of his march preceded him, and he was greeted everywhere; gradually, he became a symbol of the patriot cause. upon arrival on july 2, 1775, two weeks after the patriot defeat at nearby bunker hill, he set up his cambridge, massachusetts, headquarters and inspected the new army there, only to find an undisciplined and badly outfitted militia. after consultation, he initiated benjamin franklin's suggested reforms—drilling the soldiers and imposing strict discipline, floggings, and incarceration. washington ordered his officers to identify the skills of recruits to ensure military effectiveness, while removing incompetent officers. he petitioned gage, his former superior, to release captured patriot officers from prison and treat them humanely. in october 1775, king george iii declared that the colonies were in open rebellion and relieved general gage of command for incompetence, replacing him with general william howe. the continental army, further diminished by expiring short-term enlistments, and by january 1776 reduced by half to 9,600 men, had to be supplemented with the militia, and was joined by knox with heavy artillery captured from fort ticonderoga. when the charles river froze over, washington was eager to cross and storm boston, but general gates and others were opposed to untrained militia striking well-garrisoned fortifications. washington reluctantly agreed to secure the dorchester heights, 100 feet above boston, in an attempt to force the british out of the city. on march 9, under cover of darkness, washington's troops brought up knox's big guns and bombarded british ships in boston harbor. on march 17, 9,000 british troops and loyalists began a chaotic ten-day evacuation of boston aboard 120 ships. soon after, washington entered the city with 500 men, with explicit orders not to plunder the city. he ordered variolation against smallpox to great effect, as he did later in morristown, new jersey. he refrained from exerting military authority in boston, leaving civilian matters in the hands of local authorities. invasion of quebec (1775) the invasion of quebec (june 1775 – october 1776, french: invasion du québec) was the first major military initiative by the newly formed continental army during the american revolutionary war. on june 27, 1775, congress authorized general philip schuyler to investigate, and, if it seemed appropriate, begin an invasion. benedict arnold, passed over for its command, went to boston and convinced general george washington to send a supporting force to quebec city under his command. the objective of the campaign was to seize the province of quebec (part of modern-day canada) from great britain, and persuade french-speaking canadiens to join the revolution on the side of the thirteen colonies. one expedition left fort ticonderoga under richard montgomery, besieged and captured fort st. johns, and very nearly captured british general guy carleton when taking montreal. the other expedition, under benedict arnold, left cambridge, massachusetts and traveled with great difficulty through the wilderness of maine to quebec city. the two forces joined there, but they were defeated at the battle of quebec in december 1775, where montgomery died. battle of long island battle of long island by alonzo chappel (1858), depicting the battle of long island washington then proceeded to new york city, arriving on april 13, 1776, and began constructing fortifications to thwart the expected british attack. he ordered his occupying forces to treat civilians and their property with respect, to avoid the abuses which bostonian citizens suffered at the hands of british troops during their occupation. a plot to assassinate or capture him was discovered and thwarted, resulting in the arrest of 98 people involved or complicit (56 of which were from long island (kings (brooklyn) and queens counties)), including the loyalist mayor of new york city david mathews. washington's bodyguard, thomas hickey, was hanged for mutiny and sedition. general howe transported his resupplied army, with the british fleet, from halifax to new york city, knowing the city was key to securing the continent. george germain, who ran the british war effort in england, believed it could be won with one "decisive blow". the british forces, including more than a hundred ships and thousands of troops, began arriving on staten island on july 2 to lay siege to the city. after the declaration of independence was adopted on july 4, washington informed his troops in his general orders of july 9 that congress had declared the united colonies to be "free and independent states". howe's troop strength totaled 32,000 regulars and hessian auxiliaries, and washington's consisted of 23,000, mostly raw recruits and militia. in august, howe landed 20,000 troops at gravesend, brooklyn, and approached washington's fortifications, as george iii proclaimed the rebellious american colonists to be traitors. washington, opposing his generals, chose to fight, based upon inaccurate information that howe's army had only 8,000-plus troops. in the battle of long island, howe assaulted washington's flank and inflicted 1,500 patriot casualties, the british suffering 400. washington retreated, instructing general william heath to acquisition river craft in the area. on august 30, general william alexander held off the british and gave cover while the army crossed the east river under darkness to manhattan island without loss of life or materiel, although alexander was captured. colonel john glover's massachusetts regiment successfully evacuated washington's 9,000 men, horses, and artillery from brooklyn to manhattan on august 29. howe was emboldened by his long island victory and dispatched washington as "george washington, esq." in futility to negotiate peace. washington declined, demanding to be addressed with diplomatic protocol, as general and fellow belligerent, not as a "rebel", lest his men are hanged as such if captured. the royal navy bombarded the unstable earthworks on lower manhattan island. washington, with misgivings, heeded the advice of generals greene and putnam to defend fort washington. they were unable to hold it, and washington abandoned it despite general lee's objections, as his army retired north to the white plains. howe's pursuit forced washington to retreat across the hudson river to fort lee to avoid encirclement. howe landed his troops on manhattan in november and captured fort washington, inflicting high casualties on the americans. washington was responsible for