reproductive rights reproductive rights reproductive rights are legal rights and freedoms relating to reproduction and reproductive health that vary amongst countries around the world. the world health organization defines reproductive rights as follows: reproductive rights rest on the recognition of the basic right of all couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing and timing of their children and to have the information and means to do so, and the right to attain the highest standard of sexual and reproductive health. they also include the right of all to make decisions concerning reproduction free of discrimination, coercion and violence. rights theoretical distinctions claim rights and liberty rights individual and group rights natural rights and legal rights negative and positive rights human rights civil and political economic, social and cultural three generations rights by beneficiary accusedanimalschildrenconsumerscreditorsdeafdisabledeldersfetusesfarmershumansnativesintersexkingslgbt (transgender)menminoritiesparents (mothers, fathers)patientspeasantsplantsprisonersrobotsstatesstudentsvictimswomenworkersyouth other groups of rights assemblyassociationasylumcivil libertiesdigitaleducationfair trialfoodfree migrationhealthhousinglinguisticmovementpropertyreproductiverest and leisureself defenseself-determination of peoplespeechsexualitywater and sanitation women's reproductive rights may include some or all of the following: abortion-rights movements; birth control; freedom from coerced sterilization and contraception; the right to access good-quality reproductive healthcare; and the right to education and access in order to make free and informed reproductive choices. reproductive rights may also include the right to receive education about sexually transmitted infections and other aspects of sexuality, right to menstrual health and protection from practices such as female genital mutilation (fgm). reproductive rights began to develop as a subset of human rights at the united nation's 1968 international conference on human rights. the resulting non-binding proclamation of tehran was the first international document to recognize one of these rights when it stated that: "parents have a basic human right to determine freely and responsibly the number and the spacing of their children." women’s sexual, gynecological, and mental health issues were not a priority of the united nations until its decade of women (1975–1985) brought them to the forefront. states, though, have been slow in incorporating these rights in internationally legally binding instruments. thus, while some of these rights have already been recognized in hard law, that is, in legally binding international human rights instruments, others have been mentioned only in non binding recommendations and, therefore, have at best the status of soft law in international law, while a further group is yet to be accepted by the international community and therefore remains at the level of advocacy. issues related to reproductive rights are some of the most vigorously contested rights' issues worldwide, regardless of the population's socioeconomic level, religion or culture. the issue of reproductive rights is frequently presented as being of vital importance in discussions and articles by population concern organizations such as population matters. reproductive rights are a subset of sexual and reproductive health and rights. history proclamation of tehran in 1945, the united nations charter included the obligation "to promote... universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without discrimination as to race, sex, language, or religion". however, the charter did not define these rights. three years later, the un adopted the universal declaration of human rights (udhr), the first international legal document to delineate human rights; the udhr does not mention reproductive rights. reproductive rights began to appear as a subset of human rights in the 1968 proclamation of tehran, which states: "parents have a basic human right to determine freely and responsibly the number and the spacing of their children". this right was affirmed by the un general assembly in the 1969 declaration on social progress and development which states "the family as a basic unit of society and the natural environment for the growth and well-being of all its members, particularly children and youth, should be assisted and protected so that it may fully assume its responsibilities within the community. parents have the exclusive right to determine freely and responsibly the number and spacing of their children." the 1975 un international women's year conference echoed the proclamation of tehran. cairo programme of action the twenty-year "cairo programme of action" was adopted in 1994 at the international conference on population and development (icpd) in cairo. the non-binding programme of action asserted that governments have a responsibility to meet individuals' reproductive needs, rather than demographic targets. it recommended that family planning services be provided in the context of other reproductive health services, including services for healthy and safe childbirth, care for sexually transmitted infections, and post-abortion care. the icpd also addressed issues such as violence against women, sex trafficking, and adolescent health. the cairo program is the first international policy document to define reproductive health, stating: reproductive health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, in all matters relating to the reproductive system and its functions and processes. reproductive health therefore implies that people are able to have a satisfying and safe sex life and that they have the capability to reproduce and the freedom to decide if, when and how often to do so. implicit in this last condition are the right of men and women to be informed and to have access to safe, effective, affordable and acceptable methods of family planning of their choice, as well as other methods for regulation of fertility which are not against the law, and the right of access to appropriate health-care services that will enable women to go safely through pregnancy and childbirth and provide couples with the best chance of having a healthy infant . unlike previous population conferences, a wide range of interests from grassroots to government level were represented in cairo. 