radiation protection radiation protection radiation protection, also known as radiological protection, is defined by the international atomic energy agency (iaea) as "the protection of people from harmful effects of exposure to ionizing radiation, and the means for achieving this". exposure can be from a source of radiation external to the human body or due to internal irradiation caused by the ingestion of radioactive contamination. ionizing radiation is widely used in industry and medicine, and can present a significant health hazard by causing microscopic damage to living tissue. there are two main categories of ionizing radiation health effects. at high exposures, it can cause "tissue" effects, also called "deterministic" effects due to the certainty of them happening, conventionally indicated by the unit gray and resulting in acute radiation syndrome. for low level exposures there can be statistically elevated risks of radiation-induced cancer, called "stochastic effects" due to the uncertainty of them happening, conventionally indicated by the unit sievert. fundamental to radiation protection is the avoidance or reduction of dose using the simple protective measures of time, distance and shielding. the duration of exposure should be limited to that necessary, the distance from the source of radiation should be maximised, and the source or the target shielded wherever possible. to measure personal dose uptake in occupational or emergency exposure, for external radiation personal dosimeters are used, and for internal dose to due to ingestion of radioactive contamination, bioassay techniques are applied. for radiation protection and dosimetry assessment the international commission on radiation protection (icrp) and international commission on radiation units and measurements (icru) publish recommendations and data which is used to calculate the biological effects on the human body of certain levels of radiation, and thereby advise acceptable dose uptake limits. principles international policy relationships in radiological protection.the icrp is generally recognised by regulators as the international authority on good practice external dose quantities used in radiation protection and dosimetry - based on icru report 57 graphic showing relationships between radioactivity and detected ionizing radiation the icrp recommends, develops and maintains the international system of radiological protection, based on evaluation of the large body of scientific studies available to equate risk to received dose levels. the system's health objectives are "to manage and control exposures to ionising radiation so that deterministic effects are prevented, and the risks of stochastic effects are reduced to the extent reasonably achievable". the icrp's recommendations flow down to national and regional regulators, which have the opportunity to incorporate them into their own law; this process is shown in the accompanying block diagram. in most countries a national regulatory authority works towards ensuring a secure radiation environment in society by setting dose limitation requirements that are generally based on the recommendations of the icrp. exposure situations the icrp recognises planned, emergency, and existing exposure situations, as described below; planned exposure – defined as "...where radiological protection can be planned in advance, before exposures occur, and where the magnitude and extent of the exposures can be reasonably predicted." these are such as in occupational exposure situations, where it is necessary for personnel to work in a known radiation environment. emergency exposure – defined as "...unexpected situations that may require urgent protective actions". this would be such as an emergency nuclear event. existing exposure – defined as "...being those that already exist when a decision on control has to be taken". these can be such as from naturally occurring radioactive materials which exist in the environment. regulation of dose uptake the icrp uses the following overall principles for all controllable exposure situations. justification: no unnecessary use of radiation is permitted, which means that the advantages must outweigh the disadvantages. limitation: each individual must be protected against risks that are too great, through the application of individual radiation dose limits. optimization: this process is intended for application to those situations that have been deemed to be justified. it means "the likelihood of incurring exposures, the number of people exposed, and the magnitude of their individual doses" should all be kept as low as reasonably achievable (or reasonably practicable) known as alara or alarp. it takes into account economic and societal factors. factors in external dose uptake there are three factors that control the amount, or dose, of radiation received from a source. radiation exposure can be managed by a combination of these factors: time: reducing the time of an exposure reduces the effective dose proportionally. an example of reducing radiation doses by reducing the time of exposures might be improving operator training to reduce the time they take to handle a radioactive source. distance: increasing distance reduces dose due to the inverse square law. distance can be as simple as handling a source with forceps rather than fingers. for example, if a problem arise during fluoroscopic procedure step away from the patient if feasible. shielding: sources of radiation can be shielded with solid or liquid material, which absorbs the energy of the radiation. the term 'biological shield' is used for absorbing material placed around a nuclear reactor, or other source of radiation, to reduce the radiation to a level safe for humans. the shielding materials are concrete and lead shield which is 0.25mm thick for secondary radiation and 0.5mm thick for primary radiation internal dose uptake large scale glovebox in the nuclear industry used to contain airborne radioactive particles. internal dose, due to the inhalation or ingestion of radioactive substances, can result in stochastic or deterministic effects, depending on the amount of radioactive material ingested and other biokinetic factors. the risk from a low level internal source is represented by the dose quantity committed dose, which has the same risk as the same amount of external effective dose. the intake of radioactive material can occur through four pathways: inhalation of airborne contaminants such as radon gas and radioactive particles ingestion of radioactive contamination in food or liquids absorption of vapours such as tritium oxide through the skin injection of medical radioisotopes such as technetium-99m the occupational hazards from airborne radioactive particles in nuclear