factors in the construction of hbm. the 58 participants were active adult women smokers between 16 and 30 years of age. table 1 provides more background information while table 2 shows the correlation between the participants perceived variables and the intention to stop smoking. table 1 shows the mean, standard deviations of variables. table 2 shows the correlation between perceived variables and stop smoking intention table 2 shows that all variables besides perceived barriers had a weak positive correlation. in regards to perceived susceptibility, the respondents agreed that they were vulnerable to the health and social consequences associated to women smokers; however, they did not fully believe that smoking would trigger such severe health concerns or social consequences therefore they had a low desire to stop smoking. similarly, with perceived severity the respondents did not view their habits as having a severe consequence therefore they had a low desire to quit. additionally, the perceived benefits had a weak positive correlation meaning that the individuals saw that the adoption of healthy behaviors would have a beneficial impact on their overall lifestyle. perceived barriers showed a weak negative correlation meaning that the more barriers the individual associated with stopping smoking then the less likely they were to quit. lastly, the perceived self-efficacy of respondents were low and this led to a low desire to quit smoking. the intention to stop smoking among young adult women had a significant correlation with the perceived factors of the health belief model. another use of the hbm was in 2016 in a study that was interested in examining the factors associated with physical activity among people with mental illness (pmi) in hong kong (mo et al., 2016). the study used the hbm model because it was one of the most frequently used models to explain health behaviors and the hbm was used as a framework to understand the pmi physical activity levels. the study had 443 pmi complete the survey with the mean age being 45 years old. the survey found that among the hbm variables, perceived barriers were significant in predicting physical activity. additionally, the research demonstrated that self-efficacy had a positive correlation for physical activity among pmi. these findings support previous literature that self-efficacy and perceived barriers plays a significant role in physical activity and it should be included in interventions. the study also stated that the participants acknowledged that most of their attention is focused on their psychiatric conditions with little focus on their physical health needs. this study is important to note in regards to the hbm because it illustrates how culture can play a role in this model. the chinese culture holds different health beliefs than the united states, placing a greater emphasis on fate and the balance of spiritual harmony than on their physical fitness. since the hbm does not consider these outside variables it highlights a limitation associated with the model and how multiple factors can impact health decisions, not just the ones noted in the model. applying the health belief model to women's safety movements movements such as the #metoo movements and current political tensions surrounding abortion laws have moved women's rights and violence against women to the forefront of topical conversation. additionally, many organizations, such as women on guard, have begun to place emphasize on trying to educate women on what measures to take in order to increase their safety when walking alone at night. the murder of sarah everard on march 3, 2021, has placed further attention on the need for women to protect themselves and stay vigilant when walking alone at night. everard was kidnapped and murdered while walking home from work in south london, england. the health belief model can provide insight into the steps that need to be taken in order to reach more women and convince them to take the necessary steps to increase safety when walking alone. perceived susceptibility as stated, perceived susceptibility refers to how susceptible an individual perceives themselves to be to any given risk. in the case of encountering violence while walking along, research shows that many women have high amounts of perceived susceptibility in regards to how susceptible they believe themselves to be to the risk of being attacked while walking along. studies show that around 50% of women feel unsafe when walking alone at night since women may already have increased perceive susceptibility to night-violence, according to the health belief model, they may be more apt to engage in behavior changes to help them increase their safety/ defend themselves. perceived severity as the statistics on perceived susceptibility demonstrate, many women feel they are at risk for encountering night-violence. thus, women also have a higher perception of the severity of the violence as stories such as the tragic death of sarah everard demonstrate that night-violence attacks can be not only severe, but fatal. perceived benefits and barriers as the health belief model states, individuals must consider the potential benefits of adopting the change in behavior that is being suggested to them. in the case of night-violence against women organizations that seek to prevent it do so by using advertising to demonstrate to women that tools such as pocket knives, pepper spray, self-defense classes, alarm systems, and traveling with a "buddy" can