179 nations attended the icpd and overall eleven thousand representatives from governments, ngos, international agencies and citizen activists participated. the icpd did not address the far-reaching implications of the hiv/aids epidemic. in 1999, recommendations at the icpd+5 were expanded to include commitment to aids education, research, and prevention of mother-to-child transmission, as well as to the development of vaccines and microbicides. the cairo programme of action was adopted by 184 un member states. nevertheless, many latin american and islamic states made formal reservations to the programme, in particular, to its concept of reproductive rights and sexual freedom, to its treatment of abortion, and to its potential incompatibility with islamic law. implementation of the cairo programme of action varies considerably from country to country. in many countries, post-icpd tensions emerged as the human rights-based approach was implemented. since the icpd, many countries have broadened their reproductive health programs and attempted to integrate maternal and child health services with family planning. more attention is paid to adolescent health and the consequences of unsafe abortion. lara knudsen observes that the icpd succeeded in getting feminist language into governments' and population agencies' literature, but in many countries, the underlying concepts are not widely put into practice. in two preparatory meetings for the icpd+10 in asia and latin america, the united states, under the george w. bush administration, was the only nation opposing the icpd's programme of action. beijing platform the 1995 fourth world conference on women in beijing, in its non-binding declaration and platform for action, supported the cairo programme's definition of reproductive health, but established a broader context of reproductive rights: the human rights of women include their right to have control over and decide freely and responsibly on matters related to their sexuality, including sexual and reproductive health, free of coercion, discrimination and violence. equal relationships between women and men in matters of sexual relations and reproduction, including full respect for the integrity of the person, require mutual respect, consent and shared responsibility for sexual behavior and its consequences . the beijing platform demarcated twelve interrelated critical areas of the human rights of women that require advocacy. the platform framed women's reproductive rights as "indivisible, universal and inalienable human rights." the platform for the 1995 fourth world conference on women included a section that denounced gender-based violence and included forced sterilization as a human rights violation. however, the international community at large has not confirmed that women have a right to reproductive healthcare and in ensuing years since the 1995 conference, countries have proposed language to weaken reproductive and sexual rights. this conference also referenced for the first time indigenous rights and women’s rights at the same time, combining them into one category needing specific representation. reproductive rights are highly politicized, making it difficult to enact legislation. yogyakarta principles the yogyakarta principles on the application of international human rights law in relation to sexual orientation and gender identity, proposed by a group of experts in november 2006 but not yet incorporated by states in international law, declares in its preamble that "the international community has recognized the rights of persons to decide freely and responsibly on matters related to their sexuality, including sexual and reproductive health, free from coercion, discrimination, and violence." in relation to reproductive health, principle 9 on "the right to treatment with humanity while in detention" requires that "states shall... rovide adequate access to medical care and counseling appropriate to the needs of those in custody, recognizing any particular needs of persons on the basis of their sexual orientation and gender identity, including with regard to reproductive health, access to hiv/aids information and therapy and access to hormonal or other therapy as well as to gender-reassignment treatments where desired." nonetheless, african, caribbean and islamic countries, as well as the russian federation, have objected to the use of these principles as human rights standards. state interventions state interventions that contradict at least some reproductive rights have happened both under right-wing and left-wing governments. examples include attempts to forcefully increase the birth rate – one of the most notorious natalist policies of the 20th century was that which occurred in communist romania in the period of 1967–1990 during communist leader nicolae ceaușescu, who adopted a very aggressive natalist policy which included outlawing abortion and contraception, routine pregnancy tests for women, taxes on childlessness, and legal discrimination against childless people – as well as attempts to decrease the fertility rate – china's one child policy (1978–2015). state mandated forced marriage was also practiced by authoritarian governments as a way to meet population targets: the khmer rouge regime in cambodia systematically forced people into marriages, in order to increase the population and continue the revolution. some governments have implemented racist policies of forced sterilizations of 'undesirable' ethnicities. such policies were carried out against ethnic minorities in europe and north america in the 20th century, and more recently in latin america against the indigenous population in the 1990s; in peru, president alberto fujimori (in office from 1990 to 2000) has been accused of genocide and crimes against humanity as a result of a sterilization program put in place by his administration targeting indigenous people (mainly the quechuas and the aymaras). prohibition of forced sterilization and forced abortion the istanbul convention, the first legally binding instrument in europe in the field of violence against women and domestic violence, prohibits forced sterilization and forced abortion: article 39 – forced abortion and forced sterilisation parties shall take the necessary legislative or other measures to ensure that the following intentional conducts are criminalised: a performing an abortion on a woman without her prior and informed consent; b performing surgery which has the purpose or effect of terminating a woman’s capacity to naturally reproduce without her prior and informed consent or understanding of the procedure human rights placard showing positive effects of family planning (ethiopia) human rights have been used as a framework to analyze and gauge abuses, especially for coercive or oppressive governmental policies. the framing of reproductive (human) rights and population control programs are split along race and class lines, with white, western women predominately focused on abortion access (especially during the second wave feminism of the 1970–1980s), silencing women of color in the global south or marginalized women in the global north (black and indigenous women, prisoners, welfare recipients) who were subjected to forced sterilization or contraceptive usage campaigns. the hemisphere divide has also been framed as global north feminists advocating for women’s bodily autonomy and political rights, while global south women advocate for basic needs through poverty reduction and equality in the economy. this divide between first world versus third world women established as feminists focused on