culture and menstruation culture and menstruation there are many cultural aspects surrounding how societies view menstruation. different cultures view menstruation in different ways. the basis of many conduct norms and communication about menstruation in western industrial societies is the belief that menstruation should remain hidden. by contrast, in some hunter-gatherer societies, menstrual observances are viewed in a positive light, without any connotation of uncleanness. two women dancing and menstruating. rock art by indigenous australians from the upper yule river, pilbara, western australia. a menstrual taboo is any social taboo concerned with menstruation. in some societies it involves menstruation being perceived as unclean or embarrassing, inhibiting even the mention of menstruation whether in public (in the media and advertising) or in private (among friends, in the household, or with men). many traditional religions consider menstruation ritually unclean, although anthropologists say that the concepts 'sacred' and 'unclean' may be intimately connected. mythology the terms menstruation and menses are derived from the latin mensis ('month'), which in turn is cognate with the greek mene ('moon') and the roots of the english words month and moon. according to anthropologists thomas buckley and alma gottlieb, cross-cultural study shows that while taboos about menstruation are nearly universal, and while many of these involve notions of uncleanliness (ritual impurity), numerous menstrual traditions "bespeak quite different, even opposite, purposes and meanings." in some traditional societies, menstrual rituals are experienced by women as protective and empowering, offering women a space set apart from the male gaze and from unwanted sexual or domestic pressures and demands. in other words, the idea of the seclusion of the menstruation hut may be perceived as banishment of the woman seen to be impure and taboo, or as a welcome space and time free of the usual daily chores: isolation versus retreat. an instructive example is provided by the anthropologist wynne maggi, who spent years living in the peasant society of the kalash people of the chitral district in northwestern pakistan. she describes the communal bashali (large menstrual house) as the village's 'most holy place', respected by men, and serving as women's all-female organizing centre for establishing and maintaining gender solidarity and power. according to one body of cultural evolutionary scholarship, the idea that menstrual blood marks the body as periodically sacred was initially established by female coalitions in their own interests, although later, with the rise of cattle-ownership and patriarchal power, these same beliefs and taboos were harnessed by religious patriarchs to intensify women's oppression. metaformic theory, as proposed by cultural theorist judy grahn and others, places menstruation as a central organizing idea in the creation of culture and the formation of humans' earliest rituals. synchronisation with the moon menstruation in synchrony with the moon is widely assumed in myths and traditions as a ritual ideal. the idea that menstruation is—or ideally ought to be—in harmony with wider cosmic rhythms is one of the most tenacious ideas central to the myths and rituals of traditional communities across the world. one of the most thoroughgoing analyses of primitive mythology ever undertaken was that of the french anthropologist claude lévi-strauss, who concluded that, taken together, the indigenous myths of north and south america expressed men's worry that, unless women's periods were carefully monitored and synchronised, the universe might descend into chaos. in aboriginal australia, the supernatural being known as the 'rainbow snake' has been interpreted as, among other things, an indigenous way of conceptualising the ideal of synchronised tidal, lunar, menstrual and seasonal periodicities whose overall harmony (it is believed) confers spiritual power and fertility. to many, such cultural associations appear persuasive in view of the fact that in humans, the menstrual cycle quite closely approximates the moon's 29.5-day synodic cycle, unlike in chimpanzees (~36 days) or bonobos (~40 days). statistical information from hunter gatherers is lacking, but where large-scale western studies focus on women's peak reproductive years—removing outlier values—the cycle length gravitates around 29.1–29.5 days, while the figure for women in their thirties shortens toward 28 days. in no current human population has statistically significant lunar phase-locking been demonstrated. sacred and powerful angolan (yombe) fetish to regulate menstruation in some historic cultures, a menstruating woman was considered sacred and powerful, with increased psychic abilities, and strong enough to heal the sick. according to the cherokee, menstrual blood was a source of feminine strength and had the power to destroy enemies. in ancient rome, pliny the elder wrote that a menstruating woman who uncovers her body can scare away hailstorms, whirlwinds and lightning. if she strips naked and walks around the field, caterpillars, worms and beetles fall off the ears of corn. menstrual blood is viewed as especially dangerous to men's power. in africa, menstrual blood is used in the most powerful magic charms in order to both purify and destroy. mayan mythology explains the origin of menstruation as a punishment for violating the social rules governing marital alliance. the menstrual blood turns into snakes and insects used in black sorcery, before the maya moon goddess is reborn from it. where women's blood is considered sacred, the belief is that it should be ritually set apart. according to this logic, it is when sacred blood comes into contact with profane things that it becomes experienced as ritually dangerous or 'unclean'. menstruation and humoral medicine main article: menstruation and humoral medicine many beliefs amount menstruation in the early modern period were linked to humorism, the system of medicine introduced by ancient greek and roman physicians. people believed that the human body contained four humours: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. illnesses and problems were understood as being caused by dyscrasia, or an imbalance in the four humours. treatments for disease had the aim of restoring a balance, curing the patient. the humoral model was a continuity during the early modern period, despite the fact that new medical theories began to arise in the second half of the eighteenth century, because these new ideas which used different treatments