pesticide, thereby ending the need of external application of pesticides. an example of this would be bt corn. whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate. it is commonly considered as the next phase of green revolution, which can be seen as a platform to eradicate world hunger by using technologies which enable the production of more fertile and resistant, towards biotic and abiotic stress, plants and ensures application of environmentally friendly fertilizers and the use of biopesticides, it is mainly focused on the development of agriculture. on the other hand, some of the uses of green biotechnology involve microorganisms to clean and reduce waste. red biotechnology is the use of biotechnology in the medical and pharmaceutical industries, and health preservation. this branch involves the production of vaccines and antibiotics, regenerative therapies, creation of artificial organs and new diagnostics of diseases. as well as the development of hormones, stem cells, antibodies, sirna and diagnostic tests. white biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. an example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. white biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods. "yellow biotechnology" refers to the use of biotechnology in food production (food industry), for example in making wine (winemaking), cheese (cheesemaking), and beer (brewing) by fermentation. it has also been used to refer to biotechnology applied to insects. this includes biotechnology-based approaches for the control of harmful insects, the characterisation and utilisation of active ingredients or genes of insects for research, or application in agriculture and medicine and various other approaches. gray biotechnology is dedicated to environmental applications, and focused on the maintenance of biodiversity and the remotion of pollutants. brown biotechnology is related to the management of arid lands and deserts. one application is the creation of enhanced seeds that resist extreme environmental conditions of arid regions, which is related to the innovation, creation of agriculture techniques and management of resources. violet biotechnology is related to law, ethical and philosophical issues around biotechnology. dark biotechnology is the color associated with bioterrorism or biological weapons and biowarfare which uses microorganisms, and toxins to cause diseases and death in humans, livestock and crops. medicine in medicine, modern biotechnology has many applications in areas such as pharmaceutical drug discoveries and production, pharmacogenomics, and genetic testing (or genetic screening). in 2021, nearly 40% of the total company value of pharmaceutical biotech companies worldwide were active in oncology with neurology and rare diseases being the other two big applications. dna microarray chip – some can do as many as a million blood tests at once. pharmacogenomics (a combination of pharmacology and genomics) is the technology that analyses how genetic makeup affects an individual's response to drugs. researchers in the field investigate the influence of genetic variation on drug responses in patients by correlating gene expression or single-nucleotide polymorphisms with a drug's efficacy or toxicity. the purpose of pharmacogenomics is to develop rational means to optimize drug therapy, with respect to the patients' genotype, to ensure maximum efficacy with minimal adverse effects. such approaches promise the advent of "personalized medicine"; in which drugs and drug combinations are optimized for each individual's unique genetic makeup. computer-generated image of insulin hexamers highlighting the threefold symmetry, the zinc ions holding it together, and the histidine residues involved in zinc binding biotechnology has contributed to the discovery and manufacturing of traditional small molecule pharmaceutical drugs as well as drugs that are the product of biotechnology – biopharmaceutics. modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply. the first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to treat human diseases. to cite one example, in 1978 genentech developed synthetic humanized insulin by joining its gene with a plasmid vector inserted into the bacterium escherichia coli. insulin, widely used for the treatment of diabetes, was previously extracted from the pancreas of abattoir animals (cattle or pigs). the genetically engineered bacteria are able to produce large quantities of synthetic human insulin at relatively low cost. biotechnology has also enabled emerging therapeutics like gene therapy. the application of biotechnology to basic science (for example through the human genome project) has also dramatically improved our understanding of biology and as our scientific knowledge of normal and disease biology has increased, our ability to develop new medicines to treat previously untreatable diseases has increased as well. genetic testing allows the genetic diagnosis of vulnerabilities to inherited diseases, and can also be used to determine a child's parentage (genetic mother and father) or in general a person's ancestry. in addition to studying chromosomes to the level of individual genes, genetic testing in a broader sense includes biochemical tests for the possible presence of genetic diseases, or mutant forms of genes associated with increased risk of developing genetic disorders. genetic testing identifies changes in chromosomes, genes, or proteins. most of the time, testing is used to find changes that are associated with inherited disorders. the results of a genetic test can confirm or rule out a suspected genetic condition or help determine a person's chance of developing or passing on a genetic disorder. as of 2011 several hundred genetic tests were in use. since genetic testing may open up ethical or psychological problems, genetic testing is often accompanied by genetic counseling. agriculture genetically modified crops ("gm crops", or "biotech crops") are plants used in agriculture, the dna of which has been modified with genetic engineering techniques. in most cases, the main aim is to introduce a new trait that does not occur naturally in the species. biotechnology firms can contribute to future food security by improving the nutrition and viability of urban agriculture. furthermore, the protection of intellectual property rights encourages private sector investment in agrobiotechnology. examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, stressful environmental conditions, resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to a herbicide), reduction of spoilage, or improving the nutrient profile of the crop. examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation. farmers have widely adopted gm technology. between 1996 and 2011, the total surface area of land cultivated with gm crops had increased by a factor of 94, from 17,000 square kilometers (4,200,000 acres) to 1,600,000 km2 (395 million acres). 