outweigh barriers such as the cost, time, and other inconveniences that pursuing these changes in behavior may require. the benefit to implementing these behaviors would be that women could feel more safe when walking alone at night. modifying variable it is not surprise that the modifying variable of sex plays a large role in applying the health belief model to women's safety agendas/ movements. while studies show that around 50% of women feel unsafe walking at night, they also show that fewer than one fifth of men feel the same fear and discomfort thus, it is evident that the modifying variable of gender plays a large role in how night-time violence is perceived. according to the model, women may be more likely to change their behavior toward preventing night-time violence than men. cues to action cues to action are perhaps the most powerful part of the health belief model and of getting individual to change their behavior. in regards to preventing night-time violence against women, stories of the horrific violent acts committed against women while they are walking at night serve as external cues to action that can spur individuals to take the necessary precautions and make the necessary change to their behavior in order to reduce the likelihood of them encountering night-time violence. cues to action further factor into increased perceived susceptibility and severity of the given risk. self efficacy self efficacy is another important factor both in the health belief model and in behavior change in general. when people believe that they actually have the power to prevent the given risk, then they are more likely to take the appropriate measures to do so. when individuals believe that they cannot change their behavior or prevent the risk no matter what they do, then they are less likely to engage in behavior to stop the risk. this concept factors greatly into initiatives to help women defend themselves against night violence because, based on the statistics, many women do feel that if they carry items such as tasers, pepper spray, or alarms they will be able to defend themselves against attackers. self-defense classes are also things that organizations offer in order to teach individuals that they have the power to learn how to defend themselves and acquire the proper skills to do so. these classes can help to increase self efficacy. organizations such as community centers may offer classes along these lines. the issues of night violence against women is an issue of safety and wellness which makes it applicable to a health belief model approach. defense and preparation for night violence can require behavioral changes on behalf of women if they feel that doing so will help them protect themselves should they ever be attacked. limitations the hbm attempts to predict health-related behaviors by accounting for individual differences in beliefs and attitudes. however, it does not account for other factors that influence health behaviors. for instance, habitual health-related behaviors (e.g., smoking, seatbelt buckling) may become relatively independent of conscious health-related decision-making processes. additionally, individuals engage in some health-related behaviors for reasons unrelated to health (e.g., exercising for aesthetic reasons). environmental factors outside an individual's control may prevent engagement in desired behaviors. for example, an individual living in a dangerous neighborhood may be unable to go for a jog outdoors due to safety concerns. furthermore, the hbm does not consider the impact of emotions on health-related behavior. evidence suggests that fear may be a key factor in predicting health-related behavior. alternative factors may predict health behavior, such as outcome expectancy (i.e., whether the person feels they will be healthier as a result of their behavior) and self-efficacy (i.e., the person's belief in their ability to carry out preventive behavior). the theoretical constructs that constitute the hbm are broadly defined. furthermore, the hbm does not specify how constructs of the model interact with one another. therefore, different operationalizations of the theoretical constructs may not be strictly comparable across studies. research assessing the contribution of cues to action in predicting health-related behaviors is limited. cues to action are often difficult to assess, limiting research in this area. for instance, individuals may not accurately report cues that prompted behavior change. cues such as a public service announcement on television or on a billboard may be fleeting and individuals may not be aware of their significance in prompting them to engage in a health-related behavior. interpersonal influences are also particularly difficult to measure as cues. another reason why research does not always support the hbm is that factors other than health beliefs also heavily influence health behavior practices. these factors may include: special influences, cultural factors, socioeconomic status, and previous experiences. scholars extend the hbm by adding four more variables (self-identity, perceived importance, consideration of future consequences and concern for appearance) as possible determinants of healthy behavior. they prove that consideration of future consequences, self-identity, concern for appearance, perceived importance, self-efficacy, perceived susceptibility are significant determinants of healthy eating behavior that can be manipulated by healthy eating intervention design.