Fort Detroit - British Rule - 1760-1796
Though Fort Ponchartrain du Detroit officially became a British holding with the Articles of Capitulation following the capture of Montreal during the French and Indian War, François Marie Picote de Belestre, then commandant of the fort, did not find out about the power change until several weeks later. He may not have learned of the transfer until the British arrived with their flag had it not been for a group of Ottawas who happened upon the British troops, led by Major Robert Rogers, en route from Pittsburgh to Detroit. The Ottawas let the men continue on to Detroit, but sent runners ahead of them to warn Belestre.
Rogers and his men arrived in Detroit on November 29, 1760, and took command from Belestre and the French. At this time (possibly earlier) the fort became known simply as Fort Detroit.
A New Way of Life...
British rule was quite different from French rule. For one thing, the British didn't share the French interest in developing and maintaining friendly relations with Native Americans. The British did not trust the Native Americans the way the French did. They were interested solely in a business relationship with the tribes. General Amherst sent orders to limit ammunitions sold to Native Americans, leading them to feel as though the British were tyring to take away their means of feeding themselves. These things resulted in many tribes leaving the area and/or developing negative feelings toward the garrison and some settlers. Many French settlers left as well. Some of them simply moved from the village to farms they owned outside of the village. At the same time, English, Irish, and Scottish settlers began moving in.
The process of assessing and collecting taxes was also changed under British rule. While the French levied tax from land owners in proportion to land holdings and sent the proceeds to the French court, the British collected a tax to support to the garrison, as well as, requiring each family to supply cord wood to the fort. Much of the tax money was used to keep up the picket line, which was in constant need of repair - kind of like the highways in Detroit today. Part of the need for increased taxes was the result of the fur trade bringing in less profit than was expected. Some sources blame part of this on the tendency of some Scottish and Scotch-Irish traders to report lower than actual trade income, keeping the extra for themselves.
Law enforcement was also different under British rule. While the French leaders were fairly mild in their rule, British commandants bore both military and civic authority - both of which were exercised to the fullest extent.
Ste. Anne's was still the only religious game in town, with no Protestant congregation yet established.
At this time, Fort Detroit covered a 200 by 100 yard area (approximately) bounded approximately by present day Larned Street, Griswold Street, Wayne Street, and the Civic Center. An estimated 300 buildings existed within the palisades. The village population was around 500.
1760 - 1769
Major Rogers left Fort Detroit on December 23, 1760, he was succeeded by Captain Donald Campbell.
In 1761, Campbell reported the following to General Amherst:
The fort is very large and in good repair; there are two bastions toward the water and a large bastion toward inland. The point of the bastion is a cavalier of wood, on which there are mounted the three-pounders and the three small mortars or coehorns. The palisades are in good repair. There is a scaffolding around the whole, which is floored only toward the land for want of plank; it is by way of a banquette. There are seventy or eighty houses in the fort, laid out in regular streets. The country is inhabited ten miles on each side of the river and is a most beautiful country. The river is here about nine hundred yards over and very deep. Around the whole village, just within the palisades, was a road which was called the 'Chemin de Ronde.' (City of Detroit - Volume I, Clarence M. Burton, p. 118).
Soon after taking command of the fort, Campbell was charged with confiscating weapons from any Frenchmen who might be hostile to British rule, and to try to acclimate the Native Americans to the new government. Frenchmen who lost weapons also lost their ability to hunt and trap. This contributed to a growing British monopoly in the fur trade, which resulted in large numbers of Frenchmen joining Native Americans or turning completely to farming.
Wanting to keep the settlers happy, Campbell obtained supplies from Fort Pitt by way of two Dutch traders, Hamback and Van Der Velder. The men were sent by Fort Pitt commandant, Colonel Henry Boquet, to set-up a trade establishment in Fort Ponchartrain. Boquet had intended for Thomas Colhoon to carry out this mission, but inclement weather kept Colhoon grounded. The Dutchmen arrived at Fort Detroit in January of 1761, along with 6 horses and a shipment of supplies.
Under Campbell's command, tax was a hefty £184, paid in skins or farm products, as well as, two cords of wood per acre. The high tax did not make Campbell a favorite with settlers. Nor did the fact the he claimed for his own a section of land just outside the fort, known since French rule as the King's Commons.
In July of 1762, Major Campbell stepped down to second in command as Major Henry Gladwin became Detroit's third British commandant.
