water supply and sanitation in uganda water supply and sanitation in uganda the ugandan water supply and sanitation sector made substantial progress in urban areas from the mid-1990s until at least 2006, with substantial increases in coverage as well as in operational and commercial performance.: pages 3–4 sector reforms from 1998 to 2003 included the commercialization and modernization of the national water and sewerage corporation (nwsc) operating in cities and larger towns, as well as decentralization and private sector participation in small towns.: page 15 water supply and sanitation in ugandadatawater coverage (broad definition)("at least basic sanitation" / improved sanitation facilities) 92% / 79% (in 2015)sanitation coverage (broad definition)("at least basic sanitation" / improved sanitation) 93% / 19% (in 2015)continuity of supply20–24 hours per day in large towns: page 58 average urban water use (l/person/day)44average urban water and sanitation tariff (us$/m3)0.64share of household metering99% in large towns (2006): page 23 annual investment in wssus$2.37 per capitashare of external financingmainly external donorsinstitutionsdecentralization to municipalitiessince 1997:to districts, towns and sub-counties: page 8 national water and sanitation companynational water and sewerage corporation (nwsc), in large townswater and sanitation regulatornoneresponsibility for policy settingministry of water and environmentsector lawnoneno. of urban service providersn/ano. of rural service providersn/a these reforms have attracted significant international attention. thirty-eight percent of the population, however, still had no access to an improved water source in 2010. concerning access to improved sanitation, figures vary widely. according to government figures, it was 70 percent in rural areas and 81 percent in urban areas while according to the united nations (un), access was only 34 percent. the water and sanitation sector was recognized as a key area under the 2004 poverty eradication action plan (peap), uganda's main strategy paper to fight poverty. a comprehensive expenditure framework was introduced to coordinate financial support by external donors, the national government, and non-governmental organizations.: page 5 the peap estimated that from 2001 to 2015, about us$1.4 billion in total (us$92 million per year) was needed to increase water supply coverage up to 95 percent. access in 2015, around 24 percent of the population lacked access to "at least basic water" in uganda. access to at least basic water was 39 percent of the total population, or 73% of the urban population and 32% of the rural population. regarding sanitation, only 19% of the total population had access to "at least basic sanitation", or 28% of the urban population and 17% of the rural population. around 31 million people did not have access to "at least basic sanitation" in 2015. the human rights measurement initiative has given uganda a score of 22.9% with regards to basic sanitation, and 9.5% for water supply. in earlier years, access to "improved water" had increased from 43 percent in 1990 to 72 percent in 2010, according to estimates by the joint monitoring program for water supply and sanitation (jmp) of the un. in the same period, access to "improved sanitation" increased slightly from 27 to 34 percent. the water and environment sector performance report of the ugandan ministry of water and irrigation, however, showed markedly different access figures. according to this report, in 2011, access to "safe water" was 66 percent while access to improved sanitation was 70 percent in rural areas and 81 percent in urban areas. eighty-seven percent of the population lived in rural areas in 2010. according to the european union (eu), the number of people defecating in the open fell substantially between 2000 and 2008, even though the government provides no subsidies for the construction of latrines. according to the jmp's estimates, however, the number of people defecating in the open declined only from 3.5 million in 2000 to 3.2 million in 2010. the reasons for the different assessments are unclear. the most common technology options for rural water supply are protected springs, boreholes, protected wells, and gravity flow schemes.: page 64 those who do not have access to an improved source of water must rely on unsafe sources such as rivers, lakes, and unprotected wells. one consequence of poor access and quality is that water-borne diseases are a major cause of infant mortality. access to functioning water sources varied considerably among districts in 2007, from 12 to 95 percent. the national government aimed to reach universal water supply and sanitation coverage in urban areas and 77 percent water supply and 95 percent sanitation coverage by 2015. at the time these goals were set, the government defined access to improved water supply and sanitation as follows: improved water supply in urban areas is given through an improved water source within a walking distance of 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) in rural areas and 0.2 kilometres (0.12 mi) in urban areas. sanitation coverage is given through sanitation facilities in the place of residence.: page 12 service quality continuity of supply according to maxwell stamp plc, those who received a piped water supply in 2003 in the nation's capital kampala were "usually" supplied continuously for 24 hours per day. nwsc, however, acknowledged that parts of kampala such as kyaliwajala, kulambiro, and most places on hilltops suffered from chronic water shortages. in addition, some areas went without water for a week when repairs were undertaken. in other towns, maxwell stamp plc found in 2003 that most customers were supplied more than five days per week. mwe indicated in 2006 that piped water in large towns was usually available for 20–24 hours per day.: page 58 drinking water quality under the fourth water and sanitation sector performance assessment, based on analyses by several subsectors and ngos carried out in 2006, it was found that 90 percent and 95 percent of the water samples taken from protected and treated water supplies, respectively, met national standards for drinking water quality. this assessment comprised both rural and urban water supply. wastewater treatment as of 2012, 90 percent of the collected wastewater of kampala was discharged without any treatment. nwsc operates a small conventional sewage treatment plant in kampala and another in masaka. in the case of kampala, the wastewater is discharged into the nakivubo wetland. the wetland is