require a 4-inch waste pipe.— handbuch der architektur: "entwässerungsanlagen amerikanischer gebäude", 1897 at that time, the female urinal was unable to establish itself in germany, and they were installed only occasionally. in 1902, on the initiative of the city building office, a decision was taken in munich to install women's urinals throughout the city in public convenience stores. a letter to the kirchmair board of directors, for example, explains the plenary decision of the baumagistrat on 13 february 1902: it was suggested by several parties that the various classes of toilets should be abolished, that the establishment should be uniform and that a fee of 5 pfennig should be charged for all toilets, with the exception of the free toilets, (this corresponds to the ii. class), and that free toilets should be set up in all existing sanitary facilities. the construction of women's urinals, such as those found in other cities, was also mentioned.— munich city archive 1902 this idea was pursued further, so that the documents of 13 january 1906 contained plans for concrete implementation: the basins should be made of cast iron with enamel coating. a seat board is not to be provided. on the other hand, it might be advisable to mount brass rods above the basin, which extend from one wall to another and are fixed there. older and weaker people could gain support at this pole. an intermittent rinse may be required for both pools every 10 minutes. ... for the first attempts to set up "women's urinals", it may be advisable to choose the locations of such urinals near playgrounds so that nannies or other female supervisors can use the same ones.— munich city archive 1906 in the architectural guide münchen und seine bauten (munich and its buildings) from 1912, the women's urinals in three public toilets (lerchenfeldstraße, ottostraße and max-weber-platz) were mentioned in the chapter on "nursing homes". in contrast to the actual toilets, these were intended as "freehold toilets", i.e. for free use. they enjoyed great popularity and were highly frequented. in the course of the 1910s, there was no further expansion, probably because the free use did not generate income for the city's treasury funds. finally, the freiaborte (free public lavatories) for women were converted into fee facilities. a later proposal by the first female city councillor of munich in 1922 for the reintroduction of those free urinals was dismissed by the exclusively male directors of the bade- und bedürfnisanstalten establishments. this development at the turn of the century was not followed up in germany and these first approaches were increasingly forgotten. lady's urinal by j. l. mott iron works (1897) munich building city council sketch of a women's urinal, planned for public toilets (1906) german women's urinals by villeroy and boch (1908) women's urinals made by the manstone company (mexico, 1940s) 1970s onwards the floating half squat or "skiing position" is a suitable peeing position for a woman using a urinal. in the 1970s, alexander kira, professor of architecture and sanitary engineering at cornell university, conducted studies on urination behavior of both genders. he pursued the goal of developing sanitary fixtures that are adapted to the human body and its needs, breaking with conventional design specifications. on a conventional toilet bowl, the "correct" use is determined by the shape of the sanitary fixture. amongst other things, kira investigated the body positions that males and females prefer to use when no external guidelines are given, for example while urinating outdoors. examples include urinating in the forest, on a rock, or in a hole. he examined the trajectories of the urine stream and its controllability, as well as comfort and health aspects of different body positions. males usually urinate in a standing posture and direct the stream forward by hand. females prefer to take a squatting position with the stream controlled by the posture of the entire body and directed vertically downwards to slightly obliquely backwards. this position is generally the most comfortable for females and is associated with the lowest spray dispersion. until the 1970s, a few female urinals were available in the united states from different manufacturers, such as the sanistand by american standard companies and "hygia" by kohler co. in the 1980s and 1990s various concepts and prototypes were proposed, although most of them were not developed beyond the design stage. female urinals have become more common since the turn of the millennium and are marketed commercially, primarily in europe. from 1950 to 1973, the american standard company marketed its mass-produced sanistand. it did not provide significant advantages over conventional toilets, because it used just as much floor space and water for flushing. its main selling point was that it was specifically designed for women to use without bodily contact. several other commercially-unsuccessful designs, like "she-inal" by kathie jones (1990s), have been tried since then, but they required the user either to hover awkwardly or to bring her genitals into close contact with the fixture. current clothes fashions, such as