elbow elbow the elbow is the region between the upper arm and the forearm that surrounds the elbow joint. the elbow includes prominent landmarks such as the olecranon, the cubital fossa (also called the chelidon, or the elbow pit), and the lateral and the medial epicondyles of the humerus. the elbow joint is a hinge joint between the arm and the forearm; more specifically between the humerus in the upper arm and the radius and ulna in the forearm which allows the forearm and hand to be moved towards and away from the body. the term elbow is specifically used for humans and other primates, and in other vertebrates forelimb plus joint is used. a hand drawn image of the inside of an elbow joint with annotations in an up-close manner elbowanatomy of the elbow (left).detailsidentifierslatinarticulatio cubitimeshd004550ta2145fma24901anatomical terminology the name for the elbow in latin is cubitus, and so the word cubital is used in some elbow-related terms, as in cubital nodes for example. structure joint the elbow joint has three different portions surrounded by a common joint capsule. these are joints between the three bones of the elbow, the humerus of the upper arm, and the radius and the ulna of the forearm. jointfromtodescription humeroulnar jointtrochlear notch of the ulnatrochlea of humerusis a simple hinge-joint, and allows for movements of flexion and extension only. humeroradial jointhead of the radiuscapitulum of the humerusis a ball-and-socket joint. proximal radioulnar jointhead of the radiusradial notch of the ulnain any position of flexion or extension, the radius, carrying the hand with it, can be rotated in it. this movement includes pronation and supination. when in anatomical position there are four main bony landmarks of the elbow. at the lower part of the humerus are the medial and lateral epicondyles, on the side closest to the body (medial) and on the side away from the body (lateral) surfaces. the third landmark is the olecranon found at the head of the ulna. these lie on a horizontal line called the hueter line. when the elbow is flexed, they form a triangle called the hueter triangle, which resembles an equilateral triangle. left elbow extended and flexed at the surface of the humerus where it faces the joint is the trochlea. in most people, the groove running across the trochlea is vertical on the anterior side but it spirals off on the posterior side. this results in the forearm being aligned to the upper arm during flexion, but forming an angle to the upper arm during extension — an angle known as the carrying angle. the superior radioulnar joint shares the joint capsule with the elbow joint but plays no functional role at the elbow. joint capsule capsule of elbow-joint (distended). anterior and posterior aspects. the elbow joint and the superior radioulnar joint are enclosed by a single fibrous capsule. the capsule is strengthened by ligaments at the sides but is relatively weak in front and behind. on the anterior side, the capsule consists mainly of longitudinal fibres. however, some bundles among these fibers run obliquely or transversely, thickening and strengthening the capsule. these bundles are referred to as the capsular ligament. deep fibres of the brachialis muscle insert anteriorly into the capsule and act to pull it and the underlying membrane during flexion in order to prevent them from being pinched. on the posterior side, the capsule is thin and mainly composed of transverse fibres. a few of these fibres stretch across the olecranon fossa without attaching to it and form a transverse band with a free upper border. on the ulnar side, the capsule reaches down to the posterior part of the annular ligament. the posterior capsule is attached to the triceps tendon which prevents the capsule from being pinched during extension. synovial membrane the synovial membrane of the elbow joint is very extensive. on the humerus, it extends up from the articular margins and covers the coronoid and radial fossae anteriorly and the olecranon fossa posteriorly. distally, it is prolonged down to the neck of the radius and the superior radioulnar joint. it is supported by the quadrate ligament below the annular ligament where it also forms a fold which gives the head of the radius freedom of movement. several synovial folds project into the recesses of the joint. these folds or plicae are remnants of normal embryonic development and can be categorized as either anterior (anterior humeral recess) or posterior (olecranon recess). a crescent-shaped fold is commonly present between the head of the radius and the capitulum of the humerus. on the humerus there are extrasynovial fat pads adjacent to the three articular fossae. these pads fill the radial and coronoid fossa anteriorly during extension, and the olecranon fossa posteriorly during flexion. they are displaced when the fossae are occupied by the bony projections of the ulna and radius. ligaments left elbow-jointleft: anterior and ulnar collateral ligamentsright: posterior and radial collateral ligaments the elbow, like other joints, has ligaments on either side. these are triangular bands which blend with the joint capsule. they are positioned so that they always lie across the transverse joint axis and are, therefore, always relatively tense and impose strict limitations on abduction, adduction, and axial rotation at the elbow. the ulnar collateral ligament has its apex on the medial epicondyle. its anterior band stretches from the anterior side of the medial epicondyle to the medial edge of the coronoid process, while the posterior band stretches from posterior side of the medial epicondyle to the medial side of the olecranon. these two bands are separated by a thinner intermediate part and their distal attachments are united by a transverse band below which the synovial membrane protrudes during joint movements. the anterior band is closely associated with the tendon of the superficial flexor muscles of the forearm, even being the origin of flexor digitorum superficialis. the ulnar nerve crosses the intermediate part as it enters the forearm. the radial collateral ligament is attached to the lateral epicondyle below the common extensor tendon. less distinct than the ulnar collateral ligament, this ligament blends with the annular ligament of the radius and its margins are attached near the radial