choosing wisely canada choosing wisely canada choosing wisely canada (cwc) is a canadian-based health education campaign launched on april 2, 2014 under the leadership of wendy levinson, in partnership with the canadian medical association, and based at unity health toronto and the university of toronto. the campaign aims to help clinicians and patients engage in conversations about unnecessary tests, treatments and procedures, and to assist physicians and patients in making informed and effective choices to ensure high quality care. cwc logos en fr the campaign is based on the notion that unnecessary tests, treatments, and procedures often do more harm than good, resulting in poor clinical outcomes and significant waste in the canadian healthcare system. these unnecessary tests and procedures take away from care by potentially exposing patients to harm, leading to more testing to investigate false positive tests, and contributing to unnecessary anxiety and avoidable costs for patients. choosing wisely canada aims to encourage and empower physicians to assimilate, evaluate, and implement the ever-increasing amount of evidence on current best practice. the campaign also supports the equally important role of patient education and the need to dispel the false notion that "more care is better care". central to the campaign are lists of "things clinicians and patients should question" developed by more than eighty canadian specialty societies. these lists are intended to encourage clinicians to adopt a "think twice" attitude to avoid unnecessary and potentially harmful tests and procedures, and to foster discussions between patients and clinicians about inappropriate care. the campaign also uses patient-friendly education materials to complement these lists, as well as teaches medical trainees about resource stewardship. as of june 2, 2021, 400 clinician recommendations and 39 lay language patient educational materials have been released. choosing wisely canada leads an international community, made up of nations who are implementing similar programs in their respective countries. at present, this community includes representation from australia, austria, brazil, denmark, england, france, germany, india, israel, italy, japan, netherlands, new zealand, south korea, switzerland, united states and wales. motivation external video dr. wendy levinson at launch of choosing wisely canada choosing wisely canada stems from worldwide concern around providing unnecessary treatment when the risk of harm exceeds its potential benefit ("medical overuse"). a number of studies have highlighted the prevalence of medical overuse in canada, which include findings that approximately 50% of prescriptions for respiratory infections in saskatchewan are inappropriate, 28% of lumbar spine mris in alberta and ontario are unnecessary, and 28% of bone mineral density scans are inappropriate. these unnecessary invasive procedures and low-value care are major causes of preventable harm and increased waste of medical resources. medical overuse has been associated with decreased patient satisfaction and poor clinical outcomes, including higher mortality. a systematic survey of patients in seven countries revealed that 10–20% of patients believed that their physicians had provided treatment of little or no value in the past two years. further studies highlighted the financial strain of medical overuse, such as the analysis conducted by the institute of medicine, which found that up to 30% of american health care spending is on unnecessary tests and procedures. in 2017, a joint report between choosing wisely canada and the canadian institute for health information found up to 30% of tests and treatments were unnecessary based on eight campaign recommendations. in light of these concerns, choosing wisely canada hopes to optimize value, reduce waste and improve patient outcomes by promoting patient-physician conversations about low-value care. history wendy levinson, chair of choosing wisely canada choosing wisely canada is modeled after the choosing wisely campaign launched by the abim foundation of the american board of internal medicine in the united states in 2012. wendy levinson, a canadian physician and previous chair of the abim board of directors, was involved in launching the choosing wisely campaign in the united states. after its successful launch, she decided to bring the movement to canada and partnered with the canadian medical association and the university of toronto to launch choosing wisely canada on april 2, 2014. in the first wave of the campaign, nine national medical specialty societies released evidence-based lists of 41 tests, treatments and procedures that provided no benefit or potentially caused harm to patients. under the leadership of wendy levinson and the canadian medical association, choosing wisely canada initially gained momentum in ontario and subsequently became a national movement. the second and third waves of physician recommendation lists and patient education materials were launched on october 29, 2014, and june 2, 2015, respectively. as of june 2, 2015, more than 80 canadian medical specialty societies are engaged and at various stages of recommendations development. in total, 400 clinician recommendations and 39 lay language patient educational materials have been released in the three waves from 2014–2015. campaign choosing wisely canada has adopted a multi-faceted campaign approach, engaging clinicians, patients, and medical trainees at all levels. the campaign has partnered with more than 80 canadian medical specialty societies to develop evidence-supported lists of "things clinicians and patients should question", hoping to promote conversation about inappropriate care. the underlying premise is that clinicians must lead such conversations, since they determine the appropriate or inappropriate use of resources. cwc has also developed complementary patient-friendly education materials, and has begun to embed lessons focusing on resource stewardship in undergraduate and postgraduate medical curricula. in order to unify grassroots projects occurring across canada to implement clinician recommendations, cwc additionally developed the early adopters collaborative, which serves as a "learning platform for sharing knowledge, tools and experiences among participating organizations". clinician recommendations lists cwc list development process at the core of the campaign are lists of "things clinicians and patients should question" developed by national specialty societies representing a broad spectrum of clinicians. these lists contain tests, treatments or procedures commonly used in their specialty, but which are not supported by evidence, and/or could expose patients to unnecessary harm. list items recommend practices to be avoided and typically begin with the word "don't" or "avoid"; for example, one of the recommendations released in the first wave of the campaign was don't order screening chest x-rays and ecgs for asymptomatic or low risk outpatients. national specialty societies are free to determine the process for generating