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5. 5.2. Amvrakikos case study Preamble: Amvrakikos seen from Europe or the LEAC story Land cover accounts can give a first useful picture of Amvrakikos and its recent evolution. This picture presents the park in its (land cover) environment and offers gateways to the broad European picture as well as to other sites with which comparisons are fruitful. These accounts being based on a grid (on the following maps, a 1 km2 gird is used) they are an efficient framework for integrating socio-economic statistics and ecological monitoring data. First, the Corine map: Figure 5.2.1 Amvrakikos land cover; CLC2000 The same tables as produced for the whole Mediterranean basin can be established for the site. They tell about: Land cover Amvrakikos 1990 111 Continuous urban fabric 112 Discontinuous urban fabric 121 Industrial or commercial units 122 Road and rail networks and associated land 123 Port areas 124 Airports 131 Mineral extraction sites 132 Dump sites 133 Construction sites 141 Green urban areas 142 Sport and leisure facilities 211 Non-irrigated arable land 212 Permanently irrigated land 213 Rice fields 221 Vineyards 222 Fruit trees and berry plantations 223 Olive groves 231 Pastures 241 Annual crops associated with permanent crops 242 Complex cultivation patterns 243 Agriculture mosaics with natural vegetation 244 Agro-forestry areas 311 Broad-leaved forest 312 Coniferous forest 313 Mixed forest 321 Natural grassland 322 Moors and heathland 323 Sclerophyllous vegetation 324 Transitional woodland shrub 331 Beaches, dunes and sand plains 332 Bare rock 333 Sparsely vegetated areas 334 Burnt areas 335 Glaciers and perpetual snow 411 Inland marshes 412 Peatbogs 421 Salt marshes 422 Salines 423 Intertidal flats 511 Water courses 512 Water bodies (lakes & reservoirs) 521 Coastal lagoons 522 Estuaries 523 Sea and ocean TOTAL 2000 2309 570 2371 788 214 115 214 138 3 126 35 12236 5713 406 35 12288 5700 396 6645 4115 98 6533 4130 98 27753 14995 27535 15095 4792 213 807 11342 4765 209 807 11278 21594 7325 222 21688 7342 274 309 188 309 675 672 6873 120 6808 120 366 1000 7329 298 1016 7329 138362 138362 Net change 0 62 218 0 0 0 23 0 123 0 0 52 -13 -10 0 -112 15 0 0 -218 100 0 -27 -4 0 -64 0 94 17 52 0 0 -188 0 -3 0 -65 0 0 -68 16 0 0 0 0 Land cover flows 1990-2000 Amvrakikos Flows 19902000 lcf12 lcf21 lcf22 lcf31 lcf35 lcf37 lcf38 lcf412 lcf421 lcf422 lcf433 lcf441 lcf442 lcf444 lcf451 lcf463 lcf511 lcf512 lcf521 lcf522 lcf53 lcf54 lcf62 lcf71 lcf72 lcf73 lcf74 lcf81 lcf91 lcf93 lcf99 Recycling of developed urban land Urban dense residential sprawl Urban diffuse residential sprawl Sprawl of industrial & commercial sites Sprawl of mines and quarrying areas Construction Sprawl of sport and leisure facilities Diffuse extension of set aside fallow land and pasture Conversion from arable land to permanent irrigation perimeters Other internal conversions of arable land Other conversions between vineyards and orchards Conversion from permanent crops to permanent irrigation perimeters Conversion from vineyards and orchards to non-irrigated arable land Diffuse conversion from permanent crops to arable land Conversion from arable land to vineyards and orchards Diffuse conversion from pasture to arable and permanent crops Intensive conversion from forest to agriculture Diffuse conversion from forest to agriculture Intensive conversion from semi-natural land to agriculture Diffuse conversion from semi-natural land to agriculture Conversion from wetlands to agriculture Other conversions to agriculture Withdrawal of farming without significant woodland creation Conversion from transitional woodland to forest New forest and woodland creation, afforestation Forests internal conversions Recent fellings, re-plantation and other transition Water bodies creation Semi-natural creation and rotation Coastal erosion Other changes and unknown No Change TOTAL These flows can be mapped as well: 62 218 115 123 9 52 10 38 86 28 22 349 65 137185 138362 And first land and ecosystem physical aggregates: Units MEAN VALUES PER KM² IN SES TOTAL VALUES IN SES Surface of coastal SES Wetlands AMVRAKIKOS GREECE km² 1802 Urban temperature 2000 0-100 2879 Change in Urban temperature 1990-2000 0-100 0 Intensive Agriculture Temperature 2000 0-100 28538 Change in Intensive Agriculture temperature 1990-2000 0-100 182 Landscape Net Ecological Potential 2000 0-100 n.a Change in Landscape Net