include: primary motor cortex contains large neurons that project axons down to the spinal cord where they synapse onto alpha motor neurons. these neurons are involved in the planning of motor movements and the refining of motor movements based on sensory inputs that are received from the cerebellum. supplementary motor area area anterior to the primary motor cortex that is involved in planning complex motor movements and coordinating movements along both hands. the main inputs for this area are received from the thalamus. frontal eye field the frontal eye field is a posterior part of the middle frontal gyrus and is involved in the control of saccadic, contralateral and conjugate eye movement. this area receives its main inputs from both the occipital cortex and dorsal thalamus. broca's area controls the motor movements of both the tongue and larynx that enables speech formation. this area receives direct inputs from the primary motor area as well as wernicke's area located in the temporal lobe. prefrontal cortex the prefrontal cortex, the most anterior region of the brain, comprises several key areas that are particularly important for higher mental functions that control various aspects of human personality including anticipation and planning, initiative/judgement, memory and the control of decision making. damage or lesions to this region of the brain can result in major changes in personality. a classic example is phineas gage, who exhibited a change in behavior after one or both frontal lobes were destroyed by a large iron bar accidentally driven through his head (though gage, despite conventional presentations of his case, did not exhibit the aggression, antisocial behavior, or loss of impulse control sometimes reported in patients with similar injuries). there are two main regions of the prefrontal cortex that each control various aspects of behavior and personality: dorsolateral prefrontal cortex this area is associated with the impairment of the cognitive abilities that control and regulate behavior and long-term memory formation (especially relating to procedural sequence memory) when either brain damage or a lesion is present. orbitofrontal cortex the orbitofrontal cortex has similar functions as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex but is thought to be mainly responsible for the ability to make choices and determine right from wrong. social effects and quality of life further information: issues for people with epilepsy epilepsy has a substantial impact on the quality of life of the individuals that are affected by it, yet there is lack of proper examination of social cognitive functions. physicians and researchers are coming to understand that the impact on the quality of life of the patient is as important as the effects of the seizures. quality of life questionnaires and other assessment tools have been created to help quantify quality of life for individual patients. they consider such factors as physical health (including numbers and severity of seizures, medication side effects etc.), mental health, social relationships, lifestyle, role activities and life fulfillment. a center for disease control study reported that people with seizures were more likely to have lower education levels, higher unemployment, higher levels of pain, hypersomnia/insomnia, increased psychological distress and social isolation/connection issues. some of the issues which impact quality of life for people with epilepsy are: ability to drive and travel, the ability to date, marry and have children, the ability to have a job and independence, the ability to have an education and learn, and the ability to have good health and mental functioning. future research is needed to find ways of not only controlling frontal lobe seizures, but of also addressing the specific quality-of-life issues that plague those with frontal lobe epilepsy, especially as studies show a higher emotional recognition anomaly in cases of fle, compared to tle. driving and transportation restrictions driving and travel restrictions are one of the greatest limitations that epileptic patients experience. laws restricting driving privileges vary greatly in the united states as well as across the world. in the united states, 28 states require a patient to be seizure free for fixed periods of time ranging from 3–12 months. however, research done by johns hopkins university showed that there was no difference in seizure-related fatal crash rates in states with 3-month restrictions versus states with 6-12 month seizure-free restrictions. in 23 states, the restrictions and seizure free periods vary depending on the type of epilepsy and the individual case and in 13 states physicians were responsible for determining whether their patients should be allowed to drive. in 6 of those 13 states physicians could be held legally liable for their decisions regarding their epileptic patients' driving capabilities. in many states, patients can also be legally liable for accidents, injury, damage and death caused by seizure related accidents. one of the major arguments in favor of restricting the licensing of epileptic drivers is the concern for public safety. however, the johns hopkins study showed that in a particular 2 year timeframe only 0.2% of fatal crashes occurred as a result of seizures. alcohol related crash fatalities caused 156 times more driver deaths than seizure related crashes and young drivers between the ages of 16 and 24 were 123 times more likely to die in a fatal crash caused by their inexperience than an epileptic driver was to die in a crash that resulted from a seizure. frontal lobe epileptic seizures unlike other epileptic seizures create symptoms that are as dangerous as loss of consciousness and much more difficult to discern from other problems such as substance use disorders, psychiatric disorders and disobedience. jerking movements/lack of motor control, pedaling, pelvic thrusting, lapses in cognitive functioning and other hallmark symptoms of frontal lobe epileptic seizures all create dangerous behavior behind the wheel. studies have not been done to date to determine the differential risk posed by drivers with frontal lobe epilepsy relative to the general epileptic population. hormones and pregnancy issues hormonal changes and pregnancy can shift seizure activity and the use of antiepileptic drugs can alter the efficacy of hormones as well as cause congenital malformations in fetuses. seizure control in pregnant women is very important to the welfare of both the developing fetus and the mother. hormonal shifts at puberty, with birth control and at menopause can also cause changes in the frequency and severity of seizures and must be closely monitored. increased seizure activity is reported by 50% of women during the course of the pregnancy due to changing levels of hormones, fluids, salts