water supply and sanitation in new zealand water supply and sanitation in new zealand water supply and sanitation in new zealand is provided for most people by infrastructure owned by territorial authorities including city councils in urban areas and district councils in rural areas. as at 2021, there are 67 different asset-owning organisations. new zealand: water and sanitationdatawater coverage (broad definition)100%sanitation coverage (broad definition)100%continuity of supply (%)mostly continuousaverage residential water use (l/p/d)281 (2020)average domestic water and sewer billnzd$960/year (2020)share of household metering50%annual investment in wssnzd$1.8 billion capex (2020/21)share of self-financing by utilitieshighshare of tax-financingnilshare of external financingnilinstitutionsdecentralisation to municipalitiesin all regionswater and sanitation regulatortaumata arowairesponsibility for policy settingshared between ministry of health and department of internal affairssector lawhealth act 1956water services act 2021 water pipeline through waitakere, new zealand there is widespread evidence of ageing and failing infrastructure for the three waters (drinking water, stormwater and wastewater), and growing awareness of a multi-billion dollar national infrastructure deficit. in some regions there are forecast to be huge, and in some cases unaffordable cost challenges for local authorities. the challenges for local government include funding infrastructure deficits and preparing for large re-investments that are estimated to require $110 billion over the next 30 to 40 years. as one example of the scale of expenditure required, in may 2021, the wellington city council approved a 10 year plan that included expenditure of $2.7 billion on water pipe maintenance and upgrades in wellington city, and an additional $147 to $208 million for plant upgrades at the moa point wastewater treatment plant. there are also significant challenges in meeting statutory requirements for the safety of drinking water, and the environmental expectations for management of stormwater and wastewater. climate change adaptation, and providing for population growth add to these challenges. a major programme of nationwide reform is being developed by central government, with the aim of rationalizing the provision of services for the three waters. it is proposed that a small number of large publicly owned entities will be established to own and manage the three waters assets across the country. the reforms include complete separation of asset ownership from the existing territorial authorities. the nationwide reform programme is being developed in partnership with local government and iwi/māori as the crown's treaty partner. in late october 2021, the government launched its three waters reform programme, which aims to centralise the management and provision of water utilities services by 2024. the privately owned water supply schemes that service many small rural areas are not included in the reform programme. access access to water and sanitation was declared a human right by the united nations general assembly on 28 july 2010. the 2030 agenda for sustainable development was adopted by all united nations member states in 2015. at its heart are 17 sustainable development goals, including the sixth of the 17 goals which is to ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. while the new zealand government has expressed its commitment to meeting the sustainable development goals, it is yet to announce any specific policy or data strategy for that purpose. access to drinking water provided by registered suppliers (as opposed to self-supply) can be estimated from the reports into the safety of drinking water from registered suppliers that are published by institute of environmental science and research (esr). as of 15 april 2020, the drinking water online database included records of water supplied to an estimated population of approximately 4.1 million. this indicates that around 85% of the estimated total population of new zealand at that date receive water from a registered supplier. the balance of the population (approximately 15%) rely upon small self-managed supplies including roof rainwater collection systems. in their national performance review 2020–21, water new zealand reported that 86% of residential properties are connected to a water network, and 85% connected to a wastewater network. three waters assets and services key data about the three waters (water, wastewater, and stormwater) is made publicly available in a national performance review undertaken by an industry body water new zealand. this review has been undertaken annually since 2008, to provide a performance assessment of service provision and the protection of public health and the environment. the participants in the 2020-21 review included 38 (of 64) service providers, with service areas covering 87% of the new zealand population. three waters assets the 38 participants in the 2020-21 review (covering 87% of the population), manage assets with a total book value exceeding $40 billion. a summary of assets is given in the table below. waterwastewaterstormwater treatment plants339193 network length in kilometres42,55926,30918,452 combined wastewater and stormwater pipelines243 pump stations8172,942213 capital and operational expenditure the 2020-21 national performance review provides a summary of capital and operational expenditure on the three waters assets. type of expenditurewater supplywastewaterstormwater capital expenditure$868m$714m$237m interest$56m$85m$31m operational expenditure$376m$465m$118m total$1,299m$1,264m$386m affordability average water and wastewater charges are slightly under $850 per year. however, water and wastewater charges vary significantly around new zealand. consumers in some areas are paying over three times as much as for water as those in other areas ($863/year versus $262/year). for wastewater, the range in charges is even greater at over ten times as much ($1,217 versus $116/year). in the most expensive jurisdiction, the average customer will have a water and wastewater bill of over $1,700. for those who depend on the single living-alone superannuation payment, the water and wastewater bill in the most expensive region constitutes over 8% of their income. for those dependent on the sole parent support payment, it constitutes more than 10% of their income. the challenges for the affordability of modern safe water supplies in small townships were highlighted in 2021 when the buller district council proposed to increase the water rates in inangahua junction. the increased rate was proposed to be $1800 per household by 2025 (almost four times the current rate), and $2000 by 2030. a former councillor said: "most people in inangahua junction are pensioners; they're on low fixed incomes and they simply have no ability to pay these sorts of fees". the