papaver somniferum papaver somniferum papaver somniferum, commonly known as the opium poppy or breadseed poppy, is a species of flowering plant in the family papaveraceae. it is the species of plant from which both opium and poppy seeds are derived and is also a valuable ornamental plant, grown in gardens. its native range is probably the eastern mediterranean, but is now obscured by ancient introductions and cultivation, being naturalized across much of europe and asia. papaver somniferum scientific classification kingdom: plantae clade: tracheophytes clade: angiosperms clade: eudicots order: ranunculales family: papaveraceae genus: papaver species: p. somniferum binomial name papaver somniferuml. this poppy is grown as an agricultural crop on a large scale, for one of three primary purposes. the first is to produce seeds that are eaten by humans, commonly known as poppy seed. the second is to produce opium for use mainly by the pharmaceutical industry. the third is to produce other alkaloids, mainly thebaine and oripavine, that are processed by the pharmaceutical industry into drugs such as hydrocodone and oxycodone. each of these goals has special breeds that are targeted at one of these businesses, and breeding efforts (including biotechnological ones) are continually underway. a comparatively small amount of p. somniferum is also produced commercially for ornamental purposes. the common name "opium poppy" is increasingly a misnomer as many varieties have been bred that do not produce a significant quantity of opium. the cultivar 'sujata' produces no latex at all. breadseed poppy is more accurate as a common name today because all varieties of p. somniferum produce edible seeds. this differentiation has strong implications for legal policy surrounding the growing of this plant. description papaver somniferum is an annual herb growing to about 100 centimetres (40 inches) tall. the plant is strongly glaucous, giving a greyish-green appearance, and the stem and leaves bear a sparse distribution of coarse hairs. the large leaves are lobed, the upper stem leaves clasping the stem, the lowest leaves with a short petiole.: 40 the flowers are up to 3–10 cm (1–4 in) diameter, normally with four white, mauve or red petals, sometimes with dark markings at the base. the fruit is a hairless, rounded capsule topped with 12–18 radiating stigmatic rays, or fluted cap. all parts of the plant exude white latex when wounded.: 93 : 32 in australia, plant density for optimal cultivation is about 800,000 per hectare. the weed poppy papaver rhoeas is a similar species. plant showing the typical glaucous appearance flower close-up of flower center capsule showing latex (opium) exuding from incision close-up of white poppy seeds metabolism the alkaloids are organic nitrogenous compounds, derivatives of secondary metabolism, synthesized through the metabolic pathway of benzylisoquinoline. first, the amino acid phenylalanine, through the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, is transformed into tyrosine. tyrosine can follow two different routes: by tyrosine hydroxylase it can form l-dopamine (l-dopa), or it can be reduced to form 4-phenylhydroxyacetaldehyde (4-hpaa). subsequently, l-dopa reacts with 4-hpaa and, through a series of reactions, forms (s) -norcoclaurine, which carries the benzylisoquinoline skeleton that gives its name to this pathway. the conversion of (s) -norcoclaurin to (s) -reticulin is one of the key points, since from (s) -reticulin morphine can be formed through the morphinan route, noscapine through the path of the noscapina or berberina. genome the poppy genome contains 51,213 genes encoding proteins distributed 81.6% in 11 individual chromosomes and 18.4% remaining in unplaced scaffolds. in addition, 70.9% of the genome is made up of repetitive elements, of which the most represented are the long terminal repeat retrotransposons. this enrichment of genes is related to the maintenance of homeostasis and a positive regulation of transcription. the analysis of synergy of the opium poppy reveals traces of segmental duplications 110 million years ago (mya), before the divergence between papaveraceae and ranunculaceae, and an event of duplication of the complete genome makes 7.8 mya. the genes are possibly grouped as follows: the genes responsible for the conversion of (s) -reticulin to noscapine are found on chromosome 11. the genes responsible for the conversion of (s) -reticulin to thebaine are found on chromosome 11. the genes responsible for the conversion of thebaine are found in chromosome 1, chromosome 2, chromosome 7, and perhaps others. taxonomy papaver somniferum was formally described by the swedish botanist carl linnaeus in his seminal publication species plantarum in 1753 on page 508. varieties and cultivars p. somniferum has had a very long tradition of use, starting in the neolithic. this long period of time allowed the development of a broad range of different forms. in total there are 52 botanical varieties. breeding of p. somniferum faces a challenge caused by the contradictory breeding goals for this species. on one hand a very high content of alkaloids is requested for medical uses. the global demand for the alkaloids and the pharmaceutical derivatives has increased in the past years. therefore, there is a need for the development of varieties with a high opium yield. on the other hand, the food industry demands as low alkaloid contents as possible. there is one accepted subspecies, p. somniferum subsp. setigerum (dc.) arcang. there are also many varieties and cultivars. colors of the flowers vary widely, as do other physical characteristics, such as number and shape of petals , number of flowers and fruits, number of seeds, color of seeds, and production of opium. papaver somniferum var. paeoniflorum is a variety with flowers that are highly double, and are grown in many colors. p. somniferum var. laciniatum is a variety with flowers that are highly double and deeply lobed. the variety sujata produces no latex and no commercial utility for opioid production. distribution and habitat the native range of opium poppy is probably the eastern mediterranean, but extensive cultivation and introduction of the species throughout europe since ancient times have obscured its origin. it has escaped from cultivation, or has been introduced and become naturalized extensively in all regions of the british isles, particularly in the south and east and in almost all other countries of the world with suitable, temperate climates. ecology diseases