bladder bladder the bladder is a hollow organ in humans and other vertebrates that stores urine from the kidneys before disposal by urination. in humans the bladder is a distensible organ that sits on the pelvic floor. urine enters the bladder via the ureters and exits via the urethra. the typical adult human bladder will hold between 300 and 500 ml (10.14 and 16.91 fl oz) before the urge to empty occurs, but can hold considerably more. bladder1. human urinary system: 2. kidney, 3. renal pelvis, 4. ureter, 5. bladder, 6. urethra. (left side with frontal section) 7. adrenal gland vessels: 8. renal artery and vein, 9. inferior vena cava, 10. abdominal aorta, 11. common iliac artery and vein with transparency: 12. liver, 13. large intestine, 14. pelvisdetailsprecursorurogenital sinussystemurinary systemarterysuperior vesical arteryinferior vesical arteryumbilical arteryvaginal arteryveinvesical venous plexusnervevesical nervous plexusidentifierslatinvesica urinariameshd001743ta98a08.3.01.001ta23401fma15900anatomical terminology the latin phrase for "urinary bladder" is vesica urinaria, and the term vesical or prefix vesico - appear in connection with associated structures such as vesical veins. the modern latin word for "bladder" – cystis – appears in associated terms such as cystitis (inflammation of the bladder). structure further information: urination § anatomy of the bladder and outlet male and female urinary bladders in lateral cross-section in humans, the bladder is a hollow muscular organ situated at the base of the pelvis. in gross anatomy, the bladder can be divided into a broad fundus, a body, an apex, and a neck. the apex (also called the vertex) is directed forward toward the upper part of the pubic symphysis, and from there the median umbilical ligament continues upward on the back of the anterior abdominal wall to the umbilicus. the peritoneum is carried by it from the apex on to the abdominal wall to form the middle umbilical fold. the neck of the bladder is the area at the base of the trigone that surrounds the internal urethral orifice that leads to the urethra. in males the neck of the urinary bladder is next to the prostate gland. the bladder has three openings. the two ureters enter the bladder at ureteric orifices, and the urethra enters at the trigone of the bladder. these ureteric openings have mucosal flaps in front of them that act as valves in preventing the backflow of urine into the ureters, known as vesicoureteral reflux. between the two ureteric openings is a raised area of tissue called the interureteric crest. this makes the upper boundary of the trigone. the trigone is an area of smooth muscle that forms the floor of the bladder above the urethra. it is an area of smooth tissue for the easy flow of urine into and from this part of the bladder - in contrast to the irregular surface formed by the rugae. the walls of the bladder have a series of ridges, thick mucosal folds known as rugae that allow for the expansion of the bladder. the detrusor muscle is the muscular layer of the wall made of smooth muscle fibers arranged in spiral, longitudinal, and circular bundles. the detrusor muscle is able to change its length. it can also contract for a long time whilst voiding, and it stays relaxed whilst the bladder is filling. the wall of the urinary bladder is normally 3–5 mm thick. when well distended, the wall is normally less than 3 mm. nearby structures bladder location and associated structures in the male in men, the prostate gland lies outside the opening for the urethra. the middle lobe of the prostate causes an elevation in the mucous membrane behind the internal urethral orifice called the uvula of urinary bladder. the uvula can enlarge when the prostate becomes enlarged. the bladder is located below the peritoneal cavity near the pelvic floor and behind the pubic symphysis. in men, it lies in front of the rectum, separated by the recto-vesical pouch, and is supported by fibres of the levator ani and of the prostate gland. in women, it lies in front of the uterus, separated by the vesico-uterine pouch, and is supported by the elevator ani and the upper part of the vagina. blood and lymph supply the bladder receives blood by the vesical arteries and drained into a network of vesical veins. the superior vesical artery supplies blood to the upper part of the bladder. the lower part of the bladder is supplied by the inferior vesical artery, both of which are branches of the internal iliac arteries. in females, the uterine and vaginal arteries provide additional blood supply. venous drainage begins in a network of small vessels on the lower lateral surfaces of the bladder, which coalesce and travel with the lateral ligaments of the bladder into the internal iliac veins. the lymph drained from the bladder begins in a series of networks throughout the mucosal, muscular and serosal layers. these then form three sets of vessels: one set near the trigone draining the bottom of the bladder; one set draining the top