however, corticosteroids show limited efficacy in pain relief and potential adverse events for their use in tendinopathies. replacement any glucocorticoid can be given in a dose that provides approximately the same glucocorticoid effects as normal cortisol production; this is referred to as physiologic, replacement, or maintenance dosing. this is approximately 6–12 mg/m2/day of hydrocortisone (m2 refers to body surface area (bsa), and is a measure of body size; an average man's bsa is 1.9 m2). therapeutic immunosuppression glucocorticoids cause immunosuppression, and the therapeutic component of this effect is mainly the decreases in the function and numbers of lymphocytes, including both b cells and t cells. the major mechanism for this immunosuppression is through inhibition of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated b cells (nf-κb). nf-κb is a critical transcription factor involved in the synthesis of many mediators (i.e., cytokines) and proteins (i.e., adhesion proteins) that promote the immune response. inhibition of this transcription factor, therefore, blunts the capacity of the immune system to mount a response. glucocorticoids suppress cell-mediated immunity by inhibiting genes that code for the cytokines il-1, il-2, il-3, il-4, il-5, il-6, il-8 and ifn-γ, the most important of which is il-2. smaller cytokine production reduces the t cell proliferation. glucocorticoids, however, not only reduce t cell proliferation, but also lead to another well known effect - glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis. the effect is more prominent in immature t cells still inside in the thymus, but peripheral t cells are also affected. the exact mechanism regulating this glucocorticoid sensitivity lies in the bcl-2 gene. glucocorticoids also suppress the humoral immunity, thereby causing a humoral immune deficiency. glucocorticoids cause b cells to express smaller amounts of il-2 and of il-2 receptors. this diminishes both b cell clone expansion and antibody synthesis. the diminished amounts of il-2 also cause fewer t lymphocyte cells to be activated. the effect of glucocorticoids on fc receptor expression in immune cells is complicated. dexamethasone decreases ifn-gamma stimulated fc gamma ri expression in neutrophils while conversely causing an increase in monocytes. glucocorticoids may also decrease the expression of fc receptors in macrophages, but the evidence supporting this regulation in earlier studies has been questioned. the effect of fc receptor expression in macrophages is important since it is necessary for the phagocytosis of opsonised cells. this is because fc receptors bind antibodies attached to cells targeted for destruction by macrophages. anti-inflammatory glucocorticoids are potent anti-inflammatories, regardless of the inflammation's cause; their primary anti-inflammatory mechanism is lipocortin-1 (annexin-1) synthesis. lipocortin-1 both suppresses phospholipase a2, thereby blocking eicosanoid production, and inhibits various leukocyte inflammatory events (epithelial adhesion, emigration, chemotaxis, phagocytosis, respiratory burst, etc.). in other words, glucocorticoids not only suppress immune response, but also inhibit the two main products of inflammation, prostaglandins and leukotrienes. they inhibit prostaglandin synthesis at the level of phospholipase a2 as well as at the level of cyclooxygenase/pge isomerase (cox-1 and cox-2), the latter effect being much like that of nsaids, thus potentiating the anti-inflammatory effect. in addition, glucocorticoids also suppress cyclooxygenase expression. glucocorticoids marketed as anti-inflammatories are often topical formulations, such as nasal sprays for rhinitis or inhalers for asthma. these preparations have the advantage of only affecting the targeted area, thereby reducing side effects or potential interactions. in this case, the main compounds used are beclometasone, budesonide, fluticasone, mometasone and ciclesonide. in rhinitis, sprays are used. for asthma, glucocorticoids are administered as inhalants with a metered-dose or dry powder inhaler. in rare cases, symptoms of radiation induced thyroiditis has been treated with oral glucocorticoids. hyperaldosteronism glucocorticoids can be used in the management of familial hyperaldosteronism type 1. they are not effective, however, for use in the type 2 condition. resistance corticosteroid resistance mechanisms. resistance to the therapeutic uses of glucocorticoids can present difficulty; for instance, 25% of cases of severe asthma may be unresponsive to steroids. this may be the result of genetic predisposition, ongoing exposure to the cause of the inflammation (such as allergens), immunological phenomena that bypass glucocorticoids, and pharmacokinetic disturbances (incomplete absorption or accelerated excretion or metabolism). heart failure glucocorticoids could be used in the treatment of decompensated heart failure to potentiate renal responsiveness to diuretics, especially in heart failure patients with refractory diuretic resistance with large doses of loop diuretics. side effects glucocorticoid drugs currently being used act nonselectively, so in the long run they may impair many healthy anabolic processes. to prevent this, much research has been focused recently on the elaboration of selectively