activated carbon activated carbon activated carbon, also called activated charcoal, is a form of carbon commonly used to filter contaminants from water and air, among many other uses. it is processed (activated) to have small, low-volume pores that increase the surface area available for adsorption (which is not the same as absorption) or chemical reactions. activation is analogous to making popcorn from dried corn kernels: popcorn is light, fluffy, and its kernels have a high surface-area-to-volume ratio. activated is sometimes replaced by active. activated carbon due to its high degree of microporosity, one gram of activated carbon has a surface area in excess of 3,000 m2 (32,000 sq ft) as determined by gas adsorption. charcoal, before activation, has a specific surface area in the range of 2.0–5.0 m2/g. an activation level sufficient for useful application may be obtained solely from high surface area. further chemical treatment often enhances adsorption properties. activated carbon is usually derived from waste products such as coconut husks; waste from paper mills has been studied as a source. these bulk sources are converted into charcoal before being 'activated'. when derived from coal it is referred to as activated coal. activated coke is derived from coke. uses activated carbon is used in methane and hydrogen storage, air purification, capacitive deionization, supercapacitive swing adsorption, solvent recovery, decaffeination, gold purification, metal extraction, water purification, medicine, sewage treatment, air filters in respirators, filters in compressed air, teeth whitening, production of hydrogen chloride, edible electronics, and many other applications. industrial one major industrial application involves use of activated carbon in metal finishing for purification of electroplating solutions. for example, it is the main purification technique for removing organic impurities from bright nickel plating solutions. a variety of organic chemicals are added to plating solutions for improving their deposit qualities and for enhancing properties like brightness, smoothness, ductility, etc. due to passage of direct current and electrolytic reactions of anodic oxidation and cathodic reduction, organic additives generate unwanted breakdown products in solution. their excessive build up can adversely affect plating quality and physical properties of deposited metal. activated carbon treatment removes such impurities and restores plating performance to the desired level. medical main article: activated charcoal (medication) activated charcoal for medical use activated carbon is used to treat poisonings and overdoses following oral ingestion. tablets or capsules of activated carbon are used in many countries as an over-the-counter drug to treat diarrhea, indigestion, and flatulence. however, activated charcoal shows no effect on intestinal gas and diarrhea, and is, ordinarily, medically ineffective if poisoning resulted from ingestion of corrosive agents, boric acid, petroleum products, and is particularly ineffective against poisonings of strong acids or bases, cyanide, iron, lithium, arsenic, methanol, ethanol or ethylene glycol. activated carbon will not prevent these chemicals from being absorbed into the human body. it is on the world health organization's list of essential medicines. incorrect application (e.g. into the lungs) results in pulmonary aspiration, which can sometimes be fatal if immediate medical treatment is not initiated. analytical chemistry activated carbon, in 50% w/w combination with celite, is used as stationary phase in low-pressure chromatographic separation of carbohydrates (mono-, di-, tri-saccharides) using ethanol solutions (5–50%) as mobile phase in analytical or preparative protocols. activated carbon is useful for extracting the direct oral anticoagulants (doacs) such as dabigatran, apixaban, rivaroxaban and edoxaban from blood plasma samples. for this purpose it has been made into "minitablets", each containing 5 mg activated carbon for treating 1ml samples of doac. since this activated carbon has no effect on blood clotting factors, heparin or most other anticoagulants this allows a plasma sample to be analyzed for abnormalities otherwise affected by the doacs. environmental activated carbon is usually used in water filtration systems. in this illustration, the activated carbon is in the fourth level (counted from bottom). carbon adsorption has numerous applications in removing pollutants from air or water streams both in the field and in industrial processes such as: spill cleanup groundwater remediation drinking water filtration air purification volatile organic compounds capture from painting, dry cleaning, gasoline dispensing operations, and other processes volatile organic compounds recovery (solvent recovery systems, sru) from flexible packaging, converting, coating, and other processes. during early implementation of the 1974 safe drinking water act in the us, epa officials developed a rule that proposed requiring drinking water treatment systems to use granular activated carbon. because of its high cost, the so-called gac rule encountered strong opposition across the country from the water supply industry, including the largest water utilities in california. hence, the agency set aside the rule. activated carbon filtration is an effective water treatment method due to its multi-functional nature. there are specific types of activated carbon filtration methods and equipment that are indicated – depending upon the contaminants involved. activated carbon is also used for the measurement of radon concentration in air. agricultural activated carbon (charcoal) is an allowed substance used by organic farmers in both livestock production and wine making. in livestock production it is used as a pesticide, animal feed additive, processing aid, nonagricultural ingredient and disinfectant. in organic winemaking, activated carbon is allowed for use as a processing agent to adsorb brown color pigments from white grape concentrates. it is sometimes used as biochar. distilled alcoholic beverage purification activated carbon filters (ac filters) can be used to filter vodka and whiskey of organic impurities which can affect color, taste, and odor. passing an organically impure vodka through an activated carbon filter at the proper flow rate will result in vodka with an identical alcohol content and significantly increased organic purity, as judged by odor and taste. fuel storage research is being done testing various activated carbons' ability to store natural gas and hydrogen gas. the porous material acts like a sponge for different types of gases. the gas is attracted to the carbon material via van der waals forces. some carbons have been able to achieve bonding energies