pantyhose and slacks, inhibit females from using them because they do not want their garments to touch the urinal or the floor. in case any females have little experience with urinals and do not know whether to approach them forward or backward, instructions may be posted. towards the end of the century the artist kim dickey produced several designs of a vitreous china prosthetic that allowed women to urinate while standing upright, while j. yolande daniels exhibited a design which, by means of stirrups and leaning back, allowed a user to "allow its user to observe her body evacuating itself of urine", the design being the first with this characteristic. early 21st century the supply of public female urinals is conditioned by two main trends: the growing popularity - especially among young people - of festive outdoor gatherings. this requires mobile devices, easily assembled and dismantled; if necessary, the water supply remains a major constraint. environmental concern, like saving water, reducing waste, and even recycling it. waterless devices allow for the simplified storage of pure urine for use as a fertilizer. modern "lady loo" female urinals in germany female urinals row -mobile and waterless- at a festivalstandard trough models intended for use with a specialised disposable funnel have been introduced with some success, at outdoor festivals such as glastonbury in 2004, to reduce dwell times and to alleviate long queues. in 2011 a portable female urinal, the pollee, was introduced at the roskilde festival in denmark and was received enthusiastically by female festival visitors: "quite frankly: the girls' response at the festival was overwhelming. we have talked to hundreds of girls and although we received ideas for improvement, the overall message was: we use it and we love it!" — christian pagh lapee mobile urinals have been tested in toulouse (france).those of madamepee - mobile and without water - have equipped the hellfest festival (clisson, france) or solidays (paris) and longer-lasting events such as paris plages. society and culture female bodies in public space the practice of urination by females in public space is conditioned by cultural and societal features: females in western societies are educated to urinate seated or squatting and males to urinate while standing. additionally females (especially when wearing pants) must remove clothes and reveal more of their body than males. this is generally why in public toilets, females only have individual and partitioned cubicles as a possibility for urinating unlike males who have urinals. in addition, social conventions may consider that females must be modest by adopting a reserve behavior when they fulfill their natural needs. the fact that females can urinate in a more or less visible way in public space may appear contrary to common morals and etiquette in certain cultures. "equality of urination" the differences in needs, conventions, and practices translate into a natural biological inequality of urination access between males and females, with queues often longer for females. the current practice for arranging toilets in public space, to allocate an equal surface area for males (seated toilets and urinals) and for females (seated toilets only), is a source of inequality because females require more time in the restroom than males and the less space occupied by urinals makes it possible to increase the number of stations for males. urinals for females (non-seated position) are therefore a possible means to move towards "equality of urination". public surveys a 1999 study surveyed 600 women to determine their interest in having female urinals which could be used in a standing position. the majority of respondents indicated a desire to have such facilities. a 2011 study conducted in australia showed that more than half of the women interviewed would use a urinal if it were available. 2017 dutch campaign demand is increasing for "urination equality" or "potty parity". a grassroots urination equality campaign in the netherlands caused a sensation in 2017, with women defiantly using urinals in men's toilets. the protest movement was formed under the name of zeikwijven ("the wild-peeing women"), which advocates urination equality and takes action against the discrimination of women through by limiting possibilities for urination. the initiative was triggered after 23-year-old geerte piening was sentenced to a fine for urinating in public on the street. her complaint was rejected on the judicial grounds that piening should have used a street urinal common in the netherlands. the objection that this was designed only for men was not accepted: "it may not be comfortable, but it is possible". according to one campaign initiator, the problem is that "it isn't possible for women to urinate in a decent, hygienic and dignified manner in a public urinal designed for men." as part of this campaign, women in the netherlands began to urinate demonstratively in public urinals for men. so, the dutch city authorities are planning to increasingly offer a unisex version of the urilift street urinals, which are now available in dutch city centers, and can be used comfortably by men and women.