rainwater harvesting rainwater harvesting rainwater harvesting (rwh) is the collection and storage of rain, rather than allowing it to run off. rainwater is collected from a roof-like surface and redirected to a tank, cistern, deep pit (well, shaft, or borehole), aquifer, or a reservoir with percolation, so that it seeps down and restores the ground water. dew and fog can also be collected with nets or other tools. rainwater harvesting differs from stormwater harvesting as the runoff is typically collected from roofs and other surfaces for storage and subsequent reuse.: 10 its uses include watering gardens, livestock, irrigation, domestic use with proper treatment, and domestic heating. the harvested water can also be committed to longer-term storage or groundwater recharge. basic configuration of domestic rainwater harvesting system in uganda. rainwater harvesting is one of the simplest and oldest methods of self-supply of water for households, having been used in south asia and other countries for many thousands of years. installations can be designed for different scales including households, neighbourhoods and communities and can also be designed to serve institutions such as schools, hospitals and other public facilities. applications rainwater capture and storage system, mexico city campus, monterrey institute of technology and higher education cistern, mission district, san francisco, california rainwater capture, gibraltar east side, 1992 home, with rain collection jars on roof, panarea, aeolian islands, north of sicily, italy rainwater harvesting and hand washing system for a toilet in kenya. rainwater harvesting in burkina faso plastic pond for rainwater harvesting, nepal, 2013 rainwater harvesting system, kiribati domestic use rooftop rainwater harvesting is used to provide drinking water, domestic water, water for livestock, water for small irrigation, and a way to replenish groundwater levels. agriculture in regards to urban agriculture, rainwater harvesting in urban areas reduces the impact of runoff and flooding. the combination of urban ‘green’ rooftops with rainwater catchments have been found to reduce building temperatures by more than 1.3 degrees celsius. rainwater harvesting in conjunction with urban agriculture would be a viable way to help meet the united nations sustainable development goals for cleaner and sustainable cities, health and wellbeing, and food and water security (sustainable development goal 6). the technology is available, however, it needs to be remodeled in order to use water more efficiently, especially in an urban setting. kenya has already been successfully harvesting rainwater for toilets, laundry, and irrigation. since the establishment of the country's 2016 water act, kenya has prioritized the regulation of their agriculture industry. additionally, areas in australia use harvested rainwater for cooking and drinking. studies done by stout et al researching the feasibility in india found rwh was most beneficial used for small-scale irrigation, which provides income with the sales of produce, and overflow used for groundwater recharge. missions to five caribbean countries have shown that the capture and storage of rainwater runoff for later use is able to significantly reduce the risk of losing some or all of the year's harvest because of soil or water scarcity. in addition, the risks associated with flooding and soil erosion during high rainfall seasons would decrease. small farmers, especially those farming on hillsides, could benefit the most from rainwater harvesting because they are able to capture runoff and decrease the effects of soil erosion. many countries, especially those with arid environments, use rainwater harvesting as a cheap and reliable source of clean water. to enhance irrigation in arid environments, ridges of soil are constructed to trap and prevent rainwater from running down hills and slopes. even in periods of low rainfall, enough water is collected for crops to grow. water can be collected from roofs, dams and ponds can be constructed to hold large quantities of rainwater so that even on days when little to no rainfall occurs, enough is available to irrigate crops. industry frankfurt airport has the biggest rainwater harvesting system in germany. the system helps save approximately 1 million cubic meters of water per year. the cost of the system was 1.5 million dm (us$63,000) in 1993. this system collects water from the roofs of the new terminal which has an area of 26,800 square meters. the water is collected in the basement of the airport in six tanks with a storage capacity of 100 cubic meters. the water is mainly used for toilet flushing, watering plants and cleaning the air conditioning system. rainwater harvesting was adopted at the velodrome – the london olympic park – in order to increase the sustainability of the facility. a 73% decrease in potable water demand by the park was estimated. despite this, it was deemed that rainwater harvesting was a less efficient use of financial resources to increase sustainability than the park's blackwater recycling program. technologies traditionally, stormwater management using detention basins served a single purpose. however, optimized real-time control lets this infrastructure double as a source of rainwater harvesting without compromising the existing detention capacity. this has been used in the epa headquarters to evacuate stored water prior to storm events, thus reducing wet weather flow while ensuring water availability for later reuse. this has the benefit of increasing water quality released and decreasing the volume of water released during combined sewer overflow events. generally, check dams are constructed across the streams to enhance the percolation of surface water into the subsoil strata. the water percolation in the water-impounded area of the check dams can be enhanced artificially manyfold by loosening the subsoil strata and overburden using anfo explosives as used in open cast mining. thus, local aquifers can be recharged quickly using the available surface water fully for use in the dry season. system setup rainwater harvesting systems can range in complexity, from systems that can be installed with minimal skills, to automated systems that require advanced setup and installation. the basic rainwater harvesting system is more of a plumbing job than a technical job, as all the outlets from the building's terrace are connected through a pipe to an underground tank that stores water. there are common components that are installed in such systems, such as pre-filters (see e.g. vortex filter), drains/gutters, storage containers, and depending on whether the system is pressurized, also pumps, and treatment