water supply and sanitation in the republic of ireland water supply and sanitation in the republic of ireland water supply and sanitation services in ireland are governed primarily by the water services acts of 2007 to 2014 and regulated by the commission for energy regulation. until 2015, the relevant legislation provided for the provision of water and wastewater services by local authorities in ireland, with domestic usage funded indirectly through central taxation (including motor taxation), and non-domestic usage funded via local authority rates. from 2015, the legislation provided for the setup of a utility company, irish water, which would be responsible for providing water and wastewater services, and funded through direct billing. the transition between these models, and certain aspects of operation of the new company, caused controversy in its initial period of operation. ireland: water and sanitationdataaccess to an improved water source100%access to improved sanitation99%average urban water use80 litres/capita/day (2016)water receiving secondary treatment94% (2015)annual investment in water supply and sanitation€71/capita (2013)institutionsnational water and sanitation companyirish water took over responsibility from 34 local authorities in 2015water and sanitation regulatorcommission for energy regulationresponsibility for policy settingminister for the environment, climate and communications in general in ireland, water resources are abundant and 83% of drinking water comes from surface water. however, wastage levels were estimated at 800 million litres lost to leaks each day in 2015, while usage levels were calculated at 80 litres per capita per day in 2016. the quality of water from the public mains is usually quite high, with, for example, 98.9% of public water supplies complying with the standards for e. coli levels in 2004. however, the microbiological quality of some rural private group water schemes led to ireland being cited in 2002 by the european court of justice for failing to abide by eu drinking water guidelines. for wastewater treatment, 94% of wastewater collected in urban area sewers receives at least secondary treatment, and 1.6 billion litres of water are treated each day nationally. wastewater infrastructure includes 25,000 km of pipes to approximately 1,000 wastewater treatment plants. water resources and use water resources are abundant in ireland, with 82% of drinking water supplies in ireland sourced from surface water (i.e. rivers and lakes) and 18% coming from groundwater – 10.5% from groundwater and 7.6% from springs. this high dependence on surface water is above the eu average. approximately 2% of ireland's water resources are abstracted for human use. unaccounted-for water constitutes 41% of total water supply, followed by supply for domestic demand (39%), and non-domestic demand (20%). the river lee is a source of water supply for the city of cork 80% of the irish population is served by centralised water supplies. the remaining 20% is served by 643 public group water schemes (serving 2.3% of the population), 486 private group water schemes (serving 4.7%), 1,429 small private supplies (serving 0.7%) and private wells that are exempt from the regulations (serving 12.3%). domestic water use is in line with other european countries, with daily domestic consumption of water per capita at approximately 80 litres in ireland, compared to 121 litres in germany and 114 litres in denmark (all users are metered in the latter two countries). at 141 m3 per inhabitant, ireland has the third highest freshwater abstraction rate per inhabitant of 26 eu countries, ranked behind only italy and croatia. water shortages have left some larger urban areas – particularly dublin – with supply issues during prolonged dry spells. a 2006 feasibility study for the greater dublin water supply urged the development of a new water source, pointing out that it would be needed by 2015–2016 to avert water rationing and the curtailment of economic growth. it also noted that it would take at least a decade to build the proposed new source, with a 2007 report suggesting a lengthy pipeline to dublin from lough derg and the shannon. water supply service provision upper reservoir of bohernabreena waterworks, glenasmole public (mains) water supply 80% of the population is supplied by centralised public water systems. public water supply systems and providers are governed by the water services acts of 2007 to 2014. until 2015, this legislation provided for the provision of water and wastewater services by local authorities, with domestic usage funded through central taxation, and non-domestic usage funded via local authority rates. from 2015, legislation came into force such that a new utility company, irish water, became responsible for providing water and wastewater services. the new company was set up as a subsidiary of an existing semi-state corporation, bord gáis (ervia). the newly created company effectively took on the existing local authority employees and water management facilities, pipes and infrastructure. operationally, irish water delegated some work, for example water meter installation and customer support, to sub-contractors. group water schemes 20% of the population is supplied by wells, small private supplies and public or private group schemes. group water schemes are found in rural areas and are outside the scope of the centralised public mains systems. a group scheme is a scheme servicing water or wastewater services to two or more households not connected to the centralised water supply and/or wastewater collection systems. group schemes are private or public, depending on whether their water is supplied from the public mains or a private source. all group schemes connected to centralised supplies are fitted with a water meter for monitoring the amount of water used by the group. the epa 2011 report on drinking water quality in ireland indicated that there were 1,129 group water schemes, serving 7% of the public, covered by the drinking water regulations because they serve more than 50 people or supply a commercial operation. 