At that time, attacks on Europeans and Americans as represented by the Kobe Incident, the Sakai Incident and the Kyoto Incident were frequently carried out by supporters of Joi-ron, but Japanese, who killed or injured foreigners were subjected to capital punishment.
当時攘夷思想によって欧米人を襲撃する事件が多発し、神戸事件や堺事件、京都事件がその代表例であるが、これらの事件は「万国公法」の名の下に外国人を殺傷した日本人を極刑としている。