estimated to provide economic benefits of up to us$1.75 million per year, removing nutrients from untreated and partially treated wastewater discharged from kampala through the wetland into lake victoria.: page 106 as part of a sanitation master plan for kampala carried out by fichtner consultants with financing from germany, four wastewater treatment plants were planned. the plans included a plant with a capacity of 45,000 cubic metres (1,600,000 cu ft) per day at nakivubo, a plant with a capacity of 8,000 cubic metres (280,000 cu ft) per day at kinawataka, a fecal sludge treatment plant with a capacity of 200 cubic metres (7,100 cu ft) per day at lubigi, and another plant at nalukolongo. the plan also foresaw the construction of ecological latrines at schools, market places, and health centres and hygiene education at schools. the investments were to be funded by the european union, the world bank, the african development bank, and germany. the existing plant at bugolobi was planned to be decommissioned once the new plants became operational. in smaller towns, nwsc operates 21 sewage stabilization ponds. according to the mwe, an analysis of municipal effluents carried out in july 2008 revealed that nwsc's wastewater treatment facilities mostly do not meet national standards. out of 223 data sets, 12 percent complied with the biochemical oxygen demand standards, 26 percent with the phosphorus standards, and 40 percent with the total suspended solids standards. this leads to the pollution of water bodies from which raw water is extracted. in a few cases, sewage was disposed directly into the environment without any treatment.: page 85 the lack of functioning wastewater treatment poses a threat to the environment and human health. customer satisfaction a customer satisfaction survey was carried out in 2009–2010 for all towns served by nwsc. it covered questions such as satisfaction with water reliability, water pressure, water quality, timely and accurate water bills, responsiveness in resolving complaints, responsiveness in effecting new connections, customer care, and the convenience of the bill payment process. out of 5,319 customers contacted in a stratified sample, 2,731 responded. customer care received the highest rating, while water quality and pressure received lower, but overall good, ratings. a customer satisfaction index was calculated across all questions, showing that 85 percent of customers were satisfied, up from 83 percent during the last survey. satisfaction was highest in hoima, iganda, and masindi at 95 percent and lowest in the central ugandan town of mubende, where no customer care officer or desk existed, at 62 percent. in kampala, satisfaction was 83 percent. customers appreciated the ambiance in local offices, that phone calls are made to remind customers of payment, that customers can settle their arrears through payment plans in exceptional cases, and that water cuts are announced through the radio. customers complained about low water pressure, muddy water during the wet season, supply interruptions during the dry season, low water pressure, slow implementation of new connections, erratic bills, disconnection despite having paid their water bills, and the rudeness of field staff. water resources rivers and lakes of uganda. overview as a whole, uganda has more than enough freshwater. estimates indicate 66 cubic kilometres (16 cu mi) of renewable water resources per year, which correspond to approximately 2,800 cubic metres (740,000 us gal) per person and year. the distribution of the resource, however, is uneven both in spatial and temporal terms. furthermore, freshwater is increasingly exploited through population growth, urbanization, agriculture, and industrialization. rivers, lakes, and wetlands cover about 18 percent of uganda's total surface, including lake victoria, africa's largest lake and one of the major sources of the nile, the world's longest river. almost the entire country lies within the nile drainage basin. rainfall contributes the most to the country's surface water and groundwater. the average annual rainfall ranges from 900 millimetres (35 in) in the semi-arid areas of kotido to 2,000 millimetres (79 in) on the sese islands in lake victoria.: pages 38–57 there are no groundwater recharge assessments for uganda, which is why the country's groundwater potential is unknown. regional assessments in ugandan towns, however, have indicated that groundwater recharge meets the current abstraction volumes. to monitor the quantity and quality of groundwater and surface water, the national water resources network has been established under the responsibility of the water resources management department.: pages 38–57 lake victoria between 2003 and 2006, lake victoria lost 75 million cubic meters, about 69 percent of its volume, but has since recovered to above normal. the causes of the decline were disputed. according to some reports, the 10-15 percent decline in rainfall in the lake's basin caused the lake to lower. according to daniel kull, at the time a hydrologist with the un's international strategy for disaster reduction in nairobi, the drought would have caused only half the water loss actually seen if two hydroelectric dams at the outlet of the lake into the white nile had been operated according to the "agreed curve" determined in a 1953 agreement on the nile flows between uganda and egypt. sandy-stevens tickodri-togboa, professor of engineering mathematics at makerere university, disagreed and calculated that the drought caused 80 to 85 percent of the decline. kampala and entebbe are supplied with water from lake victoria through four treatment plants: ggaba i, ii and iii as well as a recently built plant in katosi in mukono district. water use according to the peap for 2004–5 to 2007–8, water use in rural areas ranged between 12 and 14 liters per person per day (l/p/d). in urban towns and centers with a population of more than 5,000 people, the peap estimated an average consumption of less than 17 l/p/d. the national target is an average consumption of 20 l/p/d. according to the nwsc's annual report, the utility's total water production from july 2007 to june 2008 (fiscal year 2007/2008) for 23 towns was 63,600,000 cubic metres (2.25×109 cu ft), of which 79 percent were produced in kampala. domestic customers used 46.9 percent or 29,800,000 cubic metres (1.05×109 cu ft) of nwsc's total production. divided by the 1,944,741 people whom nwsc served at the end of june 2008, this corresponds to 15.3 cubic metres (540 cu ft) per person per year or 44 l/p/d. history