received a $343 million loan guarantee to finance a 235-mile 500 kV line through Nevada. The use of a new transmission tower design that has a smaller environmental impact was the technological innovation in this project. The new line is also expected to bring wind and solar generated power from Wyoming and Idaho into Nevada. The NAS project has many of the same benefits as the One Nevada Line. This gives confidence to the idea that the loan guarantee program would be a possible financing mechanism for the NAS.
More than 20 states have created Clean Energy Funds using state government funds as a way to promote growth in renewable energy. While each state’s fund has their own design, these funds often are used to attract private investment to renewable energy projects. These funds have primarily been used to provide funding for individual renewable generation projects, but there may be potential to access state funding for the NAS because an improved transmission grid will drive private investment in renewable generation. These funds would likely not provide direct investment to build the NAS but would instead help attract and guarantee financing for private capital investors. This would involve collaboration between private investors, utility companies, and state government agencies.
The Rural Utilities Service is a program under the U.S. Department of Agriculture that provides needed infrastructure development and improvement to rural communities. The program provides direct loans, loan guarantees, and grants to electric projects in transmission, distribution, and generation. The loans are primarily made to state and local government entities and cooperative utilities, although for-profit companies are also eligible. The program made $3.4 billion in loans and loan guarantees in 2015 and the amounts are expected to continue increasing. Most loans are between $20 million and $200 million. General guidelines indicate projects should benefit populations of 20,000 or fewer, although there is some flexibility.
Segments of the NAS through rural areas or segments that would improve service to rural areas are likely to be eligible for financing through this program. While this program is not likely to be a large piece of grid financing, it could help secure funding for less lucrative segments in rural areas. This program can be used in partnership with other financing to help attract private investment. It would also provide a source of public investment in a public-private partnership.
A potential source of financing for private companies investing in transmission infrastructure are Private Activity Bonds (PABs). These bonds are federally tax exempt and therefore allow borrowing at a lower interest rate. They do require a private company to partner with a government agency that acts as the issuer of the bond. However, the private company pays the debt service on the bond under a contractual agreement. Section 142 of the IRS tax code allows PABs for surface transportation projects. They have not been used for transmission projects in the past and it would take new legislation to allow PABs for electric developments. Allowing these types of bonds to be used for the NAS would incentivize private companies to invest in the project because borrowing would be cheaper for transmission projects using PABs than investing in other types of infrastructure.
Historically, the energy sector in the United States had been dominated by vertically integrated organizations that owned and operated the generation, transmission, and distribution services within a geographic area. Beginning in 1978, deregulation allowed some utilities to create power pools to facilitate wholesale transactions over larger geographic areas. By the 1990’s there was a need to have open access to transmission services for all utility companies to create competition among generators. FERC issued orders to encourage the creation of regional organizations that would control the transmission of energy and allow open access to transmission lines.
Today there are six RTO or ISO regulated by FERC: ISO New England, New York ISO, PJM, Midcontinent ISO, Southwest Power Pool, and California ISO. The Electric Reliability Council of Texas is regulated by state regulators because it is located entirely in the state of Texas. Much of the southeastern and western United States are not currently covered by ISOs. In analyzing the financing options for the NAS, we look at a financing strategy for each ISO region. We will also look at the Southeast U.S. and Western U.S. as separate regions despite not having an organized ISO.
One of the primary responsibilities of each RTO is managing the transmission planning process to ensure the grid continues to meet expected future electrical demand. We reviewed the planning process in each region because the NAS will first need to secure the support of RTOs through each individual planning process. We also look at recent regional transmission projects. We review the financing and project details for recent developments to help guide our recommendations for possible financing strategies in each region.
The transmission planning process for ISO New England develops a regional plan for future system needs over a ten-year time horizon. The process begins by conducting a Needs Assessment to determine the grid’s adequacy. Where it is determined upgrades to the grid are necessary, either a Solutions Study or a Competitive Solution process will be undertaken to find the most economical upgrade project. A Competitive Solution process will be the most likely entry point for the NAS. In this process, project sponsors submit proposals for projects to address the identified need. Projects are then selected based on the cost, electrical performance, feasibility, and future system expandability.
The proposed routing through the New England region is the smallest segment of the NAS with an estimated cost of approximately $7.9 billion. The grid in this section will likely be privately financed. Every state in this region does have a Clean Energy Fund indicating there is government support for renewable energy projects. The Clean Energy Funds also open up the possibility of using state financing to help attract private investors. This funding could be used to leverage private investment through a public-private partnership. Vermont is the only state in the region that does not currently allow the PPP model.
NYISO engages in planning for reliability, economic, and public policy upgrades to the transmission grid. The reliability plan is a two-year process that assesses the needs over the next ten years. The economic planning process identifies areas of congestion in the grid and determines specific projects that have a positive benefit to cost ratio. The public policy planning identifies needs driven by new public policy requirements and solicits solutions from member firms. Upgrading transmission infrastructure could be part of either the economic or public policy planning process and could solve congestion problems within the state’s grid identified in the economic planning studies. It could also help the state meet renewable energy goals and would be an appropriate public policy solution. Exceeding the benefit to cost expectations will be the greatest hurdle for the NAS to gain approval in New York.
A proposed a 80-mile HVDC transmission line buried under the Hudson River provides insight into a financing model that could work for portions of the NAS. The $1 billion West Point Transmission project is very similar in structure to the NAS. The project was proposed as part of the state’s Energy Highway Blueprint in 2012 and is still in the development phase securing permitting. It is similar to two other completed projects by PowerBridge, Neptune and Hudson. The proposed financing plan includes equity financers Energy Investors Funds, Starwood Energy Group, and NRG Energy. Debt financing would also be secured from either commercial banks or institutional private placements. The developer would enter into a long-term transmission capacity purchase agreement to recover the costs of construction.
The NYISO has a history of supporting high voltage transmission projects similar to the NAS and there are development companies that have experience securing the private financing required. The estimated cost of the NAS in the NYISO is $8.6 billion. This cost is reasonable when compared to the $1 billion for the 80-mile West Point Transmission project. A national grid would help upstate New York connect with the large population center in New York City. This connection would allow renewable hydro electricity generated in the northern part of the state to benefit all rate payers in the region. The Energy Highway Blueprint approved in 2012 also shows there is support for transmission projects from the state government. The state’s regulatory bodies have approved similar projects in the past and should be receptive to new proposals as part of a national system. Due to the large population base and government support, it is likely that the NAS will be lucrative to private investment.
PJM conducts an annual planning process resulting in the Regional Transmission Expansion Plan (RTEP). A 15-year time horizon allows the planning to look at how reliability upgrades and expansion will impact the grid in the future. The planning process includes input from all stakeholders as well as changes in public policy. The PJM board ultimately approves recommended system improvements and they are added to the RTEP. Since 1999, the board has approved $29.3 billion of transmission system improvements.
A 150-mile 500 kV transmission line upgrade between Pennsylvania and New Jersey was completed in 2015. The $1.4 billion project was a joint venture between two public utility companies, PPL Electric Utilities and PSEG. PPL Electric built 101 miles of the line for $630 million and PSEG built 45 miles for $775 million. The project was intended to improve reliability and reduce congestion. This project was fast-tracked by the Obama administration allowing better coordination of government permitting. However, there was pushback from environmental groups because the line passed through federal park lands. State regulators approved the project in 2010, but the National Park Service did not approve the project until 2012. Despite having backing from the presidential administration, the environmental concerns still caused a delay in permitting. The Susquehanna-Roseland project is an example of two public companies collaborating to complete a needed high voltage transmission expansion. Government support allowed the project to proceed more quickly and successfully satisfy all stakeholders, which illustrates the importance of gaining support from all public and private stakeholders.
The NAS in the PJM region is likely to be privately financed. This segment of the grid goes through highly populated regions, and will therefore be lucrative to private investors. The estimated cost of the NAS in this region is approximately $35.7 billion. Each state in this region also has legislation allowing public-private partnerships. The Susquehanna-Roseland Reliability Upgrade shows how two companies can collaborate to complete a large scale project. Encouraging partnerships between public and private parties is a strategy that should be successful in this region.
The MISO develops the MISO Transmission Expansion Plan (MTEP) annually. The plan addresses reliability of the grid as well as ensuring compliance with state and federal energy policy requirements. The planning process begins with stakeholders submitting proposed projects for review. MISO’s Board of Directors facilitates the evaluation of projects to determine if they are appropriate for inclusion in the MTEP. The 18-month planning process includes model building, reliability and economic analysis, and resource assessments. There are three types of projects included in the MTEP: Bottom-Up projects, Top-Down projects, and Externally Driven projects. The NAS would likely be considered an interregional Top-Down project because it would have a regional and national impact. These projects have costs shared among beneficiaries.
The CapX2020 is a series of five transmission expansion projects across North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, and Wisconsin. The development of 345 kV and 230 kV lines spans 725 miles and will cost $2.1 billion. It is a joint initiative between 11 transmission-owning utilities in the states. The project was designed to bring wind energy to population centers. Lack of transmission capability has been a roadblock to additional development of wind generation facilities in South Dakota and North Dakota. This project will not satisfy all the transmission needs of the region and more development will be necessary to reach the full potential of wind generation development. This expansion illustrates the need for a robust transmission grid to ensure the growth of renewable energy generation, a problem the NAS will help solve.
The CapX2020 development shows that companies in this region are willing to collaborate to build a transmission network to benefit the entire region. Most of the financing for that project and for the NAS will come from companies securing private financing. The estimate cost for the NAS in the Midcontinent ISO is $56.2 billion. This is one of the largest section of the NAS with over 8,000 miles of proposed transmission lines. There is potential in this region for collaborations between transmission developers and renewable energy developers. A lack of transmission capacity has delayed some wind energy projects, while transmission developers are hesitant to build transmission until generation plants are built. Partnerships between transmission and generation developers will ensure both get built and could attract investment to the NAS.
The Southwest Power Pool conducts an iterative three-year planning process that includes a 20-Year, 10-Year, and Near-Term Assessment in a process they call Integrated Transmission Planning (ITP). These reports identify transmission projects that are needed within both short and long-term time horizons while also identifying potential costs and benefits of each project. The Near-Term Assessment focuses on reliability issues within the grid at current usage levels. The 20-Year and 10-Year Assessments focus on identifying larger transmission projects to benefit the region using a number of different usage scenarios. These scenarios account for growing demand and potential changing regulations requiring more energy to come from renewable sources. The 20-Year Assessment is intended to create a transmission structure of high voltage (300 kV and above) lines that will be able to serve the region in the long-term. Additionally, entities can request a Sponsored Upgrade or perform a high priority study in accordance with the region’s Open Access Transmission Tariff that can lead to a transmission project being approved. The NAS could either request a Sponsored Upgrade study or be included in one of the longer term assessments.
The Midwest Transmission Project was a 180-mile 345 kV transmission line between Sibley, Missouri and Nebraska City, Nebraska completed in 2017. The development was a joint venture between Kansas City Power & Light and the Omaha Public Power District. The new line is an additional connection between the east and west sections of the RTO and aims to deliver more renewable energy to the eastern half of the region. The venture cost approximately $400 million and was financed by the participating companies. The project was one of SPP’s Priority Projects, so cost recovery will come from the entire region’s rate payers.
Financing in the SPP will likely be similar to MISO. Most of the NAS will be financed by private capital secured by the developing companies. Rural areas may be able to use loans from the Rural Utilities Service. The estimated cost for the NAS in the SPP is $32.5 billion. There is a lot of wind generation in this region so there is also the potential for collaboration with wind energy developers. Renewable energy developers in this region will benefit greatly from the NAS because the energy generated in the SPP will be transmitted to population centers outside of the region. This should entice private developers and government bodies to support the NAS to help drive economic development in these regions.
CAISO conducts an annual transmission planning assessment. The plan identifies reliability, public policy, and economic needs of the transmission grid. The reliability planning performs a 10-year analysis of grid performance during projected peak usage. The public policy planning cycle largely attempts to determine needed grid upgrades to meet the state’s renewable energy goal of 50% by 2030. Economic planning determines projects that would provide economic benefits to customers. The NAS could satisfy all three of the planning mechanisms by increasing reliability and reducing grid congestion lowering costs for customers. The grid also would help the state meet the renewable energy goal. The ISO also conducts “special studies” on issues impacted by transformational change in the way electricity is consumed. It might make sense for the NAS to be part of a special study due to its wide ranging interregional impacts.
California has one of the most ambitious renewable energy standards, requiring 50% of the state’s electricity to be supplied by renewable sources by 2030. The state’s aggressive approach indicates there is government support for growing renewable energy production. The estimated cost of the NAS in the California ISO is approximately $15.1 billion. Because of the state’s high population, extensive renewable energy generation, and public policy support for renewable energy it is likely that private investment will be lucrative in California. The state also has legislation allowing public-private partnerships, which could be another avenue to attract private investors.
ERCOT develops a Regional Transmission Plan annually with their Regional Planning Group and Transmission Service Providers in the region. The plan assesses reliability and economic transmission grid needs within six years. The ISO also conducts a Long-Term System Assessment every two years. This assessment uses scenario analysis to determine the strength of existing projects when considering the long-term transmission needs of the region. Stakeholders can submit projects for evaluation by the Regional Planning Group. A project will be included in the Regional Transmission Plan if the ERCOT Board of Directors determines the project would be a solution to identified grid needs.
The Competitive Renewable Energy Zone (CREZ) is a $6.8 billion project born out of legislation from the Texas Legislature in 2005 that designated geographical areas for potential renewable energy generation. The Public Utility Commission of Texas established a transmission development plan and assigned construction of the proposed lines to transmission service providers. The total development had approximately 3,600 miles of 345 kV transmission lines connecting renewable resources in West Texas to population centers in the eastern part of the state. This project is an example of a government sponsored transmission project that was constructed, developed, and financed primarily by private companies. Because the initiative was backed by government entities there was more collaboration in permitting allowing efficient regulatory approval.
The ERCOT region is the most independent of all RTOs because it operates its own interconnection and most transmission lines are within the state. The independence has allowed them to complete projects, such as the CREZ, much more efficiently than other regions. Their state government has shown support for transmission projects similar to the NAS and there are transmission service providers with experience in developing and financing transmission lines. The estimated cost of the NAS in the ERCOT region is $17.1 billion. The cost would likely be financed by private capital. A wealth of renewable wind and solar resources in the western part of the state and large population centers in the eastern part of the state make transmission projects lucrative to private investment.
The electric grid in the southeastern United States is not controlled by a RTO and thus the planning and approval process is less formalized than other regions. The Florida Reliability Coordinating Council (FRCC) and the Southeastern Electric Reliability Council (SERC) are the primary bodies that oversee the bulk power system in the region. The planning process for the FRCC includes an Annual Transmission Planning Process coordinating local utility’s expansion plans into a regional development plan and a Biennial Transmission Planning Process that determines projects to make the grid more efficient. The planning process for SERC involves the collaboration of many transmission providers in the region. Because planning in this region is driven by transmission providers and not a RTO, the NAS will need to gain support from the transmission providers in the region that will ultimately advocate for construction.
Gaining support from private transmission providers will be crucial to get the NAS approved for construction, so private financing is likely to be the primary financing mechanism in this region. The estimated cost of the NAS in the southeast United States is approximately $41.5 billion. Each state in this region has legislation allowing public-private partnerships. Along with gaining support from private transmission providers, there is potential for collaboration with government entities.
The Western Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC) is charged with promoting the reliability of the bulk power system throughout the Western Interconnection. The territory includes the southwest and northwest regions along with California, Alberta and British Columbia. WECC represents a wide spectrum of organizations. WECC coordinates an adequacy planning process to determine transmission needs in the next 10 to 20 years. WECC studies are made available to stakeholders in the region who can then propose projects as solutions to identified needs.
The Southwest and Northwest regions have the largest estimated cost for the NAS at approximately $69.4 billion due to covering the largest geographical area. Portions of the grid in this region will be privately financed, but government support will likely be needed for other sections due to the high cost. The Rural Utilities Service loan programs could be a viable option in this region since much of it is comprised of rural areas and the grid will improve service reliability to those regions.
Land use and siting for the NAS will be especially important in the western United States because the federal government owns so much of the land. There are likely to be greater environmental issues to clear when determining the exact grid route. Collaboration and support from the federal government will be crucial to approve segments of the grid in this region so they can attract private investment. A possible strategy is creating a structure where proceeds from the more lucrative sections of the grid in highly populated regions can help pay for less lucrative segments. This might involve bidding highly lucrative segments with less lucrative projects as a single project that would still be financially beneficial for transmission providers. This will likely be the most challenging section of the NAS to approve and finance, but it is crucial to creating the national network and allow renewable energy generated in the western United States to reach population centers in the southern and eastern regions of the country.
Private investment will be the primary funder for this project, just as private capital currently funds most energy infrastructure projects. The key to successfully financing the NAS is ensuring the project is attractive to private investors. There is private capital available in the marketplace, but that capital can only be accessed if the interests of all stakeholders are properly aligned making the NAS an attractive investment. In addition to private capital, strategic partnerships should be explored with the federal government, state and local governments, and government agencies. Due to the national security and environmental benefits, there should be government interest in this project.
Secure backing of federal/state governments, DOE, RTOs/ISOs: Support from the federal government and RTOs in each region will give credence to the importance of this project. This support will help increase the likelihood of getting the NAS approved and included in each RTO planning process opening the door for transmission providers to begin construction.
Reduce permitting and regulation burden: The high regulatory environment adds to the cost and time to begin construction. This can make it challenging to secure financing at a rate acceptable to both investors and transmission providers. Legislative action can ensure that permitting for the NAS grid does not get held up by any one stakeholder. A reduced regulatory burden also reduces the overall cost of the grid.
Ensure stakeholder interests are aligned in each region: The nation’s electric grid is a large system with a diverse set of stakeholders. Ensuring that the interests of all stakeholders are aligned will make getting approval and support for the NAS easier. Utilizing existing rights-of-way will reduce the number of local stakeholders and make gaining national support more practical. Wide spread support will help attract private investors and making financing the project feasible.
Encourage regional and national collaboration: Historically, transmission development was completed on a state level. This has led states to have differing regulations and processes governing transmission project construction. More collaboration between states and direction from the federal government would reduce the time and cost to comply with multiple agencies in interregional transmission developments.
Planning is crucial: Environmental studies, transmission line siting, permitting, and eminent domain are all potential hurdles for companies constructing the NAS. The proposal to use existing rights-of-way somewhat reduces this concern.
Transmission projects today are focused on increasing grid reliability and efficiency and less on load growth. Improved efficiency of electronics has stabilized the growth of energy demand across the country. Additionally, grid improvements must enable the future transmission grid to be adaptable to changes in load patterns and generation sources.
There is wide spread agreement about the need for more investment in transmission. Improved reliability will likely lower costs to rate payers due to fewer congestion charges. The NAS will allow more flexibility for RTOs to manage where electricity is generated, allowing greater access to cheaper energy. Rate payers will ultimately pay for the NAS through transmission charges, but costs for construction will likely be offset by the cheaper cost of energy and reduced congestion fees.
Cost allocation often becomes an important issue for interregional transmission projects. FERC mandates that cost allocation procedures for transmission projects must be developed by each RTO and uniformly applied. However, each RTO has slightly different procedures. In general, RTOs have shifted to a regional cost allocation system for large transmission projects. Every rate payer in the region pays for a portion because everyone benefits from a regional transmission project that improves reliability and makes the grid more efficient. Costs are generally allocated based on load usage.
If there is wide spread support for constructing the NAS, cost allocation should not create major issues. The NAS has benefits to all ratepayers so it makes sense to use a regional or even national cost allocation system. Due to the increased reliability and efficiency the NAS would create, the overall electric costs to rate payers would remain relatively constant because they will pay less congestion charges and have access to cheaper renewably generated electricity.
Our investigation suggests that the NAS is feasible without requiring new public funding schemes or new taxes to garner capital. Instead, rate payers will produce returns through electric bill fees. Moreover, investment in the NAS will enable the creation of millions of jobs nationwide that will not only be generated from the construction of the transmission system, but will also originate from the construction and operation of new (mostly renewable) electricity generation facilities throughout the United States. Overall, this infrastructure package will cost between $303 billion and $442 billion dollars to build the transmission system (depending on the cost of cable burial), as well as an additional $2.2 trillion dollars to construct additional electricity generation facilities. Despite these costs, the average consumer electric bill will not increase as a result. Additionally, although configuring HVDC lines underground often costs three to five times that of above ground lines, this study indicates that this costlier configuration is still an economically viable solution; an underground HVDC system (that is three times more expensive than above ground lines) will cost less than continuing the operation of the nation’s current grid system given that the cost of natural gas remains above $4.43/MMBtu. According to the EIA, the cost of natural gas is set to increase to at least $5/MMBtu by 2030, meaning that the NAS is forecasted to be a viable economic solution by its time of completion.
There is a need for new investment in our nation’s transmission infrastructure. The NAS will benefit all rate payers by allowing greater access to cheaper renewable energy while also increasing national security. The estimated $500 billion cost for an underground HVDC system will require a number of different financing mechanisms over a number of years. Private sector interest in infrastructure projects is growing and capital is available in the marketplace. The NAS must build partnerships with experienced transmission developers and gain support from federal and state governments, government agencies, and RTOs to successfully secure financing for this landmark energy transmission project.
“Levelized Cost and Levelized Avoided Cost of New Generation Resources in the Annual Energy Outlook 2017.” April 2017. https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/pdf/electricity_generation.pdf.
Rapier, Robert. “The Long-Term Outlook For Natural Gas.” Forbes. October 31, 2016. https://www.forbes.com/sites/rrapier/2016/10/31/the-long-term-outlook-for-natural-gas/#51567e3657a4.
“Financing Clean Infrastructure: Private Activity Bonds.” Center for Climate and Energy Solutions. Webinar attended July 24, 2017. | 2019-04-26T14:49:41Z | http://cleanandsecuregrid.org/2017/11/28/economic-advantages-and-financial-feasibility/ |
In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the essential small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) protease Ulp1 is responsible for both removing SUMO/Smt3 from specific target proteins and for processing precursor SUMO into its conjugation-competent form. Ulp1 localizes predominantly to nuclear pore complexes but has also been shown to deconjugate sumoylated septins at the bud-neck of dividing cells. How Ulp1 is directed to bud-neck localized septins and other cytoplasmic deconjugation targets is not well understood.
Using a structure/function approach, we set out to elucidate features of Ulp1 that are required for substrate targeting. To aid our studies, we took advantage of a catalytically inactive mutant of Ulp1 that is greatly enriched at the septin ring of dividing yeast cells. We found that the localization of Ulp1 to the septins requires both SUMO and specific structural features of Ulp1's catalytic domain. Our analysis identified a 218-amino acid, substrate-trapping mutant of the catalytic domain of Ulp1, Ulp1(3)(C580S), that is necessary and sufficient for septin localization. We also used the targeting and SUMO-binding properties of Ulp1(3)(C580S) to purify Smt3-modified proteins from cell extracts.
Our study provides novel insights into how the Ulp1 SUMO protease is actively targeted to its substrates in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, we found that a substrate-trapping Ulp1(3)(C580S) interacts robustly with human SUMO1, SUMO2 and SUMO2 chains, making it a potentially useful tool for the analysis and purification of SUMO-modified proteins.
Cell division is a fundamental feature of all life and involves the controlled duplication and faithful segregation of an organism's genetic material from one cell to the next. In eukaryotes, each cell division cycle is therefore executed as a tightly regulated, stepwise program that relies on intact chromosomes. In humans, the consequences of faulty chromosome segregation and the inability to repair DNA damage have been implicated in cancer, aging and congenital birth defects.
Ubiquitin and small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO), two small proteins that can become attached to other cellular proteins in a reversible manner , control important aspects of the cell division program. Ubiquitin is best known for its role in the targeted, proteasome-mediated destruction of proteins, including key cell-cycle regulators, but also holds nonproteolytic functions . Sumoylation, on the other hand, does not directly target proteins for degradation. Rather, modification of proteins with SUMO has been shown to modulate various cellular processes, including cell-cycle regulation, transcriptional activation, nucleocytoplasmic transport, DNA replication and repair, chromosome dynamics, apoptosis, ribosome biogenesis, and the formation of nuclear bodies . Additionally, an unexpected role of SUMO in protein ubiquitination has been uncovered. Briefly, degradation of several nuclear proteins, including some that are involved in DNA repair and transcriptional regulation, are preceded by modification with SUMO. These sumoylated proteins are recognized by SUMO-targeted ubiquitin ligases (STUbLs), which mediate their ubiquitination .
SUMO proteins are highly conserved from yeast to humans. Yeast cells express one SUMO protein (Smt3), and vertebrates express three isoforms (SUMO1, SUMO2 and SUMO3) . SUMO2, SUMO3 and yeast Smt3 can form SUMO chains. SUMO1, on the other hand, lacks the internal lysine required for polymerization and may function as a chain terminator for SUMO2 and SUMO3 chains . All SUMO variants are conjugated to lysine residues of specific proteins, but only a fraction of these target proteins are modified with SUMO at any given time [7, 8]. In metazoans, the dysregulation of sumoylation adversely affects developmental processes and has been implicated in the progression of neurodegeneration, cancer and infectious diseases [9, 10]. More than 1, 000 sumoylated proteins have been identified in yeast and humans, but only in a few cases has the role of sumoylation been studied in detail .
In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the ligation of SUMO to specific substrate proteins requires an E1 heterodimer (Aos1 and Uba2) that activates SUMO, as well as E2 (Ubc9) and E3 (Siz1, Siz2, and Mms21) enzymes that aid in the conjugation and ligation of SUMO to proper target proteins . Two yeast SUMO proteases, Ulp1 and Ulp2, contain a conserved cysteine protease domain that can remove the SUMO moiety from modified proteins. Recent evidence suggests that Ulp2, and its mammalian orthologs Susp1/SENP6 and SENP7, play a role in the removal of SUMO and SUMO chains from nuclear proteins [12–16]. Ulp1, on the other hand, has two contrasting cellular functions. Ulp1 facilitates sumoylation by processing precursor SUMO into its conjugation competent form. Conversely, Ulp1 also facilitates desumoylation by removing SUMO from nuclear and cytosolic proteins after conjugation . Therefore, impairment of Ulp1 results in the accumulation of SUMO conjugates and the inability to carry out de novo sumoylation. The resulting lack of mature SUMO has been shown to adversely affect cellular DNA repair processes, the processing and export of the 60S preribosomal particle, nucleus-cytoplasm trafficking and cell viability [18–21].
The substrate specificity of SUMO proteases is at least in part regulated through their localization . For example, certain yeast (Ulp2) and vertebrate (SENP6 and SENP7) SUMO proteases localize within the nucleus. In contrast, both yeast (Ulp1) and vertebrate (SENP1 and SENP2) SUMO proteases reside at the nuclear envelope (NE) through their interactions with the nuclear pore complex (NPC) [23–26]. Distinct domains have been identified that are required for Ulp1 NPC localization (amino acid residues 1 to 403) and SUMO processing (amino acid residues 404 to 620) [25–28]. The Ulp1 localization domain promotes interaction with karyopherins, which are soluble proteins that mediate transport across the NE and help localize Ulp1 to the nucleoplasmic side of the NPC. The Ulp1 localization domain can be subdivided into region 1 (Kap121-binding domain) and region 2 (Kap60- and Kap95-binding domain). Juxtaposed to the NPC localization domain of Ulp1 is a coiled-coil (cc) domain with a putative nuclear export signal and region 3, the catalytically active, conserved ubiquitin-like protease domain (UD) of Ulp1 [25–27]. Only regions 1 and 2 are involved in Ulp1 localization to the NPC, and the karyopherins seem to play a redundant role. NPC association of Ulp1 requires several proteins, including the nucleoporins Nup60 and Nup84, the silencing protein Esc1 and the myosin-like proteins Mlp1/2 [18, 19, 28]. Together these proteins may provide a scaffold for the functional regulation and substrate access of Ulp1 at the NPC.
The identification of NPC localization domains in Ulp1 has done little to aid our understanding of how SUMO proteases are targeted to their respective substrates . One possibility is that SUMO proteases may contain structural features which allow for noncovalent interactions with SUMO and SUMO-modified proteins as they enter the nucleus. Indeed, conserved SUMO-interacting motifs (SIMs) have been predicted to be localized in the yeast SUMO protease Ulp2, as well as in mammalian SENP1, SENP2, SENP6 and SENP7 [14, 22, 29, 30]. Even though SIMs have not been identified in Ulp1, the crystal structure of the catalytic domain (region 3) bound to Smt3 reveals that both proteins interact through multiple residues that are distributed across a SUMO-binding surface (SBS) on the SUMO protease . Only the carboxy terminus of bound Smt3 is inserted into a hydrophobic tunnel that leads toward Ulp1's active site. SUMO processing and deconjugation require an active site cysteine residue that resides at the end of this tunnel (see Additional files 1 and 2). It has been suggested that this configuration may allow for the accommodation of many different sumoylated proteins as well as SUMO precursors .
Ulp1 and several other SUMO proteases play important roles in mitosis [17, 32]. In budding yeast, loss of Ulp1-mediated desumoylation leads to cell-cycle progression defects and cell death . This observation suggests that Ulp1 plays a key role in the sumoylation dynamics of important cell-cycle regulatory proteins. Though these cell-cycle-specific targets have eluded identification, several nuclear and cytosolic proteins involved in DNA replication and mitosis have been identified as Ulp1 desumoylation substrates [33–35]. How the NPC-localized Ulp1 is targeted to these mitotic substrates, especially those that are localized in the cytosol, is not entirely clear. In budding yeast, the NE does not break down during mitosis, and access to cytosolic desumoylation targets is therefore not automatic. It has been reported that during mitosis, Kap121 blocks Ulp1's access to its NPC-binding site and thus promotes an interaction of Ulp1 with septins . A deletion mutant of Ulp1 lacking region 2 (Δ2), the Kap60- and Kap95-binding domain, has previously been shown to localize to septins in a Kap121-dependent manner . Curiously, it has recently been demonstrated that region 2 also plays a role in nucleolar accumulation of Ulp1 after ethanol-induced stress .
One set of cytosolic substrates of the Ulp1 SUMO protease are the septins [27, 35]. The septins comprise an evolutionarily conserved class of GTPases that are implicated in bud-site selection, bud emergence and growth, microtubule capture and spindle positioning . Members of the septin family in yeast include Cdc3, Cdc10, Cdc11, Cdc12 and Shs1/Sep7. These proteins are unique because they can form filaments that assemble into a ring structure and mark the site of new bud formation during cell division. At the end of mitosis, this ring separates and resembles a double-collar residing at the junction between the mother and daughter cells.
The septins Cdc3, Cdc11 and Shs1 are subject to sumoylation. Sumoylation of the septins occurs very briefly from the onset of anaphase to cytokinesis, with SUMO being attached only to the mother side of the double-septin ring collar [27, 38, 39]. Cell-cycle (G2/M) arrest with nocodazole, a microtubule depolymerizing drug, greatly increases SUMO conjugation to septins . Septin sumoylation in budding yeast is mediated by the SUMO E3 ligase Siz1 [40, 41]. During most of the cell cycle, Siz1 resides in the nucleus. However, at the M phase, Siz1 exits the nucleus to sumoylate septin proteins and possibly other cytosolic substrates . Deletion of SIZ1 from cells abolishes septin sumoylation while causing only mild growth and cell-cycle progression defects. At the end of mitosis, the septins are desumoylated by Ulp1, even though Ulp1 remains visibly enriched at the NPC [27, 35, 38].
In the current study, we focused on the SUMO protease Ulp1. As detailed above, Ulp1 resides at the inner face of the NPC. This enrichment at the NPC depends on direct interactions with karyopherins and two domains in the amino terminus of Ulp1. In theory, this localization is well-suited to give Ulp1 access to some nuclear substrates and those in transit across the NE. However, both nuclear and cytosolic desumoylation targets of Ulp1 have been identified, posing an interesting question. How is Ulp1 directed to its cytosolic desumoylation targets? To answer these questions, we sought to identify features of Ulp1 required for substrate targeting in vivo and in vitro. Herein we describe our finding that the carboxy terminus of Ulp1 affects the targeting and retention of this SUMO protease to sumoylated target proteins, including septins, at the bud-neck of dividing cells. Specifically, we show that the interaction with SUMO comprises an important aspect of the subcellular targeting of Ulp1 to these substrates. Our findings are confirmed by biochemical analyses that focus on the SUMO-binding properties of Ulp1(3)C580S, a novel truncation mutant that interacts avidly with SUMO and sumoylated proteins in vivo and in vitro. Significantly, the results of this study add important new details to our understanding of how Ulp1 interacts dynamically with its substrates and also provides potentially useful new directions for the study of Ulp1-interacting proteins.
As part of a larger study to identify how Ulp1 is targeted to its mitotic desumoylation substrates, we analyzed the localization of GFP-tagged versions of both the full-length wild-type (WT) Ulp1 and a catalytically inactive mutant of Ulp1 (Ulp1C580S) in G2/M-arrested yeast cells (see Methods and Additional file 3). The C580S mutation replaces the catalytic cysteine with a serine residue, rendering the Ulp1 SUMO protease catalytically inactive . Both fusion proteins were expressed under the control of the Ulp1 promoter on low-copy plasmids, and images were collected using a fluorescence microscope. Consistent with its localization to NPCs, WT Ulp1 stained only the NE of arrested yeast cells (Figure 1A, left). Unexpectedly, however, full-length Ulp1C580S was enriched at both the bud-neck and the NE of G2/M-arrested cells (Figure 1A, right). This bud-neck localization of Ulp1C580S is reminiscent of the localization of the septin ring. Several sumoylated septins have been shown to be Ulp1 substrates, and we show in this study that the septin Cdc3 is highly sumoylated during G2/M arrest (Figure 1B). Furthermore, a catalytically inactive Ulp1 mutant colocalizes with the septin Cdc11 in G2/M-arrested (noc) cells (Figure 1C). Therefore, Ulp1C580S resides at the bud-neck localized septin ring.
Localization of Ulp1 and the catalytically inactive Ulp1 (C580S) in dividing yeast cells. (A) Yeast cells (MHY500) were transformed either with a low-copy plasmid expressing GFP fusions of Ulp1 or with the catalytically inactive Ulp1(C580S) mutant. Representative images indicating the localization of GFP-tagged Ulp1 and Ulp1(C580S) after nocodazole-induced G2/M arrest are shown (YOK 1611 and YOK 1474). Note that only the Ulp1(C580S) mutant can be seen at the bud-neck of arrested cells. The arrowhead indicates the position of the bud-neck. (B) Confirmation of sumoylation of Cdc3 was achieved. Whole-cell extracts (WCE) from yeast cells expressing the YFP-tagged septin Cdc3 (YOK 1398) were treated with nocodazole (noc) or grown logarithmically (log) prior to preparation of WCEs. Extracted proteins were then separated on SDS-PAGE gels and probed with the JL-8 antibody (see Methods) to detect Cdc3-YFP and more slowly migrating sumoylated Cdc3-YFP adducts. The identity of sumoylated Cdc3-YFP bands was confirmed by comparing gel shift assays with untagged and FLAG-tagged Smt3 (data not shown). (C) Colocalization of Cdc3 and Ulp1 is shown. A strain coexpressing full-length Ulp1(C580S)-GFP (green) and Cdc3-CFP (red) (strain YOK 2204) was arrested in G2/M and then observed under a fluorescence microscope with the appropriate filter sets (left panel). Arrowheads indicate septin-localized, pseudocolored Ulp1-GFP (green), Cdc3-CFP (red) and the merged image (overlay). Also shown for comparison (right panel) is the colocalization of the Ulp1(3)(C580S)-GFP truncation and Cdc3-CFP (strain YOK 2205). Ulp1(3)(C580S)-GFP is described in Figure 4.
Our data suggest that introducing the C580S mutation into the catalytic domain of Ulp1 somehow alters the subcellular distribution of this SUMO protease, causing it to localize with a bud-neck-associated substrate, possibly a sumoylated septin protein. Localization changes have also been reported for catalytically inactive, substrate-trapping mutants of phosphatases that form stable complexes with their substrates in vivo .
We tested whether the C580S mutation that visually increased the ability of Ulp1 to associate with the septin ring in vivo was, in fact, SUMO-dependent. For this purpose, the Ulp1C580S construct was expressed in two Smt3 mutants (smt3-331 and smt3-R11, 15, 19) or two SUMO pathway mutants (ubc9-1, siz1Δ siz2Δ) [13, 39, 41, 44–46]. Logarithmically growing cells of each mutant were arrested in G2/M, and images were collected to assess the septin ring localization of Ulp1C580S in comparison to an SMT3 WT strain. In our analyses, we found that in the absence of both SUMO chains (in the R11, 15, 19 mutants) and a mutant SUMO protein (in the smt3-331 mutant), the localization of Ulp1C580S to the septin ring was reduced (22% in smt3-331 and 36% in smt3-R11, 15, 19) in frequency and intensity but not abolished (Figure 2). We obtained different results in the ubc9-1 strain, a mutant of the SUMO E2-conjugating enzyme which impairs SUMO conjugation, and in the siz1Δ siz2Δ strain, a SUMO E3 ligase double-mutant that lacks sumoylation of septins and many other proteins [40, 41, 44]. Consistent with a role for Smt3 in the localization of Ulp1C580S, we were unable to detect septin ring localization of Ulp1C580S in ubc9-1 and siz1Δ siz2Δ strains. However, Ulp1C580S was retained at the NE (Figure 2A). As an additional control, the septin ring localization of GFP-tagged Smt3 was undetectable in both ubc9-1 and siz1Δ siz2Δ strains (Figure 2B).
Small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) is required for the localization of Ulp1 (C580S) to the septin ring. (A) The indicated mutants smt3-331, ubc9-1, smt3-R11, 15, 19, siz1Δ siz2Δ (YOK 1995, YOK 2065, YOK 1910 and YOK 2067) and a WT control strain (WT) were transformed with a plasmid expressing GFP-tagged Ulp1(C580S). Representative images indicating the localization of GFP-tagged Ulp1(C580S) after G2/M arrest are shown. The septin ring localization of Ulp1(C580S) is indicated where present (arrowheads). Note that Ulp1(C580S) failed to localize to the septin ring in SUMO-conjugating and ligating enzyme mutants (ubc9-1 and siz1Δ siz2Δ, respectively). (B) Septin ring localization of Smt3-GFP is absent in ubc9-1 and siz1Δ siz2Δ strains. Localization of Smt3-GFP was visualized in G2/M-arrested WT, ubc9-1 and siz1Δ siz2Δ strains (YOK 1857, YOK 2144 and YOK 2143) using fluorescence microscopy. Arrowheads indicate the position of the septin ring.
Smt3 conjugation is required for Ulp1 localization to the septin ring. Therefore, Ulp1 is targeted to the septin ring of dividing cells in a SUMO-dependent fashion. Our data also suggest that the formation of SUMO chains on substrates may enhance this targeting of Ulp1.
Our finding that a single point mutation in Ulp1, C580S, dramatically enhanced the localization of full-length Ulp1 to the septin ring in a SUMO-dependent fashion warranted a more detailed analysis of the targeting domains in Ulp1. Therefore, we generated a collection of GFP-tagged Ulp1 truncations and domains that were expressed under control of the Ulp1 promoter. We reasoned that the truncations and domains of Ulp1 that retained substrate targeting information would also localize to the septin ring in G2/M-arrested cells. In all, we assessed the localization of ten GFP-tagged constructs in comparison to full-length WT Ulp1 and full-length Ulp1C580S (C580S). Our choice of individual constructs was guided by previous findings that Ulp1 consists of functionally separate domains. These domains include a Kap121-binding domain with a role in septin localization (region 1), a Kap95- and Kap60-binding domain with a role in NPC anchoring (region 2), a cc domain harboring a nuclear export signal (CC) and the catalytic UD (region 3) [25–27]. Representative images of these domains and their subcellular localization are shown in Figures 3A and 3B. As previously reported, we found that the Ulp1 protein lacking region 2 (Δ2) localized to the septin ring in the majority of large-budded, arrested cells . Therefore, region 2 of Ulp1 normally antagonizes localization and/or retention at the septin ring. This result is complemented by our novel finding that the full-length Ulp1C580S localized to the septin ring in 33% of all arrested, large-budded cells (Figures 1A and 3A).
Distinct and separate Ulp1 domains are required for localization to the septin ring. (A) and (B) Left: A schematic of Ulp1 deletion and truncation mutants used in this study is shown. The length of each construct (amino acid scale 1 to 621), the individual domains of Ulp1 and pertinent amino acid changes are shown. WT: full-length Ulp1; region 1: Ulp1(1 to 150); region 2: Ulp1(151 to 340); region 3: Ulp1(341 to 621); Δ2: Ulp1 lacking region 2; C580S: catalytically inactivating mutation; D451N: deleted salt bridge with small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) (YOK 1611, YOK 1474, YOK 1490, YOK 1861, YOK 1479, YOK 2016, YOK 1839, YOK 1907, YOK 1903, YOK 2203, YOK 1828 and YOK 2157). Colored letters N, S and D summarize the observed nuclear, septin and diffuse localization of the indicated constructs, respectively. SBS corresponds to a shallow SUMO-binding surface on Ulp1 [31, 57, 58]. Right: Representative images of G2/M-arrested cells expressing the GFP-tagged Ulp1 constructs shown on the left. The arrowheads indicate the fraction of cells (%) with N, S or D localization and the presence and position of septin ring-localized Ulp1 constructs. (C) Quantification of distinct subcellular localization of wild-type and mutant Ulp1 region 3 constructs. Large-budded G2/M-arrested cells were imaged to assess diffuse, nuclear or septin ring localization (n > 100).
Next we investigated other residues of Ulp1 that could affect the septin ring localization of the Ulp1C580S mutant, possibly by interfering with its targeting to sumoylated substrates. Aspartate 451 (D451) in Ulp1 is required to form an essential salt bridge with arginine 64 of Smt3 [31, 47]. Therefore, we introduced a D451N mutation into Ulp1C580S and found that it abolished the accumulation of the full-length Ulp1 double-mutant (D451N and C580S) at the septin ring (Figure 3A). This finding underscores the importance of Smt3 in targeting full-length Ulp1 to the septin ring shown in Figure 2. Additionally, it may indicate that D451 is required for targeting of sumoylated proteins and the C580S mutation is required for retention of Ulp1 at the septin ring.
Most intriguingly, we found that a truncation consisting only of region 3 with the C580S mutation (Ulp1(3)(C580S)) displayed robust septin ring localization in 59% of cells (Figures 1C, right panel, and Figure 3B). In stark contrast, regions 1 and 2 and WT region 3, lacking the C580S mutation, failed to localize to the septin ring (Figures 3A and 3B). However, in strains with diffuse Ulp1 truncations, the septin ring stays intact. Therefore, necessary and sufficient SUMO-dependent targeting information is contained in region 3 of Ulp1, but not in regions 1 and 2. The latter conclusion is confirmed by two-hybrid assays with Smt3.
