cephalic index cephalic index the cephalic index or cranial index, the ratio of the maximum width (biparietal diameter or bpd, side to side) of the head of an organism multiplied by 100 and then divided by their maximum length (occipitofrontal diameter or ofd, front to back). the index was once used to categorize human beings in the first half of the 20th century, but today it is used to categorize dogs and cats. cephalic index viewed from above the head historic use in anthropology early anthropology 1898 cephalic index map of eastern europe the cephalic index was used by anthropologists in the early 20th century as a tool categorize human populations. it was used to describe an individual's appearance and for estimating the age of fetuses for legal and obstetrical reasons. the cephalic index was defined by swedish professor of anatomy anders retzius (1796–1860) and first used in physical anthropology to classify ancient human remains found in europe. the theory became closely associated with the development of racial anthropology in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when historians attempted to use ancient remains to model population movements in terms of racial categories. american anthropologist carleton s. coon also used the index in the 1960s, by which time it had been largely discredited. cephalic indexes of skull shapes. long skull (left) – cephalic index 71.4; tall skull (center) – cephalic index 81; broad skull (right) – cephalic index 85 in the cephalic index model, humans beings were characterized by having either a dolichocephalic (long-headed), mesaticephalic (moderate-headed), or brachycephalic (short-headed) cephalic index or cranial index. indices 1896 world cephalic index map cephalic indices are grouped as in the following table: femalesmalesscientific termmeaningalternative term < 75< 75.9dolichocephalic'long-headed' 75 to 8376 to 81mesaticephalic'medium-headed'mesocephalic; mesocranial > 83> 81.1brachycephalic'short-headed'brachycranial technically, the measured factors are defined as the maximum width of the bones that surround the head above the supramastoid crest (behind the cheekbones), and the maximum length from the most easily noticed part of the glabella (between the eyebrows) to the most easily noticed point on the back part of the head. controversy the usefulness of the cephalic index was questioned by giuseppe sergi, who argued that cranial morphology provided a better means to model racial ancestry. also, franz boas studied the children of immigrants to the united states in 1910 to 1912, noting that the children's cephalic index differed significantly from their parents', implying that local environmental conditions had a significant effect on the development of head shape. boas argued that if craniofacial features were so malleable in a single generation, then the cephalic index was of little use for defining race and mapping ancestral populations. scholars such as earnest a. hooton continued to argue that both environment and heredity were involved. boas did not himself claim it was totally plastic. in 2002, a paper by sparks and jantz re-evaluated some of boas's original data using new statistical techniques and concluded that there was a "relatively high genetic component" of head shape. ralph holloway of columbia university argues that the new research raises questions about whether the variations in skull shape have "adaptive meaning and whether, in fact, normalizing selection might be at work on the trait, where both extremes, hyperdolichocephaly and hyperbrachycephaly, are at a slight selective disadvantage." in 2003, anthropologists clarence c. gravlee, h. russell bernard, and william r. leonard reanalyzed boas's data and concluded that most of boas's original findings were correct. moreover, they applied new statistical, computer-assisted methods to boas's data and discovered more evidence for cranial plasticity. in a later publication, gravlee, bernard and leonard reviewed sparks's and jantz's analysis. they argue that sparks and jantz misrepresented boas's claims, and that sparks's and jantz's data support boas. for example, they point out that sparks and jantz look at changes in cranial size in relation to how long an individual has been in the united states in order to test the influence of the environment. boas, however, looked at changes in cranial size in relation to how long the mother had been in the united states. they argue that boas's method is more useful, because the prenatal environment is a crucial developmental factor. jantz and sparks responded to gravlee et al., reiterating that boas' findings lacked biological meaning, and that the interpretation of boas' results common in the literature was biologically inaccurate. in a later study, the same authors concluded that the effects boas observed were likely the result of population-specific environmental effects such as changes in cultural practices for cradling infants, rather than the effects of a general "american environment" which caused populations in america to converge to a common cranial type, as boas had suggested. vertical cephalic index the vertical cephalic index, also known as the length-height index, was a less-commonly measured head ratio. in the vertical cephalic index model, humans beings were characterized by having either a chamaecranic (low-skulled), orthocranic (medium high-skulled), or hypsicranic (high-skulled) cephalic index