also called b-type inclusion bodies. the b-type inclusion bodies contain the factory where the virus produces necessary elements for the replication and maturation of the virion. cpxv has another inclusion body that is unique to only some chordopoxviruses called acidophilic inclusion bodies also called a-type inclusion bodies (atis). the atis are encoded by the cpxv158 gene and is then made the protein atip which is a late protein. however, the importance of these atis in the life cycle are still not well known or understood and research is still being done to better understand them. it is known that replication can still continue without the cpxv158 gene, and that the replication cycle shows no difference between a fully encoded virion versus the virion that had deleted cwpx158 gene. however, with studies done on mice, the lesions that were caused by the cpxv-br△ati were able to heal faster due to less tissue that was lost than the cpxv-br lesions that took longer to heal and lost more tissue. this suggests that this gene helps supports the idea that atis are partly involved in how the host responds to the virus infection. another way that the virus is able to control and infect the host is by regulating cellular signaling pathways. during the infection, cpxv is known to use mek/erk/1/2/egr-1, jnk1/2, and pi3k/akt pathways. some of these pathways are not unique only to cpxv, but how they function in response to the host is unique to this virus. one notable protein in the cpxv is the p28 protein. it is made up of 242 amino acids and contains two domains, and n terminal kila-n and a c-terminal ring domain. one of those domains, the n-terminal kila-n domain, allows for dna to bind to it. the kila-n domain facilitates this p28 protein that is translated early in the replication cycle in the cytoplasm and is then located in the cytoplasm for the rest of the life cycle of the virus. there is current research still being done to determine if the p28 protein could be a requital for an essential macrophage factor that is needed for the dna replication. opposition the majority of the population at the time accepted the up-and-coming vaccination. however, there was still opposition from individuals who were reluctant to change from the inoculations. in addition, there became a growing concern from parties who were worried about the unknown repercussions of infecting a human with an animal disease. one way individuals expressed their discontent was to draw comics that sometimes depicted small cows growing from the sites of vaccination. others publicly advocated for the continuance of the inoculations; however, this was not because of their discontent for the vaccinations. some of their reluctance had to do with an apprehensiveness for change. they had become so familiar with the process, outcome, positives, and negatives of inoculations that they did not want to be surprised by the outcome or effects of the vaccinations. jenner soon eased their minds after extensive trials. however, others advocated against vaccinations for different reason. because of the high price of inoculation, jenner experienced very few common folk who were not willing to accept the vaccination. due to this, jenner found many subjects for his tests. he was able to publish his results in a pamphlet in 1798: an inquiry into the causes and effects of variolae vaccinae, a disease, discovered in some of the western counties of england particularly gloucestershire, and known by the name of cow pox. historical use in the cow-pock—or—the wonderful effects of the new inoculation! (1802), james gillray caricatured recipients of the vaccine developing cow-like appendages. after inoculation, vaccination using the cowpox virus became the primary defense against smallpox. after infection by the cowpox virus, the body (usually) gains the ability to recognize the similar smallpox virus from its antigens and is able to fight the smallpox disease much more efficiently. the cowpox virus contains 186 thousand base pairs of dna, which contains the information for about 187 genes. this makes cowpox one of the most complicated viruses known. some 100 of these genes give instructions for key parts of the human immune system, giving a clue as to why the closely related smallpox is so lethal. the vaccinia virus now used for smallpox vaccination is sufficiently different from the cowpox virus found in the wild as to be considered a separate virus. british parliament while the vaccination's popularity increased exponentially, so did its monetary value. this was realized by the british