water supply and sanitation in zambia water supply and sanitation in zambia water supply and sanitation in zambia is characterized by achievements and challenges. among the achievements are the creation of regional commercial utilities for urban areas to replace fragmented service provision by local governments; the establishment of a regulatory agency that has substantially improved the availability of information on service provision in urban areas; the establishment of a devolution trust fund to focus donor support on poor peri-urban areas; and an increase in the access to water supply in rural areas. water supply and sanitation in zambiadatawater coverage (broad definition)(basic water service) 61% (2015)sanitation coverage (broad definition)(basic sanitation) 31% (2015)continuity of supplyaverage of 16 hours per day in 2010average urban water use (l/person/day)77 (2010), ranging from 26 to 121 between utilitiesaverage urban water and sanitation tariff (us$/m3)us$5.80/month for metered usersshare of household metering58% (2010), up from 39% (2006)annual investment in wssus$33.5 million (2002) or us$3/capita/yearshare of external financing2% government, 98% external donors (2002)institutionsdecentralization to municipalitiesyes (11 municipality-owned regional commercial utilities)national water and sanitation companynonewater and sanitation regulatoryes (nwasco)responsibility for policy settingminister for local government and housingsector lawyesno. of urban service providers11 commercial utilities among the challenges are a low rate of cost recovery despite tariff increases in urban areas; limited capacity in the sector; insufficient progress in increasing access to sanitation; a high level of non-revenue water (44% as of 2010) in urban areas; a high rate of non-functioning rural water systems; and insufficient investment levels despite substantial foreign aid. access access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 sub-saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. in 2015, 61% of the total population had access to an "at least basic water service", or 86% of the urban population and 44% of the rural population. however, around 6 million people in zambia still lack access to "at least basic water". as for sanitation, in 2015, 31% of the total population had access to "at least basic sanitation" service. 49% of the urban population had access to basic sanitation and 19% of the rural population. there are still around 11 million people who lack access to at least basic sanitation. moreover, in 2015, 15% of the population in zambia, defecated in the open. in earlier years (2010), the figures were as follows: 61% of the population of zambia had access to an improved source of water supply and 48% had access to adequate sanitation, according to un data calculated on the basis of national surveys, including most recently the demographic and health survey of 2007. concerning water supply, there is a stark contrast between urban areas (87% access according to the un, 78% access according to the regulator in 2010) and rural areas (46% access according to the un). for sanitation, access rates in 2010 were only slightly higher for urban areas (57% according to national surveys, 54% according to the regulator in 2010) and rural areas (43% according to the un). in urban areas, 41% have access to water connections in their house or yard and 49% rely on water kiosks and standpipes. the share of those with access to house connections has actually declined, while the share of those served by kiosks has increased. according to national water and sanitation council director kelvin chitumbo, zambia has achieved the millennium development goal for drinking water, but is off track to reach the goal for sanitation. water kiosks, which were first introduced in zambia in 2005, are operated by private individuals who have signed an agreement with water utilities and municipalities. the kiosk operators buy piped water in bulk and sell it at a slightly higher regulated price of about 1 us cent per 20 litres to users who carry the water in jerry cans to their homes. the kiosk operators supplement their income by selling various other items of daily life. there were about 170 water kiosks in zambia in 2008, providing water to 200,000 people. another 100 kiosks were expected to be added in 2009. concerning sanitation, 29% of the urban population are connected to sewers and 30% are served by septic tanks or improved household-level latrines. while these figures are low, they are actually higher than the average access in sub-saharan africa. lack of access to water and sanitation has significant negative social impacts, in particular on girls and women who are often in charge of collecting water for their villages and homes – sometimes walking extremely long distances to do so. after that girls are too tired to come back home and concentrate on education. service quality drinking water quality. according to the regulatory agency, 94% of water samples collected in urban areas were in compliance with drinking water standards in 2010. pollution from mines affects drinking water supply quality provided by the mulonga and nkana water and sewerage companies, where in some cases, the concentration of manganese was beyond treatable limits. continuity. water supply in urban areas is intermittent, with an average supply of 16 hours per day in 2010. the highest intermittency has been measured in the small luapula utility with 6 hours per day. the only utility providing continuous supply in 2007 was in chipata, while in 2010 the only utility that provided near continuous supply was the northwestern water and sewerage company. wastewater treatment. wastewater treatment plants regularly do not achieve effluent standards. capacities of plants like the manchinchi in lusaka and the kanini in ndola have been out-grown by the population. stabilization ponds livingstone city are in a deplorable state and pose a serious environmental hazard. however, a number of projects have been initated to ensure an improvement in wastewater treatement. for instance in 2018, the kaunda square stabiliztion ponds in lusaka where rehabilitated under the lusaka water supply, sanitation, and drainage project (lwssd). in addition, a 5-year lusaka sanitation programme funded by eib, kfw, afdb, wb and the government of zambia was iniated. the project scope involved construction of new wastewater treatment plants, 520 km of sewers, decentralised wastewater treatment systems, 100 public toilets, about 12,000 on-site sanitation units and faecal sludge treatment plants. water resources the zambezi river, shown here at the victoria falls, is rich in water. however, most