and (bust − waist) < 9 in (230 mm) rectangleif (hips − bust) < 3.6 in (91 mm) and (bust − hips) < 3.6 in (91 mm) and (bust − waist) < 9 in (230 mm) and (hips − waist) < 10 in (250 mm) clothing standards some clothing size standards define categories. inverted triangle-rectangular categories the chinese clothing size standards give codes to clothing designed for different ratios between chest and waist. they adapt for a linear scale between inverted triangle/hourglass and rectangular. chinese body shape classifications by: chest - waist circumferences shape code femalemale y 19–24 cm17–22 cm a 14–18 cm12–16 cm b 9–13 cm7–11 cm c 4–8 cm2–6 cm rectangular-spoon categories the japanese and south korean clothing size standards give codes to women's clothing designed for different ratios between hips and chest. the german standards similarly use hip and bust measures. they all adapt for a linear scale between rectangular and spoon shapes. japanese body shape classifications by: hip - chest circumferences shape code female y 0 cm a 4 cm ab 8 cm b 12 cm south korean body shape classifications by: hip - chest circumferences shape code female h 0–3 cm n 3–9 cm a 9–12 cm german body shape classifications by: hip - bust circumferences shape code female s -4–2 cm m 2–8 cm l 8+ cm the german sizing system also has height categories for short, regular and tall women, which combine with the shape categories to produce 9 categories. proportions and dimensions the source, jean auguste dominique ingres, 1856in the water by eugene de blaas, 1914 the circumferences of bust, waist, and hips (bwh) and the ratios between them are a widespread method of identifying different female body shapes. as noted above, descriptive terms used include "rectangle", "spoon", "inverted triangle", and "hourglass". the waist is typically smaller than the bust and hips, unless there is a high proportion of body fat distributed around it. how much the bust or hips inflect inward, towards the waist, determines a woman's structural shape. the hourglass shape is present in only about 8% of women. a woman's dimensions are often expressed by the circumference around the three inflection points. for example, "36–29–38" in us customary units would mean a 36 in (91 cm) bust, 29 in (74 cm) waist and 38 in (97 cm) hips. height will also affect the appearance of the figure. a woman who is 36–24–36 (91–61–91 cm) at 5 ft 2 in (1.57 m) height will look different from a woman who is 36–24–36 at 5 ft 8 in (1.73 m) height. if both are the same weight, the taller woman has a much lower body mass index; if they have the same bmi, the weight is distributed around a greater volume. a woman's bust measure is a combination of her rib cage and breast size. for convenience, a woman's bra measurements are often used as a proxy. conventionally, measurement for the band of a bra is taken around the torso immediately below the breasts, with the tape measure parallel to the floor. bra cup size is determined by measuring across the crest of the breasts and calculating the difference between that measurement and the band measurement. the waist is measured at the midpoint between the bottom of the rib cage and the top of the 'front' hip bones. the hips are measured at the largest circumference of the hips and buttocks. fashion models the british fashion model agents association (bfma) says that female models should be at least 5 ft 8 in (1.73 m) tall and proportionately around 34–24–34" (86–61–86 cm). laws "aimed at preventing anorexia by stopping the promotion of inaccessible ideals of beauty" have been introduced in a number of european countries, to regulate the minimum actual or apparent bmi of fashion models. "under world health organisation guidelines an adult with a bmi below 18.5 is considered underweight, 18 malnourished, and 17 severely malnourished. the average model measuring 1.75m (5ft 9in) and weighing 50kg (7st 12lb) has a bmi of 16". cultural perceptions the arnolfini portrait by jan van eyck depicts a fashionable man and woman in the 15th century.adam and eve from the vienna diptych by hugo van der goes. eve's protruding abdomen is typical of nudes in the 15th century. according to camille paglia, the ideal body type as envisioned by members of society has changed throughout history. she states that stone age venus figurines show the earliest body type preference, dramatic steatopygia; and that the emphasis on protruding belly, breasts, and buttocks is likely a result of both the aesthetic of being well fed and aesthetic of being fertile, traits that were more difficult to achieve at the time. in sculptures from classical greece and ancient rome the female bodies are more tubular and regularly proportioned.: 5 there is essentially no emphasis given to any particular body part, not the breasts, buttocks, or belly. moving forward there is more evidence that fashion somewhat dictated what people believed were the proper female body proportions. this is the case because the body is primarily seen through clothing, which always changes the way the underlying structures are conceived.: xii–xiii the first representations of truly fashionable women appear in the 14th century.: 90 between the 14th and 16th centuries in northern europe, bulging bellies were again desirable, however the stature of the rest of the figure was generally thin. this is most easily visible in paintings of nudes from the time. when looking at clothed images, the belly is often visible through a mass of otherwise concealing, billowing, loose robes. since the stomach was the only visible anatomical feature, it became exaggerated in nude depictions while the rest of the body remained minimal.: 96–100, 106 in southern europe, around the time of the renaissance, this was also true. though the classical aesthetic was being revived and very closely studied, the art produced in the time period was influenced by both factors. this resulted in a beauty standard that reconciled the two aesthetics by using classically proportioned figures who had non-classical amounts of flesh and soft, padded skin.: 96–98, 104 in the nude paintings of the 17th century, such as those