in recalling or recognizing an item, and also subjected the participants to make more frequent errors. for instance, in a study using metaphors as the test subject, older participants rejected correct metaphors more often than literally false statements. working memory, which as previously stated is a memory system that stores and manipulates information as we complete cognitive tasks, demonstrates great declines during the aging process. there have been various theories offered to explain why these changes may occur, which include fewer attentional resources, slower speed of processing, less capacity to hold information, and lack of inhibitory control. all of these theories offer strong arguments, and it is likely that the decline in working memory is due to the problems cited in all of these areas. some theorists argue that the capacity of working memory decreases as we age, and we are able to hold less information. in this theory, declines in working memory are described as the result of limiting the amount of information an individual can simultaneously keep active, so that a higher degree of integration and manipulation of information is not possible because the products of earlier memory processing are forgotten before the subsequent products. another theory that is being examined to explain age related declines in working memory is that there is a limit in attentional resources seen as we age. this means that older individuals are less capable of dividing their attention between two tasks, and thus tasks with higher attentional demands are more difficult to complete due to a reduction in mental energy. tasks that are simple and more automatic, however, see fewer declines as we age. working memory tasks often involve divided attention, thus they are more likely to strain the limited resources of aging individuals. speed of processing is another theory that has been raised to explain working memory deficits. as a result of various studies he has completed examining this topic, salthouse argues that as we age our speed of processing information decreases significantly. it is this decrease in processing speed that is then responsible for our inability to use working memory efficiently as we age. the younger persons brain is able to obtain and process information at a quicker rate which allows for subsequent integration and manipulation needed to complete the cognitive task at hand. as this processing slows, cognitive tasks that rely on quick processing speed then become more difficult. finally, the theory of inhibitory control has been offered to account for decline seen in working memory. this theory examines the idea that older adults are unable to suppress irrelevant information in working memory, and thus the capacity for relevant information is subsequently limited. less space for new stimuli due may attribute to the declines seen in an individual's working memory as they age. as we age, deficits are seen in the ability to integrate, manipulate, and reorganize the contents of working memory in order to complete higher level cognitive tasks such as problem solving, decision making, goal setting, and planning. more research must be completed in order to determine what the exact cause of these age-related deficits in working memory are. it is likely that attention, processing speed, capacity reduction, and inhibitory control may all play a role in these age-related deficits. the brain regions that are active during working memory tasks are also being evaluated, and research has shown that different parts of the brain are activated during working memory in younger adults as compared to older adults. this suggests that younger and older adults are performing these tasks differently. types of studies there are two different methods for studying the ways aging and memory effect each other which are cross-sectional and longitudinal. both methods have been used multiple times in the past, but they both have advantages and disadvantages. cross-sectional studies include testing different groups of people at different ages on a single occasion. this is where most of the evidence for studies including memory and aging come from. the disadvantage of cross-sectional studies is not being able to compare current data to previous data, or make a prediction about the future data. longitudinal studies include testing the same group of participants the same number of times, over many years which are carefully selected in order to reflect upon a full range of a population (ronnlund, nyberg, backman, & nilsson; ronnlund & nilsson, 2006). the advantage to longitudinal studies include being able to see the effects that aging has on performance for each participant and even being able to distinguish early signs of memory related diseases. however, this type of study can be very costly and timely which might make it more likely to have participants drop out over the course of the study. (baddeley, anderson, & eysenck, 2015). mechanism research a deficiency of the rbap48 protein has been associated with age-related memory loss. in 2010, experiments that have tested for the significance of under-performance of memory for an older adult group as compared to a young adult group, hypothesized that the deficit in associate memory due to age can be linked with a physical deficit. this deficit can be explained by the inefficient processing in the medial-temporal regions. this region is important in episodic memory, which is one of the two types of long-term human memory, and it contains the hippocampi, which are crucial in creating memorial association between items. age-related memory loss is believed to originate in the dentate gyrus, whereas alzheimer's is believed to originate in the entorhinal cortex. during normal aging, oxidative dna damage in the brain accumulates in the promoters of genes involved in learning and memory, as well as in genes involved in neuronal survival. oxidative dna damage includes dna single-strand breaks which can give rise to dna double-strand breaks (dsbs). dsbs accumulate in neurons and astrocytes of the hippocampus and frontal cortex at early stages and during the progression to alzheimer's disease, a process that could be an important driver of neurodegeneration and cognitive decline. prevention and treatment various actions have been suggested to prevent memory loss or even improve memory. the mayo clinic has suggested seven steps: stay mentally active, socialize regularly, get organized, eat a healthy diet, include physical activity in your daily routine, and manage chronic conditions. because some of the causes of memory loss include medications, stress, depression, heart disease, excessive alcohol use, thyroid problems, vitamin b12 deficiency, not drinking enough water, and not eating nutritiously, fixing those problems could be a simple, effective way to slow down dementia. some say that exercise is the best way to prevent memory problems, because that would increase blood flow to the brain and perhaps help new brain cells grow. the treatment will depend on the cause of memory loss, but various drugs to treat alzheimer's disease have been suggested in recent years. there are four drugs currently approved by the food and drug administration (fda) for the treatment of alzheimer's, and they all act on the cholinergic system: donepezil, galantamine, rivastigmine, and tacrine. although these medications are not the cure for alzheimer's, symptoms may be reduced for up to eighteen months for mild or moderate dementia. these drugs do not forestall the ultimate decline to full alzheimer's. also, modality is important in determining the strength of the memory. for instance, auditory creates stronger memory abilities than visual. this is shown by the higher recency and primacy effects of an auditory recall test compared to that of a visual test. research has shown that auditory training, through instrumental musical activity or practice, can help preserve memory abilities as one ages. specifically, in hanna-pladdy and mckay's experiment, they tested and found that the number of years of musical training, all things equal, leads to a better performance in non-verbal memory and increases the life span on cognition abilities in one's advanced years. caregiving by keeping the patient active, focusing on their positive abilities, and avoiding stress, these tasks can easily be accomplished. routines for bathing and dressing must be organized in a way so that the individual still feels a sense of independence. simple approaches such as finding clothes with large buttons, elastic waist bands, or velcro straps can ease the struggles of getting dressed in the morning. further, finances should be managed or have a trusted individual appointed to manage them. changing passwords to prevent over-use and involving a trusted family member or friend in managing accounts can prevent financial issues. when household chores begin to pile up, find ways to break down large tasks into small, manageable steps that can be rewarded. finally, talking with and visiting a family member or friend with memory issues is very important. using a respectful and simple approach, talking one-on-one can ease the pain of social isolation and bring much mental stimulation. many people who experience memory loss and other cognitive impairments can have changes in behaviors that are challenging to deal with for care givers.