643 are public group schemes and 486 are private group water schemes. the national federation of group water schemes was established to represent the interests of members of group water schemes, and to provide advisory, training, developmental and other services to scheme members. water supply quality the quality of water from the public mains is usually quite high and compliant with eu drinking water standards. however, 2011 reports noted poor microbiological quality in some rural private group water schemes and groundwater and challenged the authorities then responsible for drinking water. the city of galway, supplied with water by the river corrib, was subject to an outbreak of waterborne cryptosporidiosis in 2007 in 2007, there was an outbreak of waterborne cryptosporidiosis in galway, which caused illness in over 240 people, and led to the imposition of a boil water notice in galway for a period of 5 months during the peak tourist season. according to the environmental protection agency (epa), while "many have taken the quality of drinking water in ireland for granted in the past, this can no longer be the case". on 14 november 2002, authorities in ireland were cited by the european court of justice over the microbiological contamination of hundreds of public and private water supplies. the eu's drinking water directive requires an absence of e. coli in drinking water supplies to protect human health. the environmental protection agency's 2011 report on drinking water stated that drinking water quality in public water supplies was continuing to improve. at that time, chemical standard compliance stood at 99.5%. 1.3% of supplies were found to have had e.coli, a reduction of 86% since 2005. 10.2% of private group supplies had e.coli, down from 11.6% in 2010. 7.7% of small private supplies were found to have e.coli exceedences, down from 7.4% in 2010. in october and november 2013, difficulties were encountered with the water supply to dublin. the ballymore eustace water treatment works which processes water from its main supply, the poulaphouca reservoir, experienced a change in water characteristics. the effect was that particles in the water would not settle, leaving tap water cloudy. as a result, the supply to the dublin was restricted for two days. cryptosporidium contamination risk led to "boil notices" remaining in place in parts of county roscommon for approximately six-years from 2009 to 2015. in 2017 there was significant disruption to water supply services in parts of county meath, county louth and drogheda, with 70,000 people without water for some time during july. wastewater treatment the proportion of waste water discharges where secondary treatment facilities have been provided increased significantly from 26% between 1998–1999 to 93% by 2011. this was due predominantly to the new wastewater treatment plants at ringsend (dublin) (which, at the time, was believed to be the largest construction of a new water treatment facility in europe serving 1.5million people), cork city, limerick city, galway city and dundalk. according to a 2011 epa report, 11 of 174 agglomerations covered by the urban wastewater treatment directive did not have the required level of wastewater treatment, but were expected to have secondary treatment by 2015. 70% of agglomerations (larger urban areas in ireland) were compliant with the requirements of the directive in 2011, an improvement on 63% compliance in 2010 and 57% in 2009. as of 2011, while 66% of households were connected to public sewerage schemes, with the majority in urban areas, 27.5% of households used an individual septic tank, and 3% adopted other individual sewerage systems. in october 2009, the european court of justice ruled against ireland regarding septic tanks and other on-site wastewater treatment systems. it deemed ireland non-compliant with articles 4 and 8 of the waste directive in relation to domestic wastewaters disposed of in the countryside. ireland was fined €2 million and the court imposed daily fines of €12,000 for each day of delay in achieving compliance. central to ending the case against ireland was establishing a national inspection plan for domestic wastewater treatment systems, and in 2012, the government passed the water services (amendment) act 2012. a new registration and inspection regime was introduced in june 2012, and by july 2013, almost 90% of owners of premises connected with such systems had registered their systems. regulation environmental and quality regulation water services authorities were historically responsible for the monitoring of drinking water. local authorities were responsible for testing the quality of water, in conjunction with the local health office (hse). under the 2007 drinking water regulations, the epa had supervisory powers for public water supplies, and could direct a water services authority to improve the management or quality of a public water supply. where the epa found deficiencies, it would make recommendations as to what action the water services authority needed to take to remedy any deficiency. likewise, water services authorities had a supervisory role in relation to group water schemes and private supplies, and would notify the epa of drinking water non-compliances or risks to public health from a public water supply. since the formation of irish water, it is legally obliged to "submit all drinking water quality results for compliance testing to the epa on an annual basis". economic regulation prior to 2013, there was no economic regulator for water supply and sanitation in ireland. under the 2013 water services act and water services (amendment) no. 2 bill 2013, the commission for energy regulation was assigned powers to advise the minister for the environment, community and local government on the development and become the economic regulator of water services. financial aspects and efficiency tariffs in 2013, €326 million was allocated by the department of the environment, community and local government for infrastructural spending on water, corresponding to €71 per capita. in july 2014 the commission for energy regulation announced that the standard metered rate for water and wastewater would include 30 m3 per year of free basic water, after which €4.88/m3 including taxes would be charged. rates were to be capped until march 2015 at an annual fixed rate of €176 plus €102 for every additional adult living in a household. prior to the formation of irish water, all water charges for domestic use in urban areas in ireland were paid for by general taxation. domestic use is defined as drinking, washing, heating and sanitation. there were approximately 1.35 million domestic water connections served by public water supplies. members of rural group water schemes usually pay for domestic water and wastewater services. as part of a programme of assistance agreed with the ec-ecb-imf 'troika' in november 2010, the fianna fáil-green party government committed to introducing domestic water charges in 2012/2013. this followed a