of the european university association name seven points of attention to specify the doctorate / phd in the arts compared to a scientific doctorate / phd. the florence principles have been endorsed and are supported also by aec, cilect, cumulus and sar. historical research german historian leopold von ranke (1795–1886), considered to be one of the founders of modern source-based history the historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use historical sources and other evidence to research and then to write history. there are various history guidelines that are commonly used by historians in their work, under the headings of external criticism, internal criticism, and synthesis. this includes lower criticism and sensual criticism. though items may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following concepts are part of most formal historical research: identification of origin date evidence of localization recognition of authorship analysis of data identification of integrity attribution of credibility steps in conducting research research design and evidence research cycle research is often conducted using the hourglass model structure of research. the hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through the method of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of discussion and results. the major steps in conducting research are: identification of research problem literature review specifying the purpose of research determining specific research questions specification of a conceptual framework, sometimes including a set of hypotheses choice of a methodology (for data collection) data collection verifying data analyzing and interpreting the data reporting and evaluating research communicating the research findings and, possibly, recommendations the steps generally represent the overall process; however, they should be viewed as an ever-changing iterative process rather than a fixed set of steps. most research begins with a general statement of the problem, or rather, the purpose for engaging in the study. the literature review identifies flaws or holes in previous research which provides justification for the study. often, a literature review is conducted in a given subject area before a research question is identified. a gap in the current literature, as identified by a researcher, then engenders a research question. the research question may be parallel to the hypothesis. the hypothesis is the supposition to be tested. the researcher(s) collects data to test the hypothesis. the researcher(s) then analyzes and interprets the data via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what is known as empirical research. the results of the data analysis in rejecting or failing to reject the null hypothesis are then reported and evaluated. at the end, the researcher may discuss avenues for further research. however, some researchers advocate for the reverse approach: starting with articulating findings and discussion of them, moving "up" to identification of a research problem that emerges in the findings and literature review. the reverse approach is justified by the transactional nature of the research endeavor where research inquiry, research questions, research method, relevant research literature, and so on are not fully known until the findings have fully emerged and been interpreted. rudolph rummel says, "... no researcher should accept any one or two tests as definitive. it is only when a range of tests are consistent over many kinds of data, researchers, and methods can one have confidence in the results." plato in meno talks about an inherent difficulty, if not a paradox, of doing research that can be paraphrased in the following way, "if you know what you're searching for, why do you search for it?! if you don't know what you're searching for, what are you searching for?!" research methods the research room at the new york public library, an example of secondary research in progress maurice hilleman, the preeminent vaccinologist of the 20th century, is credited with saving more lives than any other scientist in that time. the goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge or deepen understanding of a topic or issue. this process takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries between them may be obscure): exploratory research, which helps to identify and define a problem or question. constructive research, which tests theories and proposes solutions to a problem or question. empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence. there are two major types of empirical research design: qualitative research and quantitative research. researchers choose qualitative or quantitative methods according to the nature of the research topic they want to investigate and the research questions they aim to answer: qualitative research qualitative research refers to much more subjective non- quantitative, use different methods of collecting data, analyzing data, interpreting data for meanings, definitions, characteristics, symbols metaphors of things.qualitative research further classified into following types: ethnography: this research mainly focus on culture of group of people which includes share attributes, language, practices, structure, value, norms and material things, evaluate human lifestyle. ethno: people, grapho: to write, this disciple may include ethnic groups, ethno genesis, composition, resettlement and social welfare characteristics. phenomenology: it is very powerful strategy for demonstrating methodology to health professions education as well as best suited for exploring challenging problems in health professions educations. quantitative research this involves systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships, by asking a narrow question and collecting numerical data to analyze it utilizing statistical methods. the quantitative research designs are experimental, correlational, and survey (or descriptive). statistics derived from quantitative research can be used to establish the existence of associative or causal relationships between variables. quantitative research is linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance of positivism. the quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. these methods produce results that can be summarized, compared, and generalized to larger populations if the data are collected using proper sampling and data collection strategies. quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest. if the research question is about people, participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments (this is the only way that a quantitative study can be considered a true experiment). if this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics to statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. if the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants. in either qualitative or quantitative research, the researcher(s) may collect primary or secondary data. primary data is data collected specifically for the research, such as through interviews or questionnaires. secondary data is data that already exists, such as census data, which can be re-used for the research. it is good ethical research practice to use secondary data wherever possible. mixed-method research, i.e. research that includes qualitative and quantitative elements, using both primary and secondary data, is becoming more common. this method has benefits that using one method alone cannot offer. for example, a researcher may choose to conduct a qualitative study and follow it up with a quantitative study to gain additional insights. big data has brought big impacts on research methods so that now many researchers do not put much effort into data collection; furthermore, methods to analyze easily available huge amounts of data have also been developed. types of research method 1. observatory research method 2. correlation research method non-empirical research non-empirical (theoretical) research is an approach that involves the development of theory as opposed to using observation and experimentation. as such, non-empirical research seeks solutions to problems using existing knowledge as its source. this, however, does not mean that new ideas and innovations cannot be found within the pool of existing and established knowledge. non-empirical research is not an absolute alternative to empirical research because they may be used together to strengthen a research approach. neither one is less effective than the other since they have their particular purpose in science. typically empirical research produces observations that need to be explained; then theoretical research tries to explain them, and in so doing generates empirically testable hypotheses; these hypotheses are then tested empirically, giving more observations that may need further explanation; and so on. see scientific method. a simple example of a non-empirical task is the prototyping of a new drug using a differentiated application of existing knowledge; another is the development of a business process in the form of a flow chart and texts where all the ingredients are from established knowledge. much of cosmological research is theoretical in nature. mathematics research does not rely on externally available data; rather, it seeks to prove theorems about mathematical objects. research ethics