Ecological Potential 1990-2000 0-100 n.a Nature designation index (combined N2000 & national) 0-100 38696 Effective Mesh Size 2005 logN(MEFF) n.a Population 2000 inhabitants 104357 Urban temperature 2000 0-100 1.60 Change in Urban temperature 1990-2000 0-100 0.00 Intensive Agriculture Temperature 2000 0-100 15.84 Change in Intensive Agriculture temperature 1990-2000 0-100 0.10 Landscape Net Ecological Potential 2000 0-100 n.a Change in Landscape Net Ecological Potential 1990-2000 0-100 n.a Nature designation index (combined N2000 & national) 0-100 21.47 Mean Effective Mesh Size in SES 2005 logN(MEFF) n.a Population Density (inhab/km²) 2000 inhabitants 58 Introduction Amvrakikos Gulf is an enclosure of the Mediterranean sea, on the western coast of Greece. On the Gulf `s northern coast, the rivers Louros and Arachtos form a double delta with extensive fresh water marshes, salt marshes and lagoons. These wetlands in Amvrakikos are one of the largest wetland areas in Mediterranean Europe, characterized by very diverse wetland habitat types. The marine waters of Amvrakikos are a major fishing ground for commercial coastal fisheries, as well as an area of aquaculture development, where fish are grown in fish cages. So interesting question rises on what are the environmental conditions like in the Amvrakikos area, which are the functions of this complex ecosystem and how they are affecting the ecosystem services provided to mankind. Most importantly how much it costs to maintain and restore the ecosystems that provide such services. 5.2.1. The profile of the Amvrakikos National Park The Amvrakikos National Park is a complex site of a total of 1800 km² area consisting of the marine waters of the Amvrakikos Gulf (approx. 400 km²) and the adjacent coastal lagoons, salt marshes and freshwater marshes, hills and remnants of riverine forests (approx. 10.000 ha) and buffer zones with agricultural land and villages. The Socio Ecological System (SES) of the Amvrakikos National Park is considered as the total area related to the municipalities that are stake holders of the Park (approx. 100,000 ha of land) and 35,000 ha of sea. The terrestrial component comprises of 20 municipalities from the prefecture of Arta with 39,000 inhabitants / 31,430 ha and 11 municipalities from the Prefecture of Preveza with 23,000 inhabitants/ 18,570 ha in the north and 6 municipalities from the Prefecture of Aetoloakarnania with 15,500 inhabitants/ 54,690 ha in the east and south part of the Gulf (data from 1991). All socioeconomic data are calculated for the SES area. The Amvrakikos water catchment area is defined geographically and it occupies approximately three times as big an area than the terrestrial SES (approx. 300,000ha). This area is used for water balance calculations. Characteristics Location Description Region of Ipiros and Region of Dytiki Ellada, western Greece Spatial extent Marine / the Amvrakikos gulf Wetlands/ Riparian forests Amvrakikos water catchment area Biophysical system of reference Municipalities 20 municipalities from the prefecture of Arta with 39,000 inhabitants / 31430 ha 11 municipalities from the Prefecture of Preveza with 23,000 inhabitants/ 18570 ha 6 municipalities from the Prefecture of Aetoloakarnania with 15,500 inhabitants/54690 ha Total socioeconomic area is about 100,000 ha of land and 350,000 ha of sea Human population 77.500 (1991) Natural protected areas Amvrakikos National Park, Ramsar Site, Natura 2000 site,SPA and SCI site Wetland ecosystems Louros and Arachthos rivers delta, Other coastal lagoons Main ecosystem services Agriculture, Cattle farming, Fisheries, Clean water, Flood prevention, sedimentary balance, refuge for wildlife species Other ecosystem services tourism, research, environmental education, nutrient cycling Characterization of economic system Primary sector dominance Characterization of political administrative institutions Environmental problems and disturbances Methodology used in this work and Local: Amvrakikos National Park management Authority with stakeholders management Board established by the Ministry of the Environment Prefectures: 3 (Arta, Preveza, Aetoloakarnania Regions 2. Ipiros (Arta and Preveza), Dytiki Ellada (Aetoloakarnania). International: European Union, United nations Dead fish incidents in the lagoons and marine fish cultures; Lack of freshwater input to the lagoons and the sea; Detection of contamination in molluscs; River water pollution