plasmodium vivax plasmodium vivax plasmodium vivax is a protozoal parasite and a human pathogen. this parasite is the most frequent and widely distributed cause of recurring malaria. although it is less virulent than plasmodium falciparum, the deadliest of the five human malaria parasites, p. vivax malaria infections can lead to severe disease and death, often due to splenomegaly (a pathologically enlarged spleen). p. vivax is carried by the female anopheles mosquito; the males do not bite. plasmodium vivax mature p. vivax trophozoite scientific classification domain: eukaryota clade: diaphoretickes clade: tsar clade: sar clade: alveolata phylum: apicomplexa class: aconoidasida order: haemospororida family: plasmodiidae genus: plasmodium species: p. vivax binomial name plasmodium vivax(grassi & feletti, 1890) synonyms haemamoeba vivax grassi and feletti, 1890 plasmodium malariae tertianae celli and sanfelice, 1891 haemamoeba laverani var. tertiana labbe, 1894(?) haemosporidium tertianae lewkowicz, 1897 plasmodium camarense ziemann, 1915 health epidemiology relative incidence of plasmodium species by country of origin for imported cases to non-endemic countries, showing p. vivax (in blue) predominating in areas including asia and mainland america. plasmodium vivax is found mainly in asia, latin america, and in some parts of africa. p. vivax is believed to have originated in asia, but recent studies have shown that wild chimpanzees and gorillas throughout central africa are endemically infected with parasites that are closely related to human p. vivax. these findings indicate that human p. vivax is of african origin. plasmodium vivax accounts for 65% of malaria cases in asia and south america. unlike plasmodium falciparum, plasmodium vivax is capable of undergoing sporogonic development in the mosquito at lower temperatures. it has been estimated that 2.5 billion people are at risk of infection with this organism. although the americas contribute 22% of the global area at risk, high endemic areas are generally sparsely populated and the region contributes only 6% to the total population at risk. in africa, the widespread lack of the duffy antigen in the population has ensured that stable transmission is constrained to madagascar and parts of the horn of africa. it contributes 3.5% of global population at risk. central asia is responsible for 82% of global population at risk with high endemic areas coinciding with dense populations particularly in india and myanmar. south east asia has areas of high endemicity in indonesia and papua new guinea and overall contributes 9% of global population at risk. p. vivax is carried by at least 71 mosquito species. many vivax vectors thrive in temperate climates—as far north as finland. some prefer to bite outdoors or during the daytime, hampering the effectiveness of indoor insecticide and bed nets. several key vector species have yet to be grown in the lab for closer study, and insecticide resistance is unquantified. clinical presentation pathogenesis results from rupture of infected red blood cells, leading to fever. infected red blood cells may also stick to each other and to walls of capillaries. vessels plug up and deprive tissues of oxygen. infection may also cause the spleen to enlarge. unlike p. falciparum, p. vivax can populate the bloodstream, even before a patient shows symptoms, with sexual-stage parasites—the form ingested by mosquitoes prior to biting the next victim. consequently, prompt treatment of symptomatic patients does not necessarily help stop an outbreak, as it does with falciparum malaria, in which fevers occur as sexual stages develop. even when symptoms appear, because the disease is usually not immediately fatal, the parasite continues to multiply. plasmodium vivax can cause a more unusual form of malaria with atypical symptoms. it has been known to debut with hiccups, loss of taste, lack of fever, pain while swallowing, cough and urinary discomfort. the parasite can lie dormant in the liver for days to years, causing no symptoms and remaining undetectable in blood tests. they form hypnozoites, a small stage that nestles inside an individual liver cell. this name derives from "sleeping organisms". the hypnozoites allow the parasite to survive in more temperate zones, where mosquitoes bite only part of the year. a single infectious bite can trigger six or more relapses a year, leaving patients more vulnerable to other diseases. other infectious diseases, including falciparum malaria, appear to trigger relapses. serious complications serious complications for malaria are dormant liver stage parasites, organ failures such as acute kidney failure. more complications of malaria can also be impairment of consciousness, neurological abnormalities, hypoglycemia and low blood pressures caused by cardiovascular collapse, clinical jaundice and or other vital organ dysfunctions and coagulation defects. the most serious complication ultimately being death. prevention the main way to prevent malaria is through vector control. there are mostly three main forms that the vector can be controlled: (1) insecticide-treated mosquito nets, (2) indoor residual spraying and (3) antimalarial drugs. long-lasting insecticidal nets (llns) are the preferred method of control because it is the most cost effective. the who is currently strategizing how to ensure that the net is properly maintained to protect people at risk. the second option is indoor residual spraying and has been proven effective if at least 80% of the homes are sprayed. however, such method is only effective for 3-6months. a drawback to these two methods, unfortunately, is that mosquito resistance against these insecticides has risen. national malaria control efforts are undergoing rapid changes to ensure the people are given the most effective method of vector control. lastly, antimalarial drugs can also be used to prevent infection from developing into a clinical disease. however, there has also been an increase resistance to antimalarial medicine. in 2015 the world health organization (who) drew up a plan to address vivax malaria, as part of their global technical strategy for malaria. diagnosis p. vivax and p. ovale that has been sitting in edta for more than 30 minutes before the blood film is made will look very similar in appearance to p. malariae, which is an important reason to warn the laboratory immediately when the blood sample is drawn so they can process the sample as soon as it arrives. blood films are preferably made within 30 minutes of the blood draw and must certainly be made within an hour of the blood being drawn. diagnosis can be done with the strip fast test of antibodies. treatment chloroquine remains the treatment of choice for vivax