10% of the world's crop lands were planted with gm crops in 2010. as of 2011, 11 different transgenic crops were grown commercially on 395 million acres (160 million hectares) in 29 countries such as the us, brazil, argentina, india, canada, china, paraguay, pakistan, south africa, uruguay, bolivia, australia, philippines, myanmar, burkina faso, mexico and spain. genetically modified foods are foods produced from organisms that have had specific changes introduced into their dna with the methods of genetic engineering. these techniques have allowed for the introduction of new crop traits as well as a far greater control over a food's genetic structure than previously afforded by methods such as selective breeding and mutation breeding. commercial sale of genetically modified foods began in 1994, when calgene first marketed its flavr savr delayed ripening tomato. to date most genetic modification of foods have primarily focused on cash crops in high demand by farmers such as soybean, corn, canola, and cotton seed oil. these have been engineered for resistance to pathogens and herbicides and better nutrient profiles. gm livestock have also been experimentally developed; in november 2013 none were available on the market, but in 2015 the fda approved the first gm salmon for commercial production and consumption. there is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from gm crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each gm food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive gm foods as safe. the legal and regulatory status of gm foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation. gm crops also provide a number of ecological benefits, if not used in excess. insect-resistant crops have proven to lower pesticide usage, therefore reducing the environmental impact of pesticides as a whole. however, opponents have objected to gm crops per se on several grounds, including environmental concerns, whether food produced from gm crops is safe, whether gm crops are needed to address the world's food needs, and economic concerns raised by the fact these organisms are subject to intellectual property law. biotechnology has several applications in the realm of food security. crops like golden rice are engineered to have higher nutritional content, and there is potential for food products with longer shelf lives. though not a form of agricultural biotechnology, vaccines can help prevent diseases found in animal agriculture. additionally, agricultural biotechnology can expedite breeding processes in order to yield faster results and provide greater quantities of food. transgenic biofortification in cereals has been considered as a promising method to combat malnutrition in india and other countries. industrial industrial biotechnology (known mainly in europe as white biotechnology) is the application of biotechnology for industrial purposes, including industrial fermentation. it includes the practice of using cells such as microorganisms, or components of cells like enzymes, to generate industrially useful products in sectors such as chemicals, food and feed, detergents, paper and pulp, textiles and biofuels. in the current decades, significant progress has been done in creating genetically modified organisms (gmos) that enhance the diversity of applications and economical viability of industrial biotechnology. by using renewable raw materials to produce a variety of chemicals and fuels, industrial biotechnology is actively advancing towards lowering greenhouse gas emissions and moving away from a petrochemical-based economy. synthetic biology is considered one of the essential cornerstones in industrial biotechnology due to its financial and sustainable contribution to the manufacturing sector. jointly biotechnology and synthetic biology play a crucial role in generating cost-effective products with nature-friendly features by using bio-based production instead of fossil-based. synthetic biology can be used to engineer model microorganisms, such as escherichia coli, by genome editing tools to enhance their ability to produce bio-based products, such as bioproduction of medicines and biofuels. for instance, e. coli and saccharomyces cerevisiae in a consortium could be used as industrial microbes to produce precursors of the chemotherapeutic agent paclitaxel by applying the metabolic engineering in a co-culture approach to exploit the benefits from the two microbes. another example of synthetic biology applications in industrial biotechnology is the re-engineering of the metabolic pathways of e. coli by crispr and crispri systems toward the production of a chemical known as 1,4-butanediol, which is used in fiber manufacturing. in order to produce 1,4-butanediol, the authors alter the metabolic regulation of the escherichia coli by crispr to induce point mutation in the glta gene, knockout of the sad gene, and knock-in six genes (cat1, sucd, 4hbd, cat2, bld, and bdh). whereas crispri system used to knockdown the three competing genes (gabd, ybgc, and tesb) that affect the biosynthesis pathway of 1,4-butanediol. consequently, the yield of 1,4-butanediol significantly increased from 0.9 to 1.8 g/l. environmental environmental biotechnology includes various disciplines that play an essential role in reducing environmental waste and providing environmentally safe processes, such as biofiltration and biodegradation. the environment can be affected by biotechnologies, both positively and adversely. vallero and others have argued that the difference between beneficial biotechnology (e.g., bioremediation is to clean up an oil spill or hazard chemical leak) versus the adverse effects stemming from biotechnological enterprises (e.g., flow of genetic material from transgenic organisms into wild strains) can be seen as applications and implications, respectively. cleaning up environmental wastes is an example of an application of environmental biotechnology; whereas loss of biodiversity or loss of containment of a harmful microbe are examples of environmental implications of biotechnology. regulation the regulation of genetic engineering concerns approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the use of genetic engineering technology, and the development and release of genetically modified organisms (gmo), including genetically modified crops and genetically modified fish. there are differences