water resources management in the dominican republic water resources management in the dominican republic with surface water resources of 20 billion m3 per year, of which 12 billion m3 are groundwater recharge, water resources in the dominican republic could be considered abundant. but irregular spatial and seasonal distribution, coupled with high consumption in irrigation and urban water supply, translates into water scarcity. rapid economic growth and increased urbanization have also affected environmental quality and placed strains on the dominican republic's water resources base. in addition, the dominican republic is exposed to a number of natural hazards, such as hurricanes, storms, floods, drought, earthquakes, and fires. global climate change is expected to induce permanent climate shocks to the caribbean region, which will likely affect the dominican republic in the form of sea level rise, higher surface air and sea temperatures, extreme weather events (such as tropical storms and hurricanes), increased rainfall intensity (leading to both more frequent and severe flooding) and more frequent and more severe "el niño-like" conditions. not to be confused with water supply and sanitation in the dominican republic or irrigation in the dominican republic. water resources management in dominican republicwithdrawals by sector 2000/2001 domestic: 11% agriculture: 89% industry: 0% renewable water resources21 km3 (1977–2001)surface water produced internally21 km3groundwater recharge12 km3overlap shared by surface water and groundwater12 km3renewable water resources per capita2,430 m3 per yearwetland designated as ramsar sites20,000 hahydropower generation14% water resources management in the country, in particular water quality, quantity and watershed management faces major challenges today. despite of the lack of systematic data limiting an accurate and detailed assessment of the scope of the problems, there is a consensus that: (i) the overall poor quality of surface, groundwater and coastal water resources is the result of a lack of waste water management and agricultural run-off, causing health problems that disproportionately affect the poor; (ii) water scarcity is a regional problem resulting from poor demand management in irrigation, urban water supply and tourist infrastructure in drier regions; (iii) weak watershed management leads to soil erosion and amplifies the damage and frequency of flooding; and (iv) the overall lack of solid waste management pollutes water sources, causes disease and is a nuisance for inhabitants and visitors alike. the dominican republic's government is in the process of reducing its role as main investor for water resources infrastructure and services provider decentralizing some responsibilities to local and regional government, water users organizations, and private companies. water management history and recent developments map of the dominican republic during the end of the 19th century and 20th century, the dominican republic government was one of the main investor in the country's hydraulic infrastructure development. primarily focused on developing irrigation infrastructure in the first three quarters of the past century, dominican republic government invested on canal networks and irrigation technology increasing the area under irrigation from 32,000 hectares (ha) in the 1940s to 132,000 ha in 1954. in 1965, the dominican republic government created the national institute for the development of water resources (instituto nacional de desarrollo de los recursos hidraulicos– indrhi) responsible for planning the sustainable use of water resources and associated resources, as well as designing, formulating, executing, monitoring and evaluating projects, programs and actions aimed at controlling and regulating superficial and groundwater. over the last three decades, the dominican republic government has decentralized a number of responsibilities in the water sector to other institutions, such as operation and maintenance of infrastructure and water fee collection to irrigation districts and regional water and sewer companies. in addition, the electricity sector has been partially privatized in 1998–99, with hydropower remaining in public hands. tourism in the dominican republic a beach on saona island tourism is one of the main economic activities in the dr. indeed, tourism currently comprises 13% of gdp and contributes 29% of total export earning. in addition, tourism host more than 200 companies and employ 200,000 people. tourism depends to a great extent on the quality of water resources and the coastal environment. however, the tourism industry is threatened by the deficiency of the water and sewerage services and the environmental pollution caused by inadequate management and disposal of sewage and solid waste. on the other hand, tourism harms the dominican republic's water resources and environment. wrm issues associated with tourism include: dumping of untreated waste water and solid waste along the coast, overexploitation of groundwater, destruction of forest cover, and overfishing of coral reef and marine species. water resource base surface and groundwater resources rio chavon in the eastern dr near la romana province the dominican republic's internal water resources per capita is 2,430 cubic meters, which is below the average for central american and the caribbean region, 6,645. current water demand of 10 billion m3 represents 44 percent of total available freshwater resources. according to the world bank only barbados, the dr, mexico, and peru exceed 10 percent demand in the latin america and caribbean region. water scarcity is reflected in increasing competition for surface water allocation and unsustainable groundwater abstraction. characteristics of the drainage basins watershed river basin drainage surface (km2) average annual rainfall (mm) average annual run off (billion m3/year) (1) caribbean bahoruco mountains 2,814 750–2,000 9,500 yaque del sur river 5,345 700–1,500 azua, bani, san cristobal 4,460 750–2,000 ozama river 2,706 1,400-2,250 san pedro de marcoris and la romana 4,629 1,000-2,250 higuey 2,207 1,000-1,750 atlantic miches and sabana del mar 2,265 200-2700 10,480 samana peninsula 854 n/a northern coastal zone 4,266 1,000-2,300 yuna river 5,630 1,170-2,250 yaque del norte river 7,053 500–2,000 dajabon river 858 750–2,000 haiti artibonite river 2,653 1,200-2,000 1,015 enriquillo lake enriquillo 3,048 600-750 (2) total 48,730 1,500 20,995 source: food and agriculture organization (1) total run off including superficial and groundwater run off. (2) enriquillo lake's run off is included in the caribbean watershed total run off south shore of the saline lake enriquillo, looking northward to the