of 5–10 kj per mol. the gas may then be desorbed when subjected to higher temperatures and either combusted to do work or in the case of hydrogen gas extracted for use in a hydrogen fuel cell. gas storage in activated carbons is an appealing gas storage method because the gas can be stored in a low pressure, low mass, low volume environment that would be much more feasible than bulky on-board pressure tanks in vehicles. the united states department of energy has specified certain goals to be achieved in the area of research and development of nano-porous carbon materials. all of the goals are yet to be satisfied but numerous institutions, including the all-craft program, are continuing to conduct work in this field. gas purification filters with activated carbon are usually used in compressed air and gas purification to remove oil vapors, odor, and other hydrocarbons from the air. the most common designs use a 1-stage or 2 stage filtration principle in which activated carbon is embedded inside the filter media. activated carbon filters are used to retain radioactive gases within the air vacuumed from a nuclear boiling water reactor turbine condenser. the large charcoal beds adsorb these gases and retain them while they rapidly decay to non-radioactive solid species. the solids are trapped in the charcoal particles, while the filtered air passes through. chemical purification activated carbon is commonly used on the laboratory scale to purify solutions of organic molecules containing unwanted colored organic impurities. filtration over activated carbon is used in large scale fine chemical and pharmaceutical processes for the same purpose. the carbon is either mixed with the solution then filtered off or immobilized in a filter. mercury scrubbing activated carbon, often infused with sulfur or iodine, is widely used to trap mercury emissions from coal-fired power stations, medical incinerators, and from natural gas at the wellhead. however, despite its effectiveness, activated carbon is expensive to use. since it is often not recycled, the mercury-laden activated carbon presents a disposal dilemma. if the activated carbon contains less than 260 ppm mercury, united states federal regulations allow it to be stabilized (for example, trapped in concrete) for landfilling. however, waste containing greater than 260 ppm is considered to be in the high-mercury subcategory and is banned from landfilling (land-ban rule). this material is now accumulating in warehouses and in deep abandoned mines at an estimated rate of 100 tons per year. the problem of disposal of mercury-laden activated carbon is not unique to the united states. in the netherlands, this mercury is largely recovered and the activated carbon is disposed of by complete burning, forming carbon dioxide (co2). food additive activated, food-grade charcoal became a food trend in 2016, being used as an additive to impart a "slightly smoky" taste and a dark coloring to products including hotdogs, ice cream, pizza bases and bagels. people taking medication, including birth control pills and antidepressants, are advised to avoid novelty foods or drinks that use activated charcoal coloring, as it can render the medication ineffective. skin care the adsorbing aspects of activated charcoal have made it a popular additive in many skin care products. products such as activated charcoal soaps and activated charcoal face masks and scrubs combine the use of the charcoal's adsorption ability along with the cleansing ability of soap. structure of activated carbon the structure of activated carbon has long been a subject of debate. in a book published in 2006, harry marsh and francisco rodríguez-reinoso considered more than 15 models for the structure, without coming to a definite conclusion about which was correct. recent work using aberration-corrected transmission electron microscopy has suggested that activated carbons may have a structure related to that of the fullerenes, with pentagonal and heptagonal carbon rings. production activated carbon is carbon produced from carbonaceous source materials such as bamboo, coconut husk, willow peat, wood, coir, lignite, coal, and petroleum pitch. it can be produced (activated) by one of the following processes: physical activation: the source material is developed into activated carbon using hot gases. air is then introduced to burn out the gasses, creating a graded, screened and de-dusted form of activated carbon. this is generally done by using one or more of the following processes: carbonization: material with carbon content is pyrolyzed at temperatures in the range 600–900 °c, usually in an inert atmosphere with gases such as argon or nitrogen activation/oxidation: raw material or carbonized material is exposed to oxidizing atmospheres (oxygen or steam) at temperatures above 250 °c, usually in the temperature range of 600–1200 °c. the activation is performed by heating the sample for 1 h in a muffle furnace at 450 °c in the presence of air. chemical activation: the carbon material is impregnated with certain chemicals. the chemical is typically an acid, strong base, or a salt (phosphoric acid 25%, potassium hydroxide 5%, sodium hydroxide 5%, potassium carbonate 5%, calcium chloride 25%, and zinc chloride 25%). the carbon is then subjected to high temperatures (250–600 °c). it is believed that the temperature activates the carbon at this stage by forcing the material to open up and have more microscopic pores. chemical activation is preferred to physical activation owing to the lower temperatures, better quality consistency, and shorter time needed for activating the material. the dutch company norit nv, part of the cabot corporation, is the largest producer of activated carbon in the world. haycarb, a sri lankan coconut shell-based company controls 16% of the global market share. classification activated carbons are complex products which are difficult to classify on the basis of their behaviour, surface characteristics and other fundamental criteria. however, some broad classification is made for general purposes based on their size, preparation methods, and industrial applications. powdered activated carbon a micrograph of activated charcoal (r 1) under bright field illumination on a light microscope. notice the fractal-like shape of the particles hinting at their enormous surface area. each particle in this image, despite being only around 0.1 mm across, can have a surface area of several square centimeters. the entire image covers a region of approximately 1.1 by 0.7 mm, and the full resolution version is at a scale of 6.236 pixels/μm. normally, activated carbons (r 1) are made in particulate form as powders or fine granules less than 1.0 mm in size with an average diameter between 0.15 and 0.25 mm. thus they present a