incidents; Algae blooms in the lagoons; Changes of wetland vegetation patterns; Decreased population of endangered bird species. Maps statistical data and other published data by the Ministry of Environment, Life Nature project application and final report Table 1: Profile of Amvrakikos Socio-Ecological System Wetland habitats, water regime and species diversity Three of the largest natural lagoons in Greece dominate the site: Rodia and Tsoukalio Lagoons (ca. 32 km2) and Logarou Lagoon (ca. 28 km2). Extensive areas of salt marsh, reed beds and brackish water meadows border the lagoons. Rodia Marsh is one of the largest reed marshes in SE Europe (covering ca. 27 km2). The Louros and Arachtos rivers also retain small remnants of riparian forest (ca. 5 km2). Beside lagoons, most important and extensive habitat types are the halophytic communities of Arthrocnemetalia and wet meadows with Juncus. There are steep limestone hills adjacent to the wetlands and one of them, Mavrovouni hill (ca. 6.5 km2, 329 m. elevation), located near the centre of the wetland area, still supports relic stands of oak. Due to the geomorphologic characteristics of the area and numerous human interventions in the past, since the last 20 years at least, the lagoons and the riparian vegetation receive freshwater mainly by precipitation. Flooding of the Louros River has ceased and its flow is directed to the sea, regulated by an irrigation dam, which today has a continuous flow due to its serious siltation. The mean annual discharge below the dam is 468 x 106m3/year (1957-1995). Flooding of the Arachthos river has also ceased and its flow is directed to the sea, regulated by a hydroelectric/irrigation dam. The mean annual flow below this dam during the years 1982-1995 was 1390x106 m3/ year. The quality of the river water is within standards for aqua-culture and bathing waters. Increased salinity with seasonal variations has been observed in the lagoons. Several commercial fish species (Anguilla anguilla, Mugil spp., Solea spp. Gobius niger, Sparus aurata, Dicentraurchus labrax) are exploited traditionally in the lagoons, which they enter seasonally through openings to the sea. The whole site supports significant waterfowl populations every winter (100,000 mean, 170,000 max.). The lagoons are estimated to comprise important foraging habitat for 40 of the 78 Annex I bird species present in the site. Salt marshes are very important foraging/ breeding habitats for 47 of them, freshwater marshes and meadows are important for 56 of them (including nationally important colonies of Platalea leucorodia -35 pairs, Plegadis falcinellus -20 pairs, Ardea purpurea -20 pairs), remnants of riparian forests are important for 31 of the Annex I bird species and the oak woods for 4 of them. 5.2.2. History of the site Three “snapshots” of the state of the site are examined in the present study in the form of ecosystem accounts and ecosystem services. The first one is based on the 1985 study “Amvrakikos gulf, development and environment protection”, coordinated by Thymio Papayiannis and associates for the Ministry of Physical Planning, Housing and the Environment and the Commission of European Communities. In 1990 the Ramsar site has been delineated and protected since by restrictions on some land uses and human activities. The site however continued to experience rapid deterioration of its essential ecological features, due to mismanagement. The second snapshot is based on the 1997 study “Environmental issues and management system of the Amvrakikos protected area”, elaborated by Vavizos, Zannaki , Zafeiropoulos and Associates, for the Ministry of Environment , Physical Planning and Public Works. Between 1998 and 2003 further conservation actions, co-financed by the Life /Nature instrument of the European Commission and the Region of Epirus, were aimed at maintaining the nature conservation value of the area, now a site of the Natura 2000 network. These actions focused on restoring the conservation status of the lagoons and other habitat types which provide critical habitat for 6 priority bird species and the conservation of the loggerhead sea turtle, a priority species in the marine environment. The final report of this Life Nature project, elaborated by ETANAM SA and OIKOS Nature Management Ltd in 2003 provides the last of the three snapshots of this site, focusing mainly on the Louros basin. In 2007 the site was declared a National Park and its Management Authority was established by the Hellenic Ministry of Environment. 