Native American unhappiness hit a peak in 1763. On May 4 of that year, Major Gladwin was made aware of Ottawa Chief Pontiac's plan to attack Detroit. Sources vary on details as to how Gladwin became aware of the plan. Some say that an Ojibwa woman was in love with Gladwin and told him of the plan. More common is the belief that Angelique Cuillerier de Beaubien of the Beaubien family overheard discussions of the plan while at the Huron Mission (in present day Windsor) and reported her findings to a suitor, James Sterling, who in turn notified Gladwin. Some sources say that Beaubien saw some Native Americans filing their gun barrels off. Other accounts have local blacksmiths reporting an unusually heavy run on files and saws. Some sources suggest that French settlers whose help Pontiac had tried to enlist told Gladwin of the plot. Though the attack was unsuccessful, there followed years of terrorism and trouble with Native Americans. (See Pontiac for more information).
Gladwin left Fort Detroit in 1764. He was replaced by Colonel John Bradstreet. Bradstreet brought soldiers and supplies to strengthen the fort and garrison. However, problems with Native Americans causing a serious reduction in new settlers coming to the area.
Bradstreet was unscrupulous when it came to dealing with Native Americans. One of his most noted scandals involved obtaining from the Native Americans, a strip of land from the west of the fort to Lake St. Clair. Those engaged in fur trade were upset by this idea as settlement meant farms, and farms meant the driving out of beaver an other animals pertinent to their business. Others saw merit in increasing the village population and establishing industries that would eliminate the need to travel to Montreal for basic supplies. The uncertain nature of the land rights prevented many people from actually purchasing and settling - so in the end, nothing came of all the speculation.
While commandant, Bradstreet decreased taxes to £158. In 1765, "New York Currency" began being used in Detroit and the use of skins as currency began to be phased out.
In 1764, Israel Putnam began building an addition to the fortification, known as the citadel, running from present day Jefferson Avenue north. It was triangle-shaped with high pickets, the east side being the picket line of the village. After it was complete, the garrison moved into the citadel, where they stayed until the completion of Fort Lernoult in 1779. The citadel was also used to hold prisoners during the Revolutionary War.
On September 14, 1764, Colonel Bradstreet left Detroit in the hands of Major Robert Bayard as he left for Sandusky. No evidence exists of Bradstreet's return to Detroit. In 1764, Lieutenant-Colonel John Campbell was appointed commandant. He arrived in Detroit in 1765
Under Campbell's rule, taxes were raised higher than they had ever been. His decisions and methods of running the settlement were so questionable that on August 7, 1766, the citizens of Detroit wrote a letter of protest to him. The letter protested Campbell's tax increase which would require an annual total of over £4,000 New York Currency from the villagers. The letter detailed what the tax had been under the French rule, and then what tax had been under previous British commandants, and was concluded with a statement that the tax would be very difficult to pay. Not long after the protest, Campbell left Detroit.
Captain George Turnbull, of the Second Battalion, 60th Regiment, succeeded Campbell as commandant. Turnbull was instructed by General Thomas Gage to not collect any taxes from the settlers. He also appointed, on April 24, 1767, Philip Dejean to serve as the equivalent of chief justice, notary, and sheriff. Dejean's conduct was questionable and on May 21, 1768, Detroiters called for an investigation and report on Dejean's work. The investigation did not prove that Dejean acted unlawfully, so on June 14, 1768, he was allowed to resume his work.
Turnbull retired from his post at Detroit in 1769. It is likely that he was replaced by Thomas Bruce who may have held the post from June to September of 1770. At that time, Captain James Stephenson, an officer in the 2nd Battalion, 60th Regiment, became commandant. He held the post until January 8, 1772, when Captain George Etherington took over (Etherington had been an officer in the garrison under Campbell; when Gladwin came on in 1762, he sent Etherington to Michilimackinac; for more information on Etherington, see Pontiac). Etherington held the post of commandant just until fall of 1772
In the fall of 1772, Major Henry Bassett replaced Etherington as commandant. Bassett hoped to end the sale of liquor to Native Americans and to end disputes over land rights, as well as making other improvements to the settlement, during his tenure at Detroit.
During Bassett's term as commandant, Jacques Campau applied for and received 12 arpents of riverfront land. His application remarked that he had housed 250 soldiers during the Battle of Bloody run on July 31, 1763, and that the men had stolen £60 worth of property from him.
Bassett sought to acquire land himself, specifically, he fenced off some 42 acres in the King's Commons. Previous to this, only Colonel Campbell had attempted to claim some of the common land for himself. The action was not met favorably by the settlers -- nor was Bassett's. The villagers wrote to authorities at Quebec explaining that Bassett sought this land for personal gain. Bassett's request for the land was denied as a result.
In the fall of 1773, Bassett's goal of ending the sale of liquor to Native Americans got a little indirect support by way of a murder. A trader named McDowell (originally from Pittsburgh) lived near the fort. When he refused to sell rum to a Native American, the man shot through the window of McDowell's house killing him. Bassett tried to use the event to further his goal, but economics won out and his request to end the sale of liquor to Native Americans was denied.
