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When The Brain Scrambles Names, It's Because You Love Them 
  
 Enlarge this image Alex Reynolds/NPR Alex Reynolds/NPR 
  
 When Samantha Deffler was young, her mother would often call her by her siblings' names — even the dog's name. "Rebecca, Jesse, Molly, Tucker, Samantha," she says. 
  
 A lot of people mix up children's names or friends' names, but Deffler is a cognitive scientist at Rollins College, in Winter Park, Fla., and she wanted to find out why it happens. So she, and her colleagues, Cassidy Fox, Christin Ogle, and senior researcher David Rubin, did a survey of 1,700 men and women of different ages, and she found that naming mistakes are very common. Most everyone sometimes mixes up the names of family and friends. Their findings were published in the journal Memory & Cognition. 
  
 "It's a normal cognitive glitch," Deffler says. 
  
 It's not related to a bad memory or to aging, but rather to how the brain categorizes names. It's like having special folders for family names and friends names stored in the brain. When people used the wrong name, overwhelmingly the name that was used was in the same category, Deffler says. It was in the same folder. 
  
 And there was one group who was especially prone to the naming mix-ups. 
  
 "Moms, especially moms," Deffler says. "Any mom I talked to says, 'You know, I've definitely done this.'" 
  
 It works something like this: Say you've got an armful of groceries and you need some quick help from one of your kids. Your brain tries to rapidly retrieve the name from the family folder, but it may end up retrieving a related name instead, says Neil Mulligan, a cognitive scientist at UNC Chapel Hill. 
  
 "As you are preparing to produce the utterance, you're activating not just their name, but competing names," he says. You flick through the names of all your other children, stored in the family folder, and sometimes these competing names win. 
  
 Like in the classic scene from the TV show, Friends. When Ross says his wedding vows, he is asked to repeat his fiancée's name, Emily. He says his former girlfriend's name Rachel instead. 
  
 Now Ross probably had both Rachel's and Emily's names in his mental folder of loved ones and a mental mix-up ensued. 
  
 And it's not just human loved ones that are filed together. 
  
 "Whatever dog we had at the time would be included in the string along with my sister Rebecca and my brother Jesse," Deffler says. 
  
 So your family dog typically gets filed with other family members. This of course sparks the question — what about your family cat? 
  
 "You are much more likely to be called the dog's name than you are to be called the cat's name." Deffler says. 
  
 This implies that psychologically, we categorize the dog's name along with our family member's names, according to Mulligan. 
  
 "And we don't do that with cats' names, apparently, or hamsters' names or other animal names," Mulligan says. 
  
 Maybe that's why we call the dog man's best friend. ||||| When I was a kid, my mom often had to call my brother's and sister's names before correctly landing on mine. "Sam! Alaina! MEGAN!" has always been a little joke in our family — and I know we aren't alone. It's left many of us wondering why we sometimes mix up people's names. Is it because we're distracted and not fully paying attention? Do we somehow confuse people in our minds, even if they're not much alike physically or in terms of their personality? Why do we sometimes call people by the wrong names? Luckily, science has an answer — it's largely to do with how your brain keeps itself organized. 
  
 Cognitive scientist Samantha Deffler, from Rollins College in Florida, discovered after surveying 1,700 participants that mixing up people's names is more common than we knew. Half said they had been called by the wrong name by someone close to them, with 95 percent saying it was a family member who made the mix-up. But why? 
  
 Here's the deal: We have a tendency to mentally file everyone to metaphorical folders in our brains. When we place people in the same folder, we can sometimes unintentionally switch their names. That would explain why my mother, along with many others, would confuse the names of her children — not only are they all filed in the "family" folder, they're also part of the "offspring" folder. 
  
 The idea even extends to our four-legged friends, meaning we'll use our dogs' names when we meant to call a relative. Why? We consider dogs family. 
  
 So, while it isn't at all random, this study says that "misnaming" (as this behavior is sometimes called) doesn't, in fact, have anything to do with appearances, age, or gender. It should be noted, however, that another study found that gender does influence the matter. Another factor up for debate? How similar the names sound. And while some research says this quality doesn't play a huge role, others disagree. 
  
 Some research has indeed found that the similarity of name sounds does affect which names we use incorrectly. Studies have found that we tend to confuse names that have like beginnings or endings (such as Patricia and Felicia) or similar vowel sounds (like Rob and Don). Sure enough, another study, published in the scientific journal PLOS One, found that children experienced their parents mixing up their names with siblings' much more frequently when either the initial or the ending sound of the names were similar. 
  
 Out of the 334 participants surveyed, 121 said their names were often switched with those of family members, and 20 said they had been called by the name of the family pet. 
  
 But there's a dark side to the psychology of misnaming, too: It can have racist undertones. While some researchers say that race is largely irrelevant, others report quite the contrary. While the act of misnaming isn't necessarily offensive in and of itself, implicit biases can cause some pretty offensive things to happen. 
  
 The cross-race effect, as psychologists call it, occurs when the aforementioned brain folder is one categorized by race. Thus, people will sometimes confuse, say, two Asian people with each other, or two black people. As it's already been established, we don't confuse names because people look alike; why, then, might we mix up two people of the same or a similar race? Is it because somewhere in our minds, we've internalized the idea that all Asians are generally similar to one another? (They aren't.) Or all black people are the same? (Again, they aren't.) Possibly. It's also hard to ignore the fact that these racially-charged brain folders are likely a result of our culture considering "white" to be the default (which it really, really shouldn't be). And while we don't necessarily mean anything consciously malicious by it, it's still a form of racism nonetheless, regardless of how subtle or unintentional it might be. 
  
 In this example, it's easy to see how our cultural landscape affects our perceptions — and points out where we need to do better. Confusing your sister's name with the dog's is one thing, but it turns out there's a lot more to it than just that. |||||
Output:
Almost everyone has done it one time or another: mix up the names of family members or friends. And so a cognitive scientist whose mother would often call her by her siblings' and even the family dog's name set out to learn why. Reporting in the journal Memory & Cognition, she and colleagues say that we shouldn't blame distraction or exhaustion or some mental failing. It all comes down to the way the human brain catalogs names—we essentially shelve them away in folders based on how well we know and love people. When we mess up a name, it's typically because we inadvertently choose a different one from the same folder. The researchers also found "phonetic similarity between the incorrect name used by the misnamer and the correct name also plays a role in misnaming," though the effect was less pronounced than the category effect. "It's a normal cognitive glitch," Samantha Deffler tells NPR. And moms, she found, seem especially prone to doing it. Deffler, of Rollins College in Florida, also learned after surveying 1,700 people that 95% of the time a name mixup occurs it's between family members, reports Bustle. Interestingly, researchers also found that the names of people's pet dogs get thrown into the I-love-you-like-family folder, but not their cats or other pets. "Which is probably the realest thing about this study; my mom has called me my dog's name so many times, I've lost count," Laura Beck writes for Cosmopolitan. (At least one judge has ruled that your dogs aren't your kids.)