The previously published cocrystal structure of Ulp1 with Smt3 (MMDB database 13315) reveals that amino acids 418 to 447 of region 3 make extensive contact with Smt3 and constitute an exposed SBS (see also Additional files 1 and 2). The SBS is situated next to, but does not include, the critical D451 residue that contacts Smt3 [31, 47]. Additionally, deletion of this SBS in region 3 of Ulp1 abolishes the complementation of a ulp1Δ deletion mutant . In an attempt to identify critical residues in the evolutionary conserved SBS domain, we used psi-blast to compare the protein sequence of the yeast Ulp1 catalytic domain with all nonredundant protein sequences in the National Center for Biotechnology Information database for seven iterations and limited the output to the top 250 matches. Our results contained 81 different species. Among these species, 61% of the sequences were identified as verified or predicted sentrin/SUMO protease/Ulp1 genes, 24% were identified as unnamed protein products or hypothetical genes and 15% were classified as "other" (crystal structures, unanalyzed sequences and so on). The alignment of these sequences allowed us to identify areas of strong conservation (see Additional file 1). Using this approach, we identified several highly conserved residues in the SBS. However, these amino acids did not contact Smt3 in the published cocrystal structure and likely play structural roles in Ulp1 folding .
We investigated the effect of deleting the entire SBS domain on the localization of Ulp1(3)(C580S). A Ulp1(3)(C580S)SBSΔ construct did not localize to the septin ring in the majority of cells (96%). These results match those obtained by Li and Hochstrasser using a WT Ulp1(3)ΔSBS construct (C173). We confirmed that SBSΔ and other Ulp1(3) constructs are expressed as soluble proteins, suggesting that they are not grossly misfolded. We also cloned and expressed the SBS domain as a fusion with GFP (SBS-GFP). This construct was distributed diffusely throughout the cell and failed to localize to the septin ring (Figure 3, middle). These data suggest that the SBS domain of region 3 may be required for the initial interaction with sumoylated substrates, but additional features of Ulp1 are required for targeting (D451) and retention (C580S) of this SUMO protease at the septin ring.
Next we directed our attention to the temperature-sensitive ulp1ts-333 allele. This mutant allele causes cells to arrest in mitosis and accumulates unprocessed SUMO precursor and sumoylated proteins . Our ulp1ts construct of region 3, Ulp1(3)ts, contains three mutations (I435V, N450S and I504T), and introduction of C580S into Ulp1(3)ts showed a greatly reduced incidence and intensity of septin ring localization (compare panels in Figures 3B and 3C). We noted that the (N450S) mutation in the ts construct was located next to the salt bridge-forming residue D451 described above and that both residues were highly conserved in the consensus sequence of Ulp1-like molecules (Additional file 1). This suggests that residues altered in ulp1ts-333, specifically N450, may contribute to Smt3 interaction and possibly substrate targeting. It is possible that N450S perturbs the salt-bridge interaction formed between D451 of Ulp1 and R64 of Smt3, thus reducing the interaction with Smt3 and contributing to the temperature-sensitive phenotype. In support of this hypothesis, correction of the N450S mutation in Ulp1(3)ts (S450N) partially rescued the slow growth defect of a ulp1Δ strain at 30°C and 37°C (data not shown). The effect of the ulp1ts mutation on Ulp1's ability to interact with Smt3 is explored in more detail below.
We tested which domains of Ulp1 are required for targeting and retention at the septin ring in vivo. Using our region 1 and region 2 GFP-tagged constructs (see Figure 3A), we show that septin-targeting information is not contained in the domains that are known to interact with karyopherins. The Δ2 construct recapitulates the previous finding that Kap121-binding to region 1 regulates access of Ulp1 to the septin ring. The full-length Ulp1C580S mutant reveals that a single substrate-trapping mutation in Ulp1 suffices to enrich Ulp1 at the septin ring. To show that an Smt3 interaction is required for the septin localization of Ulp1C580S, we created the double-mutant (D451N and C580S). The D451N mutation is known to destroy an essential salt bridge formed between Smt3 and Ulp1. Next, using the Ulp1(3)C580S construct, we show that the septin-targeting information is limited to region 3 of Ulp1 (Figure 3B). Further truncating Ulp1(3)C580S revealed that a previously identified SBS domain in Ulp1(3)C580S is also involved in septin targeting and retention. To test whether mutations found in region 3 of the ulp1ts mutant play a role in septin localization, we introduced three additional mutations, I435V, N450S and I504T, into Ulp1(3)C580S. This Ulp1(3)ts C580S construct showed a reduced ability to enrich at the septin ring (Figure 3C), suggesting that its ability to interact with sumoylated septins may be reduced but not abolished.
In the preceding sections, we described our identification of necessary and sufficient substrate-targeting information in the catalytic domain (region 3) of Ulp1. However, region 3 of Ulp1 may not be the only domain involved in targeting to the septin ring. Region 1 of Ulp1, the Kap121-binding domain, has previously been implicated in septin targeting. Specifically, it has been reported that Kap121 is required for targeting Ulp1 to the septin ring during mitosis . Therefore, we decided to assess the role of Kap121 in the substrate-targeting of Ulp1(3)(C580S). Specifically, we used a kap121ts mutant to assess the septin ring-targeting of WT Ulp1, full-length Ulp1C580S and Ulp1(3)(C580S). In our analysis, we found that full-length Ulp1C580S required Kap121 function for targeting to the septin ring. At the permissive temperature (30°C), Ulp1C580S demarcated the NE and septin ring of G2/M-arrested cells. After a shift to the nonpermissive temperature, however, Ulp1C580S could no longer be detected at the septin ring (Figure 4, middle). Surprisingly, the Ulp1(3)(C580S) truncation was localized to the septin ring at the permissive and nonpermissive temperatures in a kap121ts strain. As shown herein, Ulp1(3)(C580S) resided both inside the nucleus and at the septin ring at 30°C and 37°C (Figure 4, right).
Kap121-independent small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO)-targeting information resides in region 3 of Ulp1. kap121ts cells were transformed with plasmids expressing GFP-tagged wild-type (WT) Ulp1, Ulp1(C580S) and Ulp1(3)(C580S) under the control of the Ulp1 promoter (YOK 1487, YOK 1488 and YOK 1944). Shown are representative images indicating the localization of GFP-tagged Ulp1 constructs in large-budded cells at 30°C and 37°C, the nonpermissive temperature for kap121-ts. Arrowheads indicate the position of septin ring-localized Ulp1 constructs.
Our data suggest that Ulp1 contains both Kap121-dependent and Kap121-independent septin ring-targeting information. The only requirement to detect full-length Ulp1 at the septin ring is the C580S mutation and functional Kap121 (Figures 1, 2 and 4). In contrast Ulp1(3)(C580S), which lacks all domains required for NPC interaction through Kap121, Kap60 and Kap95, localizes to the septin ring and inside the nucleus. This finding provides strong evidence that Kap121-independent septin ring-targeting information resides in the catalytic domain (region 3) of Ulp1.
Our finding that a single amino acid change in the catalytic domain of Ulp1 results in greatly enhanced, SUMO-dependent localization to the septin ring also prompted us to investigate the two-hybrid interactions of Ulp1 with budding yeast SUMO (Smt3-BD; Smt3 fused to the Gal4 DNA-binding domain). Full-length WT Ulp1, the full-length catalytically inactive Ulp1C580S mutant, the Ulp1 Kap121-interacting domain (region 1), the Ulp1 Kap60/Kap95-interacting domain (region 2) and the catalytic domain (region 3) failed to interact with Smt3-BD (data not shown). However, the catalytically inactive Ulp1(3)(C580S) truncation interacted reproducibly and above background with Smt3 (see Figure 5, C580S).
Distinct and separate features of Ulp1 are required for interaction with SUMO. Two-hybrid analysis of various Ulp1(3) truncation mutants (C580S: catalytically inactive; D451N: deleted salt bridge with small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO); ts: mutations including S450N in ulp1ts-333) with SUMO/Smt3-BD. The presence of both Smt3 (pOBD2/TRP1) and Ulp1 constructs (pOAD/LEU2) was confirmed by growth on growth media lacking tryptophan and leucine (-T-L). The interaction between Ulp1 constructs and Smt3 is shown as triplicate patches of cells on media lacking adenine (-A). See Figure 3A for a graphic representation of individual constructs.
Ulp1(3)(C580S) appears to interact only weakly with our Smt3 two-hybrid bait construct, as indicated by fewer colonies on the reporter media (Figure 5, Ade). However, such an interpretation assumes an equally available pool of both bait and prey. One possible explanation for this result is that the Ulp1(3)(C580S) two-hybrid prey construct interacts with a number of available substrates in the cell (for example, free Smt3 and other sumoylated proteins), and, as a result, this sequestration is no longer available to the Smt3 two-hybrid bait construct, thus creating the appearance of a weak interaction. We reasoned that introduction of the ulp1ts mutations could weaken the potential substrate-trapping phenotype of Ulp1(3)(C580S), making more of the pool available to engage the Smt3 bait construct. Consistent with this model, when we introduced the ulp1ts mutations into the substrate-trapping Ulp1(3)(C580S) prey construct, we observed a more robust two-hybrid interaction with the Smt3 bait (Figure 5, compare C580S and ts(C580S). It must also be noted, however, that currently we cannot fully explain the variations in our in vivo and in vitro assays used to assess ability of Ulp1(3)(C580S) to interact with Smt3.
Next we focused on the D451N mutant of Ulp1 that prevents the interaction of Ulp1 with SUMO [31, 47]. As shown above, D451N, when introduced into Ulp1(C580S), prevents localization of this construct to the septin ring (Figure 3A, C580S/D451N). Correspondingly, we found that introduction of the D451N mutation into Ulp1(3)(C580S) completely abolished the two-hybrid interaction with Smt3 (Figure 5, compare C580S, D451N/C580S and D451N). These observations provide evidence that the targeting of Ulp1 to sumoylated substrates is a closely balanced act involving both Smt3 targeting and retention.
We hypothesized that if Ulp1(3)(C580S) were to interact avidly with Smt3, this mutated moiety of Ulp1 could efficiently interact with SUMO adducts in vitro. Therefore, to test the direct interaction of Ulp1(3)(C580S) with SUMO, we fused this domain to the carboxy terminus of maltose-binding protein (MBP) and expressed the recombinant fusion protein in bacteria. Subsequently, the MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S) fusion protein was purified from bacterial extracts and bound to amylose resin (see Methods). As a control to assess the ability of MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S) to interact with sumoylated proteins, we also purified a second MBP-fused Ulp1(3)(C580S) construct lacking the SBS domain (3(C580S)ΔSBS).
First we determined the ability of MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S) to affinity-purify sumoylated proteins from crude yeast cell extracts. ulp1ts-333 cells expressing FLAG-tagged SMT3 were grown to log phase prior to preparation of yeast cell extracts (see Methods). These extracts were then incubated with resin-bound MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S), MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S)-ΔSBS or unbound amylose resin. After washing, bound yeast proteins were eluted, separated on SDS-PAGE gels and examined by Western blot analysis with an anti-FLAG antibody. Flag-SMT3-modified proteins present in the whole-cell extracts (WCEs) (Figure 6, lane 2) could clearly be detected bound to MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S) (lane 5) but not to the MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S)-ΔSBS control protein (lane 4). We identified both unconjugated Flag-Smt3 proteins as well as several higher-molecular-weight adducts. These data suggest that Ulp1(3)(C580S) can efficiently bind and enrich sumoylated proteins from crude yeast cell extracts. To demonstrate the versatility of Ulp1(3)(C580S)-aided Smt3 purification, we also purified monomeric and conjugated GFP-Smt3 from yeast cells (Figure 6B). Additionally, we probed the extracts and eluted proteins shown in Figure 6B with an anti-Cdc11 antibody, which revealed the specific copurification of Cdc11 with immobilized Ulp1(3)(C580S) (Figure 6C).
The Ulp1(3) (C580S) truncation binds SUMO and SUMO-modified proteins. (A) and (B) Immobilized Ulp1(3)(C580S) was analyzed for its ability to affinity-purify Smt3 from yeast whole-cell extracts (WCEs). WCEs containing FLAG-tagged Smt3 (YOK 428) (left) or GFP-Smt3 (YOK 1857) (right) (input) were prepared under nondenaturing conditions and incubated with immobilized maltose-binding protein (MBP)-Ulp1(3)(C580S) (3(C580S)), MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S) lacking the small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO)-binding surface (3(C580S)ΔSBS) or unbound resin (amylose). After washing and elution, bound Smt3 and Smt3 conjugates were detected using either anti-Flag or anti-GFP antibody. (C) Immobilized Ulp1(3)(C580S) was analyzed for its ability to affinity-purify Cdc11 from yeast WCEs. WCE containing GFP-Smt3 (YOK 1857) was prepared under nondenaturing conditions and incubated with immobilized MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S), MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S) lacking the SUMO-binding surface (3(C580S)ΔSBS) or unbound resin (amylose). After washing and dilution, bound Cdc11 was detected using an anti-Cdc11 antibody (Santa Cruz Biotechnology). (D) WCEs from logarithmically growing yeast cells expressing GFP-tagged Ulp1(3), Ulp1(3)(C580S) and Ulp1(3)(C580S)ΔSBS (YOK 1839, YOK 1907, YOK 1903) (input) were prepared under nondenaturing conditions. Extracts were then incubated with SUMO2 immobilized on agarose beads (Boston Biochem). After washing and elution with sample buffer, bound proteins were detected using an anti-GFP antibody. (E) SUMO2 chains (Boston Biochem) were incubated with resin-bound MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S) or unbound resin (amylose). After washing and elution with sample buffer, bound proteins were detected using an anti-SUMO2 antibody. SUMO2 chains loading control (input). Concentrations of immobilized MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S) and MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S) lacking the SUMO-binding surface (3(C580S)ΔSBS) were confirmed by Coomassie staining of eluted proteins and quantitation on an Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer (Agilent Technologies).
In the reciprocal experiment, we tested whether a GFP-tagged Ulp1(3)(C580S) construct expressed in yeast cells could bind immobilized SUMO2, which is highly conserved to yeast Smt3. In this experiment, yeast cells expressing CEN-plasmid levels of GFP-tagged Ulp1(3), Ulp1(3)(C580S) or the Ulp1(3)(C580S)-ΔSBS (see Figure 3) were grown to log phase prior to preparation of yeast cell extracts. Individual extracts were then incubated with SUMO2 immobilized on agarose beads (see Methods). After washing, bound yeast proteins were eluted, separated on SDS-PAGE gels and examined by Western blot analysis with an anti-GFP antibody. This time the GFP-tagged Ulp1(3)(C580S) could be detected in the WCEs and bound to the SUMO2 agarose (Figure 6D). In contrast, neither the WT catalytic domain of Ulp1 (Ulp1(3)) nor Ulp1(3)(C580S)(SBSΔ) was bound to SUMO2 agarose. Similarly, the Ulp1(3)(C580S) could also be purified on SUMO1 agarose (data not shown).
We also tested whether immobilized Ulp1(3)(C580S) could be used to purify SUMO chains. In this experiment, we incubated purified SUMO2 chains with our immobilized Ulp1(3)(C580S) or the unbound amylose resin. After washing, bound SUMO2 chains were eluted, separated on SDS-PAGE gels and examined by Western blot analysis with an anti-SUMO2 antibody. SUMO2 chains could clearly be detected in the input (Figure 6E, lane 2) and bound the MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S) (lane 4), but not the resin-only control (Figure 6E, lane 3). Both lower- and higher-molecular-weight adducts of SUMO2 were purified with a preference for higher-molecular-weight chains (5-mer, 6-mer or 7-mer). These data suggest that Ulp1(3)(C580S) can efficiently bind and enrich SUMO2 chains in vitro and that the MBP fusion of Ulp1(3)(C580S) may also be useful for the purification of sumoylated proteins from mammalian cells.
STUbLs such as the yeast Slx5/Slx8 heterodimer and the human RNF4 protein efficiently ubiquitinated proteins modified with SUMO chains [49, 50]. These proteins interact with their respective sumoylated ubiquitinated targets through SIMs. STUbL reactions have been reconstituted in vitro, but the purification of target proteins modified with SUMO chains has been technically difficult or prohibitively expensive. The ability of Ulp1(3)(C580S) to interact with SUMO may therefore provide a simple way to purify a SUMO chain-modified STUbL target of choice.
To test whether Ulp1(3)(C580S) can serve as a platform to modify a purified protein with SUMO2 chains, we incubated the immobilized MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S) with SUMO2 chains. Unbound SUMO2 chains were removed by washing. The MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S) SUMO2 chain complex was then eluted and added into a STUbL in vitro ubiquitinated reaction containing recombinant RNF4 (K A Fryrear and O Kerscher, unpublished reagents). Proteins in the STUbL-mediated ubiquitination assay were separated on SDS-PAGE gels and examined by Western blot analysis with an anti-SUMO2 antibody (Figure 7A). Consistent with previous observations, we were able to detect ubiquitinated SUMO2 chains after the STUbL reaction. This ubiquitination was dependent on RNF4 and SUMO2 chains. On the basis of these results, we propose that Ulp1(3)(C580S) may provide a useful, widely applicable tool for the study of sumoylated proteins and STUbL targets (Figure 7B).
MBP-Ulp1(3) (C580S) can serve as a SUMO2 binding platform for SUMO-targeted ubiquitin ligase-mediated substrate ubiquitination. (A) SUMO2 chains (Boston Biochem) were incubated with resin-bound maltose-binding protein (MBP)-Ulp1(3)(C580S). The complex of MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S) with small ubiquitin-like modifier 2 (SUMO2) chains was then eluted and added to an in vitro ubiquitination reaction with the SUMO-targeted ubiquitin ligase (STUbL) RNF4, an E3 ubiquitin ligase. Proteins in the STUbL reactions were separated by SDS-PAGE and assessed by Western blot analysis with an anti-SUMO2 antibody. Arrows indicate modified SUMO2 chains. Lane 1: No SUMO chains; lane 2: no RNF4; lane 3: no Ulp1(3)(C580S); lane 4: all reagents. (B) Proposed model for using MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S) as a SUMO2-binding platform for substrate ubiquitination. SUMO2, ubiquitin and RNF4 are indicated by spheres labeled S, spheres labeled Ub and the gray oval labeled RNF4, respectively.
In this study, we have demonstrated that region 3 of Ulp1, the catalytic domain, contains critical information for subcellular targeting to sumoylated substrates, including the septin Cdc11. To determine how Ulp1 is targeted to its substrates, we took advantage of a catalytically inactive Ulp1 mutant (C580S) that exhibited partial redistribution from the NE to the septin ring of dividing yeast cells. We found that the relocalization of Ulp1 depended on functional Smt3 and sumoylated proteins at the septin ring of dividing cells.
Importantly, using this novel Ulp1 in vivo septin-ring localization assay, we traced the critical targeting information to two features in region 3 of Ulp1, a previously identified SBS (amino acids 418 to 447) and a SUMO-contacting residue (D451) that resides near the carboxy terminus (see structure supplied). D451 of Ulp1 has previously been shown to contact Smt3 through a salt-bridge interaction [31, 47]. Indeed, in our analysis, we provide evidence that the salt bridge-disrupting D451N mutation abolishes the SUMO-dependent targeting of Ulp1 to septins and prevents the two-hybrid interaction of the catalytic domain of Ulp1 with Smt3 (Figures 3A, B and 5).
The sole requirements for the enrichment of full-length Ulp1 at the septin ring were the catalytically inactivating C580S mutation in the catalytic domain of Ulp1 and functional Kap121. This finding has important implications for the targeting role played by the amino-terminal karyopherin-binding domains of Ulp1 (discussed below). Additionally, Smt3 processing appears to be required for substrate release. The catalytically inactive Ulp1(3)(C580S) mutant is predominantly localized to the septin ring and nucleus of dividing yeast cells, whereas the catalytically active WT Ulp1(3) shows merely diffuse staining throughout the cell (compare Figure 3B, top). This is not due to differential expression or stability of either GFP fusion, as similar amounts of proteins were detected in cell extracts (see Figure 6D). We propose and show in our biochemical analysis that the C580S mutant may trap Smt3-modified proteins, allowing it to be observed in association with cellular desumoylation substrates. In support of this assessment, combining the D451N with the C580S mutation abolishes all visible bud-neck localization (Figure 3A). Therefore, we propose that Ulp1(C580S) first targets and docks Smt3 through the SBS domain and the salt bridge-forming D451 residue, then traps it in place because of its inability to cleave after the di-glycine motif of Smt3. We can assume that a trapped substrate prevents further catalysis or interactions with other Smt3 molecules, an assessment that is borne by our finding that, despite its septin-targeting and SUMO-binding properties, Ulp1(3)(C580S) interacts only weakly with Smt3 in a two-hybrid assay (Figure 5 and Additional file 4). A better understanding of how the sumoylated substrate is trapped by Ulp1(3)(C580S) may have important implications for the rational design of inhibitors for Ulp1-like SUMO proteases, but may await the elucidation of the cocrystal structure with a trapped substrate.
The interaction of budding yeast Ulp1 with Smt3 relies on multiple hydrophobic and salt-bridge interactions between the catalytic domain (region 3) of Ulp1 and the carboxy-terminal extension of Smt3. By making multiple contacts with Smt3, Ulp1 is particularly well-suited to interact with a wide variety of sumoylated substrates [22, 31]. Other SUMO proteases, Ulp2 and several SENP proteins (Senp1, Senp2, Senp6 and Senp7), are believed to interact noncovalently with their sumoylated substrates through dedicated SIMs [14, 22]. On the basis of our structure-function analysis of region 3, Ulp1 seems to employ a unique mode of interaction with Smt3 and sumoylated substrates. Ulp1 does not appear to contain bona fide canonical SIMs, and neither of the amino-terminal domains of Ulp1 (regions 1 and 2) interact with Smt3 or become enriched at the septin ring . This assessment is also underscored by the arrangement of Smt3 and Ulp1 in the cocrystal structure . The hydrophobic groove of Smt3 that would interact with a SIM-containing protein is turned away from the domains of Ulp1 that interact with Smt3. Interestingly, this may suggest that Ulp1 can be recruited to proteins that are covalently or noncovalently modified with SUMO and SUMO chains.
Our research demonstrates for the first time that noncovalent interactions between Ulp1 and SUMO are important not only for SUMO binding but also for the cytosolic targeting of this SUMO protease to the bud-neck and potentially to sumoylated septins. Septins are not the only cytosolic substrates of Ulp1 and are arguably the most prevalent [35, 38]; therefore, they may be readily scored in our septin ring targeting assay (Figures 3A and 3B). We predict that Ulp1 is also targeted to other cytosolic and septin-bound sumoylated substrate proteins, such as the karyogamy protein Kar9 . However, because of the low local concentrations in comparison to sumoylated septins, these proteins may be hard to detect. We propose, however, that sumoylated proteins that accumulate or aggregate in the cytosol of yeast cells may be readily detectable by Ulp1(3)(C580S).
As detailed below, Ulp1(3)(C580S) also provides a useful tool with which to purify these sumoylated proteins (Figure 6E), and such studies are underway (O Kerscher and Z C Elmore, unpublished data). Our findings provide strong evidence that SUMO, at least in the case of sumoylated proteins at the septin ring, is a required signal for the cytoplasmic targeting of Ulp1. Our alignments of the SBS domain and the juxtaposed salt bridge-forming D451 residue reveal that this mode of targeting may also be conserved in other metazoan Ulp1-like SUMO proteases (Additional file 1).
Though we clearly show herein that Ulp1 becomes enriched at the septin ring, we do not yet fully understand how Ulp1 arrives at this subcellular localization. Our findings support the previous observation that Kap121 plays an important role in promoting Ulp1 targeting to the septin ring. Similar to a previously described Ulp1 mutant that lacks the Kap60/Kap95 binding domain (region 2) , the septin ring localization of the full-length Ulp1(C580S) protein described herein is dependent on functional Kap121. It is unlikely that the association with Kap121 shuttles Ulp1 to the septins. Rather, in mitosis, Kap121 becomes associated with a transport inhibitory nucleoporin, Nup53, and may thus exclude Ulp1 access to the inner phase of the NPC . This suggests that, in the absence of Kap121-binding, a fraction of Ulp1 is free to associate with sumoylated septins. Our studies confirm that Ulp1 lacking the Kap60/Kap95-binding domain (region 2) is enriched at the NPC and the septin ring (Figure 3A). We extend these observations by showing that the ability to target sumoylated septins resides in the catalytic domain (region 3) of Ulp1. We found that a Ulp1(3)(C580S) mutant, but not WT Ulp1(3), is enriched at the septin ring in the absence of Kap121. These data suggest that both the Ulp1(3)(C580S) mutant and WT Ulp1(3) can interact with sumoylated septins, but, unlike the subtrate-trapping Ulp1(3)(C580S) mutant, the catalytically active WT Ulp1(3) may be quickly released after desumoylation of the target protein, giving it a diffuse appearance in the cell. How Kap121 helps Ulp1-Δ2 to be retained at the septin ring in the absence of the C580S mutation is currently unclear. Kap121 may theoretically promote the interaction with a septin ring-localized protein. However, the localization of Kap121 to septins has not previously been reported.
One intriguing aspect of our study is the results of our analysis of the substrate-trapping Ulp1(3)(C580S) construct. Three lines of evidence reveal the avid interaction of Ulp1(3)(C580S) with SUMO proteins and sumoylated substrates. First, this Ulp1-derived construct shows a pronounced interaction with the bud-neck, which is composed of sumoylated septins in vivo. Second, Ulp1(3)C580S interacts with Smt3 in a two-hybrid assay, whereas WT Ulp1(3) does not. Third, the purified recombinant Ulp1(3)(C580S) protein is a potent affinity-tag for the purification of Smt3 conjugates and SUMO-modified proteins. Furthermore, in preliminary BiaCore analyses, we determined the Kd for the interaction between Ulp1(3)(C580S) and SUMO1 to be 12.8 nM, which is about 200 times stronger than the interaction between a SIM and SUMO, as previously reported by Hecker and co-workers . A related study involving the C603S mutant of the human SENP1 protease confirms our assessment of the substrate-trapping feature. Those authors observed relocalization of their SENP1(C603S) mutant in vivo to PML nuclear bodies and domains of the HDAC4 protein, suggesting that SUMO-dependent targeting may be a conserved feature of Ulp1-like SUMO proteases . The latter may also provide a useful strategy for the identification of mitotically important desumoylation substrates. Indeed, two-hybrid screens with Ulp1(3)(C580S) in the laboratory have already identified several novel cytosolic desumoylation targets (M Donaher and O Kerscher, unpublished data). We are also exploring the ability of Ulp1(3)(C580S) to act as a SUMO chain-binding tag that can be used to promote the interaction of putative STUbL target proteins with RNF4 and other STUbLs (Figure 7).
How Ulp1 and other SUMO proteases target specific mitotic substrates for desumoylation remains unknown. Our analysis of SUMO-dependent Ulp1 targeting to the septin ring provides important evidence that Ulp1-like SUMO proteases do not passively await their desumoylation substrates, but rather dynamically localize to them in a cell-cycle-specific manner. Future experiments that take advantage of the SUMO-binding properties of the substrate-trapping Ulp1(3)(C580S) construct may prove useful for the identification of clinically relevant targets of conserved Ulp1-like SUMO proteases in yeast and human cells.
Ulp1 remains one of the most enigmatic SUMO proteases with an essential role in cell-cycle progression. Our work focuses on the fundamental but unresolved question of how Ulp1, an NPC-associated SUMO protease, targets mitotic desumoylation targets in the cytosol. The current study of Ulp1 reveals for the first time that (1) specific determinants of Ulp1's catalytic domain are utilized to target the septins at the bud-neck of dividing cells, (2) Ulp1 requires SUMO and intact sumoylation for correct cytosolic targeting, (3) Ulp1, unlike Ulp2, relies on specific salt bridge-forming residues for substrate targeting, (4) septin-targeting information in the catalytic domain of Ulp1 is independent of Kap121 and (5) the substrate-targeting domain of Ulp1 can be modified to identify and purify sumoylated substrates of Ulp1 in genetic screens and in biochemical analyses.
The yeast strains and plasmids used in this study are listed in Table 1. smt3-331 expresses a temperature-sensitive Smt3 protein containing a L26S mutation ( and S Brill, personal communication). smt3R11, 15, 19 expresses a triple-mutant of Smt3 rendered unable to form SUMO chains through replacement of lysines 11, 15 and 19 with arginines . ulp1ts expresses a temperature-sensitive mutant of Ulp1 that contains three mutations (I435V, N450S and I504T) in region 3, the catalytic domain . Yeast media preparation and manipulation of yeast cells were performed as described previously . Yeast strains were grown at 30°C unless otherwise indicated. DNA fragments containing Ulp1 under the control of its endogenous promoter were amplified from yeast genomic DNA and placed in-frame with a carboxy-terminal GFP-tag in the CEN/LEU2 plasmid pAA3 . Primer pairs used for full-length Ulp1 amplification were OOK2 (ULP1 (-310 to -294)) and OOK3 (ULP1 (+1, 842 to +1, 863)).
To prepare the truncated and mutated Ulp1-GFP constructs listed in Table 1, the QuikChange XL Site-Directed Mutagenesis Kit (Stratagene/Agilent Technologies, La Jolla, CA, USA) and the Phusion Site-Directed Mutagenesis Kit (Finnzymes Oy/Thermo Fisher Scientific, Vantaa, Finland) were used according to the manufacturers' instructions. Primer sequence information for the construction of individual mutants and truncations are available upon request. All constructs were sequenced, verified and/or confirmed by performing complementation assays (for example, see Additional file 3). Additionally, we confirmed that septin rings are intact in strains expressing plasmid-borne Ulp1(3)C580, WT Ulp1 and Ulp1(3) (see Additional file 5). For two-hybrid constructs, ORFs of the indicated genes were PCR-amplified and recombined into gapped pOAD and pOBD2 vectors (Yeast Resource Center, Department of Biochemistry and Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA).
To overexpress and purify Ulp1 truncations from bacteria, the respective Ulp1 fragments were PCR-amplified and cloned into pMALc-HT (a gift from Sean T Prigge, Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA), thereby adding an in-frame MBP module followed by a TEV protease cleavage site and a His6 epitope tag. Ulp1 derivatives were expressed as MBP fusions in BL21 Star (DE3) cells (Invitrogen) containing a pRIL plasmid. The YCp-111 Cdc3-CFP/LEU plasmid was a kind gift from Ryuichi Nishihama of John Pringle's laboratory (Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA).
Gal4-activation domain (AD) fusions of ULP1 and the indicated ULP1 mutants in pOAD were transformed into the AH109 reporter strain expressing a Gal4 DNA-binding domain (BD) fusion of SMT3 in pOBD. Two-hybrid interactions of serially diluted cells were scored in duplicate on dropout media lacking adenine.
Frozen bacterial cell pellets from 200 ml of isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside-induced BL21 Star (DE3) cells were thawed on ice and resuspended in 2 ml of 1 × PBS containing 1 × Halt Protease Inhibitor Cocktail (catalog no. 78430; Pierce Biotechnology/Thermo Fisher Scientific, Rockford, IL, USA). Ice-cold cells were sonicated using a Branson Sonifier ultrasonic cell disruptor (Branson Ultrasonics, Danbury, CT, USA), and extracts were cleared by centrifugation at 15, 000 rpm for eight minutes at 4°C. Cleared bacterial extracts were added to 15-ml conical tubes and diluted using 4 ml of 1 × PBS containing the protease inhibitor cocktail. MBP-tagged proteins (MBP-Ulp1(3), MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S) or MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S)ΔSBS) were bound to 5-ml columns containing 300 μl of amylose resin (New England Biolabs, Ipswich, MA, USA) and washed extensively with 1 × PBS. Yeast cell protein extracts containing the indicated target proteins were passed over the amylose resin, and proteins bound to MBP-Ulp1(3), MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S) or MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S)ΔSBS were eluted with 100 mM maltose or SDS-PAGE sample buffer. Yeast cell protein extracts were generated by bead-beating about 50 nm of yeast cell pellets in 1 × cell lysis buffer (catalog no. 9803; Cell Signaling Technology, Danvers, MA, USA) containing 25 mM N-ethylmaleimide. "Bound" material (Figures 6A and 6B) corresponds to proteins affinity-purified from approximately 8 nm of extracted cells. Input (WCE) lysates correspond to 1.25 nm of extracted proteins (about one-sixth the material loaded onto the column). In SUMO pull-down experiments, recombinant MBP-Ulp1(3)(C580S) or MBP-Ulp1(3) was incubated with SUMO1 or SUMO2 agarose (Boston Biochem Inc, Cambridge, MA, USA) in 1 ml of 1 × PBS with protease inhibitors. Proteins bound to the agarose beads were washed in 1 × PBS and eluted with 1 × SDS-PAGE sample buffer. All protein extracts were separated on NuPage Novex 4-12% Bis-Tris gradient gels (NP0321; Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA) using 3-morpholinopropane-1-sulfonic acid-SDS running buffer (NP0001; Invitrogen). Equal loading and concentrations of recombinant proteins were confirmed by Coomassie staining and analysis using an Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer using a Protein 230 Kit (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA). BiaCore measurements were conducted by Affina Biotechnologies, Inc (Stamford, CT, USA) as a paid service.
Unless otherwise noted, cells were grown in rich media, arrested in G2/M using nocodazole (15 μg/ml/3 hours/30°C), washed in 2% dextrose and harvested by centrifugation. Images of live cells were collected using a Zeiss Axioskop microscope (Carl Zeiss USA, Thornwood, NY, USA) fitted with a QImaging Retiga™ SRV charge-coupled device digital camera (QImaging, Surrey, BC, Canada), i-Vision-Mac software (BioVision Technologies, Exton, PA, USA) and a Uniblitz electro-programmable shutter assembly system (Vincent Associates/UNIBLITZ, Rochester, NY, USA). Pertinent filter sets for the above applications include CZ909 (GFP), XF114-2 (CFP) and XF104-2 (YFP) (Chroma Technology Group, Bellows Falls, VT, USA). Images were normalized using i-Vision-Mac software and pseudocolored and adjusted using Adobe Photoshop software (Adobe Systems Inc, San Jose, CA, USA).
Enzymes and substrates used in our in vitro ubiquitination assays were quantified using a Protein 230 Kit on the Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer (Agilent Technologies) according to the manufacturer's instructions. We used 10 × ubiquitination buffer, E1 enzyme (Uba1), ATP and 20 × ubiquitin provided in a commercial ubiquitin activating kit (BML-UW0400-0001; Enzo Life Sciences Inc, Farmingdale, NY, USA). Ubiquitination buffer, isopentenyl diphosphate (100 U/ml), dithiothreitol (DTT) (50 μM), E1 (Uba1), E2 (Ubc4) and E3 enzymes (RNF4) were combined with purified SUMO2 chains (ULC-210; Boston Biochem) and ubiquitin. Reactions totaled 27 μl and were incubated at 30°C for three hours. Reactions were stopped by adding an equal volume of SUMEB with Tris (SUTEB) sample buffer (0.01% bromophenol blue, 10 mM ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, 1% SDS, 50 mM Tris, pH 6.8, 8 M urea) containing DTT (5 μl of 1 M DTT mixed with 1 ml SUTEB sample buffer). Protein products were boiled in a 65°C heat block for ten minutes and examined by Western blot analysis with anti-human SUMO2 antibody, anti-human SUMO2 (BML-PW0510-0025; Enzo Life Sciences Inc), anti-GFP (JL-8 632380; Clontech, Mountain View, CA), ANTI-FLAG M2 (F3165; Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, MO, USA), anti-phosphoglycerate kinase (22C5D8; Invitrogen), anti-Cdc11 (y415) (sc-7170; Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA, USA).
We thank all members of the Kerscher lab for their support. We especially thank Cecilia Esteban for Figure 1B, Jeff Hollomon for an Ulp1 overexpression construct and Nora Foegeding and Chris Moad for help with experiments during revision of the manuscript. We are indebted to Diane Shakes, Rachael Felberbaum and Mark Hochstrasser for comments and/or edits of the manuscript. Additionally, we thank Vikram Panse, Maria Katariina Veisu, Sue Biggins, Mark Hochstrasser, Eric Rubenstein, Munira Basrai, Wei Chun Au, Rick Wozniak, Erica Johnson, John Pringle, Ryuichi Nishihama, Liz Allison, Mark Forsyth and Eric Engstrom for strains and reagents and Steve Brill for information on Smt3-331. This work was supported by National Institutes of Health grant R15-GM085792 (to OK), a William & Mary Howard Hughes Undergraduate Summer Research Fellowship (to MD and BCM), an ALSAM fellowship (to BCM) and a William and Mary Arts and Sciences Graduate Research grant (to ZE).
OK and ZE designed and interpreted all the results of the experiments and wrote the manuscript. ZE carried out all experiments with the following exceptions: MD and JW carried out the two-hybrid assays and helped to interpret the results, BM designed and conducted the STUbL assay and HM aligned Ulp SUMO protease sequences, confirmed conserved residues and helped with editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. | 2019-04-25T16:56:16Z | https://0-bmcbiol-biomedcentral-com.brum.beds.ac.uk/articles/10.1186/1741-7007-9-74 |
Like all other advertisers, osteopaths have to comply with the ASA's CAP Code and the ASA/CAP publish specific guidance to help them — in addition to the more general guidance on National Council for Osteopathic Research and their substantiation.
However, it seems that some osteopaths thought the CAP Code and guidance required some clarification.
Today, the ASA have published even more detailed guidance for those advertising osteopathy services.
This new document provides that clarity and further restricts the claims they can make about the use of osteopathy with pregnant women, children and babies, particularly non-musculoskeletal conditions such as colic and problems allegedly caused by 'birth trauma'.
A cursory glance at osteopaths' websites will find many such claims. See, for example, the results returned by this simple search for colic: osteopathy clinic site:.uk colic. This is a widespread problem.
The Osteopathic Practice Standards place a duty on all osteopaths to ensure their advertising complies with the CAP Code (Standard D14). Failing to comply with the Code and associated guidance or rulings could result in GOsC fitness to practise proceedings.
The GOsC and the osteopaths' trade body, the Institute of Osteopathy (IO) will be following this up with further communications and articles in various magazines and the GOsC will also be contacting the various osteopathy training organisations to make sure students are fully aware of their responsibilities. We hope that many students will ask questions of their tutors about why they are being taught something they are not allowed to advertise because of the lack of good evidence. Perhaps the GOsC should be asking themselves the same questions and revist their educational requirements.
There is a lot of work to be done by osteopaths.
An osteopathic check-up following the birth can help pin-point potential problems and helps to ease the dramatic transition from life inside the womb to the outside world. This initial adjustment involves many bodily systems such as breathing and digestion.
Stresses and strains from the labour or pregnancy can lead to unsettled behaviour and difficulties with feeding, winding, bowel movements and sleeping. Relieving any physical strains with gentle osteopathic treatment can be very helpful and relaxing. The care of the entire family unit is of the utmost concern for an osteopath.
This is a time when children learn to crawl, walk, run and communicate and are keen to explore their environment and to interact socially. It is desirable to monitor the progress of these early developmental milestones and to address the effects of any major physical mishaps or developmental lag to prevent problems developing in future.
In the birthing process babies are subjected to enormous forces during their passage through the birth canal. Small amounts of movement exist in the infant skull to permit the baby’s head to adapt to these forces of labour. However when birth is difficult, unduly slow or fast, or complicated by the need for forceps ventouse or cesarean section delivery, the infant head may not fully recover from this distortion. If the baby is unable to resolve the stressors and strains naturally through breathing and suckling, these pressures with in the skull may lead to problems settling, feeding difficulties, disturbed sleep patterns and recurrent infections. Osteopathic treatment using a variety of gentle non invasive techniques may help improve the function of the musculoskeletal system and aid in the reduction of these symptoms.
During childhood, in addition to any earlier trauma or strains the body has to adapt with the growth and development of the bones and muscles. Postural changes and activity level changes with participation in sports can also produce aches and pains which may be eased with manual therapy. Restrictions in the musculoskeletal system can sometimes cause delay reaching developmental milestones for behaviour, speech and learning and may benefit from osteopathic assessment and treatment.
What parent would not be distressed by such stark warnings and sign their new-born up for immediate (and life-long?) treatment?
The Bronfort review was commissioned by the General Chiropractic Council (GCC) in 2009 after I submitted 523 complaints to the GCC about claims being made by chiropractors on their websites — the GCC needed the review because they didn't have a clue about the evidence for the claims their registrants had been making. It was little more than a quick literature review carried out by chiropractors in the US.
Even though Bronfort et al. considered all manner of treatments including reflexology, massage and chiropractic manipulations and not just osteopathic techniques specifically, it did look at various paediatric conditions. In terms of the non-musculoskeletal conditions, Bronfort identified a number of systematic reviews and additional RCTs for these conditions. None was positive for any treatment.
However, it only gave results for the treatment of manual therapies for musculoskeletal conditions for adults and is silent on pregnant women, children and babies, so it's quite a leap to extrapolate to those patient groups from adults.
The National Council for Osteopathic Research (NCOR), funded by osteopaths and the GOsC, is currently undertaking a systematic review of manual therapies in the treatment of children and babies. It'll be interesting to see what they finally publish.
Meanwhile, it seems that the ASA believe that osteopaths are trained to treat pregnant women, children and babies and that they should therefore be allowed to make claims about these patient groups, despite being no good evidence that osteopathy is effective for these conditions. This simply raises the question as to what they are being taught if there is no good evidence it is effective for those groups in the first place.
The question of dose response is not addressed either nor the potential for harm — particularly the many claims that it is 'safe and gentle'.
However, that only applies to musculoskeletal conditions: the new guidance prevents them from directly or indirectly referring to conditions such as colic, growing pains, excessive crying and those allegedly caused by 'birth trauma'. As we have shown above, these are frequent claims.
…refer to conditions for which medical supervision should be sought if they hold convincing evidence of the efficacy of their treatments (Rules 12.1 and 12.2).
The caveat of holding the necessary standard of evidence is important, but it is not clear to us why statutory regulation should confer any special privileges: whilst the Osteopaths Act 1993 does provide for a means of regulating some aspects, it's primarily a means of protecting the title 'osteopath', ensuring registrants are appropriately insured and that there's a code of conduct and a complaints procedure. Notably, the Act does not prescribe any scope of practice, nor proscribe any treatments. This leaves the public open to being misled.
Claims made on osteopaths’ websites that serve the purpose of encouraging consumers to make a transactional decision (i.e. claims that directly or indirectly invite individuals to consider seeking osteopathic treatment for themselves or someone else must comply with the Advertising Code.
As healthcare practitioners regulated by statute, osteopaths may offer advice on, diagnosis of and treatment for conditions for which medical supervision should be sought. Those claims should be limited, however, to those for which the ASA or CAP has seen evidence for the efficacy of osteopathy for the particular condition claimed, or for which the advertiser holds suitable substantiation (references to conditions which the ASA or CAP accept osteopathy can help with should be understood on this basis, the ASA acknowledges that new evidence may emerge).2 The ASA retains the right to ask to review evidence for the purposes of resolving complaints should it consider the need to do so. Osteopaths should therefore ensure that they have access to substantiation before making such claims, including implied claims to treat a particular condition.
Where the efficacy of osteopathy for treating a particular condition has already been established, treatment claims that do not stray beyond the principles set out in the CAP Guidance will be considered compliant with the Code.
Osteopaths may make claims to treat general as well as specific patient populations, including pregnant women, children and babies provided they are qualified to do so. Osteopaths may not claim to treat conditions or symptoms presented as specific to these groups (e.g. colic, growing pains, morning sickness) unless the ASA or CAP has seen evidence for the efficacy of osteopathy for the particular condition claimed, or for which the advertiser holds suitable substantiation. Osteopaths may refer to the provision of general health advice to specific patient populations, providing they do not make implied and unsubstantiated treatment claims for conditions.