5.2.3. The water accounts 1985 Water requirements and water balance in the whole of the Amvrakikos catchment area were calculated on the basis of a total 2784.9 m3x106 of water available per year from the two rivers as follows Drinking water requirements YEAR Irrigation water requirements Tourism development requirements Industry requirements TOTAL Annual water balance calculations (166.000 inhabitants) 10.9 m *3X10*6 (168.000 inhabitants) 11.7 m3x106 1981 1984 129.5 m3x106 0.1 4.3 145.9 2784.9 -145.9 = +2639.0 (180.000 inhabitants) 22.4 m3x106 Projection 2000 244.5 m3x106 0.3 9.9 277.7 2784.8 – 277.7 = + 2507.1 The conclusion of the 1985 study was that the water basin has adequate water resources to support hydroelectric energy production, irrigation of agricultural land and fisheries. However, concerns were put forward for potential pollution from further increase of irrigated agriculture land and for the impact of decreases of freshwater input into the fisheries in the lagoons and the sea. 1997 Water calculations were revised with the 1997 study, taking into account a few very dry years between 1984 and 1988. Estimates of the available water were reduced to 1980 m3x106 annually. The total needs for water for irrigation, drinking water and industry were recalculated to a total annual 448 m3x106 taking into account all plans for extension of irrigated land, new livestock and fish farm units as well as further industrial needs, that were approved or submitted for approval from 1983 to 1995. Furthermore the required water flows were calculated for the spring and summer seasons as follows. April 4.6 m(3)/sec May 27.0 June 40.5 July 47.7 August 37.8 September 15.1 The overall conclusion on water balance is the same, ie, there is more water available than the estimated needs. As for the freshwater needs of the wetland and sea, a minimal required flow of the rivers during the dry months in their mouth to the sea as 1/3 of the their mean minimal annual flow was calculated. This gives 5,3 m3/sec for Louros and 6,6 for Arachthos. By taking these into account there was still the conclusion that there is enough water. As for the repeated reports of process of salinisation of the underground water and the surface waters of Louros river during the last kilometers of its flow, the study considered them as a seasonal phenomenon and no impact is calculated. A finer scale approach A finer scale approach in the western part of the delta where Louros river which is the main source of freshwater and sediment, is introduced to show the state prior to the water regulation measures implemented by the Life-Nature project. Louros river is fed almost exclusively from underground water sources along its course as well as from nearby fountains and spring waters. Due to this fact the river has a remarkably stable water diet, with little seasonal fluctuation. The sediment carried by the river is of rather fine nature and has been dispersed by the waves, creating a shallow basin and arrow like sandbanks instead of dynamic delta formations. The waters of Louros upstream are of course abstracted and used for irrigation purposes, and for fish farms. Finer scale measurements in 1994 allowed calculations of a medium annual flow measured upstream (see table below) as 18.21 m3/sec. This flow is gradually reduced to 3.91 m3/sec , which is actually less than the minimal flow calculated in the 1997 study. Furthermore, the construction of a dyke in 1970s prevented the river waters from entering the lagoon, and a dyke led the water directly to the sea. Louros flow upstream actual in 1994 before it reaches the marsh of Rodia, actual in 1994 Hypothetical mean minimal annual flow at river mouth, ecological flow Mean annual discharge below the dam (1957-1995) actual 18.21 m3/sec 3.91 m3/sec 5.3m3 /sec 468x106 m3/year 2003 An agreement with local users allowed the preparations for establishing a controlled entrance of freshwater water in the wetland as a pilot project. It was established that the restoration of freshwater input should use all available means, ie direct flow of the surface waters of the river and some drainage channels as well as pumping of underground waters. The actual pilot phase was operated in the summer of 2003 and aimed at maintaining certain salinity levels in the lagoons and marshes by allowing 3.080.000 m3 to enter the wetland. A second phase is planned with a 7.000.000 € project proposal for freshwater restoration into the lagoons. 