expressive aphasia expressive aphasia expressive aphasia, also known as broca's aphasia, is a type of aphasia characterized by partial loss of the ability to produce language (spoken, manual, or written), although comprehension generally remains intact. a person with expressive aphasia will exhibit effortful speech. speech generally includes important content words but leaves out function words that have more grammatical significance than physical meaning, such as prepositions and articles. this is known as "telegraphic speech". the person's intended message may still be understood, but their sentence will not be grammatically correct. in very severe forms of expressive aphasia, a person may only speak using single word utterances. typically, comprehension is mildly to moderately impaired in expressive aphasia due to difficulty understanding complex grammar. expressive aphasiaother namesbroca's aphasia, non-fluent aphasia, agrammatic aphasiabroca and wernicke are two areas involved in language formationspecialtyneurology, psychiatry it is caused by acquired damage to the anterior regions of the brain, such as broca's area. it is one subset of a larger family of disorders known collectively as aphasia. expressive aphasia contrasts with receptive aphasia, in which patients are able to speak in grammatical sentences that lack semantic significance and generally also have trouble with comprehension. expressive aphasia differs from dysarthria, which is typified by a patient's inability to properly move the muscles of the tongue and mouth to produce speech. expressive aphasia also differs from apraxia of speech, which is a motor disorder characterized by an inability to create and sequence motor plans for speech. signs and symptoms broca's (expressive) aphasia is a type of non-fluent aphasia in which an individual's speech is halting and effortful. misarticulations or distortions of consonants and vowels, namely phonetic dissolution, are common. individuals with expressive aphasia may only produce single words, or words in groups of two or three. long pauses between words are common and multi-syllabic words may be produced one syllable at a time with pauses between each syllable. the prosody of a person with broca's aphasia is compromised by shortened length of utterances and the presence of self-repairs and disfluencies. intonation and stress patterns are also deficient. for example, in the following passage, a patient with broca's aphasia is trying to explain how he came to the hospital for dental surgery:yes... ah... monday... er... dad and peter h... (his own name), and dad.... er... hospital... and ah... wednesday... wednesday, nine o'clock... and oh... thursday... ten o'clock, ah doctors... two... an' doctors... and er... teeth... yah.the speech of a person with expressive aphasia contains mostly content words such as nouns, verbs, and some adjectives. however, function words like conjunctions, articles, and prepositions are rarely used except for "and" which is prevalent in the speech of most patients with aphasia. the omission of function words makes the person's speech agrammatic. a communication partner of a person with aphasia may say that the person's speech sounds telegraphic due to poor sentence construction and disjointed words. for example, a person with expressive aphasia might say "smart... university... smart... good... good..." self-monitoring is typically well preserved in patients with broca's aphasia. they are usually aware of their communication deficits, and are more prone to depression and outbursts from frustration than are patients with other forms of aphasia. in general, word comprehension is preserved, allowing patients to have functional receptive language skills. individuals with broca's aphasia understand most of the everyday conversation around them, but higher-level deficits in receptive language can occur. because comprehension is substantially impaired for more complex sentences, it is better to use simple language when speaking with an individual with expressive aphasia. this is exemplified by the difficulty to understand phrases or sentences with unusual structure. a typical patient with broca's aphasia will misinterpret "the man is bitten by the dog" by switching the subject and object to "the dog is bitten by the man." typically, people with expressive aphasia can understand speech and read better than they can produce speech and write. the person's writing will resemble their speech and will be effortful, lacking cohesion, and containing mostly content words. letters will likely be formed clumsily and distorted and some may even be omitted. although listening and reading are generally intact, subtle deficits in both reading and listening comprehension are almost always present during assessment of aphasia. because broca's area is anterior to the primary motor cortex, which is responsible for movement of the face, hands, and arms, a lesion affecting broca's areas may also result in hemiparesis (weakness of both limbs on the same side of the body) or hemiplegia (paralysis of both limbs on the same side of the body). the brain is wired contralaterally, which means the limbs on right side of the body are controlled by the left hemisphere and vice versa. therefore, when broca's area or surrounding areas in the left hemisphere are damaged, hemiplegia or hemiparesis often occurs on the right side of the body in individuals with broca's aphasia. severity of expressive aphasia varies among patients. some people may only have mild deficits and detecting problems with their language may be difficult. in the most extreme cases, patients may be able to produce only a single word. even in such cases, over-learned and rote-learned speech patterns may be retained– for instance, some patients can count from one to ten, but cannot produce the same numbers in novel conversation. manual language and aphasia in deaf patients who use manual language (such as american sign language), damage to the left hemisphere of the brain leads to disruptions in their signing ability. paraphasic errors similar to spoken language have been observed; whereas in spoken language a phonemic substitution would occur (e.g. "tagle" instead of "table"), in asl case studies errors in movement, hand position, and morphology have been noted. agrammatism, or the lack of grammatical morphemes in sentence production, has also been observed in lifelong users of asl who have left hemisphere damage. the lack of syntactic accuracy shows that the errors in signing are not due to damage to the motor cortex, but rather area manifestation of the damage to the language-producing area of the brain. similar symptoms have been seen in a patient with left hemisphere damage whose first language was british sign language, further showing that damage to the left hemisphere