acute liver failure acute liver failure acute liver failure is the appearance of severe complications rapidly after the first signs (such as jaundice) of liver disease, and indicates that the liver has sustained severe damage (loss of function of 80–90% of liver cells). the complications are hepatic encephalopathy and impaired protein synthesis (as measured by the levels of serum albumin and the prothrombin time in the blood). the 1993 classification defines hyperacute as within 1 week, acute as 8–28 days, and subacute as 4–12 weeks; both the speed with which the disease develops and the underlying cause strongly affect outcomes. acute liver failureacute liver failure (with hepatocellular necrosis and sinusoidal bleeding) from marburg virus, a rare causespecialtygastroenterology, hepatology, intensive care medicine symptomsjaundice, excessive bleeding, altered state of consciousness, hyperdynamic circulation, hepatocellular necrosis, low blood pressurecomplicationshepatic encephalopathy, kidney failure, thrombocytopenia, hyponatraemiadiagnostic methodprothrombin time measurement, complete blood counttreatmentliver transplant signs and symptoms the main features of acute liver failure are rapid-onset jaundice, weakness, and eventually, changes in mental status that can begin as mild confusion but progress to coma, known as hepatic encephalopathy. encephalopathy and cerebral edema in alf, hepatic encephalopathy leads to cerebral edema, coma, brain herniation, and eventually death. detection of encephalopathy is central to the diagnosis of alf. it may vary from subtle deficit in higher brain function (e.g. mood, concentration in grade i) to deep coma (grade iv). patients presenting as acute and hyperacute liver failure are at greater risk of developing cerebral edema and grade iv encephalopathy. the pathogenesis remains unclear, but is likely to be a consequence of several phenomena. there is a buildup of toxic substances like ammonia, mercaptan, serotonin and tryptophan in the brain. this affects neurotransmitter level and neuroreceptor activation. autoregulation of cerebral blood flow is impaired, and is associated with anaerobic glycolysis and oxidative stress. neuronal cell astrocytes are susceptible to these changes, and they swell up, resulting in increased intracranial pressure. inflammatory mediators also play important role. unfortunately, signs of elevated intracranial pressure, such as papilledema and loss of pupillary reflexes, are not reliable, and occur late in the disease process. ct imaging of the brain is also unhelpful in detecting early cerebral oedema, but is often performed to rule out intra-cerebral bleeding. invasive intracranial pressure monitoring via subdural route is often recommended; however, the risk of complications must be weighed against the possible benefit (1% fatal haemorrhage). the aim is to maintain intracranial pressures below 25 mm hg, and cerebral perfusion pressures above 50 mm hg. coagulopathy coagulopathy is another cardinal feature of alf. the liver has the central role in the synthesis of almost all coagulation factors and some inhibitors of coagulation and fibrinolysis. hepatocellular necrosis leads to impaired synthesis of many coagulation factors and their inhibitors. the former produces a prolongation in prothrombin time which is widely used to monitor the severity of hepatic injury. there is significant platelet dysfunction (with both quantitative and qualitative platelet defects). progressive thrombocytopenia with the loss of larger and more active platelets is almost universal. thrombocytopenia with or without dic increases risk of intracerebral bleeding. kidney failure kidney failure is common, present in more than 50% of alf patients, either due to original insult such as paracetamol resulting in acute tubular necrosis or from hyperdynamic circulation leading to hepatorenal syndrome or functional kidney failure. because of impaired production of urea, blood urea does not represent the degree of kidney impairment. inflammation and infection about 60% of all alf patients fulfil the criteria for systemic inflammatory syndrome irrespective of presence or absence of infection. this often contributes towards multi organ failure. impaired host defence mechanism, due to impaired opsonization, chemotaxis and intracellular killing, substantially increases risk of sepsis. bacterial sepsis mostly due to gram positive organisms and fungal sepsis are observed in up to 80% and 30% patients, respectively. metabolic derangements hyponatraemia is an almost universal finding due to water retention and a shift in intracellular sodium transport from inhibition of na/k atpase. hypoglycaemia (due to depleted hepatic glycogen store and hyperinsulinaemia), hypokalaemia, hypophosphataemia