5.2.4. Ecosystem Health *Ecosystem Health Distress Syndrome (EDS) Diagnostics: see Chapter 1 1985 The distress symptoms identified were the following: Decreased depth of the main entrance of marine waters to the gulf Water regulation and damming of both rivers has introduced Hydraulic changes Wetland drainage for agricultural development, impact to fisheries and water diet Impacts of constructions to prevent flooding/ sudden flooding of Louros due to the hydroelectric dam created shocks to fish stocks in the lagoon Changes in the water exchange openings between the lagoons and the sea, drop of fisheries in the lagoons Soil erosion in the surrounding hills due to overgrazing and forest fires Hunting pressure to wetland species Water pollution of underground and surface waters due to sewage, wastes, 100 units of processing and livestock Between 1978 and 1984, there was 14% increase of the factories related to food and other material processing 1997 The distress symptoms identified were the following: Changes in water courses and the surface hydrographic network Natural habitat loss due to agriculture or technical works Not well studied interventions in the lagoons aiming at increasing fish catches Hunting and taking from the wild of non commercial species MAP – loss of wetlands area 1945-1990 A finer scale approach (life nature application, 1998) in the western part of the site reveals the following distress symptoms: Increased salinity and insufficient water circulation within the lagoons of Tsoukalio-Rodia and Logarou have resulted to changes in their habitat structure. A drastic reduction of submerged macrophytes has been noted, reaching more than 50% of their original distribution area in Tsoukalio – Rodia lagoons. The characteristic mosaic structure of the water grassland and marsh vegetation is being replaced by mono-dominant Phragmite reeds, which is poor in species diversity and structural diversity in terms of foraging and breeding resources for most wetland dependent bird species. This degradation in marshland structure has contributed to the decline of Greece’s largest known breeding population of Aythya nyroca. The inappropriate water management of the marsh and the degradation of habitat serial succession is also negatively affects the wintering Botaurus stellaris in the site, which is the only Greek site where breeding of the species probably occurs. Habitat degradation and disruption of hydrological regime of this marsh affects also the conservation value of the site as wintering habitat for Phalacrocorax pygmeus. The local extinction of domestic water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in the early 70’s and the subsequent lack of reed bed management have contributed also to this state which provides poor foraging and nesting habitat for most wetland dependent species. The numbers of wintering ducks have shown a declining trend, even though the site still supports internationally important numbers. A 10-50% decrease in traditional lagoon fisheries yield has been noted between the years 1980- 1995. Non-consistent, sporadic management works for the improvement of traditional lagoon fisheries, such as dredging for water circulation, which lack a solid scientific base, has caused a reduction in wild duck wintering area and in the primary foraging habitat for the Pelecanus crispus, Phalacrocorax pygmaeus and Aquila clanga. Many ecologically sensitive parts of the site have been made accessible by dirt roads and dikes and unauthorized actions in such extended areas are difficult to control. Disturbance is a major threat to all bird species mentioned above and site surveillance is not appropriate due to lack of staff and equipment. Disturbance of sensitive breeding sites of the pelican colonies by fishermen, hunters, poachers and tourists has caused colony displacement, egg destruction, and increased predation during past years. The disruption of the hydrological regime is a limiting factor for the conservation and enhancement of the Dalmatian pelican (Pelecanus crispus) colony. Furthermore, the erosion of natural islets in the lagoons and the present lack of woody debris and sediments which used to enter the system by flooding of the Louros river and from the natural breaks in the lagoons barrier spits (now reenforced by dikes) is threatening with rapid decline the nesting habitat of this species. As a result the nesting islets for the Dalmatian pelicans and several other Annex I species (terns, waterfowl, waders etc.) are declining in size and displacing the colonies. 