body fat percentage body fat percentage the body fat percentage (bfp) of a human or other living being is the total mass of fat divided by total body mass, multiplied by 100; body fat includes essential body fat and storage body fat. essential body fat is necessary to maintain life and reproductive functions. the percentage of essential body fat for women is greater than that for men, due to the demands of childbearing and other hormonal functions. storage body fat consists of fat accumulation in adipose tissue, part of which protects internal organs in the chest and abdomen. a number of methods are available for determining body fat percentage, such as measurement with calipers or through the use of bioelectrical impedance analysis. part of a series onhuman body weight general concepts obesity (epidemiology) overweight underweight body shape weight gain weight loss gestational weight gain diet (nutrition) weight management overnutrition childhood obesity (epidemiology) medical 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food (criticism) fat acceptance movement fat fetishism health at every size hunger obesity and the environment obesity and sexuality sedentary lifestyle social determinants of obesity social stigma of obesity weight cutting weight class the body fat percentage is a measure of fitness level, since it is the only body measurement which directly calculates a person's relative body composition without regard to height or weight. the widely used body mass index (bmi) provides a measure that allows the comparison of the adiposity of individuals of different heights and weights. while bmi largely increases as adiposity increases, due to differences in body composition, other indicators of body fat give more accurate results; for example, individuals with greater muscle mass or larger bones will have higher bmis. as such, bmi is a useful indicator of overall fitness for a large group of people, but a poor tool for determining the health of an individual. typical body fat amounts epidemiologically, the percentage of body fat in an individual varies according to sex and age. various theoretical approaches exist on the relationships between body fat percentage, health, athletic capacity, etc. different authorities have consequently developed different recommendations for ideal body fat percentages. this graph from the national health and nutrition examination survey (nhanes) in the united states charts the average body fat percentages of americans from samples from 1999 to 2004: quickstats: mean percentage body fat, by age group and sex – national health and nutrition examination survey, united states, 1999–2004 in males, mean percentage body fat ranged from 23% at age 16–19 years to 31% at age 60–79 years. in females, mean percentage body fat ranged from 32% at age 8–11 years to 42% at age 60–79 years. but it is important to recognise that women need at least 9% more body fat than men to live a normal healthy life. data from the 2003–2006 nhanes survey showed that fewer than 10% of american adults had a "normal" body fat percentage (defined as 5–20% for men and 8–30% for women). results from the 2017–2018 nhanes survey indicate that an estimated 43% of noninstitutionalized u.s. adults aged 20–74 are obese (including 9% who are severely obese) and an additional 31% are overweight. only 26% were either normal weight or are underweight. in 1983, the body fat percentages of american olympians averaged 14–22% for women and 6–13% for men. body fat guidelines essential fat is the level at which physical and physiological health would be negatively affected, and below which death is certain. above that level, controversy exists as to whether a particular body fat percentage is better for one's health. athletic performance might be affected by body fat: a study by the university of arizona indicated that the ideal body fat percentage for athletic performance is 12–18% for women and 6–15% for men. bodybuilders may compete at essential body fat range, in fact certified personal trainers will suggest them to keep that extremely low level of body fat only for the contest time. however, it is unclear that such levels are ever actually attained since (a) the means to measure such levels are, as noted below, lacking in principle and inaccurate, and (b) 4–6% is generally considered a physiological minimum for human males. measurement techniques underwater weighing main article: hydrostatic weighing irrespective of the location from which they are obtained, the fat cells in humans are composed almost entirely of pure triglycerides with an average density of about 0.9 kilograms per litre. most modern body composition laboratories today use the value of 1.1 kilograms per litre for the density of the "fat free mass", a theoretical tissue composed of 72% water (density = 0.993), 21% protein (density = 1.340) and 7% mineral (density = 3.000) by weight. with a well engineered weighing system, body density can be determined with great accuracy by completely submerging a person in water and calculating the volume of the displaced water from the weight of the displaced water. a correction is made for the buoyancy of air in the lungs and other gases in the body spaces. if there were no errors whatsoever in measuring body density, the uncertainty in fat estimation would be about ± 3.8% of the body weight, primarily because of normal variability in body constituents. whole-body air displacement plethysmography main article: whole-body air displacement plethysmography body composition measurement with whole-body air displacement plethysmography (adp) technology whole-body air displacement plethysmography (adp) is a recognised and scientifically validated densitometric method to measure human body fat percentage. adp uses the same principles as the gold-standard method of underwater weighing, but representing a densitometric method that is based on air displacement rather than on water immersion. air-displacement plethysmography offers several advantages over established reference methods, including a quick, comfortable, automated, noninvasive, and safe measurement process, and accommodation of various subject types (e.g., children, obese, elderly, and