vertebral column vertebral column the vertebral column, also known as the backbone or spine, is part of the axial skeleton. the vertebral column is the defining characteristic of a vertebrate in which the notochord (a flexible rod of uniform composition) found in all chordates has been replaced by a segmented series of bone: vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs. individual vertebrae are named according to their region and position, and can be used as anatomical landmarks in order to guide procedures such as lumbar punctures. the vertebral column houses the spinal canal, a cavity that encloses and protects the spinal cord. vertebral columnthe human vertebral column and its regionsvertebral column of a goatdetailsidentifierslatincolumna vertebralista98a02.2.00.001ta21001anatomical terminology there are about 50,000 species of animals that have a vertebral column. the human vertebral column is one of the most-studied examples. many different diseases in humans can affect the spine, with spina bifida and scoliosis being recognisable examples. the general structure of human vertebrae is fairly typical of that found in mammals, reptiles, and birds. the shape of the vertebral body does, however, vary somewhat between different groups. structure the number of vertebrae in a region can vary but overall the number remains the same. in a human vertebral column, there are normally 33 vertebrae. the upper 24 pre-sacral vertebrae are articulating and separated from each other by intervertebral discs, and the lower nine are fused in adults, five in the sacrum and four in the coccyx, or tailbone. the articulating vertebrae are named according to their region of the spine. there are 7 cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic vertebrae and 5 lumbar vertebrae. the number of those in the cervical region, however, is only rarely changed, while that in the coccygeal region varies most. one study of 908 human adults found 43 individuals with 23 pre-sacral vertebrae (4.7%), 826 individuals with 24 pre-sacral vertebrae (91%), and 39 with 25 pre-sacral vertebrae (4.3%). there are ligaments extending the length of the column at the front and the back, and in between the vertebrae joining the spinous processes, the transverse processes and the vertebral laminae. vertebrae numbering order of the vertebrae of the human spinal column main article: vertebra the vertebrae in the human vertebral column is divided into different regions, which correspond to the curves of the vertebral column. the articulating vertebrae are named according to their region of the spine. vertebrae in these regions are essentially alike, with minor variation. these regions are called the cervical spine, thoracic spine, lumbar spine, sacrum, and coccyx. there are seven cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae, and five lumbar vertebrae. the number of vertebrae in a region can vary but overall the number remains the same. the number of those in the cervical region, however, is only rarely changed. the vertebrae of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spines are independent bones and generally quite similar. the vertebrae of the sacrum and coccyx are usually fused and unable to move independently. two special vertebrae are the atlas and axis, on which the head rests. anatomy of a vertebra a typical vertebra consists of two parts: the vertebral body and the vertebral arch. the vertebral arch is posterior, meaning it faces the back of a person. together, these enclose the vertebral foramen, which contains the spinal cord. because the spinal cord ends in the lumbar spine, and the sacrum and coccyx are fused, they do not contain a central foramen. the vertebral arch is formed by a pair of pedicles and a pair of laminae, and supports seven processes, four articular, two transverse, and one spinous, the latter also being known as the neural spine. two transverse processes and one spinous process are posterior to (behind) the vertebral body. the spinous process comes out the back, one transverse process comes out the left, and one on the right. the spinous processes of the cervical and lumbar regions can be felt through the skin. above and below each vertebra are joints called facet joints. these restrict the range of movement possible, and are joined by a thin portion of the neural arch called the pars interarticularis. in between each pair of vertebrae are two small holes called intervertebral foramina. the spinal nerves leave the spinal cord through these holes. individual vertebrae are named according to their region and position. from top to bottom, the vertebrae are: cervical spine: 7 vertebrae (c1–c7) thoracic spine: 12 vertebrae (t1–t12) lumbar spine: 5 vertebrae (l1–l5) sacrum: 5 (fused) vertebrae (s1–s5) coccyx: 4 (3–5) (fused) vertebrae (tailbone) the combined region of the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae is known as the thoracolumbar division, or region. shape the vertebral column is curved in several places, a result of human bipedal evolution. the curves allow the human spine to better stabilize the body in the upright position. the upper cervical spine has a curve, convex forward, that begins at the axis (second cervical vertebra) at the apex of the odontoid process or dens and ends at the middle of the second thoracic vertebra; it is the least marked of all the curves. this inward curve is known as a lordotic curve. a thoracic spine x-ray of a 57-year-old male. the thoracic curve, concave forward, begins at the middle of the second and ends at the middle of the twelfth thoracic vertebra. its most prominent point behind corresponds to the spinous process of the seventh thoracic vertebra. this curve is known as a kyphotic curve. lateral lumbar x-ray of a 34-year-old male the lumbar curve is more marked in the female than in the male; it begins at the middle of the last thoracic vertebra, and ends at the sacrovertebral angle. it is convex anteriorly, the convexity of the lower three vertebrae being much greater than that of the upper two. this curve is described as a lordotic curve. the sacral curve begins at the sacrovertebral articulation, and ends at the point of the coccyx; its concavity is directed downward and forward as a kyphotic curve. the thoracic and sacral kyphotic curves are termed primary curves, because they are present in the fetus. the cervical and lumbar curves