separation, ion exchange, carbon absorption, aqueous chemical oxidation, and surfactant-enhanced recovery. some chemical techniques may be implemented using nanomaterials. physical treatment techniques include, but are not limited to, pump and treat, air sparging, and dual phase extraction. abandonment if treatment or remediation of the polluted groundwater is deemed to be too difficult or expensive, then abandoning the use of this aquifer's groundwater and finding an alternative source of water is the only other option. examples lusaka, zambia