motivated forgetting motivated forgetting motivated forgetting is a theorized psychological behavior in which people may forget unwanted memories, either consciously or unconsciously. it is an example of defence mechanism, since these are unconscious or conscious coping techniques used to reduce anxiety arising from unacceptable or potentially harmful impulses thus it can be a defence mechanism in some ways. defence mechanisms are not to be confused with conscious coping strategies. thought suppression is a method in which people protect themselves by blocking the recall of these anxiety-arousing memories. for example, if something reminds a person of an unpleasant event, their mind may steer towards unrelated topics. this could induce forgetting without being generated by an intention to forget, making it a motivated action. there are two main classes of motivated forgetting: psychological repression is an unconscious act, while thought suppression is a conscious form of excluding thoughts and memories from awareness. history sigmund freud neurologist jean-martin charcot was the first to do research into hysteria as a psychological disorder in the late 19th century. sigmund freud, joseph breuer, and pierre janet continued with the research that charcot began on hysteria. these three psychologists determined that hysteria was an intense emotional reaction to some form of severe psychological disturbance, and they proposed that incest and other sexual traumas were the most likely cause of hysteria. the treatment that freud, breuer, and pierre agreed upon was named the talking cure and was a method of encouraging patients to recover and discuss their painful memories. during this time, janet created the term dissociation which is referred to as a lack of integration amongst various memories. he used dissociation to describe the way in which traumatizing memories are stored separately from other memories. the idea of motivated forgetting began with the philosopher friedrich nietzsche in 1894. nietzsche and sigmund freud had similar views on the idea of repression of memories as a form of self-preservation. nietzsche wrote that man must forget in able to move forward. he stated that this process is active, in that we forget specific events as a defense mechanism. the publication of freud's famous paper, "the aetiology of hysteria", in 1896 led to much controversy regarding the topic of these traumatic memories. freud stated that neuroses were caused by repressed sexual memories, which suggested that incest and sexual abuse must be common throughout upper and middle class europe. the psychological community did not accept freud's ideas, and years passed without further research on the topic. it was during world war i and world war ii that interest in memory disturbances was piqued again. during this time, many cases of memory loss appeared among war veterans, especially those who had experienced shell shock. hypnosis and drugs became popular for the treatment of hysteria during the war. the term post traumatic stress disorder (ptsd) was introduced upon the appearance of similar cases of memory disturbances from veterans of the korean war. forgetting, or the inability to recall a portion of a traumatic event, was considered a key factor for the diagnosis of ptsd. ann burgess and lynda holmstrom looked into trauma related memory loss in rape victims during the 1970s. this began a large outpouring of stories related to childhood sexual abuse. it took until 1980 to determine that memory loss due to all severe traumas was the same set of processes. the false memory syndrome foundation (fmsf) was created in 1992 as a response to the large number of memories claimed to be recovered. the fmsf was created to oppose the idea that memories could be recovered using specific techniques; instead, its members believed that the "memories" were actually confabulations created through the inappropriate use of techniques such as hypnosis. theories there are many theories which are related to the process of motivated forgetting. the main theory, the motivated forgetting theory, suggests that people forget things because they either do not want to remember them or for another particular reason. painful and disturbing memories are made unconscious and very difficult to retrieve, but still remain in storage. retrieval suppression (the ability to utilise inhibitory control to prevent memories from being recalled into consciousness) is one way in which we are able to stop the retrieval of unpleasant memories using cognitive control. this theory was tested by anderson and green using the think/no-think paradigm. the decay theory is another theory of forgetting which refers to the loss of memory over time. when information enters memory, neurons are activated. these memories are retained as long as the neurons remain active. activation can be maintained through rehearsal or frequent recall. if activation is not maintained, the memory trace fades and decays. this usually occurs in short term memory. the decay theory is a controversial topic amongst modern psychologists. bahrick and hall disagree with the decay theory. they have claimed that people can remember algebra they learnt from school even years later. a refresher course brought their skill back to a high standard relatively quick. these findings suggest that there may be more to the theory of trace decay in human memory. another theory of motivated forgetting is interference theory, which posits that subsequent learning can interfere with and degrade a person's memories. this theory was tested by giving participants ten nonsense syllables. some of the participants then slept after viewing the syllables, while the other participants carried on their day as usual. the results of this experiment showed that people who stayed awake had a poor recall of the syllables, while the sleeping participants remembered the syllables better. this could have occurred due to the fact that the sleeping subjects had no interference during the experiment, while the other subjects did. there are two types of interference; proactive interference and retroactive interference. proactive interference occurs when you are unable to learn a new task due to the interference of an old task that has already been learned. research has been done to show that students who study similar subjects at the same time often experience interference. retroactive interference occurs when you forget a previously learnt task due to the learning of a new task. the