and absorption and elimination of medications. employment a report by the epilepsy foundation noted that the unemployment rate amongst people with epilepsy is 25% and in patients whose seizures are poorly controlled the rate jumps to 50%. even though people with epilepsy are protected under the americans with disabilities act, employment discrimination and high rates of unemployment due to employer attitudes still exist. a study in the uk showed that 16% of employers surveyed felt there were no jobs in their company suitable for people with epilepsy and that 21% felt that employing an epileptic would be a "major issue". fifty percent of the employers said they had a high concern regarding employing people with epilepsy with most citing safety concerns/workplace accidents as their major issue. patients with frontal lobe epilepsy may be particularly prone to being discriminated against in employment and subject to higher rates of termination due to the unusual motor symptoms, speech, vocal outbursts and cognitive/judgment symptoms displayed during frontal lobe seizures. frontal lobe seizures also tend to come on suddenly and progress rapidly making it difficult for an employer to control the exposure of the seizure to others. education, learning and cognitive function patients with frontal lobe epilepsy will likely also experience issues with learning and education. many factors contribute to these issues including the impact of anticonvulsant medications. anticonvulsant medications cause patients to feel "foggy" and sluggish. drugs such as topiramate cause problems such as mental blunting, word retrieval difficulties and irritability. phenobarbital, primidone and vigabatrin can cause depression and suicidal tendencies. stress and lack of sleep during exam periods can trigger seizures and many school sports teams restrict or ban people with epilepsy from sports for safety and liability reasons. people with frontal lobe epilepsy also exhibit dysfunctional cognitive skills and memory issues which can make learning challenging. research has shown that frontal lobe epilepsy has a greater negative impact than other forms of epilepsy on cognitive functioning. people with frontal lobe epilepsy show decreased cognitive capabilities in the following areas: humor appreciation, recognition of emotional expressions, response selection/initiation and inhibition, hyperactivity, conscientiousness, obsession, addictive behavior, motor coordination and planning, attention span, performance speed, continuous performance without intrusion and interference errors, copying and recall, concept formation, anticipatory behavior, memory span, working memory, executive planning, visuo-spatial organization, mental flexibility, conceptual shift, problem solving, programming of complex motor sequences, impulse control, judgment and forecasting of consequences. physical health and risk of other conditions patients with epilepsy face a greater risk of accidents, injury and other medical conditions than the general population. a european study showed that people with epilepsy were at greater risk for accidental injuries related to seizures such as concussions, abrasions and wounds and reported more hospitalizations and medical action than the general population. other studies have shown that people with epilepsy are at a greater risk of seizure related drowning, suffocation, broken bones and burns and more likely to die in a fatal automobile crash. epilepsy ontario reports that people with epilepsy are also more likely to have other conditions than the general population such as: 30% of autistic children have epilepsy, 33% of cerebral palsy patients have epilepsy, 15-20% of fragile x syndrome patients have epilepsy, 50% of children with learning disabilities will have some form of epilepsy, 3-10% of patients with lennox-gastaut syndrome will have epilepsy, 80% of children with rett syndrome will have epilepsy and 80% of patients with tuberous sclerosis will have epilepsy. the frontal lobe has a significant function in attention regulation. therefore, patients with frontal lobe epilepsy are often found to be co-morbid for another disease called attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (adhd), which has a higher prevalence in children. this adds to the various cognitive and behavioral challenges, that they already face. mental and emotional health epileptic patients are more prone to develop psychological and social dysfunction than individuals that do not have epilepsy. they report higher levels of anxiety and stress due to social isolation, discrimination, the unpredictability of their seizures and people's reactions to them as well as fear of injury, death and brain damage from their seizures. anticonvulsants can also result in lower functioning, depression, sluggishness and suicidal thoughts. approximately 20% of people with epilepsy are depressed and the rate of suicide amongst people with epilepsy is 5 times the rate in the general population. people with frontal lobe epilepsy experience more significant social effects because the manifested symptoms are more unusual. symptoms such as screaming, bicycling limbs, pelvic thrusting, inhibition control and other outbursts can be particularly embarrassing and isolating for the patient. the ultimate result from all these, is a significant impact on overall personality development. treatments there are several different ways to treat frontal lobe epileptic seizures, however, the most common form of treatment is through the use of anticonvulsant medications that help to prevent seizures from occurring. in some cases, however, when medications are ineffective, a neurologist may choose to operate on the patient in order to remove the focal area of the brain in which the seizures are occurring. other treatments that can be administered to aid in reducing the occurrence of seizures include the implementation of a specific, regimented diet and/or the implantation of a vagus nerve stimulator, or deep brain stimulation (dbs). medications further information: anticonvulsant § drugs there are many anticonvulsants available for the treatment of different forms of epilepsy and include oxcarbazepine, carbamazepine, and phenytoin. benzodiazepines are often used in emergency settings for severe convulsions, and may also be used in combination with anticonvulsants. these include lorazepam, diazepam and clonazepam kcnt1 pathogenic variant associated adnfle can be managed by treatment with quinidine, and adnfle associated with chrna4 shows better responsiveness to zonisamide. alternative therapy herbal medicines acupuncture psychotherapy mind–body interventions surgical treatment surgery may involve the following: isolating the focal point. responding to a seizure. removing the focal point. when both the amount and severity of seizures becomes uncontrollable and seizures