urban agriculture urban agriculture urban agriculture, urban farming, or urban gardening is the practice of cultivating, processing, and distributing food in or around urban areas. it encompasses a complex and diverse mix of food production activities, including fisheries and forestry, in cities in both developed and developing countries. the term also applies to urban area activities of animal husbandry, aquaculture, beekeeping, and horticulture. these activities occur in peri-urban areas as well, although peri-urban agriculture may have different characteristics. an urban farm in chicago. agriculture history history of organic farming neolithic revolution agriculture in mesopotamia austronesian expansion agriculture in ancient egypt agriculture in ancient greece agriculture in ancient rome agriculture in mesoamerica agriculture in the middle ages arab agricultural revolution columbian exchange british agricultural revolution green revolution on land agrivoltaic animal husbandry cattle pigs poultry sheep dairy dryland extensive fertilizer free-range grazing convertible husbandry rotational grazing hobby intensive animals pigs crops natural monoculture orchard organic paddy field ranching sharecropping slash-and-burn smallholding terrace steam sterilization hydroculture aquaculture aquaponics hydroponics aeroponics related agribusiness agricultural engineering agricultural machinery agricultural machinery industry agricultural science agricultural technology agroecology agroforestry agronomy animal-free crop diversity digital ecology livestock mechanisation permaculture sustainable urban lists agriculturist profession agricultural machinery government ministries universities and colleges categories agriculture by country companies biotechnology livestock meat industry poultry farming agriculture portal urban agriculture can reflect varying levels of economic and social development. it may be a social movement for sustainable communities, where organic growers, "foodies", and "locavores" form social networks founded on a shared ethos of nature and community holism. these networks can evolve when receiving formal institutional support, becoming integrated into local town planning as a "transition town" movement for sustainable urban development. for others, food security, nutrition, and income generation are key motivations for the practice. in both scenarios, more direct access to fresh vegetables, fruits, and meat products through urban agriculture can improve food security and food safety. history in persia's semi-desert towns, oases were fed through aqueducts carrying mountain water to support intensive food production, nurtured by wastes from the communities. in machu picchu, water was conserved and reused as part of the stepped architecture of the city, and vegetable beds were designed to gather sun in order to prolong the growing season. a gardening demonstration in new york city, 1922 the idea of supplemental food production beyond rural farming operations and distant imports is not new. it was used during war and depression times when food shortage issues arose, as well as during times of relative abundance. allotment gardens emerged in germany in the early 19th century as a response to poverty and food insecurity. in 1893, citizens of a depression-struck detroit were asked to use vacant lots to grow vegetables. they were nicknamed pingree's potato patches after the mayor, hazen s. pingree, who came up with the idea. he intended for these gardens to produce income, food supply, and boost independence during times of hardship. victory gardens sprouted during wwi and wwii and were fruit, vegetable, and herb gardens in the us, canada, and uk. this effort was undertaken by citizens to reduce pressure on food production that was to support the war effort. during world war i, president woodrow wilson called upon all american citizens to utilize any available open food growth, seeing this as a way to pull them out of a potentially damaging situation. since most of europe was consumed with war, they were unable to produce sufficient food supplies to be shipped to the us and a new plan was implemented with the goal of feeding the us and even supply a surplus to other countries in need. by 1919, over 5 million plots were growing food and over 500 million pounds of produce was harvested. peaches in montreuil, seine-saint-denis, france a very similar practice came into use during the great depression that provided a purpose, job and food to those who would otherwise be without anything during such harsh times. these efforts helped raise spirits and boost economic growth. over 2.8 million dollars worth of food was produced from the subsistence gardens during the depression. by world war ii, the war/food administration set up a national victory garden program that set out to systematically establish functioning agriculture within cities. with this new plan in action, as many as 5.5 million americans took part in the victory garden movement and over nine million pounds of fruit and vegetables were grown a year, accounting for 44% of us-grown produce throughout that time. main types a cow at mudchute park and farm, tower hamlets, london. note canary wharf in the background. there is no overarching term for agricultural plots in urban areas. gardens and farms, while not easy to define, are the two main types. according to the usda, a farm is "any place from which $1,000 or more of agricultural products were produced and sold." in europe, the term "city farm" is used to include gardens and farms. gardens many communities make community gardening accessible to the public, providing space for citizens to cultivate plants for food, recreation and education. community gardens give citizens the opportunity to learn about horticulture through trial and error and get a better understanding of the process of producing food and other plants. a community gardening program that is well-established is seattle's p-patch. the grassroots permaculture movement has been hugely influential in the renaissance of urban agriculture throughout the world. during the 1960s a number of community gardens were established in the united kingdom, influenced by the community garden movement in the united states. bristol's severn project was established in 2010 for £2500 and provides 34 tons of produce per year, employing people from disadvantaged backgrounds. farms the project eats rooftop farm in new york city city farms are agricultural plots in urban areas, that have people working with animals and plants to produce food. they are usually community-run gardens seeking to improve community relationships and offer an awareness of agriculture and farming to people who live in urbanized areas. they are important sources of food security for many communities around the globe. city