The principles don't say anything new, but the fourth one is important: osteopaths can claim to treat pregnant women, children and babies, but they can only do so in terms of the conditions listed above and it clearly states the conditions they should not claim to treat.
The guidance also gives some examples of claims that are likely and unlikely to be acceptable. The ASA, quite rightly, steer clear of saying outright what is and isn't acceptable: every claim has to be analysed individually in its proper context. We hope that osteopaths will take note of these carefully and not try to take advantage of any perceived equivocation.
It might take osteopaths a while to clean up their websites.
It's entirely fanciful, of course, but many osteopaths seem to believe it is effective for many childhood conditions and is seen by some as the 'bait and switch' used by some osteopaths to get new customers from a very early age.
But at least now they cannot claim that they can feel these movements nor that they can then manipulate the skull to alleviate anything.
This guidance is a great step forward. Osteopaths now have absolute clarity about what they can and cannot claim for pregnant women, children and babies and we hope to see speedy changes to websites.
We also welcome the actions taken by the General Osteopathic Council to ensure their registrants stop misleading the public and we hope they will follow through when they are made aware of non-compliant websites; we also hope they will be pro-active in this and not simply wait around for others to submit complaints.
We now hope the ASA and the General Chiropractic Council will now do the same for chiropractors — it is long overdue and, arguably, a much larger problem. The list of allowed chiropractic claims will be shorter, of course, and the list of unacceptable claims longer. Much longer.
The Society of Homeopaths seemed to be taking responsible action to curb the claims of their members. But what's been going on behind the scenes?
Little more than a month ago, the Society of Homeopaths (SoH) issued new advertising guidance to all their members. It was far from perfect and, we believe, strays some distance from the guidance laid down by the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA/CAP), but, being generous, at least it was a step in the right direction in curbing the worst excesses of its members' advertising claims.
The ultimate sanction is referral by the ASA to the Trading Standards under the Consumer Protection from Unfair Trading Regulations 2008. Trading Standards is the legal backstop for the ASA. What this means is that where the threat or application of our sanctions have failed to achieve compliance, the matter may be formally referred to Trading Standards. Trading Standards will consider cases to determine if there are breaches of relevant legislation and take appropriate action in accordance with its own enforcement policy.
These are serious consequences for any homeopath and it may look like the SoH has faced up to its responsibilities and taken the responsible course of action in trying to help its members comply with the CAP Code and consumer protection legislation.
However, we now know that the SoH is not only supporting an anti-ASA campaign by some of its members, it is also seeking advice on the legality of the ASA's actions with a view to challenging them in the courts.
Andy Lewis of The Quackometer has highlighted that the Society of Homeopaths (SoH) intend to fight the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) over the advertising guidance they issued recently.
They're not doing this by providing high quality scientific evidence that substantiate claims for homeopathy made by their members, of course, but by trying to find a legal basis to undermine the ASA's legitimacy as the UK's independent advertising regulator.
…investigate allegations of illegal bias against homeopaths and homeopathy by the Advertising Standards Authority Ltd, in breach of Consumer Protection Regulations.
The 6 RSHoms claim that the ASA has no legal basis for what it is doing and is acting unreasonably in targeting homeopaths.
This admission that the 'legislative and national statutory guidance' are not written specifically to cover errant homeopaths but are laws and regulations that are designed to protect consumers from misleading practices by any and all traders is interesting.
Their arguments against the ASA are well-worn and have been thoroughly refuted. They do try the old 'the ASA is only a limited company' meme and refer to them as the ASA Ltd: perhaps we should refer to the SoH by their own corporate title, The Society of Homeopaths Ltd?
Anyway, in their guidance to their members, the SoH made several interesting statements with reference to the Professional Standards Authority (PSA) who legitimises them by placing them on their list of Accredited Registers. We submitted a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request to the PSA for details of all information held by the PSA relating to the SoH's guidance.
Sorry to chase you but I wanted to update you on a serious initiative by ASA/CAP. See attached letter [download here].
In short, with no notice or consultation at all, they want to impose guidelines on us, send them out inside a month and then chase all our members to make sure they have complied within a month! You will not be surprised to hear that we have refused to co-operate but we have said that, if they pause the process, we are more than happy to meet with them and see if we can work out a way forward that ensures our members are compliant to reasonable guidelines. We need to be working with them in the long run, rather than working against them.
As far as I am aware, no other accredited register has been targeted. I am guessing they will be in time!
The belligerent nature of their language puts into context the SoH's latest pronouncement about taking legal action against the ASA and the assumption of being singled out by the ASA for special treatment speaks volumes. No doubt such a line would play nicely to their vexed members.
That the SoH refused to even cooperate with the ASA is extraordinary (even if they did recognise they will have to cooperate eventually) and we sincerely hope it raised more than a few eyebrows at the PSA.
Standard 8 requires registers to set standards of business practice, including advertising (and to comply with the Advertising Standards Authority’s requirements).
The Society must replace the section of its Code of Ethics and Practice relating to Advertising and Media which states ‘Examples of Codes the Society may also take account of are the relevant clauses of The UK Code of Non-broadcast Advertising, Sales Promotion and Direct Marketing (CAP Code), and the current guidelines of the Society’ with ‘will take into account’. This action to be completed within three months.
The PSA's views of the necessity of complying with the ASA's rules could not be clearer, but here we have am Accredited Register not only wanting special, more 'reasonable' — presumably less stringent — privileges but actively seeking to take legal action against them.
But why this talk of 'no notice or consultation'? The ASA's remit was extended to cover traders' websites on 01 March 2011. The ASA issued clear guidance specifically for homeopaths in September 2011. The ASA's adjudication against the SoH themselves was published on 03 July 2013. There can surely be no excuse for the SoH not to be aware of their obligations under the CAP Code yet they and their members have already been given five years to comply. What have they not complied already? How much more time do they need?
It does seem to us that the SoH were looking to the PSA for some protection from those baddies at the ASA. However, other than an informal discussion between them on 12 January, no more appears to have been said. Hopefully the PSA will have reminded the SoH at that meeting of their responsibilities under the Accredited Register scheme.
But it seems the SoH were successful to some extent in delaying the ASA's action: their letter finally went out to homeopaths up and down the country in September this year and they were given a full five weeks in which to get their websites in order — five years eight months after the rules came into force for websites.
When referring to testimonials, it is wise to encourage people to seek independent medical advice and stay in close contact with their mainstream healthcare professionals. This supports an open dialogue, choice and informed, integrated care. The below was agreed by the Preliminary Investigation Panel, the Professional Standards Authority have also seen this statement, and appear happy with its use.
Declaring that the PSA 'appear happy' with their interpretation of the ASA's guidance on testimonials seemed rather odd and informal language to us: did the PSA fully agree with the statement or did they not? Did they even have a view on whether such a disclaimer would adequately protect them from the ASA?
1. What communication has there been with the SoH on this?
The testimonials were discussed as part of last year’s reaccreditation process, in particular the annual review report, we sent all of the information except the information we consider exempt to you in November 2015. There have been no further discussions about the testimonials since this date.
2. What does the statement that you 'appear happy' with the use of these statements mean?
It is our understanding that this relates to the statement in the published panel decision in 2015. The decision reflects the fact that the panel was made aware of the above but made no specific comment for or against it.
3. Can you confirm that you told the SoH that the use of these statements by their registrants in their advertising was acceptable to you?
We have made no specific comment about this matter beyond what is said in the 2015 decision. This is because we consider this to be a matter for the ASA.
The Society [of Homeopaths] also found guidelines relating to testimonials were restrictive and could prevent registrants from providing sufficient information for service users to make informed decisions. The Panel noted the Society has provided a disclaimer for registrants’ websites to make clear testimonials are not intended to make any false claims about homeopathy.
It's not at all clear to us how the SoH interpreted that as saying that the PSA 'appear happy' with the SoH's disclaimer, but now that the PSA have made it clear they believe it to be a matter not for them but for the ASA, we sincerely hope the SoH will update their guidance to clarify the PSA's position on this and update their guidance to bring it in line with the ASA's.
Please note: Any claims made within a testimonial are subject to the CAP Code. Therefore, if a testimonial makes an efficacy claim, the author’s permission should be sought to edit out the relevant parts.
Although this is an important part in the ASA's guidance on testimonials and endorsements, it is but one part of it. Overall, the SoH could have saved themselves a lot of bother by simply referring their members directly to the ASA's own comprehensive and clearly written guidance rather than regurgitating it and interpreting it, changing it in the process, inadvertently or otherwise.
As well as writing to thousands of homeopaths, we have been made aware that the ASA have also contacted at least one trade directory, informing them of the requirements to comply with the CAP Code.
I can appreciate how you and other Homeopaths currently feel and I hope that this email will help your understanding as to why we have made these changes.
Because this is now a legal requirement for advertising, as a marketing platform, we must abide by it. CAP were the ones that contacted us about the changes which is why we have actioned it.
I can see that you have already complied [sic] a detailed document raising your concerns, but please also have a look here: http://www.homeopathy-soh.org/images/ASASept2016/ASA-Guidance-6.pdf [the SoH's advertising guidance] as this may prove helpful for you when addressing this with the ASA / CAP. I would recommend contacting CAP as they are the ones that have implemented these changes and are therefore the ones to speak with.
Unfortunately, because we are a marketing platform and not therapists ourselves, as mentioned before we must adhere to these changes and won't be challenging this with either the ASA or CAP.
Please do keep us updated, I believe that you will receive a great amount of support from other Homeopaths that are currently experiencing the same.
It's good to see the ASA taking such a comprehensive approach to cleaning up this sector and Therapy Directory's responsible action to comply with the ASA's rules.
We hope all homeopaths, their trade bodies and other trade directories follow this responsible lead.
But to return to the SoH in particular: is there really a conflict between representing your members best interests and complying with the rules, regulations and laws they are supposed to?
That depends on what you believe is in your members' best interests. The SoH seemed to have taken a responsible approach to persuade its members to comply, but the other face they now show wants to challenge the ASA in the courts.
It'll be interesting to see how far they get, but it would be perverse if it was believed that continuing to defy the advertising regulator and face possible conviction under consumer protection regulations was in the best interests of any homeopath or of the SoH itself.
The Society of Homeopaths Ltd are at a crossroads: they need to grapple with the choice they face and decide whether they will go down the path of challenging the ASA or finally face up to their responsibilities as a supposed professional regulator, overseen by the Professional Standards Authority.
This will also be a challenge for the PSA: how they deal with a wayward SoH will be a test of their willingness and ability to properly oversee their Accredited Registers and properly protect the public.
In March 2011, our very first campaign was against the misleading advertising claims made by homeopaths on their websites. That was six years ago, and we gave the Advertising Standards Authority a huge headache: how to persuade homeopaths to abide by the same rules all advertisers have to abide by.
Without those advertising rules (in the form of the CAP Code), advertisers would have free rein to make whatever claims they wanted; it would be a wild-west for all sorts of cowboys and quacks and one where the poor consumer would suffer.
Homeopaths have featured in the ASA's list of adjudications and informally resolved cases over the years, but the ASA have recently preferred to let their Compliance Team deal with homeopathy advertisers because they had already extensively reviewed the evidence — notably through complaints about the Society of Homeopaths and homeopath Steve Scrutton, Media & Communications person at the Alliance of Registered Homeopaths — and had an established position on it. Read more about these adjudications in: Landmark decisions for homeopaths.
A few advertisers have been somewhat recalcitrant, believing they could face down the ASA. Some even seemed to think the ASA could be ignored, but many have found that is not a sensible course of action and one that's not good for their business. However, many advertisers of complementary and alternative therapies appear in the ASA's list of Non-compliant online advertisers and others have been referred to Trading Standards (TS).
Trading Standards have now successfully prosecuted 'Electronic Healing' (a provider of complementary and alternative therapies and devices) who had been referred to them by the ASA. TS have also had numerous websites taken down: they cannot be ignored.
We have no doubt that many homeopaths were just not aware of the advertising rules or the need to abide by them. Many will now comply because they understand the need for rules to protect consumers and are responsible traders who want to stay on the right side of the law. But not all.
Today, the ASA announced that they have written to homeopaths across the UK to remind them of the rules that govern what they can and can’t say in their marketing materials, including on their websites. This included their previous Guidance for Advertisers of Homeopathic Services and FAQs about advertising regulation and the sanctions the ASA can impose.
It also builds on the advertising guidance published by the Society of Homeopaths (SoH) a few days ago, which had been reviewed by the ASA. You may remember that the SoH themselves fell foul of the ASA three years ago and an adjudication against numerous claims they made on Twitter and on their website found they had breached the CAP Code on multiple counts. Read more about the adjudication in: Landmark decisions for homeopaths.
While we generally welcome the guidance from the SoH, we believe this guidance is incorrect and misleading in places and goes beyond what we believe the CAP Code allows, but at least it's a step in the right direction. Whether they ensure their members now comply with the CAP Code remains to be seen.
With the ASA's letter to thousands of homeopaths, their published guidance on compliance and the SoH's letter to their members, there really is now no excuse whatsoever for homeopaths to continue to make misleading claims.
After the expiration of this period, we will carry out extensive monitoring spot checks. Homeopathy practices that have failed to comply will be contacted again. After this time, we will consider the application of appropriate sanctions.
This is the culmination of six years of campaigning for us — our initial campaign and the occasional prodding of the ASA and submitting the odd strategic complaint. Although there is much more still to do, we've done our bit to highlight the many issues with homeopathy advertising: it is now up to homeopaths to take the responsible action they know they must.
Perhaps the Society of Homeopaths could set a good example to its members by having a thorough review of its own website?
We've previously looked at how homeopathy in the English NHS has plummeted 95% in the last two decades. We now focus on what's been happening is Scotland.
Their Prescription Cost Analysis (PCA) data since 2001 (shortly after devolution in 1999) are available on one handy webpage, making them easier to find, with each spreadsheet covering the financial year from 01 April up to 31 March of the year given in the filename. The latest spreadsheet, PCA_2016.xlsx, therefore covers 01 April 2015 to 31 March 2016. Note that for consistency with the data for England, we have attributed the Scottish data for the year in the filename to the previous year in the charts below, ie the 2015/2016 data are attributed with 2015 to match the way the data for England have been attributed.
Tab 3 - BNF sub-section gives the data we need. As with the NHS Digital (the re-branded name for the HSCIC) data for England, the data relate to the NHS prescriptions dispensed in community pharmacies and by Dispensing Doctors in Scotland.
The main measures of drug ingredient cost and volumes of items dispensed in the community are comparable across the UK countries. However it should be noted that the gross ingredient cost (GIC) within Scotland is equivalent to the net ingredient cost (NIC) in England, i.e. the reimbursement cost of drugs before any pharmacy discounts are applied.
A spreadsheet with these data can be downloaded here.
But why the small rise in prescriptions in 2012 and 2013? Was there a resurgence in public demand for homeopathy? Perhaps more GPs became convinced of its curative power? Maybe some new, compelling evidence for homeopathy hit the headlines?
Probably not. The answer is more prosaic: the closure of the pharmacy at the Glasgow Homeopathic Hospital (re-branded the Centre for Integrative Care (CIC) recently) in 2011 will have caused a small increase in the number of prescriptions dispensed in community pharmacies.
The prescription numbers before 2011 don't include those dispensed at the GHH/CIC, but those after 2011 are inflated by the ones GHH/CIC patients have had go to their local community pharmacy to have dispensed.
But note that this blip is more than wiped out by the falls in 2014 and 2015, leaving an overall 62% drop in the past ten years.
The drop isn't as great as the 95% in England, but it is still very significant. Referrals to the GHH/CIC have been stopped by various Scottish Health Boards, putting pressure on them — it would seem unlikely that the long-term downward trend will be reversed.
The number of patients at the GHH/CIC has been falling in recent years. Data from NHS Greater Glasgow and Clyde (GGC) — the health board that runs the GHH/CIC — show significant drops in the number of new inpatients from areas outside of GGCin recent years but that has been partially offset by an increase in numbers of referrals from within the GGC area. Overall, the number has still fallen 9% in the past four years to 332 in 2015 — about one new patient a day.
Similarly, falls in the number of new outpatients referred from areas outside GGC has been compensated by an increase in local referrals, leaving the number hovering around the 1,000 mark each year — in the order of three new patients a day. They also had 4,723 return appointments in 2015.
The hospital is currently facing the closure by GGC of its seven inpatient beds (which had previously been cut in 2010 from 15 beds Monday to Sunday to seven beds Monday afternoon to Friday morning), saving £190,000, putting it under further pressure.
The Unit has reduced its inpatient service in recent years from a 15-bedded seven-day unit to only 7 beds, open 4 nights a week.
The Centre has been very successful in developing an ambulatory model of care and all services are now available on that basis.
Inpatient capacity is now underutilised delivering only 332 episodes of care each year. This will be further reduced by the continuing impact of decisions by other Boards to withdraw from the service, only 224 in patient episodes are provided for NHS GG and C residents.
Inpatients account for only 5.2% of patient contacts for GGC residents. The majority of service delivery is already delivered in an outpatient setting.
Supporters of the GHH/CIC are campaigning to prevent its closure, including a Public Petition to the Scottish Parliament: PE01568: Funding, access and promotion of the NHS Centre for Integrative Care. The committee has been considering this for well over a year and seem to be making little progress; instead they seem keen to show their inability to understand scientific evidence.
If the closure is agreed by the GGC Board, this makes the GHH/CIC even less viable and it's not clear how long the hospital can last — its future is on a shoogly peg.
Homeopathy has been diluted to just 13% of its former self in the past 14 years.
But looking at the data in more detail reveals something that looks odd: last year, there were 60% more prescriptions in total in Scotland than in England. The figures equate to 2.62 prescriptions per 1,000 population in Scotland but only 0.16 per 1,000 in England. But this has changed over the years: in 2001, it was the other way round with 2.7 times more prescriptions in England than in Scotland.
If it was simply down to population, you'd expect there to be more than ten times the number in England compared to Scotland.
Why is this not the case and why has it changed like this over the last 14 years?
One possible explanation might be to do with the number of NHS homeopathic 'hospitals' and the legitimacy they lend to homeopathy in general: there has only been the one in Scotland but there have been four in England in recent times: London, Bristol, Liverpool and Tunbridge Wells, plus a number of satellite clinics. Now, however, only the Royal London Hospital for Integrated Medicine remains, with the ones in both Liverpool and Bristol replaced by contracted private companies rather than being part of the NHS. The one in Tunbridge Wells closed in 2008. So, in its heyday around the turn of the century, Scotland was served by one but England was only served by four — proportionately far fewer considering the population.
So, with the only the London hospital now remaining — even though it no longer has a dedicated homeopathy service — the decline of prescriptions in England was perhaps inevitable, following the decline in the number of hospitals.
For those who do not believe public money should be spent on homeopathy, these figures will be welcome, but perhaps not so much for those in the homeopathy business as the false imprimatur given to homeopathy by the State plummets.
New figures released today show that homeopathy on the English NHS has fallen to a new low. The number of NHS prescriptions for homeopathy in England, fulfilled in community pharmacies, dropped by a further 13% in 2015 from the previous year and is 95% down from its peak nearly 20 years ago.
The new figures for 2015 show that there were just 8,894 prescriptions, down from 10,238 in 2014. The total cost of these prescriptions has dropped to £94,313, the first time it has been below £100,000.
This follows on from other recent blows to NHS homeopathy: the closure of the homeopathy clinic at the South Bristol Community Hospital in Bristol, the reviews by both Liverpool CCG and Wirral CCG on ending the funding of homeopathy via the Liverpool Medical Homeopathy Service and other successfully completed reviews.
And the forthcoming Department of Health review of the blacklisting of homeopathy could mean CCGs are no longer able to prescribe it — not that many do now anyway.
Dilution by dilution, succussion by succussion, sugar pill by sugar pill, homeopathy is slowly but surely being removed from the NHS.
This will not be welcomed by homeopaths who businesses rely on the (undeserved and unearned) legitimacy that being provided on the NHS lends to homeopathy, but it's the inevitable result of the their own failure to provide robust evidence of its efficacy.
…the interior ministry said it had come to the conclusion that it was “impossible to provide such proof for these disciplines in their entirety”.
So, it's not that the Swiss authorities had come across good evidence that homeopathy (and the other treatments covered) were, indeed, effective; more that they gave in and decided to reimburse them anyway, despite the lack of evidence.
Based on the assessment of the evidence of effectiveness of homeopathy, NHMRC concludes that there are no health conditions for which there is reliable evidence that homeopathy is effective. Homeopathy should not be used to treat health conditions that are chronic, serious, or could become serious. People who choose homeopathy may put their health at risk if they reject or delay treatments for which there is good evidence for safety and effectiveness. People who are considering whether to use homeopathy should first get advice from a registered health practitioner. Those who use homeopathy should tell their health practitioner and should keep taking any prescribed treatments.
It is therefore perverse that the Swiss Government should appear to bend over backwards to ignore the evidence and agree to pay homeopaths for dispensing their magic sugar pellets.
But it may not be as smooth a ride as the homeopaths might like. Reimbursement will only take place for treatments administered by certified medical doctors. Additionally, according to the official announcement in Komplementärmedizin soll anderen Fachrichtungen gleichgestellt werden, some criteria apply concerning tradition of usage and research, scientific evidence and medical experience and further education. Also, some treatments that are seen as critical are to be examined and potentially excluded from the reimbursement. It's not at all clear exactly what this will mean for the homeopaths, but this may not be the full endorsement from the Swiss Government they would like to believe.
This Sunday is the anniversary of the birth of the inventor of homeopathy, Samuel Hahnemann, heralding the start of World Homeopathy Awareness Week.
So as homeopathy on the NHS is in what must surely be its death throes, what better time to help others be aware of homeopathy?
Follow us on Twitter and re-Tweet our Tweets on homeopathy throughout World Homeopathy Awareness Week.
Homeopathy has suffered many body blows recently. A new decision by the medicines regulator rubs salt into its wounds.
The last year or so has not been good for homeopathy. The comprehensive Australian National Health and Medical Research Council concluded that "there are no health conditions for which there is reliable evidence that homeopathy is effective." The FDA and the FTC in the US are considering their positions on the regulation and advertising of homeopathic products and will hopefully clamp down on the worst excesses of misleading claims made there. In the UK, homeopathy continues its downward spiral, it's being challenged in Liverpool and the Department of Health will consult next year of the complete blacklisting of homeopathy. 2016 is going to be a very interesting year for homeopathy.
Last August, we published details of our complaints against Nelsons Homeopathic Pharmacy. We're still waiting for the General Pharmaceutical Council to complete their investigation, but the medicines regulator, the MHRA, has already published their decision. In that newsletter, we said we were waiting for a further response from the MHRA. Although we're still waiting for a formal reply from them, the essence of what we were waiting for has just been published by them in yet another complaint about homeopathic products.
Tissue Salts are not homeopathic but are homeopathically prepared micro dose minerals. Dr. Schuessler believed that it was most effective to follow the principles of homeopathy in their preparation – 1 part mineral to 9 parts lactose – mortar and pestle for 20 minutes bringing it up to a 1X and so on. They can be touched by hand and work differently in the body navigating all that you eat and ingest where they need to be. They are not as sensitive as homeopathics. They can be taken alongside food, coffee etc.
Tissue Salts are not Homeopathics but are micro dose minerals that follow the similar method used in preparation - they will not interfere with homeopathic Nat Mur - it is important to note that Minerals are not homeopathic, they are biochemic. They do not follow the rule of similarity as many consider but are prepared in the homeopathic manner in order to provide bioavailability. The system needs minerals in order to function in these minute doses. They are absorbed through the mucosa that enables them direct entry to the blood stream and the availability to the cells.
THE following report is issued under section 210 of the Health Act, 1911-1944:—It is claimed that the above "remedy" [Dr. Schuessler's Cell Salts, Kali Phos. 3X] is "indicated in loss of mental power, brain fag, paralysis of any part, nervous headaches, neuralgic pains, general disability and exhaustion and sleeplessness from nervous disorders." The "remedy" has been analysed and been found to contain potassium dihydrogen phosphate and lactose. The actual quantity of potassium dihydrogen phosphate in the "adult dose" is so minute that over 9,000 tablets would be necessary to give the minimum medicinal dose of this drug. Lactose is a sugar which is of no value in the treatment of any of the above-mentioned maladies. Dr. Schuessler's Cell Salts can therefore have no curative value. They will bring about no improvement in any of the illnesses for which they are said to be indicated. Any expenditure on the purchase of these salts will be money wasted.
One of the main brands of these products is an Australian company, Martin & Pleasance, but there are others, including the New Era range (once owned by the pharmaceutical giant, Merck through their Seven Seas brand, but now owned by the Italian company, Olimed Ltd, sold in the UK by Power Health Products Limited).
It was the Martin & Pleasance products we found being advertised on Nelson's website. Because they do not have a licence under the National Rules Scheme, an authorisation under the Homeopathic Rules Scheme nor even a (defunct) Product Licence of Right, we questioned whether these could be unlicensed medicines. The significance is that if the MHRA ruled they were unlicensed medicines, it would be a breach of the Human Medicines Regulations 2012 (HMR 2012) to advertise, supply or sell them.
All other cases will be reviewed on a case-by-case basis.
So, it's perfectly OK to advertise these products as long as it is not claimed that they are in any way homeopathic, they do not have a homeopathic 'potency' and they have no therapeutic indications. If they comply with all of these restrictions, they will not be medicines, but will simply be food supplements and have to comply with food regulations. This is essentially the same as when Bach Flower products were declared to be foods, not medicines nearly a year ago.
The standard labelling of these products (such as the one in the photograph) stated they were '6X' 'potency' and the mere mention of this is sufficient to bring it within the MHRA's definition of a homeopathic medicine. This is a direct consequence of the EU Directives and the HMR 2012: homeopathic 'medicines' are regulated and anything that is presented as being homeopathic is a medicine and has to comply with these rules.
If they are not presented in any way as homeopathic, then they are just foods, not medicines.
There may be others and if you spot any on sale in the UK that appear to be contravening the MHRA's new guidance, please let us know and consider submitting a complaint to the MHRA about them.
There is now no mention that these products are homeopathic.
But what about the websites of the three sellers mentioned in the MHRA's decision?
This is advertising New Era Calc Sulph (No.3) Tissue Salts and Brittle Nails & Falling Hair (Comb - K), but both are currently not available and another page says they have been discontinued. It looks like they also used to sell the Dr Reckeweg brand of tissue salts but they have been removed.
Whatever Schuessler/cell/tissue salt products they sold, they are no longer advertised on their website.
Thirteen of the sixteen Schuessler products they advertise are currently out of stock.
Schuessler Combination H Tissue Salt is a complete natural formula for hayfever and allied conditions with mag phos nat mur and silica. Hayfever is an allergic condition of the mucous membranes of the nose eyes and upper respiratory tract and is common during spring when sensitivity to pollen is severe but it is very treatable by combination H particularly if treatment is started from six weeks before the expected onset of normal symptoms.
Many of the others have similar information.
These would appear to be therapeutic indications and some refer to the potency as 6X, possibly contravening the MHRA's guidance so we'll be bringing these to their attention and hope that they will be corrected before the products return to stock.
This is another step forward for informed consumer choice, but another blow for homeopathy. Gradually, sellers of homeopathy and homeopathy products are being held to account. Homeopathy is taking a beating, perhaps fatally wounded.
It's a pity the Advertising Standards Authority wasn't around then. | 2019-04-26T16:35:37Z | https://www.nightingale-collaboration.org/news.html?start=6 |
This article is about the film studio. For the cinema chain, see Regal Entertainment Group. For the former record label, see United Artists Records.
United Artists Corporation (UA), currently doing business as United Artists Digital Studios, is an American film and television entertainment studio. Founded in 1919 by D. W. Griffith, Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford, and Douglas Fairbanks, the studio was premised on allowing actors to control their own interests, rather than being dependent upon commercial studios. UA was repeatedly bought, sold, and restructured over the ensuing century. The current United Artists company exists as a successor to the original; as a distributor of films across MGM and third-party titles and as a provider of digital content, in addition to handling most of its post-1952 in-house library and other content it has since acquired. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer acquired the studio in 1981 for a reported $350 million ($1.0 billion today).
On September 22, 2014, MGM acquired a controlling interest in Mark Burnett and Roma Downey's entertainment companies One Three Media and Lightworkers Media, then merged them to revive United Artists' TV production unit as United Artists Media Group (UAMG). However, on December 14 of the following year, MGM wholly acquired UAMG and folded it into MGM Television.
UA was revived yet again in 2018 as United Artists Digital Studios. Mirror, the joint distribution venture between MGM and Annapurna Pictures was renamed as United Artists Releasing in early February 2019 just in time for UA's 100th anniversary.
Pickford, Chaplin, Fairbanks, and Griffith incorporated UA as a joint venture on February 5, 1919. Each held a 25 percent stake in the preferred shares and a 20 percent stake in the common shares of the joint venture, with the remaining 20 percent of common shares held by lawyer and advisor William Gibbs McAdoo. The idea for the venture originated with Fairbanks, Chaplin, Pickford and cowboy star William S. Hart a year earlier. Already Hollywood veterans, the four stars talked of forming their own company to better control their own work.
They were spurred on by established Hollywood producers and distributors who were tightening their control over actor salaries and creative decisions, a process that evolved into the studio system. With the addition of Griffith, planning began, but Hart bowed out before anything was formalized. When he heard about their scheme, Richard A. Rowland, head of Metro Pictures, apparently said, "The inmates are taking over the asylum." The four partners, with advice from McAdoo (son-in-law and former Treasury Secretary of then-President Woodrow Wilson), formed their distribution company. Hiram Abrams was its first managing director, and the company established its headquarters at 729 Seventh Avenue in New York City.
The original terms called for each star to produce five pictures a year. By the time the company was operational in 1921, feature films were becoming more expensive and polished, and running times had settled at around ninety minutes (eight reels). The original goal was thus abandoned.
Griffith, Pickford, Chaplin (seated), and Fairbanks at the signing of the contract establishing the United Artists motion-picture studio in 1919.
By 1924, Griffith had dropped out, and the company was facing a crisis; the alternatives were to either bring in others to help support a costly distribution system or concede defeat. Veteran producer Joseph Schenck was hired as president. He had produced pictures for a decade, and brought commitments for films starring his wife, Norma Talmadge, his sister-in-law, Constance Talmadge, and his brother-in-law, Buster Keaton. Contracts were signed with independent producers, including Samuel Goldwyn, and Howard Hughes. In 1933, Schenck organized a new company with Darryl F. Zanuck, called Twentieth Century Pictures, which soon provided four pictures a year, forming half of UA's schedule.
Schenck formed a separate partnership with Pickford and Chaplin to buy and build theaters under the United Artists name. They began international operations, first in Canada, and then in Mexico. By the end of the 1930s, United Artists was represented in over 40 countries.
When he was denied an ownership share in 1935, Schenck resigned. He set up 20th Century Pictures' merger with Fox Film Corporation to form 20th Century Fox. Al Lichtman succeeded Schenck as company president. Other independent producers distributed through United Artists in the 1930s including Walt Disney Productions, Alexander Korda, Hal Roach, David O. Selznick, and Walter Wanger. As the years passed, and the dynamics of the business changed, these "producing partners" drifted away. Samuel Goldwyn Productions and Disney went to RKO and Wanger to Universal Pictures.
In the late 1930s, UA turned a profit. Goldwyn was providing most of the output for distribution. He sued United several times for disputed compensation leading him to leave. MGM's 1939 hit Gone with the Wind was supposed to be a UA release except that Selznick wanted Clark Gable, who was under contract to MGM, to play Rhett Butler. Also that year, Fairbanks died.
UA became embroiled in lawsuits with Selznick over his distribution of some films through RKO. Selznick considered UA's operation sloppy, and left to start his own distribution arm.
In the 1940s, United Artists was losing money because of poorly received pictures. Cinema attendance continued to decline as television became more popular. The company sold its Mexican releasing division to Crédito Cinematográfico Mexicano, a local company.
In 1941, Pickford, Chaplin, Disney, Orson Welles, Goldwyn, Selznick, Alexander Korda, and Wanger—many of whom were members of United Artists--formed the Society of Independent Motion Picture Producers (SIMPP). Later members included Hunt Stromberg, William Cagney, Sol Lesser, and Hal Roach.
The Society aimed to advance the interests of independent producers in an industry controlled by the studio system. SIMPP fought to end ostensibly anti-competitive practices by the seven major film studios—Loew's (MGM), Columbia Pictures, Paramount Pictures, Universal Pictures, RKO Radio Pictures, 20th Century Fox, and Warner Bros./First National—that controlled the production, distribution, and exhibition of motion pictures.
By 1958, SIMPP achieved many of the goals that led to its creation, and the group ceased operations.
Needing a turnaround, Pickford and Chaplin hired Paul V. McNutt, a former governor of Indiana, as chairman and Frank L. McNamee as president. McNutt did not have the skill to solve UA's financial problems and the pair was replaced after only a few months.
On February 16, 1951, lawyers-turned-producers Arthur B. Krim (of Eagle-Lion Films) and Robert Benjamin approached Pickford and Chaplin with a wild idea: let them take over United Artists for ten years. If, at the end of those years, UA was profitable, they would own half the company. Fox Film Corporation president Spyros Skouras extended United Artists a $3 million loan through Krim and Benjamin's efforts.
In taking over UA, Krim and Benjamin created the first studio without an actual "studio". Primarily acting as bankers, they offered money to independent producers. UA leased space at the Pickford/Fairbanks Studio but did not own a studio lot. Thus UA did not have the overhead, the maintenance, or the expensive production staff at other studios.
With the instability in the film industry due to theater divestment, the business was considered risky. In 1955, movie attendance reached its lowest level since 1923. Chaplin sold his 25 percent share during this crisis to Krim and Benjamin for $1.1 million, followed a year later by Pickford who sold her share for $3 million.
United Artists went public in 1957 with a $17 million stock and debenture offering. The company was averaging 50 films a year. In 1958, UA acquired Ilya Lopert's Lopert Pictures Corporation, which released foreign films that attracted criticism or had censorship problems.
In 1959, after failing to sell several pilots, United Artists offered its first ever television series, The Troubleshooters, and later released its first sitcom, The Dennis O'Keefe Show.
In the 1960s, mainstream studios fell into decline and some were acquired or diversified. UA prospered while winning 11 Academy Awards, including five for best picture, adding relationships with the Mirisch brothers, Billy Wilder, Joseph E. Levine and others. In 1961, United Artists released West Side Story, which won a record ten Academy Awards (including Best Picture).
In 1960, UA purchased Ziv Television Programs. UA's television division was responsible for shows such as Gilligan's Island, The Fugitive, Outer Limits, and The Patty Duke Show. The television unit had begun to build up a profitable rental library, including Associated Artists Productions, owners of Warner Bros. pre-1950[note 1] features, shorts and cartoons and 231 Popeye cartoon shorts purchased from Paramount Pictures in 1958, becoming United Artists Associated, its distribution division.
In 1963, UA released two Stanley Kramer films, It's A Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World and A Child Is Waiting. In 1964, UA introduced U.S. film audiences to the Beatles by releasing A Hard Day's Night (1964) and Help! (1965).
At the same time, it backed two expatriate North Americans in Britain, who had acquired screen rights to Ian Fleming's James Bond novels. For $1 million, UA backed Harry Saltzman and Albert Broccoli's Dr. No in 1963 and launched the James Bond franchise. The franchise outlived UA's time as a major studio, continuing half a century later. Other successful projects backed in this period included the Pink Panther series, which began in 1964, and Spaghetti Westerns, which made a star of Clint Eastwood.
In 1964, the French subsidiary, Les Productions Artistes Associés, released its first production That Man from Rio.
The second United Artists logo, used during the company's sale to Transamerica from 1967 until 1982.
On the basis of its film and television hits, in 1967, Transamerica Corporation purchased 98 percent of UA's stock. Transamerica selected David and Arnold Picker to lead its studio. UA debuted a new logo incorporating the parent company's striped T emblem and the tagline "Entertainment from Transamerica Corporation". This wording was later shortened to "A Transamerica Company". The following year, in 1968, United Artists Associated was reincorporated as United Artists Television Distribution.
UA released another Best Picture Oscar winner in 1967, In the Heat of the Night and a nominee for Best Picture, The Graduate, an Embassy production that UA distributed overseas.
In 1970, UA lost $35 million; thus the Pickers were pushed aside for the return of Krim and Benjamin.
Other successful pictures included the 1971 screen version of Fiddler on the Roof. However, the 1972 film version of Man of La Mancha was a failure. New talent was encouraged, including Woody Allen, Robert Altman, Sylvester Stallone, Saul Zaentz, Miloš Forman, and Brian De Palma. In 1973, United Artists took over the sales and distribution of MGM's films in Anglo-America until the latter bought UA in 1981 due to the massive losses from Heaven's Gate. Cinema International Corporation assumed international distribution rights for MGM's films and carried on to United International Pictures (made from CIC and UA's International assets being owned by partner MGM) in the 1980s.
In 1975, Harry Saltzman sold UA his 50 percent stake in Danjaq, the holding-company for the Bond films. UA was to remain a silent partner, providing money, while Albert Broccoli took producer credit. Danjaq and UA remained the public co-copyright holders for the Bond series, and the 2006 Casino Royale remake shares the copyright with Columbia Pictures.
UA released One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest in 1975 a film which won the Best Picture Academy Award and earned $56 million. UA followed with the next two years' Best Picture Oscar winners, Rocky and Annie Hall.
However, Transamerica was not pleased with UA's releases such as Midnight Cowboy and Last Tango in Paris that were rated X by the Motion Picture Association of America. In these instances, Transamerica demanded the byline "A Transamerica Company" be removed on the prints and in all advertising. At one point, the parent company expressed its desire to phase out the UA name and replace it with Transamerica Films. Krim tried to convince Transamerica to spin off United Artists, but he and Transamerica's chairman could not come to an agreement. Finally in 1978, following a dispute with Transamerica chief John R. Beckett over administrative expenses, UA's top executives, including chairman Krim, president Eric Pleskow, Benjamin and other key officers walked out. Within days they announced the formation of Orion Pictures, with backing from Warner. The departures concerned several Hollywood figures enough that they took out an ad in a trade paper warning Transamerica that it had made a fatal mistake in letting them go.
Transamerica inserted Andy Albeck as UA's president. United had its most successful year with four hits in 1979: Rocky II, Manhattan, Moonraker, and The Black Stallion.
The new leadership agreed to back Heaven's Gate, a project of director Michael Cimino, which vastly overran its budget and cost $44 million. This led to the resignation of Albeck who was replaced by Norbert Auerbach. United Artists recorded a major loss for the year due almost entirely to the box-office failure of Heaven's Gate. It destroyed UA's reputation with Transamerica and the greater Hollywood community. However, it may have saved the United Artists name, as UA's final head before the sale, Steven Bach, wrote in his book Final Cut that there was talk about renaming United Artists to Transamerica Pictures.
In 1980, Transamerica decided to exit the film making business, and put United Artists on the market. Kirk Kerkorian's Tracinda Corp. purchased the company in 1981. Tracinda also owned Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.
In 1981, United Artists Classics, which had formerly been a division of the company that re-released library titles, was turned into a first-run art film distributor by Nathaniel T. Kwit, Jr. Tom Bernard was hired as the division's head of sales and Ira Deutchman as head of marketing. Later the division added Michael Barker and Donna Gigliotti. Deutchman left to form Cinecom, and Barker and Bernard formed Orion Classics and Sony Pictures Classics. The label mostly released foreign and independent films such as Ticket to Heaven and The Grey Fox, and occasional first-run reissues from the UA library, such as director's cuts of Head Over Heels and Cutter's Way. When Barker and Bernard left to form Orion, the label was briefly rechristened MGM/UA Classics before it ceased operating in the late 1980s.
The merged companies became MGM/UA Entertainment Company and in 1982 began launching new subsidiaries: the MGM/UA Home Entertainment Group, MGM/UA Classics and MGM/UA Television Group. Kerkorian also bid for the remaining, outstanding public stock, but dropped his bid, facing lawsuits and vocal opposition.
After the purchase, David Begelman's duties were transferred from MGM to MGM/UA. Under Begelman, MGM/UA produced unsuccessful films and he was fired in July 1982. Of the 11 films he put into production, by the time of his termination only Poltergeist proved to be a hit.
As part of the consolidation, in 1983, MGM closed and marketed United Artists' long time headquarters at 729 Seventh Avenue in New York City.
On August 7, 1985, Ted Turner announced that his Turner Broadcasting System would buy MGM/UA. As film licensing to television became more complicated, Turner saw the value of acquiring MGM's film library for his superstation WTBS. Under the terms of the deal, Turner would immediately sell United Artists back to Kerkorian.
In anticipation, Kerkorian installed film producer Jerry Weintraub as the chairman and chief executive of United Artists Corporation in November 1985. Former American Broadcasting Company executive Anthony Thomopoulos was recruited as UA's president Weintraub's tenure at UA was brief; he left the studio in April 1986, replaced by former Lorimar executive Lee Rich.
On March 25, 1986, Turner finalized his acquisition of MGM/UA in a cash-stock deal for $1.5 billion and renamed it MGM Entertainment Co. Kerkorian then repurchased most of United Artists' assets for roughly $480 million. As a result of this transaction, the original United Artists ceased to exist. Kerkorian, for all intents and purposes, created an entirely new company implementing the inherited assets; thus, the present day UA is not the legal successor to the original incarnation, though it shares similar assets.
Logo from 1987 to 1994.
Due to financial community concerns over his debt load, Ted Turner was forced to sell MGM's production and distribution assets to United Artists for $300 million on August 26, 1986. The MGM lot and lab facilities were sold to Lorimar-Telepictures. Turner kept the pre-May 1986 MGM film and television library, along with the Associated Artists Productions library, Gilligan's Island and its animated spin-offs, and the RKO Pictures films that United Artists had previously purchased.
United Artists was renamed MGM/UA Communications Company (MUCC) and organized into three main units: one television production and two film units. David Gerber headed up the TV unit with Anthony Thomopoulous at UA, and Alan Ladd, Jr. at MGM. Despite a resurgence at the box office in 1987 with Spaceballs, The Living Daylights, and Moonstruck, MUCC lost $88 million.
In April 1988, Kerkorian's 82 percent of MUCC was up for sale. MGM and UA were split by July. Eventually, 25 percent of MGM was offered to Burt Sugarman, and producers Jon Peters and Peter Guber, but the plan fell-through. Rich, Ladd, Thomopoulous and other executives grew tired of Kerkorian's antics and began to leave. By summer 1988, the mass exodus of executives started to affect productions, with many film cancellations. The 1989 sale of MGM/UA to the Australian company Qintex/Australian Television Network (owners of the Hal Roach library, which both MGM and UA had distributed in the 1930s) also fell-through, due to the company's bankruptcy later that year. On November 29, 1989, Turner Broadcasting System (the owners of the pre-May 1986 MGM library) attempted to buy entertainment assets from Tracinda Corporation, including MGM/UA Communications Co. (which also included United Artists, MGM/UA Home Video, and MGM/UA Television Productions), but failed. UA was essentially dormant after 1990 and released no films for several years.
