shoghi effendi, the head of the bahá'í faith in the first half of the 20th century, stated that a purely vegetarian diet would be preferable since it avoided killing animals, both he and the universal house of justice, the governing body of the baháʼís have stated that these teachings do not constitute a baháʼí practice and that baháʼís can choose to eat whatever they wish but should be respectful of others' beliefs. buddhism sign promoting vegetarianism at key monastery, spiti, india theravadins in general eat meat. if buddhist monks "see, hear or know" a living animal was killed specifically for them to eat, they must refuse it or else incur an offense. however, this does not include eating meat which was given as alms or commercially purchased. in the theravada canon, buddha did not make any comment discouraging them from eating meat (except specific types, such as human, elephant, horse, dog, snake, lion, tiger, leopard, bear, and hyena flesh) but he specifically refused to institute vegetarianism in his monastic code when a suggestion had been made. in several sanskrit texts of mahayana buddhism, buddha instructs his followers to avoid meat. however, each branch of mahayana buddhism selects which sutra to follow, and some branches, including the majority of tibetan and japanese buddhists, actually do eat meat. meanwhile, chinese, korean, vietnamese buddhism (in some sectors of east asian buddhism) monks and nuns are expected to abstain from meat and, traditionally, to abstain from eggs and dairy as well. different buddhist traditions have differing teachings on diet, which may also vary for ordained monks and nuns compared to others. many interpret the precept "not to kill" to require abstinence from meat, but not all. in taiwan, su vegetarianism excludes not only all animal products but also vegetables in the allium family (which have the characteristic aroma of onion and garlic): onion, garlic, scallions, leeks, chives, or shallots. christianity various groups within christianity have practiced specific dietary restrictions for various reasons. the council of jerusalem in around 50 ad, recommended christians keep following some of the jewish food laws concerning meat. the early sect known as the ebionites are considered to have practiced vegetarianism. surviving fragments from their gospel indicate their belief that – as christ is the passover sacrifice and eating the passover lamb is no longer required – a vegetarian diet may (or should) be observed. however, orthodox christianity does not accept their teaching as authentic. indeed, their specific injunction to strict vegetarianism was cited as one of the ebionites' "errors". at a much later time, the bible christian church founded by reverend william cowherd in 1809 followed a vegetarian diet. cowherd was one of the philosophical forerunners of the vegetarian society. cowherd encouraged members to abstain from eating of meat as a form of temperance. seventh-day adventists are encouraged to engage in healthy eating practices, and ovo-lacto-vegetarian diets are recommended by the general conference of seventh-day adventists nutrition council (gcnc). they have also sponsored and participated in many scientific studies exploring the impact of dietary decisions upon health outcomes. the gcnc has in addition adapted the usda's food pyramid for a vegetarian dietary approach. however, the only kinds of meat specifically frowned upon by the sda health message are unclean meats, or those forbidden in scripture. additionally, some monastic orders follow a pescatarian diet, and members of the eastern orthodox church follow a vegan diet during fasts. there is also a strong association between the quakers and vegetarianism dating back at least to the 18th century. the association grew in prominence during the 19th century, coupled with growing quaker concerns in connection with alcohol consumption, anti-vivisection and social purity. the association between the quaker tradition and vegetarianism, however, becomes most significant with the founding of the friends' vegetarian society in 1902 "to spread a kindlier way of living amongst the society of friends." seventh-day adventist sanitarium products for salesince the formation of the seventh-day adventist church in the 1860s when the church began, wholeness and health have been an emphasis of the adventist church, and has been known as the "health message" belief of the church. adventists are well known for presenting a health message that recommends vegetarianism and expects adherence to the kosher laws in leviticus 11. obedience to these laws means abstinence from pork, shellfish, and other animals proscribed as "unclean". the church discourages its members from consuming alcoholic beverages, tobacco or illegal drugs (compare christianity and alcohol). in addition, some adventists avoid coffee, tea, cola, and other beverages containing caffeine. the pioneers of the adventist church had much to do with the common acceptance of breakfast cereals into the western diet, and the "modern commercial concept of cereal food" originated among adventists. john harvey kellogg was one of the early founders of adventist health work. his development of breakfast cereals as a health food led to the founding of kellogg's by his brother william. in both australia and new zealand, the church-owned sanitarium health and wellbeing company is a leading manufacturer of health and vegetarian-related products, most prominently weet-bix. research funded by the u.s. national institutes of health has shown that the average adventist in california lives 4 to 10 years longer than the average californian. the research, as cited by the cover story of the november 2005 issue of national geographic, asserts that adventists live longer because they do not smoke or drink alcohol, have a day of rest every week, and maintain a healthy, low-fat vegetarian diet that is rich in nuts and beans. the cohesiveness of adventists' social networks has also been put forward as an explanation for their extended lifespan. since dan buettner's 2005 national geographic story about adventist longevity, his book, the blue zones: lessons for living longer from the people who've lived the longest, named loma linda, california a "blue zone" because of the large concentration of seventh-day adventists. he cites the adventist emphasis on health, diet, and sabbath-keeping as primary factors for adventist longevity. an estimated 35% of adventists practice vegetarianism or veganism, according to a 2002 worldwide survey of local church leaders. north american adventist health