and radio-chemical applications are greatly reduced by the extensive use of gloveboxes to contain such material. to protect against breathing in radioactive particles in ambient air, respirators with particulate filters are worn. to monitor the concentration of radioactive particles in ambient air, radioactive particulate monitoring instruments measure the concentration or presence of airborne materials. for ingested radioactive materials in food and drink, specialist laboratory radiometric assay methods are used to measure the concentration of such materials. recommended limits on dose uptake usa dept of energy 2010 dose chart in sieverts for a variety of situations and applications.various doses of radiation in sieverts, ranging from trivial to lethal. visual comparison of radiological exposure from daily life activities. the icrp recommends a number of limits for dose uptake in table 8 of icrp report 103. these limits are "situational", for planned, emergency and existing situations. within these situations, limits are given for certain exposed groups; planned exposure – limits given for occupational, medical and public exposure. the occupational exposure limit of effective dose is 20 msv per year, averaged over defined periods of 5 years, with no single year exceeding 50 msv. the public exposure limit is 1 msv in a year. emergency exposure – limits given for occupational and public exposure existing exposure – reference levels for all persons exposed the public information dose chart of the usa department of energy, shown here on the right, applies to usa regulation, which is based on icrp recommendations. note that examples in lines 1 to 4 have a scale of dose rate (radiation per unit time), whilst 5 and 6 have a scale of total accumulated dose. alarp & alara alarp is an acronym for an important principle in exposure to radiation and other occupational health risks and in the uk stands for "as low as reasonably practicable". the aim is to minimize the risk of radioactive exposure or other hazard while keeping in mind that some exposure may be acceptable in order to further the task at hand. the equivalent term alara, "as low as reasonably achievable", is more commonly used outside the uk. this compromise is well illustrated in radiology. the application of radiation can aid the patient by providing doctors and other health care professionals with a medical diagnosis, but the exposure of the patient should be reasonably low enough to keep the statistical probability of cancers or sarcomas (stochastic effects) below an acceptable level, and to eliminate deterministic effects (e.g. skin reddening or cataracts). an acceptable level of incidence of stochastic effects is considered to be equal for a worker to the risk in other radiation work generally considered to be safe. this policy is based on the principle that any amount of radiation exposure, no matter how small, can increase the chance of negative biological effects such as cancer. it is also based on the principle that the probability of the occurrence of negative effects of radiation exposure increases with cumulative lifetime dose. these ideas are combined to form the linear no-threshold model which says that there is not a threshold at which there is an increase in the rate of occurrence of stochastic effects with increasing dose. at the same time, radiology and other practices that involve use of ionizing radiation bring benefits, so reducing radiation exposure can reduce the efficacy of a medical practice. the economic cost, for example of adding a barrier against radiation, must also be considered when applying the alarp principle. computed tomography, better known as c.t. scans or cat scans have made an enormous contribution to medicine, however not without some risk. they use ionizing radiation which can cause cancer, especially in children. when caregivers follow proper indications for their use and child safe techniques rather than adult techniques, downstream cancer can be prevented. personal radiation dosimeters the radiation dosimeter is an important personal dose measuring instrument. it is worn by the person being monitored and is used to estimate the external radiation dose deposited in the individual wearing the device. they are used for gamma, x-ray, beta and other strongly penetrating radiation, but not for weakly penetrating radiation such as alpha particles. traditionally, film badges were used for long-term monitoring, and quartz fibre dosimeters for short-term monitoring. however, these have been mostly superseded by thermoluminescent dosimetry (tld) badges and electronic dosimeters. electronic dosimeters can give an alarm warning if a preset dose threshold has been reached, enabling safer working in potentially higher radiation levels, where the received dose must be continually monitored. workers exposed to radiation, such as radiographers, nuclear power plant workers, doctors using radiotherapy, those in laboratories using radionuclides, and hazmat teams are required to wear dosimeters so a record of occupational exposure can be made. such devices are generally termed "legal dosimeters" if they have been approved for use in recording personnel dose for regulatory purposes. dosimeters can be worn to obtain a whole body dose and there are also specialist types that can be worn on the fingers or clipped to headgear, to measure the localised body irradiation for specific activities. common types of wearable dosimeters for ionizing radiation include: film badge dosimeter quartz fibre dosimeter electronic personal dosimeter thermoluminescent dosimeter radiation protection diagram showing various forms of ionizing radiation, and the sort of material that is used to stop or reduce that type. the total absorption coefficient of lead (atomic number 82) for gamma rays, plotted versus gamma energy, and the contributions by the three effects. here, the photoelectric effect dominates at low energy. above 5 mev, pair production starts to dominate. a lead castle built to shield a radioactive sample in a lab, being a form of lead shielding. almost any material can act as a shield from gamma or x-rays if used in sufficient amounts. different types of ionizing radiation interact in different ways with shielding material. the effectiveness of shielding is dependent on stopping power, which varies with the type and energy of radiation and the shielding material used. different shielding techniques are therefore used depending on the application and the type and energy of the radiation. shielding reduces the intensity of radiation, increasing with thickness. this is an exponential relationship with gradually diminishing effect as equal slices of shielding material are added. a quantity known as the halving-thicknesses