door controls. popular control platforms on which third-party developers can build smart apps that interact wirelessly with these sensors and actuators include samsung's smartthings, apple's homekit, and amazon's alexa, among others. a problem specific to iot systems is that buggy apps, unforeseen bad app interactions, or device/communication failures, can cause unsafe and dangerous physical states, e.g., "unlock the entrance door when no one is at home" or "turn off the heater when the temperature is below 0 degrees celsius and people are sleeping at night". detecting flaws that lead to such states, requires a holistic view of installed apps, component devices, their configurations, and more importantly, how they interact. recently, researchers from the university of california riverside have proposed iotsan, a novel practical system that uses model checking as a building block to reveal "interaction-level" flaws by identifying events that can lead the system to unsafe states. they have evaluated iotsan on the samsung smartthings platform. from 76 manually configured systems, iotsan detects 147 vulnerabilities (i.e., violations of safe physical states/properties). design given widespread recognition of the evolving nature of the design and management of the internet of things, sustainable and secure deployment of iot solutions must design for "anarchic scalability." application of the concept of anarchic scalability can be extended to physical systems (i.e. controlled real-world objects), by virtue of those systems being designed to account for uncertain management futures. this hard anarchic scalability thus provides a pathway forward to fully realize the potential of internet-of-things solutions by selectively constraining physical systems to allow for all management regimes without risking physical failure. brown university computer scientist michael littman has argued that successful execution of the internet of things requires consideration of the interface's usability as well as the technology itself. these interfaces need to be not only more user-friendly but also better integrated: "if users need to learn different interfaces for their vacuums, their locks, their sprinklers, their lights, and their coffeemakers, it's tough to say that their lives have been made any easier." environmental sustainability impact a concern regarding internet-of-things technologies pertains to the environmental impacts of the manufacture, use, and eventual disposal of all these semiconductor-rich devices. modern electronics are replete with a wide variety of heavy metals and rare-earth metals, as well as highly toxic synthetic chemicals. this makes them extremely difficult to properly recycle. electronic components are often incinerated or placed in regular landfills. furthermore, the human and environmental cost of mining the rare-earth metals that are integral to modern electronic components continues to grow. this leads to societal questions concerning the environmental impacts of iot devices over their lifetime. intentional obsolescence of devices the electronic frontier foundation has raised concerns that companies can use the technologies necessary to support connected devices to intentionally disable or "brick" their customers' devices via a remote software update or by disabling a service necessary to the operation of the device. in one example, home automation devices sold with the promise of a "lifetime subscription" were rendered useless after nest labs acquired revolv and made the decision to shut down the central servers the revolv devices had used to operate. as nest is a company owned by alphabet (google's parent company), the eff argues this sets a "terrible precedent for a company with ambitions to sell self-driving cars, medical devices, and other high-end gadgets that may be essential to a person's livelihood or physical safety." owners should be free to point their devices to a different server or collaborate on improved software. but such action violates the united states dmca section 1201, which only has an exemption for "local use". this forces tinkerers who want to keep using their own equipment into a legal grey area. eff thinks buyers should refuse electronics and software that prioritize the manufacturer's wishes above their own. examples of post-sale manipulations include google nest revolv, disabled privacy settings on android, sony disabling linux on playstation 3, enforced eula on wii u. confusing terminology kevin lonergan at information age, a business technology magazine, has referred to the terms surrounding the iot as a "terminology zoo". the lack of clear terminology is not "useful from a practical point of view" and a "source of confusion for the end user". a company operating in the iot space could be working in anything related to sensor technology, networking, embedded systems, or analytics. according to lonergan, the term iot was coined before smart phones, tablets, and devices as we know them today existed, and there is a long list of terms with varying degrees of overlap and technological convergence: internet of things, internet of everything (ioe), internet of goods (supply chain), industrial internet, pervasive computing, pervasive sensing, ubiquitous computing, cyber-physical systems (cps), wireless sensor networks (wsn), smart objects, digital twin, cyberobjects or avatars, cooperating objects, machine to machine (m2m), ambient intelligence (ami), operational technology (ot), and information technology (it). regarding iiot, an industrial sub-field of iot, the industrial internet consortium's vocabulary task group has created a "common and reusable vocabulary of terms" to ensure "consistent terminology" across publications issued by the industrial internet consortium. iot one has created an iot terms database including a new term alert to be notified when a new term is published. as of march 2020, this database aggregates 807 iot-related terms, while keeping material "transparent and comprehensive." adoption barriers ge digital ceo william ruh speaking about ge's attempts to gain a foothold in the market for iot services at the first ieee computer