Eventually, in 1990, Italian promoter Giancarlo Parretti purchased UA. He purchased a small company and renamed it Pathé Communications anticipating a successful purchase of Pathé, the original French company. But his attempt failed and instead he merged MGM/UA with his former company, resulting in MGM-Pathé Communications Co. During the transaction, Parretti overstated his own financial condition and within a year defaulted to his primary lender, Crédit Lyonnais, which foreclosed on the studio in 1992. This resulted in the sale or closure of MGM/UA's string of US theaters. On July 2, 1992, MGM-Pathé Communications was again named Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Inc. In an effort to make MGM/UA saleable, Credit Lyonnais ramped up production and convinced John Calley to run UA. Under his supervision, Calley revived the Pink Panther and James Bond franchises and highlighted UA's past by giving the widest release ever to a film with an NC-17 rating, Showgirls. Credit Lyonnais sold MGM in 1996, again to Kirk Kerkorian's Tracinda, leading to Calley's departure.
In 1999, filmmaker Francis Ford Coppola attempted to buy UA from Kerkorian who rejected the offer. Coppola signed a production deal with the studio instead.
In 1999, UA was repositioned as a specialty studio. MGM had just acquired The Samuel Goldwyn Company, which had been a leading distributor of arthouse films. After that name was retired, MGM folded UA into Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Pictures. G2 Films, the renamed Goldwyn Company and MGM's specialty London operations, was renamed United Artists International. The distributorship, branding, and copyrights for two of UA's main franchises (Pink Panther, and Rocky) were moved to MGM, although select MGM releases (notably the James Bond franchise co-held with Danjaq, LLC and the Amityville Horror remake) carry a United Artists copyright. The first arthouse film to bear the UA name was Things You Can Tell Just by Looking at Her.
United Artists hired Bingham Ray to run the company on September 1, 2001. Under his supervision, it produced and distributed many art films, including Bowling for Columbine, 2002's Nicholas Nickleby, and the winner of that year's Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, No Man's Land; and 2004's Undertow, and Hotel Rwanda, a co-production of UA and Lions Gate Entertainment, and made deals with companies like American Zoetrope and Revolution Films. Ray stepped down from the company in 2004.
In 2005, a partnership of Comcast, Sony and several merchant banks bought United Artists and its parent, MGM, for $4.8 billion. Though only a minority investor, Sony closed MGM's distribution system and folded most of its staff into its own studio. The movies UA had completed and planned for release—Capote, Art School Confidential, The Woods, and Romance and Cigarettes—were reassigned to Sony Pictures Classics.
In March 2006, MGM announced that it would return again as a domestic distribution company. Striking distribution deals with The Weinstein Company, Lakeshore Entertainment, Bauer Martinez Entertainment, and other independent studios, MGM distributed films from these companies. MGM continued funding and co-producing projects released in conjunction with Sony's Columbia TriStar Motion Picture Group on a limited basis and produced tent-poles for its own distribution company, MGM Distribution.
Sony had a minority stake in MGM, but otherwise MGM and UA operated under the direction of Stephen Cooper (CEO and minority owner of MGM).
On November 2, 2006, MGM announced that Tom Cruise and his long-time production partner Paula Wagner were resurrecting UA. This announcement came after the duo were released from a fourteen-year production relationship at Viacom-owned Paramount Pictures. Cruise, Wagner and MGM Studios created United Artists Entertainment LLC and the producer/actor and his partner owned a 30 percent stake in the studio, with the approval by MGM's consortium of owners. The deal gave them control over production and development. Wagner was named CEO, and was allotted an annual slate of four films with varying budget ranges, while Cruise served as a producer for the revamped studio and the occasional star.
UA became the first motion picture studio granted a Writers Guild of America, West (WGA) waiver in January 2008 during the Writers' Strike.
On August 14, 2008, MGM announced that Wagner would leave UA to produce films independently. Her output as head of UA was two films, both starring Cruise, Lions for Lambs and Valkyrie. Wagner's departure led to speculation that a UA overhaul was imminent.
Since then, UA has served as a co-producer with MGM for two releases: the 2009 remake of Fame and Hot Tub Time Machine—these are the last original films to date to bear the UA banner.
A 2011 financial report revealed that MGM reacquired its 100 percent stake in United Artists. MGM stated that it might continue to make new films under the UA brand.
On September 22, 2014, MGM acquired a 55 percent interest in One Three Media and Lightworkers Media, both operated by Mark Burnett and Roma Downey and partly owned by Hearst Entertainment. The two companies were consolidated into a new television company, United Artists Media Group (UAMG), a revival of the UA brand. Burnett became UAMG's CEO and Downey became president of Lightworkers Media, the UAMG family and faith division. UAMG became the distributing studio for Mark Burnett Productions programming such as Survivor. UAMG was to form an over-the-top faith-based channel.
On December 14, 2015, MGM announced that it had acquired the remaining 45 percent stake of UAMG it did not already own and folded UAMG into MGM Television. Hearst, Downey, and Burnett received stakes in MGM collectively valued at $233 million. Additionally, Burnett was promoted to CEO of MGM TV, replacing the outgoing Roma Khanna. The planned over-the-top faith service became a separate entity owned by MGM, Burnett, Downey and Hearst.
By August 2018, MGM relaunched the United Artists brand as a digital production and distribution company aimed at creating original motion pictures, television programs, short-form content and digital series as well as building upon MGM's existing IP for distribution across digital platforms. Known as United Artists Digital Studios, the company's projects include mid-form original series Stargate Origins, interactive digital series #WarGames, and scripted series The Baxters (which is also the first for LightWorkers Media) and Weekend at Bernie's. In early October 2018, MGM and Walmart agreed to a partnership for MGM Digital to create exclusive content for Walmart's Vudu and Movies On Us service to begin showing in the first quarter 2019.
MGM's and Annapurna Pictures' Mirror distribution venture was rebranded as United Artists Releasing on February 5, 2019, 100 years to the day of United Artists' founding.
A majority of UA's post-1952 library is now owned by MGM, while the pre-1952 films (with few exceptions) are now either owned by other companies (such as Turner Entertainment) or are in the public domain. However, throughout the studio's history, UA acted more as a distributor than a film studio, crediting the copyright to the production company responsible. This explains why certain UA releases, such as High Noon (1952) and The Final Countdown (1980), are still under copyright but not owned by MGM.[original research?] The MGM titles which UA distributed from 1973 to 1982 are now owned by Turner.
UA originally leased the home video rights to its films to Magnetic Video, the first home video company. Fox purchased Magnetic in 1981 and renamed it 20th Century-Fox Video that year. In 1982, 20th Century-Fox Video merged with CBS Video Enterprises (which earlier split from MGM/CBS Home Video after MGM merged with UA) giving birth to CBS/Fox Video. Although MGM owned UA around this time, UA's licensing deal with CBS/Fox was still in effect. However, the newly renamed MGM/UA Home Video started releasing some UA product, including UA films originally released in the mid-80s. Prior to MGM's purchase, UA licensed foreign video rights to Warner Bros. through Warner Home Video, in a deal that was set to expire in 1991. In 1986, the pre-1950 WB and the pre-May 1986 MGM film and television libraries were purchased by Ted Turner after his short-lived ownership of MGM/UA, and as a result CBS/Fox lost home video rights to the pre-1950 WB films to MGM/UA Home Video. When the deal with CBS/Fox (inherited from Magnetic Video) expired in 1989, the UA released films were released through MGM/UA Home Video.
Before the Magnetic Video and Warner Home Video deals in 1980, United Artists had exclusive rental contacts with a small video label called VidAmerica in the US, and another small label called Intervision Video in the UK. for the home video release of 20 titles from the UA library (e.g. The Great Escape, Some Like It Hot, and Hair, along with a few pre-1950 WB titles).
United Artists owned and operated two television stations between the years of 1968 and 1977. Legal ID's for the company would typically say "United Artists Broadcasting: an entertainment service of Transamerica Corporation," along with the Transamerica "T" logo.
by Gray Television Licensed to Lorain. The call letters stand for United Artists Broadcasting, which founded the station.
Kaiser Broadcasting owned a minor stake from 1975 to 1977 following the closure of crosstown WKBF.
In 1977, Gaylord Entertainment Company acquired WUAB.
Additionally, United Artists Broadcasting also held the permit to KUAB-TV in Houston, Texas, which would have possibly launched sometime around 1969 on channel 20. United Artists also owned one radio station, WWSH in Philadelphia, from 1970 to 1977.
UAB/Transamerica left the broadcasting business in 1977 by selling WUAB to the Gaylord Broadcasting Company and WWSH to Cox Enterprises.
United Artists Releasing (UAR), formerly Mirror (commonly, given its former use as the third party label), is a film distribution joint venture between Annapurna Pictures, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios and MGM's Orion Pictures unit with offices in West Hollywood and Annapurna's offices in New York City's Soho neighborhood. The distributor also offers alternative services to the major studios and streaming companies with 10–14 films to be released each year.
Mirror was founded as a film distribution joint venture between Annapurna and MGM in December 2017. This marks MGM's return to domestic distribution, in which they expect to have approximately six to eight releases per year starting in March 2018. Annapurna's existing distribution staff would be the initial staff of the joint venture. Films issued by MGM and Annapurna would be distributed respectively under their own names, while films released for third parties would use the Mirror releasing label. Death Wish was MGM's first release by the joint venture on March 2, 2018. Under the initial agreement, the distribution unit reported to MGM and Annapurna on their movies. By the end of January 2019, the distributor released eight titles total.
The venture was rebranded as United Artists Releasing on February 5, 2019, 100 years to the day of United Artists' founding. Reasoning behind the move is to better compete against the major studios given their tentpole films that dictate the release calendar. Orion Pictures, an MGM company, would add its distribution staff and films to the venture as part of the change. Pam Kunath, a former Screen Gems executive, was appointed chief operating officer. A board of directors consisting of executives from the partner firms would oversee the three executives running UAR; Kunath, David Kaminow and Erik Lomis, Annapurna's president of marketing and president of distribution, respectively. Missing Link would be the first release under the UAR banner.
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Applicants requiring application materials in an alternate format or assistance with the application process may contact the Bureau of Human Resources at 605.773.3148 (VOICE/TYY).
Position Description: Under the direct supervision of a Regional or District Park Manager and the guidance of an assigned Park Ranger as mentor, the seasonal Park Ranger enforces park regulations, boating laws, conservation laws, and criminal laws to ensure compliance, protect public resources and promote public safety. Maintains public relations with the general public, park visitors, landowners, concessionaires, business owners and other agencies to ensure departmental activities are implemented and understood and to provide comprehensive customer service. The incumbent will also perform a variety of administrative support functions to assist the park managers with park operations and performs other duties as assigned. This position involves boating-safety duties and monitoring aquatic recreation to promote safety on the water.
Qualifications: Applicants must be 21 years of age by the date of employment and meet all requirements for a law enforcement officer for South Dakota. All applicants must be certified as a law enforcement officer in South Dakota. The incumbent will be required to pass firearms and PPCT (defensive tactics) proficiency tests and meet department minimum qualification standards. Background investigations will be conducted on all successful applicants prior to employment and pre-employment drug testing is required. First aid, CPR, EMT, or first responder certificates are desirable. A valid driver’s license is required. Housing is provided at some locations. Uniforms and law enforcement equipment are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress. This position requires employees to work holidays, weekends, and irregular or rotating shifts. The normal summer season is mid-May through Labor Day. All applicants must attend the Park Ranger Training held in Pierre in May. Some employees may work earlier or later. Seasonal employees are paid only for hours worked; no paid time off or benefits.
Minimum salary: $17.00 per hour (S05).
Locations: Department of Game, Fish, and Parks – Numerous positions available statewide; requires one application. Indicate on the application form above the position title, your location choices.
Applications must be submitted on the Seasonal Parks Law Enforcement application form.
*Campground/Gate Attendant: Assists in the overall operation and maintenance of assigned campgrounds and day use facilities including but not limited to, cleaning comfort stations and cabins/lodge, collecting camping fees, selling park passes, cleaning fire grates, managing the reservation system and providing information to the public.
Requirements: Money handling experience is helpful. Ability to work independently, manage time well, and work in a variety of weather conditions out of doors. Uniforms are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
Minimum salary: $9.92 per hour (S02).
*Parks/Ground Maintenance: Assists with maintenance of buildings and grounds within the park including but not limited to, mowing campgrounds and day use areas, shoreline clean-up and tree removal and operating equipment such as chain saws, tractors, skid loaders, mowers, weed eaters, and trucks.
Requirements: Ability to work independently, manage time well, and work in a variety of weather conditions out of doors. Uniforms are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
*Naturalist/Program Coordinator: Develops, promotes, and presents programs on natural and cultural resources, and environmental education. Duties may include staffing the visitor centers, selling publications, developing and presenting day and evening programs, coordinating special events, and presenting living history demonstrations.
Requirements: Experience and interest in teaching, public speaking, and working with children and adults is desirable. Uniforms are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
Minimum salary: $10.62 per hour (S03).
*Crew Leader: Job site supervisor for seasonal work crews and inmates performing general maintenance and project work. Duties may include working directly with seasonal employees performing building and grounds maintenance work and operating a variety of equipment including trucks, mowers, and tractors.
Requirements: Supervisory experience is helpful. Ability to work independently, manage time well, and work in a variety of weather conditions out of doors. Uniforms are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
*Seasonal housing available (trailer house).
*Lead Maintenance/Campground Worker: Primary responsibilities include being the lead worker in the Park Manager’s absence. Constant contact with the public will be maintained throughout the performance of duties. A lead worker must maintain a professional image by actions and appearance. Other duties include collection and recording of monies from self-sell license stations, and maintenance of grounds, buildings, and facilities. Other duties as assigned.
ONLY ONE APPLICATION IS NEEDED TO BE CONSIDERED FOR THE POSITIONS LISTED BELOW. YOU MUST INCLUDE THE REQUISITION NUMBER FOR YOUR APPLICATION TO BE PROCESSED. PLEASE LIST ON THE APPLICATION THE POSITION* YOU ARE APPLYING FOR.
*Gate Attendant: Assist in customer service duties along with the maintenance of assigned campgrounds and day use facilities including but not limited to selling park entrance licenses, cleaning comfort stations, collecting camping fees, managing the reservation system, and providing information to the public.
*Campground Attendant: Assist in the overall operation and maintenance of assigned campgrounds and day use facilities including but not limited to cleaning comfort stations, collecting camping fees, cleaning fire grates, managing the reservation system and providing information to the public.
*Parks/Ground Maintenance Worker: Assists with maintenance of buildings and grounds within the park and access areas, including mowing, weed whipping, spraying, watering, and operating equipment such as mowers, tractors, skid loaders, weed sprayers and trucks.
Requirements: Ability to work independently, manage time well, and work in a variety of weather conditions out of doors. Uniforms are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required. Minimum salary: $9.92 per hour (S02).
*Campground Security: Work directly with the general public and department rangers to provide nighttime security of the park area for all visitors. Duties may include assisting department managers and rangers in the enforcement of park rules and regulations. Assist in the selling of entrance licenses and camping permits. Monitoring entrance license and camping permits for compliance.
Requirements: Interest in park management, public safety, and law enforcement is helpful. Ability to work independently, manage time well, and work in a variety of weather conditions out of doors. Uniforms are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
*Campground Attendant: Assist in the overall operation and maintenance of assigned campgrounds and day use facilities including but not limited to cleaning comfort stations, collecting camping fees, cleaning fire grates, managing the reservation system and providing information to the public. Other duties as assigned.
Requirements: Money handling experience is helpful. Ability to work independently, manage time well, and work in a variety of weather conditions. Uniforms are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
*Parks/Ground Maintenance Worker: Assists with maintenance of buildings and grounds within the park, including mowing, weed whipping, spraying, watering, and operating equipment such as mowers, tractors, skid loaders, weed sprayers and trucks. Other duties as assigned.
Requirements: Ability to work independently, manage time well, and work in a variety of weather conditions. Uniforms are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required. Minimum salary: $9.92 per hour (S02).
*Campground Supervisor: Primary responsibilities include being the working supervisor of Gate Attendants and Park Maintenance workers in the Park Manager’s absence. Constant contact with the public will be maintained throughout the performance of duties. A supervisor must maintain a professional image by actions and appearance. Other duties include supervision, training, and assistance to gate attendants and park workers, collection and recording of monies from self-sell license stations, campground security, and maintenance of grounds, buildings, and facilities. Other duties as assigned.
Requirements: Supervisory experience is helpful. Ability to work independently, manage time well, and work in a variety of weather conditions. Uniforms are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
*Program Coordinator: Develops, promotes, and presents programs on natural and cultural resources, and environmental education. Duties may include developing and presenting day and evening programs for all ages, coordinating special events, and presenting living history demonstrations. Programs are held at Palisades State Park, Big Sioux Recreation Area, Beaver Creek Nature Area, and Lake Vermillion Recreation Area. Other duties as assigned.
*Parks/Ground Maintenance Worker: Assists with maintenance of buildings and grounds within the park, including mowing, weed whipping, spraying, watering, and operating equipment such as mowers, tractors, skid loaders, weed sprayers and trucks.
*Program Coordinator: Develops, promotes, and presents programs on natural and cultural resources, and environmental education. Duties may include staffing the visitor centers, selling publications, developing and presenting day and evening programs, coordinating special events, and presenting living history demonstrations.
*Park Attendant: Responsibilities include alternating between Front Desk Attendant and Campground Attendant. While working as Front Desk, the primary responsibility is to be the initial contact person for park visitors and to provide a positive image of the park and the State Park System through actions and appearance. Campground Attendants primary responsibility is assisting in the overall operation and maintenance of the campgrounds. Duties of both attendants include: collecting entrance license revenues and camping permit fees, registering campers, answering visitors questions, firewood sales, keeping of records on park attendance, custodial and maintenance of park grounds, buildings, and facilities. Also may include office duties such as answering the phone, assisting the secretary, etc. and other duties as assigned.
Requirements: Money handling and customer service experience is helpful. Ability to deal with the public and unpleasant situations, work independently, manage time well, and work in a variety of weather conditions. Skills in carpentry, plumbing, and vehicle/equipment maintenance are helpful.
Schedule: 32-40 hours a week. Mostly nights, weekends, and holidays. May thru Labor Day, weekends until October 30.
Requirements: Skills in operating, maintaining, and repairing equipment such as mowers, grass trimmers, tractors, weed sprayers, and trucks. Skills in carpentry, plumbing, small engine repair, and vehicle and equipment maintenance are preferred. Ability to perform strenuous physical labor, work independently, manage time well, and work in a variety of weather conditions.
Schedule: 32-40 hours a week. Mostly weekday hours, however weekend/evening/holiday hours may be necessary.
*Campground Supervisor: Primary responsibilities include being the working supervisor of Gate Attendants and Park Maintenance workers in the Park Manager’s absence. Constant contact with the public will be maintained throughout the performance of duties. A supervisor must maintain a professional image by actions and appearance. Other duties include supervision, training, and assistance to gate attendants and park workers, collection and recording of monies from self-sell license stations, and maintenance of grounds, buildings, and facilities. Other duties as assigned.
Requirements: Supervisory experience is helpful. Ability to work independently, manage time well, and work in a variety of weather conditions. Uniforms are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code.
*Naturalist/Program Coordinator: Develops, promotes, and presents programs on natural and cultural resources, and environmental education. Duties may include developing and presenting day and evening programs for children as well as adults (i.e. Arts and Crafts activities, movies at amphitheater, programs for scout groups, etc.), as well as coordinating special events. Along with those duties, fill needed shifts in the office or campground, and assist with various duties as needed during times of high use.
Requirements: Experience and interest in teaching, public speaking, and working with children and adults is desirable.
All seasonal employees report to work at Newton Hills. The Lake Alvin, Union Grove and Good Earth State Park shifts will have some time spent at Newton Hills before leaving and after returning.
Uniforms are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
*Campground Attendant: Assist in the overall operation and maintenance of assigned campgrounds and day use facilities including but not limited to managing the reservation system, collecting camping fees, providing information to the public, cleaning comfort stations, and, cleaning fire grates.
*Campground Supervisor: Primary responsibilities include being the working supervisor of Campground Attendants and Park Maintenance Workers in the Park Manager’s absence. Constant contact with the public will be maintained throughout the performance of duties. A supervisor must maintain a professional image by actions and appearance. Other duties include supervision, training, and assistance to campground attendants and park workers, collection and recording of monies from self-sell license stations, and maintenance of grounds, buildings, and facilities. Other duties as assigned.
*Seasonal housing is available. The charge is $4.50 a day for dorms and cabins. Campsites are available for $4.00 a day.
*Entrance Station Attendant; Meet and greet visitors coming into Custer State Park and provide information on the Park and the surrounding Black Hills. Sell entrance licenses and collect associated fees. Open, close, and keep facilities clean and orderly.
Requirements: Ability to work with park visitors and associated staff. Work independently standing for long periods of time and in a variety of weather conditions. Ability to work with money, balance books, and operate a computer POS system.
*Entrance Station Crew Leader: Oversee the day to day operations of one Entrance Station in Custer State Park. Maintain needed supplies, materials, and literature at the entrance station. Provide support to staff by answering their questions, providing direction, and acting as liaison between staff and supervisor. Meet and greet visitors coming into the Park and sell park entrance licenses.
Requirements: Ability to provide direction to co-workers and maintain a positive work environment, oversee the trading of entrance licenses with staff. Work in a variety of weather conditions, standing for long periods of time. Operate POS program.
*Campground Attendant: Assist in the overall operations and maintenance of one or more campgrounds and day use areas in Custer State Park. Clean comfort stations, day use area facilities and fire grate. Interact with park guests, providing them information on the Park and surrounding area.
Requirements: Ability to work independently. Operate the POS system, collect revenues, and interact with park visitors and staff/volunteers.
*Campground Supervisor: Lead seasonal campground team and/or volunteers. Assist with campground maintenance tasks. Assist with cleaning one or more campgrounds and day use areas. Interact with park guests, providing them information on the Park and surrounding area.
Requirements: Supervisory experience is preferred. Ability to work independently, provide work direction to co-workers and maintain a positive work environment. Operate the POS system, collect revenues, and interact with park visitors and staff/volunteers.
*Naturalist: Develop, promote, and present programs on the natural and cultural resources of Custer State Park. Duties may include staffing visitor centers, sell publications, develop and present day and evening interpretative programs, coordinate special events, living history demonstrations, and cleaning and maintaining facilities.
Requirements: Appropriate educational background. Experience in teaching, public speaking, and with adults and children in an outdoor setting to enhance the educational goals of Custer State Park.
*Naturalist Crew Leader: Develop, promote, and present programs on the natural and cultural resources of Custer State Park. Duties may include staffing visitor centers, sell publications, develop and present day and evening interpretative programs, coordinate special events, living history demonstrations, and cleaning and maintaining facilities The lead position is also responsible for additional administrative duties that may include; posting information on park bulletin boards, functioning as “on-call” during certain days of the week, coordinating guest speakers for Speaker Series under guidance of a Park Naturalist, and circulating information to various locations.
Requirements: Ability to provide direction to co-workers and maintain a positive work environment. Appropriate educational background. Experience in teaching, public speaking, and with adults and children in an outdoor setting to enhance the educational goals of Custer State Park.
*Visitor Center Conservation Technician- Assist in the overall daily operations and maintenance of the parks two visitor centers, and education center. Clean bathrooms, floors, and main areas of each facility. Assist with maintenance of the buildings and the grounds which includes but it not limited to mowing, weed whipping, watering and operation of equipment such as mowers, tractors, and trucks.
*Resource Technician: Assist with controlling and monitoring noxious weeds by chemical, biological, cultural, and mechanical means according to Integrated Weed Control Plan. Use of pickup mounted sprayer, ATV mounted sprayers, and backpack sprayers. Use of hand-held GPS units to map weed infestations and bio-control sites. Assist in collection of rangeland data, plant identification skills helpful.
Requirements: Experience or knowledge of Range Management preferred. Weed applicator certification required, may be obtained after beginning of employment.
*Resource Technician Crew Leader: Lead seasonal crews and inmates performing work to control and monitor noxious weeds. Assist in collection of rangeland data, plant identification skill required.
Requirements: Experience or knowledge of Range Management preferred. Weed applicator certification required, may be obtained after beginning of employment. Supervisory experience is helpful. Ability to work independently, manage time well, and work in a variety of weather conditions out of doors. Uniforms are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
*Ground Maintenance Team: Assist with maintenance of buildings and grounds within the Park including mowing, weed whipping, spraying, watering, and operating equipment such as mowers, tractors, skid loaders, weed sprayers, and trucks.
Requirements: Ability to work independently, manage time well, and work in a variety of weather conditions out of doors. Valid driver’s license.
*Technician for Water and Wastewater Systems: Assist with the daily operation, maintenance and record keeping for the six waste water systems throughout the park. Collect water samples for testing. Chlorinate water systems as needed to specifications.
Requirements: Ability to work independently, manage time well, and work in a variety of weather conditions out of doors. Valid driver’s license. Appropriate background in equipment operation, ability to take and maintain accurate records for all work completed.
*Mickelson Trail Crew: Perform general trail maintenance of the 111 mile Mickelson Trail. Have appropriate knowledge of equipment operation to perform tasks along the trail. Clean and maintain facilities along the trail.
Requirements: Ability to work out doors in all kinds of weather.
*CSP Trail Crew: Perform general trail maintenance of the 50 miles of trails in Custer State Park. Have appropriate knowledge of equipment operation to perform tasks along the trails. Clean and maintain facilities along the trails.
*Custer State Park Fire Tower/Radio Dispatch Operator – Maintain watch over Custer State Park in Mt. Coolidge Fire Tower while also serving as Custer State Park radio dispatch operator. Operate radio, telephone, and computer equipment and receive reports from park employees on issues, fires, medical and law enforcement emergencies and non-emergencies. Work with campgrounds to look up reservations on POS system.
*Seasonal housing may be available (camper).
*Crew Leader: Job site supervisor for seasonal work crews performing general maintenance and project work. Duties may include working directly with seasonal employees performing building and grounds maintenance work and operating a variety of equipment including trucks, mowers, and tractors. Other duties as assigned.
*Campground/Grounds Attendant: Assist in the overall operation and maintenance of assigned campgrounds and day use facilities including but not limited to cleaning comfort stations, collecting camping fees, cleaning fire grates, managing the reservation system and providing information to the public.
*Seasonal housing available (trailer house at Angostura and camper at Sheps Canyon near shop).
*Facility Maintenance Worker: Assist with cleaning of buildings and grounds within the park including modern and basic restroom facilities, picnic shelters, fish cleaning stations, camping cabins, lodge and litter.
Requirements: Utilization of modern cleaning products and tools, power washers and sprayers, and how to stock supplies.
*Parks/Ground Maintenance Crew Leader: Job site supervisor responsible for the general park grounds, building and campground upkeep. Responsibilities include but are not limited to building cleaning, mowing, spraying, and operating equipment such as mowers, tractors, skid loaders, weed sprayers and trucks. Responsible for assigning and directing personnel and equipment and for completing and inspecting projects.
Requirements: Supervisory experience is helpful. Ability to work independently, manage time well, and work in a variety of weather conditions out of doors. Uniforms are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required. Minimum salary: $10.62 per hour (S03).
*Visitor Center/Campground Attendant: Assist in the overall operation and maintenance of assigned campgrounds and day use facilities including but not limited to cleaning comfort stations, collecting camping fees, cleaning fire grates, managing the reservation system and providing information to the public.
*Visitor Center/Campground Crew Leader: Job site supervisor for the Visitor Services at Fort Sisseton Historic State Park. Duties may include but are not limited to working directly with seasonal staff and volunteers conducting tours, maintaining the visitor center and museum, cleaning, managing the reservation system, planning and coordinating special events, and running the gift shop. Will be responsible for assigning and directing personnel and volunteers for completing these tasks.
Requirements: Supervisory experience is helpful. Effective communication skills experience and or interest in history or public relations, and be enthusiastic about working with a wide range of people is desired. Uniforms are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
*Festival Parks/Ground Maintenance Worker: Varying hours and days between Mid-April thru Mid-June. Assist with the maintenance of buildings and grounds to prepare for the June Festival. Responsibilities include but are not limited to cleaning buildings, setting up stages and grounds, general maintenance and operating equipment such as tractors, skid loaders, and trucks.
Requirements: Ability to work independently, manage time well, and work in a variety of weather conditions out of doors. Valid driver’s license required.
*Festival Gate Attendant: Works at the park’s entrance welcoming guests to the parks, collecting entrance license revenues and camping permit fees, managing the reservation system and providing information to the public. Assist with daily maintenance activities that may include cleaning comfort stations, cabins, or lodges.
Requirements: Money handling experience is helpful. Ability to deal with people, to work independently, and work in a variety of weather conditions out of doors. Valid driver’s license required.
*Crew Leader/Campground Supervisor: Primary responsibilities include being the working supervisor of Gate Attendants and Park Maintenance workers in the Park Manager’s absence. Constant contact with the public will be maintained throughout the performance of duties. A supervisor must maintain a professional image by actions and appearance. Other duties include supervision, training, and assistance to gate attendants and park workers, collection and recording of monies from self-sell license stations, and maintenance of grounds, buildings, and facilities. Other duties as assigned.
*Crew Leader: Primary responsibilities include being the working supervisor of Gate Attendants and Park Maintenance workers in the Park Manager’s absence. Constant contact with the public will be maintained throughout the performance of duties. A supervisor must maintain a professional image by actions and appearance. Other duties include supervision, training, and assistance to gate attendants and park workers, collection and recording of monies from self-sell license stations, and maintenance of grounds, buildings, and facilities. Other duties as assigned.
Parks/Ground Maintenance: Assists with maintenance of buildings and grounds within the park including but not limited to, mowing, trail maintenance, tree removal, building maintenance and operating equipment such as mowers, weed eaters, chain saws, gators, and trucks.
*Seasonal housing available at West Bend (trailer house).
*General Maintenance Worker: Work outdoors at area parks, maintenance duties include: maintenance buildings, trails, grounds that will include mowing, cultivating, weeding, refuse collection, cleaning, janitorial duties, fencing, painting, cutting trees, and firewood splitting.
Requirements: Ability to work in a variety of weather conditions. Day shifts and some weekend work and holidays. Uniform shirts are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
*Gate Attendant: Work primarily at park entrance office greeting customers, selling entrance licenses, camping permits, answering questions, and entry into computer sales system. This position will also be utilized for some general maintenance duties.
Requirements: Position requires the ability to enthusiastically greet people and deal with problems in a positive way. Alternating day and night hours, as well as weekend and holidays. Money handling experience is helpful. Uniform shirts are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
*Campground Supervisor: Work outdoors within area parks. Fee collection, campgrounds, and park maintenance are the primary areas of work. Employees will need to complete work in all areas of the park. Duties include but not limited to selling entrance licenses, camping permits, meeting and greeting the public, janitorial work, pickup garbage, clean fire grate ashes, and assisting in the education of the public relating to park rules and behavior.
Requirements: Ability to work on your own late into the evening. Ability to interact with campers and other visitors during evening shift informing them of park rules and hours of operation. Evening hours primarily and weekends. Money handling experience would be helpful. Uniform shirts and provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
Sprayer is responsible for controlling and monitoring noxious weeds throughout the district using an ATV with a sprayer unit in the back for application purposes. Applicant should be comfortable working outside, alone, early hours, and with noxious weed control chemicals while driving over varying terrain. Plant identification skills helpful but not required. Other job duties would include mowing, refuse collection, janitorial duties, and other general buildings and grounds maintenance responsibilities as part of the general maintenance team.
Requirements: Valid Driver’s License and Weed applicators certification. License can be obtained after beginning of employment.
Minimum salary: $10.62 per hour (SO3).
*General Maintenance Worker: Work outdoors at area parks. Maintenance duties include: maintenance of buildings, trails, & grounds: to include mowing, weeding, refuse collection, cleaning, janitorial duties, fencing, painting, tree trimming, and preparing firewood.
Requirements: Ability to work in a variety of weather conditions. Day shifts and some weekend work and holidays. Uniforms shirts are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
*Campground Supervisor: Work either at park entrance (Gate) office greeting customers, selling entrance licenses & camping reservations, answering questions, with product entry into computer sales system. Other CG Supervisors, work outdoors within area parks. Fee collection in campgrounds and some general park maintenance are the primary areas of work. Employees will need to complete work in all areas of the park. Duties include but not limited to selling entrance licenses, camping reservations, meeting and greeting the public, janitorial work, pickup garbage, clean fire grate ashes, and assisting in the education of the public relating to park rules and behavior.
Requirements: Position requires the ability to enthusiastically greet people and deal with problems in a positive way. Positions can work both, day and evening shifts, as well as weekend and holidays. Money handling experience is helpful. Uniform shirts are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
*Crew Leader: Job site team-leader for seasonal work crews performing general maintenance work. Duties include building and grounds maintenance, janitorial duties, planting, weeding, mowing, fencing, and operating a variety of equipment including trucks, mowers, and tractors.
Requirements: Team-leader for personnel and equipment as to accomplish assigned tasks. Completion and inspection of various district projects required. Day shifts and some weekend work and holidays. Uniform shirts are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
*Program Coordinator: Specific duties include: organizing and facilitating scheduled park programs and events; ability to attend a state-wide coordinator training that is conducted early summer after Memorial Day; ability to work under limited supervision developing and conducting new or established programs within your district’s park settings; ability to maintain a flexible schedule to meet the needs of scheduled events; a task oriented, well organized individual capable of networking with local businesses to conduct a variety of programs throughout the park.
Requirements: Interest in recreational programming, or education or a combination of education and experience. Work outdoors in a variety of weather. Uniforms are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
*Campground Attendant: Work primarily at park entrance office greeting customers, selling entrance licenses, camping reservations, answering questions, and entry into computer sales system. This position will also be utilized for general maintenance and custodial duties.
Requirements: Position requires the ability to enthusiastically greet people and deal with problems in a positive way. Alternating day and night hours, as well as weekend and holidays. Customer Service and money handling experience is helpful. Uniform shirts are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
*General Maintenance Worker: Work outdoors at area parks. Maintenance duties include: maintenance of buildings, trails and grounds. Tasks will include mowing, planting, weeding, cleaning, janitorial duties, fencing, painting, cutting trees, and firewood splitting.
Custodial Maintenance Worker: Assist with cleaning of buildings and grounds of our area parks, including modern and basic restroom facilities, picnic shelters, fish cleaning stations and camping cabins.
Requirements: Knowledge and utilization of modern cleaning products and tools, power washers and sprayers, and how to stock supplies. Alternating between weekday and weekend shifts while working with a crew. Valid driver’s license required.
*Crew Leader: Job site supervisor for seasonal work crews performing general maintenance work. Duties include building and grounds maintenance, janitorial duties, planting, weeding, mowing, fencing, and operating a variety of equipment including trucks, mowers, and tractors.
Requirements: Responsible for directing personnel, quality control and equipment to accomplish assigned tasks to parks standards. Day shifts and some weekend work and holidays. Uniform shirts are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
*Naturalist/Program Coordinator: Specific duties include: organizing and facilitating scheduled park programs and events; ability to attend a state-wide coordinator training that is conducted early summer after Memorial Day; ability to work under limited supervision developing and conducting new or established programs within your district’s park settings; Mostly Weekend and Holidays shifts to meet the needs of scheduled events; a task oriented, well organized individual capable of networking with local businesses to conduct a variety of programs throughout the park.
Requirements: Interest in recreational programming, or education or a combination of education and experience. Work outdoors in a variety of weather. Uniform shirts are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
Schedule: 32-40 hours a week. Mostly weekday hours, however weekend, evening, and holiday hours may be necessary.
Requirements: Responsible for directing personnel and equipment to accomplish assigned tasks. Completion and inspection of various district projects required. Day shifts and some weekend work and holidays. Uniform shirts are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
*Trail Attendant: This position is primarily out on the trail checking on users, help people that need assistance for any reason, and perform minor maintenance functions. Maintenance is conducted on foot equipped with small tools to be able to fix things such as broken boards, washouts, signs, etc.
Requirements: Ability to work independently, manage time well, and work in a variety of weather conditions out of doors, have good customer service skills and willing to work the Education Center. Uniforms are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
*Campground Attendant: Assist in the overall operation and maintenance of assigned campgrounds and day use facilities including but not limited to collecting camping fees, managing the reservation system, providing information to the public, cleaning comfort stations, cleaning fire grates, mowing, and weed whipping.
*Crew Leader: Job site supervisor for seasonal work crews performing Campground Attendant and general maintenance work. Duties may include, but not limited to managing the reservation system, collecting camping fees, providing information to the public, cleaning comfort stations, cleaning fire grates, and working directly with seasonal employees performing building and grounds maintenance work including operating a variety of equipment including trucks, mowers, and tractors.
*Seasonal housing available at Pelican Lake (camper).
*Campground Supervisor: Primary responsibilities include being the working supervisor of Campground Attendants in the Park Manager’s absence. Constant contact with the public will be maintained throughout the performance of duties. Duties may include, but not limited to managing the reservation system, collecting camping fees, providing information to the public, cleaning comfort stations, cleaning fire grates, and working directly with seasonal employees performing building and grounds maintenance work including operating a variety of equipment including trucks, mowers, and tractors.
Requirements: Ability to work independently, manage time well, and work in a variety of weather conditions out of doors. Uniforms are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required. Must be at least 18 years of age.
*Program Coordinator: Develops, promotes, and presents programs on natural and cultural resources and environmental education. Duties may include staffing the visitor centers, selling publications, developing and presenting day and evening programs, coordinating special events, and presenting living history demonstrations.
*Public Water Access (PWA) Ground Maintenance Worker: Assists with maintenance of public water access areas throughout northeastern South Dakota, including mowing, weed whipping, spraying, tree trimming and operating equipment such as mowers, tractors, skid loaders, weed sprayers, road groomers, trucks and pulling trailers w/heavy loads. Overnight travel throughout the region is required occasionally up to three nights a week.
*Front Desk Attendant: Assist in customer service duties along with the maintenance of assigned campgrounds and day use facilities including but not limited to selling park entrance licenses, cleaning restrooms, collecting camping fees, managing the reservation system, and providing information to the public.
*Custodial Maintenance Worker: Assist with cleaning of buildings and grounds within the park including modern and basic restroom facilities, picnic shelters, fish cleaning stations and camping cabins.
*Custodial Maintenance Crew Leader: Job site supervisor for seasonal custodial work crews and inmates performing facility and grounds cleaning. Duties may include working directly with seasonal employees performing building and grounds cleaning. Perform minor facility repairs.
*Maintenance Crew Leader: Job site supervisor for seasonal work crews and inmates performing general maintenance and project work. Duties may include working directly with seasonal employees performing building and grounds maintenance work and operating a variety of equipment including trucks, mowers, and tractors.
*Campground Ranger: Work directly with the general public and department Rangers to provide nighttime security of the park area for all visitors. Duties may include assisting department managers and rangers in the enforcement of park rules and regulations. Assist in the selling of entrance licenses and camping permits. Monitoring entrance license and camping permits for compliance. Assist with the cleaning of buildings and grounds.
Requirements: Interest in park management, public safety and law enforcement is helpful. Ability to work independently, manage time well, and work in a variety of weather conditions out of doors. Uniforms are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license required.
*Naturalist/Program Coordinator: Specific duties include: organizing and facilitating scheduled park programs and events; ability to attend a state-wide coordinator training that is conducted early summer after Memorial Day; ability to work under limited supervision developing and conducting new or established programs within your district’s park settings; ability to maintain a flexible schedule to meet the needs of scheduled events; a task oriented, well organized individual capable of networking with local businesses to conduct a variety of programs throughout the park.
Position purpose: Assist fisheries managers and biologists with management and research activities on Missouri River reservoirs.
Primary duties: Assist in fish spawning and stocking operations, fish population sampling using gill nets, trap nets, seines and electrofishing, and angler use and harvest surveys. Assist with data entry and equipment maintenance.
Essential requirements: Valid driver’s license, the ability to perform strenuous physical labor, and the ability to work nights and weekends. Ability to communicate effectively with the public.
Beneficial abilities: Operation and maintenance of boats, motors, and trailers, basic vehicle and equipment maintenance, knowledge of fisheries management principles and techniques, fish identification and basic computer operation.
Habitat Technician: Provides technical assistance to habitat managers in tree planting, cultivation, fence construction, weed control, prescribed burning, and habitat plantings. May serve as lead worker on projects. This position may assist Fisheries Managers with capture surveys and Wildlife Damage Managers with various projects.
Requirements: Knowledge of and experience in land management techniques and equipment, fencing equipment, and spraying equipment. Must be able to perform strenuous physical labor. Ability to work out of doors in a variety of weather. Uniforms are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Valid driver’s license.
Provide technical assistance to habitat managers in tree planting, cultivation, fence construction, weed control, prescribed burning, and habitat plantings. May serve as crew leader or lead worker on projects.
Requirements: Knowledge of and experience in land management techniques and equipment, fencing equipment, and spraying equipment. Technician must be able to perform strenuous physical labor. Technician must be able to work out of doors in a variety of weather. Uniforms are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Technician must have a valid driver’s license. Ability to obtain a SD Commercial Applicators License.
Position to start approximately April 8th and end around October 15th.
Position purpose: Assist fisheries managers and biologists conducting a variety of fisheries management and research activities on waters in Management Region II and on Missouri River reservoirs. Technician will work with fisheries staff during normal scheduled activities conducting fish population surveys, fish spawning, trap and transfer of fish, fish stocking, sampling fish utilizing netting and electrofishing equipment, analyzing age and growth, data entry, and equipment maintenance. In addition, technician will be assigned to occasionally assist with game management surveys and wildlife habitat work.
Requirements: Technician must be able to complete strenuous activities in an outdoor environment in al weather conditions and be able to work in and operate boats and outboard motors. Technician will be overtime eligible, but the normal work schedule will be 40 hours per week. Technician must be available to complete night and weekend work when requested and to accompany fisheries crew on overnight trips. Technician will receive pay for hours worked and be eligible for travel reimbursement when working away from home workstation, but not eligible for other compensation or benefits.
Requirements: Knowledge of and experience in land management techniques and equipment, fencing equipment, and spraying equipment. Technician must be able to perform strenuous physical labor. Technician must be able to work out of doors in a variety of weather. Uniforms are provided and employees must comply with uniform dress code. Technician must have a valid driver’s license and ability to obtain a SD commercial applicator license.
Position to start: Approximately April 9th and end around October 15th.
Habitat Technician: Provides technical assistance to habitat managers in food plot planting, tree planting and cultivation, native grass seeding, fence construction, weed control, and posting property boundaries. May serve as lead worker on projects.
Position purpose: Assist the GFP southeast area fisheries management team with fisheries management, fisheries research, aquatic habitat, aquatic access and aquatic invasive species activities on southeastern South Dakota waters.
Primary duties: Fish spawning and stocking operations, fish population sampling using gill nets, trap nets, seines and electrofishing, aquatic habitat improvement, fishing access improvement, data entry, lab work, creel surveys, Aquatic Invasive Species outreach, and equipment maintenance.
Essential requirements: Valid driver’s license, the ability to perform strenuous physical labor, and the ability to work nights and weekends. | 2019-04-24T22:04:25Z | https://bhr.sd.gov/job-seekers/seasonal/gfp/ |
Ruconest is a C1 esterase inhibitor [recombinant] indicated for the treatment of acute attacks in adult and adolescent patients with hereditary angioedema (HAE).
Limitation of Use: Effectiveness was not established in HAE patients with laryngeal attacks.
