Xenophobia was strong in Ikuno tenryo, as the wealthy farmer Kunimichi KITAGAKI proclaimed the 'Noheiron' (Farmers to the arms doctrine) which said that conscripted farmers should defend the coast and the magistrate of Ikuno Itaro KAWAKAMI favored this movement.
生野天領では豪農の北垣国道が農兵を募って海防にあたるべしとする「農兵論」を唱え、生野奉行の川上猪太郎がこの動きに好意的なこともあって、攘夷の気風が強かった。