paracetamol poisoning paracetamol poisoning paracetamol poisoning, also known as acetaminophen poisoning, is caused by excessive use of the medication paracetamol (acetaminophen). most people have few or non-specific symptoms in the first 24 hours following overdose. these symptoms include feeling tired, abdominal pain, or nausea. this is typically followed by absence of symptoms for a couple of days, after which yellowish skin, blood clotting problems, and confusion occurs as a result of liver failure. additional complications may include kidney failure, pancreatitis, low blood sugar, and lactic acidosis. if death does not occur, people tend to recover fully over a couple of weeks. without treatment, death from toxicity occurs 4 to 18 days later. for the tampering of tylenol bottles in 1982, see chicago tylenol murders. paracetamol poisoningother namesacetaminophen toxicity, paracetamol toxicity, acetaminophen poisoning, paracetamol overdose, acetaminophen overdose, tylenol toxicityparacetamolspecialtytoxicologysymptomsearly: non specific, feeling tired, abdominal pain, nausealater: yellowish skin, blood clotting problems, confusioncomplicationsliver failure, kidney failure, pancreatitis, low blood sugar, lactic acidosis.usual onsetafter 24 hours (toxicity)causesparacetamol (acetaminophen) usually > 7 grisk factorsalcoholism, malnutrition, certain other hepatotoxic medicationsdiagnostic methodblood levels at specific times following usedifferential diagnosisalcoholism, viral hepatitis, gastroenteritistreatmentactivated charcoal, acetylcysteine, liver transplantprognosisdeath occurs in ~0.1%frequency>100,000 per year (us) paracetamol poisoning can occur accidentally or as an attempt to die by suicide. risk factors for toxicity include alcoholism, malnutrition, and the taking of certain other hepatotoxic medications. liver damage results not from paracetamol itself, but from one of its metabolites, n-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine (napqi). napqi decreases the liver's glutathione and directly damages cells in the liver. diagnosis is based on the blood level of paracetamol at specific times after the medication was taken. these values are often plotted on the rumack-matthew nomogram to determine level of concern. treatment may include activated charcoal if the person seeks medical help soon after the overdose. attempting to force the person to vomit is not recommended. if there is a potential for toxicity, the antidote acetylcysteine is recommended. the medication is generally given for at least 24 hours. psychiatric care may be required following recovery. a liver transplant may be required if damage to the liver becomes severe. the need for transplant is often based on low blood ph, high blood lactate, poor blood clotting, or significant hepatic encephalopathy. with early treatment liver failure is rare. death occurs in about 0.1% of cases. paracetamol poisoning was first described in the 1960s. rates of poisoning vary significantly between regions of the world. in the united states more than 100,000 cases occur a year. in the united kingdom it is the medication responsible for the greatest number of overdoses. young children are most commonly affected. in the united states and the united kingdom, paracetamol is the most common cause of acute liver failure. signs and symptoms the signs and symptoms of paracetamol toxicity occur in three phases. the first phase begins within hours of overdose, and consists of nausea, vomiting, a pale appearance, and sweating. however, patients often have no specific symptoms or only mild symptoms in the first 24 hours of poisoning. rarely, after massive overdoses, patients may develop symptoms of metabolic acidosis and coma early in the course of poisoning. the second phase occurs between 24 hours and 72 hours following overdose and consists of signs of increasing liver damage. in general, damage occurs in liver cells as they metabolize the paracetamol. the individual may experience right upper quadrant abdominal pain. the increasing liver damage also changes biochemical markers of liver function; international normalized ratio (inr) and the liver transaminases alt and ast rise to abnormal levels. acute kidney failure may also occur during this phase, typically caused by either hepatorenal syndrome or multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. in some cases, acute kidney failure may be the primary clinical manifestation of toxicity. in these cases, it has been suggested that the toxic metabolite is produced more in the kidneys than in the liver. the third phase follows at 3 to 5 days, and is marked by complications