tool allegedly designed by diocles of carystus for removing arrowheads. it was a long bronze or iron tool with two hooks ending a curved scoop with a hole and a perforation. this tool would be pushed under and then between the arrow and the flesh. the head of the arrow would be caught in the hole, and the scoops would cover the barbs. thus, when the arrow was dragged out the flesh would not be pierced. this instrument may have not existed. it is only mentioned by celsus, who was a roman physician, and no other writers. catheters catheters were also inserted into the bladder to treat urinary tract infections, ureteral stones, prostate cancer, bladder stones, sexually transmitted infections, painful urination, and difficulty urinating. the size and shape of the catheters depended on the gender and size of the individual. bladders were drained through the urethra using an s-shaped catheter. another procedure involved injecting a piece of thread with wool wrapped around it into the pipe of the tool. then it was dipped in oil and used to make an incision into the perineum. strigils ancient roman strigil this tool was used for scraping off dirt, perspiration, and oil to cleanse the body. the strigil was most commonly used by male athletes, although in other cultures such as the etruscans it was used by a wider variety of people. they could also be used as burial goods and these tools are commonly depicted on works of art. it generally consisted of a curved metal blade, and a metal handle. other materials that could be used included bronze, iron, and reeds. ancient roman bronze knife knives and needles another kind of knife, known as the polypus knife, was sharply pointed and shaped like a myrtle leaf. the knife was used to cut around tumors. to make an incision between the anus and the testicles a knife known as the lithotomy knife was used. the uvula knife was designed to perform operations on the throat and the uvula. there is little information on its shape and characteristics. tonsil knives were used to remove the tonsil from mouths. to treat pterygium it was raised with a sharp hook, then a needle with a flaxen thread and horsehair was passed under it. the horsehair was used to saw off the pterygium and a scalpel was used to sever the base of it. alternatively, the pterygium knife was a kind of knife used to cure pterygium. it was used to separate the adhesion to the sclerotic. this tool was narrow and sharply pointed. hooks roman surgical hooks obstetrical hooks may have existed in ancient rome. these hooks were smooth and had short points, which were inserted into the ears, eyes, mouths, and forehead to extract children. sharp hooks were used to hold open incisions, removing tissue, fixing and retracting wounds, raising blood vessels, removing tonsils, transfixing the pterygium, and for dissection. blunt hooks were used to stretch adhesions near the eye and to pierce lips. traction hooks were used to remove the fetus during especially tough labor. these hooks were smooth and round, with a short point. once the head presented itself, the hook was inserted into the area and then used to extract the child. this procedure needed to execute carefully and gently. if it was not then there was an increased risk of death. it was common practice to use two hooks at once in these procedures. another kind of hook, known as a decapitator, was used to decapitate the fetus during an abortion. other tools ancient roman cauterization probe in ancient rome saws could be used to amputate limbs for surgical purposes. osteotomes were used to cut away at bone and remove membranes. thigh tourniquets would stop bleeding and prevent the venom from spreading. another common tool was bronze or iron cross-bladed scissors. during surgeries spatulas could also be used. although they were primarily used to produce and apply medicine. ancient roman surgical tools called phlebotomes were used in operations known as phlebotomies. this tool is one of the most commonly mentioned tools in ancient roman medical literature. despite this, there are no detailed descriptions of the phlebotome. this likely stems from the commonality of the instrument. due to its popularity, doctors and writers assumed all readers would already be familiar with its appearance and usage. hemispathions were used to divide the fistula. syringes in ancient rome had a variety of uses. nasal syringes were made of two bronze or horn pipes that were used to inject liquids into the nostrils. ear syringes were also common tools. they were used to remove unhealthy substances from the ears, and clean the ears, the bladder, the vagina, and the foreskin. cannulae were used to heal ascites and empyema. this was done by using the bronze cannulae to make an incision into the abdomen and the peritoneum. cauteries were common ancient surgical tools with a variety of types. cautery knives were used to remove cancers such as malignant polyps as well as hydroceles. cauteries could also remove eschars in the spleen, and hernias. it was also used to treat hemorrhoids, diseases of the liver, and trichiasis. the lithotomy scoop was a long and slender semicircular tool used to extract calculi. enemas were usually made of long silver tubes with perforations attached to a pig's bladder. this bladder was filled with horse milk and closed with a cord. to treat dysentery, enemas were injected into the body's orifices, such as vaginas, bladders, or uteruses. in this operation, cannulae were inserted into the body. these cannulae had circles of small holes to prevent ascariasis, a disease caused by a parasitic roundworm. techniques ancient roman surgical needles abortion there were surgical procedures for abortion in ancient rome, but they were rarely used, and most abortions were conducted using herbs or other drugs. when surgery was used, it involved the use of surgical instruments to penetrate the mother. usually this procedure ended the death of both the fetus and the mother. soranus of ephesus wrote that purging, carrying heavy weights, and the injection of olive oil into the vagina or uterus, were all procedures used to carry out abortions. amputations and dissections a lancet, a tool used in bloodlettingamputations