waardenburg syndrome waardenburg syndrome waardenburg syndrome is a group of rare genetic conditions characterised by at least some degree of congenital hearing loss and pigmentation deficiencies, which can include bright blue eyes (or one blue eye and one brown eye), a white forelock or patches of light skin. these basic features constitute type 2 of the condition; in type 1, there is also a wider gap between the inner corners of the eyes called telecanthus, or dystopia canthorum. in type 3, which is rare, the arms and hands are also malformed, with permanent finger contractures or fused fingers, while in type 4, the person also has hirschsprung's disease. there also exist at least two types (2e and pcwh) that can result in central nervous system (cns) symptoms such as developmental delay and muscle tone abnormalities. waardenburg syndromeother namesklein–waardenburg syndrome (type 3), shah–waardenburg syndrome (type 4)facial features of waardenburg syndrome type 1 (from jan van der hoeve's description, 1916)specialtymedical genetics the syndrome is caused by mutations in any of several genes that affect the division and migration of neural crest cells during embryonic development (though some of the genes involved also affect the neural tube). neural crest cells are stem cells left over after the closing of the neural tube that go on to form diverse non-cns cells in different parts of the body, including melanocytes, various bones and cartilage of the face and inner ear and the peripheral nerves of the intestines. type 1 is caused by a mutation in the pax3 gene, while the gene that most often causes type 2 when mutated is mitf. type 3 is a more severe presentation of type 1 and is caused by a mutation in the same gene, while type 4 is most often caused by a mutation in sox10. mutations in other genes can also cause the different types, and some of these have been given their own lettered subtypes. most types are autosomal dominant. the estimated prevalence of waardenburg syndrome is 1 in 42,000. types 1 and 2 are the most common, comprising approximately half and a third of cases, respectively, while type 4 comprises a fifth and type 3 less than 2% of cases. an estimated 2–5% of congenitally deaf people have waardenburg syndrome. descriptions of the syndrome date back to at least the first half of the 20th century, however it is named after dutch ophthalmologist and geneticist petrus johannes waardenburg, who described it in 1951. its subtypes were progressively discovered in the following decades and had genes attributed to them mostly in the 1990s and 2000s. signs and symptoms facial appearance of a boy from china with waardenburg syndrome type 1 waardenburg syndrome has multiple different types with some variations in symptoms, and symptoms can vary among those with the same type. the two features consistent across all types of waardenburg syndrome are some degree of congenital sensorineural hearing loss and some degree of pigmentation deficiencies, most consistently in the eyes. type 1 type 1 is characterised by congenital sensorineural hearing loss, pigmentary deficiencies of the hair such as a white lock of hair (poliosis) in the front-centre of the head or premature greying, pigmentary deficiencies of the eyes such as different-coloured eyes (complete heterochromia iridum), multiple colours in an eye (sectoral heterochromia iridum) or brilliant blue eyes, patches of skin depigmentation, and a wider gap between the inner corners of the eyes called telecanthus or dystopia canthorum. other facial features associated with type 1 can include a high nasal bridge, a flat nose tip, a unibrow (synophrys), smaller edges of the nostrils (alae) or a smooth philtrum. type 2 the difference that defines type 2 from type 1 is that patients do not have the wider gap between the inner corners of the eyes (telecanthus/dystopia canthorum). sensorineural hearing loss tends to be more common and more severe in this type. by far the most common gene to cause this type when mutated is mitf (classified as type 2a). if two heterozygot individuals with a mutation in this gene have a child which by chance inherits a mutated copy from both parents (homozygous), for which there is 25% chance, additional symptoms are present in the child, such as a hole in the iris (coloboma), small eyes (microphthalmia), hardened bones (osteopetrosis), macrocephaly, albinism and deafness. there have been two known patients identified with mutations in both copies of snai2 (classified as type 2d); these individuals presented with waardenburg syndrome type 2 but did not have hair pigmentation deficiencies. when waardenburg syndrome type 2 is caused by a mutation in sox10 (classified as type 2e), it can on some occasions present with multiple neurological symptoms. these can include developmental delay, early childhood nystagmus, increased muscle tone, white matter anomalies or hypomyelination in the brain, autistic-like behaviour and the underdevelopment or complete absence of many inner-ear structures such as the vestibular system or cochlea. lack of a sense of smell (anosmia) due to a missing olfactory bulb in the brain may also be present. type 3 also known as klein–waardenburg syndrome, or waardenburg–klein syndrome, type 3 has the same symptoms as type 1 (and is caused by mutations in the same gene) but has additional symptoms that affect the arms and hands. these can include joint contractures of the fingers (camptodactyly), due to underdeveloped muscles, as well as fused digits (syndactyly) or winged scapulae. microcephaly and developmental delay are also possible. type 4 also known as shah–waardenburg syndrome, or waardenburg–shah syndrome, type 4 has most of the same features as type 2 (i.e. no telecanthus, or apparent wider eye gap), but with the addition of hirschsprung's disease, which is a congenital lack of nerves in the intestines leading to bowel dysfunction. additionally, hearing loss is not as common as in type 2. rarely, cleft lip has been reported in this form of waardenburg syndrome. type 4 can also be caused by a mutation in sox10 (the same gene as in type 2e), in which it is known as type 4c; hearing loss is very common and severe in this type. pcwh a mutation in sox10, the gene involved in type 2e