the university of tübingen, ernst kretschmer's 1921 paper "körperbau und charakter" was expanded in 1922. this expanded version was published as the book physique and character in english in 1925, and used the terms schizoid and schizothmes (like schizoid, but more neurotypical). he included the schizothmic artistic temperament as one of two varieties of genius. in 1924, bleuler said schizoid people were: shut-in, suspicious, incapable of discussion, people who are comfortably dull and at the same time sensitive, people who in a narrow manner pursue vague purposes, improvers of the universe, etc.at this time bleuler also believed that everyone had a schizoid element, writing "every man then has one syntonic and one schizoid component, and through closer observation one can determine its force and direction". also in 1924, austrian-swiss psychiatrist moritz tramer published the paper "einseitig talentierte und begabte schwachsinnige" (singularly talented and gifted mental defectives). it described autistic children. leo kanner would later claim tramer's autism work as an antecedent of his own. in 1929, german psychiatrist erich rudolf jaensch (of the university of marburg) published his book grundformen menschlichen seins (basic forms of human existence). hans asperger would later say his autism thinking was influenced by it explanation of schizothyms (a mild schizoid personality type). grunya sukhareva's research into schizoid children (1925-1932) soviet child psychiatrist grunya sukhareva (груня сухарева) was the first person to comprehensively define what is now considered autism. she was born in kyiv to a jewish family. and between 1917 and 1921 worked in a psychiatric hospital in kyiv. in 1921, she founded a school for children with psychological problems at the psychoneurological department for children in moscow, and worked there for some time. she was supervised by mikhail gurevich, who had previously worked under emil kraepelin. in 1925 she published a paper containing six case studies and a detailed description of schizoid personality disorder in children, titled "шизоидныепсиxопатиив детскомвозрасте" (schizoid psychopathies in childhood). this was republished in german in 1926, as "die schizoiden psychopathien im kindesalter" (the schizoid psychopathies in childhood). her definition aligned well with that for asd in the dsm-5. her description of the condition included the following: an odd type of thinking, characterized by a tendency towards abstraction and schematization, as well as by rationalization and absurd rumination. an autistic attitude, understood as difficulty adapting to peers and a tendency to keep apart from them. a flatness and superficiality of emotions, combined with kretchmer's psychasthenic mood and also involving a mixture of insensitive and oversensitive elements. sukhareva concluded that "there is a group of personality disorders whose clinical picture shares certain features with schizophrenia, but which yet differs profoundly from schizophrenia in terms of its pathogenesis". speculating about the etiology of the condition, she attributed these to "an inborn deficiency of those systems which are also affected in schizophrenia". sukhareva followed this paper with one the next year that focused on girls with the condition. she found that there were four main sex-related differences. (new zealand translator charlotte simmonds translated this paper into english in 2020.) while sukhareva's writings would be read and referenced by american child psychology researchers like louise despert, charles bradley, and leo kanner in the 1930s and 40s, her work was subsequently largely unknown in the anglosphere and western europe. in 1930, sukhareva published the paper k probleme struktury i dinamiki detskikh konstitutsionnykh psikhopatiĭ (shizoidnye formy) (on the problem of the structure and dynamics of children's constitutional psychopathy (schizoid form)). it was translated into english by william new and hristo kyuchukov in 2022. she notes:therefore, through the analysis of the schizoid psychopathies we can distinguish the primary general psychic symptoms in a sophisticated psychopathological picture. these symptoms can be delineated as follows: psychomotor disorders—awkwardness of motion, a kind bipolarity between excitation and lethargy, with automatism and stereotypy; frustration and disorder of affect and emotional responses, expressed in fragile attachments to others, and a lack of unified emotional experience; features of associative work and thinking, that is, bizarre associations, inclination to the abstract, automatism of thinking, inflexibility… in our data, the pathological development of the personality proceeded in two directions. first, when the main features of the schizoid psyche are exacerbated by an unfavorable environment, the schizoid becomes slower and more distracted, more withdrawn and autistic, etc. second, new symptoms, not typical of any constitutional type, suddenly appear. among the new symptoms are rudeness, exasperation, cruelty, and suspicion. the schizoid psychopaths who live in very difficult conditions shift in their affect toward the unfeeling, and present themselves as cold, rude, and stubborn … it is necessary to distinguish two types of symptoms in the picture of the schizoid psychopathies: the main primary symptoms which represent the direct mental manifestations of biological insufficiency, and secondary symptoms in the form of various reactive states and characterological shifts, which are the result of a complex interaction of endogenous and exogenous factors.between 1932 and 1936, sukhareva went on to publish several papers about childhood schizophrenia. in her december 1932 paper uber den verlauf der schizophrenien im kindesalter (on the course of schizophrenia in childhood), she identifies "lack of unification of the psychic functions" as an early symptom of childhood schizophrenia, noting that even "the psychiatric untrained educator" finds these children "striking and odd". she further notes, that even from early childhood, these children showed "lack of adaptability to life in the collective, a certain autism and unreliability". in 1939, sukhareva published the three book collection клинические лекции по психиатрии детского возраста, (clinical lectures on child psychiatry). the second volume included her findings about schizoid/schizophrenic children. new editions were published in 1959 and 1965. sukhareva would not become well-known in the west until much later: in september 1996, british child psychiatrist sula wolff published her translation of grunya sukhareva's 1925 paper, starting the process of increasing awareness of sukhareva's work in the west. august homberger (1926) german child psychiatrist august homberger released the book vorlesungen über psychopathologie des kindesalters (lectures on childhood psychopathology) in 1926, which included a chapter called "die schizophrenie" (the schizophrenia). charles bradley would later quote from it extensively. 