this revival was continued by a bavarian priest, sebastian kneipp (1821–1897), "an able and enthusiastic follower" of priessnitz, "whose work he took up where priessnitz left it", after he read a treatise on the cold water cure. in wörishofen (south germany), kneipp developed the systematic and controlled application of hydrotherapy for the support of medical treatment that was delivered only by doctors at that time. kneipp's own book my water cure was published in 1886 with many subsequent editions, and translated into many languages. captain r. t. claridge was responsible for introducing and promoting hydropathy in britain, first in london in 1842, then with lecture tours in ireland and scotland in 1843. his 10-week tour in ireland included limerick, cork, wexford, dublin and belfast, over june, july and august 1843, with two subsequent lectures in glasgow. public baths interior of liverpool wash house, the first public wash house in england large public baths such as those found in the ancient world and the ottoman empire were revived during the 19th century. the first modern public baths were opened in liverpool in 1829. the first known warm fresh-water public wash house was opened in may 1842.: 2–14 the popularity of wash-houses was spurred by the newspaper interest in kitty wilkinson, an irish immigrant "wife of a labourer" who became known as the saint of the slums. in 1832, during a cholera epidemic, wilkinson took the initiative to offer the use of her house and yard to neighbours to wash their clothes, at a charge of a penny per week, and showed them how to use a chloride of lime (bleach) to get them clean. she was supported by the district provident society and william rathbone. in 1842, wilkinson was appointed baths superintendent. in birmingham, around ten private baths were available in the 1830s. whilst the dimensions of the baths were small, they provided a range of services. a major proprietor of bath houses in birmingham was a mr. monro who had had premises in lady well and snow hill. private baths were advertised as having healing qualities and being able to cure people of diabetes, gout and all skin diseases, amongst others. on 19 november 1844, it was decided that the working class members of society should have the opportunity to access baths, in an attempt to address the health problems of the public. on 22 april and 23 april 1845, two lectures were delivered in the town hall urging the provision of public baths in birmingham and other towns and cities. after a period of campaigning by many committees, the public baths and wash-houses act received royal assent on 26 august 1846. the act empowered local authorities across the country to incur expenditure in constructing public swimming baths out of its own funds. the first london public baths was opened at goulston square, whitechapel, in 1847 with the prince consort laying the foundation stone. hot public baths baigneuses, by jean-léon gérôme (1824–1904) "turkish" baths (based on the traditional muslim bathhouses which are derived from the roman bath) were introduced to britain by david urquhart, diplomat and sometime member of parliament for stafford, who for political and personal reasons wished to popularize turkish culture. in 1850 he wrote the pillars of hercules, a book about his travels in 1848 through spain and morocco. he described the system of dry hot-air baths used there and in the ottoman empire which had changed little since roman times. in 1856 richard barter read urquhart's book and worked with him to construct a bath. they opened the first modern hot water bath at st ann's hydropathic establishment near blarney, county cork, ireland. the following year, the first public bath of its type to be built in mainland britain since roman times was opened in manchester, and the idea spread rapidly. it reached london in july 1860, when roger evans, a member of one of urquhart's foreign affairs committees, opened a turkish bath at 5 bell street, near marble arch. during the following 150 years, over 600 turkish baths opened in britain, including those built by municipal authorities as part of swimming pool complexes, taking advantage of the fact that water-heating boilers were already on site. similar baths opened in other parts of the british empire. dr. john le gay brereton opened a turkish bath in sydney, australia in 1859, canada had one by 1869, and the first in new zealand was opened in 1874. urquhart's influence was also felt outside the empire when in 1861, dr charles h shepard opened the first turkish baths in the united states at 63 columbia street, brooklyn heights, new york, most probably on 3 october 1863. soap promoted for personal cleanliness "the order of the bath" pears soap advertisement, a reference to the order of the bath. soap reached a mass market as the middle class adopted a greater interest in cleanliness. by the mid-19th century, the english urbanised middle classes had formed an ideology of cleanliness that ranked alongside typical victorian concepts, such as christianity, respectability and social progress. the cleanliness of the individual became associated with his or her moral and social standing within the community and domestic life became increasingly regulated by concerns regarding the presentation of domestic sobriety and cleanliness. the industry of soapmaking began on a small scale in the 1780s, with the establishment of a soap manufactory at tipton by james keir and the marketing of high-quality, transparent soap in 1789 by andrew pears of london. it was in the mid-19th century, though, that the large-scale consumption of soap by the middle classes, anxious to prove their social standing, drove forward the mass production and marketing of soap. william gossage produced low-priced, good-quality soap from the 1850s. william hesketh lever and his brother, james, bought a small soap works in warrington in 1886 and founded what is still one of the largest soap businesses, formerly called lever brothers and now called unilever. these soap businesses were among the first to employ large-scale advertising campaigns. before the late 19th