yet a tongue and a mandible were present (see image). transgenic animal models is just one way in which researchers are attempting to understand craniofacial abnormalities. causes of craniofacial injury physical injury x-ray of a human face following a fracture to the zygomatic arch these injuries happen predominantly in young males, often as a result of traffic accidents which result in 22% of all craniofacial trauma. craniofacial injuries can result in death due to brain damage and airway blockage. following serious injury resulting in airway blockage, the standard of care is to intubate, which involves inserting a flexible tube into the trachea to maintain airflow, followed by immediate surgical intervention (41% of injuries). mechanical ventilation (65% of injuries), blood transfusion (28% of injuries) and tracheostomy (22% of injuries) are also common following trauma. head injuries often coincide with craniofacial trauma, extradural hematoma (bleeding in between the skull and the dura mater), and subdural hematomas (bleeding between the dura mater and the brain). injury to the skull included fractures of frontal bone (20.15% of injuries), sphenoid bone (11.63% of injuries), orbital roof (13.18% of injuries), and fracture of cribriform and ethmoid bone complex (13.18%) with associated cerebrospinal fluid rhinorrhea. the usual surgery used to treat severe craniofacial injury occurs in three stages. craniotomy is performed immediately, followed by orbitofacial repair 7–10 days later and finally cranioplasty after 6–12 months. genetic disorders treacher collins syndrome, cherubism and stickler syndrome are all examples of rare genetic conditions that cause facial deformities. these diseases manifest symptoms in the head, face, mouth, or neck region, and they influence both appearance and function. these disabilities can lead to sleep apnea, poor oral health, and speech impediments. treacher collins syndrome same patient as above. follow up image 6 months post reconstructive surgery. titanium screws and plates were inserted to help hold bones in place. treacher collins syndrome is a rare autosomal dominant condition. symptoms usually include downward-slanting palpebral fissures and hypoplasia of the zygomatic arches. patients can also suffer from hypoplasia of the mandible, cleft palate, lower eyelid coloboma, microtia, atresia of the ear canal, and hearing loss. treatments can include reconstructive surgeries of the eye, ear and zygomatic arch, orthodontics and hearing aids. cherubism cherubism is a rare autosomal dominant condition caused by mutations in the sh3bp2 gene. patients afflicted have symmetrical enlargement of the jaws, caused by the replacement of bone with fibrous tissue. in the most severe cases, the orbital floor is affected, which results in upward-looking eyes. in some cases, patients are afflicted with missing and displaced teeth. treatments include tooth removal and transplantation and removal of intra-bony soft tissue. stickler syndrome stickler syndrome is a rare autosomal dominant connective tissue disorder estimated to affect approximately 1/7500 newborns. symptoms include retrognathia, maxillary hypoplasia, cleft palate, hearing impairment, musculoskeletal anomalies and cardiac defects. treatment generally includes supportive care for musculoskeletal deformities, recognition and treatment of early hearing loss, and reconstructive surgery. surgery facial surgery is often voluntary to make features more aesthetically pleasing. rhinoplasty is exceedingly common, with 220,000 procedures occurring each year. they are used for improving the outward appearance of the nose and for improving nasal airway flow. the first step is an incision into the columella, the skin connecting the nostrils. surgeons can then remove cartilage and bone to correct a dorsal hump, wide tip, or crooked nose. they are also able to correct deviated septums, which are a common airway blockage. once this is completed, the incisions are closed and splits are placed to maintain stability during the healing process. aesthetic surgery is also common following tumor resections, where plastic surgeons correct soft tissue or bone misalignments that occurred due to the removal of a tumor. these procedures can involve bone grafts from the pelvis or ribs to replace removed bone and implantation of titanium plates and screws to hold pieces of bone together.