social stigma of obesity social stigma of obesity social stigma of obesity is broadly defined as bias or discriminatory behaviors targeted at overweight and obese individuals because of their weight and a high body fat percentage. such social stigmas can span one's entire life, as long as excess weight is present, starting from a young age and lasting into adulthood. studies by several universities indicate overweight and obese individuals experience higher levels of stigma relative to their thinner counterparts. part of a series ondiscrimination forms institutional structural attributes age disability genetics hair color hair texture height looks size language race / ethnicity nordicism skin color rank caste class religion sex sexual orientation social acephobia arophobia adultism anti-albinism anti-autism anti-drug addicts anti-homelessness anti-intellectualism anti-intersex anti-left handedness anti-masonry aporophobia audism biphobia cronyism elitism ephebiphobia fatphobia gayphobia gerontophobia heterosexism hiv/aids stigma homophobia leprosy stigma lesbophobia misandry misogyny nepotism pedophobia perpetual foreigner pregnancy sectarianism supremacism black white transphobia non-binary transmisogyny trans men vegaphobia xenophobia religious ahmadiyya atheism baháʼí faith buddhism catholicism christianity post–cold war era druze falun gong hinduism persecution untouchability islam persecution jehovah's witnesses judaism persecution lds or mormon neopaganism non-muslims eastern orthodox oriental orthodox copts protestantism rastafari sikhs shi'ism sufism sunnism zoroastrianism ethnic/national african afghan albanian american arab armenian australian austrian azerbaijani bosnian brazilian british canadian catalan chechen chilean chinese croat english filipino finnish french fulani georgian german greek haitian hazara hispanic hungarian igbo indian canadian and us indigenous peoples indonesian iranian irish israeli italian japanese jewish khmer korean 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oikophobia christian privilege religious intolerance eugenics net bias snobbery speciesism police brutality prisoner abuse part of a series onhuman body weight general concepts obesity (epidemiology) overweight underweight body shape weight gain weight loss gestational weight gain diet (nutrition) weight management overnutrition childhood obesity (epidemiology) medical concepts adipose tissue classification of obesity genetics of obesity metabolic syndrome (epidemiology of metabolic syndrome) metabolically healthy obesity obesity paradox set point theory measurements body adiposity index body mass index body fat percentage body shape index corpulence index lean body mass relative fat mass waist–hip ratio waist-to-height ratio related conditions diabetes (type 1) eating disorder (anorexia • bulimia • binge eating disorder) food addiction hyperthyroidism malnutrition red-s starvation (starvation response) pcos obesity-associated morbidity arteriosclerosis atherosclerosis fatty liver disease gerd gynecomastia heart disease hypertension obesity and cancer osteoarthritis prediabetes sleep apnea type 2 diabetes management of obesity anti-obesity medication bariatrics bariatric surgery dieting (list of diets) caloric deficit exercise (outline) liposuction obesity medicine weight loss camp weight loss coaching yo-yo effect social aspects comfort food fast food (criticism) fat acceptance movement fat fetishism health at every size hunger obesity and the environment obesity and sexuality sedentary lifestyle social determinants of obesity social stigma of obesity weight cutting weight class in addition, they marry less often, experience fewer educational and career opportunities, and on average earn a lesser income than normal weight individuals. although public support regarding disability services, civil rights, and anti-workplace discrimination laws for obese individuals have gained support across the years, overweight and obese individuals still experience discrimination, which may have detrimental implications in relation to both physiological and psychological health. these issues are compounded by the significant negative physiological effects that are already associated with obesity, which some have proposed may be caused by stress from the social stigma of obesity, rather than from obesity per se. anti-fat bias refers to prejudicial assumptions that are based on an assessment of a person as being overweight or obese. it is also known as "fat shaming" or "fatphobia". anti-fat bias can be found in many facets of society, and fat activists commonly blame mass media and popular culture for the pervasiveness of this phenomenon. prevalence research indicates that self-reported incidents of weight-based discrimination increased from 1995 to 2006. individuals who are subjected to weight-related stigma appear to be rated more negatively when compared with other groups, such as sexual minorities and those with mental illness. anti-fat bias has been observed in groups hoping to become physical education instructors. in a study published in 2007, a group of 344 psychology or physical education majors at a new zealand university were compared, and it was found that the prospective physical education teachers were more likely to display implicit anti-fat attitudes than the psychology majors. a number of studies have found that health care providers frequently have explicit and/or implicit biases against overweight people, and it has been found that overweight patients may receive lower quality care as a result of their weight. medical professionals who specialize in the treatment of obesity have been found to have strong negative associations toward obese individuals. the stress from obesity-related stigma may also cause negative health outcomes. in one study, preschool-aged children reported a preference for average-sized children over overweight children as friends. overweight individuals often find themselves suffering repercussions in many facets of society, including legal and employment issues