Initiate treatment with Ruconest under the supervision of a qualified healthcare professional experienced in the treatment of HAE.
Appropriately trained patients may self-administer upon recognition of an HAE attack.
The recommended dose of Ruconest is 50 U per kg with a maximum of 4200 U to be administered as a slow intravenous injection over approximately 5 minutes.
If the attack symptoms persist, an additional (second) dose can be administered at the recommended dose level. Do not exceed 4200 U per dose. No more than two doses should be administered within a 24 hour period.
Store Ruconest in the original carton and protect from light prior to reconstitution.
Do not use after expiration date on the product vial label.
Water for Injection is not included in the Ruconest package.
Use aseptic technique to reconstitute, mix the solution, and to combine the reconstituted solution from more than one vial ( see Reconstitution [ 2.3] and Administration [ 2.4]).
Do not mix or administer Ruconest with other medicinal products or solutions.
Discard all partially used vials after treatment.
Sterile Water for Injection (diluent) - At least 14 mL per vial of Ruconest requiring reconstitution.
Commercially available vial adapter and syringe luer lock or large bore needle. If using a syringe with vial adapter, use a new vial adapter for each vial of Ruconest and diluent.
The procedures below are provided as general guidelines for the reconstitution and administration of Ruconest.
Ensure that the Ruconest vial and diluent vial are at room temperature.
Remove the flip caps from the Ruconest and diluent vials. Treat the vial stoppers with the antiseptic wipe and allow to dry.
Using the syringe/needle or syringe/vial adapter, withdraw 14 mL of sterile water for injection from the diluent vial.
Remove the syringe and transfer the diluent to the Ruconest vial. Add the diluent slowly to avoid forceful impact on the powder. Swirl the vial slowly to mix and avoid foaming.
Repeat this procedure using another 14 mL of diluent and a second vial of Ruconest.
If the same patient is to receive more than one vial, the contents of multiple vials may be pooled into a single administration device (i.e., syringe).
Inspect Ruconest visually for particulate matter and discoloration after reconstitution and prior to administration. The reconstituted solution should be colorless, clear, and free from visible particles. Do not use if the solution is cloudy, colored, or contains particulates.
Ruconest vial is for single-use only.
Use the reconstituted product immediately, or within 8 hours stored at 36ºF - 46ºF (2º - 8ºC). Discard partially used vials.
Do not mix Ruconest with other medicinal products. Administer Ruconest by a separate infusion line.
Use aseptic technique when administering Ruconest.
Follow recommended venipuncture guidelines for initiating intravenous therapy.
Administer Ruconest by slow intravenous injection over approximately 5 minutes.
For self-administration, provide the patient with instructions and training for intravenous injection outside of a clinic setting so patients may self-administer Ruconest upon recognition of symptoms of an HAE attack ( see Patient Counseling Information [ 17]).
After administration, immediately discard any unused product and all used disposable supplies in accordance with local requirements.
Ruconest is available as a lyophilized powder for reconstitution for injection in a single-use 25 mL glass vial. Each vial contains 2100 U of rhC1INH.
Ruconest is contraindicated in patients with a history of allergy to rabbits or rabbit-derived products.
Ruconest is contraindicated in patients with a history of life-threatening immediate hypersensitivity reactions to C1 esterase inhibitor preparations, including anaphylaxis.
Severe hypersensitivity reactions may occur [see Patient Counseling Information (17)]. The signs and symptoms of hypersensitivity reactions may include hives, generalized urticaria, tightness of the chest, wheezing, hypotension, and/or anaphylaxis during or after injection of Ruconest. Should symptoms occur, discontinue Ruconest and institute appropriate treatment. Because hypersensitivity reactions may have symptoms similar to HAE attacks, treatment methods should be carefully considered.
The serious adverse reaction in clinical studies of Ruconest was anaphylaxis.
The most common adverse reactions (≥ 2%) reported in all clinical trials were headache, nausea, and diarrhea.
The Ruconest clinical development program evaluated a combined total of 940 administrations in 236 subjects (symptomatic and non-symptomatic). In clinical studies, a total of 205 symptomatic HAE patients received treatment with Ruconest for a combined total of 650 acute angioedema attacks. Among these HAE patients, 83 were treated for a single HAE attack and 122 were treated for multiple attacks.
Three randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials (RCTs) were conducted in which 137 patients experiencing acute HAE attacks received Ruconest (either an initial 50 U/kg or 100 U/kg body weight dose) or placebo (saline solution).
Table 2 shows all adverse reactions (ARs) in the RCTs, compared with the placebo group.
MedDRA: Medical Dictionary for Regulatory Activities, version 15.0.
** Events only occurring in placebo patients are not listed.
In a total of seven RCT and OLE studies, 205 patients experiencing acute HAE attacks were treated with Ruconest for a total of 650 HAE attacks. Included in this population were 124 patients who were treated at the 50 U/kg dosage strength for one or more attacks.
Table 3 shows adverse reactions in ≥ 2% of patients in any Ruconest group for the integrated dataset combining all seven RCT and OLE studies in patients experiencing acute HAE attacks.
As with all therapeutic proteins, there is potential for immunogenicity. Pre- and post-exposure samples from 205 HAE patients treated for 650 acute attacks with Ruconest were tested for the antibodies against plasma-derived C1INH or rhC1INH and for antibodies against host-related impurities (HRI). Testing was performed prior to and after treatment of a first attack and subsequent repeated attacks at 7, 22 or 28, and 90 days after Ruconest treatment.
Prior to the first exposure to Ruconest, the frequency of anti-C1INH antibodies varied from 1.2% to 1.6% of samples. After the first exposure, the frequency of anti-C1INH antibodies varied from 0.6% to 1.0% of samples tested. After repeated exposures, the frequency of anti-C1INH antibodies varied from 0.5 to 2.2% of samples tested. The frequency of anti-HRI antibodies was 1.0% in pre-exposure samples, and after the first exposure varied from 3.5% to 4.6%. After repeated exposure, the frequency of anti-HRI antibodies varied from 5.7% to 17% of samples. At least 10% of subjects formed a specific antibody response to Ruconest after five treated HAE attacks. No anti-C1INH neutralizing antibodies were detected. Observed anti-C1INH and anti-HRI antibodies were not associated with adverse clinical findings.
The detection of antibody formation is highly dependent on the sensitivity and specificity of the assay. Additionally, the observed incidence of antibody (including neutralizing antibody) positivity in an assay may be influenced by several factors including assay methodology, sample handling, timing of sample collection, concomitant medications, and underlying disease. For these reasons, comparison of the incidence of antibodies to Ruconest with the incidence of antibodies to other products may be misleading.
Pregnancy Category B. Studies performed in rats and rabbits at doses up to 12.5 times the human dose of 50 U/kg could not exclude an effect on embryofetal development. There are, however, no adequate and well-controlled studies in pregnant women. Because animal reproduction studies are not always predictive of human response, Ruconest should only be used during pregnancy if clearly needed.
The safety and efficacy of Ruconest administration prior to or during labor and delivery have not been established. Use only if clearly needed.
It is not known if Ruconest is excreted in human milk. Because many drugs are excreted in human milk, caution should be exercised when Ruconest is administered to a nursing woman.
The safety and efficacy of Ruconest were evaluated in 17 adolescent patients (13-17 years of age) treated for 52 HAE attacks. Eight out of 17 (47%) adolescent patients experienced adverse reactions. No serious adverse reactions were reported in these patients. The most common reactions (occurring in at least 2 patients) were: abdominal pain, headache, and oropharyngeal pain.
The clinical studies of Ruconest included seven patients older than 65 years. The clinical studies included an insufficient number of patients in this age group to determine if they respond differently from younger patients.
Ruconest is a recombinant analogue of human complement component 1 esterase inhibitor for intravenous injection. Ruconest is purified from the milk of transgenic rabbits, and supplied as a sterile, preservative-free, white/off-white lyophilized powder for reconstitution for injection. One U of rhC1INH activity is defined as the equivalent of C1 esterase inhibiting activity present in 1 mL of pooled normal plasma.
Ruconest is a soluble, single-chain glycoprotein containing 478 amino acids, with a molecular mass of 68 kDa, of which approximately 22% comprises oligosaccharide structures. The primary and secondary structures of the molecule and target protease selectivity are consistent with those of plasma-derived C1 esterase inhibitor.
Each vial of Ruconest contains 2100 U of rhC1INH, 937 mg of sucrose, 83.3 mg of sodium citrate dihydrate and 1.0 mg of citric acid monohydrate. After reconstitution with 14 mL of sterile Water for Injection, each vial of Ruconest contains 150 U of rhC1INH per 1 mL in a 20 mM sodium citrate buffer with a pH of 6.8. Ruconest does not contain preservatives and each vial is for single use only.
Ruconest is purified from the milk of transgenic rabbits. The rabbits are maintained in a closed colony that is controlled and routinely monitored for specific pathogens. The skimmed milk is screened for adventitious contaminants prior to further manufacture. The manufacturing process has been validated to demonstrate adequate capacity for removal and/or inactivation of viruses ( Table 4). Ruconest contains less than 0.002% of host-related impurities.
e Not tested because SD chemicals are present in the starting material.
C1 esterase inhibitor (C1INH) is a normal constituent of human blood and is one of the serine protease inhibitors (serpins). The primary function of C1INH is to regulate the activation of the complement and contact system pathways. Regulation of these systems is performed through the formation of complexes between the protease and the inhibitor, resulting in inactivation of both and consumption of the C1INH.
C1INH exerts its inhibitory effect by irreversibly binding several proteases (target proteases) of the contact and complement systems. The effect of Ruconest on the following target proteases was assessed in vitro: activated C1s, kallikrein, factor XIIa and factor XIa. Inhibition kinetics were found to be comparable with those observed for plasma-derived human C1INH.
Administration of Ruconest increases plasma levels of functional C1INH activity.
The complement component (protein) C4 is a substrate for activated C1. Patients with HAE have low levels of C4 in the circulation; Ruconest shows a dose-dependent restoration of complement homeostasis of C4 in HAE patients. A dose of 50 U/kg of Ruconest increases plasma C1INH activity levels to greater than 0.7 U/mL (the lower limit of normal) in HAE patients.
The pharmacokinetics of Ruconest was evaluated in a study of 12 asymptomatic HAE patients (dose ranged from 6.25 U/kg to 100 U/kg). Pharmacokinetics evaluation was performed by non-compartmental analysis, using functional C1INH levels. Following administration of Ruconest (50 U/kg) in asymptomatic HAE patients ( Table 5), the mean Cmax was 1.2 U/mL, and the elimination half-life was approximately 2.5 hours. The clearance of Ruconest was nonlinear (clearance decreased with increasing dose) over the dose range of 25-100 U/kg.
Studies have not been conducted to evaluate the PK of Ruconest in special patient populations, identified by race, age (pediatric or geriatric), or the presence of renal or hepatic impairment.
No animal studies have been conducted to evaluate the effects of Ruconest on carcinogenesis and mutagenesis. Fertility was not evaluated in animal studies.
Single- and repeat-dose studies of up to 14 days in rats, dogs, and cynomolgus monkeys with daily doses of Ruconest up to 80 times the human dose (50 U/kg) were conducted. In a 14-day monkey toxicology study of intravenous doses up to 2000 U/kg twice daily, increases in AST and ALP were observed at doses of 500 U/kg and higher. No histopathological correlates were observed in the liver and the increases in liver enzymes were reversible. Histologic findings included changes in the size of thymic cortex and medulla, and microvacuoles in the epithelial cells lining the renal tubules. The renal tubular vacuolation was dose dependent, but was not accompanied by other histological changes in the kidney. This finding was only partially reversible at the highest dose level of 2000 U/kg twice daily. It was concluded that the NOAEL of Ruconest was 1000 U/kg twice daily in this species. There were no adverse findings in a safety pharmacology study in dogs and a local tolerance study in rabbits. It is concluded that preclinical toxicology data for daily doses up to 40 times the proposed human dose of Ruconest (50 U/kg) do not indicate a safety concern for the use of Ruconest in humans.
Embryo-fetal studies have been conducted in rabbits and rats at a dose of Ruconest 12.5 times the human dose of 50 U/kg. In rats, no malformed fetuses were observed. In rabbits, an increase in the incidence of fetal cardiac vessel defects was observed (1.12% [2 cases] in the treatment group compared to 0.03% in historical controls). These defects are considered to be a chance finding, but a Ruconest-related effect cannot be excluded.
The safety and efficacy of Ruconest for treatment of acute angioedema attacks in patients with HAE was established in Study 1, a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial (RCT) which included an open-label extension (OLE) phase; and supported by the results of 2 additional RCTs and 2 additional OLE studies.
The safety and efficacy of Ruconest in the treatment of acute attacks in patients with hereditary angioedema were demonstrated in a placebo-controlled, double-blind, randomized study (Study 1). Supportive evidence of effectiveness is provided by two double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled studies (Studies 2 and 3). Evidence for the efficacy of repeat treatment of HAE attacks is provided from the open-label extensions (OLE) of each of the three randomized studies.
Study 1 was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial that included an open-label extension (OLE) phase to assess the efficacy and safety of Ruconest 50 U/kg in the treatment of acute attacks in patients with HAE. Seventy-five (75) adults and adolescent patients were randomized (3:2) to receive Ruconest 50 U/kg (N = 44) or placebo (N = 31). Patients ranged in age from 17 to 69 years of age; 63% were female and 37% were male; 96% were Caucasian.
The primary efficacy endpoint was the time to beginning of relief of symptoms, assessed using patient-reported responses to two questions from a Treatment Effect Questionnaire (TEQ). The TEQ required patients to assess the severity of their attack symptoms at each affected anatomic location, using a seven-point scale (“much worse” to “much better” [TEQ Question 1]), and whether their symptoms had begun to decrease notably since receiving the study medication (“yes” or “no” [TEQ Question 2]). To achieve the primary endpoint, a patient had to have a positive response to both questions along with persistence of improvement at the next assessment time (i.e., the same or better response).
Rescue treatment with Ruconest was available for patients who did not experience the beginning of relief at 4 hours after study drug administration, or earlier to patients who experienced life-threatening oropharyngeal-laryngeal angioedema symptoms. If a patient received a medication which could have impacted the efficacy evaluation or open-label Ruconest as rescue medication, prior to achieving beginning of relief of symptoms, the time to beginning of relief of symptoms was censored at the last assessed time prior to medication use.
In the RCT phase, the median time to beginning of relief of symptoms was statistically significantly shorter in patients treated with Ruconest 50 U/kg compared with patients treated with placebo as assessed by the TEQ; ( Table 6, Figure 1).
Values that are not estimable are displayed as ‘- ’.
Among several planned subgroup analyses, descriptive statistics showed that in US patients a median time to beginning of relief of symptoms with persistence at the primary attack location (based on TEQ) was 98 minutes [95% CI:(45, 240); n=22] for those receiving Ruconest and 90 minutes [95% CI: (50, -); n=16] for those receiving placebo. The hazard ratio for time to the beginning of relief of symptoms in this subpopulation was 1.20 [95% CI: 0.48 to 3.01] for patient receiving Ruconest as compared with patient receiving placebo. Non-US patients receiving Ruconest had a median time to beginning of relief of 90 minutes [95% CI: (63, 120); n=22] and non-US patients receiving placebo had a median time to beginning of relief of 334 minutes [95% CI: (150, -); n=15]. The hazard ratio for the non-US subgroup was 4.82 [95% CI: 1.58 to 14.72] for patients receiving Ruconest compared to placebo.
Examination of gender subgroups suggested a larger treatment effect in men than women. For women receiving Ruconest, the median time to beginning of relief was 113 minutes [95% CI: (63, 151); n=28], and for women receiving placebo, the median time to beginning of relief was 105 minutes [95% CI: (60, 334); n=19]. The hazard ratio for women receiving Ruconest versus placebo was 1.22 [95% CI: 0.60 to 2.48]. For men receiving Ruconest, the median time to beginning of relief was 75 minutes [95% CI: (45, 210); n=16], and for men receiving placebo, the median time to beginning of relief was 480 minutes [95% CI: (150, -) n=12]. The hazard ratio for men receiving Ruconest versus placebo was 3.94 [95% CI: 1.23 to 12.68].
No plausible biological explanations for the regional or gender subgroup effects were found. One possible explanation is a larger-than-expected placebo response among US women. None of the subgroup confidence intervals were adjusted for multiplicity.
Because almost all of the patients were Caucasian and were between 18 and 65 years of age, race and age subgroup analyses were not considered meaningful.
Among patients who achieved relief within 4 hours, there were 4 (27%) patients in the placebo group who had a relapse of their symptoms within 24 hours as compared with 1 (3%) in the Ruconest group. The proportion of patients who received Ruconest as rescue medication was greater in patients randomized to placebo (13 of 31 patients; 42%) than in patients randomized to Ruconest (5 of 44 patients; 11%).
The efficacy of Ruconest 50 U/kg for different anatomical locations of HAE attacks is summarized in Table 7.
In the OLE phase of Study 1, patients were treated with open-label Ruconest 50 U/kg for repeated attacks of HAE. Forty-four patients who completed the RCT phase were enrolled into the OLE phase where they were treated for a total of 170 attacks. In this phase, the median time to beginning of relief of symptoms was 75 minutes (95% CI: 64, 90), consistent with the results of the RCT phase of the study ( Table 6). Results were also comparable across attacks, suggesting that the efficacy of Ruconest 50 U/kg was maintained over repeated attacks of HAE. In the OLE phase of Study 1, 5/170 (3%) attacks received a second dose of Ruconest 50 U/kg.
In Study 2 (North American RCT), patients were randomized to receive a single administration of either Ruconest 50 U/kg (N=12), Ruconest 100 U/kg (N=13) or placebo (N=13). Patients ranged in age from 17 to 66 years of age; 74% were female and 26% were male; and 92% were Caucasian.
In Study 3 (European RCT), patients were randomized to receive a single administration of either Ruconest 100 U/kg (N=16) or placebo (N=16). Patients ranged in age from 17 to 71 years of age: 53% were female and 47% were male; and 100% were Caucasian.
Patients scored their symptoms using a visual analog scale (VAS) ranging from 0-100 mm. A VAS decrease of > 20 mm compared with baseline with persistence of the improvement at two consecutive time points was considered the onset of relief in Studies 2 and 3.
In both Study 2 and 3, the efficacy of Ruconest in the treatment of acute angioedema attacks was demonstrated by significantly shorter times to beginning of relief of symptoms based on the VAS (Figure 2).
In open-label extension studies of Study 2 and 3, 119 patients were treated with Ruconest for a total of 362 acute angioedema attacks. As observed in Study 1, the efficacy of Ruconest was maintained for repeat attacks.
Sulikowski T, Patston PA. The inhibition of TNK-t-PA by C1-inhibitor. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 2001 Jan;12(1):75-7.
Chandler WL, Alessi MC, Aillaud MF, Henderson P, Vague P, Juhan-Vague I. Clearance of tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) and TPA/plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 (PAI-1) complex: relationship to elevated TPA antigen in patients with high PAI-1 activity levels. Circulation. 1997 Aug 5;96(3):761-8.
Huisman LG, van Griensven JM, Kluft C. On the role of C1-inhibitor as inhibitor of tissue-type plasminogen activator in human plasma. Thromb Haemost. 1995 Mar;73(3):466-71.
Gurewich V, Pannell R. Recombinant human C1-inhibitor prevents non-specific proteolysis by mutant pro-urokinase during optimal fibrinolysis. Thromb Haemost. 2009 Aug;102(2):279-86.
Caliezi C, Wuillemin WA, Zeerleder S, Redondo M, Eisele B, Hack CE. C1-esterase inhibitor: an anti-inflammatory agent and its potential use in the treatment of diseases other than hereditary angioedema. Pharmacol Rev. 2000 Mar;52(1):91-112.
German Medical Profession’s Drugs Committee [Arzneimittelkommission der deutschen Arzteschaft]. Severe thrombus formation of Berinert ® HS [Schwerwiegende Thrombenbildung nach Berinert ® HS]. Deutsches Ärzteblatt. 2000 April 2000; 97(Heft 15): A-1016.
Horstick, G, Berg O, Heimann A, Gotze O, Loos M, Hafner G, et al. Application of C1-esterase inhibitor during reperfusion of ischemic myocardium: dose-related beneficial versus detrimental effects. Circulation. 2001 Dec 18;104(25):3125-31.
Ruconest is supplied in single-use 25 mL glass vials with a stopper (siliconized chlorobutyl rubber) and a flip-off seal (aluminum and colored plastic).
Each carton contains one single-use vial.
Each vial contains 2100 U rhC1INH lyophilized powder for reconstitution for injection.
Shelf life: 48 months when stored at 36ºF - 77ºF (2ºC - 25ºC).
Each vial of Ruconest should be reconstituted with 14 mL Water for Injection (not supplied). The reconstituted solution contains 150 U/mL rhC1INH and is clear and colorless.
Each vial of Ruconest is for single use only. Ruconest contains no preservative. Any product that has been reconstituted should be used immediately, or within 8 hours stored at 36ºF - 46ºF (2ºC - 8ºC). Discard partially used vials after treatment.
Advise the patient to read the FDA-Approved patient labeling (Product Information and Instructions for Use).
Patients being treated with Ruconest should receive the following information and instructions. This information is intended to aid the patient in the safe and effective use of Ruconest.
Advise female patients to notify their physician if they are pregnant or intend to become pregnant during the treatment of acute attacks of HAE with Ruconest.
Advise patients to notify their physician if they are breastfeeding or plan to breastfeed.
Inform patients of the risks and benefits of Ruconest before prescribing or administering it to the patient.
Signs and symptoms of allergic hypersensitivity reactions, such as hives, urticaria, tightness of the chest, wheezing, hypotension and/or anaphylaxis experienced during or after injection of Ruconest ( see WARNINGS AND PRECAUTIONS/Hypersensitivity [ 5] ).
Ruconest ® is a registered trademark of Pharming Intellectual Property B.V.
Product protected by U.S patent Nos. 7,067,713 and RE43691.
Please see www.Ruconest.com for patent information.
This leaflet summarizes important information about Ruconest. Please read it carefully each time before using Ruconest. There may be new information provided. This information does not take the place of talking with your healthcare provider, and it does not include all of the important information about Ruconest. If you have any questions after reading this, ask your healthcare provider.
Ruconest is an injectable medicine that is used to treat acute angioedema attacks in adult and adolescent patients with Hereditary Angioedema (HAE). HAE is caused by a shortage of a protein called C1 esterase inhibitor, that is present in your blood and helps control inflammation (swelling) and parts of the immune system. A shortage of C1 esterase inhibitor can lead to repeated attacks of swelling, pain in the abdomen, difficulty breathing and other symptoms. Ruconest contains C1 esterase inhibitor.
Who should not use Ruconest?
You should not use Ruconest if you have a known or suspected allergy (hypersensitivity) to rabbits or rabbit-derived products.
You should not use Ruconest if you have experienced life-threatening immediate hypersensitivity reactions, including anaphylaxis, to Ruconest or to any other C1 esterase inhibitor product.
Ruconest is not indicated for use in children under the age of 13 years.
What should I tell my healthcare provider before using Ruconest?
have an allergy to rabbits since this can put you at high risk of a serious allergic reaction with Ruconest. These allergy symptoms could include runny nose, itchy nose, sneezing, coughing, wheezing, difficulty breathing or watery eyes when you are near rabbits.
are pregnant or planning to become pregnant. It is not known if Ruconest can harm your unborn baby.
are breastfeeding or plan to breastfeed. It is not known if Ruconest passes to your milk and if it can harm your baby.
Tell your healthcare provider and pharmacist about all of the medicines you take, including all prescription and non-prescription medicines such as over-the-counter medicines, supplements, or herbal remedies.
Ruconest will be slowly injected into your vein (intravenous injection). Before injection, the Ruconest powder must be dissolved using sterile Water for Injection. The dose will be determined based on your weight.
Most of the time a single dose of Ruconest is enough to treat an attack, but a second dose may be needed.
What are the possible side effects of Ruconest?
Like all medicines, Ruconest can cause side effects, although not everybody gets them.
In clinical studies, the most severe side effect reported in a person who received Ruconest was a severe allergic reaction in a subject who was allergic to rabbits.
If any of the side effects get serious, or if you notice any side effects not listed in the leaflet, please inform your healthcare provider or pharmacist. You can also report side effects to the FDA at 1-800-FDA-1088 or www.fda.gov/medwatch or contact Pharming Healthcare Inc. at 1-800-930-5221.
You can ask your healthcare provider for information about Ruconest that is written for healthcare providers.
Do not use Ruconest for a condition for which it is not prescribed.
If you would like more information, talk to your healthcare provider. You can ask your healthcare provider or pharmacist for information about Ruconest that was written for healthcare professionals.
For more information go to www.Ruconest.com or call 1-800-930-5221.
Use aseptic (sterile) technique when preparing and administering Ruconest.
Step 1: Assemble supplies from medication box on a clean flat surface.
Sterile Water for Injection (diluent), 14mL per vial of Ruconest to be reconstituted.
Needle-free, vented or non-vented vial adapters (or large bore needle). Use a new vial adapter for each vial of Ruconest and diluent.
Discuss this section with your healthcare provider to ensure that the correct dose of Ruconest is administered.
The dose of Ruconest and volume (mL) of reconstituted solution to be administered is based on body weight show in the chart below. No more than 2 vials may be combined for a single dose.
The procedures below are provided as general guidelines for the reconstitution of Ruconest.
Step 1: Ensure that the Ruconest vials and the diluent vial are at room temperature (range of 68°F - 77°F or 20°C - 25°C).
Wipe the vial stoppers with the antiseptic wipes provided and allow to dry for 30 seconds.
Do not blow on the stoppers after wiping.
Do not touch the stopper with your hands, or allow it to touch any surface.
Step 3: Peel back the covers from the clear plastic vial adapter packages.
Leave the adapters in their packages.
Step 4: While holding the adapter in its package, place the first adapter over the diluent vial and press down until the device snaps into place.
Leave the package on the adapter until you are ready to attach the syringe.
Step 5: Now, place a 2nd adapter over a Ruconest vial and press down until it snaps into place.
Repeat if your dose requires a 2nd Ruconest vial.
Step 6: Lift the package away from the diluent adapter.
Step 7: Remove syringe from package and withdraw sterile water for injection from the diluent vial.
With vial on a flat surface, attach syringe to adapter on diluent vial by rotating syringe clockwise.
Turn diluent vial upside down and slowly withdraw either 14 mL (if using 1 Ruconest vial) or 28 mL (if using 2 Ruconest vials) of diluent into syringe by gently pulling back on the plunger.
There will still be some diluent left in the vial.
Place the diluent vial back on a flat surface and detach syringe by gently pulling the syringe and rotating counterclockwise.
Step 8: Transfer the diluent to the Ruconest vial.
Remove the package from the adapter connected to one of the Ruconest vials.
Attach the syringe holding the diluent to the adapter on the Ruconest vial by inserting the tip into the adapter opening while firmly pushing and rotating the syringe clockwise.
Slowly press 14 mL of diluent into the Ruconest vial.
Add the diluent slowly to avoid forceful impact on the powder.
Note: Leave the syringe attached to the vial after adding the diluent.
Step 9: Swirl the vial to mix. Do this slowly to avoid foaming.
Repeat Steps 8 and 9 if you are using a second Ruconest vial. Remove syringe from the first Ruconest vial prior to attaching to the second vial.
Step 10: Inspect Ruconest vial(s) visually.
After reconstitution and prior to administration, inspect the Ruconest vials visually for particulate matter and discoloration.
The reconstituted solution should be colorless, clear, and free from visible particles.
Do not use the vial if it looks cloudy, contains particles, or has changed color.
Step 11: With the syringe still connected to the Ruconest vial, turn the vial upside down.
Slowly withdraw your dose of Ruconest by gently pulling back on the plunger.
Once you have withdrawn your dose, turn the vial right side up and place on a flat surface. Disconnect the syringe by gently pulling and rotating counterclockwise.
Step 12: Repeat Step 11 and withdraw additional reconstituted Ruconest from the second Ruconest vial (if needed).
Withdraw only as much as is needed based on your body weight.
Disconnect the syringe, for use as described in the next section.
Your healthcare provider will teach you how to safely administer Ruconest. It is important that you inject Ruconest directly into a visible vein. Do not inject into surrounding tissues or an artery. Once you learn how to self-administer, follow the instructions provided below. The reconstituted solution should be used within 8 hours and should be cooled but not be frozen.
Thoroughly clean a table or other flat surface using one or more of the antiseptic wipes.
Step 3: Prime the infusion set.
To prime (fill) the infusion tubing, connect the syringe filled with Ruconest to the infusion set tubing and gently push on the syringe plunger to fill the tubing with Ruconest.
Step 4: Prepare the approved IV injection site.
Apply a tourniquet above the site of the infusion.
Prepare the injection site by wiping the skin well with an antiseptic wipe, beginning at the center and working outward in a circular motion.
Allow the site to dry.
Follow the instructions provided by your healthcare provider.
Take off the needle sheath.
Hold both wings of the butterfly between the thumb and the index finger with the obliquely cut (slanted) opening of the butterfly needle pointing upward.
Insert the butterfly needle of the infusion set into your vein (insert as flat to skin surface as possible).
Use sterile gauze and tape or transparent dressing to hold the needle in place.
Gently pull back on the syringe plunger and check to see if blood is in the tubing.
If there is blood present, then the needle is in a vein.
If there is no blood, remove the needle and repeat this step using a new needle, new administration tubing, and a different injection site.
Note: Inject Ruconest slowly over approximately 5 minutes.
Step 6: Cover the injection site and clean up.
Withdraw the butterfly needle along the line that it was inserted.
Cover the injection site with a bandage, holding pressure on the site for a few minutes.
Dispose of all unused solution, empty vials, and used needles and syringe in an appropriate container used for medical waste.
The procedures below are provided as general guidelines for after the infusion of Ruconest.
Record each injection into treatment journal.
Record the lot number from the Ruconest vial label.
Enter the date and time of your injection.
This Patient Package Insert has been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration.
Product protected by U.S. patent Nos. 7,067,713 and RE43691.
See prescribing information for directions for use. | 2019-04-24T17:52:34Z | https://www.drugs.com/pro/ruconest.html |
How Much Revenue from Limiting Deductibility?
One unattractive aspect of having certain expenditures be deductible in the U.S. tax code is that any deduction is worth more to someone in a higher tax bracket. Thus, when it comes to typical deductions like the mortgage interest deduction, the deduction for state and local taxes, the deduction for charitable contributions, or the deduction for large out-of-pocket health care expenditures, someone in a 35% tax bracket saves 35 cents off their tax bill for each $1 of deductible expense, while someone in a 15% tax bracket saves only 15 cents off their tax bill for each $1 of deductible expense. Of course, the two-third of taxpayers who don't have enough of these specific expenses to make it worthwhile to itemize their deductions just take the standard deduction, and get nothing extra off their tax bill for these expenses.
Proposals are always kicking around to reduce deductibility, by limiting the tax savings from a deductible expense to say, 28% or even 15%. How much revenue might such proposals raise?
What about limiting deductibility to 28%?
[A] proposal from the Obama Administration ... would limit the benefit of itemized deductions to 28 percent. .. Thus, for example, an additional $100 of itemized deductions would save a taxpayer in the 35 percent bracket only $28 rather than $35. The 28 percent limitation on itemized deductions would raise an estimated $288 billion over the next ten years compared with current law ... Relative to current policy, the proposal would raise $164 billion.
The 5.3 million affected households in the top quintile would see their taxes go up by an average of about $2,900. The average tax increase for the 697,000 affected households in the top 1 percent would be about $13,300. Almost all of the tax increase—99.8 percent—would fall on households in the top quintile of the income distribution—those with cash incomes greater than $111,000. ... The top 1 percent would bear 61 percent and the top 0.1 percent would pay a little more than one-third."
What about limiting deductibility to 15%?
The Congressional Budget Office does a regular report called "Reducing the Deficit: Spending and Revenue Options." In the March 2011 report, Revenues--Option 7 is ""Limit the Tax Benefit of Itemized Deductions to 15 Percent." CBO estimates that this change could raise $1,180 billion over the next 10 years relative to current law, which is roughly four times as much as the 28% limitation would raise. The CBO doesn't do a distributional analysis, but this change would only affect those who already itemize deductions, and would have by far its largest effect on those with higher incomes.
Of course, there are justifications for the existing tax deductions, and reasons and history behind the justifications, and interest groups behind it all. But in a situation where all the meaningful options for long-term deficit reduction are going to be painful in one way or another, limiting deductibility has some advantages. It would raise revenue from those with higher incomes without increasing the marginal income tax rates, or part of the revenue could even be used to reduce the top marginal rates. Limiting deductibility also reduces the role of the federal government in certain aspects of the economy like providing incentives for greater mortgage borrowing. It should be in the mix of possibilities.
For a related post several weeks ago, see "Tax Expenditures: One Way Out of the Budget Morass."
dollar didn’t have reserve status, it would have collapsed a long time ago."
"In China today, half of GDP is in the form of fixed investment, while consumption is only 35 percent – and falling. That is not sustainable because no country can productively invest half its GDP for very long. Historically, every case of over-investment – the Soviet Union, East Asia in the 90s – has ended in a hard landing."
The recovery in the Asian emerging markets has been a “V” [rather than a “U”] because their financial fundamentals were much sounder and they don’t have balance sheet problems comparable to the U.S. and Europe. In some countries, though, that recovery’s now leading to overheating.
therefore Asia is in danger of both goods and asset inflation."
"Tim Geithner and others say they’re in favor of a strong dollar. But we actually need a weaker dollar, maybe 15 percent on a trade-weighted basis. Think about it rationally. Because of the asset bubble collapse, domestic demand is going to be anemic. So in order to maintain growth even close to potential, we need to reduce our trade deficit. How do you reduce this trade deficit? We have to have more private and public savings – but that’s going to slow down domestic demand even more. Therefore we need a weaker exchange rate to gradually improve the trade balance."
capacity is currently not used. Why would you want to do a lot of investment where there is excess capacity?"
A standard pattern in economic growth is that a rise in per capita GDP is accompanied by a larger share of the population living in urban areas. Thomas Nechyba and Randall Walsh describe the U.S. experience in a Fall 2004 article on "Urban Sprawl" in my own Journal of Economic Perspectives: "Only slightly more than 5 percent of the U.S. population lived in urban areas in 1790, a figure that had tripled by 1850 and surpassed 50 percent by 1920. By the 2000 Census, 79 percent of all Americans lived in areas designated as “urban” by the Census Bureau.
But the trend toward urbanization is international, as the UNFPA noted in its 2007 State of World Population report on the theme: "Unleashing the Potential of Urban Growth." "In 2008, the world reaches an invisible but momentous milestone: For the first time in history, more than half its human population, 3.3 billion people, will be living in urban areas."
The McKinsey Global Institute has published a couple of interesting reports on global urbanization recent months. "Urban world: Mapping the economic power of cities," came out in March 2011.
the same. ... Today, major urban areas in developed regions are, without doubt, economic giants.
Here are predictions from McKinsey on the world's top 25 cities in 2025, ranked by GDP, per capita GDP, GDP growth, and Total population. Cities in blue are in the developing world, and they dominate the last two columns.
Cities in economic terms are bundles of economies of scale and agglomeration. For example, cities can act as a hub for economies of scale in production and lower transportation costs. They can provide a density of potential workers, employers, and customers, in a way that reduces risk for all parties and enables a greater division of labor. They can facilitate spillovers of information and skills, and serve as a breeding ground for entrepreneurship. However, the power of scale and agglomeration have a negative side, as well. The cost of living and especially housing is typically higher in cities. Agglomeration can lead to pollution and stress on infrastructure, including congested transportation facilities and issues in providing water and electricity. Urban networking can can also facilitate criminal activity. Cities often create extremes of wealth and poverty rubbing shoulders, which can create political and social stresses. (For an exposition of cities along these lines, see Edward L. Glaeser's article "Are Cities Dying" in the Spring 1998 issue of the Journal of Economic Perspectives, which is too far back to be freely available on-line, but can be downloaded if you have access to JSTOR).
The McKinsey Global Institute makes this point as well: "As urban centers grow, they benefit from agglomeration—or economies of scale—that enable many industries and service sectors to have higher productivity than they do in a rural setting. It is also much less expensive to provide goods and services in concentrated population centers. Our research indicates that the cost of delivering basic services such as water, housing, and education is 30 to 50 percent cheaper in concentrated population centers than it is in sparsely populated areas. Very large cities attract the most talent and inward investment, and they are often at the center of a cluster of smaller cities, which creates network effects that spur economic growth and productivity."
But as McKinsey also argues that while huge cities are engines of economic growth, they can become so large that their diseconomies begin to slow them down. The largest future growth may not be in the largest cities: "Contrary to common perception, megacities have not been driving global growth for the past 15 years. In fact, many have not grown faster than their host economies, and we expect this trend to continue. We estimate that today’s 23 megacities will contribute just over 10 percent of global growth to 2025, below their 14 percent share of global GDP today. Instead, we see the 577 fast-growing middleweights in the City 600 contributing half of global growth to 2025, gaining share from today’s megacities."
The McKinsey Global Institute has takes up these issues of how the cities can contribute to growth, but also how the size of cities can limit their growth, in a series of reports, including a February 2009 report on cities in China, and an April 2010 report on urbanization in India.
"Cities are critical to Latin America’s overall economy. The region’s 198 large cities—defined as having populations of 200,000 or more—together contribute over 60 percent of GDP today. The ten largest cities alone generate half of that output. Such a concentration of urban economic activity among the largest cities is comparable with the picture in the United States and Western Europe today but is much more concentrated than in any other emerging region. China’s top ten cities, for instance, contribute around 20 percent of the nation’s GDP."
"Yet Latin America has already won a large share of the easy gains that come from expanding urban populations. Today, many of Latin America’s largest cities are grappling with traffic gridlock, housing shortages, and pollution, all symptoms of diseconomies of scale. For the region’s largest cities to sustain their growth, they need to be able to address challenges not only to their economic performance but also to the quality of life experienced by their citizens, sustainable resource use, and the strength of their finances and governance."
"Between 2007 and 2025, we expect the region’s top ten cities to display below-average growth in both population and GDP, while the rest of Latin America’s large cities are likely to expand their populations at an above-average rate. These cities are projected to generate almost 40 percent of the region’s overall growth between 2007 and 2025, almost 1.5 times the growth the top ten cities are expected to generate. What accounts for this shift in the balance of economic power? In Latin America’s largest cities, signs of diseconomies of scale such as congestion and pollution have started to outweigh scale benefits, diminishing the quality of life they can offer citizens and sapping their economic dynamism. At the same time, economic liberalization across the region has reversed the centralizing bias that concentrated economic activity in the largest cities. The more decentralized economic approach has given middleweight cities a boost. These medium-sized urban centers lag behind larger cities in their per capita GDP today, but many have not yet run into the diseconomies of scale faced by larger cities."
High textbook prices are modest problem in the context of soaring costs of higher education, but many of the costs of tuition and room and board are more-or-less concealed from many students, while textbook costs are in their faces and their pocketbooks. According to a recent short story in the Chronicle of Higher Education, 7 in 10 Students Have Skipped Buying a Textbook Because of Its Cost, Survey Finds." The article refers to a survey done by the U.S. Public Interest Research Group of 1,905 students at a range of 13 campuses. "Separate analyses from the U.S. Public Interest Research Group have found that textbook costs are typically comparable to 26 percent of tuition at state universities and 72 percent of tuition at community colleges."
“Annual per student expenditures on textbooks can easily approach $700 to $1,000 today."
“Increasing at an average of 6 percent per year, textbook prices nearly tripled from December 1986 to December 2004, while tuition and fees increased by 240 percent and overall inflation was 72 percent."
"While many factors affect textbook pricing, the increasing costs associated with developing products designed to accompany textbooks, such as CD-ROMs and other instructional supplements, best explain price increases in recent years."
"U.S. college textbook prices may exceed prices in other countries because prices reflect market conditions found in each country, such as the willingness and ability of students to purchase the textbook."
Economics textbooks are not exempt from these trends, of course. Take a look at prices for the best-selling and best-known introductory economics textbooks. A copy of the full-year, micro and macro version will typically list at more than $200, although students can often get discounted copies at sellers like Amazon.com for about $170-$180.
My solution is my own introductory textbook, "Principles of Economics." The second edition of this text is out this fall through Textbook Media, Inc. The pricing works this way: $17 for access to an online e-textbook which has search, notes, and chat options, but that can't be printed; $22 for the e-textbook along with the ability to print out PDF files of the chapters; and $33 for the e-textbook along with a black-and-white printed softcover version of the book. Textbook Media is a small company. It has no sales force to knock on the doors of professors and take them to lunch. It sponsors no junkets. The book is printed in black and white. But it does have e-textbook functionality, a workbook of problems and answers, a test bank, and some other add-ons. If you want a micro or a macro split, they are available. Of course, I think the content and exposition of the book is excellent on its own merits. But given the issue of soaring textbook prices, the price alone should make it worth a look.
ADDED: Arnold Kling at Econlog responds with a tough-minded comment about college faculty in a post titled "But Why Would Greg Mankiw Adopt?": "I can see why students would have an incentive to adopt a cheaper textbook. But professors, and particularly professors who author competing textbooks, have no such incentive. And they are the ones who drive adoption."
Unrequited Economic Optimism from the Congressional Budget Office?
The Congressional Budget Office has just published its August 2011 "The Budget and Economic Outlook: An Update." Although the language of the report is concise and unemotional, many elements of the report seem to me to carry a message that the worst of our economic travails are over. However, the report also points out that its economic forecasting and analysis was completed in early July, and the economy has had some worse-than-expected news since then. Here, I'll start with optimism, and then finish with the more grim recent economic news.
The CBO believes that the bursting bubble of housing prices has just about run its course. This figure shows two housing price series: Federal Housing Finance Agency and the Standard & Poor's/Case-Shiller index. As CBO explains: "The FHFA index covers only homes financed using mortgages that have been purchased or securitized by Fannie Mae or Freddie Mac. TheS&P/Case-Shiller index also includes sales financed with mortgages that do not conform to the size or credit criteria for purchase by Fannie Mae or Freddie Mac." But the CBO is predicting that for the country as a whole, housing prices are soon going to start rising again.
The good news here is that the bad news is diminishing. The first figure shows the ratio of unemployed people to job openings. After the 2001 recession, the ratio of unemployed to job openings rose to almost 3:1, before falling back to 1.5:1 in about 2007. Then during the recession, the ratio took off and reached almost 7:1, before now falling to about 4.5:1. The second figure shows net job gains in recent months, which aren't large, but are better than a sharp stick in the eye. The third figure shows that the unemployment rate peaked at 10.1% in November 2009, but was down to 9.1% by July 2011. The CBO projections are for the unemployment rate to fall modestly to 8.5% by fourth quarter 2012, and then to fall more rapidly.
Much of business investment just replaces worn-out capital. Net investment takes total investment and subtracts out the depreciation of existing capital, so that it is only looking at the addition to the capital stock. During the recession, many firms were postponing this new investment, but the CBO predicts that a bounceback is near.
potential output) by 2017." As with the unemployment rate, the forecast here is for modestly good news in 2012, followed by much better news in 2013 and after.
Is all this too optimistic?