of massive liver necrosis leading to fulminant liver failure with complications of coagulation defects, low blood sugar, kidney failure, hepatic encephalopathy, brain swelling, sepsis, multiple organ failure, and death. if the third phase is survived, the liver necrosis runs its course, and liver and kidney function typically return to normal in a few weeks. the severity of paracetamol toxicity varies depending on the dose and whether appropriate treatment is received. cause the toxic dose of paracetamol is highly variable. in general the recommended maximum daily dose for healthy adults is 4 grams. higher doses lead to increasing risk of toxicity. in adults, single doses above 10 grams or 200 mg/kg of bodyweight, whichever is lower, have a reasonable likelihood of causing toxicity. toxicity can also occur when multiple smaller doses within 24 hours exceed these levels. following a dose of 1 gram of paracetamol four times a day for two weeks, patients can expect an increase in alanine transaminase in their liver to typically about three times the normal value. it is unlikely that this dose would lead to liver failure. studies have shown significant hepatotoxicity is uncommon in patients who have taken greater than normal doses over 3 to 4 days. in adults, a dose of 6 grams a day over the preceding 48 hours could potentially lead to toxicity, while in children acute doses above 200 mg/kg could potentially cause toxicity. acute paracetamol overdose in children rarely causes illness or death, and it is very uncommon for children to have levels that require treatment, with chronic larger-than-normal doses being the major cause of toxicity in children. intentional overdosing (self-poisoning, with suicidal intent) is frequently implicated in paracetamol toxicity. in a 2006 review, paracetamol was the most frequently ingested compound in intentional overdosing. in rare individuals, paracetamol toxicity can result from normal use. this may be due to individual ("idiosyncratic") differences in the expression and activity of certain enzymes in one of the metabolic pathways that handle paracetamol (see paracetamol's metabolism). risk factors a number of factors can potentially increase the risk of developing paracetamol toxicity. chronic excessive alcohol consumption can induce cyp2e1, thus increasing the potential toxicity of paracetamol. in one study of patients with liver injury, 64% reported alcohol intakes of greater than 80 grams a day, while 35% took 60 grams a day or less. whether chronic alcoholism should be considered a risk factor has been debated by some clinical toxicologists. for chronic alcohol users, acute alcohol ingestion at the time of a paracetamol overdose may have a protective effect. for non-chronic alcohol users, acute alcohol consumption had no protective effect. fasting is a risk factor, possibly because of depletion of liver glutathione reserves. the concomitant use of the cyp2e1 inducer isoniazid increases the risk of hepatotoxicity, though whether 2e1 induction is related to the hepatotoxicity in this case is unclear. concomitant use of other drugs that induce cyp enzymes, such as antiepileptics including carbamazepine, phenytoin, and barbiturates, have also been reported as risk factors. pathophysiology main pathways of paracetamol metabolism (click to enlarge). the pathway leading to napqi is shown in red. when taken in normal therapeutic doses, paracetamol has been shown to be safe. following a therapeutic dose, it is mostly converted to nontoxic metabolites via phase ii metabolism by conjugation with sulfate and glucuronide, with a small portion being oxidized via the cytochrome p450 enzyme system. cytochromes p450 2e1 and 3a4 convert approximately 5% of paracetamol to a highly reactive intermediary metabolite, n-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine (napqi). under normal conditions, napqi is detoxified by conjugation with glutathione to form cysteine and mercapturic acid conjugates. in cases of paracetamol overdose, the sulfate and glucuronide pathways become saturated, and more paracetamol is shunted to the cytochrome p450 system to produce napqi. as a result, hepatocellular supplies of glutathione become depleted, as the demand for glutathione is higher than its regeneration. napqi therefore remains in its toxic form in the liver and reacts with cellular membrane molecules, resulting in widespread hepatocyte damage and death, leading to acute liver necrosis. in animal studies, the liver's stores of glutathione must be depleted to less than 70% of normal levels before liver toxicity occurs. diagnosis rumack matthew nomogram with treatment line