society techignite conference lack of interoperability and unclear value propositions despite a shared belief in the potential of the iot, industry leaders and consumers are facing barriers to adopt iot technology more widely. mike farley argued in forbes that while iot solutions appeal to early adopters, they either lack interoperability or a clear use case for end-users. a study by ericsson regarding the adoption of iot among danish companies suggests that many struggle "to pinpoint exactly where the value of iot lies for them". privacy and security concerns as for iot, especially in regards to consumer iot, information about a user's daily routine is collected so that the "things" around the user can cooperate to provide better services that fulfill personal preference. when the collected information which describes a user in detail travels through multiple hops in a network, due to a diverse integration of services, devices and network, the information stored on a device is vulnerable to privacy violation by compromising nodes existing in an iot network. for example, on 21 october 2016, a multiple distributed denial of service (ddos) attacks systems operated by domain name system provider dyn, which caused the inaccessibility of several websites, such as github, twitter, and others. this attack is executed through a botnet consisting of a large number of iot devices including ip cameras, gateways, and even baby monitors. fundamentally there are 4 security objectives that the iot system requires: (1) data confidentiality: unauthorized parties cannot have access to the transmitted and stored data; (2) data integrity: intentional and unintentional corruption of transmitted and stored data must be detected; (3) non-repudiation: the sender cannot deny having sent a given message; (4) data availability: the transmitted and stored data should be available to authorized parties even with the denial-of-service (dos) attacks. information privacy regulations also require organizations to practice "reasonable security". california's sb-327 information privacy: connected devices "would require a manufacturer of a connected device, as those terms are defined, to equip the device with a reasonable security feature or features that are appropriate to the nature and function of the device, appropriate to the information it may collect, contain, or transmit, and designed to protect the device and any information contained therein from unauthorized access, destruction, use, modification, or disclosure, as specified." as each organization's environment is unique, it can prove challenging to demonstrate what "reasonable security" is and what potential risks could be involved for the business. oregon's hb 2395 archived 30 september 2020 at the wayback machine also "requires person that manufactures, sells or offers to sell connected device] manufacturer to equip connected device with reasonable security features that protect connected device and information that connected device collects, contains, stores or transmits] stores from access, destruction, modification, use or disclosure that consumer does not authorize." according to antivirus provider kaspersky, there were 639 million data breaches of iot devices in 2020 and 1.5 billion breaches in the first six months of 2021. traditional governance structure town of internet of things in hangzhou, china a study issued by ericsson regarding the adoption of internet of things among danish companies identified a "clash between iot and companies' traditional governance structures, as iot still presents both uncertainties and a lack of historical precedence." among the respondents interviewed, 60 percent stated that they "do not believe they have the organizational capabilities, and three of four do not believe they have the processes needed, to capture the iot opportunity." this has led to a need to understand organizational culture in order to facilitate organizational design processes and to test new innovation management practices. a lack of digital leadership in the age of digital transformation has also stifled innovation and iot adoption to a degree that many companies, in the face of uncertainty, "were waiting for the market dynamics to play out", or further action in regards to iot "was pending competitor moves, customer pull, or regulatory requirements." some of these companies risk being "kodaked" – "kodak was a market leader until digital disruption eclipsed film photography with digital photos" – failing to "see the disruptive forces affecting their industry" and "to truly embrace the new business models the disruptive change opens up." scott anthony has written in harvard business review that kodak "created a digital camera, invested in the technology, and even understood that photos would be shared online" but ultimately failed to realize that "online photo sharing was the new business, not just a way to expand the printing business." business planning and project management according to 2018 study, 70–75% of iot deployments were stuck in the pilot or prototype stage, unable to reach scale due in part to a lack of business planning. even though scientists, engineers, and managers across the world are continuously working to create and exploit the benefits of iot products, there are some flaws in the governance, management and implementation of such projects. despite tremendous forward momentum in the field of information and other underlying technologies, iot still remains a complex area and the problem of how iot projects are managed still needs to be addressed. iot projects must be run differently than simple and traditional it, manufacturing or construction projects. because iot projects have longer project timelines, a lack of skilled resources and several security/legal issues, there is a need for new and specifically designed project processes. the following management techniques should improve the success rate of iot projects: a separate research and development phase a proof-of-concept/prototype before the actual project begins project managers with interdisciplinary technical knowledge universally defined business and technical jargon