farms vary in size from small plots in private yards to larger farms that occupy a number of acres. in 1996, a united nations report estimated there are over 800 million people worldwide who grow food and raise livestock in cities. although some city farms have paid employees, most rely heavily on volunteer labour, and some are run by volunteers alone. other city farms operate as partnerships with local authorities. an early city farm was set up in 1972 in kentish town, london. it combines farm animals with gardening space, an addition inspired by children's farms in the netherlands. other city farms followed across london and the united kingdom. in australia, several city farms exist in various capital cities. in melbourne, the collingwood children's farm was established in 1979 on the abbotsford precinct heritage farmlands (the aphf), the oldest continually farmed land in victoria, farmed since 1838. in 2010, new york city saw the building and opening of the world's largest privately owned and operated rooftop farm, followed by an even larger location in 2012. both were a result of municipal programs such as the green roof tax abatement program and green infrastructure grant program. in singapore, hydroponic rooftop farms (which also rely on vertical farming) are appearing. the goal behind these is to rejuvenate areas and workforces that have thus far been marginalized. simultaneously top level pesticide-free produce will be grown and harvested. a tidy front yard flower and vegetable garden in aretxabaleta, spain perspectives resource and economic the urban agriculture network has defined urban agriculture as: an industry that produces, processes, and markets food, fuel, and other outputs, largely in response to the daily demand of consumers within a town, city, or metropolis, many types of privately and publicly held land and water bodies were found throughout intra-urban and peri-urban areas. typically urban agriculture applies intensive production methods, frequently using and reusing natural resources and urban wastes, to yield a diverse array of land-, water-, and air-based fauna and flora contributing to food security, health, livelihood, and environment of the individual, household, and community. with rising urbanization, food resources in urban areas are less accessible than in rural areas. this disproportionately affects the poorest communities, and the lack of food access and increased risk of malnutrition has been linked to socioeconomic inequities. economic barriers to food access are linked to capitalist market structures and lead to "socioeconomic inequities in food choices", "less... healthful foods", and phenomena such as food deserts. additionally, racialized systems of governance of urban poor communities facilitates the increasing prominence of issues such as unemployment, poverty, access to health, educational and social resources, including a community's access to healthy food. today, some cities have much vacant land due to urban sprawl and home foreclosures. this land could be used to address food insecurity. one study of cleveland shows that the city could actually meet up to 100% of its fresh produce need. this would prevent up to $115 million in annual economic leakage. using the rooftop space of new york city would also be able to provide roughly twice the amount of space necessary to supply new york city with its green vegetable yields. space could be even better optimized through the usage of hydroponic or indoor factory production of food. growing gardens within cities would also cut down on the amount of food waste. in order to fund these projects, it would require financial capital in the form of private enterprises or government funding. environmental a mixed garden bed of plants for food and for bees and insects in a community based urban farm in new zealand tomato plant at roof garden in mymensingh, bangladesh the council for agricultural science and technology (cast) defines urban agriculture to include aspects of environmental health, remediation, and recreation: urban agriculture is a complex system encompassing a spectrum of interests, from a traditional core of activities associated with the production, processing, marketing, distribution, and consumption, to a multiplicity of other benefits and services that are less widely acknowledged and documented. these include recreation and leisure; economic vitality and business entrepreneurship, individual health and well-being; community health and well being; landscape beautification; and environmental restoration and remediation. modern planning and design initiatives are often more responsive to this model of urban agriculture because it fits within the current scope of sustainable design. the definition allows for a multitude of interpretations across cultures and time. frequently it is tied to policy decisions to build sustainable cities. urban farms also provide unique opportunities for individuals, especially those living in cities, to get actively involved with ecological citizenship. by reconnecting with food production and nature, urban community gardening teaches individuals the skills necessary to participate in a democratic society. decisions must be made on a group-level basis in order to run the farm. most effective results are achieved when residents of a community are asked to take on more active roles in the farm. food security main article: food security access to nutritious food, both economically and geographically, is another perspective in the effort to locate food and livestock production in cities. the tremendous influx of the world population to urban areas has increased the need for fresh and safe food. the community food security coalition (cfsc) defines food security as: all persons in a community having access to culturally acceptable, nutritionally adequate food through local, non-emergency sources at all times. areas faced with food security issues have limited choices, often relying on highly processed fast food or convenience store foods that are high in calories and low in nutrients, which may lead to elevated rates of diet-related illnesses such as diabetes. these problems have brought about the concept of food justice which alkon and norgaard (2009; 289) explain that, "places access to healthy, affordable, culturally appropriate food in the contexts of institutional racism, racial formation, and racialized geographies... food justice serves as a theoretical and political bridge between scholarship and activism on sustainable agriculture, food insecurity, and environmental justice." some systematic reviews have already explored urban agriculture contribution to food security and other determinants of health outcomes (see ) urban agriculture is part of a larger discussion of the need for alternative agricultural paradigms to