malaria, except in indonesia's irian jaya (western new guinea) region and the geographically contiguous papua new guinea, where chloroquine resistance is common (up to 20% resistance). chloroquine resistance is an increasing problem in other parts of the world, such as korea and india. when chloroquine resistance is common or when chloroquine is contraindicated, then artesunate is the drug of choice, except in the u.s., where it is not approved for use. where an artemisinin-based combination therapy has been adopted as the first-line treatment for p. falciparum malaria, it may also be used for p. vivax malaria in combination with primaquine for radical cure. an exception is artesunate plus sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (as+sp), which is not effective against p. vivax in many places. mefloquine is a good alternative and in some countries is more readily available. atovaquone-proguanil is an effective alternative in patients unable to tolerate chloroquine. quinine may be used to treat vivax malaria but is associated with inferior outcomes. 32–100% of patients will relapse following successful treatment of p. vivax infection if a radical cure (inactivation of liver stages) is not given. eradication of the liver stages is achieved by giving primaquine but patients with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency are at risk for haemolysis. g6pd-testing is therefore very important, both in endemic areas and in travelers. at least a 14-day course of primaquine is required for the radical treatment of p. vivax malaria. the idea that primaquine kills parasites in the liver is the traditional assumption. however, it has been suggested that primaquine might, to a currently unknown extent, also inactivate noncirculating, extrahepatic merozoites (clarity in this regard is expected to be forthcoming soon). tafenoquine in 2013 a phase iib trial was completed that studied a single-dose alternative drug named tafenoquine. it is an 8-aminoquinoline, of the same family as primaquine, developed by researchers at the walter reed army institute of research in the 1970s and tested in safety trials. it languished, however, until the push for malaria elimination sparked new interest in primaquine alternatives. among patients who received a 600-mg dose, 91% were relapse-free after 6 months. among patients who received primaquine, 24% relapsed within 6 months. "the data are absolutely spectacular," wells says. ideally, he says, researchers will be able to combine the safety data from the army's earlier trials with the new study in a submission to the u.s. food and drug administration for approval. like primaquine, tafenoquine causes hemolysis in people who are g6pd deficient. in 2013 researchers produced cultured human "microlivers" that supported liver stages of both p. falciparum and p. vivax and may have also created hypnozoites. eradication mass-treating populations with primaquine can kill the hypnozoites, exempting those with g6pd deficiency. however, the standard regimen requires a daily pill for 14 days across an asymptomatic population. korea p. vivax is the only indigenous malaria parasite on the korean peninsula. in the years following the korean war (1950–53), malaria-eradication campaigns successfully reduced the number of new cases of the disease in north korea and south korea. in 1979, world health organization declared the korean peninsula vivax malaria-free, but the disease unexpectedly re-emerged in the late 1990s and still persists today. several factors contributed to the re-emergence of the disease, including reduced emphasis on malaria control after 1979, floods and famine in north korea, emergence of drug resistance and possibly global warming. most cases are identified along the korean demilitarized zone. as such, vivax malaria offers the two koreas an opportunity to work together on an important health problem that affects both countries. drug targets given that drugs that target the various life stages of the parasite can sometimes have undesirable side effects, it is desirable to come up with drug molecules targeting specific proteins/enzymes that are essential for the parasite's survival or that can compromise the fitness of the organism. enzymes in the purine salvage pathway had been favorite targets to this end. however, given the high degree of conservation in purine metabolism across the parasite and its host, there could be potential cross-reactivity making it difficult to design selective drugs against the parasite. to overcome this, recent efforts have focused on deducing the function of orphan hypothetical proteins whose functions have been unknown. though, a lot of the hypothetical proteins have role in secondary metabolism, targeting them will be beneficial from two perspectives, i.e., specificity and reducing the virulence of the pathogen with no or minimal undesirable cross-reactivities. biology life cycle like all malaria parasites, p. vivax has a complex life cycle. it infects a definitive insect host, where sexual reproduction occurs, and an intermediate vertebrate host, where asexual amplification occurs. in p. vivax, the definitive hosts are anopheles mosquitoes (also known as the vector), while humans are the intermediate asexual hosts. during its life cycle, p. vivax assumes various different physical forms (see below). asexual forms: sporozoite: transfers infection from mosquito to human immature trophozoites (ring or signet-ring shaped), about 1/3 of the diameter of a rbc. mature trophozoites: very irregular and delicate (described as amoeboid); many pseudopodial processes seen. presence of fine grains of brown pigment (malarial pigment) or hematin probably derived from the haemoglobin of the infected red blood cell. schizonts (also called meronts): as large as a normal red cell; thus the parasitized corpuscle becomes distended and larger than normal. there are about sixteen merozoites. sexual forms: gametocytes: round. p. vivax gametocytes are commonly found in human peripheral blood at about the end of the first week of parasitemia. gametes: formed from gametocytes in mosquitoes. zygote: formed from combination of gametes oocyst: contains zygote, develops into sporozoites human infection p. vivax human infection occurs when an infected mosquito feeds on a human. during feeding, the mosquito injects saliva, along with sporozoites, through the skin. a proportion of these sporozoites reach the liver. there they enter hepatic cells, on which they feed, and reproduce asexually, as described in the next section. this process gives rise to thousands of merozoites (plasmodial daughter cells) in the body. the incubation period of human infection usually ranges from ten to seventeen days and sometimes up to