parliament, which compensated jenner 10,000 pounds for the vaccination. in addition, they later compensated jenner an additional 20,000 pounds. in the coming years, jenner continued advocacy for his vaccination over the still popular inoculation. eventually, in 1840, the inoculation became banned in england and was replaced with the cowpox vaccination as the main medical solution to combat smallpox. the cowpox vaccination saved the british army thousands of soldiers, by making them immune to the effects of smallpox in upcoming wars. the cowpox also saved the united kingdom thousands of pounds. kinepox kinepox is an alternative term for the smallpox vaccine used in early 19th-century america. popularized by jenner in the late 1790s, kinepox was a far safer method for inoculating people against smallpox than the previous method, variolation, which had a 3% fatality rate. in a famous letter to meriwether lewis in 1803, thomas jefferson instructed the lewis and clark expedition to "carry with you some matter of the kine-pox; inform those of them with whom you may be, of its efficacy as a preservative from the smallpox; & encourage them in the use of it..." jefferson had developed an interest in protecting american indians from smallpox, having been aware of epidemics along the missouri river during the previous century. a year before his special instructions to lewis, jefferson had persuaded a visiting delegation of north american indian chieftains to be vaccinated with kinepox during the winter of 1801–1802. unfortunately, lewis never got the opportunity to use kinepox during the pair's expedition, as it had become inadvertently inactive—a common occurrence in a time before vaccines were stabilized with preservatives such as glycerol or kept at refrigeration temperatures. prevention today, the virus is found in europe, mainly in the uk. human cases are very rare (though in 2010 a laboratory worker contracted cowpox) and most often contracted from domestic cats. human infections usually remain localized and self-limiting, but can become fatal in immunosuppressed patients. the virus is not commonly found in cattle; the reservoir hosts for the virus are woodland rodents, particularly voles. domestic cats contract the virus from these rodents. symptoms in cats include lesions on the face, neck, forelimbs, and paws, and, less commonly, upper respiratory tract infections. symptoms of infection with cowpox virus in humans are localized, pustular lesions generally found on the hands and limited to the site of introduction. the incubation period is nine to ten days. the virus is most prevalent in late summer and autumn. immunity to cowpox is gained when the smallpox vaccine is administered. although the vaccine now uses vaccinia virus, the poxviruses are similar enough that the body becomes immune to both cow- and smallpox. citations pelkonen pm, tarvainen k, hynninen a, kallio er, henttonen k, palva a, et al. (november 2003). "cowpox with severe generalized eruption, finland". emerging infectious diseases. 9 (11): 1458–1461. doi:10.3201/eid0911.020814. pmc 3035531. pmid 14718092. carroll ds, emerson gl, li y, sammons s, olson v, frace m, et al. (2011). "chasing jenner's vaccine: revisiting cowpox virus classification". plos one. 6 (8): e23086. bibcode:2011ploso...623086c. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0023086. pmc 3152555. pmid 21858000. barlow g, irving wl, moss pj (2020). "20. infectious disease". in feather a, randall d, waterhouse m (eds.). kumar and clark's clinical medicine (10th ed.). elsevier. p. 517. isbn 978-0-7020-7870-5. petersen bw, damon ik (2020). "348. smallpox, monkeypox and other poxvirus infections". in goldman l, schafer ai (eds.). goldman-cecil medicine. vol. 2 (26th ed.). elsevier. pp. 2180–2183. isbn 978-0-323-53266-2. vanessa ngan, "viral and skin infections", 2009 "what's the real story about the milkmaid and the smallpox vaccine?". npr.org. retrieved 2018-02-02. thomas cooper library, university of south carolina: "edward jenner and the discovery of vaccination", exhibition, 1996 "cowpox and paravaccinia". british medical journal. 4 (5575): 308–309. november 1967. doi:10.1136/bmj.4.5575.308. pmc 1748782. pmid 4293285. abbas ak (2003). cellular and molecular immunology (fifth ed.). philadelphia: saunders. isbn 978-0-7216-0008-6. willrich m (2011). pox. new york: penguin books. chomel bb (july 2014). "emerging and re-emerging zoonoses of dogs and cats". animals. 