p. somniferum is susceptible to several fungal, insect and virus infections including seed borne diseases such as downy mildew and root rot. the use of pesticides in combination to cultural methods have been considered as major control measures for various poppy diseases. the fungal pathogen peronospora arborescens, the causal agent of downy mildew, occurs preferentially during wet and humid conditions. this oomycete penetrates the roots through oospores and infects the leaves as conidia in a secondary infection. the fungus causes hypertrophy and curvature of the stem and flower stalks. the symptoms are chlorosis and curling of the affected tissues with necrotic spots. the leaf under-surface is covered with a downy mildew coating containing conidiospores that spread the infection further leading to plant damage and death. another downy mildew species, peronospora somniferi, produces systemic infections leading to stunting and deformation of poppy plants. downy mildew can be controlled preventively at the initial stage of seed development through several fungicide applications. leaf blight caused by the fungus helminthosporium papaveris is one of the most destructive poppy diseases worldwide. the seed-borne fungus causes root rot in young plants and stunted stems in plants at a higher development stage, where leaf spots appear on the leaves and is being transmitted to capsules and seeds. early sowing of seeds and deep plowing of poppy residues can reduce fungal inoculum during the plant growing season in the following year on neighboring poppy stocks, respectively. mosaic diseases in p. somniferum are caused by rattle virus and the carlavirus. in 2006, a novel virus tentatively called "opium poppy mosaic virus" (opmv) from the genus umbravirus was isolated from p. somniferum containing leaf mosaic and mottling symptoms, in new zealand. pests there are only a few pests that can do harm to p. somniferum. flea beetles perforate the leaves of young plants and aphids suck on the sap of the flower buds. the poppy root weevil (stenocarus ruficornis) is another significant pest. the insect lives in the soil and migrates in spring to the poppy fields after crop emergence. adults damage the leaves of small plants by eating them. female lay their eggs into the tissue of lower leaves. insect larvae hatch and burrow into the soil to complete their life cycle on the poppy roots as adults. cultivation in the growth development of p. somniferum, six stages can be distinguished. the growth development starts with the growth of the seedlings. in a second step the rosette-type leaves and stalks are formed. after that budding (hook stage) takes place as a third step. the hook stage is followed by flowering. subsequently, technical maturity is reached, which means that the plant is ready for cutting. the last step is biological maturity; dry seeds are ripened. the photoperiod seems to be the main determinant of flower development of p. somniferum. p. somniferum shows a very slow development in the beginning of its vegetation period. due to this fact the competition of weeds is very high in early stages. it is very important to control weeds effectively in the first 50 days after sowing. additionally papaver somniferum is rather susceptible to herbicides. the pre-emergence application of the herbicide chlortoluron has been shown to be effective in reducing weed levels. however, in the last decade the weed management of papaver somniferum has shifted from pre-emergence treatments to post-emergence treatments. especially the application of the two herbicides mesotrione and tembotrione has become very popular. the combined application of those two herbicides has been shown to be recommendable for effective weed management in papaver somniferum. sowing time (autumn or spring), preceding crop and soil texture are important variables influencing the weed species composition. a highly abundant weed species in papaver somniferum fields was shown to be papaver rhoeas. papaver somniferum and papaver rhoeas belong to the same plant family, which impedes the chemical control of this weed species. therefore, weed management represents a big challenge and requires technological knowledge from the farmer. in order to increase the efficiency of weed control not only chemical weed control should be applied but also mechanical weed control. ornamental live plants and seeds of the opium poppy are widely sold by seed companies and nurseries in most of the western world, including the united states. poppies are sought after by gardeners for the vivid coloration of the blooms, the hardiness and reliability of the poppy plants, the exotic chocolate-vegetal fragrance note of some cultivars, and the ease of growing the plants from purchased flats of seedlings or by direct sowing of the seed. poppy seed pods are also sold for dried flower arrangements. though "opium poppy and poppy straw" are listed in schedule ii of the united states' controlled substances act, p. somniferum can be grown legally in the united states as a seed crop or ornamental flower. during the summer, opium poppies can be seen flowering in gardens throughout north america and europe, and displays are found in many private plantings, as well as in public botanical and museum gardens such as united states botanical garden, missouri botanical garden, and north carolina botanical garden. many countries grow the plants, and some rely heavily on the commercial production of the drug as a major source of income. as an additional source of profit, the seeds of the same plants are sold for use in foods, so the cultivation of the plant is a significant source of income. this international trade in seeds of p. somniferum was addressed by a un resolution "to fight the international trade in illicit opium poppy seeds" on 28 july 1998. red opium poppy flower czech blue poppy flower czech blue poppy seeds production poppy seed production – 2018 country (tonnes) turkey26,991 czech republic13,666 spain12,360 world76,240 source: faostat of the united nations food in 2018, world production of poppy seeds for consumption was 76,240 tonnes, led by turkey with 35% of the world total (table). poppy seed production and trade are susceptible to fluctuations mainly due to unstable yields. the performance of most genotypes of "papaver somniferum" is very susceptible to environmental changes this behaviour led to a stagnation of the poppy seed market value between 2008–2009 as a consequence of high stock levels, bad weather and poor quality. the world leading