embalming embalming embalming is the art and science of preserving human remains by treating them (in its modern form with chemicals) to forestall decomposition. this is usually done to make the deceased suitable for public or private viewing as part of the funeral ceremony or keep them preserved for medical purposes in an anatomical laboratory. the three goals of embalming are sanitization, presentation, and preservation, with restoration being an important additional factor in some instances. performed successfully, embalming can help preserve the body for a duration of many years. embalming has a very long and cross-cultural history, with many cultures giving the embalming processes a greater religious meaning. animal remains can also be embalmed by similar methods, but embalming is distinct from taxidermy. embalming preserves the body intact, whereas taxidermy is the recreation of an animal's form often using only the creature's skin, fur or feathers mounted on an anatomical form. history pottery, dishes, and other miscellaneous items from the embalming cache of tutankhamun it is important to note that whilst the term embalming is used for both ancient and modern methods toward preservation of a deceased person there is very little connection in terms of actual practises or final aesthetic results. the chinchorro culture in the atacama desert of present-day chile and peru are among the earliest cultures known to have performed artificial mummification as early as 5000⁠–⁠6000 bce. perhaps the ancient culture that developed embalming to the greatest extent was egypt. as early as the first dynasty (3200 bce), specialized priests were in charge of embalming and mummification. they did so by removing organs, ridding the body of moisture, and covering the body with natron. the ancient egyptians believed that mummification enabled the soul to return to the preserved corpse after death. other cultures known to have used embalming techniques in antiquity include the meroites, guanches, peruvians, jivaro indians, aztecs, toltecs, mayans, and tibetan and southern nigerian tribes. the earliest known evidence of artificial preservation in europe was found in osorno (spain) and are about 5000 years old human bones covered in cinnabar for preservation, but embalming remained unusual in europe up to the time of the roman empire. in china, artificially preserved remains have been recovered from the period of the han dynasty (206 bce – 220 ce), the main examples being those of xin zhui and the mawangdui han tombs site. while these remains have been extraordinarily well preserved, the embalming fluids and methods used are unknown. in europe the ancient practice of artificial preservation had become widespread by about 500 ce. the period of the middle ages and the renaissance is known as the anatomists' period of embalming and is characterized by an increased influence of scientific developments in medicine and the need for bodies for dissection purposes. early methods used are documented by contemporary physicians such as peter forestus (1522–1597) and ambroise pare (1510–1590). the first attempts to inject the vascular system were made by alessandra giliani, who died in 1326. various attempts and procedures have been reported by leonardo da vinci (1452–1519), jacobus berengar (1470–1550), bartholomeo eustachius (1520–1574), reinier de graaf (1641–1673), jan swammerdam (1637–1680), and frederik ruysch (1638–1731). modern methods william hunter developed and popularized the modern technique of arterial embalming in the late 18th century. the modern method of embalming involves the injection of various chemical solutions into the arterial network of the body to primarily disinfect and slow the decomposition process. william harvey, the 17th century english physician who was the first to detail the system of blood circulation, made his discoveries by injecting colored solutions into corpses. the scottish surgeon william hunter was the first to apply these methods to the art of embalming as part of mortuary practice. he wrote a widely read report on the appropriate methods for arterial and cavity embalming in order to preserve bodies for burial. his brother, john hunter, applied these methods and advertised his embalming services to the general public from the mid-18th century. one of his more notorious clients was dentist martin van butchell. when his wife mary died on 14 january 1775, he had her embalmed as an attraction to draw more customers. hunter injected the body with preservatives and color additives that gave a glow to the corpse's cheeks, replaced her eyes with glass eyes, and dressed her in a fine lace dress. the body was embedded in a layer of plaster of paris in a glass-topped coffin. butchell exhibited the body in the window of his home and many londoners came to see it; but butchell drew criticism for the display. a rumor, possibly started by butchell himself, claimed that his wife's marriage certificate had specified that her husband would only have control over her estate after her death for as long as her body was kept unburied. interest in, and demand for, embalming grew steadily in the 19th century largely for sentimental reasons. people sometimes wished to be buried at far-off locations which became possible with the advent of the railways, and mourners wanted the chance to pay their last respects beside the displayed body. other motives behind embalming were prevention of disease and the wish to prepare funerals and burials, which were becoming more elaborate, without undue haste. after lord nelson was killed in the battle of trafalgar, his body was preserved in brandy and spirits of wine mixed with camphor and myrrh for over two months. at the time of his state funeral in 1805, his body was found to still be in excellent condition and completely plastic. embalming fluids used in the early 20th century alternative methods of preservation, such as ice packing or laying the body on so called 'cooling boards', gradually lost ground to the increasingly popular and effective methods of embalming. by the mid 19th century, the newly emerging profession of businessmen-undertakers – who provided funeral and burial services – began adopting embalming methods as standard. embalming became more common in the united states during the american civil war, when servicemen often died far from home. the wish of families for their remains to be returned home for local burial and lengthy transport from the battlefield meant it became common