century, water to individual places of residence was rare. many countries in europe developed a water collection and distribution network. london water supply infrastructure developed through major 19th-century treatment works built in response to cholera threats, to modern large-scale reservoirs. by the end of the century, private baths with running hot water were increasingly common in affluent homes in america and britain. at the beginning of the 20th century, a weekly saturday night bath had become common custom for most of the population. a half day's work on saturday for factory workers allowed them some leisure to prepare for the sunday day of rest. the half day off allowed time for the considerable labor of drawing, carrying, and heating water, filling the bath and then afterward emptying it. to economize, bath water was shared by all family members. indoor plumbing became more common in the 20th century and commercial advertising campaigns pushing new bath products began to influence public ideas about cleanliness, promoting the idea of a daily shower or bath. in the twenty-first century challenges to the need for soap to effect such everyday cleanliness and whether soap is needed to avoid body odor, appeared in media. purpose one purpose of bathing is for personal hygiene. it is a means of achieving cleanliness by washing away dead skin cells, dirt, and soil and as a preventative measure to reduce the incidence and spread of disease. it also may reduce body odors, however, some people note that may not be so necessary as commonly thought. bathing creates a feeling of well-being and the physical appearance of cleanliness. bathing may also be practised for religious ritual or therapeutic purposes or as a recreational activity. bathing may be used to cool or to warm the body of an individual. therapeutic use of bathing includes hydrotherapy, healing, rehabilitation from injury or addiction, and relaxation. the use of a bath in religious ritual or ceremonial rites include immersion during baptism in christianity and to achieve a state of ritual cleanliness in a mikvah in judaism. it is referred to as ghusl in arabic to attain ceremonial purity (taahir) in islam. all major religions place an emphasis on ceremonial purity, and bathing is one of the primary means of attaining outward purity. in hindu households, any acts of defilement are countered by undergoing a bath and hindus also immerse in sarovar as part of religious rites. in the sikh religion, there is a place at golden temple where the leprosy of rajni's husband was cured by immersion into the holy sacred pool, and many pilgrims bathe in the sacred pool believing it will cure their illness as well. types of baths carl larsson, summer morning, 1908 where bathing is for personal hygiene, bathing in a bathtub or shower is the most common form of bathing in western, and many eastern, countries. bathrooms usually have a tap, and a shower if it is a modern home, and a huge water heating pot. people take water from the tap or the water-heating pot into a large bucket and use a mug to pour water on themselves. a soap and loofah is used to clean the body after, and then rinsed again using the mug. people most commonly bath in their home or use a private bath in a public bathhouse. in some societies, bathing can take place in rivers, creeks, lakes or water holes, or any other place where there is an adequate pool of water. the quality of water used for bathing purposes varies considerably. normally bathing involves use of soap or a soap-like substance, such as shower gel. in southern india people more commonly use aromatic oil and other home-made body scrubs. bathing occasions can also be occasions of social interactions, such as in public, turkish, banya, sauna or whirlpool baths. sponge bath when water is in short supply or a person is not fit to have a standing bath, a wet cloth or sponge can be used, or the person can wash by splashing water over their body. a sponge bath is usually conducted in hospitals, which involves one person washing another with a sponge, while the person being washed remains lying in bed. ladling water from a container eadweard muybridge, 1872–1885 (photographed); 1887 (images published); 2012 (animated), nude woman washing face, animated from animal locomotion, vol. iv, plate 413 this method involves using a small container to scoop water out of a large container and pour water over the body, in such a way that this water does not go back into the large container. in indonesia and malaysia, this is a traditional method referred to as mandi. in the indonesian language, mandi is the verb for this process; bak mandi is the large container, and kamar mandi is the place in which this is done. travel guides often use the word mandi on its own or in various ways such as for the large container and for the process of bathing. the timba (pail) and the tabo (dipper), the two essentials in philippine bathrooms and bathing areas. in the philippines, timba (pail) and tabo (dipper) are two essentials in every bathroom. clothing when bathing for cleanliness, normally, people bathe completely naked, so as to make cleaning every part of their body possible. this is the case in private baths, whether in one's home or a private bath in a public bathhouse. in public bathing situations, the social norms of the community are followed, and some people wear a swimsuit or underwear. for example, when a shower is provided in a non-sex segregated area of a public swimming pool, users of the shower commonly wear their swimsuit. the customs can vary depending on the age of a person, and whether the bathing is in a sex segregated situation. in some societies, some communal bathing is also done without clothing. when swimming, not wearing clothing is sometimes called skinny dipping. bathing babies babies can be washed in a kitchen sink or a small plastic baby bath, instead of using a standard bath which offers little control of the infant's movements and requires the parent to lean awkwardly or kneel. bathing infants too often has been linked to the development of asthma or severe eczema according to some