later in their life. according to a 2010 review of published studies, interventions seeking to reduce prejudice and social stigma against fat and obesity are largely ineffective. characteristics weight-related stigma can be characterized by the following aspects: an individual does not have to be overweight or obese to experience weight-related stigma. studies have indicated that experiencing weight stigma reinforces lifestyle behaviors that contribute to obesity. many groups who are subjected to stigmatisation tend to be minorities. overweight and obese individuals make up the majority of the population in the united states and in other parts of the world. individuals who are overweight or obese tend to devalue their own in-group and prefer the out-group (i.e. thinner individuals). theoretical explanations in order to understand weight-biased attitudes, theories have been proposed to explain these biases and the subsequent discrimination they cause. christian s. crandall discusses the "justification of stigmatization". also his social ideology perspective draws on traditional north american values of self-determination, individualism, and self-discipline. based on these values, anti-fat attitudes may derive from directing blame for being overweight towards individuals who are overweight. similarly, the attribution theory suggests that attitudes towards obese individuals are dependent on how much control they are perceived to have over their weight. throughout the literature, numerous studies have shown support for this theory. one study conducted a multinational examination of weight bias across four countries (canada, united states, iceland, and australia) with comparable obesity rates. the study found that attributions of behavioral causes of obesity were associated with greater weight bias. similarly, viewing obesity as being caused by a lack of willpower was also associated with greater weight bias. there appears to be a decrease in weight bias when weight is attributed to factors that are less within the individual's control, or when individuals are perceived as trying to lose weight. however, evidence also exists showing that biases against obese individuals also include disgust towards them, which can persist regardless of if one knows that obesity is not caused by obese individuals' actions. fatphobia is a socially constructed phenomenon of particular prevalence in the western world. societies produce the sort of bodies they need. the west values healthy and strong bodies that prioritize agility, endurance and fertility - with focus on achievement and individual responsibility. not only do such bodies associate the western world with similar ideals, but lloyd demause suggests the ‘fitness/toughness craze’ may also reflect preparations for war. the ’fattening huts’ of young girls in nigeria however, represent beauty, marriageability and money – a direct reflection of the value of economic resource and food. there, fatness is a welcome sign of health, prosperity and maternity - linked to self-worth and sexuality also. fatphobia does not fear ‘fat’ but prejudice, discrimination, exclusion and preventable disease too - fears directly attributable to the myriad of social, political, historical, economic and cultural processes at work (that do not similarly exist in other cultures). in this way, fatphobia is a culturally-derived phenomenon influencing relationships to food as well to the female form. trends in ‘blame, shame and stigma' have contributed to fat positivity and ‘health at every size’ movements, that create digital ‘safe spaces’ for activism and radical fat acceptance that seek to resist/shift such powerful cultural perspectives. trait attribution anti-fat bias leads people to associate individuals who are overweight or obese with negative personality traits such as "lacking willpower", "lazy", "gluttonous", "stupid", "incompetent", or "unmotivated". this bias is not restricted to clinically obese individuals. it also encompasses those whose body shape is found to be unacceptable when compared to modern society's perception of the ideal body type (although still within the normal or overweight body mass index (bmi) range). fat-shaming is fairly common in the united states, even though most adult americans are overweight. huffington post wrote "two-thirds of american adults are overweight or obese. yet overweight and obese individuals are subject to discrimination from employers, healthcare professionals, and potential romantic partners". anti-fat bias can be moderated by giving a mitigating context to the individual's appearance of obesity. for example, when told an individual was obese because of "overeating" and "lack of exercise", a higher implicit bias was found among study participants than those not provided with context. when the group was told that "genetics" was to blame, they did not exhibit a lowered implicit bias after the explanation. anti-fat bias is not a strictly western cultural phenomenon. instances of implicit anti-fat bias have been found across several cultures. additionally, recent work around physical appearance issues, body image, and anti-fat or obesity prejudice suggests that feelings about one's own appearance may stimulate downward physical comparisons with obese individuals in order to make one feel better about one's own physical appearance. weight discrimination weight stigma is present in multiple settings including healthcare, education, interpersonal situations, multiple media forms and outlets, and across many levels of employment. in the media media, in general, overrepresents underweight individuals and underrepresents overweight individuals. one-third of women in television are classified as underweight, while only 5% of the general population falls into that category. conversely, a study on over a thousand major television characters from 2003 identified 14% of female characters and 24% of male characters to be overweight, despite the real-world percentages being more than double those reported numbers. even when overweight people