primarily hinders linguistic ability, not motor ability. in contrast, patients who have damage to non-linguistic areas on the left hemisphere have been shown to be fluent in signing, but are unable to comprehend written language. overlap with receptive aphasia in addition to difficulty expressing oneself, individuals with expressive aphasia are also noted to commonly have trouble with comprehension in certain linguistic areas. this agrammatism overlaps with receptive aphasia, but can be seen in patients who have expressive aphasia without being diagnosed as having receptive aphasia. the most well-noted of these are object-relative clauses, object wh- questions, and topicalized structures (placing the topic at the beginning of the sentence). these three concepts all share phrasal movement, which can cause words to lose their thematic roles when they change order in the sentence. this is often not an issue for people without agrammatic aphasias, but many people with aphasia rely heavily on word order to understand roles that words play within the sentence. causes more common stroke or brain anoxia. brain tumor brain trauma less common autoimmune disease paraneoplastic syndrome micrometastasis neurodegenerative disorders certain infections (e.g., bartonella henselae) metabolic disease (e.g., hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state) common causes the most common cause of expressive aphasia is stroke. a stroke is caused by hypoperfusion (lack of oxygen) to an area of the brain, which is commonly caused by thrombosis or embolism. some form of aphasia occurs in 34 to 38% of stroke patients. expressive aphasia occurs in approximately 12% of new cases of aphasia caused by stroke. in most cases, expressive aphasia is caused by a stroke in broca's area or the surrounding vicinity. broca's area is in the lower part of the premotor cortex in the language dominant hemisphere and is responsible for planning motor speech movements. however, cases of expressive aphasia have been seen in patients with strokes in other areas of the brain. patients with classic symptoms of expressive aphasia in general have more acute brain lesions, whereas patients with larger, widespread lesions exhibit a variety of symptoms that may be classified as global aphasia or left unclassified. expressive aphasia can also be caused by trauma to the brain, tumor, cerebral hemorrhage and by extradural abscess. understanding lateralization of brain function is important for understanding which areas of the brain cause expressive aphasia when damaged. in the past, it has been believed that the area for language production differs between left and right-handed individuals. if this were true, damage to the homologous region of broca's area in the right hemisphere should cause aphasia in a left-handed individual. more recent studies have shown that even left-handed individuals typically have language functions only in the left hemisphere. however, left-handed individuals are more likely to have a dominance of language in the right hemisphere. uncommon causes less common causes of expressive aphasia include primary autoimmune phenomenon and autoimmune phenomenon that are secondary to cancer (as a paraneoplastic syndrome) have been listed as the primary hypothesis for several cases of aphasia, especially when presenting with other psychiatric disturbances and focal neurological deficits. many case reports exist describing paraneoplastic aphasia, and the reports that are specific tend to describe expressive aphasia. although most cases attempt to exclude micro-metastasis, it is likely that some cases of paraneoplastic aphasia are actually extremely small metastasis to the vocal motor regions. neurodegenerative disorders may present with aphasia. alzheimer's disease may present with either fluent aphasia or expressive aphasia. there are case reports of creutzfeldt-jakob disease presenting with expressive aphasia. diagnosis expressive aphasia is classified as non-fluent aphasia, as opposed to fluent aphasia. diagnosis is done on a case-by-case basis, as lesions often affect the surrounding cortex and deficits are highly variable among patients with aphasia. a physician is typically the first person to recognize aphasia in a patient who is being treated for damage to the brain. routine processes for determining the presence and location of lesion in the brain include magnetic resonance imaging (mri) and computed tomography (ct) scans. the physician will complete a brief assessment of the patient's ability to understand and produce language. for further diagnostic testing, the physician will refer the patient to a speech-language pathologist, who will complete a comprehensive evaluation. in order to diagnose a patient with broca's aphasia, there are certain commonly used tests and procedures. the western aphasia battery (wab) classifies individuals based on their scores on the subtests; spontaneous speech, auditory comprehension, repetition, and naming. the boston diagnostic aphasia examination (bdae) can inform users what specific type of aphasia they may have, infer the location of lesion, and assess current language abilities. the porch index of communication ability (pica) can predict potential recovery outcomes of the patients with aphasia. quality of life measurement is also an important assessment tool. tests such as the assessment for living with aphasia (ala) and the satisfaction with life scale (swls) allow for therapists to target skills that are important and meaningful for the individual. in addition to formal assessments, patient and family interviews are valid and important sources of information. the patient's previous hobbies, interests, personality, and occupation are all factors that will not only impact therapy but may motivate them throughout the recovery process. patient interviews and observations allow professionals to learn the priorities of the patient and family and determine what the patient hopes to regain in therapy. observations of the patient may also be beneficial to determine where to begin treatment. the current behaviors and interactions of the patient will provide the therapist with more insight about the client and their individual needs. other information about the patient can be retrieved from medical records, patient referrals from physicians, and the nursing staff. in non-speaking patients who use manual languages, diagnosis is often based on interviews from the patient's acquaintances, noting the differences in sign production pre- and post-damage to the brain. many of these patients will also begin to rely on non-linguistic gestures to communicate, rather than signing since their language production is hindered. treatment currently, there is no standard treatment for expressive aphasia. most aphasia treatment is individualized based on a