in the united states. the period from about 1861 is sometimes known as the funeral period of embalming and is marked by a separation of the fields of embalming by undertakers and embalming (anatomical wetting) for medical and scientific purposes. dr. thomas holmes received a commission from the army medical corps to embalm the corpses of dead union officers to return to their families. military authorities also permitted private embalmers to work in military-controlled areas. the passage of abraham lincoln's body home for burial was made possible by embalming, and it brought the possibilities and potential of embalming to wider public notice. until the early 20th century, embalming fluids often contained arsenic until it was supplanted by more effective and less toxic chemicals. there was concern about the possibility of arsenic from embalmed bodies contaminating ground water supplies and legal concerns that people suspected of murder by arsenic poisoning might claim in defense that levels of poison in the deceased's body were the result of post-mortem embalming not homicide. in 1867, the german chemist august wilhelm von hofmann discovered formaldehyde, whose preservative properties were soon noted, and it became the foundation for modern methods of embalming. dr. frederic ruysch was the first one to have used the arterial injection method for embalming. his work of embalming was so nearly perfect that people thought the dead body was actually alive; however, he only used it to prepare specimens for his anatomical work. today modern embalming is most often performed to ensure a better presentation of the deceased for viewing by friends and relatives. it is also used for medical research or training. a successful viewing of the body is considered to be helpful in the grieving process. embalming has the potential to prevent mourners from having to deal with the rotting and eventual putrescence of the corpse. it is a general legal requirement for international repatriation of human remains (although exceptions do occur) and is required by a variety of laws depending on locality and circumstance, such as for extended time between death and final disposition or above-ground entombment. jessica mitford and the revisionist position this beneficial perception of the viewing of a properly embalmed deceased person has been challenged, however, by authors such as jessica mitford, who point out that there is no general consensus that viewing an embalmed corpse is somehow "therapeutic" to the bereaved, and that terms such as "memory picture" were invented by the undertakers themselves, who have a financial interest in selling the costly process of embalming to the public. mitford also points out that, in many countries, embalming is rare, and the populace of such countries are still able to grieve normally. terms for embalmers an embalmer is someone who has been trained and qualified in the art and science of sanitization, presentation, and preservation of the human deceased. the term mortician is far more generic; it may refer to someone who is a funeral director, an embalmer, or just a person who prepares the deceased, with or without the formal qualification of an embalmer. thus whilst all embalmers are morticians, many morticians are not embalmers and the terms are not intrinsically synonymous. embalming training commonly involves formal study in anatomy, thanatology, chemistry, and specific embalming theory (to widely varied levels depending on the region of the world one lives in) combined with practical instruction in a mortuary with a resultant formal qualification granted after the passing of a final practical examination and acceptance into a recognized society of professional embalmers. the roles of a funeral director and embalmer are different, depending on the locals custom and licensing body for a region in which the funeral director and/or embalmer operate. a funeral director arranges for the final disposition of the deceased, and may or may not prepare the deceased, including embalming, for viewing (or other legal requirements). legal requirements over who can practice vary geographically. some regions or countries do not have specific requirements, whilst others have clear prohibitions. in the united states, the title of an embalmer is largely based on the state in which they are licensed. additionally, in many places, embalming is not done by specialist embalmers, but rather by doctors, medical technicians or laboratory technicians who, while they have the required anatomical or chemical knowledge, are not trained specialists in this field. today, embalming is a common practice in north america, australia, new zealand, britain and ireland, while it is much less frequent in many parts of europe; most modern countries have embalming available in some manner. modern practices instruments used for embalming as practiced in the funeral home embalming involves several distinct steps. modern embalming techniques are not the result of a single practitioner, but rather the accumulation of many decades, even centuries, of research, trial and error, and invention. a standardized version follows below, but variation in techniques are common. the first step in embalming is to verify the permissions and requests of the family followed by a careful plan for the deceased's preparation, including reviewing the medical certificate of death. the deceased is placed on the mortuary table in the supine anatomical position with the head elevated by a head rest. before commencing any preparation the embalmer will verify the identity of the body (normally via wrist or leg bracelets or tags). at this point, embalmers commonly perform an initial evaluation of the deceased's condition, noting things such as rigor mortis, skin condition, edema, intravenous injection sites, presence of fecal matter, tissue gas and numerous other factors which may affect the procedure and outcome. the embalming procedure is a surgical one, albeit rather minimally invasive. the process requires significant effort over the course of multiple hours, including intensive planning, evaluation, and chemical selection. any clothing on the body is removed and set aside, and any personal effects such as jewelry are inventoried. a modesty cloth is commonly placed over the genitalia. the body is washed in a germicidal soap. during this process the embalmer bends, flexes, and massages the arms and legs to relieve rigor mortis. the eyes are posed using an eye cap that keeps them