The Execration Texts (c. 19th century BCE), which refer to a city called ''rwš3lmm'', variously transcribed as ''Rušalimum''/''Urušalimum''/''Rôsh-ramen'' and the Amarna letters (c. 14th century BCE) may be the earliest mention of the city. Nadav Na'aman argues its fortification as the centre of a kingdom dates to around the 18th century BCE.