5.2.5. Selected Socio Economic Indicators Population in SES (based on the 1997 study) municipalities Arta Preveza Aetoloakarnania Total 1971 36,716 19,629 16.904 73,249 1981 35,556 21,158 13,449 56,500 1991 38,354 23.141 14,558 61,500 71/81 -3.18%. -1.19 - 20.44 81/91 7.87% 9.37 8.25 Employment In the period 1988-1991, 70,5 % of the inhabitants worked in the primary sector, 10,3 % in the secondary sector, 19,2% in the tertiary sector Land use (National Statistical Service, Greece) year Grazing land 24810 forest 1981 Agricultural land (ha) 29210 7830 Inner waters 13070 Settlements total and other 5020 79940 1991 30000 24840 6860 12880 4520 Market values of agricultural and livestock products in 1993 Gross value of plant production 28303713 dr Gross value of livestock production 16889177 dr Total 45192890 dr 79100 Marine fisheries yield YEAR Total tons, by big boats (more than 20hp) 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 93 Total tons, by boats with less than 19 hp Total Numbers of Fishermen in boats less than 19 hp 383 379 245 389 501 422 429 581 332 231 283 292 297 307 324 328 296 352 Total tons from the water catchment area Total Numbers of Fishermen in the water catchment area Indicator of change in numbers of fishermen 1127 1144 1116 1200 1153 1058 1097 1200 1184 100 101 99 106 102 94 97 106 105 4144 Fisheries in inland waters YEAR Indicator of change in fisheries yield 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 … 93 100 106 97 108 82 80 86 112 83 637 423 457 521 500 1050 508 Mean Local market PRICES for fisheries 1992 522 dr/kgr, 1993 611dr/kg, 1994 887dr/kg Lagoon fisheries accounts were seriously challenged for their accuracy, however these are the available data for the Tsoukalio and Rodia lagoons, which present the greatest yields amongst the lagoons. In tn 1977 78 79 80 81 82 83 93 94 95 Tsoukalio 162.5 179.7 179.7 161.0 159.1 208.0 166.4 74.9 74.1 84.4 2880 ha Logarou 146.6 135.0 130.4 159.9 183.2 205.6 188.8 100.3 102.7 139.3 2500 ha Funding/ Investment In 2003, ETANAM, the Life –nature project beneficiary proposed a set of investments for the sustainable development of the area, that when mature enough would be submitted for financing. These investments include combined actions, ie targeting more than one function or service of the ecosystem (e.g. food provisioning, nature conservation, tourism and recreation, research, that can be grouped as : Category projects for improving general infrastructures projects for environmental protection and management projects for enhancing the surroundings of important sites TOTAL actions dredging of ports, improvement of fishermen stations restoration of hydraulic balance in the gulf and the wetlands Protection and monitoring of biodiversity Land purchase in strict reserves restoration of lagoons sewage treatment and translocation of processing units solid waste management agricultural runoffs reduction and management making sites attractive for visitors promotion of the site for ecotourism and visitor management Preliminary budget € 6,660,650.00 7,726,122.00 7,100,000.00 523,000.00 5,248,454.00 41,284,741.00 8,258,958.00 8,791,794.00 7,885,793.00 10,923,178.00 104,402,690.00 Some of these proposals are already included in the Operational Programme for the environment 2007-2013 of the Ministry of Environment (see next table) Table 5. Summary of the most important conservation, research and restoration budget invested in Amvrakikos Conservation Research Maintenance and restoration costs of natural resource Life –nature project (For the northern coastal part) Protection and monitoring of biodiversity (Total of operations of the National Park management Authority) Hydraulic works for pollution and sedimentation control Fresh water input and restoration management in the lagoons Removal of dead fish Investment Years expenditure € 1,945,400.00 1999-2003 1,024,400.00 2007-2013 410,000.00 2007-2013 7,000,000.00 340,000.00 2008 Source Life –nature project application to European Commission Ministry of Environment, Operational Programme for the Environment Ministry of Environment, Operational Programme for the Environment Final report of Life-nature project (already submitted for financing) Press