and metabolic alkalosis are often present, independent of renal function. lactic acidosis occurs predominantly in paracetamol (also known as acetaminophen) overdose. haemodynamic and cardio-respiratory compromise hyperdynamic circulation, with peripheral vasodilatation from low systemic vascular resistance, leads to hypotension. there is a compensatory increase in cardiac output. adrenal insufficiency has been documented in 60% of alf cases, and is likely to contribute in haemodynamic compromise. there is also abnormal oxygen transport and utilization. although delivery of oxygen to the tissues is adequate, there is a decrease in tissue oxygen uptake, resulting in tissue hypoxia and lactic acidosis. pulmonary complications occur in up to 50% of patients. severe lung injury and hypoxemia result in high mortality. most cases of severe lung injury are due to ards, with or without sepsis. pulmonary haemorrhage, pleural effusions, atelectasis, and intrapulmonary shunts also contribute to respiratory difficulty. late pregnancy in late pregnancy liver function decreases significantly, which can be easily monitored by blood tests. early clinical manifestations of alf in late pregnancy include hypodynamia, decrease in appetite, dark amber urine, deep jaundice, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal distention. among patients whose deaths were attributed to alf in late pregnancy, the majority had experienced vaginal deliveries. causes common causes for acute liver failure are paracetamol (acetaminophen) overdose, idiosyncratic reaction to medication (e.g. tetracycline, troglitazone), excessive alcohol consumption (severe alcoholic hepatitis), viral hepatitis (hepatitis a or b—it is extremely uncommon in hepatitis c), acute fatty liver of pregnancy, and idiopathic (without an obvious cause). reye syndrome is acute liver failure in a child with a viral infection (e.g. chickenpox); it appears that aspirin use may play a significant role. wilson's disease (hereditary copper accumulation) may infrequently present with acute liver failure. acute liver failure also results from poisoning by the death cap mushroom (amanita phalloides) as well as other amatoxin-producing fungus species. certain strains of bacillus cereus—a common species of bacterium implicated as a frequent cause of food poisoning—can cause fulminant liver failure through the production of cereulide, a toxin which destroys the mitochondria in affected hepatocytes, resulting in cell death. while most instances of b. cereus infection are resolved by the body's immune system and do not affect the liver, severe cases resulting in liver damage can be fatal without immediate treatment or liver transplantation. pathophysiology diagram of hepatobiliary system in the majority of acute liver failure (alf) there is widespread hepatocellular necrosis beginning in the centrizonal distribution and progressing towards portal tracts. the degree of parenchymal inflammation is variable and is proportional to duration of disease. zone 1 (periportal) occurs in phosphorus poisoning or eclampsia. zone 2 (mid-zonal), although rare, is seen in yellow fever. zone 3 (centrilobular) occurs with ischemic injury, toxic effects, carbon tetrachloride exposure, or chloroform ingestion. in acute acetaminophen overdose, toxification occurs, mostly in zone iii which has the highest level of p450 micro-enzymes. that fact along with zone iii's decreased oxygen level helps to explain why it is preferentially one of the initial sites of damage. diagnosis all patients with clinical or laboratory evidence of moderate to severe acute hepatitis should have an immediate measurement of prothrombin time and careful evaluation of mental status. if the prothrombin time is prolonged by ≈ 4–6 seconds or more (inr ≥ 1.5), and there is any evidence of altered sensorium, the diagnosis of alf should be strongly suspected, and hospital admission is mandatory. initial laboratory examination must be extensive in order to evaluate both the etiology and severity. initial laboratory analysis prothrombin time/inr complete blood count chemistries liver function test: ast, alt, alkaline phosphatase, ggt, total bilirubin, albumin creatinine, urea/blood urea nitrogen, sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, calcium, magnesium, phosphate glucose amylase and lipase arterial blood gas, lactate blood type and screen paracetamol (acetaminophen) level, toxicology screen viral hepatitis serologies: anti-hav igm, hbsag, anti-hbc igm, anti-hcv autoimmune markers: ana, asma, lkma, immunoglobulin levels ceruloplasmin level (when wilson's disease suspected) pregnancy test (females) ammonia (arterial if possible) hiv status (has implication for transplantation) history taking should include a careful review