acting glucocorticoid drugs. side effects include: immunodeficiency (see section below) hyperglycemia due to increased gluconeogenesis, insulin resistance, and impaired glucose tolerance ("steroid diabetes"); caution in those with diabetes mellitus increased skin fragility, easy bruising negative calcium balance due to reduced intestinal calcium absorption steroid-induced osteoporosis: reduced bone density (osteoporosis, osteonecrosis, higher fracture risk, slower fracture repair) weight gain due to increased visceral and truncal fat deposition (central obesity) and appetite stimulation; see corticosteroid-induced lipodystrophy hypercortisolemia with prolonged or excessive use (also known as, exogenous cushing's syndrome) impaired memory and attention deficits see steroid dementia syndrome. adrenal insufficiency (if used for long time and stopped suddenly without a taper) muscle and tendon breakdown (proteolysis), weakness, reduced muscle mass and repair expansion of malar fat pads and dilation of small blood vessels in skin lipomatosis within the epidural space excitatory effect on central nervous system (euphoria, psychosis) anovulation, irregularity of menstrual periods growth failure, delayed puberty increased plasma amino acids, increased urea formation, negative nitrogen balance glaucoma due to increased ocular pressure cataracts topical steroid withdrawal in high doses, hydrocortisone (cortisol) and those glucocorticoids with appreciable mineralocorticoid potency can exert a mineralocorticoid effect as well, although in physiologic doses this is prevented by rapid degradation of cortisol by 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoenzyme 2 (11β-hsd2) in mineralocorticoid target tissues. mineralocorticoid effects can include salt and water retention, extracellular fluid volume expansion, hypertension, potassium depletion, and metabolic alkalosis. immunodeficiency glucocorticoids cause immunosuppression, decreasing the function and/or numbers of neutrophils, lymphocytes (including both b cells and t cells), monocytes, macrophages, and the anatomical barrier function of the skin. this suppression, if large enough, can cause manifestations of immunodeficiency, including t cell deficiency, humoral immune deficiency and neutropenia. main pathogens of concern in glucocorticoid-induced immunodeficiency: bacteria enterobacteriaceae including salmonella species legionella micdadei listeria monocytogenes mycobacterium tuberculosis nontuberculous mycobacteria nocardia asteroides rhodococcus equi staphylococcus aureus streptococci fungi aspergillus blastomyces candida species including candida albicans coccidioides immitis cryptococcus neoformans fusarium species histoplasma capsulatum talaromyces marneffei pneumocystis jirovecii pseudallescheria boydii zygomycosis viruses adenovirus cytomegalovirus herpes simplex virus human papillomavirus influenza/parainfluenza respiratory syncytial virus varicella zoster other cryptosporidiosis/isospora belli strongyloides stercoralis toxoplasma gondii withdrawal in addition to the effects listed above, use of high-dose glucocorticoids for only a few days begins to produce suppression of the patient's adrenal glands suppressing hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone (crh) leading to suppressed production of adrenocorticotropic hormone (acth) by the anterior pituitary. with prolonged suppression, the adrenal glands atrophy (physically shrink), and can take months to recover full function after discontinuation of the exogenous glucocorticoid. during this recovery time, the patient is vulnerable to adrenal insufficiency during times of stress, such as illness. while suppressive dose and time for adrenal recovery vary widely, clinical guidelines have been devised to estimate potential adrenal suppression and recovery, to reduce risk to the patient. the following is one example: if patients have been receiving daily high doses for five days or less, they can be abruptly stopped (or reduced to physiologic replacement if patients are adrenal-deficient). full adrenal recovery can be assumed to occur by a week afterward. if high doses were used for six to 10 days, reduce to replacement dose immediately and taper over four more days. adrenal recovery can be assumed to occur within two to four weeks of completion of steroids. if high doses were used for 11–30 days, cut immediately to twice replacement, and then by 25% every four days. stop entirely when dose is less than half of replacement. full adrenal recovery should occur within one to three months of completion of withdrawal. if high doses were used more than 30 days, cut dose immediately to twice replacement, and reduce by 25% each week until replacement is reached. then change to oral hydrocortisone or cortisone as a single morning dose, and gradually decrease by 2.5 mg each week. when the morning dose is less than replacement, the return of normal basal adrenal function may be documented by checking 0800 cortisol levels prior to the morning dose; stop drugs when 0800 cortisol is 10 μg/dl. predicting the time to full adrenal recovery after prolonged suppressive exogenous steroids is difficult; some people may take nearly a year. flare-up of the underlying condition for which steroids are given may require a more gradual taper than outlined above.