reports 5.2.6. Two stories as a conclusion How not to calculate a water balance In the Amvrakikos water catchment area water balance has been calculated and published twice (1985 and 1997). The studies were commissioned by the Ministry of Environment. In the 1985 calculations the water requirements for drinking water, irrigation, industry and tourism were simply added up and subtracted from the calculated total annual river water quantities. Since the result was positive, there was a conclusion that there is adequate water for the ecosystem functions. In the 1997 calculations, a hypothetical minimal water flow equaling 1/3 of the two rivers mean minimal annual flow was calculated and added to the requirements, which still presented a positive result when subtracted from the calculated available water quantities. There was no attempt to calculate the water requirements for the ecosystem functions. In reality however, the 1994 measurements have shown that the water reaching the river mouth to the sea were lower than these hypothetical minimal requirements for some parts of the year. It was also shown that only one sixth of the initial mean river water quantity of the river Louros would end up to the sea, which is a change of a rather important magnitude. The impact of such change gradually building up over the years since 1970 was demonstrated in 1998 when several facts were correlated, including loss of lagoon habitat diversity due to increased salinity, decrease of lagoon fisheries production, decrease in numbers of certain bird species. On 27 February 2008, between 500 and 700 tons of fish were reported dead, in the fish cages of three of the ten existing fish/culture units in the marine waters of Amvrakikos. The total annual yield of these ten fish farms is 1.100 tons. Scientists have suggested that the fish died of anoxic conditions due to sudden water stratification in combination with cold temperatures. The amount of 350 000 € has been spent so far just to remove the dead fish from the sea, and it is most likely that these 3 fish farms will not generate any income for this year. It may well be proven that the reduction of freshwater inflow into the gulf is related to the incidents of these massive deaths of fish in the marine waters of the Gulf occurring today. The cost of actions proposed to restore some of the ecosystem functions related to freshwater in the lagoons is estimated to 7 million € and the investment needed to restore some of these functions in the marine waters of the Gulf is estimated to 70 million €. Of buffalos and birds: Reintroducing buffalos for restoring habitats and their functions Herds of water buffalos were historically known to be grazing freshwater marshes in many Mediterranean wetlands, but they were totally removed from Amvrakikos in the early 70s. This was a result of modernization in livestock breeding systems which used imported and improved cow breeds due to their market benefits. However cows could not withstand the climatic conditions as well as the increased salinity of the wetlands and therefore have been kept in farms, grazing in the hills and adjacent areas. The extinction of water buffalos in Amvrakikos and the subsequent lack of reed bed management lead to an increase of reed bed habitat within the lagoons, a state which provides poor foraging and nesting habitat for most wetland dependent bird species. In 2001, 5 water buffaloes were reintroduced in the wetland through a conservation management project co financed by the European. A wooden shed and a freshwater supply ditch were built in an enclosed area of 5 hectares. The existing plant communities and the effect of grazing were recorded by experimental cages which were placed in the enclosed area. Later, a second shed was built (June 2002) and 10 more animals were installed (July 2002) outside the fence so as not to alter the grazing capacity of the enclosed area under study. Water buffaloes have proved to be a useful restoration and management tool, combined with increased freshwater inflow and circulation into the lagoons. They have also proved to be an important ecotourism attraction to the 3000/ year visitors of the site. Interestingly, the buffaloes have been also providing some marginal revenue to the herd keeper due to the rising markets for buffalo meat and cheese which has less fat than that of the cows and buffalo milk and butter which are used in traditional oriental sweets.