nutrition and cognition nutrition and cognition relatively speaking, the brain consumes an immense amount of energy in comparison to the rest of the body. the mechanisms involved in the transfer of energy from foods to neurons are likely to be fundamental to the control of brain function. human bodily processes, including the brain, all require both macronutrients, as well as micronutrients. insufficient intake of selected vitamins, or certain metabolic disorders, may affect cognitive processes by disrupting the nutrient-dependent processes within the body that are associated with the management of energy in neurons, which can subsequently affect synaptic plasticity, or the ability to encode new memories. macronutrients the human brain requires nutrients obtained from the diet to develop and sustain its physical structure and cognitive functions. additionally, the brain requires caloric energy predominately derived from the primary macronutrients to operate. the three primary macronutrients include carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. each macronutrient can impact cognition through multiple mechanisms, including glucose and insulin metabolism, neurotransmitter actions, oxidative stress and inflammation, and the gut-brain axis. inadequate macronutrient consumption or proportion could impair optimal cognitive functioning and have long term health implications. carbohydrates through digestion, dietary carbohydrates are broken down and converted into glucose, which is the sole energy source for the brain. optimal brain function relies on adequate carbohydrate consumption, as carbohydrates provide the quickest source of glucose for the brain. glucose deficiencies such as hypoglycaemia reduce available energy for the brain and impair all cognitive processes and performance. additionally, situations with high cognitive demand, such as learning a new task, increase brain glucose utilization, depleting blood glucose stores and initiating the need for supplementation. complex carbohydrates, especially those with high dietary fibre, are associated with increased cognitive performance and improved memory function. this is because fibre regulates glucose metabolism, slowing the release of insulin and preserving insulin sensitivity. an improperly functioning glucose and insulin metabolism is a primary mechanism for cognitive impairment, and general metabolic dysfunction, as it can cause inflammation and oxidative stress within the brain, potentially leading to neurodegeneration. therefore, complex carbohydrates with high fibre can improve glucose and insulin metabolism, which decreases inflammation and oxidative stress, and leads to improved brain aging as measured by the absence of disability, depression, chronic disease, and decreased cognitive decline. simple carbohydrates are associated with decreased global cognitive performance. simple carbohydrates negatively impact many essential cognitive processes, including attention, memory, reaction time, visual-spatial processing, mental processing speed, and executive functions. simple carbohydrates impair cognition through glucose and insulin metabolism dysfunction, as well as causing inflammation and oxidative stress within the brain. therefore, excessive or chronic consumption of simple carbohydrates is unanimously linked to negative health consequences. proteins through digestion dietary proteins are broken down into individual amino acids and absorbed into the blood. the essential amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan are precursors for the neurotransmitters dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine, and these chemicals modulate neural activity and influence cognitive functioning. dietary protein can improve cognition by increasing reaction time and inhibition control during mentally demanding and physically stressful situations, as tyrosine and tryptophan will replenish exhausted neurotransmitter levels. additionally, adequate and consistent consumption of tyrosine and tryptophan correlates to improvements in memory function. tyrosine is also shown to improve convergent thinking processes through increased cognitive control. insufficient and excessive protein consumption are both linked to decreased cognitive functioning and adverse health effects. studies indicate long term protein overconsumption can increase inflammation and oxidative stress which impairs cognitive functioning. excessive tyrosine consumption can also negatively impact short term working memory. due to an interrelation between serotonin and melatonin high tryptophan levels can produce sedative effects, decreasing alertness and increasing sensations of fatigue. fats through digestion dietary fats are broken down into individual fatty acids for utilization. fatty acids are classified as saturated, trans, monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, and cholesterol. each class has distinct affects on cognitive functioning and health. monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids are commonly found in avocados, vegetables, vegetable oils, olive oil, and fresh fish. these fatty acids are considered healthy and generally improve cognitive performance, executive function, memory performance, and promote long term brain health. this is achieved through a variety of mechanisms, including enhancing synaptic plasticity, promoting effective glucose utilization, and reducing inflammation and oxidative stress. omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are especially significant as they are critical cell membrane and structural components of the brain. cholesterol is an unsaturated alcohol commonly found in eggs, meat, and dairy. studies on dietary cholesterol have indicated both positive and negative effects on global cognitive functioning. however, the adverse cognitive effects of cholesterol consumption appear to be reduced when combined with physical activity, which influences energy homeostasis and synaptic plasticity. saturated fatty acids are typically solid at room temperature with common sources including butter, cheese, and meat. trans fatty acids occur naturally in some meat and dairy products, however the majority are artificially created by hydrogenating vegetable oils and are present in many processed foods. saturated and trans fatty acids decrease cognitive functioning and specifically impact memory and learning performance. these fatty acids initiate an immediate inflammatory response which can cause oxidative stress, neurodegeneration, and a reduction of grey matter within the brain. saturated and trans fatty acids are generally considered unhealthy for their universally adverse health implications. nutrients needed for memory development choline choline is an essential nutrient and its primary function within the human body is the synthesis of cellular membranes, although it serves other functions as well. it is a precursor molecule to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine which serves a wide range of functions including motor control and