Disputes over real estate were ongoing affairs in Detroit. So much so, that on April 24, 1774, Bassett hired land surveyor, James Sterling, to survey and report on the land in and around Fort Detroit.
In 1774, Bassett retired. He was replaced by Captain Richard Beringer Lernoult. The Revolutionary War began in 1775 with the Battle of Lexington and Detroit began to serve as the base for supplying Native American war parties. Canada's governor-general, Guy Carleton, declared martial law in the upper Great Lakes in April of that year. In November, Captain Henry Hamilton came to Detroit as lieutenant-governor. He basically became commandant, though the title stayed with Lernoult.
Under Hamilton's rule, a tax was levied on the use of property belonging to the King.
In 1776, Hamilton ordered the execution of an African-[American] woman named Jean Baptiste Contencineau. Lernoult refused to hang the woman and was thus ordered to Niagara.
Some sources mention Captains Lord and Montpasant as commandants in late 1776 and/or early 1777, but no further information is available on the matter.
In 1777, Captain Lernoult returned to Detroit. That winter, he and Hamilton drew plans for an attack against Fort Pitt in the spring of 1778.
In October of 1778, Hamilton, Jehu Hay and Philip Dejean left Detroit for Vincennes. Lernoult appointed Thomas Williams (father of Detroit's first mayor, John R. Williams) to fill Dejean's spot as justice of the peace. Around the same time, Lernoult began construction on a new fort that would bear his name: Fort Lernoult.
On August 28, 1779, Captain Lernoult was promoted to major. The next day he was ordered to Niagara. Colonel Arent Schuyler de Peyster replaced Lernoult as commandant. Peyster was a charismatic and amiable. He managed to persuade Native Americans to ally themselves with the British and kept French settlers reasonably happy (most British commandants were cruel to French settlers).
In the summer of 1780, Peyster aimed to increase agricultural production in the area. He wrote to Governor Haldimand requesting that Belle Isle be restored to the government and used to achieve this goal. Peyster requested that the government send appraisers to look at the McDougall holdings on the island, so that just compensation could be made to Mrs. McDougall, who happened to be the daughter of Robert Navarre, the notary under French and part of British rule. Nathan Williams and J.B. Craite appraised the holdings at £334. The King's cattle and a Mr. Riddle were then moved on to the island.
Like Hamilton, Peyster levied a usage tax on property belonging to the king. When asked to account for his collectings, it was found that he was using the money for his personal gain. He was ordered to refund the money he collected. On November 21, 1782, he wrote a letter protesting the order. The ordered stood.
Peyster left Detroit in the spring of 1784. He wa replaced by Major William Ancrum. The Revolutionary War having ended, Ancrum's job was easier than his immediate predecessors.
For $450, Ancrum and John Askin bought the cabins and buildings that the Moravians had built.
On May 8, 1786, Ancrum sent a letter to lieutenant-governor Henry Hope explaining that the Native Americans in the area were angry with the Americans and likely to continue to ally themselves with the British.
Ancrum is reputed for being especially tyrannical in dealing with French settlers. An example of this is when for no known reason, Ancrum kicked over a bucket of water that Jacques Peltier was carrying from the river. Peltier lost his temper and told Ancrum that if it weren't for his "red coat, he would give him a flogging." Ancrum, a boxer, reportedly removed his coat and the two men fought. Peltier fared better in the fight, but as it was a consentual fight, Ancrum simply stated that no mention of it should be made - thus saving his honor and Peltier any legal trouble.
In 1786, Captain Thomas Bennett became commandant of Fort Detroit. He had written to Colonel de Peyster in on September 22, 1784 requesting that he help him obtain the appointment.
In the spring or summer of 1787, Captain Robert Matthews became commandant of Detroit. A favorite of Governor Haldimand, Matthews was named lieutenant-governor as early as January of 1786 - but did not go to Detroit at that time. If we are really to believe that Jehu Hay was the last lieutenant-governor of Detroit, then Matthews never actually took the role, and served strictly as commandant. It is possible that between the end of Bennett's term and the beginning of Matthews' term, a man named Wiseman (source: Silas Farmer) was commandant at Detroit.
On July 24, 1788, several land districts were created by the Canadian Council, including the District of Hesse, which included the area on the east side of the Detroit River. According to Burton, Major Patrick Murray headed the land board for the District of Hesse -- and was also commandant of Fort Detroit. No more information is given regarding Murray's term. His successor was Major John Smith who also replaced Murray on the land board in 1790. It is believed that a William Claus held command at Fort Detroit for a brief time after Smith left in 1792.
In the summer of 1792, Colonel Richard England became commandant of Fort Detroit. He was the last British commandant. It was only a matter of time before England would have to give the post to the Americans. That day came on July 11, 1796.
See also Belle Isle