The CBO makes a point of emphasizing that its economic forecasts were completed in early July. Since then, the European debt crisis has exploded, the federal government seemed unable to grapple seriously with debt issues and raising the debt ceiling, the stock market fell, economic statistics were released suggesting that the recession was deeper than previously believed, and more. Some of the figures above have little break in the line between present data and the forecast: the forecasts are based on the earlier uncorrected data, which after revision was worse than previously known.
At least for me, it's a natural reaction to look at these CBO forecasts that economic turnaround and catch-up are around the corner and roll my eyes in disbelief. Pessimism seems so worldly-wise; optimism seems so naive. But if the CBO is correct, whoever is elected president in 2012 is going to look like a miracle worker for the economy--mainly because by 2013 the U.S. economy will finally be escaping the sluggishness of the Long Slump and experiencing a robust economic recovery.
a distinguishing characteristic of the U.S. economy."
Molloy, Smith and Wozniak offer evidence that the decline in U.S. mobility is a very broad-based--and not a trend that has been made notably worse by the recent woes in the U.S. economy and housing market. They write: "By most measures, internal migration in the United States is at a 30-year low. Migration rates have fallen for most distances, demographic and socioeconomic groups, and geographic areas. The widespread nature of the decrease suggests that the drop in mobility is not related to demographics, income, employment, labor force participation, or homeownership. Moreover, three consecutive decades of declining migration rates is historically unprecedented in the available data series. The downward trend appears to have begun around the 1980s, pointing to explanations that should be relevant to the entire period, rather than specific to the current recession and recovery—that is, the decline in migration is not a particular feature of the past five years, but has been relatively steady since the 1980s."
In an article by Jens Ludwig, Jeffrey R. Kling and Sendhil Mullainathan in the Summer 2011 issue of my own Journal of Economic Perspectives, called "Mechanism Experiments and Policy Evaluations," they introduced me to the "metallic rules" of the eminent sociologist Peter H. Rossi. The rules come from Rossi's 1987 article,“The Iron Law of Evaluation and Other Metallic Rules,” Research in Social Problems and Public Policy, vol. 4, pp. 3–20. The article is pre-web, and the publication is not easily available, but David Roodman at the Center for Global Development tracked down the article a couple of years ago, and posted an excerpt summarizing the rules on his Microfinance Open Book Blog. Rossi died in 2006; a brief obituary and some remembrances from colleagues are available at the website of the American Sociological Association.
A dramatic but slightly overdrawn view of two decades of evaluation efforts can be stated as a set of “laws,” each summarizing some strong tendency that can be discerned in that body of materials. Following a 19th Century practice that has fallen into disuse in social science, these laws are named after substances of varying durability, roughly indexing each law’s robustness.
This law means that the more technically rigorous the net impact assessment, the more likely are its results to be zero—or no effect. Specifically, this law implies that estimating net impacts through randomized controlled experiments, the avowedly best approach to estimating net impacts, is more likely to show zero effects than other less rigorous approaches.
In the late 1950s, epidemiologists believed that a fetus was a “perfect parasite” that was “afforded protection from nutritional damage that might be inflicted on the mother.” The placenta was regarded as a “perfect filter, protecting the fetus from harmful substances in the mother’s body and letting through helpful ones.” Nonchalance existed with regard to prenatal nutrition. During the 1950s and 1960s, women were strongly advised against gaining too much weight during pregnancy. During the baby boom, “pregnant women were told it was fine to light up a cigarette and knock back a few drinks.” Roughly half of U.S. mothers reported smoking in pregnancy in 1960.
But what if the nine months in utero are one of the most critical periods in a person’s life, shaping future abilities and health trajectories—and thereby the likely path of earnings? This paper reviews the growing literature on the so-called “fetal origins” hypothesis. The most famous proponent of this hypothesis is David J. Barker, a British physician and epidemiologist, who has argued that the intrauterine environment—and nutrition in particular—“programs” the fetus to have particular metabolic characteristics, which can lead to future disease."
1) There's a long-standing argument in the social sciences about nature vs. nurture, but arguments over genetic influence are getting a lot more complex these days than what I learned back in grade-school about Gregor Mendel and his pea plants. The current subject of epigenetics explores how the same genes can lead to different characteristics. As Almond and Currie write in this context about fetal effects: "[T]he hypothesized effects reflfl ect a specific biological mechanism, fetal “programming,” possibly through effects of the environment on the epigenome, which are just beginning to be understood. The epigenome can be conceived of as a series of switches that cause various parts of the genome to be expressed—or not. The period in utero may be particularly important for setting these switches."
2) While this literature is still young and growing, it could turn out to be true that one of the most important ways to help children is to help their pregnant mothers. Almond and Currie write: "[O]ne of the most radical implications of the fetal origins hypothesis may be that one can best help children (throughout their life course) by helping their mothers. That is, we should be focusing on pregnant women or perhaps even women of child-bearing age if the key period turns out to be so early in pregnancy that many women are unaware of the pregnancy. Such pre-emptive targeting would constitute a radical departure from current policies that steer nearly all healthcare resources to the sick, i.e., the “pound of cure” approach. That said, the existing evidence is not sufficient to allow us to rank the cost-effectiveness of interventions targeted at women against more traditional interventions targeted at children, adolescents, or adults."
"Divide the world into a “rich” region, where one billion people earn $30,000 per year, and a “poor” region, where six billion earn $5,000 per year. Suppose emigrants from the poor region have lower productivity, so each gains just 60 percent of the simple earnings gap upon emigrating—that is, $15,000 per year. This marginal gain shrinks as emigration proceeds, so suppose that the average gain is just $7,500 per year. If half the population of the poor region emigrates, migrants would gain $23 trillion—which is 38 percent of global GDP. For nonmigrants, the outcome of such a wave of migration would have complicated effects: presumably, average wages would rise in the poor region and fall in the rich region, while returns to capital rise in the rich region and fall in the poor region. The net effect of these other changes could theoretically be negative, zero, or positive. But when combining these factors with the gains to migrants, we might plausibly imagine overall gains of 20–60 percent of global GDP."
Of course, Clemens goes into considerably more depth in the article, and argues that gains of this magnitude are plausible given the studies that have been done and the current state of knowledge of this area. I would emphasize further that many studies of migration look either at effects on those in the receiving country, or on those in the sending country, but somehow seem to leave out the gains to the migrants themselves--which may well be the dominant part of a broad social welfare calculation.
2) Remittances sent back to their country of origin by migrants now top$300 billion per year. Dean Yang discusses this point in "Migrant Remittances," along with going into more detail on why remittances are sent and how they are used. Yang offers this striking figure comparing the level of remittances over time to official development assistance, foreign direct investment, and portfolio investment. He writes: "But since the late 1990s, remittances sent home by international migrants have exceeded offifi cial development assistance and portfolio investment, and in several years have approached the magnitudes of foreign direct investment flows."
Yang also provides a table showing which countries depend most heavily on remittances, including 22 countries where remittances are more than 10% of GDP.
investment and expertise from the global Indian diaspora. The problem of ‘brain drain’ has been converted happily into the opportunity of ‘brain gain’ ..."
and Canada in the 1950s and 1960s."
I'm the managing editor of the Journal of Economic Perspectives, published by the American Economic Association. It's an academic journal, but it's meant to be a journal that's readable by those who have some background in economics--like those who took several undergraduate courses in college in the subject. The AEA makes all of the articles the journal freely available on-line to all, and the Summer 2011 issue is now available.
I'll comment on the specifics of some of these articles over the next week or so, but here's the table of contents for the issue. Again, all of these articles are available on-line at the JEP website.
The Strategy, Policy, and Review Department of the IMF published a paper on "Changing Patterns of Global Trade" on June 15. I think students of economics often get a good sense of how international trade can benefit all nations participating, but at least at the intro level, they often get a less good sense of the actual patterns of international trade. One emphasis of the report is on longer global supply chains. Here are a few patterns and facts.
1) The share of foreign content embedded in gross exports is rising.
A country can import certain goods or services, use them in production, and then export them again. The share of foreign value-added in exports measures this process, and it has been steadily rising since the 1970s. Here's a table combining several studies, showing a rise in foreign value-added in exports from 18% in 1970 to 24% in 1990, 27% in 1995, and 33% by 2005. This is a sign of longer global supply chains and rising global interconnectedness.
2) For some countries, gross exports can be less useful as a measure of what the country produces for export than the domestic value-added content of exports.
This figure shows gross exports as the dark line for each country, and domestic value added as the shaded line--the difference between the two is foreign value-added that is re-exported. For a number of countries like Singapore, Malaysia, and Thailand, there's a big gap between the two.
3) The rise in foreign value-added in exports varies across countries and across industries.
Here's a table I compiled out of statistics in the report. In China and Japan, the share of foreign-value added almost doubled from 1995 to 2005--which is a signal of the Asian regional economy becoming much more integrated, with inputs often crossing borders several times at different stages of production. The rise in foreign value-added as a share of total exports is noticeable but lower in the U.S. and Germany. If one looks just at the rise in foreign value-added as a share of exports in the high technology sector, these patterns are even more pronounced.
4) World trade has tripled since the 1950s.
trade rising to more than 20 percent of global GDP in 2008."
Although the growth in world trade over time looks bumpy but more-or-less continual, the type of trade is changing. The growth in trade in the 1950s and 1960s was often a result of lower tariffs, for example. But in recent years, the growth in trade stems from an increasingly interconnected web of countries, who often are producing increasingly similar products.
5) Trade in higher technology goods has led the rise in international trade.
intensive export structures generally offer better prospects for future economic growth. Trade in high-technology products tends to grow faster than average, and has larger spillover effects on skills and knowledge-intensive activities. The process of technological absorption is not passive but rather “capability” driven and depends more on the national ability to harness and adapt technologies rather than on factor endowments."
Marco Lagi, Karla Z. Bertrand and Yaneer Bar-Yam of the New England Complex Systems Institute have a working paper up about "The Food Crises and Political Instability in North Africa and the Middle East." This figure tells the heart of the story. The black line shows the two recent spikes in global food prices, one in 2008 and one in 2011. The vertical red lines show the dates of various food riots and/or civil disruptions, with the number of deaths shown in parentheses.Of course, food prices aren't the only factor in causing such disruptions, but the fact that such riots and disruptions essentially vanished in 2009 and 2010, in the time period between the two price spikes, is nonetheless striking.
Thanks to the Instapundit website for the pointer to this study. I've posted a couple of times recently on the subject of the global spike in food prices in 2008 and again in 2011 (see here and here). I've also posted a couple of times in the last few months on how unemployment and poor economic conditions have contributed to political unrest in the Middle East (for example, here and here).
"However, a major change in the relationship between the credit rating agencies and the U.S. bond markets occurred in the 1930s. Bank regulators were eager to encourage banks to invest only in safe bonds. They issued a set of regulations that culminated in a 1936 decree that prohibited banks from investing in “speculative investment securities” as determined by “recognized rating manuals.” “Speculative” securities (which nowadays would be called “ junk bonds”) were below “investment grade.” Thus, banks were restricted to holding only bonds that were “investment grade”—in modern ratings, this would be equivalent to bonds that were rated BBB– or better on the Standard & Poor’s scale. With these regulations in place, banks were no longer free to act on information about bonds from any source that they deemed reliable (albeit within oversight by bank regulators). They were instead forced to use the judgments of the publishers of the “recognized rating manuals”—which were only Moody’s, Poor’s, Standard, and Fitch. Essentially, the creditworthiness judgments of these third-party raters had attained the force of law."
"In the following decades, the insurance regulators of the 48 (and eventually 50) states followed a similar path. State insurance regulators established minimum capital requirements that were geared to the ratings on the bonds in which the insurance companies invested—the ratings, of course, coming from the same small group of rating agencies. Once again, an important set of regulators had delegated their safety decisions to the credit rating agencies. In the 1970s, federal pension regulators pursued a similar strategy."
"The Securities and Exchange Commission crystallized the centrality of the three rating agencies in 1975, when it decided to modify its minimum capital requirements for broker-dealers, who include major investment banks and securities firms. Following the pattern of the other financial regulators, the SEC wanted those capital requirements to be sensitive to the riskiness of the broker-dealers’ asset portfolios and hence wanted to use bond ratings as the indicators of risk. But it worried that references to “recognized rating manuals” were too vague and that a bogus rating fifi rm might arise that would promise AAA ratings to those companies that would suitably reward it and “DDD” ratings to those that would not."
valid for the determination of the broker-dealers’ capital requirements. Other financial regulators soon adopted the NRSRO category and the rating agencies within it. In the early 1990s, the SEC again made use of the NRSROs’ ratings when it established safety requirements for the commercial paper (short-term debt) held by money market mutual funds."
"Taken together, these regulatory rules meant that the judgments of credit rating agencies became of central importance in bond markets. Banks and many other financial institutions could satisfy the safety requirements of their regulators by just heeding the ratings, rather than their own evaluations of the risks of the bonds."
White goes on to discuss how the NRSRO category has evolved over time, and how Congress more-or-less bludgeoned the Securities and Exchange Commission into allowing some additional NRSROs in the last decade. His article, written in 2010, also points out that one reason why the housing bubble spread through mortgage-backed securities and into the banking system was that the NRSRO's like Standard & Poor's gave some of that debt a tremendously misguided AAA rating. Far too many banks and bank regulators just accepted that rating, although S&P and the other credit rating agencies had no particular history or expertise in evaluating these somewhat complex financial instruments based on subprime mortgage debts. White and others have long argued that while it's perfectly fine to have firms which sell their expertise and opinions about the riskiness of bonds, there's no reason to anoint some of them in such a way that banks and bank regulators legally outsource judgment and prudence to them.
Maybe S&P is wrong to downgrade the U.S. credit rating. But after it whiffed so spectacularly and totally missed the riskiness of the subprime-related mortgage backed securities, it's seems a bit unsporting to turn around and criticize them for being too vigilant now. And if the U.S. government doesn't like the power wielded by S&P--well, it has only itself to blame for bestowing so much of that power in the first place.
Can Bernanke Unwind the Fed's Policies?
The Federal Reserve has taken five main policy steps since the financial crisis started to become apparent in late 2007. I supported each of those five steps when they were taken, given the economic situation at the time. But the recession and financial crisis were largely over in June 2009, even if what followed has been an unpleasantly stagnant recovery. The Fed needs to be clear that as conditions warrant, it will be willing to unwind its earlier policies. Thus, when the Fed Open Market Committee announced last week on a 7-3 vote that it would extend its near-zero federal funds interest rates for the next two years, it seemed to me a misstep. Narayana Kocherlakota, who moved from a position as professor of economics at the University of Minnesota to become President of the Minneapolis Federal Reserve, took the unusual step of explaining publicly why he dissented, and even recording a short video clip of his explanation, which is posted at the Minneapolis Fed website.
But I'm getting ahead of the story. Here are the Fed's five main policy steps since 2007.
1) From May 2006 through September 2007, the federal funds interest rate was about 5%. As the financial crisis began to become apparent in fall 2007 and as the recession started in December 2007, the Fed cut the federal funds rate to 2% by April 2008, where it remained until September 2008. This change can be thought of as the standard Fed reaction to a recession. As Rick Mishkin, who was a member of the Fed Board of Governors at the time, notes an article in the Winter 2011 issue of my own Journal of Economic Perspectives, even in late summer 2008 mainstream forecasters like the Congressional Budget Office were predicting only a short, shallow recession. Rick wrote: " In summer of 2008, when I was serving on the Federal Reserve Board of Governors, there was even talk that the Fed might need to raise interest rates to keep inflation under control."
2) When the financial crisis hit with hurricane force in September 2008, the Fed then took the federal funds target rate down to near-zero. As noted earlier, at its August 9 meeting last week, the Open Market Committee voted to keep this interest rate target for two more years, at which time the policy of a near-zero federal funds rate would have lasted about five years.
the Commercial Paper Funding Facility (CPFF); the Money Market Investor Funding Facility (MMIFF); the and Term Asset-Backed Securities Loan Facility (TALF). For a readable overview of these efforts aimed at teachers of economics, this is a good starting point. From my point of view, the key fact about all these agencies is that they have all been closed down. Thus, I consider them a success. They helped to assure that short-term credit was available during a financial crisis, and then they went away.
4) The Fed started buying mortgage-backed securities early in 2009. At this time, in the depths of the financial crisis, the high level of uncertainty over what these securities were truly worth was in danger of making the market for these securities illiquid, which in turn could have made the financial crisis even worse. As the New York Fed explains: "The FOMC directed the Desk to purchase $1.25 trillion of agency MBS [mortgage-backed securities]. Actual purchases by the program effectively reached this target. The purchase activity began on January 5, 2009 and continued through March 31, 2010. ... On August 10, 2010, the FOMC directed the Desk to keep constant the Federal Reserve’s holdings of securities at their current level by reinvesting principal payments from agency debt and agency MBS in longer-term Treasury securities. As a result, agency MBS holdings will decline over time."
5) The Fed started buying and holding new Treasury debt. The Fed has always held some Treasury debt as part of its normal operations, and in particular as part of carrying out its open market operations and buying and selling bonds. But that amount swelled from about $480 billion back in summer 2008 to about $1.6 trillion now. The Federal Reserve now holds more in U.S. Treasury debt than the China and Japan combined. While the plan to purchase more Treasury debt known as QE2 (that is, "quantitative easing part 2") officially stopped at the end of June, as noted a moment ago, the Fed is now moving from holding mortgage-backed securities to holding Treasury debt, in such a way that its overall holdings of financial securities does not decline.
Overall, here's where the Fed stands in unwinding the crisis-driven policies enacted since 2007. The many short-term lending facilities have been phased out. The ownership of mortgage-backed securities is being phased down. What is not yet being phased down are the ultra-low interest rates and buying Treasury securities. I'm not brash enough to say just when these policies should be reversed, but I do know this: A central bank can't just keep pumping out money and credit until unemployment is back to normal levels and hearty growth has resumed. At that point, the central bank has overreacted, potentially by a lot. When the Fed decides that it is time to change these policies, the U.S. probably won't be at full employment and resurgent growth--and so its decision is certain to be controversial.
Here's a graph showing the effective federal funds interest rate since the 1950s, using the ever-helpful FRED website at the St. Louis Fed. Notice that when recessions (the shaded bars) occur, the Fed typically cuts this interest rate, but then when recovery has begun, it raises the rate again. But now the federal funds rate has been at a rock-bottom near zero for more than two years, and in its August 9 meeting, the Federal Open Market Committee voted to leave the rate near-zero until summer 2013. Kocherlakota of the Minneapolis Fed explained his dissent from the policy this way: "I believe that in November , the Committee judiciously chose a level of accommodation that was well calibrated for the prevailing economic conditions. Since November, inflation has risen and unemployment has fallen. I do not believe that providing more accommodation—easing monetary policy—is the appropriate response to these changes in the economy."
From an outsider's point of view, it sure looks as if the Federal Reserve action at its August 9 meeting was a response to headlines from the week before: headlines about the difficulties in hashing out an agreement to raise the federal borrowing ceiling, headlines about Standard & Poor's downgrading the credit rating of the federal government, headlines about the stock market falling. But monetary policy decisions setting expectations for the next couple of years shouldn't be responding to yesterday's headlines.
As one looks at the federal funds interest rate over time, other troubling issues become apparent. One is that the federal funds interest rate has been gradually moving downward, a step at a time, since it was raised sky-high to stop the inflation of the 1970s. With the federal funds rate at near-zero, this process of stepping interest rates lower and lower has now stopped. Another concern is that the Bank of Japan has run a near-zero interest rate for more than a decade, while failing to stimulate its economy. There is a possible theoretical argument--far from proven, but still a concern--that an economy can get stuck in a situation with near-zero interest rates and stagnant growth. In this kind of model, explained for example by James Bullard of the St. Louis Fed, "Seven Faces of `The Peril'", a central bank can't wait for a full recovery before raising interest rates, because the hyper-low near-zero interest rates are part of what's blocking the economy from resuming growth.
I wouldn't advocate a sharp or immediate rise in the federal funds interest rate. But I would have voted with Kocherlakota against committing to two more years of near-zero rates. After all, part of what encouraged so much overborrowing in the years leading up to the financial crisis was that the Fed kept interest rates so low for a couple of years after the end of the 2001 recession. The answer to a financial crisis rooted in overborrowing is not to encourage the next wave of overborrowing! The Fed should be thinking about when and how it could get the federal funds target rate up into the 1-2% range--which after all seemed a reasonable interest rate when the economy was in an actual recession back in 2008.
Having the Fed buy Treasury debt starting in 2009 during the worst of the financial crisis and its aftermath was a fully defensible decision. I sometimes say that it's generally a bad idea to shoot torrents of water at high speed through an office building--but if there's a fire, it's a policy that can make sense. During an emergency, steps that wouldn't make sense at other times sometimes need to be taken. But the recession has now been over for a couple of years. If the U.S. government wishes to run continuing large deficits, it needs to start facing the economic consequences of doing so. The Fed is already helping the federal government to borrow this money by holding interest rates so low, and in time will probably help the federal government further by creating some inflation to reduce the real value of what has been borrowed. It's time for the Fed to back away from being the actual default buyer for new federal debt. This step doesn't require any big announcement, only that the Fed refrain for now from announcing a QE3 program for buying more Treasury debt. If another financial crisis surfaces, after all, the Fed should try to hold something in reserve.
Michael Greenstone and Adam Looney put together a background paper for a Hamilton Project conference called "A Dozen Economic Facts About Innovation."
Why is innovation and increased productivity important? Two of the main measurable reasons are how it increases incomes and life expectancy. It may be that the worst economic event to befall the U.S. economy in the last 40 years is not relatively recent shock of the Great Recession, terrible though that has been, but the productivity slowdown that hit in the early 1970s. Greenstone and Looney write: "If TFP [total factor productivity] had continued growing at the pre-1973 trend and that productivity gain were reflected in workers’ compensation, compensation could be 51 percent higher, or about $18 per hour more than today’s average of $35.44 per hour. This calculation highlights that small changes in innovation and annual TFP growth lead to large differences in long-run standards of living."
Economic growth and innovation have also helped to generate longer life expectancies, partly through reductions in infectious disease, but also through better diets and cleaner water and sanitation. The gains in health have huge value. Kevin Murphy and Robert Topel estimated the long-term value of gains in health in a 2006 article in the Journal of Political Economy (pp. 871-904).From their abstract: "Cumulative gains in life expectancy after 1900 were worth over $1.2 million to the representative American in 2000, whereas post-1970 gains added about $3.2 trillion per year to national wealth, equal to about half of GDP. Potential gains from future health improvements are also large; for example, a 1 percent reduction in cancer mortality would be worth $500 billion." Here's a Greenstone-Looney figure on gains in life expectancy and reductions in infectious disease.
One of the most striking areas of innovation in recent years, of course, is the electronics industry. Here's a graph showing what it would have cost to buy the computing power of an iPad 2 over recent decades. Notice that the vertical scale is a logarithmic graph: that is, it is descending by powers of ten as the price of computing power halves and halves and halves over and over again.
What's to be done to improve the prospects for innovation and economic growth for the future? There is a broad productivity agenda of improving human capital, investing in plant and equipment, and getting America's financial and budgetary problems under control. But there is also a more narrow technology-focused agenda. For example, every politician in the U.S. talks has been talking about the importance of technology for decades--but government spending on research and development has actually been sinking. Corporate spending on R&D has taken up some of the slack, but government R&D is far more likely to be focused on the basic research that generates new industries, not the tightly-focused process companies often use to update their products.
Another issue is to have America's higher education system focus more heavily on the so-called STEM fields: that is, science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. The share of total U.S. degrees being granted in these fields has fallen since the mid-1980s, and compared to other countries, the U.S. higher education system grants a lower proportion of its degrees in STEM fields.
A final issue is to improve the U.S. patent system. There are lots of subtle issues about what kind of innovation deserves a patent, or what doesn't, and how much a patent is really worth in an intellectual property showdown. But at a more basic level, a slow patent system is less useful for everyone--and the time to get a decision from the U.S. Patent Office has been rising.
"Not that many years ago, a lot of middle-class Americans felt as if they had built a close and personal relationship with Mr. or Ms. Economy (depending on your gender preference).
The rules of the relationship were clear: Get skills and training, and after spending young adulthood sampling jobs, buckle down to a long-term career choice. Borrow heavily to buy a house early in life, and then benefit from rising house prices. Save for the long term by putting money in the stock market.
Do these things, the understanding was, and the Economy would reciprocate -- with rising income, reasonable job security and a comfortable retirement.
Of course, no long-term relationship is perfect. The Economy might occasionally lash out: perhaps with a dot-com boom, followed by a stock market crash, a recession and higher unemployment. Many of us misbehaved in this relationship, too. Sometimes we ran bloated credit cards bills and didn't save the way we should have. Yet even in the hard times, this relationship was supposed to be long-term.
But in this grim and prolonged aftermath of the Great Recession of 2007-2009 -- some economists are calling it the Long Slump -- millions of Americans are feeling that they have been dumped by the economy."
Can Later Retirement Ages Save Social Security and Medicare?
Social Security and Medicare have both made promises about future benefits that their current sources of financing won't allow them to keep. If we moved back the retirement age, would it fix these programs? Short answer: moving back the retirement age could have a large effect in addressing the financial problems of Social Security, but would have a much smaller effect in helping Medicare.
For Social Security, the website of the Office of the Chief Actuary has estimates of the cost savings from a wide variety of proposals. Proposal C2.6, for example, reads: "Increase the normal retirement age (NRA) 3 months per year starting in 2017 until reaching 70 for those attaining age 62 in 2032. Then increase the NRA 1 month every 2 years thereafter. Note that the NRA would increase from 66 to 67 faster than under current law. Increase the earliest eligibility age (EEA) from 62 to 64 at the same time the NRA would increase from 67 to 69; that is, for those attaining age 62 in 2021 through 2028. Keep EEA at 64 thereafter."
Those who will be 62 in 2032 are currently about 41 years old. Telling them now that early retirement will be 64 for them, instead of 62, and that normal retirement will be 70 for them, instead of the 67 years for this group in current law, seems to me completely reasonable. This change alone doesn't fix Social Security completely, but it would close about 70% of the projected funding gap for the program over the next 75 years.
For federal spending, the older age of eligibility saves $31.1 billion for Medicare. However, a number 65 and 66 year-olds who were not eligible for Medicare would lack health insurance, and thus would be eligible for either Medicaid or for subsidized insurance under the new "health exchanges" in the health care legislation that President Obama signed into law in 2010. In addition, those 65 and 66 year-olds wouldn't be paying premiums into the Medicare system. After these offsets are taken into account, overall federal spending would be reduced by only $5.7 billion.
"In addition, costs to employers are projected to increase by $4.5 billion in 2014 and costs to states are expected to increase by $0.7 billion. In the aggregate, raising the age of eligibility to 67 in 2014 is projected to result in an estimated net increase of $3.7 billion in out-of-pocket costs for those ages 65 and 66 who would otherwise have been covered by Medicare."
"Medicare Part B premiums would increase by three percent in 2014, as the deferred enrollment of relatively healthy, lower-cost beneficiaries would raise the average cost across remaining beneficiaries."
A key underlying issue here, of course, is that health care spending tends to rise with age. Pushing back the age of Medicare eligibility affects the relatively health group a little above age 65, but it doesn't affect the health care bills of the more aged, and so it offers relatively small cost savings for the Medicare program. In a study from last year, Gerald F. Riley and James D. Lubitz report on ""Long-term trends in Medicare payments in the last year of life" (Health Services Research, April 2010, 45(2):565-76). They point out that Medicare spending on those who die in a given year is much higher than on those who survive the year: in 2006, Medicare spending in 2006 on those who died in that year was $38,975, while Medicare spending in 2006 on those who survived the year was $5,993. Their estimates show that 25-30% of all Medicare spending is on patients in their last year of life, and that this number hasn't changed much over time, and isn't much affected by adjusting for changes in age or gender of the elderly over the last 30 years.
The Dispute over "Core Inflation" | 2019-04-19T23:05:08Z | http://conversableeconomist.blogspot.com/2011/08/ |
The question is, quite often, broached by a lot of people about the Islamic legal view-point on celebrating the anniversary birthday (Mawlid) of the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), keeping vigil in the meantime, and extending peace greeting to him, etc., such as what is quite often done on the feasts (Mawalid).
be upon him) as well as in observing his tradition. It is established as valid that the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) said: (If anyone introduces into this affair of ours anything which does not belong to it, it is rejected.) In another tradition he said: (You must observe my own precepts [Sunnah], and the precepts of the Rightly Guided True Caliphs after me. Let all of you abide by them, and cling stubbornly to them, and beware of novelties, since each novelty is a heresy, and each heresy is an error). Both traditions involve a strong admonition against bringing about and acting on the strength of heresies. Allah - glory be to Him - says in His Glorious Quran: (And so take what the Apostle assigns to you, and deny yourselves that which he withholds from you). He-glory be to Him-also says: (then let those beware who withstand the Apostle's order, lest some trial should befall them, or a grievous Penalty be inflicted on them). The Almighty - praise be to Him - also says: (Verily in the Apostle of Allah ye have a good example for him who looketh unto Allah and the Last Day, and remembereth Allah much). He says too: (The vanguard [of Islam] the first of those who forsook [their homes] and of those who gave them aid, and [also] those who follow them in [all] good deeds, - well- pleased is Allah with them, as are they with Him: for them hath He prepared Gardens under which rivers flow to dwell therein for ever: that is the supreme Felicity). Allah also says: (This day I have perfected your religion for you Islam as your religion). The verses to that effect are numerous. To bring about such birthday celebrations (Mawalid) purports that Allah-praise be to Him-has not yet completed the religion to this nation, and that the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) did not announce what should be observed by the nation, till those later people came up, and introduced into the Religion of Allah what Allah has not sanctioned, on the pretence that this matter enables them to get close to the consent of Allah, despite the fact that it, sure enough, involves a serious menace, and an opposition to Allah-praise be to Him-as well as to His Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) at a time when the Almighty Allah-glory be to Him- had perfected the religion for His human beings, and completed His favour upon them. As also the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) had fulfilled his plain true mission, and left no means leading to paradise, and keeping away from the Fire without being elucidated. It is established as valid in the authentic Hadith (traditions) that 'Abdullah ibn 'Amr -may Allah be pleased with both of them-passed on a report where in the Apostle of Allah-peace be unto him-said: (Never was a Prophet sent out by Allah without being assigned the task of guiding his people to the best of what he teaches them, and warning against the malice of what he teaches them)-Muslim transmitted it in his Sahih. Consider the fact that our Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) is, no doubt, the most distinguished, and the Seal of the prophets; let alone the fact of his precedence with respect to information and guidance. If birthday celebrations (Mawalid) were considered religious, and sanctioned by Allah -praise be to Him-the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) would have expounded the matter to the people, or done it himself in his lifetime; or his companions-may Allah be pleased with them- would have performed it themselves at least. Since celebrations such as these were never performed, it has become known that they have absolutely nothing to do with Islam. The matter of such celebrations is rather one of the evil innovations against which the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) admonished his people, as it was demonstrated in the aforesaid traditions. There are many other traditions to that effect, such as the saying of the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) in the course of a Friday sermon: (and now to our topic: the best speech is that of the Qur'an, and the best guidance is that of Muhammad (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) and the most wicked matter is that of heretic innovations, and each heresy is an error). Imam Muslim transmitted it in his Sahih.
Verses and traditions about this matter are a great many. A group of scholars has declared rejection of, and warning against such celebrations as these (Mawalid), in pursuance of the aforementioned evidences and their likes. Some later scholars, however, were at variance with the others, and approved of such celebrations, provided they are free from such reprehensible actions as being immoderate in their view about the characteristics of the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) and the company of men and women, and using musical instruments, and such other things as rejected by the immaculate Revelation, and still they held them to be good innovations. The Islamic legal standard is to refer the case at issue among people to the Scripture (Quran) of Allah and the precepts (Sunnah) of His Apostle Muhammad (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) Allah glory be to Him- also says: (O he who believe, obey Allah, and obey the Apostle, and those charged with authority among you. If ye differ in anything among yourselves, refer it to Allah and his Apostle, if ye do believe in Allah and the Last Day: That is best, and most suitable for final determination). The Almighty also says: (Whatever it be wherein ye differ, the decision thereof is with Allah). We have referred this matter, to wit, Mawalid celebrations, to the Scripture of Allah-glory be to Him- and found out that it enjoins on us the duty of obeying the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) in what he brought forth, admonishes us against what he prohibited us from doing, and informs us that Allah-glory be to Him- has perfected the religion for this nation. Since this sort of celebration is not part of what the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) did brought forth, it has nothing to do with the religion Allah perfected for us, and enjoined us therein to obey the Apostle. We have, too, referred the matter to the precepts (Sunnah) of the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) and found therein that he never performed such a thing, nor enjoined on us to do it, and neither did his companions - may Allah be pleased with them. We have, thus, learned that such a matter has nothing whatsoever to do with religion, and that it is rather a kind of heretic innovations, and imitation of the people of the Scripture-Jews and Christians- in their festivals. Such being the case, it becomes quite clear for any person possessed of the least power of mental perception, the desire to know the truth as well as being fair in seeking it, that birthday celebrations (Mawalid) have nothing to do with Islam; yet they are rather some kinds of heretic innovations that Allah-glory be to Him- and His Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) enjoined us to abandon and to be cautious of. Any sensible person should not be dazzled by the great number of people doing such a thing in all countries, since truth is not to be recognized through the numerousness of doers, but it is recognized through the Islamic legal evidences, as the Almighty Allah says on Jews and Christians: (And they say: "None shall enter Paradise unless he be a Jew or Christian." ...Those are their [vain] desires. Say: "Produce your proof if ye are truthful). The Almighty also says: (Wert thou to follow the common run of those on earth, they would lead thee away from the Way of Allah).
Furthermore, most of these (Mawalid) - heretic as they are- are not quite free from other reprehensible actions, such as the company of men and women, use of songs and musical performances, drinking alcoholic beverages and narcotics as well as other evils. Besides, there may occur what is more tremendous; that is, gross polytheism through exaggeration and exceeding the proper characteristics of the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) or those of others of holymen, as well as invoking him, appealing to him for aid, petitioning him, and believing that he is cognizant of the Unseen, and such other atheistic things as practiced by lots of people in the course of their celebrating the Mawlid of the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) and of others of the so-called holymen. In the authentic hadith, the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) said: (Beware of exceeding the proper limits of religion; since people, earlier on, were perished with this matter). He (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) also said: (Do not lavish praise on me, as did the Christians with the Son of Miriam. Only I am a human being. Say the Servant and the Apostle of Allah). AI-Bukhari excerpt it in his Sahih from the account of 'Omar-may Allah be pleased with him. The remarkable and astonishing thing about the matter is that lots of people attend actively to these innovated celebrations and uphold them, while they fail to do what Allah made incumbent upon them such as attending Friday and congregational prayers. In spite of it, they pay no attention to them. Neither do they think they had committed a gross vile deed. This is due, beyond doubt, to weakness of faith and lack of discernment as well as to copiousness of various trespasses and sins reigning over the hearts. May Allah favour us and all Muslims with the grace of safety from these evils. Among other things, some of them think that the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) attends the mawlid. They, therefore, rise in honour of him with pin arms. This is a sort of patent falsehood and the vilest ignorance, as the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) shall not rise out of his grave before the Day of Judgment, neither does he contact any human beings nor does he attend their meetings. He is rather abiding in his grave until the Day of Judgment, with his soul quite settled with his Rub highly elevated in the Eternal Abode, as Allah-glory be to Him-says in the Quranic Chapter "AI-Mu'minoun": (After that, at length, ye will die. Again, on the Day of Judgment, will ye be raised up). The Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) said: (I am the first, whose grave will split on the Day of Judgment, and then I shall be the first intercessor, and the first to be granted the right of interceding).
May Allah grant us, along with all Muslims, success in comprehending his religion and maintenance of it. May He, too, favour us all with sticking fast to the Sunnah and caution against the heresy. Allah is All-kind and Magnanimous, and may peace and blessing of Allah be unto our Prophet Muhammad, his family, and his companions.
ANNIVERSARY NIGHT OF ISRA' AND MI'RAJ.
The event of Isra' and Mi'raj is, beyond doubt, one of the great prodigies of Allah denoting the truthfulness of His Apostle Muhammad (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) and the lofty position which Allah-glory be to Him- gas granted him. It is, as well, an evidence of the surpassing Omnipotence of the Almighty and His Exaltedness-glory be to Him-above all His human beings. The Almighty Allah says: (Glory be to [Allah] who did take His Servant for a Journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the Farthest Mosque, whose precincts we did bless, -in order that we might show him some of Our Signs: for He is the one who heareth and seeth [all things].) It has been transmitted in uninterrupted succession that the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) was ascended into the Heavens, the gates whereof were opened for him, until he passed through the seventh firmament when his Rub addressed him of what he willed, and enjoined upon him the five prescribed prayers. The Almighty Allah had previously prescribed them at first as fifty prayers, but our Prophet Muhammad (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) continued to demand easing, till the Almighty made them only five prayers. As duties they are only five, yet they are still fifty as far as recompense is concerned, since a good deed is worth the tenfold of it. Praise be to Allah for all His favours.
The night wherein the event of Isra' and Mi'raj occurred had not been particularized in the authentic Hadith. All that was in this concern, according to the scholars of Hadith, has not been asserted as valid by the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). Such is the extensive judiciousness of the Almighty Allah that He made people forget it. Even if its particularization had been asserted, Muslims should have not favoured it with any devotional services whatsoever. They are not permitted to celebrate its anniversary, since the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), and his companions -May Allah be pleased with them- never did it. Neither did they favour it with certain acts of devotion. Should such celebration of the Night be a licit matter, the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), would have expounded it to the nation, either by word or by deed. And if such a thing had occurred, it would have been known and become common, and the companions-may Allah be pleased with them- would have transmitted it to us. They, in fact, passed on from their Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), everything Muslims are in need of. Never were they remiss with regard to religion, nay, they were out strippers to every good. Should celebration of this anniversary Night were licit, they would have been the first to do it. The Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), is most sincere in guiding people. He most truly fulfilled his mission, and performed his noble duty. If the glorification and celebration of that Night had something to do with Islam, the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), would have never neglected it. Neither would he have concealed it. And since nothing of such a matter have ever occurred, it has become known that glorification and celebration of that Night has absolutely nothing whatsoever to do with Islam, because the Almighty Allah has perfected for this nation its religion, completed His favour upon it, and rebuked the innovators who introduce in religion that which Allah had not allowed. The Almighty-glory be to Him- says in the Quranic Chapter Al-Ma'ida: (This day I have perfected your religion for you, completed my favour upon you, and have chosen for you Islam as your religion). [5:3]. Allah -may He be exalted- also says in Chapter ALShura: (What! Have they partners [godhead], who have established for them some religion without the permission of Allah? Had it not been for the Decree of Judgment, the matter would have been decided between them [at once]. But verily the wrongdoers will have a grievous Penalty). Warning against heresies, and declaring that they are errors by way of reminding the nation of their gruesome peril, and estranging people from committing them, have been established as valid in the authentic Hadith of the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). It has been asserted as valid, among other traditions, in both Sahih Muslim and Sahih Al-Bukhari, on the authority of A'isha -may Allah be pleased with her- that the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), said: (If anyone introduces into this affair of ours anything which does not belong to it, it is rejected). In another version by Muslim, the Prophet said: (Whoever performs a deed inconsistent with our principles, it will be rejected). Muslim transmitted in his Sahih, on the authority of Jabir-may Allah be pleased with him- that the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), was always used to saying in his speech on Fridays: (and now to our topic; the best speech is that of the Quran, and the best guidance is that of Muhammad (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), and the most wicked matter is that of heretic innovations and each heresy is an error). It is reported in the Sunan (precepts) on the authority of AI-'irbad ibn Sariah-may Allah be pleased with him-who said: the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) gave us an eloquent exhortation that scared the hearts, and shed tears from the eyes. We said: O Apostle of Allah, it looks as if it were a farewell exhortation. Admonish us. Hethen said: "I enjoin you to fear Allah, and to hear and obey your commander even if he were a slave; for those of you who live after me will see great disagreement. You must therefore follow my Sunnah and that of the rightly guided Caliphs. Hold to it, and stick fast to it. Avoid novelties; for every novelty is an innovation, and every innovation is an error). The traditions to that effect are numerous. Caution and intimidation against heresies have been established as a matter of fact, on the authority of the companions of the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), and the pious ancestors thereafter. Such was the case only for its being an unnecessary addition to religion, a prescription of something novel without the permission of Allah, and an imitation of the adversaries of Allah, as did the Jews and the Christians with regard to making additions to their religion, and inventing what was beyond the permission of Allah, since that act of theirs was attended by their being prejudicial to Islamic religion, and accusing it of lack of perfection. This matter is quite known to be rife with a great deal of gross corruption, ignominious file actions, contradiction with the saying of the Almighty Allah: (This day I have perfected your religion for you....), and an obvious contrast to the traditions of the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), that caution against, and estrange from heresies.
I hope that the aforementioned evidences are quite enough for the truth seeker to reject this heresy, namely, that of celebrating the anniversary Night of 'Isra' and Mi'raj, and to caution against it, considering that it has absolutely nothing to do with Islam. In view of the fact that Allah has enjoined the duty to give Muslims sincere advice, to elucidate the divine prescription for them, and to proscribe concealing of knowledge to them, I decided to call the attention of my Muslim brethren to this heresy which became so rife in a lot of countries that some people deemed it pertaining to religion.
We ask Almighty Allah for the betterment of all Muslims, to grant them success in comprehending the religion, and to give us, along with them, success to abide by truth, maintain it, and relinquish what is incompatible with it. He -glory be to Him- is the omnipotent Lord of it. May peace and blessings of Allah be unto His Servant and Apostle, our Prophet Muhammad, his family, and his companions.
THE ISLAMIC LEGAL VIEWPOINT ON CELEBRATING THE ANNIVERSARY OF MID-SHA'BAN NIGHT.
The Almighty Allah says: (This day I have perfected your religion for you, completed my favour upon you, and have chosen for you Islam as your religion). [V:3]. Allah also says: (what! Have they partners [in godhead], who have established for them some religion without the permission of Allah)[XLII:21]. It is established as valid in both Sahih Muslim and Sahih AI-Bukhari, on the authority of A'isha -may Allah be pleased with her- that the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), said: (If anyone introduces into this affair of ours anything which does not belong to it, it is rejected). In another version by Muslim, the Prophet said: (Whoever performs a deed inconsistent with our principles, it will be rejected). Muslim transmitted in his Sahih, on the authority of Jabir-may Allah be pleased with him- that the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), was always used to saying in his speech on Fridays: (and now to our topic; the best speech is that of the Quran, and the best guidance is that of Muhammad (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), and the most wicked matter is that of heretic innovations and each heresy is an error). The verses and traditions to that effect are numerous. They distinctly prove that Allah-glory be to Him- has perfected for this nation its religion, and completed his favour upon it. The Almighty Allah ha not taken His Prophet unto Him except after he had fulfilled his plain mission, and expounded to the nation all the words and deeds such as were prescribed by Allah. He (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), had made it clear that all what people after him innovate, either by words or by deeds, and attribute to Islam, shall be considered a rejected heresy, even if it is done with good intention. The companions of the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), were acquainted with such a matter, and so were the scholars of Islam afterwards, in such a manner that they rejected and admonished against heresies, as was the case with all who compiled books on glorification of Sunnah and rejection of heresies, such as ibn Waddah, AI-Tartushi, Abu Shamah, and other. Among the heresies brought about by some people is that of celebrating the anniversary of mid-Sha'ban Night, and favouring its daytime with fasting. There are no reliable evidences of such a matter. It is true that there have been transmitted some traditions (Ahadith) on the merit of the Night, but they are too vulnerable to rely upon. As to what has been said concerning the merit of performing prayers in that Night it is entirely spurious, as is the opinion of so many learned men. A portion of such opinion is going to be mentioned later on, Allah willing. There are also traditions that have been transmitted on the authority of some ancestors of Syria and others, with regard to the merit of the Night. The majority of the well-known authorities are or the opinion that it is heretic to celebrate it, that all the traditions pertaining to its merit are vulnerable, and that some of them are spurious. Among those who admonished against the matter is AI-Hafiz Ibn Rajab in his book "Lata'if El-ma'aref" (Nice Lore) and in other books. The vulnerable traditions are only valid on the religious observances the basis whereof has been established by true evidences, whereas celebrating the anniversary of mid-Sha'ban Night, on the other hand, is too lacking for true basis to heed the vulnerable traditions.