by rubens, the naked women appear quite plump. upon closer inspection however, most of the women have fairly normal statures, rubens has simply painted their flesh with rolls and ripples that otherwise would not be there. this may be a reflection of the female style of the day: a long, cylindrical, gown with rippling satin accents, tailored over a figure in stays. thus rubens' women have a tubular body with rippling embellishments.: 106, 316 while stays continued to be fashionable into the 18th century, they were shortened, became more conical, and consequently began to emphasize the waist. it also lifted and separated the breasts as opposed to the 17th century corsets which compressed and minimized the breasts. consequently, depictions of nude women in the 18th century tend to have a very narrow waist and high, distinct breasts, almost as if they were wearing an invisible corset.: 91, 112–116 la maja desnuda is a clear example of this aesthetic. the 19th century maintained the general figure of the 18th century. examples can be seen in the works of many contemporary artists, both academic artists, such as cabanel, ingres, and bouguereau, and impressionists, such as degas, renoir, and toulouse-lautrec. as the 20th century began, the rise of athletics resulted in a drastic slimming of the female figure. this culminated in the 1920s flapper look, which has informed modern fashion ever since.: 4 : 152 the last 100 years envelop the time period in which that overall body type has been seen as attractive, though there have been small changes within the period as well. the 1920s was the time in which the overall silhouette of the ideal body slimmed down. there was dramatic flattening of the entire body resulting in a more youthful aesthetic.: 150–153 as the century progressed, the ideal size of both the breasts and buttocks increased. from the 1950s to 1960 that trend continued with the interesting twist of cone shaped breasts as a result of the popularity of the bullet bra. in the 1960s, the invention of the miniskirt as well as the increased acceptability of pants for women, prompted the idealization of the long leg that has lasted to this day.: 93–95 following the invention of the push-up bra in the 1970s the ideal breast has been a rounded, fuller, and larger breast. in the past 20 years the average american bra size has increased from 34b to 34dd, although this may be due to the increase in obesity within the united states in recent years. additionally, the ideal figure has favored an ever-lower waist–hip ratio, especially with the advent and progression of digital editing software such as adobe photoshop.: 4, 6–7 social and health issues venus at a mirror, rubens, c. 1615 detail of naiads from the arrival of marie de medici at marseille, rubens, c. 1625 each society develops a general perception of what an ideal female body shape would be like. these ideals are generally reflected in the art and literature produced by or for a society, as well as in popular media such as films and magazines. the ideal or preferred female body size and shape has varied over time and continues to vary among cultures; but a preference for a small waist has remained fairly constant throughout history. a low waist–hip ratio has often been seen as a sign of good health and reproductive potential. a low waist–hip ratio has also often been regarded as an indicator of attractiveness of a woman, but recent research suggests that attractiveness is more correlated to body mass index than waist–hip ratio, contrary to previous belief. according to dr. devendra singh of the university of texas, who studied the representations of women, historically found there was a trend for slightly overweight women in the 17th and 18th centuries, as typified by the paintings of rubens, but that in general there has been a preference for a slimmer waist in western culture. he notes that "the finding that the writers describe a small waist as beautiful suggests instead that this body part – a known marker of health and fertility – is a core feature of feminine beauty that transcends ethnic differences and cultures." new research suggests that apple-shaped women have the highest risk of developing heart disease, while hourglass-shaped women have the lowest. diabetes professionals advise that a waist measurement for a woman of over 80 cm (31 in) increases the risk of heart disease, but that ethnic background also plays a factor. this is because body fat buildup around the waist (the apple shape) poses a higher health risk than a fat buildup at the hips (the pear shape). waist–hip ratio main article: waist–hip ratio compared to males, females generally have relatively narrow waists and large buttocks, and this along with wide hips make for a wider hip section and a lower waist–hip ratio. research shows that a waist–hip ratio (whr) for a female very strongly correlates to the perception of attractiveness. women with a 0.7 whr (waist circumference that is 70% of the hip circumference) are rated more attractive by men in various cultures. such diverse beauty icons as marilyn monroe, sophia loren and the venus de milo have ratios around 0.7; this is a typical ratio in western art. in other cultures, preferences vary, ranging from 0.6 in china, to 0.8 or 0.9 in parts of south america and africa, and divergent preferences based on ethnicity, rather than nationality, have also been noted. anthropologists and behaviorists have discovered evidence that the whr is a significant measure for female attractiveness. many studies indicate that whr correlates with female fertility, leading some to speculate that its use as a sexual selection cue by men has an evolutionary basis. however it is also suggested that the evident relationships between whr-influencing hormones and survival-relevant traits such as competitiveness and stress tolerance may give a preference for higher waist–hip ratios its own evolutionary benefit. that, in turn, may account for the cross-cultural variation observed in actual average waist–hip ratios and culturally preferred waist-to-hip ratios for women. whr has been found to be a more efficient predictor