knee knee in humans and other primates, the knee joins the thigh with the leg and consists of two joints: one between the femur and tibia (tibiofemoral joint), and one between the femur and patella (patellofemoral joint). it is the largest joint in the human body. the knee is a modified hinge joint, which permits flexion and extension as well as slight internal and external rotation. the knee is vulnerable to injury and to the development of osteoarthritis. kneeright knee seen from the right sidedetailssystemmusculoskeletal systemnervefemoral, obturator, sciaticidentifierslatinarticulatio genusmeshd007717ta98a01.1.00.036 a01.2.08.010ta2161, 321fma24974anatomical terminology it is often termed a compound joint having tibiofemoral and patellofemoral components. (the fibular collateral ligament is often considered with tibiofemoral components.) structure lateral and posterior aspects of right knee articular surfaces of femur articular surfaces of tibia the knee is a modified hinge joint, a type of synovial joint, which is composed of three functional compartments: the patellofemoral articulation, consisting of the patella, or "kneecap", and the patellar groove on the front of the femur through which it slides; and the medial and lateral tibiofemoral articulations linking the femur, or thigh bone, with the tibia, the main bone of the lower leg. the joint is bathed in synovial fluid which is contained inside the synovial membrane called the joint capsule. the posterolateral corner of the knee is an area that has recently been the subject of renewed scrutiny and research. the knee is the largest joint and one of the most important joints in the body. it plays an essential role in movement related to carrying the body weight in horizontal (running and walking) and vertical (jumping) directions. at birth, the kneecap is just formed from cartilage, and this will ossify (change to bone) between the ages of three and five years. because it is the largest sesamoid bone in the human body, the ossification process takes significantly longer. articular bodies the main articular bodies of the femur are its lateral and medial condyles. these diverge slightly distally and posteriorly, with the lateral condyle being wider in front than at the back while the medial condyle is of more constant width. : 206 the radius of the condyles' curvature in the sagittal plane becomes smaller toward the back. this diminishing radius produces a series of involute midpoints (i.e. located on a spiral). the resulting series of transverse axes permit the sliding and rolling motion in the flexing knee while ensuring the collateral ligaments are sufficiently lax to permit the rotation associated with the curvature of the medial condyle about a vertical axis.: 194–95 the pair of tibial condyles are separated by the intercondylar eminence: 206 composed of a lateral and a medial tubercle.: 202 the patella also serves an articular body, and its posterior surface is referred to as the trochlea of the knee. it is inserted into the thin anterior wall of the joint capsule.: 206 on its posterior surface is a lateral and a medial articular surface,: 194 both of which communicate with the patellar surface which unites the two femoral condyles on the anterior side of the bone's distal end.: 192 articular capsule main article: articular capsule of the knee joint the articular capsule has a synovial and a fibrous membrane separated by fatty deposits. anteriorly, the synovial membrane is attached on the margin of the cartilage both on the femur and the tibia, but on the femur, it communicates with the suprapatellar bursa or recess and extends the joint space proximally.: 210 the suprapatellar bursa is prevented from being pinched during extension by the articularis genus muscle. behind, the synovial membrane is attached to the margins of the two femoral condyles which produces two extensions (semimembranosus bursa under medial head of the gastrocnemius and popliteal bursa under lateral head of the gastrocnemius) similar to the suprapatellar bursa. between these two extensions, the synovial membrane passes in front of the two cruciate ligaments at the center of the joint, thus forming a pocket direct inward.: 210 synovium lining the capsule and its bursae. the synovium also lines infrapatellar fat pad, the fat pad that lies below the ligamentum patellae. synovium projecting into the fat pad as two foldings. bursae main article: knee bursae numerous bursae surround the knee joint. the largest communicative bursa is the suprapatellar bursa described above. four considerably smaller bursae are located on the back of the knee. two non-communicative bursae are located in front of the patella and below the patellar tendon, and others are sometimes present. : 210 cartilage cartilage is a thin, elastic tissue that protects the bone and makes certain that the joint surfaces can slide easily over each other. cartilage ensures supple knee movement. there are two types of joint cartilage in the knees: fibrous cartilage (the meniscus) and hyaline cartilage. fibrous cartilage has tensile strength and can resist pressure. hyaline cartilage covers the surface along which the joints move. collagen fibres within the articular cartilage have been described by benninghoff as arising from the subchondral bone in a radial manner, building so called gothic arches. on the surface of the cartilage these fibres appear in a tangential orientation and increase the abrasion resistance. there are no blood vessels inside of the hyaline cartilage, the alimentation is performed per diffusion. synovial fluid and the subchondral bone marrow serve both as nutrition sources for the hyaline cartilage. lack of at least one source induces a degeneration. cartilage will wear over the years. cartilage has a very limited capacity for self-restoration. the newly formed tissue will generally consist of a large part of fibrous cartilage of lesser quality than the original hyaline cartilage. as a result, new cracks and tears will form in the cartilage over time. menisci main articles: medial meniscus and lateral meniscus the articular disks of the knee-joint are called menisci because they only partly divide the joint space.: 26 these two disks, the medial meniscus and the lateral meniscus, consist of connective tissue with extensive collagen fibers containing cartilage-like cells. strong fibers run along the menisci from one attachment to the other, while weaker radial fibers are interlaced with the former. the menisci are flattened at the center of the knee joint, fused with the synovial membrane laterally, and can move over the tibial surface. : 208 the upper and lower surfaces of the menisci are free. each meniscus have anterior and posterior horns that meet in the