This significant rule was stated by AI-Imam Abul Abbas Shaikhul-Islam ibn Taymia-may Allah have mercy upon him. I am going, O my reader, to cite what has been said on this issue by some learned men, in order that you may be fully aware of it. The consensus of the scholars-may Allah have mercy upon them- is that we must refer such an issue as we differ in to the Scripture of Allah-glory be to him- and to the precepts (Sunnah) of the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). It is the opinion expressed by both or by one of them that constitutes the Divine Law that ought to be followed, whereas we, on the other hand, should reject what goes contrary to them. Any acts of devotion such as were not mentioned by the Quran and the Sunnah are to be considered heresies that should not be pursued, to say nothing of preaching and approving of them.
One of them is that it is desirable to commemorate the Night congregational in mosques. It was the habit of Khalid Ibn Ma'dan, Luqman Ibn 'Amer, and others on the occasion to be richly clad, to be perfumed with incense, to colour the edges of their eyelids with Kohl, and to keep vigil during their Night. Ishaq Ibn Rahawaih agreed with them on the matter, saying that it was not heretic to keep a congregational vigil during the Night.
The other opinion purports that it is reprehensible to congregate during the Night in the mosques for prayers, narratives, and invocations, despite the fact that it is not detested that one may perform one's prayers individually. The opinion is based on the authority of AI-Awza'iy; imam, jurisprudent, and scholar of the Syrian people, and it comes fairly close to the truth, Allah willing, until he said: (We have known no words of Imam Ahmad on the mid-Sha'ban Night. As for the desirability of keeping vigil during the Night there are, on his authority, two accounts emanating from another two accounts of his, on keeping vigil in both feast Nights. In one account he find it undesirable to keep congregational vigil in both feast Nights, as it has never been transmitted that either the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), or his companions did so, while he in the other account, finds it desirable to keep vigil, since one of the followers, namely, Abdul Rahman ibn yazid Ibn AI-Aswad kept such a vigil. Such being the case with the feast Nights, it is likewise the same case as to the mid-Sha'ban Night, in view of the fact that such an act has not been established as valid, either on the part of the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), or on that of his companions-may Allah be pleased with them-at the same time when it has been established on the part of a group of followers of the eminent Syrian jurisprudence). Here is the conclusion of the purport of what was said by AI-Hafiz Ibn Rajab-may Allah have mercy upon him. The statement purports a declaration of his, that it has been established as valid that either the Prophet peace be unto him- nor his companions -may Allah be pleased with them-did such a thing in the mid-Sha'ban Night. As to what AI-Awza'iy-may Allah have mercy upon him-maintained on the desirability of keeping vigil individually during that Night, and as to this opinion being quoted by AI-Hafiz Ibn Rajab it is an odd and vulnerable saying, since whatever matter the legitimacy whereof was not established through religious legal evidences, a Muslim is not allowed to introduce into the religion of Allah, no matter whether he did it individually or congregationally, and whether he did it secretly or openly, due to the general saying of the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), (Whoever performs a deed inconsistent with our principles, hid deed will be rejected) and the like of evidences demonstrating rejection of and cautioning against heresies.
The Imam Abu Bakr AI-Tartushi-may Allah have mercy upon him-said in his book "AI-Hawadeth Wal-Bida"' [Events and Heresies]: (Ibn Waddah, based on Zaid ibn Aslam, said : "We have never come up with anyone of our sheikhs or jurisprudents who made a special meritorious consideration to the mid-Sha'ban Night, or even took into account the saying of Makhoul").
Ibn Abi Mulaikah was told that ziad AINumairi had said the recompense for the mid-Sha'ban Night is as much as that of the Night of Power (Qadr), but Ibn Mulaikah commented: should I have heard him and had a stick in my hand I would have beaten him. Ziad was a storyteller. The scholar AIShawkany-may Allah have mercy upon him-in his work "AI-Fawa'id AI-Majmou'ah" (Collected Benefits) said verbatim: (a tradition: O Aly! Whoever performs a hundred-raka'at prayer in the mid-Sha'ban Night, and reads in each rak'ah the opening Chapter of the Quran and the Chapter of AlIkhlas ten times, Allah shall provide for all his needs ...etc). It is a spurious tradition, and such is its declared version with the credit its doer gets, that no sensible man can doubt its spuriousness, especially that its informants are unknown. It has been transmitted in a second and third version the purport whereof is entirely fictitious, let alone the unknown nature of its transmitters. AI-Shawkany said too in his work "AI-Mukhtasar' (The Synopsis): (The tradition on the mid-Sha'ban prayers is untrue. According to Ibn Hibban out of the speech of 'Ali, "Let yourself keep vigil in the mid-Sha'ban Night, and let yourself keep fasting on its daytime"). This is a vulnerable saying: He also said in his work "AI-La'ali" (The pearls): (A hundred rak'at in the mid-Sha'ban Night, with reading Ikhlas Chapter ten times a rak'ah, and so forth. This tradition, narrated by AI-Dailamy and others, is spurious. Furthermore, most of its transmitters in the three versions are anonymous as well as feeble). He also said: the tradition of performing twelve rak'at with reading Ikhlas Chapter thirty times a rak'ah is spurious as also the tradition of performing fourteen rak'at. Such was the so-called tradition that it beguiled a group of jurisprudence as the author of "AI 'Ihia"' (Revival of Religious Sciences) and others, as well as so many exegetists. The prayers of the Night that is the mid-Sha'ban Night have been reported in various respects, all of which are untrue and fictitious. This is not contrary to the account of Tirmizy, on the authority of `A'isha'a report, on the visit of the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), to Baqi'graveyard, and the descending of the Lord to our world's heavens in the mid-Sha'ban Night, adding that the Almighty Allah grants His pardon to as many people as the number of hairs on the sheep of kalb Tribe. It is the invented prayers in that Night which is the topic of the narrative. However, the account reported by `A'isha is discredited by weakness and interruption. Likewise, the tradition of 'Aly as already mentioned on keeping vigil at the Night, vulnerable as it is, as we have already said, does not contradict the fact that these prayers are fictitious.
AI-Hafiz A]-"Iraqi said the tradition on the mid-Sha'ban prayers is trumped up against the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), quite as it is a lie fabricated against him. AI-Imam AI-Nawawy, in his work "AI-Majmou"', said: (Prayers known as the desiderata prayer, consisting of twelve rak'at to be performed at a time between Maghreb prayer and 'Isha' prayer, at the night of the first Friday of Rajab, as well as performing a hundred-rak'at prayer in the mid-Sha'ban Night, both of them are objectionable heresies. One has not to be duped by their being mentioned in the work of Qout EIQuloub as well as in "'Ihia' Uloum Eddine" (Revival of the Religious Sciences). Nor should one be fooled with the tradition therein, since the matter is, in its entirety, groundless. Nor, too, should one be deceived by imams to whom the matter appeared doubtful, and then accordingly they compiled some papers on their desirability, namely, of both the desiderata and the mid-Sha'ban Night prayer, since they are only blunderers in that respect.
AI-Shaikh AI-Imam Abu Muhammad Abdul Rahman Ibn Isma'il AI-Maqdisi compiled a valuable work invalidating both prayers, wherein he did such a good thing as to be commendable. So much is the talk of learned men on the question that we cannot cite. Should we have cited all that we have come to know of their talk our discussion would have been too long. Perhaps the truth-seeker may content himself with that we have mentioned. In consideration of the afore-cited verses and traditions as well as the discussions of the learned men, it becomes clear for the truth-seeker that celebrating the mid-Sha'ban Night by performing prayers or such like, and by favouring its daytime with fasting is a reprehensible heresy according to most scholars, since it is of no origin whatsoever in the immaculate Religion, nay, it belongs to what was introduced into Islam after the era of companions-may Allah pleased with them. It will be enough to convince the truth-seeker about this matter and the like, if he acquaints himself with what the Almighty Allah says: (This day I have perfected for you your religion), and other verses to the same effect, as well as the tradition of the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), purporting that (If anyone introduces into this affair of ours anything which does not belong to it, It is rejected) and the like of traditions. In Sahih Muslim, on the strength of Abi Hurairah's account, the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), said: (Let not yourself favour the Friday night and no other night with keeping vigil, nor do you favour its daytime and no other days with fasting, except that you are in the course of a prescribed fasting). If it was permissible to favour some nights with some acts of devotion, the Friday night would have been worthier than any other night; since its day is the best day the sun has shone on, according to the authentic Hadith of the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). In as much as the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), admonished against favouring it and no other night with keeping vigil, it has become a proof of the inadmissibility of the other nights, with all the more reason, being favoured with some acts of devotion, except on the strength of a true evidence demonstrating such favour. Since it is licit to keep vigil, and to put oneself out in the Night of Qadr as well as in the Ramadan nights, the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), called the attention thereto, and urged people to keep vigil during them by so doing it himself, as it was reported in both Sahih Muslim and Sahih Bukhari that the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), said: (Whoever keeps vigil in Ramadan out of faith, and seeking the reward of Allah, Allah shall forgive him his earlier sins, and whoever keeps vigil in the Night of Rajab or the Night of isra' and Mi'raj with celebration or some acts of devotion, the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), would have guided people thereto, or would have done it himself. Should such a matter have occurred, it would have been transmitted to people by the companions-may Allah be pleased with them. Neither would they have concealed it from people, considering the fact that they are the second-best advisers to people after the prophets-(Peace and blessings of Allah be upon them), and may Allah be pleased with the companions of His Apostle. You have thus previously known, on the strength of neither the Apostle of Allah nor his companions, that they made a merit of the first Friday Night of Rajab, nor of the mid-Sha'ban Night. It has been learned, thereupon, that to celebrate both nights is a heresy that was introduced into Islam. To favour them with some acts of devotion is equally considered a reprehensible heresy, and so is the night of the 27th of Rajab, which is held by some people to be the night of Isra' and Mi'raj. It is not permissible accordingly either to celebrate or to favour it with any devotional services, due to the foregoing evidences. Such would be the judgment if its date was determined. Why shouldn't it be so since the authentic statements of the scholars purport that such a date is unknown. As to the report of whomsoever that it is the night of the 27th of Rajab, it is a false account with no origin whatsoever in the authentic Ahadith (Traditions).
May Allah grant us, along with all Muslims, success in maintenance of and abiding by the Sunnah as well as caution against its transgressors. Allah is All-kind and magnanimous. May peace and blessings of Allah be unto His Servant and Apostle, our Prophet Muhammad, as unto all his family and companions.
From Abdul Aziz ibn Abdullah ibn Baz to every Muslim who happens to be acquainted with this statement may all Muslims be protected by Allah with Islam-and may He guard us as well all Muslims against the evil of the lies fabricated by the ignorant rabble-rousers, Amen.
I have known of a few words reportedly written by a Sheikh Ahmad, attendant of the Sacred Shrine of the Prophet ENTITLED (This is an admonition from Al-Madina AI-Munawara, by Sheikh Ahmad attendant of the Sacred Shrine of the Prophet.) In these words he says: "I was sitting up late at a Friday night, reciting the Glorious Quran. Having finished reciting the Holy Attributes of Allah, I was prepared for going to bed, when I saw Sayyedina Muhammad the Apostle of Allah-with his radiant countenance, (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), who brought to us the Quranic verses and the holy orders of the Shari'a as mercy to the universe, He said: "O sheikh Ahmad" I replied, "Here I am -Labbaik-O messenger of Allah, O noblest creature of Allah." He said to me, "I am so ashamed of the vile deeds of people that I could meet neither my Lord nor the Angels, since from Friday to Friday, a hundred and sixty thousand people died without faith in Islam. Then the Prophet reportedly mentioned some of the sins committed by people, adding that this admonition is mercy bestowed upon them by the Almighty. The Prophet then reportedly alluded to some portents of the Day of Judgement till he said, "Tell them this admonition, O Sheikh Ahmad, since it is transmitted by the Pen of the Almighty from the Guarded Tablet. He who writes and communicates it from country to country and from place to place shall have a palace builtfor him in the Heaven, but in case he does not do such an act he is to be deprived of my intercession on the Day of Judgement. And whoever writes it, Allah shall enrich him if he is poor, settle his debts if he is indebted, or pardon him and his parents if sinful; thanks to the blessings of this admonition. He who does not write it, his face shall blacken both in this world and in the Hereafter. Sheikh Ahmad then swore thrice by the name of Extolled Allah that he says the truth, and that if he was a liar, he would die as an infidel. He concluded that whosoever believes it, shall be delivered from the torment of the Fire, and who denies it shall become an atheist).
(Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), as he was prepared for going to bed, and not while actually sleeping.
That is to say, the vision of the Prophet appeared to him while being in a state of wakefulness. The liar claimed in this admonition a lot of things, which are among the most lucid lies, and the most obvious falsehoods, against which I am going soon to caution you, Allah willing. I have been warning against them, during the last years, and have explained to the people that these things are the most vivid lying, and the most distinct untruth. Having been informed with this recent handbill, I was reluctant to write anything about it, for its clear untruthfulness as well as for the great deal of boldness on the part of its fabricator in the field of lying. I could not conceive that its falsehood could fool anyone possessing the least power of mental perception or sound disposition. Yet several brethren informed me that it fooled many people among whom it was rife, and some of them gave it their credence. On this account, I saw that it was the duty of persons such as myself to write about it, so as to throw light upon its falsehood, as well as to demonstrate that it was invented against the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), so that no one may be deceived by it, and whoever considers it of those cognizants and faithful, or those possessed of sound disposition and sound mind, should come to know that it is nothing but pure lying and falsehood in many respects. I have inquired of some relatives of Sheikh Ahmad about this lie of admonition ascribed to him. They replied that it is invented against Sheikh Ahmad, adding that he by no means, said it, and that the so-called Sheikh Ahmad had died quite long ago.
Supposing that the so-called Sheikh Ahmad or anyone of even much higher standing than he, had in fact claimed that the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), appeared to him in a vision during sleep or wakefulness, and assigned to him this admonition, we would be convinced that he is a liar, or that it was the Devil rather than the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), that told him so in many respects. Among other things, the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), after his death, never appears in a vision to a wakeful person. He, of the ignorant Sufis, who claims that he sees, while being vigilant, the vision of the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), or that the vision attends the (Mawlids) or the like, would have been guilty of the foulest error, and have been exceedingly obscured. He would also have made a big mistake, and have gone against the Quran, the Sunnah, and the consensus of scholars; due to the fact that the dead never rise out of their graves in this world save on the Day of Judgment; as has been mentioned by Allah in connection with the attributes of believers: (And then at length you will certainly die: and again on the Day of Judgment you will be raised up) [XXII: 15-16]. Thus Allah had informed us that the resurrection of the dead would take place on the Day of Judgment, and not in this world. Whosoever holds an opinion contrary to this is either an obvious liar or an obscured blunderer, who has failed to perceive the truth recognized by our pious ancestors, and pursued favourably by the companions and followers of the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him).
As for the second aspect, the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), never said untruth, either during his lifetime or thereafter. This admonition goes openly counter to his Shari'ah in many respects such as follows. The Prophet -peace unto him-might be seen during sleep, and he to whom he appears in his holy figure during slumber has actually seen him, since the Devil never finds visual expression in the shape of the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), as has been stated in the authentic holy prophetic traditions. The whole consequence, however, depends upon the faith of the visioner, his truthfulness, honourable record, correctness, creed, trustworthiness, and whether he saw the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), in his own countenance, or not. If it even happened that a tradition was imputed to the Prophet -peace unto him- as being said by him during his lifetime, and it came down to us not through the equitable and reliable sources of good reputation, it would not be an authoritative and reliable tradition. Supposing that the tradition was transmitted through the reliable equitable sources of good reputation, yet it happened to be in conflict with another tradition which was passed on by a better and more reliable memoriser, and the difference was too enormous to reconcile both traditions, one of them must be abrogated and ineffective, and the other is abrogative and valid wherever possible and in conformity with its conditions. Should this be impossible, and both traditions could not be reconciled, the one passed on by the less memorizing and less equitable source must be discarded and considered anomalous as well as invalid. Just imagine how much less is an admonition whose transmitter who reported it from the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), is anonymous, not to mention the fact that his impartiality and trustworthiness is unknown. Such being the case, it deserves to be rejected without consideration, ever though it is devoid of anything incompatible with the Revelation. And how much less, if the admonition contains many points demonstrating that it is invalid and trumped up against the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), and comprising the start of a new creed unheralded by the Almighty Allah. The Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), said: "He who imputes to me something, which I have not said, let him settle down in the Fire." The man who invented this lie against the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), said what the Prophet did not say, and invented against him an open and grave lie. How proper for him this severe threat is, and how more deserving of it he is, unless he hastens to turn to Allah in repentance, and announces publicly that he had fabricated this admonition against the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), since whoever publicizes untruth imputing it to religion, his repentance is not true unless it is announced publicly and made clear, so that people might know that he retracted his lie and refuted himself. Allah-glory be to Him- says: (Verily, those who conceal the clear Signs and the Guidance which we have sent down, after we have made it clear for the people in the Book, they are the ones cursed by Allah and cursed by the cursers. Except those who repent and make amends and openly declare [the Truth, which they concealed]. These it is whom I will accept their repentance. And I am the One Who accepts repentance, the most Merciful). In this holy verse, Allah-praise and glory be to Him- made it clear that he who conceals any part of the Truth his repentance of this shall not be right, save after correction and exposition. Allah -praise and glory be to Him - has perfected the true religion for his human beings, and brought about for them His grace by sending us His Apostle Muhammad (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), as well as the perfect Revelation He sent down with him. Allah made him die only after consummation and demonstration; as Allah glory be to Him- says: (This day I have perfected your religion for you and completed My favour unto you, and have chosen for you as religion AI-Islam).
The calumnious inventor of this admonition has come in the fourteenth century, with his desire to start a new creed for the people, with the result that whoever adopts this creed shall be admitted to Paradise, while he who does not shall be deprived of it and settle down in the Fire. He wants to assign this invented admonition a position even greater and higher than the Quran; since he claims that he who writes and communicates it from country to another country, or from place to another place shall have a palace built for him in Heaven, and whoever does not, shall be deprived of the intercession of the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), on the Day of Judgment. Verily, it is of the vilest lying, and of the most obvious indications that this admonition is invented, and its author is impudent and bold in lying, since he who writes the Glorious Quran, and communicates it from country to another country or from place to another place, shall not have this favour, unless he acts on the strength of the Glorious Quran. Then how does the writer of this lie and its communicator from country to another country enjoy this favour, while on the other hand, he who does not write the Quran, nor communicates it from country to another country shall not be deprived of the intercession of the Prophet (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), as long as he has faith in him, and adheres to his Religion. Suffice it to mention this only piece of calumny in this admonition to prove its untruthfulness, the deceit of its propagator as well as his impudence, stupidity, and ignorance of the guidance brought about by the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him). This admonition comprises, aside from what has been already mentioned, several other points, all of which demonstrate its untruthfulness and falsehood. And even if its inventor had sworn, a thousand times or more, that it is true, although he had invoked the greatest torment and exemplary punishment upon himself that he is truthful, he was not so, and neither was the admonition. Rather it is, by Allah (twice), of the most abominable lying and the vilest falsehood. We ask Allah -praise and glory be to Him- and make the angels attending to us as well as him who knew of this writing to be witnesses that this admonition is false and fabricated against the Apostle of Allah-peace be unto him. Such a testimony with which we shall meet out Lord-glory be to Him- and may Allah disgrace him who wrote it, and treat him with what he deserves. The falsehood and untruthfulness of the admonition is demonstrated by many points other than the aforementioned. First of these points is the liar's statement (since from Friday to Friday a hundred and sixty thousand people died Without faith in Islam), because this is a pretence to know unseen matters. As to the Apostle (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), the Revelation ceased to be sent down upon him after his death. Considering the fact that the Apostle during his lifetime was not to know the divine secrets, how then is he to know them after his death; because Allah-glory be to Him-says: (Say: "I tell you not that with me are the Treasures of Allah, nor do I know what is hidden"), and says: (Say: None in the Heavens or on earth, except Allah knows what is hidden). In the authentic Hadith, it is reported that the Prophet-peace be unto him- said : (On the Day of Judgment, I assume the defense of some men by saying : "O Lord, (but they are) my companions, my companions". Then I will be told, "Verily, you do not know what heresy they brought about after your death." Then I will say as the virtuous man said "And I was a witness over them whilst I dwelt amongst them; when Thou didn't take me up Thou wast the Watcher over them, and Thou art a witness to all things).
Secondly: among the points indicating its falsehood and untruthfulness is the author's contention that: (He who writes it, Allah shall enrich him if he is poor, settle hid debts if indebted, or pardon him as well as his parents if sinful; thanks to the blessings of this admonition) etc. Surely, this is of the foulest lying, and of the most manifest proofs, that the inventor of this admonition is a liar and impudent towards Allah and Him human beings; since these three matters do not come about by merely copying the Glorious Quran. Then how do they occur to him who copies this untruthful admonition? Rather, this wicked liar wants to dupe people, and to set their hopes on this admonition, so that they may write it, become attached to this so-called favour, and abandon the reasons that Allah prescribed to mankind, and made them the proper means of richness, discharged of debt, and pardon of sins. May Allah keep us away from the reasons of disappointment, and submissiveness to the Devil, and to evil inclinations.
deceit of its author. How can a man sane in mind, deem it permissible that he who does not write this admonition brought about by an anonymous man in the fourteenth century (of Higrah) who trumped it up against Allah's Apostle-peace be unto him- and who claims that he who does not write it, his face shall blacken both in this world and in the Hereafter, and that he who writes it shall be rich after poverty, free from debts after being lost in them, and shall have his sins forgiven. Praise be to Allah, what a big lie! Both evidence and reality confirm the deceit of this liar, his gruesome boldness against Allah, and his shamelessness in front of Allah and people. There were too many people who did not write it, yet their faces did not blacken, and here is a large crowd of people, innumerable save by Allah, who wrote it a lot of times, but their debt was not settled and their poverty did not come to an end. May Allah guard us against the deviation of hearts as well as the prevalence of sins. These are attributes and requitals which the holy Revelation did not bring about for him who does not copy the greatest and most meritorious book, namely, the Glorious Quran. How, then, does it occur to him who copies a falsified admonition comprising a variety of untruths as well as several kinds of infidelity. Glory be to Allah, how Clement He has been, towards the man who was daring with Him to lie.
Fourthly: Among the points demonstrating that this admonition being of the most untruthful falsehoods and the most vivid lying is the statement, (Whoever gives credence to it, shall be delivered from the torment of the Fire, and whoever denies it, shall be an atheist). This, too, is of the most terrible boldness in deceit, and the most foul untruth. The liar calls upon all people to believe in his lie, claiming that thus they shall be saved from the torment of the Fire, and that whoever denies it shall be an atheist. What a prodigious terrible lie this liar has told against Allah. He, by Allah, said nothing but untruth. And it is rather he who believes it that deserves to be an atheist, than he who denies it; since it is a lie, untruth and completely unfounded falsehood. We ask Exalted Allah to be a witness for its untruthfulness as well as its falsifier's deceit; since he is willing to prescribe to the people what is not authorized by Allah, and to introduce into their religion what is alien to it, despite the fact that Allah had perfected and completed the religion for this nation, about fourteen centuries before this calumny was fabricated.
Light and render His religion victorious, even though the devils and their followers of the unbelievers and atheists (enemies of Allah) may detest it.
As to the emergence of various evils mentioned by the slanderer, that indeed is a matter of fact against which the Glorious Quran and the Immaculate Sunnah, both of them being full of divine guidance and sufficiency, had extremely warned. We ask Allah for the betterment of Muslims, and to bless them with the favour of observance of truth, of rightness and of turning to Allah-praise be to Him- in repentance of all sins, as He is most Merciful and omnipotent. As for what was mentioned, however, about the portents of the Day of Judgment, the traditions of the Prophet have illustrated what shall be of those portents. The Glorious Quran, too, has indicated some of them. He who wants to know that, shall find it in its proper place in the works of scholars possessed of sound knowledge and true faith. People are in no need for an explanation from such a liar, who mixes up truth with falsehood. Allah is quite sufficient for us, and what a perfect trustee He is. There is no power and no strength save that of Allah, the all-Exalted and the all-Great. Praise be to Him, Lord of the worlds, and peace be unto His devout servant and Apostle, truthful and honest as well as unto his family, companions, and those following him with good faith, until the Day of Judgment. | 2019-04-22T12:30:01Z | http://www.islambasics.com/book/5196 |
Nuendo 3 in all its splendour, showing an imported OMF file from Avid Xpress Pro, the new, resizable Quicktime Video Playback window, and a slightly more polished, professional-looking user interface.
Although it includes all the features of Steinberg's Cubase SX3 MIDI + Audio sequencer, Nuendo is targeted at the post-production market. To this end, the new version 3 includes features such as AAF import/export and integration with video editing systems.
It's been nearly two years since we reviewed Nuendo 2, Steinberg's last major version of what the company describe as their Media Production System, and it's been interesting to watch the developments to both Steinberg and Nuendo over this time. Nuendo 2 was released in the months following Pinnacle's acquisition of Steinberg, while Nuendo 3 's release came just as Pinnacle sold Steinberg to Yamaha. And just when I started to write this review, a further interesting development happened when Avid announced their intention to acquire Pinnacle.
It's perhaps a shame that Pinnacle didn't make more of Steinberg in terms of integrating the two company's products, although there are at least signs in version 3 of Nuendo that illustrate the cooperation that did exist, as we'll see in this review. As a video company, Pinnacle had their greatest success in the broadcast market, and since Avid wanted a greater presence in this sector, the acquisition makes perfect sense. Sound On Sound readers might be more familiar with Avid as the parent company of Digidesign, and given how large a presence both these companies have in the post-production market, Yamaha, as the new owners of Steinberg, still face a struggle to build up Nuendo 's share of this market.
There are basically two important facts to consider when evaluating Nuendo 3: first, that it contains every feature found in Cubase SX3 for content creation; and second, although Steinberg haven't always succeeded in distinguishing Nuendo from Cubase as a true post-production tool, Nuendo 3 is finally being pushed with an appropriate feature set in a way that makes it more appealing for that market.
In fact, even since releasing Nuendo 3.0, Steinberg have gone further still. As I was finishing this review, Nuendo 3.1 was in the late beta stages; and while it would be inappropriate to review beta software, I have tried to incorporate information about this new version where appropriate as the changes significantly affect many of my original comments concerning version 3.0.
With so many digital audio workstations on the market these days, each with its own proprietary file format, interoperability between different systems has become increasingly important. Avid originally set out to solve this problem with the OMF (Open Media Framework) Interchange format (sometimes referred to as OMFI) in the mid-'90s, and while this format has been widely adopted, with Avid publishing a developer kit for third parties, it wasn't an open standard, because Avid were the sole company in charge of OMF development. In the long term, this arguably impeded the success of OMF beyond Avid products and it became clear that another, more open solution was needed.
Nuendo now supports both the importing and exporting of AAF files. Here you can see the options available when exporting a Nuendo Project as an AAF file — similar options are also now available with exporting OMF files.
AAF (Advanced Authoring Format) was devised by a group of companies including Avid, Microsoft and the BBC as a file format designed to aid the workflow of users who need to transfer both data and metadata between different systems. Like OMF, AAF can either embed or link to audio and video files, and stores information about how those files are used in a project, as well as other project data such as start times, frame rates, automation and much more. For more information about the format, visit the AAF Association's web site at www.aafassociation.com.
Given the dominance of Pro Tools in the world of audio workstations, I was especially curious to see if I could export an AAF file from Pro Tools and import it into Nuendo. Initially, using Nuendo 3.0, I didn't have much luck. I created some simple test files in Pro Tools 6.9 containing eight mono audio tracks and a few short audio files recorded on tracks one, two and eight, with the start time set to 02:00:00:00 and the frame rate to 24fps. When importing this into Nuendo I got an error message box reporting that Nuendo "Failed to read AAF tracks. [Err 801201D1]" followed by a completely empty Import Options window offering no tracks available for import. I repeated the test with both Pro Tools TDM and LE (even though there should be no difference, as both use the same Digitranslator tool for working with AAF and OMF files) and tried with both the Avid Compatibility toggle enabled and disabled in Pro Tools ' s export options, but there was no difference.
Fortunately, though, after trying the same experiment in the beta version of 3.1, I'm pleased to say that the same AAF file I exported from Pro Tools will now import into Nuendo, with the audio files time-stamped to the correct locations. The AAF functionality in Nuendo 3.1 has been built with the 1.1 SDK (Software Development Kit) and, along with some other improvements, this means that AAF compatibility with Pro Tools 6.7 (and later) and Avid is now possible.
Going the other way, when exporting an AAF file from Nuendo (both version 3.0 and 3.1) to Pro Tools, Pro Tools would read the AAF file and import the audio so long as I chose the linked media option in Pro Tools (Pro Tools doesn't support audio files embedded into the AAF file).
The point of AAF isn't just limited to transferring data to and from Pro Tools, of course, and Steinberg's Nuendo forum at www.nuendo.com has plenty of examples where people are reporting successful transfers from video applications such as Apple's Final Cut Pro and Adobe's Premiere. While other audio workstations such as SADiE and Pyramix also include AAF support, I wasn't able to test this, although I did try exporting an AAF from Apple's Logic Pro 7.0.1 into Nuendo. The audio tracks imported successfully along with the frame rate and the basic start times of the Audio Events other than the offset from the start time. The start time of the Project was imported as 00:00:00:00 rather than 02:00:00:00 (although this could be a problem with Logic 's export), and the other clear problem was that the tracks were imported with read automation enabled, while automation was switched off on those tracks in Logic.
As a side note, I tried importing my AAF files created in Pro Tools into Logic as a comparison, whereupon the Logic window disappeared and the Mac reported "The application Logic Pro has unexpectedly quit." At least Nuendo 3.0 was more graceful in the way it dealt with a file it couldn't read before 3.1's improved AAF functionality.
Evaluating AAF support is somewhat tricky, because even if Nuendo 's implementation of AAF was completely flawless, you would still have problems if the application you were importing from or exporting to had a poor implementation. Therefore, it's impossible to know exactly where to point the finger of blame right now, especially as most applications have only just started offering AAF support. In conclusion, it's great that AAF support has been added to Nuendo, and Steinberg have done tremendous work already in improving this since the 3.0 release. However, I'd definitely advise prospective users to try experimenting with AAF transfers between the applications they need to communicate with before committing to Nuendo to avoid disappointment.
Other than AAF, Steinberg have also improved the import and export features introduced in Nuendo 2 for AES31, OpenTL and OMF files, most notably with the ability to import and export specific tracks rather than simply every track. In Pro Tools, I exported the same Session I used to create an AAF file as an OMF file, and this imported into Nuendo with the audio tracks, Events, start time and frame rate correct.
As a side note, it's worth mentioning here that the price of Nuendo 3 has now risen to an RRP of £1450, but consider that Pro Tools TDM and LE users must spend an extra £285 to purchase Digitranslator for full OMF and AAF support, while LE customers must pay £575 for DV Toolkit to have timecode in Pro Tools before they can buy the full version of Digitranslator. So all in all, £1450 for a full version of Nuendo 3 isn't that bad and I feel Steinberg are justified in increasing the price.
"Why use an Icon when you can have the real thing?" asks Euphonix's advertising literature. Certainly the company hope their high-end control surface offering, System 5 MC, paired with Nuendo will provide a competitive alternative to Digidesign's Pro Tools HD-based console workstations.
Steinberg first announced a strategic alliance with Euphonix, a high-end, large-format console designer who have products popular in the post-production and broadcast markets, back at the 2002 AES show in Los Angeles. Euphonix's flagship digital console, System 5, is a highly modular system that combines DSP cores with a router, A-D/D-A and digital format converters, and a control surface. While MADI is used to distribute audio throughout the various parts of the console, a protocol called Eucon operates over Ethernet to send control messages, such as when a user moves a fader on the control surface. At the 2002 LA AES show, Steinberg and Euphonix showed a preliminary version of Nuendo 1.x that offered some support for Eucon with one of Euphonix's smaller Maxair consoles, although it's taken a while for this technology to be taken further, and in the mean time Steinberg collaborated with a German broadcast developer to create the ID controller, which has never really been a success.
Following on from Nuendo 3 later this will be another release dubbed Nuendo Eucon, which will bring true Eucon support to Nuendo so that a Euphonix control surface can be used with Nuendo. Specifically, Euphonix are launching a product called MC, which is new control surface designed for use with desktop audio and video applications like Nuendo, featuring a keyboard, touchscreen, faders, programmable buttons, and a proper audio monitoring section. The monitoring section features an application called Studio Monitor Pro, where Euphonix came up with the idea to create a layer of software that sits in between the audio application, say Nuendo, and the ASIO (or WDM) driver that controls your audio hardware. Studio Monitor Pro then interacts with MC and is controllable from the MC's monitoring section and is set up via the MC's touchscreen.
Euphonix have also announced the System 5 MC, which is basically a competitor to Digidesign's D-Control/Command-based systems like the Icon. The System 5 MC combines the MC itself with eight-fader modules that are almost identical to those used on Euphonix's System 5 console (hence the name) to create a truly professional control surface with a large-format console feel for Nuendo users. Whether or not the Nuendo customer base is ready to embrace such a product remains to be seen, but it's good to see development towards high-end customers using the Nuendo platform. We'll bring you more coverage of Nuendo and System 5 MC later in the year.
As mentioned at the start of this review, Nuendo 3 includes a large number of new features and improvements for those working in film post-production, and perhaps the headline feature in this area is called 'Warp to Picture'. Like many features in Nuendo 3, Warp to Picture is actually incredibly simple, and incredibly useful. Cubase SX2 and Nuendo 2.1 introduced the Time Warp tool, which allows you to drag a musical beat or bar to a timecode position, while Cubase SX3 and Nuendo 3 offer the Warp Samples tool, which enables you to pick a point in time in an Audio Event, drag that point elsewhere in the time line and have SX/Nuendo automatically (non-destructively in real time) time-stretch the audio so that the point in the Audio Event now plays correctly to its new position.
Nuendo 's Edit Mode enables the picture to follow the edits you make; moving an object on the Project window, for example, makes the picture track the start position to which you're moving the object, allowing you to easily move an object to start at a specific frame of action. Warp to Picture basically means that when Edit Mode is enabled, dragging with either the Time Warp or Warp Samples tool will cause the picture to track the position as you're dragging the mouse, enabling you to effectively 'warp to picture'. This is pretty useful since it allows you to see exactly where you're dragging bar 14, for example.
Nuendo supports Pinnacle's X-Send Protocol to make it easy to work on projects started in one of Pinnacle's Liquid video editing systems.
The video playback features have been significantly improved in Nuendo 3, and a new Direct X video playback engine has been added alongside the older Direct Show engine and the standard Quicktime engine, which has also been improved in version 3. The Direct X and Quicktime engines no longer feature the three size options for the built-in Video Player window, since this window can now simply be resized like any other window, with Nuendo scaling the video accordingly. These two engines also feature a new option for Video Playback Speed where you can select one of three speeds for the video playback: Normal Speed, for regular playback, and 0.1 percent pull-up and pull-down. These latter options are to compensate for the speed change that would have occurred in the video during the process of transferring the film to video (telecine) or back again compared to the audio, and are very welcome additions to Nuendo.
Originally, my conclusion about these new video playback speed option was that "hopefully the next version will include 4 percent pull-up and pull-down, along with the option to change the audio speed as well as the video speed". So I was really pleased to see that while the video playback speeds don't offer 4 percent pull-up and pull-down in the 3.1 beta (although this could change in the release version), Steinberg have added both 0.1 and 4 percent pull-up and pull-down options to the Project Setup window, which affects the audio playback speed when you need to match the playback speed of the video you've been provided.
While Steinberg are no longer owned by Pinnacle, Nuendo 3 was developed during Pinnacle's ownership, and clearly shows areas where collaboration took place between the two companies. Nuendo now support video playback through two of Pinnacle's video cards via its Quicktime engine: Targa 3000 for Windows users and Cinewave for Mac users. If you want to use a non-Pinnacle video card, Nuendo 3 also offers support for the full range of Decklink cards from Blackmagic (www.blackmagic-design.net), also via Quicktime.
Another Pinnacle-related feature is Nuendo 3 's support of Pinnacle's X Send Protocol (which is also supported in Steinberg's Wavelab 5) for better integration with the company's Liquid video editing applications. In Liquid you can select X Send to / Nuendo and export one video track and up to 16 audio tracks into Nuendo (via the Import / X Send command) for further fine-tuning of the soundtrack.
Nuendo 3 also offers support for Gallery's ADR Studio (www.gallery.co.uk), a software application that makes carrying out ADR (Additional Dialogue Recording) sessions much easier. ADR Studio has been used with Pro Tools for many years for films including Lord Of The Rings and the recent Star Wars trilogy, but is now Nuendo-compatible as well, with ADR Studio running on a separate computer and connecting to your Nuendo system via MIDI ports. In Nuendo 's Device Setup window you can add Gallery Software ADR Studio as a new Device, configure the MIDI In and Out ports accordingly, and assign Nuendo commands to ADR Studio's Audition and Window/Alt buttons. ADR Studio basically controls Nuendo, turning it into a glorified tape machine in many ways, and remotely takes care of recording, in and out times, track naming, and general management. According to Steinberg, this is the type of integration we can expect to see develop further in Nuendo in the future.
Among the smaller improvements for those working with picture, Nuendo now supports a 24-hour timeline and will quiz you if you change the start time of a Project, much as Pro Tools does: "You have modified the timecode offset. Do you want to keep the project content at its timecode positions?" Clicking Yes here will keep the start times the same in terms of timecode (but not bars and beats), while clicking No changes the start times for timecode, but keeps the bars and beats intact. There are also two neat commands to add a one-frame fade-in and -out to selected Audio Events, and improvements to 9-pin sync behaviour.
Since version 2, Steinberg have made it made it possible for users to customise Nuendo quite extensively, and in version 3 the appearance customisation features in particular have been extended to give you more control over the aesthetic of Nuendo. While Nuendo 2 introduced the idea of appearance 'themes' to adjust the colour scheme of the user interface, version 3 replaces this with a new set of sliders in the Preferences window where you can adjust the saturation, contrast and brightness of the interface and see how this will look in a real-time preview area. Although you can't stray too far from Nuendo 's now very blue/grey stylings, many people will appreciate the ability to lighten or darken the appearance depending on the monitor they're using and the lighting conditions of the environment in which they're working.
Another colour-related enhancement is the ability to customise the start and end colours of the level meters in another new page found in the Preferences window — a feature that's also made its way into version 3.02 of Cubase SX. I'm not sure if this is particularly useful or not, but if you happen to hold a grudge with the colour of Nuendo 's meters (and I know a number of people who disliked the orange used in version 2!) at least it's now possible to adjust this according to taste.
While on the subject of colour, Nuendo 3 of course incorporates the new colour-related features of Cubase SX3, where colours assigned to Tracks can be displayed in the Track List on the Project window and on the corresponding channels of the Mixer window, in a space just below the Channel Strip. However, unlike SX3, where a Track's colour is indicated on the right of the Track List as a background for the level meter, in Nuendo 3 (as in Logic and Pro Tools) the colour is indicated to the left of the Track List. Existing users will remember that normally this space is used to show a colour that indicates the type of track used, whether it's audio, MIDI, and so on, and this is still the case when Show Track Colours is disabled. Once this option is enabled, however, the space to the right of the Track List now shows the colour for that track instead.
As with SX 3.0, Nuendo 3.0 didn't offer some kind of default colouring option for tracks, although this has been remedied in 3.1. Both Nuendo and SX will now offer a Preference option for newly created tracks to have either the default colour (as before), the same colour as the previous track, the next colour in the list of colours after the previous track, the last applied colour, or a random colour.
I think the user interface look for Nuendo 3 is the most appealing of all Cubase SX and Nuendo versions to date, and it's good that the interface has been refined in such a way this time that doesn't alter the way users of previous versions of the application have become used to working.
The organisation of audio files has been improved in Nuendo 3 and you can now add user-definable attributes to files, which can store data in one of three formats: as text, a number, or a check mark. As an example, you might want to add a Department attribute to specify whether an Audio File is Music, FX or Dialogue so that you can sort media in the Pool window or search for media by department, which is rather useful. One small problem, though, is that these user-definable attributes aren't saved with the audio file, meaning the attributes are only relevant for the files in the Project in which they're used. However, there is a workaround.
Using Nuendo 's Library function, which allows stand-alone Pools to be created, loaded and saved independently of a Project — you can't save a Project's Pool as a Library — you could add user-definable attributes to the Library and use this as your master Pool to make the attributes given to files accessible in all Projects. The only other thing that would be nice with regard to user-definable attributes is the ability to use presets in the window in which they're defined, rather than just being able to store and recall a single default set. Since most other areas of Nuendo now offer presets, it's surprising to find one window that doesn't offer this feature.
One of the most useful features in Nuendo 3 is the Rename Objects window. Although it might seem fairly uninteresting on the surface, this simple addition has the potential to save hours of work over the course of a project. Rename Objects (Edit / Rename) allows you rename either a collection of multiple Parts and Events or multiple tracks in a single pass, based on a common naming scheme.
One common example of where this can be useful with audio files is where you have tracks named after instruments and so you end up with a collection of files called 'Cimbasso_01', 'Spoons_01', and so on. If you're working on a film, you might want to name these files with the name of the cue — '6m44', for example — at the start, followed by the instrument name from the track and the version number. With Rename Objects you can now rename the files to be '6m44 Cimbasso v1', '6m44 Spoons v1' and so on, in a single operation, which is a real blessing when you might have 50 cues, each with 50 audio tracks.
To use Rename Objects, select the objects you want to rename and select Edit / Rename. If no Events or Parts are selected, the selected Tracks will be renamed; otherwise the selected Events or Parts will be renamed. One thing I initially found confusing about Rename Objects is that when you rename Events on the Project window, it's the Description flag of the Event that gets renamed; the name of Event — which is to say the filename — isn't affected by renaming process. However, it is possible to use the Rename Objects window to rename Audio Files: you just have to do this in the Pool rather than the Project window.
The Rename Objects window allows you to batch rename tracks, Parts, Event Descriptions and file names based on certain conditions.