memory. choline deficiencies may be related to some liver and neurological disorders. because of its role in cellular synthesis, choline is an important nutrient during the prenatal and early postnatal development of offspring as it contributes to brain development. choline intakes from food for men, women and children may be below the adequate intake levels. women, especially when pregnant or lactating, the elderly, and infants, are at risk for choline deficiency. beef liver, wheat germ, and egg yolks are common foods providing choline. lutein and zeaxanthin lutein and zeaxanthin are carotenoids that contain very strong antioxidants. most of the research thus far has focused on the effect that these carotenoids have on vision and increased processing speeds of the eye. in recent years, scientists have shifted their focus to their contribution to brain development and cognition due to newly found bio-accumulation of lutein and zeaxanthin in the brain. these nutrients can be found mostly in dark, leafy greens. some other foods include eggs, broccoli, zucchini, corn, and brussels sprouts. these foods should be raw or steamed in order to get the most nutrients out of them. omega 3 fatty acids omega 3 fatty acids are essential for brain development and support cognition. these acids affect how the cell receptors react inside of the cell membranes. the human body is not able to make, or synthesize, omega 3 or dha acids on its own. this means that the only source we have for these vital fatty acids comes directly form the food that we eat. many studies have shown that people who consume larger amounts of fish in their diet are less likely to suffer from depression. fish, especially salmon, have large amounts of omega 3 fatty acids and docosahexaonic acid (dha). in the last 100 years, the western civilizations have shown a significant decrease in dha and omega 3 intake, and increase in saturated and trans fats. comparatively, locations like the united states and germany have dramatically more cases of major depression than locations like japan, where their main food source comes from their fishing industry. foods for healthy brain development in children there are many foods that support healthy brain development. many experts recommend fitting some of the following foods into your everyday diet: salmon salmon is very high in omega 3 acids and dha. there are other lean "white" fish meats, like albacore white tuna, that are a good source of protein but because they are more lean they are not high in fats. salmon salad sandwiches, instead of tuna salad, will provide both protein and omega 3 fatty acids. flax seeds aside from many other nutrients contained in flax seeds, just one tablespoon of flax seeds contains 1,597 mg of omega 3 fatty acids. blueberries and strawberries many dark, rich colored berries are shown to improve memory. peanuts/nuts/seeds peanuts are a very good source of vitamin e which is an antioxidant. they also contains thiamin that helps support the brain and nervous systems. nuts are also a very good source of protein for providing energy and increased concentration. whole grains and lean beef whole grains provide a lot of glucose and fiber. the fiber from the grains helps to regulate the release of glucose into the body. glucose sugars are used by your body for energy. higher levels of energy are shown to improve concentration levels of the brain. lean beef is an excellent source of iron which is also shown to provide energy levels and increase concentration. colorful veggies these types of foods are rich with antioxidants needed to cleanse the blood stream and help to keep brain cells strong. milk/yogurt/dairy dairy foods provide the body with vitamins b and d. vitamin b is essential for brain tissue growth and also provides the body with enzymes. greens leafy greens such as collard greens, spinach, cabbage, romaine lettuce, and kale are a good source of folate and very rich in vitamins. b-vitamin deficiencies and cognition b vitamins, also known as the b-complex, are an interrelated group of nutrients which often co-occur in food. the complex consists of: thiamine (b1), riboflavin (b2), niacin (b3), pantothenic acid (b5), pyridoxin (b6), folic acid (b9), cobalamin (b12), and biotin. b vitamins are not synthesized in the body, and thus need to be obtained from food. b-complex vitamins are water-soluble vitamins, which means that they are not stored within the body. in consequence, the b vitamins need ongoing replenishment. it is possible to identify broad cognitive effects of certain b vitamins, as they are involved in many significant metabolic processes within the brain. in a study done by a group of researchers in 2012, vitamin levels were measured in the subjects' blood and compared to the results from memory tests that they were given. the study showed that people with higher vitamin levels, mainly vitamin b, had higher scores on their memory tests. the study was conducted at the oregon health & science university and although it may still need official confirmation, there is sufficient evidence to support the fact that improving your diet can significantly increase the sharpness of your brain. vitamin b1 (thiamine) this vitamin is important for the facilitation of glucose use, thus ensuring the production of energy for the brain, and normal functioning of the nervous system, muscles and heart. thiamine is found throughout mammalian nervous tissue, including the brain and spinal cord. metabolism and coenzyme function of the vitamin suggest a distinctive function for thiamine within the nervous system. the brain retains its thiamine content in the face of a vitamin-deficient diet with great tenacity, as it is the last of all nervous tissues studied to become depleted. lack of thiamin causes the disease known as beriberi. there are two forms of beriberi: "wet", and "dry". dry beriberi is also known as cerebral beriberi and characterized by peripheral neuropathy. thiamine deficiency has been reported in up to 80% of people who are alcoholic due to inadequate nutritional intake, reduced absorption, and impaired utilization of thiamine. clinical signs of b1 deficiency include mental changes such as apathy, decrease in short-term memory, confusion, and irritability; also increased rates of depression, dementia, falls, and fractures in old age. the lingering symptoms of neuropathy associated with cerebral beriberi are known as korsakoff's syndrome, or the chronic phase of wernicke-korsakoff's. wernicke encephalopathy is characterized by ocular abnormalities, ataxia of gait, a global state of confusion, and neuropathy. the state of confusion associated with wernicke's may consist of apathy, inattention, spatial disorientation, inability to concentrate, and mental sluggishness or restlessness. clinical diagnosis of wernicke's disease cannot be made without evidence of ocular disturbance, yet these criteria may be too rigid. korsakoff's syndrome likely represents a variation in the clinical manifestation of wernicke encephalopathy, as they both share similar pathological