replaced. there are multiple contraceptive implants marketed for different active ingredients, as well as differing duration of action - most of these are injected under the skin. a form of buprenorphine for the treatment of opioid dependence is also available as an injectable implant. various materials can be used to manufacture implants including biodegradable polymers, osmotic release systems, and small spheres which dissolve in the body.: 4, 185, 335 adverse effects pain the act of piercing the skin with a needle, while necessary for an injection, also may cause localized pain. the most common technique to reduce the pain of an injection is simply to distract the person receiving the injection. pain may be dampened by prior application of ice or topical anesthetic, or pinching of the skin while giving the injection. some studies also suggest that forced coughing during an injection stimulates a transient rise in blood pressure which inhibits the perception of pain. for some injections, especially deeper injections, a local anesthetic is given. when giving an injection to young children or infants, they may be distracted by giving them a small amount of sweet liquid, such as sugar solution, or be comforted by breastfeeding during the injection, which reduces crying. infection a needle tract infection, also called a needlestick infection, is an infection that occurs when pathogens are inadvertently introduced into the tissues of the body during an injection. contamination of the needle used for injection, or reuse of needles for injections in multiple people, can lead to transmission of hepatitis b and c, hiv, and other bloodstream infections. injection drug users have high rates of unsafe needle use including sharing needles between people. the spread of hiv, hepatitis b, and hepatitis c from injection drug use is a common health problem, in particular contributing to over half of new hiv cases in north america in 1994. other infections may occur when pathogens enter the body through the injection site, most commonly due to improper cleaning of the site before injection. infections occurring in this way are mainly localized infections, including skin infections, skin structure infections, abscesses, or gangrene. an intravenous injection may also result in a bloodstream infection (termed sepsis) if the injection site is not cleaned properly prior to insertion. sepsis is a life-threatening condition which requires immediate treatment.: 358, 373 others injections into the skin and soft tissue generally do not cause any permanent damage, and the puncture heals within a few days. however, in some cases, injections can cause long-term adverse effects. intravenous and intramuscular injections may cause damage to a nerve, leading to palsy or paralysis. intramuscular injections may cause fibrosis or contracture. injections also cause localized bleeding, which may lead to a hematoma. intravenous injections may also cause phlebitis, especially when multiple injections are given in a vein over a short period of time. infiltration and extravasation may also occur when a medication intended to be injected into a vein is inadvertently injected into surrounding tissues. those who are afraid of needles may also experience fainting at the sight of a needle, or before or after an injection. technique proper needle use is important to perform injections safely, which includes the use of a new, sterile needle for each injection. this is partly because needles get duller with each use and partly because reusing needles increases risk of infection. needles should not be shared between people, as this increases risk of transmitting blood-borne pathogens. the practice of using the same needle for multiple people increases the risk of disease transmission between people sharing the same medication. in addition, it is not recommended to reuse a used needle to pierce a medication bag, bottle, or ampule designed to provide multiple doses of a medication, instead a new needle should be used each time the container must be pierced. aseptic technique should always be practiced when administering injections. this includes the use of barriers including gloves, gowns, and masks for health care providers. it also requires the use of a new, sterile needle, syringe and other equipment for each injection, as well as proper training to avoid touching non-sterile surfaces with sterile items. to help prevent accidental needlestick injury to the person administering the injection, and prevent reuse of the syringe for another injection, a safety syringe and needle may be used. the most basic reuse prevention device is an "auto-disable" plunger, which once pressed past a certain point will no longer retract. another common safety feature is an auto-retractable needle, where the needle is spring-loaded and either retracts into the syringe after injection, or into a plastic sheath on the side of the syringe. other safety syringes have an attached sheath which may be moved to cover the end of the needle after the injection is given. the world health organization recommends the use of single-use syringes with both reuse prevention devices and a needlestick injury prevention mechanism for all injections to prevent accidental injury and disease transmission. novel injection techniques include drug diffusion within the skin using needle-free micro-jet injection (nfi) technology. disposal of used needles used