Getting back to the germane issue, in the Rename Objects window you can choose eight different rename elements from top to bottom that affect the naming from left to right. If you use Rename Objects from the Project window, each element can be one of five options: Free Text, literally a field of text added to the name; Original Name, which adds the original object name and can remove numbers or non-alphanumeric characters; Number, to add a number that increments or decrements within a specified range with each object named; Project Time, which adds the start time of the object in a user-specified time format; and Date, which adds the current date in a format of your choice. All the options except Free Text include both Prefix and Appendix fields to add text before or after the text generated by the relevant option.
If you use Rename Objects from the Pool window, though, you get all the options you have in the Project window, plus attributes that concern information about the file, such as the file extension, bit depth, sample rate, and tempo (if musical mode is being used for real-time time-stretching). A nice touch is that you can also add any of the user-definable attributes you've created; so if you want to name all the files according to the Department they came from, to continue the example, this is also possible. In fact, it would be useful to have the User Attribute option available in the Project window as well.
In the land of Pro Tools (or even Nuendo), engineers usually find ways of providing the Rename Objects functionality by using additional applications such as Quick Keys, which is somewhat inflexible and basically requires the user to create scripts to improve their workflow. Having this kind of feature built right into the application, no matter how boring and simple it might seem, is a clear sign than Steinberg are listening to users and implementing features to help make repetitive tasks less tedious, which surely is the point of using computers in the first place!
As Nuendo relies completely on your computer's hardware, aside from any additional plug-ins you may have that use DSP accelerator cards, the performance you can expect from the system depends solely on your machine's specification. For Windows users Steinberg suggest a minimum of a 1.6GHz Pentium or Athlon processor, Windows XP Home or Professional (the latter is required for dual-processor systems), and MME or ASIO-compatible audio hardware, while Mac users should have at least a Power Mac with dual 1GHz G4 processors. All users should have at least 512MB RAM, a DVD-ROM drive (Nuendo now ships on a DVD), and a free USB port for the copy protection key.
For best results, a 2GHz processor is recommended for Windows users and a dual-2GHz Power Mac G5 for Mac users, along with 1GB RAM, and a dual-display system with each display having at least 1152 x 864 pixels. While Steinberg don't specify a minimum display resolution, you would absolutely not want to consider using Nuendo on anything less than 1024 x 768, and even at this resolution, things get a little cramped as I found when using my ultra-portable IBM X40 Thinkpad.
Nuendo 2 featured a brand new audio engine that brought with it the VST Connections window, a new, consolidated way of setting up Input, Output and Group channels. As in Cubase SX3, Nuendo 3 has two new tabs added to this window: External FX, for incorporating external outboard hardware units as if they were plug-ins into the VST mixer, and Studio, which currently features a single buss known as the Audition buss. As in SX3, the internal audio click in Nuendo is now routed automatically to the Audition buss, so you can choose to what physical output on your audio card the click will be sent. However, in Nuendo 3 there is one additional use for the Audition buss.
Each audio-based channel on the Mixer now features a Listen (L) button just below the conventional Mute and Solo buttons, which adds after- or pre-fader listening (AFL and PFL) functionality to Nuendo. There's a button on the Audition channel on the mixer (also, usefully, available as a Key Command) that, when active, selects AFL, and when not enabled sets PFL so that when Listen is enabled on a channel, that channel's audio is routed to the Audition channel (in addition to its standard Output buss) either before or after the fader has processed the audio on the given channel. It's worth pointing out as well that, although the Audition buss is stereo by default, you can right-click it and use the Change Bus command from the context menu to set it to a mono or multi-channel configuration.
Here you can see Listen mode enabled on the two audio channels to the left: notice how the first send on the Default Output buss is routed to the Audition buss and how it's automatically disabled when any channels have Listen enabled.While the new AFL/PFL functionality in Nuendo is welcome, there are a couple of points worth mentioning. The implementation of the Listen mode so that it operates separately to the Solo mode is potentially useful, compared with other implementations of AFL/PFL that work instead of the standard solo-in-place (SIP) mode: for example, in Pro Tools 6.9 (or even on high-end consoles such as System 5 from Euphonix) the Solo button is itself configurable between SIP, AFL and PFL modes. However, one obvious disadvantage in creating a new button for AFL/PFL is that existing control surfaces don't have a Listen button, and there doesn't appear to be a way of setting a control surface's Solo button to be either Listen or Solo, which might be a simple way of solving this issue. Even in Nuendo itself, you can't even access the Listen function on the track in the Project window, as you can with other Mixer functions like Mute, Solo and Read and Write Automation. The only way to access the Listen function within the Project window is to select a track and open the Channel Section in the Inspector.
The second issue to consider with AFL/PFL mode is what happens when you want to effectively mute all channels on the Mixer except those with Listen enabled. Nuendo achieves this by what the manual describes as a 'special relationship' with the Default buss. The Default buss is the Output buss to which, in general, newly created audio channels are assigned, and is indicated in the VST Connections window by an orange/red speaker next to the appropriate Output buss. You can make any Output buss the Default buss by right-clicking it and selecting Default Bus from the context menu.
In order to for all channels except those with Listen enabled to be heard, Nuendo automatically sets up a 0dB send on the Default Output buss channel on the Mixer to the Audition buss, so the idea is that you always monitor through the Audition buss. This does, of course, make the Default Output buss somewhat redundant and means you have to have double the number of outputs available for monitoring: four for stereo, 12 for 5.1, and so on. When you enable Listen on a channel, that channel's audio is routed either AFL or PFL to the Audition buss (in addition to its Output buss), as we've already discussed; but to cut the rest of the mix, Nuendo disables the send on the Default Output buss channel so only the audio-based channels being routed directly to the Audition buss can be heard.
While Steinberg advise against routing the Default Output and Audition busses to the same physical outputs, it is possible to do this in a way that doesn't give duplicate signals and allows you to use AFL/PFL in a way that mutes the channels not in Listen mode. If Nuendo detects that the Default Output and Audition busses are sent to the same physical outputs, the level on the send from the Default Output buss channel to the Audition buss is set at minus infinity rather than 0dB to avoid double-bussing. However, if you set this back to 0dB, enable the pre-fader button on that send and set the level fader of the Default Output buss channel to minus infinity, you will now hear only the output of the full mix being routed through the Audition buss. Since the send will still get disabled automatically by Nuendo when you enable Listen mode on a channel, you will now only hear the channels with Listen enabled through the Audition buss until you disable the Listen buttons again. And for this, the Mixer also has an extra Deactivate All Listen button, just like for Mute, Solo, and Read and Write Automation.
If you think all of this sounds a little awkward, I'd agree with you. However, part of the problem here isn't actually Nuendo: if you look at the way Pro Tools 6.9 deals with AFL/PFL Solo without any extra hardware, it's a little bit easier than with Nuendo, but you still have to specify what outputs should become muted when channels are routed to the AFL/PFL channel. The extra hardware that would help this situation is an external monitoring box that could be controlled by Nuendo. Pro Tools 's AFL/PFL is designed for use with the D-Command and D-Control surfaces, which feature XMON, a hardware monitoring box that automatically mutes the main channels when AFL/PFL is active. Hopefully, products like the MC from Euphonix (see box) will be able to bring this elegance to Nuendo users as well.
One additional issue with the Audition buss brings us back to the beginning of this section where I mentioned that, as in Cubase SX3, Nuendo 3 also sends the click to the Audition buss. This means it's impossible to not have the click on the same buss as your AFL/PFL solo, unless you disable the click. Having a separate click buss in the Studio page of the VST Connections window would be a better solution, and it would be great if Steinberg allowed the click channel to have auxiliary sends so it could be routed to multiple headphone mixes for those who use Nuendo for tracking in a recording studio context rather than for post-production. The workaround that solves both of these potential problems right now is to use a VST Instrument like LM7 for your metronome click instead.
The fact the Default Output can use an auxiliary send to route audio to the Audition buss illustrates another important feature in Nuendo 3 — the ability for Output busses to route audio to other Output busses to the right of them via sends. So if you have four Output busses labelled one to four, left to right, output one can send to outputs two, three and four, while output three can only send to output four. Despite the limitation, being able to route outputs still has many uses, and could be especially useful for creating headphone mixes within Nuendo or sending mixes to multiple speaker configurations.
Overall, though, Nuendo 's Mixer is still slightly less flexible than mixers found in competing digital audio workstations. For example, one feature I really miss in Nuendo is not being able route the outputs of Group channels as the Inputs of Audio channels, so you could bounce and create more complex mixers entirely in Nuendo. While not perfect, Pro Tools ' internal busses (which are in many ways the equivalent of Group channels in Nuendo) do allow this and it would be great to have this functionality.
Nuendo 3 includes a new plug-in called Mix Convert to make it easy to downmix files, as shown here, to create a stereo mix from a 5.1 source.
On the subject of output routing, a feature that would be nice to see is support for different layouts of surround output channels. Nuendo 3 's surround output mapping conforms to the standard (and most commonly used) SMPTE/ITU layout, which is L R C LFE Ls Rs. Other common layouts include L C R Ls Rs LFE and L R Ls Rs C LFE, and while it's possible to adjust the surround routing in Nuendo by just changing the physical output assignments around, the onus for knowing how to re-patch everything is placed on the user. An extra option to re-patch the surround channel layout when you right-click a buss in the VST Connections window would be welcome.
One improvement to the Mixer in Nuendo 3 is the use of the Mix Convert plug-in, which is a newly included plug-in that can convert incoming audio in one speaker format to outgoing audio in a different format: you could use this as an insert on a stereo channel to downmix to mono, for example. Nuendo automatically uses the Mix Convert plug-in in situations where you have a 5.1 channel routed to a stereo output: double-clicking the panner automatically opens a Mix Convert plug-in editor — you don't see it instantiated as an insert on the Mixer. Mix Convert offers quite a number of controls, such as the ability to adjust the phase of individual speaker channels (except the front centre channel, of course!), adjust the incoming gain and the level of the surrounds, centre channel and LFE that goes into the downmix.
Mix Convert is actually really useful for creating downmixes, especially since this is far more complex in Pro Tools: audio channels can only be routed to outputs with the same speaker layout — you can't route a 5.1 channel to a stereo channel without creating sub-paths, and creating a downmix requires some creative routing if you don't use a plug-in such as Waves' M360° Surround Mixdown plug-in from the 360° Surround Tools bundle, which adds to the cost of the system.
Another improvement in Nuendo 3 (also implemented in Cubase SX3) is the ability to quickly assign the Input and Output busses to audio channels. Holding down Alt/Option while selecting an Input or Output assigns all selected channels to that Input or Output, while holding Shift while selecting an Input or Output assigns Input or Output busses incrementally to the selected channels. Another real time-saver.
Nuendo 3 is a significant step forward when compared with Nuendo 2, and without doubt the best overall release of Nuendo in the product's five-year history. In part, I think this is due to Steinberg finally embracing areas that really needed to be addressed to orientate Nuendo towards the post-production and high-end audio markets. And very publicly placing the company's Project Manager for Post-production, Martin Stahl, in LA with Euphonix to investigate the needs of the LA post-production market has clearly helped to build a better product.
Nuendo isn't perfect, of course — there are still the odd bugs and issues that crop up — but overall, there are many improvements in Nuendo 3 and features that finally make it possible to consider the system more seriously in the context of film, media and high-end audio work.
Nuendo 3 has many features and improvements targeted at post-production customers, including AAF import and export, pull-up and pull-down support for video playback, and better media management.
Incorporates all of the new features found in Cubase SX3 for those working with MIDI in the same Project.
Features such as Rename Objects offer time-saving workflow improvements.
Mixer lacks a flexible bussing architecture.
Nuendo 3 is a major update to Steinberg's Media Production System that combines all the functionality of Cubase SX3 with long-awaited new features and improvements specifically for the post-production market.
£1449.99; upgrade from v2 £349.99; upgrade from v1 £499.99. Prices include VAT. | 2019-04-20T10:32:41Z | https://www.soundonsound.com/reviews/steinberg-nuendo-3 |
One of the country’s longest-running nonprofit arts centers has just announced that its “continued existence is in serious financial jeopardy.” While dispiriting announcements like this are common enough during the current economic recession, this loss promises to be particularly devastating. Founded in 1974, the organization has been a center of the San Francisco arts scene for the last three decades and more; it has served in that time as a vital laboratory for conceptual art, poetry, installation and performance – which practices found little purchase in mainstream institutions in the Bay Area in the Seventies and Eighties – as well as a crucial point of contact with the national and international artists who were shown there.
I hoped then that the board, and director Sandra Percival, might see Tercerunquinto’s project (and my review) as a kind of challenge: not only to raise money, but to re-imagine Langton’s role in the arts community, to locate and support forms of practice not addressed or exhibited adequately by larger institutions like SFMOMA and Yerba Buena Center for the Arts, and to pursue new audiences and new roles for itself. It doesn’t seem from outside that these questions were engaged within the institution; certainly they were not engaged effectively enough. Indeed it sometimes seemed as if the institution was moving in a conservative direction, considering its history (less poetry, less community, less chaos). And by largely showing artists who had been recognized and legitimated by institutions elsewhere, Langton lived problematically in those institutions’ shadow.
This was in many ways a losing gambit. Percival’s letter of resignation, which she sent out to many in San Francisco’s artistic community, attributes Langton’s current distress to “a ‘perfect storm’ that we have encountered since last fall’s climactic economic events.” Judith Williamson teaches us to be on our guard whenever the economy is naturalized in metaphor – you know you’re about to be handed a bill of sale. Percival’s letter rightly takes credit for the institution’s achievements during her tenure, including many compelling shows and events, and a stunning renovation by architect and board member Kyu Che. (It also includes some events whose credit ought to have been shared with the “small staff” who goes unnamed in her letter – for the record, Carrión, Sam Spiewak and Zoe Taleporos – or guest curators like Anne Colvin, Pamela Wilson-Ryckman and Jill Dawsey.) Yet if, as director, the achievements are hers, then so are the institution’s disappointments and missed opportunities; we can’t blame everything on the weather.
Her departure presents the board, and San Francisco in general, with another crisis, in its ancient sense of a “decisive moment” or “turning point.” Can Langton survive its current predicament? Should it? In what form? We must ask not only “what now?,” but “why?” and “for whom?” Proximity Magazine published in May Joseph Del Pesco’s interview with Renny Pritikin, who, with his wife Judy Moran, directed Langton for its first fifteen years or so. He says, “My friend Anne Focke, who started and/or gallery in Seattle around the same time we were building New Langton Arts, was visiting recently, and we asked ourselves: “If we were starting again today, what would we do?‘” This moment of crisis, and the “town hall” meeting Langton promises, will offer all of us the chance to ask their question with renewed intensity.
It’s devastating to see such an important local institution in this state. Still, I can’t help feeling that the first step down this hazardous path was the decision to import a director from outside the Bay Area, with a shift in focus from the regional to the international. The Bay Area has fewer and fewer spaces that support experimentation and innovation on the local level. There’s a misconception that turning outward, toward more market-supported art, is going to result in better revenues for these small organizations. These sad circumstances at Langton demonstrate why that’s not necessarily a solution.
This is not to say that we should exclude the world beyond the Bay Area, but that international trends and movements should be articulated by our local institutions through a healthy balance of local and international practices represented. Our artists and critics are well aware of what’s happening in the larger world, and can hold their own. If we don’t support them locally, we can’t hope to make any real impact on a national or international level as we’ll forever be copying what someone else did first.
I’m glad that this article appeared, as it at least should be noted with gravity that this often-vital institution is likely to pass out of existence. (I should say that I ran the organization with my wife Judy Moran for many years).
I wanted to point out that it is historically inaccurate to state that the field of artist-run spaces arose only because of the availability of federal funds. It may very well sound pollyannish to contemporary ears, but this movement arose out of both formal innovation, as Julian writes, with no outlet for artists working in that way, as well as a politicized desire to build parallel cultural delivery systems. The NEA Visual Arts program, under the brilliant leadership of Jim Melchert, responded to the rise of the movement with a grant program in the late 70s or early 80s, after the fact.
Thank you for this Julian. My projects The Colony Room and Sgt. Pepper’s were in fact a return to “more poetry, more community and more chaos” which in all fairness Sandra Percival embraced and fully supported. Perhaps too little, too late but I think it was a seed and hopefully one which we can build on.
I am a newcomer to San Francisco who, prior to moving to the city, had great expectations of New Langton Arts. I was coming from another alternative space in Texas that was built in the 1980s, inspired by The Kitchen and Langton.
When I first walked into New Langton Arts it was already remodeled. The first thing I noticed was the floors. The floors were wood polished floors that reminded me of some of the galleries off of Geary Street. This floor lacked the qualities of an experimental space. The New Langton that I saw seemed to be looking with obedience to the surrounding institutions, rather than imposing itself to the dogmas of 3rd street @ Mission all they way to Geary St.
But I must say that I had great experiences at Langton, such as The Colony Room organized by Anne Colvin. I also admired the dedication of the staff whose dedication to the organization was apparent.
Although it will be greatly missed, it is important to question what we are missing. Is it its prominent history, or the resistant nature embodied in its earlier years? That nature that was not afraid to take risks in order to address the concerns of the artistic community that other institutions always love to ignore.
Does anyone know if a time and place has been set for the Town Hall meeting?
The date and time of the meeting will be posted on NLA’s website (www.newlangtonarts.org) and their blog http://newlangtontownhall.blogspot.com/ in the near future.
Thanks for this, Julian – I’m much saddened by the current state of affairs at New Langton and glad to find the problematics of the situation up for debate.
I don’t want to derail the discussion with a discourse on flooring, but as I understand it, the recent refurbishment of the organization restored its galleries to more or less their original state, stripping out later decorative additions and removing the mdf boards, which covered the original wood floors. Thus what we are seeing is a more true to life version of the institution in its heyday, rather than the New Langton we may have gotten used to in recent years. In any case, I am not sure that the best argument for questioning New Langton’s credentials to show experimental art is that the space is too nice.
I’m also not too sure what the fact that a director was hired in from the outside has to do with New Langton’s current plight (which is not to say that I don’t think the director should take responsibility for both the good and bad, as Julian points out). Nor that Sandra Percival qualifies as “international.” Although based in the UK for 13 years prior to arriving in the Bay Area, Percival is a Washington state native and lived and worked many years in Seattle. I think that probably places her in the regional, or “at worst,” national category.
That said, New Langton’s history is anything but purely local – the lengthy list of artists who has shown there reads like a national, and in parts international, directory (and history) of conceptual and performance art – from Paul McCarthy to Vito Acconci, Nam June Paik, Tony Oursler, Michelangelo Pistoletto, Eleanor Antin, Joan Jonas and Felix Gonzalez-Torres, not forgetting artists closer to home like Tom Marioni and Bruce Conner. The salient point is that New Langton chose to work with these artists at relatively early stages in their career, supporting work considered too experimental for many institutions. An institution becomes great, dynamic, of interest when it has a clear mission, a clear sense of its community and audience – this does not have to be achieved by barring the doors to outside influences. But it does require focus, which in this case seems to have blurred, resulting in the failure to represent constituencies (whether literary or musical) traditionally associated with the organization, the alienation of many members of the local arts community, and schizophrenic programming with the occasional glimpse of lucidity provided by shows like “The Good, The Bad, and The Ugly,” and “Small things end, great things endure.” The last title being somewhat unpleasantly prophetic in the circumstances.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7YHkKo_ngfE&feature=related In hard times, it’s comforting to listen to good music.
Leigh, you bring up a really good point: the question of the institution’s mission and its commitment to it. Does anyone know if this is the original one? Has it been revisited in the past?
How might it be rewritten now, and does it need to be? This will inevitably be the primary challenge facing the Board, provided they are able to save it.
My wife Susan Crossley and I have served on the Board for 7 or 8 years during the Susan Miller / Sandra Percival eras. I served as Chair recently as well. In the past I lived in NY for 12 years and was involved with Avalanche, the Clocktower and the beginnings of PS 1. When I moved to San Francisco 15 years ago I found Larry’s wonderful Matrix program immediately but it took me about 4 years to find New Langton and I was finally home. I respect the large art institutions as they find, educate and convert wealth but they must be safe and simple. Langton and other smallish organizations can feast on today’s art which is conceptual, experimental, multi-disciplinary and difficult to fathom. There in lies the problem. It is not safe, easy, saleable, auctionable, historic, popular and that is why is is so good. It is bohemian art that may or may not be great art but it can be absorbed and felt now. MOMA et al. can not deal with it as it is not institutional. I think Susan did a good job of moving it along and Sandra had a difficult start and the program changed. The artists representing the disciplines left the board and Sandra became the voice and did the best she could. Times are tough of course and that makes everything more difficult but let me inform you that Langton has not failed; it is just in the process of being reinvented. Waves of new artistic energy will continue breaking on San Francisco’s shores and Langton is rising from the ashes as I write. The legacy of the large museums and schools are those who want to be on the cutting edge and want to judge for themselves and we are their place. Money and new board members will arrive through the leadership of the new leader yet to be named. Susan and I are not sad , we are excited and plan to continue to be a part of the 36th year.
Nice to see your name here, and thank you for your thoughts. I served on the board of New Langton in 2004-2005 as one of the “artists representing the disciplines.” Specifically, I co-curated the “Performance Writing” series with Jocelyn Saidenberg. My experience as a curator, and a board member at New Langton was really terrific, and I have always valued some of the relationships that emerged and work that we were able to do. And looking back, I am extremely proud of the series that we programmed.
But just to chime in for the record (SFMOMA blog, I guess, is “the record”): Sandra Percival made it very clear that the kind of programming we had been doing, despite its success, would not be allowed to continue under her regime. For my part, I took literary programming at NLA very seriously, appreciative of its rich history and importance for local writing and art–and after putting a lot of work into building a successful program and packing the house, it was surprising to be asked to stop. I can’t speak for any other board member who left, and I’m NOT, but for me, I would have been extremely happy to remain on the board because ultimately I believed in the possibilities at Langton, was learning a lot about that kind of service, and really enjoyed many of my sister board members. It was very clear, however, that the “conceptual, experimental, multi-discplinary and difficult to fathom” artists that we were bringing to Langton (and, not to make a blog comment into a brag but bringing to large and grateful audiences) were not going to be welcome under the new regime.
It is very difficult for any institution to change. And there is usually a period of discord and in the worst cases, total collapse before any change is possible. This is not a novel idea, we all know this, it constantly reoccurring theme. From our climate, to Obama, to the economy, to our banks, to the auto industry, we are surrounded by the word change. You could say change is the theme of the late 2000’s and to mollify the uncertainty of it we are told change is good. But this knowledge doesn’t lessen the sting and it doesn’t make it any easier to change. In fact, the hardest thing is knowing when to change, what to change, who to change and how. What does change mean if you can’t see it until it is too late?
Having worked at the non-proft gallery, Art in General (1), in New York City, a space that was also going through similar (though perhaps not quite so grave) challenges as Langton (not to mention being married to someone who is also dealing with the closing of another important bay area non-profit arts institution), I can somewhat contemplate the difficulties of keeping a non-profit institution, not only open and running, but germane and vital in a shifting art world. It was hard enough in New York. I can only imagine the difficulties of running a non-profit now and here, in the elusive and under-supported San Francisco Art World.
The most important question for me that has been asked here, and the one that requires the most change, was asked way before this blog exchange started, in Julian Myers’ Tercerunquinto article. And that million-dollar question was to ask Langton why they should survive? Which is actually a very existential question. I think Myers is basically asking Langton, if you want to live then explain why you are alive. What is your reason for being? And why should we the San Francisco Art world support that.
If we, as Sartre suggests, have a responsibility to each other perhaps we should use the condition of Langton as a mirror for the sustainability of the entire Bay Area art world. If is Langton flailing then our art world is flailing and we need a new model or models to sustain ourselves. So perhaps we should not simply be asking Langton why they should survive or in my existential translation, what is their reason for being, but we should be asking ourselves (as of course many of us have, if this blog post is any indication) what do we want Langton to be and beyond that what do we want the Bay Area art world to be and how do we get there?
This Langton situation is bittersweet. It has been horrible for the difficulties it has caused the staff, artists, and curators not to mention the audiences, who depend on Langton for support, both financial and inspirational. However I am quite excited by the dialog it has created within the arts community here. It gives me hope for the future. I look forward to the Town Hall meeting.
(1) At Art in General we realized that things had shifted drastically from the 70’s and 80’s when most of the NYC non-profits began (as many of the non-profits elsewhere have also realized and changed to try and meet the shifting demand). The need for non-profits to simply grant exposure to underrepresented and emerging artists had changed. Artists in New York needed more than exposure to survive, they needed financial and administrative backing. So we reduced the numbers of shows produced each year and subsequently the numbers of artists supported, and shifted to a commissioning institution, providing artists both a production budget and a separate honorarium to create new and complex projects that otherwise might not get made. This was not an easy change to make. It was difficult for our audience, the board, the funders and the granting organizations to understand the reduction in the number shows presented each year and numbers of artists shown, even though our support could help sustain an artist’s practice and thereby the New York art world, much more than our previous model.
Just a few quick responses.
My phrasing in the original review gave the wrong impression about Langton’s relation to the NEA. Renny’s version is believable, true, and inspiring, even for those of us with few Pollyannaish tendencies.
I concur with Leigh’s discourse on flooring, and what she says about “import(ing) a director from outside the Bay Area.” Yes, even a cursory glance at Langton’s history will reveal an abiding concern with national and international artists. I’ll just add that disaster wasn’t inevitable – and certainly wasn’t provoked by hiring a director from outside the Bay Area. Alongside the obvious economic limitations, the problems (as I argue above) were in the matrix of programming and in the sometimes troubled relationships amongst the director, staff, board, and the different constellations of creative people who felt a deep connection to the place. Brandon’s comment provides a case in point.
I am very appreciative that this discussion is taking place. Thanks to Julian and SFMOMA for providing a platform for this. I served as Program Director at Langton from 99-2004, and am now part of the Warhol Foundation in New York. Langton is/was a Warhol Initiative member, one of sixty groups in the nation that were provided with capacity support and professional development opportunities. (Intersection, Galeria, Headlands, Luggage Store, Camerawork, and Southern Exposure are among others locally). During my time at Langton, I worked closely with Susan and the artists on the board in all of the disciplines to generate programs and exhibitions. Along with other dedicated staffers, I spent a lot of time thinking strategically about Langton’s relevance and its future.
What been most frustrating personally is that Langton became so isolated, so quickly. With all of its efforts to reach beyond, the organization failed to reach out. It failed to maintain its extended network of supporters, crafted over the course of thirty-four years, and arguably its most valuable asset. What was cut off was access to funders, former staff and board members, fellow arts leaders, and legions of artists and designers who at one point or another were invested in Langton’s success. For example, of the sixty Initiative organizations invited to attend a national convening of peers, Langton was the only one to not send a single representative.
“Responsibility is not simply about an individual’s singular existence but about everyone else,” – Well put, Anthony and Sartre.
Given that many SF arts organizations are doing so well at remaining relevant and engaged, I don’t think that this is case of “so goes Langton so goes the Bay Area.” If anything it seems more like, “there goes the Bay Area, what about Langton?” If there is an opportunity here for a new-New Langton to emerge, my hope is that it both re-engages with its support network and that it considers the issue of responsibility first and foremost in its plans. Responsibility to its past, the future, and most of all, to the needs of artists.
i am really glad to see this discussion happening. i am always very curious on the behind the scenes aspect of cultural institutions in sf. in my experience access to it has been quite opaque.
even during a short internship at new langton, it was difficult to gain an insight in its positioning and goals.
i have lived in the bay area for only 5 years but have learned from long time residents that new langton had a much bigger role in bridging different cultural niches in sf. because i curated a sound series for a while i am particularly aware of the role new langton used to have in the bay area’s sound/music arena. it is greatly missed by many from that community.
also, having done some programming for a gallery recently i am acutely concerned on the possibilities of interaction between institutions and galleries and the viability of creating a dialogue that can further propel ‘a healthy art scene’.
so finding out what people involved in the community are thinking regarding these kind of matters has been extremely insightful experience for me.
We welcome your comments and ideas.
Since this has been referenced a few times here, is there going to be an actual, in-person town hall? Despite my not being able to make such a gathering, it seems like having something be virtual-only reinforces a sense that Langton has grown disconnected from its community. (As it is now, the virtual thing is being eclipsed by this blog, with a discussion already in progress.) I appreciate that the board is working on the funding side – but the artistic side, the role of artists, and some of the big questions being put forward in these posts merit serious consideration.
I was a literary curator and board member at NLA from 1997 to 2004. It was a terrific experience, unlike any other. This news makes me very sad.
My 2 cents is that there should be some sort of live town hall, if there is any possibility that NLA will re-emerge from these difficulties as a functioning arts organization. An in person meeting just might spark a resurrection effort from NLA’s old community of artists and supporters, if enough of that core group turned out and re-connected. I don’t see how a virtual meeting could galvanize such an effort.
I second what James is saying. The conversation has already migrated from http://newlangtontownhall.blogspot.com/ (where it actually never started) to Open Space.
I would like to ask Langton’s board what this “virtual town hall meeting” actually implies. Is this a call for participation in the decision making process? A think-tank format, just to let the community express themselves without any feedback from them? Or what is it exactly?
I think that the San Francisco art community–that has followed and supported Langton from so many different platforms—deserve to hear from the Board. NLA’s board need to take responsibility with the community, and explain what are they actually asking us to save here.
Could you please let us know, what do you imply when you ask us to help you secure NLA’s legacy? Are we talking about the institution itself and future programming? If so, of what sort? Are you asking for help to save the archive? To cover the current debt? Or are we trying to just pay respect to the legacy and propose a wake for what Langton once was?
From what I hear, it seems that the main problem at NLA has been a disintegration of community. I’d be interested to know how, if at all, that has had an impact on the finances. Did NLA under Susan Miller have a viable financial model? Was it somehow community-based? Can it be recreated? Or has NLA with or without its community been less and less viable anyway? I think a lot of us would love it to be the case that a strong grassroots community (+ solid grant writing and stewardship of relationships with Foundations, but without major individual giving necessarily) could sustain small arts non-profits in the Bay Area (I’m on the board of another one). But is it?
I’m just wondering whether the funds used for the facility renovation and the acquisition of the Garage space — though I’m unclear on what those financial costs were — would have been better used by being saved for the economic downturn.
I don’t doubt, Sarah, that the renovation and garage were part of the “perfect storm” that swamped Langton. But an autopsy of the kind your question (and Dominic’s question) requires is bound to be speculative, until the board further clarifies the situation. They might start by answering the questions posed by María del Carmen above.
I feel what Anuradha is saying, with zero disrespect to Sandra. The inflated art market pre-recession time unleashed an inferiority complex upon the San Francisco art community. The complex may also just be the side effects of rapid globalization. I agree that all of the institutions need to look inwards to what is happening and growing in San Francisco. I feel that when artists, curators, and institutions stop looking at San Francisco as a strategic move for their careers and as a real place to have a sustainable community that fosters real working relationships maybe things will start to happen again.
The “What next” question is important. Experimentalism needs to be protected and venerated and given a chance at the very least or else there wont be anything next.
@ Rebecca and Anuradha, I can’t help thinking it would be good if this whole local vs non-local issue (which seems to have preoccupied the Bay Area art scene for ever) was framed in some other way. Not so much as either/or, and without the equation (which is false) of non-local equals ‘the Market’ / local equals experimental. I’m sure it’s possible for art scenes in medium-sized-yet-global cities like SF/Bay Area to do without both the inferiority complex and the need to emphasize the local as such.
I am scheduling a townhall meeting for Thursday August 6 at 7pm.
Does anyone have keys to Langton?
If not where should we meet?
We would also be interested in helping/collaborating. is the idea of subletting on the table?
A response from the board and further clarification in a new post, here.
@Dominic, thank you for posing that question. I’ve been thinking a lot more about this since posting my initial reaction to the news. To step away from a binary local/international opposition seems wise, as you, Leigh and Julian are all correct that one is not inherently more supportable (or less market-oriented) than the other.
In my view, the decision which I initially characterized as prioritizing an out-of-town hire over a local one, was really a decision to pursue a more resource-intensive, more outward-focused plan of action overall. With respect to hiring a director, the choice to bring someone in from elsewhere means paying them more than you might pay a local person, absorbing relocation costs, and assuming a couple of years’ responsibility to run the organization with minimal new investment while your new director gets to know the local community from artists to donors to everyone in between. That is the concern I meant to express.
For clarification, I don’t presume that a local hire would not have faced many of the problems faced by Sandra Percival, nor that a local hire would necessarily have had better solutions to those problems. At best, a local hire might have meant less of a salary burden and less of an institutional learning curve. However, those factors are important in light of the very dire financial picture being painted by Langton’s board.
Another question to ask is, why did Langton choose to hire someone as established as Sandra Percival to direct an institution known for fostering emerging and experimental practices? Again, it’s not a given that such a person could have offered a better outcome, but perhaps by selecting a less-established person as leader, Langton might have been able to produce programming that was fiscally leaner and less dependent on big, expensive names.
Finally, I’m glad that Open Space can provide a public forum for this discussion. I hope that Langton’s board will understand that this is an opening they’ve been given, and that it reflects an outpouring of community support upon which they now need to capitalize, effectively and quickly. Let no one assume that the fact of this conversation means the responsibility of Langton’s overseers is in any way lessened.
Yes Thanks Dominic. I don’t feel that my input comes from the place that you are describing. I am a S.F. native and I am going to be attending Goldsmiths in the fall for post graduate studies. I have run an alternative art space from 1999-2007. My statement came from a place of love for the San Francisco art community. There is so much cool stuff in San Francisco that doesn’t even get a chance. Or its edited by the institutions and even by the alternative spaces. As of late it does feel like the S.F. venues have been working real hard to educate the locals about international art. What about whats happening here?
Langton’s board has not included artists for several years, and that speaks volumes about the devolution of its focus as an arts institution. Langton’s demise is an example of what happens when artists are aced out of the equation, and non-profit art spaces merely become social clubs for the privileged. For almost a decade, the work shown at Langton has felt bland and stale because curatorial decisions were being made by people who did not understand the necessity of challenging prevailing social norms through challenging aesthetics. When Langton decided to stop recruiting artists for it’s board, it made a statement that it no longer valued the opinions and experiences of artists and was not interested in supporting non-blue chip artists whose lack of privilege often rubs privileged board members the wrong way. It was an act of censorship, that makes it impossible for me to mourn the loss of Langton. I can mourn what Langton once was, but that Langton has not existed for a very long time.
Julien, SAFEhouse is available to help with admin support and we have room for storage. We can also host a community meeting at The Garage (975howard.com) if you decide to have one. Please contact us, I think there are ways for us to help you generate some community support.
I was Langton’s ED from 1993 – 2005. From my experience, Langton’s fiscal and artistic force came from its commitment to and practice of the artist-run model. It was the inclusion of committed, professional artists at all levels of governance, with full power to exercise their voices in both artistic and business matters. It was the interdisciplinary nature of Langton’s programming that encouraged the exchange and development of ideas across artistic boundaries. And it was bundles of resources that people voluntarily brought to the organization. Not just money, but also their time, energy, skills, goods, goodwill, and new ideas. This vision for Langton is fully articulated in the organization’s original by-laws. We drew strength, even in the most challenging moments, from the empowerment and vision that document provided.
I know Langton’s board is trying to sort through a mountain of issues. I do hope they find a place soon to actively engage the network of talent long connected to Langton. These people still care and have so much to offer. I am encouraged by the chorus of voices on Langton’s behalf and see, once again, an opportunity to rebuild from the strength and know-how of artists and friends both near and far.
@ Anuradha, I see what you’re saying the practical and financial consequences of Langton having made an out-of-town hire. Fair point.
@ Rebecca, yes, there may be some truth to that. I haven’t been here so long myself, you and others would have a better sense of how this issue has played out historically. I know similar issues get raised in other cities I have lived and worked, like Liverpool and Dublin. I guess I just want to get away from the flipside implication that SF/Bay Area art is not international. It might be that a side-effect of pushing Bay Area art spaces to show Bay Area art is to turn Bay Area artists into local artists. I think more traffic in all directions between the Bay Area and other artworlds would be great.
@ Rebecca, I can see what you mean, to an extent. Dom was right, however, in his original comment, to point to the perennial quality of this tension between “inward” local curating and “outward” cosmopolitan engagement. A good resource in this regard is Terry Smith’s September 1974 Artforum essay “The Provincialism Problem.” He’s talking about Australia, and it’s thirty-five years in the past, yet in reading his article you see just how the positions and terms remain almost exactly the same. Reframing the conversation would be helpful. I would also ask whether the Lab, Intersection for the Arts, SFAC, and Southern Exposure (among many others) do not fill the role you set out already. Langton’s relationship to the local, that is to say, has been constitutively different than the institutions above – in ways set out by Renny and Leigh above – and it is that distinction that matters.
@ Elizabeth, sympathetic as I am to the general drift of your comment, I find this sentence – “the work shown at Langton has felt bland and stale because curatorial decisions were being made by people who did not understand the necessity of challenging prevailing social norms through challenging aesthetics” – baseless. That you felt exhibitions were bland and stale I cannot dispute. But there were scores of exhibitions in the last decade put together by talented people, including artists, committed to challenging social norms through challenging aesthetics. On your larger point, that artists’ presence on the board is vital, and that their absence in recent years tragic, I could not agree more.
@Dominic, I could not agree with you more that we would do better to push Bay Area artists as international artists than turn inward and exclude ourselves from a larger context. I think that in the past, this has been a problem, but now we have so many international curators and artists, both moving here and working outward from here. My only quarrel is that I feel the bigger regional institutions too often ignore that fact, looking outward but neglecting to look inward. The common complaint is that artists who are based here feel they have to move to New York or Europe to get anyone here in the Bay Area to take them seriously.
To turn the lens on our generous host, SFMOMA, a case in point would be Mads Lynnerup, whose excellent work was not ever featured in an SFMOMA exhibition during the many years he lived and worked here, but who is now living in New York, and is currently showing a work he created back when he still lived here, in the Media Art galleries. I happen to know that curator Tanya Zimbardo was a strong supporter of Mads’ work even when he lived here, but I can also see how many artists would feel an example like this proves the point that you have to leave San Francisco to get any respect in this town. It’s an emotional response, but one based in some real experiences.
I confess to a strong personal stake in this conversation as well. So much of what’s happened at Langton also happened at the Headlands when I worked there: the hiring of a well-regarded director from elsewhere, considered aloof by many in the community; the emphasis on physical plant issues over funding for programming; the attrition of artists on the board; the discovery of previously unnoticed budget issues and dismissal of junior staff. Like that of my friend and colleague María del Carmen Carrión, my position at Headlands was a casualty of such circumstances. Thankfully Headlands is hanging on – but with serious soul-searching, and a major reprioritization effort underway. I bring this up just to point out that this conversation is not just limited to Langton, but in fact these are concerns that affect all kinds of institutions at that level.
I think it is important to point out that the above critique is a conflation of disparate issues. It is inaccurate comments such as these that propel this dialogue off course and foster many misconceptions that Bay Area institutions are not recognizing local talent. One can have an emotional response, but it is important to take into consideration that there are other factors that go into when and why an artist is shown regardless of whether they are local or not. But to clarify the above statement, this is not the first time Lynnerup’s work has been recognized by an SFMOMA curator. In 2005, Janet Bishop served as a juror who awarded him an Artadia grant and resulted in his inclusion in a group exhibition at the Wattis. Second, Zimbardo’s exhibition is a group show organized around a specific theme. The fact that he moved to New York has nothing to do with the timing of The Studio Sessions–these are very distinct circumstances and the confusion of them here only leads to greater misperceptions about this entangled issue. Furthermore, it is worth noting that the video on view in SFMOMA’s galleries also screened at New Langton a few years ago. And Lynnerup has previously performed at SFMOMA in conjunction with the Yes Yoko Ono exhibition, and has been widely supported (here and beyond) by other curators, artists, and organizations.
@ADQ, my goal was to point out the emotional issues inherent in this conversation. They do color the debate, and I think I was pretty even-handed in doing so. My point remains that there is a perception issue that colors a lot of the dialogue around regionalism and the local/national/international relationship issue in the Bay Area.
I said specifically that this was the first time Lynnerup’s work was featured in an SFMOMA exhibition, NOT that it was the first time his work might have been recognized by an SFMOMA curator. It’s important to understand that to many outside the museum, what is inside the galleries is all that matters. Not everyone has the more nuanced point of view that you present.
Could you please point out what in my actual statement was inaccurate? I would like to own any mistake I might have made and issue a correction if that is in fact the case. Thanks.
To clarify, my above comments were intended to point out that the implied argument presented (via Lynnerup) that “you have to leave San Francisco to get any respect in this town” is false; there is no logical causal connection there. That kind of slippery slope argument (based on an emotional conviction) perpetuates an unproductive myth. I mention the above examples to offer evidence that Lynnerup’s work was indeed respected and taken seriously by SFMOMA curators as well as other local organizations prior to moving, whether or not he was included in an SFMOMA exhibition at that point in his career. I go to lengths to explain this now not to take issue with you personally, but in effort to break down the stereotype for any artists following this discussion “who feel they have to move to New York or Europe to get anyone here in the Bay Area to take them seriously.” I would also encourage readers to keep in mind that there are always many different factors involved concerning why someone might chose to move away, or when and why an artist’s work might be included in an exhibition.
I think it is also worth mentioning here that New Langton did have a good history in the last four years of showing local artists, frequently mixing their presentations with artists living here and abroad. And it is that kind of programming that productively steps outside of the local and non-local dialectic.
Thanks for the clarification. What you’re saying is true. It’s an important enough conversation that I’m taking it on in a series of posts this week. I’d love to get your continued feedback as I think through some of these issues in a somewhat more formalized way.
I have found this whole conversation very interesting as a contemporary artist. I moved to the Bay Area (not SF, but Santa Cruz) just over three years ago. Before this I lived in New York City for eight years where I had a studio and owned and operated a very public (yet private) art space out of a storefront in Brooklyn. Its mission was to exhibit the experimental and emerging artists that I felt lacked a center. My point in outlining this is the strange disconnect I am observing in the Bay Area. The Bay Area is very territorial…SF, Berkley, Oakland, San Jose and the lesser cultural magnets like Santa Cruz. In NYC we looked at the program as a connected scene- Brooklyn, Bronx, Queens, Long Island City and Harlem. They all played together and are funded together by the entire scene.
My recommendation would be to restructure and cast a larger net across the Bay Area with a strong magnifying glass. Put the contemporary scene on the map. Create a more diverse board and funds from the greater Bay Area. Do satellite exhibitions in the smaller communities (we know they need it and have the empty space) and expand the true sense of contemporary art and the strength of the Bay Area creative sector.
In my opinion SFMOMA has replaced the need for New Langton’s programming. NL was relevant until the doors opened at SFMOMA. Years have passed and the economy has rippled, now exposing the shift. The question of local is funny when it comes to art in CA and specifically SF. I feel we need more non-local direction to help instill the local scene. Site specific is a better catch phrase. I see a great many local works in CA which are not site specific to the times and context we live in now.
SAFEhouse has decided to approach the landlord about the possibility of re-opening the space (its listed considerably lower than what NLA was paying). if anyone is interested in the upstairs gallery (we are primarily interested in the downstairs performance space), please let us know. thanks, j.
The Maltz Museum has been buying-up artworks of Marc Breed’s and destroying them. | 2019-04-18T14:58:59Z | https://openspace.sfmoma.org/2009/07/new-langton-arts-in-crisis/ |
Subsets and Splits