provide a comprehensive listing of mutations published in medical journals and conference proceedings. early terminology the first descriptions of the effects of ais appeared in the medical literature as individual case reports or as part of a comprehensive description of intersex physicalities. in 1839, scottish obstetrician sir james young simpson published one such description in an exhaustive study of intersexuality that has been credited with advancing the medical community's understanding of the subject. simpson's system of taxonomy, however, was far from the first; taxonomies or descriptions for the classification of intersexuality were developed by italian physician and physicist fortuné affaitati in 1549, french surgeon ambroise paré in 1573, french physician and sexology pioneer nicolas venette in 1687 (under the pseudonym vénitien salocini), and french zoologist isidore geoffroy saint-hilaire in 1832. all five of these authors used the colloquial term "hermaphrodite" as the foundation of their taxonomies, although simpson himself questioned the propriety of the word in his publication. use of the word "hermaphrodite" in the medical literature has persisted to this day, although its propriety is still in question. an alternative system of nomenclature has been recently suggested, but the subject of exactly which word or words should be used in its place still one of much debate. "pudenda pseudo-hermaphroditi ovini." illustration of ambiguous genitalia from frederik ruysch's thesaurus anitomicus octavius, 1709. pseudohermaphroditism "pseudohermaphroditism" has, until very recently, been the term used in the medical literature to describe the condition of an individual whose gonads and karyotype do not match the external genitalia in the gender binary sense. for example, 46,xy individuals who have a female phenotype, but also have testes instead of ovaries—a group that includes all individuals with cais, as well as some individuals with pais—are classified as having "male pseudohermaphroditism", while individuals with both an ovary and a testis (or at least one ovotestis) are classified as having "true hermaphroditism". use of the word in the medical literature antedates the discovery of the chromosome, thus its definition has not always taken karyotype into account when determining an individual's sex. previous definitions of "pseudohermaphroditism" relied on perceived inconsistencies between the internal and external organs; the "true" sex of an individual was determined by the internal organs, and the external organs determined the "perceived" sex of an individual. german-swiss pathologist edwin klebs is sometimes noted for using the word "pseudohermaphroditism" in his taxonomy of intersexuality in 1876, although the word is clearly not his invention as is sometimes reported; the history of the word "pseudohermaphrodite" and the corresponding desire to separate "true" hermaphrodites from "false", "spurious", or "pseudo" hermaphrodites, dates back to at least 1709, when dutch anatomist frederik ruysch used it in a publication describing a subject with testes and a mostly female phenotype. "pseudohermaphrodite" also appeared in the acta eruditorum later that same year, in a review of ruysch's work. also some evidence indicates the word was already being used by the german and french medical community long before klebs used it; german physiologist johannes peter müller equated "pseudohermaphroditism" with a subclass of hermaphroditism from saint-hilaire's taxonomy in a publication dated 1834, and by the 1840s "pseudohermaphroditism" was appearing in several french and german publications, including dictionaries. testicular feminization in 1953, american gynecologist john morris provided the first full description of what he called "testicular feminization syndrome" based on 82 cases compiled from the medical literature, including two of his own patients. the term "testicular feminization" was coined to reflect morris' observation that the testicles in these patients produced a hormone that had a feminizing effect on the body, a phenomenon now understood to be due to the inaction of androgens, and subsequent aromatization of testosterone into estrogen. a few years before morris published his landmark paper, lawson wilkins had shown through experiment that unresponsiveness of the target cell to the action of androgenic hormones was a cause of "male pseudohermaphroditism". wilkins' work, which clearly demonstrated the lack of a therapeutic effect when 46,xy patients were treated with androgens, caused a gradual shift in nomenclature from "testicular feminization" to "androgen resistance". other names a distinct name has been given to many of the various presentations of ais, such as reifenstein syndrome (1947), goldberg-maxwell syndrome (1948), morris' syndrome (1953), gilbert-dreyfus syndrome (1957), lub's syndrome (1959), "incomplete testicular feminization" (1963), rosewater syndrome (1965), and aiman's syndrome (1979). since it was not understood that these different presentations were all caused by the same set of mutations in the androgen receptor gene, a unique name was given to each new combination of symptoms, resulting in a complicated stratification of seemingly disparate disorders. over the last 60 years, as reports of strikingly different phenotypes were reported to occur even among members of the same family, and as steady progress was made towards the understanding of the underlying molecular pathogenesis of ais, these disorders were found to be different phenotypic expressions of one syndrome caused by molecular defects in the androgen receptor gene. ais is now the accepted terminology for the syndromes resulting from unresponsiveness of the target cell to the action of androgenic hormones. cais encompasses the phenotypes previously described by "testicular feminization", morris' syndrome, and goldberg-maxwell syndrome; pais includes reifenstein syndrome, gilbert-dreyfus syndrome, lub's syndrome, "incomplete testicular feminization", and rosewater syndrome; and mais includes aiman's syndrome. the more virilized phenotypes of ais have sometimes been described as "undervirilized male syndrome", "infertile male syndrome", "undervirilized fertile male syndrome", etc., before evidence was reported that these conditions were caused by mutations in the ar gene. these diagnoses were used to describe a variety of mild defects in virilization; as a result, the phenotypes of some men who have been diagnosed as such are better described by pais (e.g. micropenis, hypospadias, and undescended testes), while others are better described by mais (e.g. isolated male infertility or gynecomastia). society and culture in the film orchids, my intersex adventure, phoebe hart and her sister bonnie hart, both women with cais, documented their exploration of ais and other intersex issues. recording artist dalea is a hispanic-american activist who is public about her cais. she has given interviews about her condition and founded girl comet, a non-profit diversity awareness and inspiration initiative. in 2017, fashion model hanne gaby odiele disclosed that they were born with the intersex trait androgen insensitivity syndrome. as a child, they underwent medical procedures relating to the condition, which they said took place without their or their parents' informed consent. they were told about their intersex condition weeks before beginning their modelling career. in the 1991 japanese horror novel ring and its sequels, by koji suzuki (later adapted into japanese, korean, and american films), the central antagonist sadako has this syndrome, as revealed by dr nagao when confronted by ryuji and asakawa. sadako's condition is referred to by the earlier name "testicular feminisation syndrome". in season 2, episode 13 ("skin deep") of the tv series house, the main patient's cancerous testicle is mistaken for an ovary due to the patient's undiscovered cais. in season 2 of the mtv series faking it, a character has cais. the character, lauren cooper, played by bailey de young, was the first intersex series regular on american television. in season 8, episode 11 ("delko for the defense") of the tv series csi: miami, the primary suspect has ais which gets him off a rape charge. in series 8, episode 5 of call the midwife, a woman discovers that she has ais. she attends a cervical smear and brings up that she has never had a period, and is concerned about having children as she is about to be married. she is then diagnosed with "testicular feminisation syndrome", the old term for ais. people with ais kitty anderson (activist) eden atwood bonnie hart phoebe hart maria josé martínez-patiño hanne gaby odiele santhi soundarajan miriam van der have kimberly zieselman people with complete androgen insensitivity syndrome georgiann davis seven graham people with partial androgen insensitivity syndrome tony briffa favorinus of arelate has been described as having partial androgen insensitivity syndrome. small luk eliana rubashkyn sean saifa wall sogto ochirov