zambians live too far from the river to benefit from it, so that water is often scarce during the dry season. unlike many other countries in the region zambia has more than adequate water resources, although during the dry season water resources may be scarce, especially in the southern part of the country. the annual rainfall averages between 1400 mm in the north and gradually declines to 700 mm in the south. the country is rich in rivers, such as the transboundary zambezi and lakes tanganyika, mweru and kariba. it is estimated that only 1.5% of the annual renewable water resources are being used at present. there are significant regional differences across the country with regard to place and time when water is available. also groundwater availability is unevenly distributed. responsibility for water supply and sanitation responsibilities in the sector are clearly separated between the ministry of local government and housing (policy), national water supply and sanitation council (economic regulation) and local government as well as commercial utilities owned by local government (service provision in urban areas). policy the ministry of local government and housing is in charge of sector policies. within the ministry the department of housing and infrastructure development (dhid) is responsible for water supply and sanitation infrastructure planning and resource mobilization. the dhid has established a specific rural water supply and sanitation unit (rwssu) in 2003 and shortly thereafter also a unit for peri-urban water supply and sanitation. according to the 1994 national water policy seven principles govern the state's policy in water and sanitation separation of water resources management from water supply and sanitation separation of regulatory and executive functions devolution of authority to local authorities and private enterprises achievement of full cost recovery for the water supply and sanitation services in the longrun human resources development leading to more effective institutions. the use of technologies more appropriate to local conditions increased budget spending to the sector by 2008 at least the first three principles had been put into practice. however, full cost recovery was far from being achieved and budget spending remained far below what is needed to achieve the millennium development goals for the sector. in 2010 the national water policy was revised in order to take into account "current international developments", to integrate cross-cutting issues such as gender, hiv/aids and climate change, and to introduce modern principles of water resources management. regulation and training a woman carrying water in chipata. economic regulation of water supply and sanitation services is the task of the national water supply and sanitation council (nwasco). it oversees tariff adjustments, minimum service levels, financial projection and investment planning and corporate governance. nwasco has made "significant progress in benchmarking, reporting and engaging users" despite being "underfunded and understaffed". however, its effectiveness remains limited, among others because "the mechanisms for enforcing regulatory rules remain unclear". nwasco's is supported by water watch groups and part-time inspectors who monitor the quality of service on the ground. water watch groups exist in 10 cities. they consist of volunteers who educate users about their rights and obligations, and assist users to resolve complaints. this has apparently reduced petty corruption and meter manipulation. according to research, while it is common in zambia to pay bribes for a connection to the electricity grid, this type of bribe is almost absent for water connections. in 2010 the regulator dissolved water watch groups in chingola, kabwe and lusaka "for non-performance", but all three were re-established a few months later. according to the german technical cooperation, nwasco is so successful that it "can serve as a role model for other countries in the region". nwasco reports to the ministry of energy and water development, not to the ministry of local government and housing that is in charge of sector policy. the water and sanitation association of zambia (wasaza), created in 1999, provides training, promotes the exchange of experiences on good practices and aims at increasing public awareness. it has more than 300 corporate and individual members. service provision there are three forms of service provision in urban areas in zambia: commercial utilities, local authorities and private schemes. in 2011 there were eleven commercial utilities, each covering between 3 and 17 municipalities. they are owned by the local authorities and provide water services to more than 86% of the urban population with access to improved water supply. the size of the utilities ranges from 3,000 to more than 75,000 connections. the capacity of the utilities differs considerably. in 2010 the southern utility with its seat in choma was ranked first and the chambeshi utility in the northeast was ranked last. the utilities have formed the commercial utility association of zambia (cuza). a few local authorities still run their own water supply system, but they consider creating their own regional commercial utilities or to join existing ones. the 6 private schemes that are run by commercial entities whose core business is not water supply that supply water to their employees for free. these include the konkola copper mines, the nakambala sugar estate and the chilanga cement factory, among others. in rural areas district councils are in charge of water supply with the assistance of provincial support teams. history and recent developments infrastructure boom (1964-1973) much of zambia's drinking water infrastructure was built between independence in 1964 and the mid-1970s at a time when economic growth was strong and export earnings from copper mining were high. water was provided for free and little attention was given to the sustainability of services. water supply was the responsibility of local authorities, with the exception of the mining belt where the state-owned copper company operated water systems for the settlements housing their employees. following the example of other countries in the region during the 1970s and 1980s, such as neighboring congo, zambia considered the establishment of a national water authority with responsibility for water supply, sanitation and water resources management. however, those who preferred decentralized service provision prevailed and the proposal was shelved. there was no national strategy for the sector, and the responsibility for the sector was fragmented among several ministries. meanwhile, the