randomized, placebo-controlled studies. these two studies are some of the first large controlled studies measuring the effects of psychedelic therapy on depression and anxiety in cancer patients. across clinician-ratings and self-ratings, the psychedelic treatment produced statistically significant lowered anxiety and depression, with sustenance for at least 6 months. the studies monitored for adverse effects from the drugs but no serious adverse effects were observed. both studies also attributed the efficacy in part to patients experiencing a "mystical experience". a mystical experience is a very personal introspective experience where some sort of unity or transcendence of time and space is described. more research is necessary to expand generalizability of the conclusions. also, more research is necessary to understand the biological properties of a mystical experience. in post-traumatic stress disorder (ptsd) the multidisciplinary association for psychedelic studies (maps) is conducting studies in the psychedelic treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. the phase 2 trials of these studies, conducted in the u.s., canada, and israel, consisted of 107 participants who had chronic, treatment-resistant ptsd, and had had ptsd for an average of 17.8 years. out of the 107 participants, 61% no longer qualified for ptsd after three sessions of mdma-assisted psychotherapy two months after the treatment. at the 12-month follow-up session, 68% no longer had ptsd. phase 2 trials conducted between 2004 and 2010 reported an overall remission rate of 66.2% and low rates of adverse effects for subjects with chronic ptsd. in 2017, maps and the fda reached an agreement on the special protocol for phase 3 trials. it is important to note that given the difficulties with appropriate blinding in trials of mdma- and psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy the results are likely overestimated. furthermore, there are no superiority or non-inferiority clinical trials comparing mdma-assisted psychotherapy to already existent evidence-based treatments for ptsd, but given the effects reported in clinical trials of mdma-assisted psychotherapy for ptsd there is no reason to believe that this treatment modality is more effective than existent trauma-focused psychological treatments. in depressive and anxiety disorders in 2019, the fda approved the use of esketamine for intranasal use for major depressive disorder (mdd), and treatment-resistant depression (trd), in conjunction with an oral antidepressant. also in 2019, the fda granted "breakthrough therapy" status to psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression and major depressive disorder in order to hasten the process for potential regulatory approval. the designation of "breakthrough therapy" fast-tracks the study of drugs where preliminary clinical evidence shows that they could be substantially more effective than therapies that are already available. studies on the clinical effects of ayahuasca have found significant antidepressant and anxiolytic effects, leading to calls for further research to overcome methodological limitations in the existing studies. in reducing criminal behavior in 2017, the university of birmingham published research suggesting that psilocybin use is corollated with reduced criminal behavior. by using the data collected by the national survey on drug use and health, researchers addressed over 480,000 u.s. adults about their past relationship with psychedelics. this included substances such as ayahuasca, dimethyltryptamine, lsd, mescaline, peyote, san pedro, and psilocybin mushrooms. while other illicit drugs have been associated with increased criminal behavior, researchers found that psychedelic substances instead reduced these behaviors. usage of these substances yielded a 12% decreased likelihood of assault, 18% decrease in other violent crimes, 27% reduction in likelihood of committing larceny and theft, and 22% decrease in odds of committing other property crimes. these findings imply a greater purpose of psychedelic therapy in forensic and clinical settings. in a prior 2014 study, researchers explored the relationship between recidivism and naturalistic hallucinogens in criminal justice populations with a history of substance use. the results concluded that hallucinogens promoted prosocial behaviors in the population with high recidivism rates. the usage of hallucinogens has been found to reduce supervision failure in ex-convicts. this inherently encourages drug abstinence, including the use of alcohol, resulting in higher recidivism rates. a 2022 study associated lowered odds of crime arrests with classic use of psychedelic substances. the research suggests that 7 of the 11 arrest variables were reduced with lifetime psilocybin use. peyote use was found to reduce the odds of dui and vehicle theft. lastly, mescaline was found to reduce drug possession/sale. no other substances shared a positive relationship with reducing criminal behavior. contraindications psychedelic therapy is contraindicated for people who: are pregnant, have a history of epilepsy/other seizure disorder, have severe cardiovascular disease including uncontrolled blood pressure, heart failure, coronary artery disease or previous heart attack or stroke, use medications like ssri or mao-i antidepressants, have a personal or family history of primary psychotic or affective disorders like schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, bipolar 1 disorder, or psychotic symptoms in the setting of depression. methods standard psychedelic therapy the main approach used in the contemporary resurgence of research, often simply called psychedelic therapy, involves the use of moderate-to-high doses of psychedelic drugs. the psychedelic therapy method was initiated by humphry osmond and abram hoffer (with some influence from al hubbard) and replicated by keith ditman, and is more closely aligned to transpersonal psychology than to traditional psychoanalysis. most recent research on psychedelic therapy has used psilocybin or ayahuasca. patients spend most of the acute period of the drug's activity lying down with eyeshades listening to music selected beforehand and exploring their inner experience. dialogue with the therapists the drug session(s) but essential during the preparation session before and the integration session afterwards. the therapeutic team normally consists of a man and a woman, who are both present throughout the psychedelic experience. one aspect that occurs in most participants undergoing