microaerophilic conditions. c. fetus is extremely delicate to environmental conditions including sunlight, dehydration, increased temperature, and high o2. in adverse conditions, the spiral rods degenerate to a coccoid morphology, making diagnosis based on morphology difficult. in addition, c. fetus can be quickly outgrown by competing microbes, indicating that timely culture and sample submission are important. for reproductive diseases, samples may include vaginal mucus swabs, preputial washes or scrapings with buffered sterile saline, stomach contents or tissue of abortuses. samples should be immediately transported to the lab and enrichment needs to be provided to allow accurate diagnosis. samples should be kept at 25-37 °c and supplied on mediums such as clarks transport medium (contains gas and fresh bovine serum) or amies medium (contains charcoal). antibiotics can be used to inhibit competing microbes for faster growth of c. fetus. prior to diagnosis, labs will culture the organism from samples. diagnosis is most commonly done using blood agar, where growth is presented after incubation over 4–5 days at 25-37 °c. colonies will appear as gamma-hemolytic, round, and light pink. a microaerophilic environment with reduced oxygen (5-10%) and carbon dioxide (3-5%) is needed through the use of specialized gas packs. once cultured, molecular tests can be performed to obtain a more accurate diagnosis. elisa measuring iga antibodies in vaginal mucus is used as a diagnostic test. specificity of elisa may reach 98.5%, however antibody fluctuations in cattle can result in false positives. in an elisa test using murine monoclonal antibodies, 66 preputial samples were collected. 49 of these were positive for elisa and culture and 16 were positive by elisa only making it useful as a diagnostic test for c. fetus. vaginal mucus agglutination test agglutination can detect the binding of antibodies and antigens, resulting in clumped bacterial cells. since antibodies to the target organism may cross-react with other organisms, autoagglutination may occur. agglutination is primarily used when the sample is obtained from a vaginal mucous wash, and the test may reach a sensitivity of 50%. pcr real time pcr techniques using iscfe1 insertion site is the most sensitive technique for diagnosis of cfv-associated abortion. iscfe1 is a newly discovered insertion site used in pcr to differentiate between cfv and cff. it only occurs in cfv strains, so it is essential for the implementation of efficient cfv control and eradication. samples from stomach contents and vaginal discharges allow accurate diagnosis of c. fetus and its subspecies for epidemiological and pathogenic purposes. elisa and vmat are good diagnostic tests, although they are usually used for screening purposes and a proper diagnosis requires further tests via pcr. the pcr assay differentiates between subspecies of c. fetus, which important to determine pathogenesis and develop an effective treatment plan. however, diagnosis of c. fetus may be problematic due to poor growth in atmospheric conditions and the ability to be outcompeted by contaminating microbes. to overcome this, multiple samples are to be collected from each animal and multiple tests may be used simultaneously to increase sensitivity and the probability of a correct diagnosis. treatment venereal campylobacteriosis is more commonly found in herds where natural mating is allowed. infected bulls are typically removed from the herd or culled as treatment can be difficult and may result in persistent carriers. antibiotic treatment of infected bulls and cows with cfv is considered impractical. artificial insemination may reduce the prevalence of infection if a cfv-free source bull is used. as cows can recover from these infections, they are not culled but kept from mating naturally for at least two calving seasons. vaccines can be used to reduce the occurrence of campylobacteriosis but will not eradicate infections. for example, vaccination of bulls, cows, and heifers against cfv has some efficacy but does not consistently prevent transmission. c. fetus may evade complete detection and eradication by the immune system as chronic and relapse cases have been noted. the majority of c. fetus infections have been specifically linked to cff. the ovine cff vaccine has likewise been found ineffective in preventing future infections in ewes given that it does not provide protection against all strains of cff. in zoonotic cases of campylobacter, infections will often resolve without treatment. should there be underlying conditions or risk factors, patients may be treated with erythromycin. fluoroquinolones are often avoided as antimicrobial resistance has been emerging. often in these cases of interspecies infections, proper hygienic protocols of food safety and hand hygiene can prevent infection.