of possible exposures to viral infection and drugs or other toxins. from history and clinical examination, the possibility of underlying chronic disease should be ruled out as it may require different management. a liver biopsy done via the transjugular route because of coagulopathy is not usually necessary, other than in occasional malignancies. as the evaluation continues, several important decisions have to be made; such as whether to admit the patient to an icu, or whether to transfer the patient to a transplant facility. consultation with the transplant center as early as possible is critical due to the possibility of rapid progression of alf. definition acute liver failure is defined as "the rapid development of hepatocellular dysfunction, specifically coagulopathy and mental status changes (encephalopathy) in a patient without known prior liver disease".page 1557 the diagnosis of acute liver failure is based on physical exam, laboratory findings, patient history, and past medical history to establish mental status changes, coagulopathy, rapidity of onset, and absence of known prior liver disease respectively.page 1557 the exact definition of "rapid" is somewhat questionable, and different sub-divisions exist which are based on the time from onset of first hepatic symptoms to onset of encephalopathy. one scheme defines "acute hepatic failure" as the development of encephalopathy within 26 weeks of the onset of any hepatic symptoms. this is sub-divided into "fulminant hepatic failure", which requires onset of encephalopathy within 8 weeks, and "subfulminant", which describes onset of encephalopathy after 8 weeks but before 26 weeks. another scheme defines "hyperacute" as onset within 7 days, "acute" as onset between 7 and 28 days, and "subacute" as onset between 28 days and 24 weeks.page 1557 treatment king's college hospital criteria for liver transplantation in acute liver failure patients with paracetamol toxicity ph < 7.3 or prothrombin time > 100 seconds and serum creatinine level > 3.4 mg/dl (> 300 μmol/l) if in grade iii or iv encephalopathy other patients prothrombin time > 100 seconds or three of the following variables: age < 10 yr or > 40 years cause: hepatitis c or e halothane hepatitis idiosyncratic drug reaction duration of jaundice before encephalopathy > 7 days prothrombin time > 50 seconds serum bilirubin level > 17.6 mg/dl (> 300 μmol/l) general concerns because alf often involves the rapid deterioration of mental status and the potential for multiorgan failure, patients should be managed in the intensive care unit. for patients not at a transplant center, the possibility of rapid progression of alf makes early consultation with a transplant facility critical. accordingly, plans for transfer to a transplant center should begin in patients with any abnormal mentation. early institution of antidotes or specific therapy may prevent the need for liver transplantation and reduce the likelihood of poor outcome. measures appropriate for specific causes of alf are described in detail later in this chapter. neurologic complications patients with grade i–ii encephalopathy should be transferred to a liver transplant facility and listed for transplantation. consider a brain computed tomography (ct) scan to rule out other causes of altered or impaired mental status. stimulation and overhydration can cause elevations in intracranial pressure (icp) and should be avoided. unmanageable agitation may be treated with short-acting benzodiazepines in small doses. lactulose can be considered at this stage. a preliminary report from the alfsg on 117 patients suggests that use of lactulose in the first 7 days after diagnosis is associated with a small increase in survival time, but with no difference in severity of encephalopathy or in the overall outcome. for patients who progress to grade iii–iv encephalopathy, intubation for airway protection is generally required. many centers use propofol for sedation because it may reduce cerebral blood. the head of the bed should be elevated to 30 degrees, and electrolytes, blood gasses, glucose, and neurologic status monitored frequently. cardiovascular complications increased cardiac output and low systemic vascular resistance are characteristic of alf. pulmonary artery catheterization should be considered. hypotension should be treated preferentially with fluids, but systemic vasopressor support with agents such as epinephrine, norepinephrine, or dopamine should be used if fluid replacement fails to maintain mean arterial pressure of 50–60 mm hg. vasoconstrictive agents (especially vasopressin) should be avoided. pulmonary complications pulmonary edema and pulmonary infections are commonly seen in patients with alf. mechanical ventilation may be required. however, positive