relieving symptoms of a disease. clinical research is different from clinical practice. in clinical practice established treatments are used, while in clinical research evidence is collected to establish a treatment. coeliac disease – coeliac disease or celiac disease is a long-term autoimmune disorder that primarily affects the small intestine. classic symptoms include gastrointestinal problems such as chronic diarrhoea, abdominal distention, malabsorption, loss of appetite and among children failure to grow normally. this often begins between six months and two years of age. non-classic symptoms are more common, especially in people older than two years. there may be mild or absent gastrointestinal symptoms, a wide number of symptoms involving any part of the body or no obvious symptoms. coeliac disease was first described in childhood; however, it may develop at any age. it is associated with other autoimmune diseases, such as diabetes mellitus type 1 and thyroiditis, among others. colorectal surgery – is a field in medicine dealing with disorders of the rectum, anus, and colon. common carotid artery – in anatomy, the left and right common carotid arteries (carotids) ) are arteries that supply the head and neck with oxygenated blood; they divide in the neck to form the external and internal carotid arteries. common cold – also known simply as a cold, is a viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory tract that primarily affects the nose. the throat, sinuses, and larynx may also be affected. signs and symptoms may appear less than two days after exposure to the virus. these may include coughing, sore throat, runny nose, sneezing, headache, and fever. people usually recover in seven to ten days, but some symptoms may last up to three weeks. occasionally, those with other health problems may develop pneumonia. common iliac artery – the common iliac arteries are two large arteries that originate from the aortic bifurcation at the level of the fourth lumbar vertebra. they end in front of the sacroiliac joint, one on either side, and each bifurcates into the external and internal iliac arteries. common iliac vein – the common iliac veins are formed by the external iliac veins and internal iliac veins. the left and right common iliac veins come together in the abdomen at the level of the fifth lumbar vertebra, forming the inferior vena cava. they drain blood from the pelvis and lower limbs. both common iliac veins are accompanied along their course by common iliac arteries. coronary arteries – are the blood vessels (arteries) of coronary circulation, which transports oxygenated blood to the actual heart muscle. the heart requires a continuous supply of oxygen to function and survive, much like any other tissue or organ of the body. corpus callosum – also callosal commissure, is a wide, thick nerve tract consisting of a flat bundle of commissural fibers, beneath the cerebral cortex in the brain. the corpus callosum is only found in placental mammals. it spans part of the longitudinal fissure, connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres, enabling communication between them. it is the largest white matter structure in the human brain, about ten centimetres in length and consisting of 200–300 million axonal projections. cranial nerves – are the nerves that emerge directly from the brain (including the brainstem), in contrast to spinal nerves (which emerge from segments of the spinal cord). ten of the cranial nerves originate in the brainstem. cranial nerves relay information between the brain and parts of the body, primarily to and from regions of the head and neck. cure – is a substance or procedure that ends a medical condition, such as a medication, a surgical operation, a change in lifestyle or even a philosophical mindset that helps end a person's sufferings; or the state of being healed, or cured. cytogenetics – is a branch of genetics that is concerned with how the chromosomes relate to cell behaviour, particularly to their behaviour during mitosis and meiosis. cytokines – are a broad and loose category of small proteins (~5–20 kda) that are important in cell signaling. cytokines are peptides, and cannot cross the lipid bilayer of cells to enter the cytoplasm. d decompression sickness – is a condition caused by inert gas bubbles forming in supersaturated tissues after a reduction in ambient pressure, and either obstructing perfusion or causing local damage. deep circumflex iliac vein – is formed by the union of the venae comitantes of the deep iliac circumflex artery, and joins the external iliac vein about 2 cm. above the inguinal ligament. it also receives small tributary branches from the thoracoepigastric vein deep temporal arteries – the deep temporal arteries, two in number, anterior and posterior, ascend between the temporalis and the pericranium. they supply the muscle, and anastomose with the middle temporal artery. the anterior communicates with the lacrimal artery by means of small branches which perforate the zygomatic bone and great wing of the sphenoid. definitive treatment – medical treatment generally accepted as most appropriate for the condition. deltoid muscle – is the muscle forming the rounded contour of the human shoulder. anatomically, it appears to be made up of three distinct sets of fibers though electromyography suggests that it consists of at least seven groups that can be independently coordinated by the nervous system. dentistry – also known as dental and oral medicine, is a branch of medicine that consists of the study, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases, disorders, and conditions of the oral cavity, commonly in the dentition but also the oral mucosa, and of adjacent and related structures and tissues, particularly in the maxillofacial (jaw and facial) area. dermatitis – also known as eczema, is a group of diseases that result in inflammation of the skin. these diseases are characterized by itchiness, red skin and a rash. in cases of short duration, there may be small blisters, while in long-term cases the skin may become thickened. the area of skin involved can vary from small to the entire body. diagnosis – medical diagnosis (abbreviated dx or ds) is the process of determining which disease or condition explains a person's symptoms and signs. it is most often referred to as diagnosis with the medical context being implicit. the information required for diagnosis is typically collected from a history and physical examination of the person seeking medical care. often, one or more diagnostic procedures, such