sierra de neiba mountains; independencia province. according to the food and agriculture organization, groundwater has a potential of 1,500 million m3/year, but less than a third of this value is actually being extracted. although coastal limestone aquifers contain only about 4 percent of the available groundwater reserves, human activities in the southeast of the country (from santo domingo to la romana and punta cana) are heavily dependent on them – for example, some 30 percent of santo domingo's water supply comes from underground sources. as a result, coastal limestone aquifers are overdrafted and seawater intrusion already reaches inland 20 to 50 km from the seashore. many coastal aquifers are at risk of contamination from agrochemicals and poorly located solid waste disposal, contributing to water scarcity by making resources unavailable. storage capacity and infrastructure according to the food and agriculture organization, the dominican republic dams’ storage capacity is 2,144 million m3, 85 percent of which is stored in reservoirs behind large dams (those whose capacity exceeds 100 million m3). most large reservoirs store water for multiple purposes (drinking water supply, flood control, irrigation and hydroelectric). the largest reservoirs in the country are hatillo (700 million m3) in the yuna river, sabana yegua (560 million m3) in the yaque del sur river, bao (244 million m3) in the bao river and jiguey (169 million m3) and valdesía (137 million m3), both in the nizao river. water quality although few studies on water quality have been carried out over the last two decades and there is a crucial lack of adequate and consistent monitoring, scattered evidence suggests that the levels of nutrients, organic matter, and bacteriological contamination in water are high. for example, the proportion of samples with coliforms in aqueducts served by inapa (the main water company, supplying 40 percent of the population) increased from 17 percent in 1994 to 23 percent in 1998. this is particularly striking because according to dominican republic standards, presence of coliforms in more than 5 percent of samples indicates that water is no longer potable. water pollution is largely the product of poor urban wastewater management but solid waste and agriculture are also water polluters. in some cases, high salinity, pesticides and other pollutants are present in water close to agricultural, urban, and industrial areas. downstream of metal mining, flows of effluents also show high levels of cadmium, chrome and other heavy metals – high levels of mercury have been found in the waters of samana bay and the presence of pesticides and persistent organic pollutants (such as ddt and pcbs) in estuary mollusks has also been reported. water resources management by sector drinking water and sanitation main article: water supply and sanitation in the dominican republic the dominican republic has achieved impressive increases in access to water supply and sanitation over the past two decades. however, the quality of water supply and sanitation services remains poor, despite the country's high economic growth during the 1990s. the dr, with a population of 8.8 million, of which about 60% are located in urban areas, has a high level of water services in urban areas with 97% coverage and 92% of the urban population with household connections (as compared to an average of 90% in the lac region). urban (60% of the population) rural (40% of the population) total water broad definition 97% 91% 95% house connections 92% 62% 80% sanitation broad definition 81% 73% 78% sewerage 65% 27% 50% source: who/unicef joint monitoring program (2006). (water and sanitation based on dominican republic demographic and health survey (2002). the joint monitoring program data do not mention the 2002 census as a source. according to the census, as quoted in uriana abreu, slide 15, coverage for sanitation (broad definition) was 93% (96% in urban areas and 88% in rural areas). these higher coverage figures may be due to a broader definition of improved sanitation in the census compared to the demographic and health survey used as a source by the jmp) there are substantial regional differences in coverage. for example, in nine provinces located in the central, northeastern and eastern part of the country less than 70% of the population had access to an improved source of water supply according to the 2002 census. poor households exhibit lower levels of access: only 56% of poor households are connected to water house connections as opposed to 80% of non-poor households. just 20% of poor households have access to sewers, as opposed to 50% for the non-poor. irrigation and drainage about 76% of dominican republic's land area (8,900 km2) is dedicated to agriculture, 17% of which is irrigated. according to the food and agriculture organization, 270,000 ha are equipped for irrigation. indrhi estimates the area suitable for irrigation at up to 710,000 ha, taking into account soil suitability and water resources availability. most of the irrigated areas are located in the valleys between the mountain ranges, with a medium to low rainfall and few limitations on its soil such as slope, depth of soil, and in some cases, salinity problems associated with irrigation or the presence of saline groundwater. needs in the irrigation subsector are related to improving efficiency, productivity and organizational aspects. according to the food and agriculture organization, solutions should be sought in the use of better technology, efficient operation of irrigation systems and adequate means of financial support. poor maintenance of existing infrastructure and irrational use of water are causes for the low (overall) irrigation efficiency. irrigation management transfer to water users associations (wuas), formally started in the mid-1980s, is still an ongoing process showing positive signs with irrigation systems in 127,749 ha (46% of total irrigated land in the country), being managed by 41,329 users (57% of all users). however, the transfer process and the performance of wuas are still far from ideal. while wuas show a significant increase in cost recovery, especially when compared to low values in areas under state management, a high subsidy from the government still contributes to cover operation and maintenance costs in their systems. hydropower in 2008 the dominican republic had a hydroelectric capacity of 470 mw, accounting for 14% of electricity generating capacity. it is expected that, by 2012, an additional 762mw will have been added. the first three new hydropower plants, with a combined capacity of 240mw, are: pinalito with 50 mw on the rio tireo and the rio blanco, palomino with 99 mw at the confluence of