added at 150 a person's history of taking paracetamol is somewhat accurate for the diagnosis. the most effective way to diagnose poisoning is by obtaining a blood paracetamol level. a drug nomogram developed in 1975, called the rumack-matthew nomogram, estimates the risk of toxicity based on the serum concentration of paracetamol at a given number of hours after ingestion. to determine the risk of potential hepatotoxicity, the paracetamol level is traced along the nomogram. use of a timed serum paracetamol level plotted on the nomogram appears to be the best marker indicating the potential for liver injury. a paracetamol level drawn in the first four hours after ingestion may underestimate the amount in the system because paracetamol may still be in the process of being absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. therefore, a serum level taken before 4 hours is not recommended. clinical or biochemical evidence of liver toxicity may develop in one to four days, although, in severe cases, it may be evident in 12 hours. right-upper-quadrant tenderness may be present and can aid in diagnosis. laboratory studies may show evidence of liver necrosis with elevated ast, alt, bilirubin, and prolonged coagulation times, particularly an elevated prothrombin time. after paracetamol overdose, when ast and alt exceed 1000 iu/l, paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity can be diagnosed. in some cases, the ast and alt levels can exceed 10,000 iu/l. detection in body fluids paracetamol may be quantified in blood, plasma, or urine as a diagnostic tool in clinical poisoning situations or to aid in the medicolegal investigation of suspicious deaths. the concentration in serum after a typical dose of paracetamol usually peaks below 30 mg/l, which equals 200 μmol/l. levels of 30–300 mg/l (200–2000 μmol/l) are often observed in overdose patients. postmortem blood levels have ranged from 50 to 400 mg/l in persons dying due to acute overdosage. automated colorimetric techniques, gas chromatography and liquid chromatography are currently in use for the laboratory analysis of the drug in physiological specimens. prevention limitation of availability limiting the availability of paracetamol tablets has been attempted in some countries. in the uk, sales of over-the-counter paracetamol are restricted to packs of 32 x 500 mg tablets in pharmacies, and 16 x 500 mg tablets in non-pharmacy outlets. pharmacists may provide up to 100 tablets for those with chronic conditions at the pharmacist's discretion. in ireland, the limits are 24 and 12 tablets, respectively. subsequent study suggests that the reduced availability in large numbers had a significant effect in reducing poisoning deaths from paracetamol overdose. one suggested method of prevention is to make paracetamol a prescription-only medicine, or to remove it entirely from the market. however, overdose is a relatively minor problem; for example, 0.08% of the uk population (over 50 thousand people) present with paracetamol overdose each year. in contrast, paracetamol is a safe and effective medication that is taken without complications by millions of people. in addition, alternative pain relief medications such as aspirin are more toxic in overdose, whereas non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are associated with more adverse effects following normal use. combination with other agents one strategy for reducing harm done by acetaminophen overdoses is selling paracetamol pre-combined in tablets either with an emetic or an antidote. paradote was a tablet sold in the uk which combined 500 mg paracetamol with 100 mg methionine, an amino acid formerly used in the treatment of paracetamol overdose. there have been no studies so far on the effectiveness of paracetamol when given in combination with its most commonly used antidote, acetylcysteine. calcitriol, the active metabolite of vitamin d3, appears to be a catalyst for glutathione production. calcitriol was found to increase glutathione levels in rat astrocyte primary cultures on average by 42%, increasing glutathione protein concentrations from 29 nmol/mg to 41 nmol/mg, 24 and 48 hours after administration; it continued to have an influence on glutathione levels 96 hours after administration. it has been proposed that co-administration of calcitriol, via injection, may improve treatment outcomes. paracetamol replacements paracetamol ester prodrug with l-pyroglutamic acid (pca), a biosynthetic precursor of glutathione, has been synthesized to reduce paracetamol hepatotoxicity and improve bioavailability. the toxicological studies of different paracetamol esters show that