and type 4c, can sometimes result in the symptoms of both types (neurological symptoms, as sometimes seen in type 2e, and hirschsprung's disease, as seen in type 4). when this happens, it is called peripheral demyelinating neuropathy–central dysmyelinating leukodystrophy–waardenburg syndrome–hirschsprung disease (pcwh). cause formation of the neural crest and neural tube (neurulation), around week 4 of embryonic development a 2004 model of some of the genes involved in regulating neural crest cells, including some involved in waardenburg syndrome waardenburg syndrome is usually inherited in an autosomal-dominant pattern.types 2d, 3, 4a, and 4b may sometimes have an autosomal-recessive pattern of inheritance. waardenburg syndrome is caused by mutations in any of several genes that affect the operation of neural crest cells in embryonic development. most types of waardenburg syndrome are caused by autosomal dominant mutations. the few that are autosomal recessive are rare. in most cases, an affected person has inherited it from one parent with one of the dominant forms of the condition. a small percentage of cases result from spontaneous new mutations in the gene, where no family history of the condition exists. the neural crest is a group of temporary migratory cells that are left over after the neural tube has closed (neurulation), around the fourth week of embryonic development. they are responsible for differentiating into a diverse group of cells that reach different areas of the body. the neural tube and neural crest are derived from the ectoderm; the neural tube goes on to form the brain and spinal cord, while the neural crest cells eventually go on to form various bones and cartilage of the skull and face by migrating through the pharyngeal arches. they also differentiate into the stria vascularis of the cochlea, the nerves and glia of the intestines (myenteric plexus), schwann cells, which myelinate the peripheral nervous system to allow sufficient conductivity, odontoblasts, which produce dentin deep in the teeth, some neuroendocrine cells, connective tissue around the salivary, lacrimal, pituitary, thymus and thyroid glands, connective tissue of the eye, such as the stroma of the iris and cornea and the trabecular meshwork, and melanocytes, including those in the stroma of the iris that give rise to brown eye colour through melanin. neural crest cells also have a role in muscle formation, including the wall muscle of certain cardiac arteries. causes of subtypes type 1 is caused by an autosomal dominant mutation in the gene pax3. pax3, or paired box 3, is a transcription factor that has a role in maintaining an open window of time for certain neural crest cells (such as those of the head and eyes) to divide and migrate before their terminal differentiation (i.e. to maintain them in the stem-cell state). mutations in this gene therefore prematurely arrest their division and migration, resulting in a minor lack of development of certain face cartilage and bones, as well as underdeveloped inner-ear structures and a lack of melanocytes in the iris stroma. some evidence shows that pax3 also regulates cells from before the neural crest forms, i.e. the neural tube, since mice with loss-of-function mutations in one of the copies of pax3 have neural tube defects such as spina bifida or exencephaly. type 2 is caused by a mutation in any of a range of genes, the most common being mitf, when it is classed as type 2a. type 2a is caused by an autosomal dominant mutation in the gene mitf. mitf, or microphthalmia-associated transcription factor, has a more specialised role in the neural crest and is more strictly involved after the neural crest forms (pax3 and sox10 have been found to activate mitf). it is known to allow melanocytes, osteoclasts, mast cells and retinal pigment epithelial cells to divide and migrate. the involvement in osteoclasts explains why mutations in both copies of mitf can lead to bone hardening (osteopetrosis), as the osteoclasts are responsible for breaking down bone. mitf also activates transcription of tyrosinase, the enzyme that performs the first step in the creation of melanin (oxidising tyrosine). a mutation in a copy of mitf can also lead to tietz syndrome, which is distinguished from waardenburg syndrome by uniform albinism instead of patchy depigmentation. type 2b is caused by an autosomal dominant mutation in an unknown gene on chromosome 1 in the locus range of 1p21–1p13.3. the gene has been provisionally termed ws2b. type 2c is caused by an autosomal dominant mutation in an unknown gene on chromosome 8 in the locus of 8p23. the gene has been provisionally termed ws2c. type 2d is caused by an autosomal recessive mutation in both copies of the gene snai2. the study that discovered this association found that snai2 is activated by mitf as part of neural crest development, and this explained why mutations in mitf cause waardenburg syndrome, as it results in a lack of activation of snai2. mutations in a single copy of snai2 have also been found to cause patches of hair depigmentation (piebaldism) without any other symptoms. type 2e is caused by an autosomal dominant mutation in the gene sox10. rarely, a mutation in a gene other than those currently known may be responsible for a waardenburg syndrome with features of type 2. this is usually initially classified as simply type 2 but may be given its own subtype once a gene or locus is identified and established. type 3 is caused by a mutation in the gene pax3, the same gene as in type 1. it can be inherited in an autosomal dominant or autosomal recessive manner; it is possible for two parents with waardenburg syndrome type 1 to have a child carrying both mutated copies of the pax3 gene (25% chance) and present with waardenburg syndrome type 3. a missense mutation has been documented to have this effect. however, it is also possible for waardenburg syndrome type 3 to present spontaneously with just one mutated copy of pax3. a deletion of the paired domain region of the gene has been documented to have this effect. however, no major correlation has been found between type of mutation and disease severity. severity tends to be dictated by mutations in other genes (epistasis), as evidenced by distinct familial patterns