disabled persons). however, its accuracy declines at the extremes of body fat percentages, tending to slightly understate the percent body fat in overweight and obese persons (by 1.68–2.94% depending on the method of calculation), and to overstate to a much larger degree the percent body fat in very lean subjects (by an average of 6.8%, with up to a 13% overstatement of the reported body percentage of one individual — i.e. 2% body fat by dxa but 15% by adp). near-infrared interactance a beam of infra-red light is transmitted into a biceps. the light is reflected from the underlying muscle and absorbed by the fat. the method is safe, noninvasive, rapid and easy to use. dual energy x-ray absorptiometry main article: dual energy x-ray absorptiometry dual energy x-ray absorptiometry, or dxa (formerly dexa), is a newer method for estimating body fat percentage, and determining body composition and bone mineral density. x-rays of two different energies are used to scan the body, one of which is absorbed more strongly by fat than the other. a computer can subtract one image from the other, and the difference indicates the amount of fat relative to other tissues at each point. a sum over the entire image enables calculation of the overall body composition. expansions there are several more complicated procedures that more accurately determine body fat percentage. some, referred to as multicompartment models, can include dxa measurement of bone, plus independent measures of body water (using the dilution principle with isotopically labeled water) and body volume (either by water displacement or air plethysmography). various other components may be independently measured, such as total body potassium. in-vivo neutron activation can quantify all the elements of the body and use mathematical relations among the measured elements in the different components of the body (fat, water, protein, etc.) to develop simultaneous equations to estimate total body composition, including body fat. body average density measurement prior to the adoption of dxa, the most accurate method of estimating body fat percentage was to measure that person's average density (total mass divided by total volume) and apply a formula to convert that to body fat percentage. since fat tissue has a lower density than muscles and bones, it is possible to estimate the fat content. this estimate is distorted by the fact that muscles and bones have different densities: for a person with a more-than-average amount of bone mass, the estimate will be too low. however, this method gives highly reproducible results for individual persons (± 1%), unlike the methods discussed below, which can have an uncertainty of 10%, or more. the body fat percentage is commonly calculated from one of two formulas (ρ represents density in g/cm3): brozek formula: bf=(4.57/ρ − 4.142) × 100 siri formula is: bf=(4.95/ρ − 4.50) × 100 bioelectrical impedance analysis main article: bioelectrical impedance analysis the bioelectrical impedance analysis (bia) method is a lower-cost (from less than one to several hundred us dollars in 2006) but less accurate way to estimate body fat percentage. the general principle behind bia: two or more conductors are attached to a person's body and a small electric current is sent through the body. the resistance between the conductors will provide a measure of body fat between a pair of electrodes, since the resistance to electricity varies between adipose, muscular and skeletal tissue. fat-free mass (muscle) is a good conductor as it contains a large amount of water (approximately 73%) and electrolytes, while fat is anhydrous and a poor conductor of electric current. factors that affect the accuracy and precision of this method include instrumentation, subject factors, technician skill, and the prediction equation formulated to estimate the fat-free mass. each (bare) foot may be placed on an electrode, with the current sent up one leg, across the abdomen and down the other leg. (for convenience, an instrument which must be stepped on will also measure weight.) alternatively, an electrode may be held in each hand; calculation of fat percentage uses the weight, so that must be measured with scales and entered by the user. the two methods may give different percentages, without being inconsistent, as they measure fat in different parts of the body. more sophisticated instruments for domestic use are available with electrodes for both feet and hands. there is little scope for technician error as such, but factors such as eating, drinking and exercising must be controlled since hydration level is an important source of error in determining the flow of the electric current to estimate body fat. the instructions for use of instruments typically recommended not making measurements soon after drinking or eating or exercising, or when dehydrated. instruments require details such as sex and age to be entered, and use formulae taking these into account; for example, men and women store fat differently around the abdomen and thigh region. different bia analysers may vary. population-specific equations are available for some instruments, which are only reliable for specific ethnic groups, populations, and conditions. population-specific equations may not be appropriate for individuals outside of specific groups. anthropometric methods there exist various anthropometric methods for estimating body fat. the term anthropometric refers to measurements made of various parameters of the human body, such as circumferences of various body parts or thicknesses of skinfolds. most of these methods are based on a statistical model. some measurements are selected, and are applied to a population sample. for each individual in the sample, the method's measurements are recorded, and that individual's body density is also recorded, being determined by, for instance, under-water weighing, in combination with a multi-compartment body density model. from this data, a formula relating the body measurements to density is developed. because most anthropometric formulas such as the durnin-womersley skinfold method, the jackson-pollock skinfold method, and the us navy circumference method,