gestalt theory of forgetting, created by gestalt psychology, suggests that memories are forgotten through distortion. this is also called false memory syndrome. this theory states that when memories lack detail, other information is put in to make the memory a whole. this leads to the incorrect recall of memories. criticisms the term recovered memory, also known in some cases as a false memory, refers to the theory that some memories can be repressed by an individual and then later recovered. recovered memories are often used as evidence in a case where the defendant is accused of either sexual or some other form of child abuse, and recently recovered a repressed memory of the abuse. this has created much controversy, and as the use of this form of evidence rises in the courts, the question has arisen as to whether or not recovered memories actually exist. in an effort to determine the factuality of false memories, several laboratories have developed paradigms in order to test whether or not false repressed memories could be purposefully implanted within a subject. as a result, the verbal paradigm was developed. this paradigm dictates that if someone is presented a number of words associated with a single non-presented word, then they are likely to falsely remember that word as presented. similar to the verbal paradigm is fuzzy-trace theory, which dictates that one encodes two separate things about a memory: the actual information itself and the semantic information surrounding it (or the gist). if we are given a series of semantic information surrounding a false event, such as time and location, then we are more likely to falsely remember an event as occurring. tied to that is source monitoring theory, which, among other things, dictates that emotionally salient events tend to increase the power of the memory that forms from said event. emotion also weakens our ability to remember the source from the event. source monitoring is centralized to the anterior cingulate cortex. repressed memory therapy has come under heavy criticism as it is said that it follows very similar techniques that are used to purposefully implant a memory in an adult. these include: asking questions on the gist of an event, creating imagery about said gist, and attempting to discover the event from there. this, when compounded with the fact that most repressed memories are emotionally salient, the likelihood of source confusion is high. one might assume that a child abuse case one heard about actually happened to one, remembering it with the imagery established through the therapy. repression effects of repression on memory consolidation the idea of psychological repression was developed in 1915 as an automatic defensive mechanism based on sigmund freud's psychoanalytic model in which people subconsciously push unpleasant or intolerable thoughts and feelings into their unconscious. when situations or memories occur that we are unable to cope with, we push them away. it is a primary ego defence mechanism that many psychotherapists readily accept. there have been numerous studies which have supported the psychoanalytic theory that states that murder, childhood trauma and sexual abuse can be repressed for a period of time and then recovered in therapy. repressed memories can influence behavior unconsciously, manifesting themselves in our discussions, dreams, and emotional reactions. an example of repression would include a child who is abused by a parent, who later has no recollection of the events, but has trouble forming relationships. freud suggested psychoanalysis as a treatment method for repressed memories. the goal of treatment was to bring repressed memories, fears and thoughts back to the conscious level of awareness. suppression thought suppression is referred to as the conscious and deliberate efforts to curtail one's thoughts and memories. suppression is goal-directed and it includes conscious strategies to forget, such as intentional context shifts. for example, if someone is thinking of unpleasant thoughts, ideas that are inappropriate at the moment, or images that may instigate unwanted behaviors, they may try to think of anything else but the unwanted thought in order to push the thought out of consciousness. in order to suppress a thought, one must (a) plan to suppress the thought and (b) carry out that plan by suppressing all other manifestations of the thought, including the original plan. thought suppression seems to entail a state of knowing and not knowing all at once. it can be assumed that thought suppression is a difficult and even time consuming task. even when thoughts are suppressed, they can return to consciousness with minimal prompting. this is why suppression has also been associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder. directed forgetting suppression encompasses the term directed forgetting, also known as intentional forgetting. this term refers to forgetting which is initiated by a conscious goal to forget. intentional forgetting is important at the individual level: suppressing an unpleasant memory of a trauma or a loss that is particularly painful. the directed forgetting paradigm is a psychological term meaning that information can be forgotten upon instruction. there are two methods of the directed forgetting paradigm: item method and list method. in both methods, the participants are instructed to forget some items, the to-be-forgotten items and the to-be-remembered items. in the item method of directed forgetting, participants are presented with a series of random to-be-remembered and to-be-forgotten items. after each item an instruction is given to the participant to either remember it, or forget it. after the study phase, when participants are told to remember or to forget subsets of the items, the participants are given a test of all the words presented. the participants were unaware that they would be tested on the to-be-forgotten items. the recall for the to-be-forgotten words are often significantly impaired compared to the to-be-remembered words. the directed forgetting effect has also been demonstrated on recognition tests. for this reason researchers believe that the item method affects episodic encoding. in the list method procedure, the instructions to forget are given only after half of the list has been presented. these instructions are given once in the middle of the list, and once at the end of the list. the participants are told that the first list they had to study was just a practice list, and to