or cranial index. medicine the cephalic index is also used in medicine, especially in the planning and effectiveness analysis of cranial deformity corrections. the index is a useful tool in assessing the morphology of cranial deformities in clinical settings. the index is used while looking at the fetal head shape, and can change in certain situations (ex. breech presentation, ruptured membranes, twin pregnancy). modern use in animal breeding the cephalic index is used in the categorisation of animals, especially breeds of dogs and cats. brachycephalic animals brachycephalic french bulldog, with visible indications of laboured breathing. english bulldog: left: 1900–1920. middle: switzerland-champion *1963 †1971. right: female *1985 †1993. craniofacial angle of a boxer a brachycephalic skull is relatively broad and short (typically with the breadth at least 80% of the length). dog breeds such as the pug are sometimes classified as "extreme brachycephalic". because of the health issues brachycephaly is regarded as torture breeding as it often leads to the brachycephalic airway obstructive syndrome. list of brachycephalic dogs breeds with less extreme brachycephalia, such as the boxer, have less compromised thermoregulation and thus are more tolerant of vigorous exercise and heat. affenpinscher american bulldog american bully boston terrier boxer brussels griffon bulldog bullmastiff cane corso cavalier king charles spaniel apple-headed chihuahua chow chow dogo argentino dogue de bordeaux english mastiff english bulldog french bulldog king charles spaniel lhasa apso lowchen neapolitan mastiff newfoundland olde english bulldogge pekingese perro de presa canario pit bull pug shar-pei tibetan spaniel tosa list of brachycephalic cats an exotic shorthair british shorthair burmese cat exotic shorthair himalayan cat persian cat scottish fold white tiger list of brachycephalic pigs middle white neijiang list of brachycephalic rabbits lionhead rabbit lop rabbit netherland dwarf rabbit other giant panda ross seal spectacled bear walrus wombat mesaticephalic animals mesocephalic labrador retriever a mesaticephalic skull is of intermediate length and width. mesaticephalic skulls are not markedly brachycephalic or dolichocephalic. when dealing with animals, especially dogs, the more appropriate and commonly used term is not "mesocephalic", but rather "mesaticephalic", which is a ratio of head to nasal cavity. the breeds below exemplify this category. list of mesaticephalic canines african wild dog alaskan malamute almost all spaniels almost all spitz, except for the chow chow american eskimo dog american foxhound australian cattle dog australian shepherd basenji beagle bearded collie beauceron belgian malinois belgian sheepdog bernese mountain dog bichon frisé black and tan coonhound border collie cardigan welsh corgi chesapeake bay retriever pear- and deer-headed chihuahuas chinese crested chinook curly-coated retriever dalmatian dhole english foxhound field spaniel finnish lapphund finnish spitz flat-coated retriever german shorthaired pointer german wirehaired pointer german spitz golden retriever irish setter komondor labrador retriever miniature pinscher pomeranian poodle (miniature and toy) most terriers mudi pembroke welsh corgi puli rottweiler samoyed siberian husky st. bernard vizsla weimaraner wirehaired vizsla xoloitzcuintle list of mesaticephalic cats note: almost all felines are mesaticephalic abyssinian american shorthair american bobtail bengal cat birman bombay cat burmese cat chartreux chausie colorpoint shorthair cymric cat egyptian mau felid hybrids felis, or small cats maine coon manx munchkin cat norwegian forest cat ocicat pallas's cat ragdoll russian blue russian white, black and tabby selkirk rex siberian cat somali toyger turkish angora turkish van list of mesaticephalic rabbits dutch rabbit mini rex polish rabbit new zealand rabbit american sable other aardwolf alligator american black bear brown bear brown hyena fur seal guinea pig leopard seal raccoon sea lion sloth bear spotted hyena striped hyena sun bear tasmanian devil dolichocephalic animals dolichocephalic borzoi a dolichocephalic skull is relatively long-headed (typically with the breadth less than 80% or 75% of the length). list of dolichocephalic canids afghan hound airedale terrier azawakh basset hound bedlington terrier bloodhound borzoi bull terrier cesky terrier coyote dachshund doberman pinscher dingo fox terrier galgo español german shepherd dog great dane greyhound irish terrier irish wolfhound italian greyhound kangaroo hound kanni kerry blue terrier khalag tazi long dog lurcher manchester terrier miniature bull terrier peruvian inca orchid pharaoh hound poodle (standard) rampur greyhound red fox rough collie russian black terrier saluki schnauzer scottish deerhound scottish terrier sealyham terrier serbian hound shetland sheepdog silken windhound sloughi smooth collie taigan welsh terrier whippet wolf list of dolichocephalic felines balinese devon rex donskoy jaguar javanese leopard lion ocelot oriental bicolor and tricolor oriental longhair oriental shorthair panthera hybrid peterbald sabertooth cats savannah siamese snow leopard sphynx tiger list of dolichocephalic leporids english spot english lop belgian hare all true hares other bontebok crocodile domestic horse donkey gharial grevy's zebra hartebeest hyrax kangaroo mule onager plains zebra polar bear thylacine warthog wild boar wildebeest