as medical tests, are also done during the process. sometimes posthumous diagnosis is considered a kind of medical diagnosis. diabetes mellitus – (dm), commonly known as diabetes, is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by a high blood sugar level over a prolonged period. symptoms of high blood sugar include frequent urination, increased thirst, and increased hunger. if left untreated, diabetes can cause many complications. acute complications can include diabetic ketoacidosis, hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state, or death. serious long-term complications include cardiovascular disease, stroke, chronic kidney disease, foot ulcers, and damage to the eyes. dietary reference intake – (dri), is a system of nutrition recommendations from the institute of medicine (iom) of the national academies (united states). differential diagnosis – is the distinguishing of a particular disease or condition from others that present similar clinical features. digestive system – the human digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion (the tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder). digestion involves the breakdown of food into smaller and smaller components, until they can be absorbed and assimilated into the body. disease – is an abnormal condition in an organism, or part of it, that negatively affects structure or function. disease can be caused by external factors, or internal dysfunctions, such as abnormal immune responses. dysbarism e ear – is the organ of hearing and, in mammals, balance. in mammals, the ear is usually described as having three parts—the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear. the outer ear consists of the pinna and the ear canal. since the outer ear is the only visible portion of the ear in most animals, the word "ear" often refers to the external part alone. the middle ear includes the tympanic cavity and the three ossicles. the inner ear sits in the bony labyrinth, and contains structures which are key to several senses: the semicircular canals, which enable balance and eye tracking when moving; the utricle and saccule, which enable balance when stationary; and the cochlea, which enables hearing. the ears of vertebrates are placed somewhat symmetrically on either side of the head, an arrangement that aids sound localisation. ear infection – otitis is a general term for inflammation or infection of the ear, in both humans and other animals. it is subdivided into the following: otitis externa, external otitis, or "swimmer's ear", involves the outer ear and ear canal. in external otitis, the ear hurts when touched or pulled. otitis media, or middle ear infection, involves the middle ear. in otitis media, the ear is infected or clogged with fluid behind the ear drum, in the normally air-filled middle-ear space. this very common childhood infection sometimes requires a surgical procedure called myringotomy and tube insertion. otitis interna, or labyrinthitis, involves the inner ear. the inner ear includes sensory organs for balance and hearing. when the inner ear is inflamed, vertigo is a common symptom. elbow – is the visible joint between the upper and lower parts of the arm. it includes prominent landmarks such as the olecranon, the elbow pit, the lateral and medial epicondyles, and the elbow joint. the elbow joint is the synovial hinge joint between the humerus in the upper arm and the radius and ulna in the forearm which allows the forearm and hand to be moved towards and away from the body. embryology – is the branch of biology that studies the prenatal development of gametes (sex cells), fertilization, and development of embryos and fetuses. additionally, embryology encompasses the study of congenital disorders that occur before birth, known as teratology. emergency medicine – also known as accident and emergency medicine, is the medical specialty concerned with the care of illnesses or injuries requiring immediate medical attention. emergency physicians care for unscheduled and undifferentiated patients of all ages. as first-line providers, their primary responsibility is to initiate resuscitation and stabilization and to start investigations and interventions to diagnose and treat illnesses in the acute phase. endocrine system – is a chemical messenger system comprising feedback loops of hormones released by internal glands of an organism directly into the circulatory system, regulating distant target organs. in humans, the major endocrine glands are the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands. in vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems. the study of the endocrine system and its disorders is known as endocrinology. endocrinology is a branch of internal medicine. endocrinology – is a branch of biology and medicine dealing with the endocrine system, its diseases, and its specific secretions known as hormones. it is also concerned with the integration of developmental events proliferation, growth, and differentiation, and the psychological or behavioral activities of metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sleep, digestion, respiration, excretion, mood, stress, lactation, movement, reproduction, and sensory perception caused by hormones. specializations include behavioral endocrinology and comparative endocrinology. epidemiology – is the study and analysis of the distribution (who, when, and where), patterns and determinants of health and disease conditions in defined populations. it is a cornerstone of public health, and shapes policy decisions and evidence-based practice by identifying risk factors for disease and targets for preventive healthcare. epidemiologists help with study design, collection, and statistical analysis of data, amend interpretation and dissemination of results (including peer review and occasional systematic review). epidemiology has helped develop methodology used in clinical research, public health studies, and, to a lesser extent, basic research in the biological sciences. epiglottis – is a leaf-shaped flap in the throat that prevents food from entering the windpipe and the lungs. it stands open during breathing, allowing air into the larynx. during swallowing, it closes to prevent aspiration of food into the lungs, forcing the swallowed liquids or food to go along the esophagus toward the stomach instead. it is thus the valve that diverts passage to either the trachea or the esophagus. epilepsy – is a group of neurological disorders characterized by recurrent epileptic seizures. epileptic seizures are episodes that can