4 (3): 434–445. doi:10.3390/ani4030434. pmc 4494318. pmid 26480316. mansell jk, rees ca (2005). "cutaneous manifestations of viral disease". in august, john r. (ed.). consultations in feline internal medicine. vol. 5. elsevier saunders. isbn 978-0-7216-0423-7. "cowpox virus - an overview | sciencedirect topics". www.sciencedirect.com. retrieved 2022-09-16. plett pc (2006). "". sudhoffs archiv (in german). 90 (2): 219–232. pmid 17338405. williams n (march 2007). "pox precursors". current biology. 17 (5): r150–r151. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2007.02.024. pmid 17387780. s2cid 23106996. patowary k (2020-12-09). "balmis expedition - how orphans took the smallpox vaccine around the world". amusing planet. retrieved 2021-08-11. tucker jb (2001). scourge: the once and future threat of smallpox. new york: atlantic monthly press. p. 31. isbn 978-0-87113-830-9. noyce rs, lederman s, evans dh (2018-01-19). thiel v (ed.). "construction of an infectious horsepox virus vaccine from chemically synthesized dna fragments". plos one. 13 (1): e0188453. bibcode:2018ploso..1388453n. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0188453. pmc 5774680. pmid 29351298. bynum wf (1994). science and the practice of medicine in the nineteenth century. cambridge : cambridge university press. isbn 978-0-521-27205-6. pickup dj, ink bs, parsons bl, hu w, joklik wk (november 1984). "spontaneous deletions and duplications of sequences in the genome of cowpox virus". proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america. 81 (21): 6817–6821. bibcode:1984pnas...81.6817p. doi:10.1073/pnas.81.21.6817. pmc 392023. pmid 6093123. carroll ds, emerson gl, li y, sammons s, olson v, frace m, et al. (2011-08-08). "chasing jenner's vaccine: revisiting cowpox virus classification". plos one. 6 (8): e23086. bibcode:2011ploso...623086c. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0023086. pmc 3152555. pmid 21858000. xu z, zikos d, osterrieder n, tischer bk (january 2014). "generation of a complete single-gene knockout bacterial artificial chromosome library of cowpox virus and identification of its essential genes". journal of virology. 88 (1): 490–502. doi:10.1128/jvi.02385-13. pmc 3911729. pmid 24155400. payne lg (1986-03-01). "the existence of an envelope on extracellular cowpox virus and its antigenic relationship to the vaccinia envelope". archives of virology. 90 (1–2): 125–133. doi:10.1007/bf01314150. pmid 3729722. s2cid 37657395. alzhanova d, früh k (november 2010). "modulation of the host immune response by cowpox virus". microbes and infection. 12 (12–13): 900–909. doi:10.1016/j.micinf.2010.07.007. pmc 3500136. pmid 20673807. soares ja, leite fg, andrade lg, torres aa, de sousa lp, barcelos ls, et al. (july 2009). "activation of the pi3k/akt pathway early during vaccinia and cowpox virus infections is required for both host survival and viral replication". journal of virology. 83 (13): 6883–6899. doi:10.1128/jvi.00245-09. pmc 2698574. pmid 19386722. panus jf, smith ca, ray ca, smith td, patel dd, pickup dj (june 2002). "cowpox virus encodes a fifth member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor family: a soluble, secreted cd30 homologue". proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america. 99 (12): 8348–8353. doi:10.1073/pnas.122238599. pmc 123070. pmid 12034885. leite ja, da fonseca fg, de souza trindade g, abrahão js, arantes rm, de almeida-leite cm, et al. (april 2011). "a-type inclusion bodies: a factor influencing cowpox virus lesion pathogenesis". archives of virology. 156 (4): 617–628. doi:10.1007/s00705-010-0900-0. pmid 21212997. s2cid 33135261. salgado ap, soares-martins ja, andrade lg, albarnaz jd, ferreira pc, kroon eg, bonjardim ca (august 2013). "study of vaccinia and cowpox viruses' replication in rac1-n17 dominant-negative cells". memórias do instituto oswaldo cruz. 108 (5): 554–562. doi:10.1590/s0074-02762013000500004. pmc 3970603. pmid 23903969. bourquain d, schrick l, tischer bk, osterrieder k, schaade l, nitsche a (august 2021). "replication of cowpox virus in macrophages is dependent on the host range factor p28/n1r". virology journal. 18 (1): 173. doi:10.1186/s12985-021-01640-x. pmc 8381512. pmid 34425838. lindemann m. medicine and society in early modern europe. jenner e. an inquiry into the causes and effects of the variolae vaccinae: a disease discovered in some of the western counties of england, particularly gloucestershire, and known by the name of the cow pox. moore p (2001). killer germs: rogue diseases of the twenty-first century. london: carlton. isbn 978-1-84222-150-1. yuan j (17 february 1999). "the small pox story". human biology, class of 1998. stanford, ca: stanford university. riedel s