terra preta terra preta terra preta (portuguese pronunciation: , literally "black soil" in portuguese) is a type of very dark, fertile anthropogenic soil (anthrosol) found in the amazon basin. it is also known as "amazonian dark earth" or "indian black earth". in portuguese its full name is terra preta do índio or terra preta de índio ("black soil of the indian", "indians' black earth"). terra mulata ("mulatto earth") is lighter or brownish in color. homemade terra preta, with charcoal pieces indicated using white arrows terra preta owes its characteristic black color to its weathered charcoal content, and was made by adding a mixture of charcoal, bones, broken pottery, compost and manure to the low fertility amazonian soil. a product of indigenous soil management and slash-and-char agriculture, the charcoal is stable and remains in the soil for thousands of years, binding and retaining minerals and nutrients. terra preta is characterized by the presence of low-temperature charcoal residues in high concentrations; of high quantities of tiny pottery shards; of organic matter such as plant residues, animal feces, fish and animal bones, and other material; and of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, zinc and manganese. fertile soils such as terra preta show high levels of microorganic activities and other specific characteristics within particular ecosystems. terra preta zones are generally surrounded by terra comum (), or "common soil"; these are infertile soils, mainly acrisols, but also ferralsols and arenosols. deforested arable soils in the amazon are productive for a short period of time before their nutrients are consumed or leached away by rain or flooding. this forces farmers to migrate to an unburned area and clear it (by fire). terra preta is less prone to nutrient leaching because of its high concentration of charcoal, microbial life and organic matter. the combination accumulates nutrients, minerals and microorganisms and withstands leaching. terra preta soils were created by farming communities between 450 bce and 950 ce. soil depths can reach 2 meters (6.6 ft). it is reported to regenerate itself at the rate of 1 centimeter (0.4 in) per year. history early theories the origins of the amazonian dark earths were not immediately clear to later settlers. one idea was that they resulted from ashfall from volcanoes in the andes, since they occur more frequently on the brows of higher terraces. another theory considered its formation to be a result of sedimentation in tertiary lakes or in recent ponds. anthropogenic roots soils with elevated charcoal content and a common presence of pottery remains can accrete accidentally near living quarters as residues from food preparation, cooking fires, animal and fish bones, broken pottery, etc., accumulated. many terra preta soil structures are now thought to have formed under kitchen middens, as well as being manufactured intentionally on larger scales. farmed areas around living areas are referred to as terra mulata. terra mulata soils are more fertile than surrounding soils but less fertile than terra preta, and were most likely intentionally improved using charcoal. this type of soil appeared between 450 bce and 950 ce at sites throughout the amazon basin. recent research has reported that terra preta may be of natural origin, suggesting that pre-columbian people intentionally utilized and improved existing areas of soil fertility scattered among areas of lower fertility. amazonia amazonians formed complex, large-scale social formations, including chiefdoms (particularly in the inter-fluvial regions) and even large towns and cities. for instance, the culture on the island of marajó may have developed social stratification and supported a population of 100,000. amazonians may have used terra preta to make the land suitable for large-scale agriculture. spanish explorer francisco de orellana was the first european to traverse the amazon river in the 16th century. he reported densely populated regions extending hundreds of kilometres along the river, suggesting population levels exceeding even those of today. orellana may have exaggerated the level of development, although that is disputed. the evidence to support his claim comes from the discovery of geoglyphs dating between 0–1250 ce and from terra preta. beyond the geoglyphs, these populations left no lasting monuments, possibly because they built with wood, which would have rotted in the humid climate, as stone was unavailable. whatever its extent, this civilization vanished after the demographic collapse of the 16th and 17th century, due to european-introduced diseases such as smallpox and bandeirante slave-raiding. the settled agrarians again became nomads, while still maintaining specific traditions of their settled forbears. their semi-nomadic descendants have the distinction among tribal indigenous societies of a hereditary, yet landless, aristocracy, a historical anomaly for a society without a sedentary, agrarian culture. moreover, many indigenous peoples adapted to a more mobile lifestyle to escape colonialism. this might have made the benefits of terra preta, such as its self-renewing capacity, less attractive: farmers would not have been able to cultivate the renewed soil as they migrated. slash-and-char agriculture may have been an adaptation to these conditions. for 350 years after the european arrival, the portuguese portion of the basin remained untended. location terra preta soils are found mainly in the brazilian amazon, where sombroek et al. estimate that they cover at least 0.1 to 0.3%, or 6,300 to 18,900 square kilometres (2,400 to 7,300 sq mi) of low forested amazonia; but others estimate this surface at 10.0% or more (twice the area of great britain). recent model-based predictions suggest that the extent of terra preta soils may be of 3.2% of the forest. terra preta exists in small plots averaging 20 hectares (49 acres), but areas of almost 360 hectares (890 acres) have also been reported. they are found among various climatic, geological, and topographical situations. their distributions either follow main water courses, from east amazonia to the central basin, or are located on interfluvial sites (mainly of circular or lenticular shape) and of a smaller size averaging some 1.4 hectares (3.5 acres), (see distribution map of terra preta sites in amazon basin the spreads of tropical forest between the savannas could be mainly anthropogenic—a notion with dramatic implications worldwide for agriculture and conservation. terra preta sites are also known in the llanos de moxos of bolivia, ecuador, peru and french guiana, and on the african continent