needles should be disposed of in specifically designed sharps containers to reduce the risk of accidental needle sticks and exposure to other people. in addition, a new sharps container should be begun once it is 3⁄4 full. a sharps container which is 3⁄4 filled should be sealed properly to prevent re-opening or accidental opening during transportation. some locations offer publicly accessible "sharps take-back" programs where a sharps container may be dropped off to a public location for safe disposal at no fee to the person. in addition, some pharmaceutical and independent companies provide mail-back sharps programs, sometimes for an additional fee. in the united states, there are 39 states that offer programs to provide needle or syringe exchange. over half of non-industrialized countries report open burning of disposed or used syringes. this practice is considered unsafe by the world health organization. aspiration the aspiration is the technique of pulling back on the plunger of a syringe prior to the actual injection. if blood flows into the syringe it signals that a blood vessel has been hit. society and culture due to the prevalence of unsafe injection practices, especially among injection drug users, many locations have begun offering supervised injection sites and needle exchange programs, which may be offered separately or colocated. these programs may provide new sterile needles upon request to mitigate infection risk, and some also provide access to on-site clinicians and emergency medical care if it becomes required. in the event of an overdose, a site may also provide medications such as naloxone, used as an antidote in opioid overdose situations, or other antidotes or emergency care. safe injection site have been associated with lower rates of death from overdose, less ambulance calls, and lower rates of new hiv infections from unsafe needle practices. as of 2019, at least ten countries currently offer safe injection sites, including australia, canada, denmark, france, germany, luxembourg, the netherlands, norway, spain and switzerland. in total, there are at least 120 sites operating. although the united states does not currently have any safe injection sites, some cities such san francisco, philadelphia, and denver are considering opening them, and some localities offer needle exchange programs. in 2018, the california state assembly passed assembly bill 186 to launch a three-year pilot program in san francisco for california's first safe injection sites, but this bill was not signed by the governor. colorado and pennsylvania have also expressed interest in offering safe injection sites. court rulings in pennsylvania have determined that safe injection sites are not illegal under federal law. plants and animals many species of animals use injections for self-defence or catching prey. this includes venomous snakes which inject venom when they bite into the skin with their fangs. common substances present in snake venom include neurotoxins, toxic proteins, and cytotoxic enzymes. different species of snakes inject different formulations of venom, which may cause severe pain and necrosis before progressing into neurotoxicity and potentially death. the weever is a type of fish which has venomous spines covering its fins and gills and injects a venom consisting of proteins which cause a severe local reaction which is not life-threatening. sting rays use their spinal blade to inject a protein-based venom which causes localized cell death but is not generally life-threatening. some types of insects also utilize injection for various purposes. bees use a stinger located in their hind region to inject a venom consisting of proteins such as melittin, which causes a localized painful and itching reaction. leeches can inject an anticoagulant peptide called hirudin after attaching to prevent blood from clotting during feeding. this property of leeches has been used historically as a natural form of anticoagulation therapy, as well as for the use of bloodletting as a treatment for various ailments. some species of ants inject forms of venom which include compounds which produce minor pain such as the formic acid, which is injected by members of the formicinae subfamily. other species of ants, including dinoponera species, inject protein-based venom which causes severe pain but is still not life-threatening. the bullet ant (paraponera clavata) injects a venom which contains a neurotoxin named poneratoxin which causes extreme pain, fever, and cold sweats, and may cause arrhythmias. plants may use a form of injection which is passive, where the injectee pushes themselves against the stationary needle. the stinging nettle plant has many trichomes, or stinging hairs, over its leaves and stems which are used to inject a mix of irritating chemicals which includes histamine, serotonin, and acetylcholine. this sting produces a form of dermatitis which is characterized by a stinging, burning, and itching sensation in the area. dendrocnide species, also called stinging trees, use their trichomes to inject a mix of neurotoxic peptides which causes a reaction similar to the stinging nettle, but also may result in recurring flares for a much longer period after the injection. while some plants have thorns, spines, and prickles, these generally are not used for injection of any substance, but instead it is the act of piercing the skin which causes them to be a deterrent.