their lists, as long as they are done in accordance with the following principles: the development process is thoroughly documented and publicly available each recommendation is within the specialty's scope of practice (and not pertaining to other specialties such as family medicine) tests, treatments or procedures included are those that (a) are frequently used, and, (b) may expose patients to harm or stress. each recommendation is supported by evidence choosing wisely canada recommendations are not intended to be used to establish payment and coverage decisions. rather, the lists are meant to spur conversation about what is appropriate and necessary treatment. as each patient situation is unique, choosing wisely canada recommends that its materials be used as guidelines for clinicians and patients to determine an appropriate treatment plan together. patient education in order to encourage patients to initiate conversations about unnecessary care, choosing wisely canada uses patient-friendly materials with lay language to complement the lists of "five things clinicians and patients should question". these patient educational materials are meant to inform patients about the tests, treatments and procedures used within various medical specialties, when they may or may not be necessary, and what patients can do to improve their overall health. for example, one of the patient educational materials released on june 2, 2015, addressed concerns regarding the amount of bed rest required to treat lower back pain, advising that staying in bed longer than 48 hours will not help, and in fact, may actually delay recovery. an editorial was written by wendy levinson in the toronto star as a part of the weekly feature titled "doctor's notes". the article highlighted the choosing wisely campaign and encouraged patients to engage in conversations with their physicians about unnecessary care. other campaign avenues healthcare stakeholder groups have mobilized around the cwc campaign at provincial and local levels. choosing wisely canada has regional campaigns in all provinces and territories. at the local level, hospitals, health regions and clinician groups across the country are working under their own initiative to find innovative ways to put the recommendations into practice. such local implementation efforts are beginning to emerge across canada, with activities ranging from clinician and patient education, to modifying clinical processes and information systems, to providing data back to providers about their practice patterns. another major aspect of the campaign is engaging medical trainees at all levels. the draft 2015 canmeds framework identifies leadership as one of seven essential physician competencies, urging medical professionals to "engage in the stewardship of health care resources", particularly to "allocate health care resources for optimal patient care" and "to apply evidence and management processes to achieve cost-appropriate care". in order to embody these ideals, cwc is working with canadian medical schools to introduce new content focussing on resource stewardship into the undergraduate, postgraduate and continuing medical education curricula. on the media front, the campaign includes partnerships with patient organizations and media outlets to develop and disseminate complementary content to increase patient awareness, and to support them in conversations surrounding inappropriate care. examples choosing wisely canada recommendations range from avoiding overuse of broad practices such as unnecessary and potentially harmful screening, diagnostic and radiographic services, to specific tests which are not supported by evidence to improve patient outcomes. examples of recommendations which advise against overuse of broad practices include: don't perform routine cancer screening, or surveillance for a new primary cancer, in the majority of patients with metastatic disease. don't perform annual stress cardiac imaging or advanced non-invasive imaging as part of routine follow-up in asymptomatic patients. examples of specific low-value tests to avoid in certain circumstances include: don't order serum testosterone in men without symptoms of hypogonadism. don't order thrombophilia testing in women with early pregnancy loss. challenges campaign leaders have identified a number of challenges which could potentially undermine the efforts of choosing wisely canada. since reducing unnecessary tests and procedures may result in lowering healthcare costs, the campaign may be viewed as a cost-cutting or rationing measure, which could in turn "undermine both physician engagement and patient trust." consequently, the campaign is centered around patient safety with particular emphasis on quality of care. furthermore, choosing wisely canada recommendations do not determine payment for individual services. some physicians report feeling pressure to engage in defensive medicine (e.g., ordering more tests than necessary) because they feel that it will help them avoid litigation. the canadian healthcare system is also set up so that specialty physicians get paid for tests and procedures conducted, and not for practicing conservative medicine. such a system may create a pattern for physicians to recommend more treatment. this pattern may also contribute to unwilling of physicians to put recommendations on their lists pertaining specifically to their specialty, instead focusing their recommendations on overuse by other specialties. evaluation of the campaign has also been identified as a major challenge. campaign leaders concede that measuring the impact of choosing wisely is complex and may require multiple approaches, including physician and patient awareness of the campaign, documented curriculum inclusion in medical curricula, and demonstrated reduction in unnecessary testing following campaign efforts. measuring progress of reduction in inappropriate care is particularly complex, since "the definition of appropriateness often includes knowing about symptoms and physical exam findings often not included in electronic health records and administrative databases". recognizing the complexity of evaluation efforts, choosing wisely canada along with other international choosing wisely movements is working with the organization for economic co-operation and development to develop metrics that might be used to compare countries on specific measures of overuse, as well to develop cross-country metrics. since patient education is a core facet of the campaign, communication with patients presents another challenge. some campaign recommendations may require clinical education for complete comprehension. furthermore, many patients tend to follow physician recommendations without question, even if they have questions. as such, a major portion of the campaign focuses on encouraging patients to initiate conversations about unnecessary care. additionally, choosing wisely canada has developed patient-friendly materials with straightforward, lay language to explain common tests, with a "when you need them and when you don't" approach. these materials complement