psychedelic therapy with moderate-to-high doses is transcendental, mystical, or peak experiences. research has suggested that the strength of these experiences, together with discussion of them soon after in a therapeutic session, could be a major determinant of how great the longer-term effects on symptoms will be. some studies of psychedelic therapy have incorporated cognitive behavioral therapy (cbt) or motivational enhancement therapy (met). within a structured cbt intervention and a dose of psilocybin, patients are given the opportunity to experience cognitive and emotional states that are altered. with these psychedelic effects, cognitive reframing of detrimental schemas and self-identity can be modified positively. in a met environment, patients are able to reflect on their own behaviors to make changes in problematic manners, such as alcohol use disorder. additionally, it could potentially enhance motivation to change and decrease possible ambivalence about behavioral changes. within psychedelic drug sessions, through a reevaluation of the concept of self and reconnecting with core beliefs and values, this can be achieved. psycholytic therapy psycholytic therapy involves the use of low-to-medium doses of psychedelic drugs, repeatedly at intervals of 1–2 weeks. the therapist is present during the peak of the experience to assist the patient in processing material that arises and to offer support. this general form of therapy was mostly used to treat patients with neurotic and psychosomatic disorders. the name psycholytic therapy was coined by ronald a. sandison, literally meaning "soul-dissolving", refers to the belief that the therapy can dissolve conflicts in the mind. psycholytic therapy was historically an important approach to psychedelic psychotherapy in europe, and was also practiced in the united states by some psychotherapists, including betty eisner. in the time since the 1970s, psycholytic therapy has not been a focus of research. psychedelic drugs are useful for exploring the subconscious because a conscious sliver of the adult ego usually remains active during the experience.: 196 patients remain intellectually alert throughout the process and remember their experiences vividly afterward.: 196 in this highly introspective state, patients are actively aware of ego defenses such as projection, denial, and displacement as they react to themselves and their choices.: 196 the ultimate goal of the therapy is to provide a safe, mutually compassionate context through which the profound and intense reliving of memories can be filtered through the principles of genuine psychotherapy. aided by the deeply introspective state attained by the patient, the therapist assists him/her in developing a new life framework or personal philosophy that recognizes individual responsibility for change.: 196 in germany, hanscarl leuner designed a form of psycholytic therapy, which was developed officially but was also used by some socio-politically motivated underground therapists in the 1970s. claudio naranjo the chilean therapist claudio naranjo developed a branch of psychedelic therapy that utilized drugs like mda, mdma, harmaline and ibogaine. anaclitic therapy the term anaclitic (from the ancient greek "ἀνάκλιτος", anaklitos – "for reclining") refers to primitive, infantile needs and tendencies directed toward a pre-genital love object. developed by two london psychoanalysts, joyce martin and pauline mccririck, this form of treatment is similar to psycholytic approaches as it is based largely on a psychoanalytic interpretation of abreactions produced by the treatment, but it tends to focus on those experiences in which the patient re-encounters carnal feelings of emotional deprivation and frustration stemming from the infantile needs of their early childhood. as a result, the treatment was developed with the aim to directly fulfill or satisfy those repressed, agonizing cravings for love, physical contact, and other instinctual needs re-lived by the patient. therefore, the therapist is completely engaged with the subject, as opposed to the traditional detached attitude of the psychoanalyst. with the intense emotional episodes that came with the psychedelic experience, martin and mccririck aimed to sit in as the "mother" role who would enter into close physical contact with the patients by rocking them, giving them milk from a bottle, etc. hypnodelic therapy hypnodelic therapy, as the name suggests, was developed with the goal to maximize the power of hypnotic suggestion by combining it with the psychedelic experience. after training the patient to respond to hypnosis, lsd would be administered, and during the onset phase of the drug the patient would be placed into a state of trance. levine and ludwig found the combination of these techniques to be more effective than the use of either of these two components separately. public interest a resurgence of public interest in psychedelic drug therapy in the 21st century has been driven in part by articles in the new yorker, the new york times and the wall street journal. articles on psychedelic therapy in the new york times have included "how psychedelic drugs can help patients face death" (april 20, 2012) and "my adventures with the trip doctors" (may 15, 2018). psychedelic tourism the first article to bring attention to the uses of psychedelic drugs for mental health was titled, "seeking the magic mushroom," written by robert gordon wasson and published in 1957 by time magazine. it detailed his experience traveling to oaxaca, mexico and taking "magic mushrooms" (psilocybin) within the cultural practices that started the "trip" experience. since that time there has been growing interest within the united states to travel for these unique psychedelic experiences. the market for psychedelic tourism is currently growing rapidly. while typically the vacation destinations for psychedelics are based in central and south america there is a rise in western culture taking over their traditional practices. in the netherlands there are psychedelic society retreats that range from $500–1200 that center on a ceremony in which tourists take magic mushrooms and trip together for around six hours. there are also underground psychedelic "guides" popping up around the united states that include leaders who claim to assist people through their trip similar to shamans in other cultures. an article in the guardian entitled "welcome to the trip of your life: the rise of underground lsd guides" details various styles of guides that can be found within the united states.