are compensatory, or secondary, and are developed after birth. the cervical curve forms when the infant is able to hold up its head (at three or four months) and sit upright (at nine months). the lumbar curve forms later from twelve to eighteen months, when the child begins to walk. surfaces anterior surface when viewed from in front, the width of the bodies of the vertebrae is seen to increase from the second cervical to the first thoracic; there is then a slight diminution in the next three vertebrae. below this, there is again a gradual and progressive increase in width as low as the sacrovertebral angle. from this point there is a rapid diminution, to the apex of the coccyx. posterior surface from behind, the vertebral column presents in the median line the spinous processes. in the cervical region (with the exception of the second and seventh vertebrae), these are short, horizontal, and bifid. in the upper part of the thoracic region they are directed obliquely downward; in the middle they are almost vertical, and in the lower part they are nearly horizontal. in the lumbar region they are nearly horizontal. the spinous processes are separated by considerable intervals in the lumbar region, by narrower intervals in the neck, and are closely approximated in the middle of the thoracic region. occasionally one of these processes deviates a little from the median line — which can sometimes be indicative of a fracture or a displacement of the spine doctor in dubai. on either side of the spinous processes is the vertebral groove formed by the laminae in the cervical and lumbar regions, where it is shallow, and by the laminae and transverse processes in the thoracic region, where it is deep and broad; these grooves lodge the deep muscles of the back. lateral to the spinous processes are the articular processes, and still more laterally the transverse processes. in the thoracic region, the transverse processes stand backward, on a plane considerably behind that of the same processes in the cervical and lumbar regions. in the cervical region, the transverse processes are placed in front of the articular processes, lateral to the pedicles and between the intervertebral foramina. in the thoracic region they are posterior to the pedicles, intervertebral foramina, and articular processes. in the lumbar region they are in front of the articular processes, but behind the intervertebral foramina. lateral surfaces the sides of the vertebral column are separated from the posterior surface by the articular processes in the cervical and thoracic regions and by the transverse processes in the lumbar region. in the thoracic region, the sides of the bodies of the vertebrae are marked in the back by the facets for articulation with the heads of the ribs. more posteriorly are the intervertebral foramina, formed by the juxtaposition of the vertebral notches, oval in shape, smallest in the cervical and upper part of the thoracic regions and gradually increasing in size to the last lumbar. they transmit the special spinal nerves and are situated between the transverse processes in the cervical region and in front of them, in the thoracic and lumbar regions. ligaments there are different ligaments involved in the holding together of the vertebrae in the column, and in the column's movement. the anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments extend the length of the vertebral column along the front and back of the vertebral bodies. the interspinous ligaments connect the adjoining spinous processes of the vertebrae. the supraspinous ligament extends the length of the spine running along the back of the spinous processes, from the sacrum to the seventh cervical vertebra. from there it is continuous with the nuchal ligament. development the striking segmented pattern of the spine is established during embryogenesis when somites are rhythmically added to the posterior of the embryo. somite formation begins around the third week when the embryo begins gastrulation and continues until all somites are formed. their number varies between species: there are 42 to 44 somites in the human embryo and around 52 in the chick embryo. the somites are spheres, formed from the paraxial mesoderm that lies at the sides of the neural tube and they contain the precursors of spinal bone, the vertebrae ribs and some of the skull, as well as muscle, ligaments and skin. somitogenesis and the subsequent distribution of somites is controlled by a clock and wavefront model acting in cells of the paraxial mesoderm. soon after their formation, sclerotomes, which give rise to some of the bone of the skull, the vertebrae and ribs, migrate, leaving the remainder of the somite now termed a dermamyotome behind. this then splits to give the myotomes which will form the muscles and dermatomes which will form the skin of the back. sclerotomes become subdivided into an anterior and a posterior compartment. this subdivision plays a key role in the definitive patterning of vertebrae that form when the posterior part of one somite fuses to the anterior part of the consecutive somite during a process termed resegmentation. disruption of the somitogenesis process in humans results in diseases such as congenital scoliosis. so far, the human homologues of three genes associated to the mouse segmentation clock, (mesp2, dll3 and lfng), have been shown to be mutated in cases of congenital scoliosis, suggesting that the mechanisms involved in vertebral segmentation are conserved across vertebrates. in humans the first four somites are incorporated in the base of the occipital bone of the skull and the next 33 somites will form the vertebrae, ribs, muscles, ligaments and skin. the remaining posterior somites degenerate. during the fourth week of embryogenesis, the sclerotomes shift their position to surround the spinal cord and the notochord. this column of tissue has a segmented appearance, with alternating areas of dense and less dense areas. as the sclerotome develops, it condenses further eventually developing into the vertebral body. development of the appropriate shapes of the vertebral bodies is regulated by hox genes. the less dense tissue that separates the sclerotome segments develop into the intervertebral discs. the notochord disappears in the sclerotome (vertebral body) segments but persists in the region of the intervertebral discs as the nucleus pulposus. the