in benin, liberia, and the south african savannas. pedology in the international soil classification system world reference base for soil resources (wrb) terra preta is called pretic anthrosol. the most common original soil before transformed into a terra preta is the ferralsol. terra preta has a carbon content ranging from high to very high (more than 13–14% organic matter) in its a horizon, but without hydromorphic characteristics. terra preta presents important variants. for instance, gardens close to dwellings received more nutrients than fields farther away. the variations in amazonian dark earths prevent clearly determining whether all of them were intentionally created for soil improvement or whether the lightest variants are a by-product of habitation. terra preta's capacity to increase its own volume—thus to sequester more carbon—was first documented by pedologist william i. woods of the university of kansas. this remains the central mystery of terra preta. the processes responsible for the formation of terra preta soils are: incorporation of wood charcoal incorporation of organic matter and of nutrients growth of microorganisms and animals in the soil wood charcoal the transformation of biomass into charcoal produces a series of charcoal derivatives known as pyrogenic or black carbon, the composition of which varies from lightly charred organic matter, to soot particles rich in graphite formed by recomposition of free radicals. all types of carbonized materials are called charcoal. by convention, charcoal is considered to be any natural organic matter transformed thermally or by a dehydration reaction with an oxygen/carbon (o/c) ratio less than 60; smaller values have been suggested. because of possible interactions with minerals and organic matter from the soil, it is almost impossible to identify charcoal by determining only the proportion of o/c. the hydrogen/carbon percentage or molecular markers such as benzenepolycarboxylic acid, are used as a second level of identification. indigenous people added low temperature charcoal to poor soils. up to 9% black carbon has been measured in some terra preta (against 0.5% in surrounding soils). other measurements found carbon levels 70 times greater than in surrounding ferralsols, with approximate average values of 50 mg/ha/m. the chemical structure of charcoal in terra preta soils is characterized by poly-condensed aromatic groups that provide prolonged biological and chemical stability against microbial degradation; it also provides, after partial oxidation, the highest nutrient retention. low temperature charcoal (but not that from grasses or high cellulose materials) has an internal layer of biological petroleum condensates that the bacteria consume, and is similar to cellulose in its effects on microbial growth. charring at high temperature consumes that layer and brings little increase in soil fertility. the formation of condensed aromatic structures depends on the method of manufacture of charcoal. the slow oxidation of charcoal creates carboxylic groups; these increase the cation exchange capacity of the soil. the nucleus of black carbon particles produced by the biomass remains aromatic even after thousands of years and presents the spectral characteristics of fresh charcoal. around that nucleus and on the surface of the black carbon particles are higher proportions of forms of carboxylic and phenolic carbons spatially and structurally distinct from the particle's nucleus. analysis of the groups of molecules provides evidences both for the oxidation of the black carbon particle itself, as well as for the adsorption of non-black carbon. this charcoal is thus decisive for the sustainability of terra preta. amending ferralsol with wood charcoal greatly increases productivity. globally, agricultural lands have lost on average 50% of their carbon due to intensive cultivation and other damage of human origin. fresh charcoal must be "charged" before it can function as a biotope. several experiments demonstrate that uncharged charcoal can bring a temporary depletion of available nutrients when first put into the soil, that is until its pores fill with nutrients. this is overcome by soaking the charcoal for two to four weeks in any liquid nutrient (urine, plant tea, etc.). organic matter and nutrients charcoal's porosity brings better retention of organic matter, of water and of dissolved nutrients, as well as of pollutants such as pesticides and aromatic poly-cyclic hydrocarbons. organic matter charcoal's high absorption potential of organic molecules (and of water) is due to its porous structure. terra preta's high concentration of charcoal supports a high concentration of organic matter (on average three times more than in the surrounding poor soils), up to 150 g/kg. organic matter can be found at 1 to 2 metres (3 ft 3 in to 6 ft 7 in) deep. bechtold proposes to use terra preta for soils that show, at 50 centimeters (20 in) depth, a minimum proportion of organic matter over 2.0–2.5%. the accumulation of organic matter in moist tropical soils is a paradox, because of optimum conditions for organic matter degradation. it is remarkable that anthrosols regenerate in spite of these tropical conditions' prevalence and their fast mineralisation rates. the stability of organic matter is mainly because the biomass is only partially consumed. nutrients terra preta soils also show higher quantities of nutrients, and a better retention of these nutrients, than surrounding infertile soils. the proportion of p reaches 200–400 mg/kg. the quantity of n is also higher in anthrosol, but that nutrient is immobilized because of the high proportion of c over n in the soil. anthrosol's availability of p, ca, mn and zn is higher than ferrasol. the absorption of p, k, ca, zn, and cu by the plants increases when the quantity of available charcoal increases. the production of biomass for two crops (rice and vigna unguiculata) increased by 38–45% without fertilization (p < 0.05), compared to crops on fertilized ferralsol. amending with charcoal pieces approximately 20 millimeters (0.79 in) in diameter, instead of ground charcoal, did not change the results except for manganese (mn), for which absorption considerably increased. nutrient leaching is minimal in this anthrosol, despite their abundance, resulting in high fertility. when inorganic nutrients are applied to the soil, however, the nutrients' drainage in anthrosol exceeds that in fertilized ferralsol. as potential sources of nutrients, only c (via photosynthesis) and n (from biological fixation) can be produced in situ. all the other elements (p, k, ca, mg, etc.) must be present in the soil.