delaying the retreat, though he blamed congress and general greene. loyalists in new york city considered howe a liberator and spread a rumor that washington had set fire to the city. patriot morale reached its lowest when lee was captured. now reduced to 5,400 troops, washington's army retreated through new jersey, and howe broke off pursuit, delaying his advance on philadelphia, and set up winter quarters in new york. crossing the delaware, trenton, and princeton washington crossing the delaware by emanuel leutze (1851), now housed in the metropolitan museum of art in new york city the passage of the delaware by thomas sully (1819), now housed in the boston museum of fine arts the capture of the hessians at trenton, december 26, 1776 by john trumbull, depicting the battle of trenton and now housed at the yale university art gallery in new haven, connecticut washington crossed the delaware river into pennsylvania, where lee's replacement john sullivan joined him with 2,000 more troops. the future of the continental army was in doubt for lack of supplies, a harsh winter, expiring enlistments, and desertions. washington was disappointed that many new jersey residents were loyalists or skeptical about the prospect of independence. howe split up his british army and posted a hessian garrison at trenton to hold western new jersey and the east shore of the delaware, but the army appeared complacent, and washington and his generals devised a surprise attack on the hessians at trenton, which he codenamed "victory or death". the army was to cross the delaware river to trenton in three divisions: one led by washington (2,400 troops), another by general james ewing (700), and the third by colonel john cadwalader (1,500). the force was to then split, with washington taking the pennington road and general sullivan traveling south on the river's edge. washington first ordered a 60-mile search for durham boats to transport his army, and he ordered the destruction of vessels that could be used by the british. washington crossed the delaware river on christmas night, december 25, 1776, while he personally risked capture staking out the jersey shoreline. his men followed across the ice-obstructed river in sleet and snow from mcconkey's ferry, with 40 men per vessel. the wind churned up the waters, and they were pelted with hail, but by 3:00 a.m. on december 26, they made it across with no losses. henry knox was delayed, managing frightened horses and about 18 field guns on flat-bottomed ferries. cadwalader and ewing failed to cross due to the ice and heavy currents, and awaiting washington doubted his planned attack on trenton. once knox arrived, washington proceeded to trenton to take only his troops against the hessians, rather than risk being spotted returning his army to pennsylvania. the troops spotted hessian positions a mile from trenton, so washington split his force into two columns, rallying his men: "soldiers keep by your officers. for god's sake, keep by your officers." the two columns were separated at the birmingham crossroads. general nathanael greene's column took the upper ferry road, led by washington, and general john sullivan's column advanced on river road. (see map.) the americans marched in sleet and snowfall. many were shoeless with bloodied feet, and two died of exposure. meanwhile, hessian commander johann rall was held up at the home of abraham hunt, of trenton, who had placated rall and some of his officers with plenty of food and drink into the late hours of the evening and morning. at sunrise, washington, aided by major general knox and artillery, led his men in a surprise attack on an unsuspecting rall. the hessians had 22 killed, including colonel rall, 83 wounded, and 850 captured with supplies. washington retreated across the delaware river to pennsylvania and returned to new jersey on january 3, 1777, launching an attack on british regulars at princeton, with 40 americans killed or wounded and 273 british killed or captured. american generals hugh mercer and john cadwalader were being driven back by the british when mercer was mortally wounded, then washington arrived and led the men in a counterattack which advanced to within 30 yards (27 m) of the british line. some british troops retreated after a brief stand, while others took refuge in nassau hall, which became the target of colonel alexander hamilton's cannons. washington's troops charged, the british surrendered in less than an hour, and 194 soldiers laid down their arms. howe retreated to new york city where his army remained inactive until early the next year. from january to may, washington took up winter headquarters in jacob arnold's tavern in morristown, new jersey, while he received munition from hibernia mines. meanwhile, "his troops stayed in ' homes" or camped in the loantaka valley to the east. while in morristown, washington disrupted british supply lines and expelled them from parts of new jersey. washington later said the british could have successfully counterattacked his encampment before his troops were dug in. the victories at trenton and princeton by washington revived patriot morale and changed the course of the war. the british still controlled new york, and many patriot soldiers did not re-enlist or deserted after the harsh winter campaign. congress instituted greater rewards for re-enlisting and punishments for desertion to effect greater troop numbers. strategically, washington's victories were pivotal for the revolution and quashed the british strategy of showing overwhelming force followed by offering generous terms. in february 1777, word reached london of the american victories at trenton and princeton, and the british realized the patriots were in a position to demand unconditional independence. brandywine, germantown, and saratoga in july 1777, british general john burgoyne led the saratoga campaign south from quebec through lake champlain and recaptured fort ticonderoga intending to divide new england, including control of the hudson river. however, general howe in british-occupied new york city blundered, taking his army south to philadelphia rather than up the hudson river to join burgoyne near albany. meanwhile, washington and gilbert du motier, marquis de lafayette rushed to philadelphia to engage howe and were shocked to learn of burgoyne's progress in upstate new york, where the patriots were led by general philip schuyler and his successor horatio gates. washington's army of less experienced men were defeated in the pitched battles at