involving new chemicals were not as trusted since they were not properly established. in this way medical and popular beliefs about menstrual problems such as irregular menstruation, amenorrhea (absence of periods whilst fertile) or dysmenorrhea (painful periods) were thought of in relation to the four humours. in early modern western europe, physicians believed that the womb could not be too cold, hot, moist or dry and that an excess in any of these could impact a woman's fertility. significantly, people believed that warmth encouraged sexual pleasure and increased the probability of conceiving a child, meaning that the womb had to be warm during intercourse. if a woman was found to be having problems menstruating which would then impact their fertility, remedies which aimed to alter the humoral state of the body were used. aphrodisiacs were a common remedy given to women with menstrual problems, since they were believed to have internal heating effects, stimulating menstruation by redressing the constitutional balance of a womb that was too cold. religious views the sociological theorist emile durkheim argued that human religion in its entirety emerged originally in connection with menstruation. his argument was that a certain kind of action—collective ritual action—could establish simultaneously totemism, law, exogamy and kinship in addition to distinctively human language and thought. everything began, according to durkheim, when a flow of blood periodically ruptured relations between the sexes. 'all blood is terrible', he observed, 'and all sorts of taboos are instituted to prevent contact with it'. during menstruation, females would exercise a 'type of repulsing action which keeps the other sex far from them'. this same blood was thought to run through the veins of women and animals alike, suggesting the blood's ultimate origin in 'totemic'—part-human, part-animal—ancestral beings. once menstrual blood had been linked with the blood of the hunt, it became logically possible for a hunter to respect certain animals as if they were his kin, this being the essence of 'totemism'. within the group's shared blood resided its 'god' or 'totem', 'from which it follows that the blood is a divine thing. when it runs out, the god is spilling over'. judaism in judaism, a woman during menstruation is called niddah and may be banned from certain actions. for example, the jewish torah prohibits sexual intercourse with a menstruating woman. the ritual exclusion of niddah applies to a woman while menstruating and for about a week thereafter, until she immerses herself in a mikvah (ritual bath) which is basically intended only for married women. during this time, a married couple must avoid sexual intercourse and physical intimacy. orthodox judaism forbids women and men from even touching or passing things to each other during this period. while orthodox jews follow this exclusion, many jews in other branches of the religion do not. "laban is looking for the idols." by giovanni battista tiepolo in the torah (leviticus 15:19-30), a menstruating female is considered ritually unclean: "anyone who touches her will be unclean until evening" (new international version). touching a menstruating female, touching an object she had sat on or lain on, or having intercourse with her also makes a person ritually unclean. the extent to which these rules are observed in modern judaism varies depending on the degree of conservatism/orthodoxy. in genesis 31:34-35, menstruation is referenced in a story, where rachel was, or pretended to be in her menstrual period:now rachel had taken the teraphim, and put them in the saddle of the camel, and sat upon them. and laban felt about all the tent, but found them not. and she said to her father: 'let not my lord be angry that i cannot rise up before thee; for the manner of women is upon me.' and he searched, but found not the teraphim. christianity most christian denominations do not follow any specific rituals or rules related to menstruation. other denominations, such as those of oriental orthodox christianity, follow rules similar to those laid out in the holiness code section of leviticus, somewhat similar to the jewish ritual of niddah. pope dionysius of alexandria held with regard to menstruating women that "not even they themselves, being faithful and pious, would dare when in this state either to approach the holy table or to touch the body and blood of christ." as such, oriental orthodox christian women, such as those belonging to the coptic orthodox church, do not attend church while they are menstruating. some church fathers defended the exclusion of women from ministry based on a notion of uncleanness. others held that purity laws should be discarded as part of the old covenant. the 4th century text apostolic constitutions says:for neither lawful mixture, nor child-bearing, nor the menstrual purgation, nor nocturnal pollution, can defile the nature of a man, or separate the holy spirit from him. nothing but impiety and unlawful practice can do that. (italics supplied)some christian churches, including many authorities of the eastern orthodox church and some parts of the oriental orthodox church advise women not to receive communion during their menstrual period, not because menstruation is considered to be sinful, but for more intense preparation to approach christ and due to the physical difficulties faced by women. this is a fairly common practice throughout greece and russia and other historically orthodox christian countries, as well as by orthodox christians in countries where they are in the minority, including egypt, kerala and syria. in 735 the latin church decided that women must be allowed to attend liturgies and receive holy communion during their menstruation. islam during menstrual periods, women are excused from performing prayers. sets of rules are advised for women to follow while during menstruation. they should not fast and left over fasts of ramadan are to be completed during other days. during menses pilgrimages are allowed; and circumambulation of the kaaba is also permitted. they are permitted to enter the praying place of the mosque but are excused from prayer and are encouraged to be present at muslim gatherings and festivals (eids). after the period, a bath (ghusl), which is also required of both partners after sex, is also required before prayer may continue. and they ask you about menstruation; say it is harm/unclean, so keep away from women during menstruation; and do not approach them until they become pure and when they have purified themselves, then come to them from