devices such as uv lights, chlorination devices and post-filtration equipment. systems are ideally sized to meet the water demand throughout the dry season since it must be big enough to support daily water consumption. specifically, the rainfall capturing area such as a building roof must be large enough to maintain an adequate flow of water. the water storage tank size should be large enough to contain the captured water. for low-tech systems, many low-tech methods are used to capture rainwater: rooftop systems, surface water capture, and pumping the rainwater that has already soaked into the ground or captured in reservoirs and storing it in tanks (cisterns). rainwater harvesting by freshwater-flooded forests rainwater harvesting is possible by growing freshwater-flooded forests without losing the income from the used, submerged land. the main purpose of the rainwater harvesting is to use the locally available rainwater to meet water requirements throughout the year without the need of huge capital expenditure. this would facilitate the availability of uncontaminated water for domestic, industrial, and irrigation needs. rainwater harvesting by solar power panels good quality water resource, closer to populated areas, is becoming scarce and costly for the consumers. in addition to solar and wind energy, rainwater is major renewable resource of any land. the vast area is being covered by solar pv panels every year in all parts of the world. solar panels can also be used for harvesting most of the rainwater falling on them and drinking quality water, free from bacteria and suspended matter, can be generated by simple filtration and disinfection processes as rainwater is very low in salinity. exploitation of rainwater for value-added products like bottled drinking water, makes solar pv power plants profitable even in high rainfall/ cloudy areas by the augmented income from value-added drinking water generation. recently cost-effective rainwater collection in the already dug wells found to be highly effective in bringing groundwater level up in india. other innovations rainsaucer system at an orphanage in guatemala instead of using the roof for catchment, the rainsaucer, which looks like an upside-down umbrella, collects rain straight from the sky. this decreases the potential for contamination and makes rainsaucer a potential application for potable water in developing countries. other applications of this free-standing rainwater collection approach are sustainable gardening and small-plot farming. a dutch invention called the groasis waterboxx is also useful for growing trees with harvested and stored dew and rainwater. advantages rainwater harvesting provides the independent water supply during regional water restrictions, and in developed countries, it is often used to supplement the main supply. it provides water when a drought occurs, can help mitigate flooding of low-lying areas, and reduces demand on wells which may enable groundwater levels to be sustained. rainwater harvesting increases the availability of water during dry seasons by increasing the levels of dried borewells and wells. surface water supply is readily available for various purposes thus reducing dependence on underground water. it improves the quality of ground by diluting salinity. it does not cause pollution and is environmentally friendly. it is cost-effective and easily affordable. it also helps in the availability of potable water, as rainwater is substantially free of salinity and other salts. applications of rainwater harvesting in urban water system provides a substantial benefit for both water supply and wastewater subsystems by reducing the need for clean water in water distribution systems, less generated stormwater in sewer systems, and a reduction in stormwater runoff polluting freshwater bodies. a large body of work has focused on the development of life cycle assessment and its costing methodologies to assess the level of environmental impacts and money that can be saved by implementing rainwater harvesting systems. independent water supply rainwater harvesting provides an independent water supply during water restrictions. in areas where clean water is costly, or difficult to come by, rainwater harvesting is a critical source of clean water. in developed countries, rainwater is often harvested to be used as a supplemental source of water rather than the main source, but the harvesting of rainwater can also decrease a household's water costs or overall usage levels. rainwater is safe to drink if the consumers do additional treatments before drinking. boiling water helps to kill germs. adding another supplement to the system such as a first flush diverter is also a common procedure to avoid contaminants of the water. supplemental in drought when drought occurs, rainwater harvested in past months can be used. if rain is scarce but also unpredictable, the use of a rainwater harvesting system can be critical to capturing the rain when it does fall. many countries with arid environments, use rainwater harvesting as a cheap and reliable source of clean water. to enhance irrigation in arid environments, ridges of soil are constructed to trap and prevent rainwater from running downhills. even in periods of low rainfall, enough water is collected for crops to grow. water can be collected from roofs and tanks can be constructed to hold large quantities of rainwater. in addition, rainwater harvesting decreases the demand for water from wells, enabling groundwater levels to be further sustained rather than depleted. life-cycle assessment life-cycle assessment is a methodology used to evaluate the environmental impacts of a system from cradle-to-grave of its lifetime. devkota et al, developed such a methodology for rainwater harvesting, and found that the building design (e.g., dimensions) and function (e.g., educational, residential, etc.) play critical roles in the environmental performance of the system. to address the functional parameters of rainwater harvesting systems, a new metric was developed – the demand to supply ratio (d/s) – identifying the ideal building design (supply) and function (demand) in regard to the environmental performance of rainwater harvesting for toilet flushing. with the idea that supply of rainwater not only saves the potable water but also saves the stormwater entering the combined sewer network (thereby requiring treatment), the savings in environmental emissions were higher if the buildings are connected to a combined sewer network compared to separate one. cost-effectiveness although standard rwh systems can provide a water source to developing regions facing poverty, the average cost for an rwh setup can be costly depending on