were used to treat gangrene. ancient roman surgeons utilized tools known as "blunt dissectors" to expose "vessels." blunt dissectors were also involved in another procedure designed to treat headaches and ophthalmia. this operation began by shaving the patient's hair off. then, a warm headband or fomentation was placed around their neck. following this, ink was used to map the "vessels." the surgeon would then proceed to use their fingers to stretch the skin, and then an assistant would make an incision. to finish the procedure, hooks and dissectors were used to expose the "vessels." blunt dissectors were usually leaf-shaped, and possibly with hexagonal handles. another kind of dissector was curved dissectors. they were used to dissect lips that had been incised with a hook. one of these dissectors, which was stored in the national archaeological museum in france, was made of an ornamented handle with a small hook at one end. on the other was a leaf-shaped dissector. bloodletting bloodletting or a phlebotomy was a common practice in ancient rome. it was common for surgeons to use a tool known as the phlebotome or the katias to make an incision into another point, which would cause the wound to bleed at another point. another process involved putting a burning piece of cloth into the patient's mouth to draw out blood. alternatively, leeches could be used. ear scoops would be pressed on the proximal end of the vein. this would obstruct the blood flow, which would allow the phlebotome to be used to discharge blood.the birth of julius caesar, who suetonius, a roman historian says was born through a caesarean section. caesarean section during a roman caesarean section the doctors would make an incision into the abdomen and uterus of the mother. following this, the baby was removed. this practice could also be conducted on dead mothers to remove the babies from their corpses. it was rare for doctors to perform this operation, as it bore a high mortality rate. according to roman religion the god asclepius was born by a caesarian section. roman historians suetonius and pliny the elder also record julius caesar as being born through a caesarian section. the veracity of these claims is debated. cataract surgery cataract surgery is a surgery in which cataracts are removed. this kind of surgery has been practiced since 29 ce in ancient rome. according to celsus' description of cataract surgery, surgeons would use their right hand to perform on the left eye, and vice versa. during the procedure a needle was inserted between the pupil and the temple until it "meets resistance." then, the surgeon would rotate the needle until the cataract had been pushed beneath the pupil. following the cataract surgery, the patient would be treated with "soothing medicants" and wool soaked in the white of the egg. the patient would also exclusively drink water and abstain from solid food until they no longer had an inflammation, which was a side effect of the surgery. cosmetic surgery ancient roman needles. needles such as these would have been used to treat umbilical hernia. modern cosmetic surgery has origins in the ancient greco-roman world. roman surgeons were capable of repairing damaged ears, noses, and lips. celsus discussed rhinoplasty techniques in his de medicina. ancient rhinoplasty involved the grafting of a new nose onto the old one. burns were treated using vinegar, ashes, cork, bran, or honey. to treat both, skin grafting was used. galen, alongside celsus, described the use of cheek reconstruction to heal facial injuries. hernia treatment hernia repair was done using trusses and bandages. roman surgeons would conduct an operation designed to treat hernia. usually, it was only used to treat small hernias belonging to young patients. it consisted of an incision into the scrotum. a tool known as the crow bill or the corvus was used to open the scrotum and cure the hernia. another process involved using two blocks of wood to clamp the hemiscrotum, causing the sac to be inflamed, thus reducing its size. it also could be treated by removing the testicles and ligating the scrotum. ligatures could also be used during these operations to avoid bleeding. the ancient romans had treatments for umbilical hernia, a medical condition in which the abdominal wall behind the navel is damaged. before this procedure, the patient was laid on their back to cause the hernia to fall back into the abdomen. afterwards the navel was placed between two rods with their ends tied together, then a needle was placed inside of the protrusion. lithotomy the ancient romans practiced lithotomy, a surgical procedure to remove calculi. usually, they were only conducted on individuals younger than 14. this was because the more developed prostate of older people enhanced the difficulty of the operation. one way this procedure could be practiced is by cutting through the bladder until the surgeon reached the perineum. an assistant held the patient in a lithotomy position, exposing their perineum. two fingers were placed into the patient's rectum and against the perineum. another procedure involved the usage of a scoop at the end of a probe to remove objects such as stones or beans and kidney stones. neurosurgery ancient roman doctors were capable of performing neurosurgery on depressed skull fractures. celsus believed that this surgery should be conducted with as little bone removed as possible. galen disagreed, he wrote that doctors should elevate the bones and the bone fragments using forceps. during this operation a hole was drilled into the skull. roman doctors believed this would cure headaches and relieve pressure. flat chisels were used to cut away at overlying edges, and trepans were used to carve holes into interlocking bones.painting of saint agatha holding her severed breasts sutures, ligatures, and contractions celsus describes the ligature technique for treating hemorrhoids. he also mentions that after the surgery patients suffered from urinary retention, which is the inability to fully empty the bladder. galen believed that surgeons should choose to amputate, instead of sawing into healthy bones. he also wrote that to stop bleeding, pressure should be