intercondylar area of the tibia. medial meniscus is bigger, less curved, and thinner. its posterior horn is thicker (14mm) than the anterior horn (6mm). the lateral meniscus is smaller, more curved (nearly circular), and has more uniform thickness than medial meniscus (10mm). the lateral meniscus is less attached to the joint capsule, because its posterolateral surface is grooved by the popliteus tendon, separating the meniscus from the capsule. the popliteus tendon is not attached to the lateral meniscus. ligaments anterolateral aspect of right knee anteromedial aspect of right knee the ligaments surrounding the knee joint offer stability by limiting movements and, together with the menisci and several bursae, protect the articular capsule. intracapsular the knee is stabilized by a pair of cruciate ligaments. these ligaments are both extrasynovial, intracapsular ligaments. the anterior cruciate ligament (acl) stretches from the lateral condyle of femur to the anterior intercondylar area. the acl is critically important because it prevents the tibia from being pushed too far anterior relative to the femur. it is often torn during twisting or bending of the knee. the posterior cruciate ligament (pcl) stretches from medial condyle of femur to the posterior intercondylar area. this ligament prevents posterior displacement of the tibia relative to the femur. injury to this ligament is uncommon but can occur as a direct result of forced trauma to the ligament. the transverse ligament stretches from the lateral meniscus to the medial meniscus. it passes in front of the menisci. it is divided into several strips in 10% of cases.: 208 the two menisci are attached to each other anteriorly by the ligament. the posterior (of wrisberg) and anterior meniscofemoral ligaments (of humphrey) stretch from the posterior horn of the lateral meniscus to the medial femoral condyle. they pass anterior and posterior to the posterior cruciate ligament respectively.: 208 the meniscotibial ligaments (or "coronary") stretches from inferior edges of the menisci to the periphery of the tibial plateaus. extracapsular the patellar ligament connects the patella to the tuberosity of the tibia. it is also occasionally called the patellar tendon because there is no definite separation between the quadriceps tendon (which surrounds the patella) and the area connecting the patella to the tibia. this very strong ligament helps give the patella its mechanical leverage and also functions as a cap for the condyles of the femur. laterally and medially to the patellar ligament the lateral and medial retinacula connect fibers from the vasti lateralis and medialis muscles to the tibia. some fibers from the iliotibial tract radiate into the lateral retinaculum and the medial retinaculum receives some transverse fibers arising on the medial femoral epicondyle.: 206 the medial collateral ligament (mcl a.k.a. "tibial") stretches from the medial epicondyle of the femur to the medial tibial condyle. it is composed of three groups of fibers, one stretching between the two bones, and two fused with the medial meniscus. the mcl is partly covered by the pes anserinus and the tendon of the semimembranosus passes under it.: 206 it protects the medial side of the knee from being bent open by a stress applied to the lateral side of the knee (a valgus force).: 206 the lateral collateral ligament (lcl a.k.a. "fibular") stretches from the lateral epicondyle of the femur to the head of fibula. it is separate from both the joint capsule and the lateral meniscus.: 206 it protects the lateral side from an inside bending force (a varus force). the anterolateral ligament (all) is situated in front of the lcl. lastly, there are two ligaments on the dorsal side of the knee. the oblique popliteal ligament is a radiation of the tendon of the semimembranosus on the medial side, from where it is direct laterally and proximally. the arcuate popliteal ligament originates on the apex of the head of the fibula to stretch proximally, crosses the tendon of the popliteus muscle, and passes into the capsule.: 206 muscles the muscles responsible for the movement of the knee joint belong to either the anterior, medial or posterior compartment of the thigh. the extensors generally belong to the anterior compartment and the flexors to the posterior. the two exceptions to this is gracilis, a flexor, which belongs to the medial compartment and sartorius, a flexor, in the anterior compartment. extensors muscleorigininsertionarterynerveactionantagonist articularis genusdistal end of anterior femoral shaftproximal extension of the joint capsule of the kneefemoral arteryfemoral nervepulling the suprapatellar bursa during extension of the knee quadriceps femoriscombined rectus femoris and vastus musclespatella and tibial tuberosity via the patellar ligamentfemoral arteryfemoral nerveextension of the knee; flexion of the hip (rectus femoris only)hamstring rectus femorisanterior inferior iliac spine and the exterior surface of the bony ridge which forms the iliac portion of the acetabulumpatella and tibial tuberosity via the patellar ligamentfemoral arteryfemoral nerveextension of the knee; flexion of the hiphamstring vastus lateralisgreater trochanter, intertrochanteric line, and linea aspera of the femurpatella and tibial tuberosity via the patellar ligamentfemoral arteryfemoral nerveextends and stabilizes kneehamstring vastus intermediusantero/lateral femurpatella and tibial tuberosity via the patellar ligamentfemoral arteryfemoral nerveextension of the kneehamstring vastus medialisfemurpatella and tibial tuberosity via the patellar ligamentfemoral arteryfemoral nerveextension of the kneehamstring flexors posterior compartment muscleorigininsertionarterynerveactionantagonist sartoriusanterior superior iliac spinepes anserinussuperficial circumflex iliac artery, lateral femoral artery, deep femoral artery, descending geniculate artery, femoral arteryfemoral nervehip joint: flexion, lateral rotation and abduction. knee joint: flexion and medial rotationquadriceps muscle (partly) biceps femorislong head: tuberosity of the ischium, short head: linea aspera on the femurthe head of the fibula which articulates with the back of the lateral tibial condyleinferior gluteal artery, perforating arteries, popliteal arterylong head: medial (tibial) part of sciatic nerve, short head: lateral (common fibular) part of sciatic nerveflexion of knee, laterally rotates leg at knee (when knee is flexed), extends hip joint (long head only)quadriceps muscle semitendinosustuberosity of the ischiumpes anserinusinferior gluteal artery, perforating arteriessciatic (tibial, l5, s1, s2)flexes knee, extends hip joint, medially rotates leg at kneequadriceps muscle semimembranosustuberosity of the