notch of the ulna. flexion there are three main flexor muscles at the elbow: brachialis acts exclusively as an elbow flexor and is one of the few muscles in the human body with a single function. it originates low on the anterior side of the humerus and is inserted into the tuberosity of the ulna. brachioradialis acts essentially as an elbow flexor but also supinates during extreme pronation and pronates during extreme supination. it originates at the lateral supracondylar ridge distally on the humerus and is inserted distally on the radius at the styloid process. biceps brachii is the main elbow flexor but, as a biarticular muscle, also plays important secondary roles as a stabiliser at the shoulder and as a supinator. it originates on the scapula with two tendons: that of the long head on the supraglenoid tubercle just above the shoulder joint and that of the short head on the coracoid process at the top of the scapula. its main insertion is at the radial tuberosity on the radius. brachialis is the main muscle used when the elbow is flexed slowly. during rapid and forceful flexion all three muscles are brought into action assisted by the superficial forearm flexors originating at the medial side of the elbow. the efficiency of the flexor muscles increases dramatically as the elbow is brought into midflexion (flexed 90°) — biceps reaches its angle of maximum efficiency at 80–90° and brachialis at 100–110°. active flexion is limited to 145° by the contact between the anterior muscles of the upper arm and forearm, more so because they are hardened by contraction during flexion. passive flexion (forearm is pushed against the upper arm with flexors relaxed) is limited to 160° by the bony projections on the radius and ulna as they reach to shallow depressions on the humerus; i.e. the head of radius being pressed against the radial fossa and the coronoid process being pressed against the coronoid fossa. passive flexion is further limited by tension in the posterior capsular ligament and in triceps brachii. a small accessory muscle, so called epitrochleoanconeus muscle, may be found on the medial aspect of the elbow running from the medial epicondyle to the olecranon. extension elbow extension is simply bringing the forearm back to anatomical position. this action is performed by triceps brachii with a negligible assistance from anconeus. triceps originates with two heads posteriorly on the humerus and with its long head on the scapula just below the shoulder joint. it is inserted posteriorly on the olecranon. triceps is maximally efficient with the elbow flexed 20–30°. as the angle of flexion increases, the position of the olecranon approaches the main axis of the humerus which decreases muscle efficiency. in full flexion, however, the triceps tendon is "rolled up" on the olecranon as on a pulley which compensates for the loss of efficiency. because triceps' long head is biarticular (acts on two joints), its efficiency is also dependent on the position of the shoulder. extension is limited by the olecranon reaching the olecranon fossa, tension in the anterior ligament, and resistance in flexor muscles. forced extension results in a rupture in one of the limiting structures: olecranon fracture, torn capsule and ligaments, and, though the muscles are normally left unaffected, a bruised brachial artery. blood supply the anastomosis and deep veins around the elbow-joint the arteries supplying the joint are derived from an extensive circulatory anastomosis between the brachial artery and its terminal branches. the superior and inferior ulnar collateral branches of the brachial artery and the radial and middle collateral branches of the profunda brachii artery descend from above to reconnect on the joint capsule, where they also connect with the anterior and posterior ulnar recurrent branches of the ulnar artery; the radial recurrent branch of the radial artery; and the interosseous recurrent branch of the common interosseous artery. the blood is brought back by vessels from the radial, ulnar, and brachial veins. there are two sets of lymphatic nodes at the elbow, normally located above the medial epicondyle — the deep and superficial cubital nodes (also called epitrochlear nodes). the lymphatic drainage at the elbow is through the deep nodes at the bifurcation of the brachial artery, the superficial nodes drain the forearm and the ulnar side of the hand. the efferent lymph vessels from the elbow proceed to the lateral group of axillary lymph nodes. nerve supply the elbow is innervated anteriorly by branches from the musculocutaneous, median, and radial nerve, and posteriorly from the ulnar nerve and the branch of the radial nerve to anconeus. development the elbow undergoes dynamic development of ossification centers through infancy and adolescence, with the order of both the appearance and fusion of the apophyseal growth centers being crucial in assessment of the pediatric elbow on radiograph, in order to distinguish a traumatic fracture or apophyseal separation from normal development. the order of appearance can be understood by the mnemonic critoe, referring to the capitellum, radial head, internal epicondyle, trochlea, olecranon, and external epicondyle at ages 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11 years. these apophyseal centers then fuse during adolescence, with the internal epicondyle and olecranon fusing last. the ages of fusion are more variable than ossification, but normally occur at 13, 15, 17, 13, 16 and 13 years, respectively. in addition, the presence of a joint effusion can be inferenced by the presence of the fat pad sign, a structure that is normally physiologically present, but pathologic when elevated by fluid, and always pathologic when posterior. function the function of the elbow joint is to extend and flex the arm grasp and reach for objects. the range of movement in the elbow is from 0 degrees of elbow extension to 150 degrees of elbow flexion. muscles contributing to function are all flexion (biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis) and extension muscles (triceps and anconeus). in humans, the main task of the elbow is to properly place the hand in space by shortening and lengthening the upper limb. while the superior radioulnar joint shares joint capsule with the elbow joint, it plays no functional role at the elbow. with the