mayor of buller district said that the planned increases related to the requirements to comply with government-mandated drinking water standards for public water supplies. auditor-general review in february 2020, the auditor-general published a report reviewing how well public organisations are managing water resources and delivering water-related services. in the introduction to the report, the auditor-general observed a lack of clarity about the issues in managing the three waters, how to address them, and who will deliver programmes of work. the statement called for improved national leadership. asset management and investment planning on 29 january 2020, the government announced the investment of $12 billion in the new zealand upgrade programme, focussing on rail, roads, schools and hospitals. an economist from infometrics questioned whether the investment programme was focussed in the areas of greatest need, and pointed to new zealand's ageing water infrastructure. their analysis of council expenditure plans found that investment in the three waters is expected to be $17.2 billion over the next decade, split between $11.6 billion in waste and stormwater, and $5.6 billion for water supply. however, more than half of the planned investment in waste and stormwater is to replace assets that are at the end of their working life, with only a quarter of the money allocated for additions and improvements. they claimed that further new investment in water infrastructure is needed to cope with a growing population and the demands of the government's three waters review, aimed at improving the quality of drinking water, storm water and waste water. in 2021, the department of internal affairs estimated that investment of $110 billion in the three waters assets could be required over the next 30 to 40 years. reform of policy and regulation main article: water services reform programme the legal framework includes the health act 1956, amended in 2007, the local government act 2002 and the resource management act 1991. in mid–2017, the fifth national government launched a review of the regulation and supply arrangements of drinking water, wastewater and stormwater (three waters). this review ran in parallel with the later stages of the inquiry into the havelock north drinking water contamination of 2016. the three waters review was published in january 2019. in 2019, the sixth labour government announced plans for regulatory changes in response to the three waters review including establishing a new, dedicated drinking water regulator, extending regulatory coverage to all drinking water supplies; providing a multi-barrier approach to drinking water treatment and safety; strengthening government oversight of wastewater and stormwater services; and providing transitional arrangements for water suppliers to conform to the new regulations. in december 2019, the "taumata arowai–the water services regulator bill" was introduced to parliament. in addition, the government indicated that a separate water services bill would be introduced in order to implement system-wide reforms to the regulation of drinking water and source water, and targeted reforms to improve the regulation and performance of wastewater and stormwater networks. on 28 january 2020, the minister of local government, hon nanaia mahuta, released cabinet papers and minutes setting out intentions for reform of service delivery and funding arrangements for the three waters services nationwide. the cabinet paper identified affordability and capability as two key challenges facing new zealand's three waters service delivery infrastructure. the paper proposed transferring control and administration of three water provision services to a new entity that would focus on the provision of water services. the government indicated that it would work with local government bodies to explore options for transitioning councils to new service delivery arrangements and investigate opportunities for collaborative approaches to water service delivery. on 27 october 2021, nanaia mahuta confirmed that the government would proceed with its "three waters reform programme" to transfer management of storm water, drinking water and wastewater to four new entities by july 2024. these entities would be managed by independent boards jointly elected by a group set up by councils and māori iwi (tribes). these proposed reforms were criticised by several local council leaders including mayor of auckland phil goff, mayor of christchurch lianne dalziel, mayor of wellington andy foster, and the opposition national and act parties. by contrast, ngāi tahu's dr te maire tau, the co-chair of te kura taka pini (the tribe's freshwater group) welcomed the three water reforms, claiming they would improve water services and environmental outcomes. from november 2021, a working group of mayors and māori representatives reviewed issues of representation, governance and accountability, and reported back in march 2022 with 47 recommendations. in april 2022, the government accepted 44 of the recommendations. key changes to the original proposals included providing shareholdings for councils in the four new water entities, and increased legislative protection against future privatisation of the water assets. in mid-april 2023, the government announced a major overhaul of its three waters reform programme, renaming it the water services reform programme. the proposed four water services entities were expanded into ten entities but will retain the same split co-governance structure consisting of representatives of local councils and mana whenua representatives. supply of drinking water new zealand enjoys high rainfall, especially within the west coast region of the south island and the country is notable for its many large, and sometimes braided rivers. however, although the population is relatively small, the population density in north island is much greater than in south island where most of the rain falls. in new zealand more than 10% of the population depends on roof-collected rainwater systems for their drinking water – especially in rural areas that are not served by municipal town water supplies. roof-collected rainwater consumption is also popular because the general public has the perception that rainwater is "pure" and safe to drink. indeed, the risk of disease arising from roof-collected rainwater consumption can be low, providing that the water is visibly clear, has little taste or smell and, most importantly, the storage and collection of rainwater is via a properly maintained tank and roof catchment system. the low level of water pollution and the relative abundance of rain-fall ensures that water shortages are relatively uncommon. regional authorities provide abstraction, treatment and distribution infrastructure to most developed areas. many municipal systems draw water from deep aquifers thus avoiding the cost of long