behaviors in their own adult lives. "even when child witnesses do not suffer physical injury, the emotional consequences of viewing or hearing violent acts are severe and long-lasting. in fact, children who witness violence often experience many of the same symptoms and lasting effects as children who are victims of violence themselves, including ." also in the article breaking the cycle of violence, "it is clearly in the best interest of the child and criminal justice system to handle child victims and witnesses in the most effective and sensitive manner possible. a number of studies have found the following: reducing the number of interviews of children can minimize psychological harm to child victims (tedesco & schnell, 1987); testifying is not necessarily harmful to children if adequate preparation is conducted (goodman et al., 1992; oates et al., 1995; whitcomb, goodman, runyon, and hoak, 1994); and, having a trusted person help the child prepare for court and be with the child when he or she testified reduced the anxiety of the child (henry, 1997). effects on witnessing infants cries excessively, screaming digestive problems failure to thrive feeding and sleeping routines are disrupted frequent illness irritability, sadness, anxiety low weight need for attachment is disrupted no appetite sleeping problems startles easily effects on witnessing toddlers insomnia and parasomnias lack feelings of safety regressive behaviors separation/stranger anxiety dual exposure it is important to note that children exposed to domestic violence are more at risk for other forms of maltreatment such as physical abuse and neglect. research suggests that parents who are violent with one another are at higher risk for physically abusing their children. recent research has proposed that the consequences of child abuse and domestic violence exposure are often similar and mimic one another. children who are abused and exposed to domestic violence exhibit emotional, psychological, and behavioral consequences that are almost identical to one another. in fact, some researchers refer to this dual exposure as the "double whammy" effect because children receive double exposure to traumatic events and thus react twofold to the abuse and exposure to domestic violence. emotionally, children who experience the "double whammy" effect can exhibit fear, guilt, isolation, and low self-esteem. additional psychological outcomes for these children include depression, anxiety, and even post-traumatic stress disorder (ptsd). children who experience dual exposure to both physical abuse and domestic violence possess more behavioral problems than those who experience only one or the other. the long-term effects of dual exposure in young children can have very negative outcomes later in life. these outcomes have been documented as leading to behavioral problems that include school dropout, violence, teen pregnancy, substance abuse, eating disorders, and even suicide attempts. a study following children from preschool through adolescence found that young children exposed to domestic violence and child abuse were more likely to experience anti-social behaviors in their adolescence. young children exposed to both domestic violence and child abuse were also more likely to commit an assault and participate in delinquent behavior in their adolescence than those not exposed at all. lastly, the adverse childhood experiences study (ace) found a connection between multiple categories of childhood trauma (e.g., child abuse, household dysfunction including domestic violence, and child neglect) and health/behavioral outcomes later in life. the more traumas a child was exposed to, the greater risk for disabilities, social problems, and adverse health outcomes. more recently, researchers have used elements of this model to continue analysis into different aspects of trauma, stressful experiences, and later development. ways to help the ways to help victims of domestic violence are: arranging school age children to receive counseling from professionals at their school, often school counselors. experimenting with various types of counseling: play therapy, peer support groups, anger management classes, and safety programs to teach kids how to extract themselves from dangerous situations. finding a loving and supportive adult to introduce to the child and encourage the child to spend as much time regularly with the adult. this may include a trusted family member or community advocate. the family violence defense fund reports that the single most important ingredient to help children heal and develop resiliency is the presence of a loving adult. providing a safe environment that does not include violence in any form after a child has witnessed domestic violence. finding ways to discipline that do not involve hitting, name-calling, yelling or any form of verbally aggressive behavior. helping children create a sense of safety by having scheduled routines, such as regular meals and homework times.