effect, in accordance with the mandate of the doha development round". target 2.b. has two indicators: indicator 2.b.1: producer support estimate". the producer support estimate (pse) is "an indicator of the annual monetary value of gross transfers from consumers and taxpayers to support agricultural producers, measured at the farm gate level, arising from policy measures, regardless of their nature, objectives or impacts on farm production or income." indicator 2.b.2: agricultural export subsidies". export subsidies "increase the share of the exporter in the world market at the cost of others, tend to depress world market prices and may make them more unstable, because decisions on export subsidy levels can be changed unpredictably." in 2015, the world trade organization decided to terminate the export subsidy for agricultural commodities. this includes "export credit, export credit guarantees, or insurance programs for agricultural products".: 8 the doha round is the latest round of trade negotiations among the wto membership. it aims to reach major reforms of the international trading system and introduce lower trade barriers and revised trade rules. target 2.c. ensure stable food commodity markets and timely access to information the full title for target 2.c is: "adopt measures to ensure the proper functioning of food commodity markets and their derivatives, and facilitate timely access to market information, including on food reserves, in order to help limit extreme food price volatility". this target has one indicator: indicator 2.c.1 is an indicator of food price anomalies. food price anomalies are measured using the domestic food price volatility index. domestic food price volatility index measures the variation in domestic food prices over time, this is measured as the weighted-average of a basket of commodities based on consumer or market prices. high values indicate a higher volatility in food prices. extreme food price movements pose a threat to agricultural markets and to the food security and livelihoods, especially of the most vulnerable people. the g20 agricultural market information system (amis) offer regular updates on market prices.: 8 custodian agencies custodian agencies are in charge of monitoring the progress of the indicators: for all indicators under targets 2.1, 2.3 and 2.5, and for indicators 2.a.1 and 2.c.1: food and agriculture organization of the united nations (fao) indicators 2.2.1 and 2.2.2 : united nations children's fund (unicef), world health organization (who) indicator 2.2.3: world health organization (who) for all indicators under targets 2.3 and 2.5, and for indicators 2.a.1 and 2.c.1: food and agriculture organization (fao) indicator 2.4.1: united nations environment programme (unep) and food and agriculture organization (fao) indicator 2.a.2: organisation for economic co-operation and development (oecd) indicator 2.b.1: united nations world tourism organization (unwto) tools comparing ghi scores by region 1990 - 2011 the global hunger index (ghi) is a tool designed to measure and track hunger at global, regional, and national levels. the fao food price index (ffpi) is a measure of the monthly change in international prices of a basket of food commodities. monitoring progress kolkata police north traffic guard distributing food among poor during corona crisis in kolkata, india despite the progress, research shows that more than 790 million people worldwide still suffer from hunger. there has been major progress in the fight against hunger over the last 15 years. in 2017, during a side event at the high-level political forum under the theme of "accelerating progress towards achieving sdg 2: lessons from national implementation", a series of recommendations and actions were discussed. stakeholders like the french un mission, action against hunger, save the children and global citizen were steering the conversation. it is unlikely there will be an end to malnutrition on the african continent by 2030. as of 2017, only 26 of 202 un member countries were on track to meet the sdg target to eliminate undernourishment and malnourishment, while 20 percent have made no progress at all and nearly 70 percent have no or insufficient data to determine their progress. to achieve progress towards sdg 2 the world needs to build political will and country ownership. it also needs to improve the narrative around nutrition to make sure that it is well understood by political leaders and address gender inequality, geographic inequality and absolute poverty. it also calls for concrete actions including working at sub-national levels, increasing nutrition funding and ensuring they target the first 1000 days of life and going beyond actions that address only the immediate causes of malnutrition and look at the drivers of under-nutrition, as well as at the food system as a whole. 2019 data for world hunger is shown in the wfp hunger map. challenges main article: sustainable development goals § challenges conceptual problems the sdg 2 targets ignore the importance of value chains and food systems. among the targets of sdg 2 are micronutrient and macronutrient deficiencies, but not overconsumption or the consumption of foods high in salt, fat, and sugars, ignoring the health problems associated with such diets. it calls sustainable agriculture without clarifying what sustainable agriculture entails exactly. a substantial number of indicators currently used for sdgs monitoring are not specifically developed for the sdgs, so the information needed for sdgs monitoring is not necessarily available and is not appropriate to reflect the interconnected nature of the sdg. the lack of connected or coordinated action from food production to consumption at all levels hinders progress on sdg 2. impact of the covid-19 pandemic the achievement of sdg 2 has been jeopardized by a number of factors, the most serious of which happened in 2019, 2020 and 2021; with the unprecedented 2019–2021 locust infestation in eastern africa and the 2020 global covid-19 pandemic. the food and agricultural organization (fao) has noted that trends in food insecurity, disruption in food supply, and income contribute to "increasing the risk of child malnutrition, as food insecurity affects diet quality, including the quality of children's and women's diets, and people's health in different ways". up to 142 million people in 2020, have suffered from undernourishment as a result of the covid-19 pandemic. stunting and wasting children statistics are likely to worsen with the pandemic. in addition, the covid-19 pandemic "may add between 83 and 132 million people to the total number of undernourished in the world by the end of 2020 depending on the economic growth scenario". the covid-19 pandemic and lockdown has placed a huge amount of pressure on agricultural production, disrupted global value and supply chain. subsequently, this raises issues of malnutrition and inadequate food supply to households, with the poorest of them all gravely affected. this has caused more than 132 million people to suffer from undernourishment in 2020. according to recent research there could be a 14% increase in the prevalence of moderate or severe wasting among children younger than five years due to the covid-19 pandemic. links with other sdgs the sdgs are deeply interconnected. all goals could be affected if progress on one specific goal is not achieved. climate change and natural disasters are affecting food security. disaster risk management, climate change adaptation and mitigation are essential to increase harvests quality and quantity. targets 2.4 and 2.5 are directly linked to the environment. organizations and programmes organizations, programmes and funds that have been set up to tackle hunger and malnutrition include: united nations children’s fund (unicef) food and agricultural organization (fao) world food programme (wfp) international fund for agricultural development (ifad) world bank united nations environment programme (unep) international ngos include: action against hunger (or action contre la faim (acf) in french) feeding america the hunger project (thp)