1930-1940 childhood schizophrenia and related phenomena in broader psychiatry, increased use of "autism" (1932-1936) r niedenthal published the paper schizophrenia in childhood in 1932. it was devoted to defining the symptoms of childhood schizophrenia. in may 1933, american psychiatrist howard potter, (assistant director of the new york state psychiatric institute and hospital), published a paper titled "schizophrenia in children". potter defined six diagnostic criteria for childhood schizophrenia, which leo kanner would later see as being important when thinking about autism: a generalized retraction of interests from the environment. dereistic thinking, feeling and acting. disturbances of thought, manifested through blocking, symbolization, condensation, perseveration, incoherence and diminution, sometimes to the extent of mutism. defect in emotional rapport. diminution, rigidity and distortion of affect. alterations of behavior with either an increase of motility, leading to incessant activity, or a diminution of motility, reacting to complete immobility or bizarre behavior with a tendency to perseveration or stereotypy. in 1934, soviet psychiatrist evgenia grebelskaya-albatz (евгения гребельская-альбац) of moscow published the paper "zur klinik der schizophrenie des frühen kindesalters" (on the clinic of early childhood schizophrenia). it divided people with childhood "schizophrenia" into two groups, those with normal intelligence, and those with lesser intelligence. also in 1934, moritz tramer published the paper "elktiver mutismus bei kindern" (elective mutism in children), coining the term elective mutism. in april 1935, anni weiss published the paper "qualitative intelligence testing as a means of diagnosis in the examination of psychopathic children", which includes a case study about an autistic boy. in august that year, the jewish weiss migrated from europe to the united states. she would go on to work at johns hopkins hospital in baltimore. during this period, the term autism came to be used quite widely, with a variety of related meanings. asperger and his colleagues in 1937-1938 hans asperger was the first to publish the name autism for a specific condition, and the first to document many of that condition's attributes.in may 1931, young austrian psychiatrist hans asperger had joined the vienna university's children's clinic already in may 1931 and the following year had joined its department of curative education. he learnt from those already working there, including the austrians psychiatrist george frankl, psychologist anni weiss, and nurse viktorine zak. in 1935, asperger went on to become the head of the department, where he still remained in 1937. one of the psychiatrists working for asperger was george frankl. frankl was working at the clinic long before asperger, and had taught asperger much about child psychiatry. already in 1934, frankl had published the paper "befehlen und gehorchen" (command and obey), which identified a group of children with particular language difficulties that some have subsequently considered autistic. as a jew, frankl was in danger from his country's nazi regime. so he left vienna in 1937 and migrated to the united states in november that year. he went to work with his friend kanner in baltimore. asperger used the terms autistic psychopath and autism in a 3 october 1938 lecture to describe a pattern he had seen in his patients and elsewhere. the lecture was published later that year as das psychisch abnormale kind (the mentally abnormal child). the lecture included two case studies, and analysis. it instructed its predominantly viennese listeners and readers that people who are a bit strange may also be very intelligent, and that knowing this will become important "when the 'law for the prevention of hereditary diseased offspring' comes into force in our country". describing a particular kind of mentally abnormal child, asperger wrote:all abnormal symptoms can be derived from the disturbance of the instinctive functions: the disturbance of the understanding of the situation and the disturbance of relationships with other people; from this we understand the lack of respect for authority, the lack of disciplinary understanding at all; but we also understand the fact that nobody really likes these people, we understand the heartless wickedness. equivalent to this lack of instinct is not only the clumsiness in pure motor skills; but also the poor practical understanding, the success of practice that is so difficult to achieve, the "difficult mechanization". after what has been said, it is not surprising that these children are always loners, falling out of any children's community: they themselves do not strive for any community, since they have no personal relationships with anyone (they never have a friend either), and the community also rejects them, since they are always a foreign body; but because of their peculiarities, especially because of their clumsiness, they are always an object of unanimous ridicule in the community, for which they know how to take revenge often enough. but one thing is very often not only not disturbed in these severely constricted personalities, as in this boy, but is actually well developed above average, namely the intelligence in the narrower sense, the ability to think logically, to formulate one's thoughts well in language (they often find particularly original, almost linguistically creative expressions); very often astonishingly mature special interests are present, often really scientific (e.g. natural research) or technical interests, which of course are often quite cranky and eccentric.he also spoke to the broad range of people he considered as having "autism":on the one hand, the originality of thinking (which always includes a bit of "autism"!) or the intensity of the special interests, which are apparently "hypertrophied" at the expense of many other abilities, are so in the foreground that such people are able to achieve top performance (who does not know the autistic researcher who has become a comic-strip character because of his clumsiness and lack of instinct, but who can achieve excellent things or at least advance his often very narrow special field!) at other times, the autistic originality only comes across as absurd, cranky and useless. kanner and his influences in 1937-1938 leo kanner introduced the concept of autism to many people in the united states and other countries.austrian-american psychiatrist leo kanner was an associate professor of psychiatry at johns hopkins hospital in baltimore. kanner was america's pre-eminent child psychiatrist. he had published the first american textbook on the topic in 1935. (while many sources say he published the first english-language book of that kind, kanner himself credits this to william ireland). swiss