of the bladder; and another set draining the outer undersurface of the bladder. the majority of these vessels drain into the external iliac lymph nodes. nerve supply the bladder receives both sensory and motor supply from sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems. the motor supply from both sympathetic fibers, most of which arise from the superior and inferior hypogastric plexuses and nerves, and from parasympathetic fibers, which come from the pelvic splanchnic nerves. sensation from the bladder, relating to distension or to irritation (such as by infection or a stone) is transmitted primarily through the parasympathetic nervous system. these travel via sacral nerves to s2-4. from here, sensation travels to the brain via the dorsal columns in the spinal cord. microanatomy when viewed under a microscope the bladder can be seen to have an inner lining (called epithelium), three layers of muscle fibres, and an outer adventitia. the inner wall of the bladder is called urothelium, a type of transitional epithelium formed by three to six layers of cells; the cells may become more cuboidal or flatter depending on whether the bladder is empty or full. additionally, these are lined with a mucous membrane consisting of a surface glycocalyx that protects the cells beneath it from urine. the epithelium lies on a thin basement membrane, and a lamina propria. the mucosal lining also offers a urothelial barrier against the passing of infections. these layers are surrounded by three layers of muscle fibres arranged as an inner layer of fibres orientated longitudinally, a middle layer of circular fibres, and an outermost layer of longitudinal fibres; these form the detrusor muscle, which can be seen with the naked eye. the outside of the bladder is protected by a serous membrane called adventitia. vertical section of bladder wall layers of the bladder wall and cross-section of the detrusor muscle anatomy of the male bladder, showing transitional epithelium and part of the wall in a histological cut-out development further information: development of the urinary system in the developing embryo, at the hind end lies a cloaca. this, over the fourth to the seventh week, divides into a urogenital sinus and the beginnings of the anal canal, with a wall forming between these two inpouchings called the urorectal septum. the urogenital sinus divides into three parts, with the upper and largest part becoming the bladder; the middle part becoming the urethra, and the lower part changes depending on the biological sex of the embryo. the human bladder derives from the urogenital sinus, and it is initially continuous with the allantois. the upper and lower parts of the bladder develop separately and join together around the middle part of development. at this time the ureters move from the mesonephric ducts to the trigone. in males, the base of the bladder lies between the rectum and the pubic symphysis. it is superior to the prostate, and separated from the rectum by the recto-vesical pouch. in females, the bladder sits inferior to the uterus and anterior to the vagina; thus its maximum capacity is lower than in males. it is separated from the uterus by the vesico-uterine pouch. in infants and young children the urinary bladder is in the abdomen even when empty. function main article: urination urine, excreted by the kidneys, collects in the bladder because of drainage from two ureters, before disposal by urination (micturition). urine leaves the bladder via the urethra, a single muscular tube ending in an opening called the urinary meatus, where it exits the body. urination involves coordinated muscle changes involving a reflex based in the spine, with higher inputs from the brain. during urination, the detrusor muscle contracts, and the external urinary sphincter and muscles of the perineum relax, allowing urine to pass through the urethra and out of the body. the urge to pass urine stems from stretch receptors that activate when between 300 - 400 ml urine is held within the bladder. as urine accumulates, the rugae flatten and the wall of the bladder thins as it stretches, allowing the bladder to store larger amounts of urine without a significant rise in internal pressure. urination is controlled by the pontine micturition center in the brainstem. stretch receptors in the bladder signal the parasympathetic nervous system to stimulate the muscarinic receptors in the detrusor to contract the muscle when the bladder is distended. this encourages the bladder to expel urine through the urethra. the main receptor activated is the m3 receptor, although m2 receptors are also involved and whilst outnumbering the m3 receptors they are not so responsive. the main relaxant pathway is via the adenylyl cyclase camp pathway, activated via the β3 adrenergic receptors. the β2 adrenergic receptors are also present in the detrusor and even outnumber β3 receptors, but they do not have as important an effect in relaxing the detrusor smooth muscle. clinical significance