study recruitments from 2001 to 2007 found a similar prevalence of vegetarianism/veganism. a small majority of adventists, 54%, were conventional meat-eaters. of the remaining 46% it was found that 28% were ovo/lacto-vegetarians, 10% were pesco-vegetarians and 8% were vegans. it is common for adventists who choose to eat meat to follow highly vegetarian diets; 6% of the "meat-eaters" group restricted their intake of meat/fish to no more than once per week. hinduism illustrative of vegetarian hindu meals though there is no strict rule on what to consume and what not to, the food habits of hindus vary according to their community, location, custom and varying traditions. historically and currently, a majority of hindus eat meat. some sects of hinduism follow vegetarianism as an ideal. the reasons stated by them are: the principle of nonviolence (ahimsa) applied to animals; the intention to offer only "pure" (vegetarian) food to a deity and then to receive it back as prasad; and the conviction that a satvic diet is beneficial for a healthy body. a sattvic diet is lacto-vegetarian where it can include dairy, but excludes eggs. a section of hindus consider the cow as a holy animal whose slaughter for meat is forbidden. islam some followers of islam, or muslims, chose to be vegetarian for health, ethical, or personal reasons. however, the choice to become vegetarian for non-medical reasons can sometimes be controversial due to conflicting fatwas and differing interpretations of the quran. though some more traditional muslims may keep quiet about their vegetarian diet, the number of vegetarian muslims is increasing. sri lankan sufi master bawa muhaiyaddeen, who established the bawa muhaiyaddeen fellowship of north america in philadelphia. the former indian president dr. a. p. j. abdul kalam was also famously a vegetarian. in january 1996, the international vegetarian union announced the formation of the muslim vegetarian/vegan society. many non-vegetarian muslims will select vegetarian (or seafood) options when dining in non-halal restaurants. however, this is a matter of not having the right kind of meat rather than preferring not to eat meat on the whole. jainism the food choices of jains are based on the value of ahimsa (non-violence). followers of jainism believe that all living organisms, including microorganisms, are living and have a soul, and have one or more senses out of five senses. they go to great lengths to minimise any harm to any living organism. most jains are lacto-vegetarians, but more devout jains do not eat root vegetables, because they believe that root vegetables contain many more microorganisms as compared to other vegetables, and that, by eating them, violence against these microorganisms is inevitable. they therefore prefer eating beans and fruits, whose cultivation involves killing fewer microorganisms. no products obtained from already-dead animals are allowed because of potential violence against decomposing microorganisms. some particularly dedicated individuals are fruitarians. honey is forbidden, being the regurgitation of nectar by bees and potentially containing eggs, excreta and dead bees. many jains do not consume plant parts that grow underground such as roots and bulbs, because the plants themselves and tiny animals may be killed when the plants are pulled up. judaism while classical jewish law neither requires nor prohibits the consumption of meat, jewish vegetarians often cite jewish principles regarding animal welfare, environmental ethics, moral character, and health as reasons for adopting a vegetarian or vegan diet. rabbis may advocate vegetarianism or veganism primarily because of concerns about animal welfare, especially in light of the traditional prohibition on causing unnecessary "pain to living creatures" (tza'ar ba'alei hayyim). some jewish vegetarian groups and activists believe that the halakhic permission to eat meat is a temporary leniency for those who are not ready yet to accept the vegetarian diet. the book of daniel starts in its first chapter with the benefits of vegetarianism. due to its size, its late time of origin and its revealing content, the book is of particular importance for the time of the following exile, which lasts now for 2000 years and technically still goes on until the temple in jerusalem is rebuilt. a diet described as "pulse and water" is presented along benefits such as accordance with the biblical dietary laws, health, beauty, wisdom and visions. vegetarianism can be seen as a safeguard around the dietary laws or the beautification of them. jewish vegetarianism and veganism have become especially popular among israeli jews. in 2016, israel was described as "the most vegan country on earth", as five percent of its population eschewed all animal products. interest in veganism has grown among both non-orthodox and orthodox jews in israel. rastafari within the afro-caribbean community, a minority are rastafari and follow the dietary regulations with varying degrees of strictness. the most orthodox eat only "ital" or natural foods, in which the matching of herbs or spices with vegetables is the result of long tradition originating from the african ancestry and cultural heritage of rastafari. "ital", which is derived from the word vital, means essential to human existence. ital cooking in its strictest form prohibits the use of salt, meat (especially pork), preservatives, colorings, flavorings and anything artificial. most rastafari are vegetarian. sikhism at the sikh langar, all people eat a vegetarian meal as equals. the tenets of sikhism do not advocate a particular stance on either vegetarianism or the consumption of meat, but leave the decision of diet to the individual. the tenth guru, guru gobind singh, however, prohibited "amritdhari" sikhs, or those that follow the sikh rehat maryada (the official sikh code of conduct) from eating kutha meat, or meat which has been obtained from animals which have been killed in a ritualistic way. this is understood to have been for the political reason of maintaining independence from the then-new muslim hegemony, as muslims largely adhere to the ritualistic halal diet. "amritdharis" that belong to some sikh sects (e.g. akhand kirtani jatha, damdami taksal, namdhari and rarionwalay, etc.) are vehemently against the consumption of meat and eggs (though they do consume and encourage the consumption of milk, butter and cheese). this vegetarian stance has been traced back to the times of the british raj, with the advent of many new vaishnava converts. in response to the varying views on diet throughout