Q: Approximants are speech sounds that involve the articulators approaching each other but not narrowly enough nor with enough articulatory precision to create turbulent airflow. Therefore, approximants fall between fricatives, which do produce a turbulent airstream, and vowels, which produce no turbulence. This class of sounds includes lateral approximants like (as in "less"), non-lateral approximants like (as in "rest"), and semivowels like and (as in "yes" and "west", respectively). 

Before Peter Ladefoged coined the term "approximant" in the 1960s, the term "frictionless continuant" referred to non-lateral approximants. 

Some approximants resemble vowels in acoustic and articulatory properties and the terms "semivowel" and "glide" are often used for these non-syllabic vowel-like segments. The correlation between semivowels and vowels is strong enough that cross-language differences between semivowels correspond with the differences between their related vowels. 

Vowels and their corresponding semivowels alternate in many languages depending on the phonological environment, or for grammatical reasons, as is the case with Indo-European ablaut. Similarly, languages often avoid configurations where a semivowel precedes its corresponding vowel. A number of phoneticians distinguish between semivowels and approximants by their location in a syllable. Although he uses the terms interchangeably, remarks that, for example, the final glides of English "par" and "buy" differ from French "par" ('through') and "baille" ('tub') in that, in the latter pair, the approximants appear in the syllable coda, whereas, in the former, they appear in the syllable nucleus. This means that opaque (if not minimal) contrasts can occur in languages like Italian (with the i-like sound of "piede" 'foot', appearing in the nucleus: , and that of "piano" 'slow', appearing in the syllable onset: ) and Spanish (with a near minimal pair being "abyecto" 'abject' and "abierto" 'opened').

1. Peter Ladefoged
2. in the 1960s,
3. frictionless continuant
4. speech sounds that involve the articulators approaching each other but not narrowly enough nor with enough articulatory precision to create turbulent airflow
5. no
6. vowels
7. they avoid configurations where a semivowel precedes its corresponding vowel
8. semivowels and approximants
9. yes
10. yes

Numbered questions:
1. Who came up with the term approximant?
2. When?
3. What word was used before that?
4. What did that represent?
5. Are they fricatives?
6. What speech sound makes no turbulence?
7. What do languages frequently avoid?
8. What does location within a syllable help distinguish?
9. Can Italian have opaque contrasts?
10. What about Spanish?

Q: One morning, Billy was giving some milk to his lamb, Beverly. He heard a noise coming from a nearby rock. He went to see what was making the sound, and Beverly followed him. He looked around the rock, but couldn't see anything. Billy tried to lift the rock with a stick, to see what was under it, but it was too heavy. 

"I wonder what's making that noise," Billy said. Beverly ate some grass. He went back home. Beverly followed him. 

Billy asked his wife, Judy, if she had anything that could lift the rock. She looked around the kitchen and found a spoon and a towel. "Use the spoon to dig under the rock," she said. "Then you can put the towel under the rock, and pull it towards you." 

"That's a good idea," Billy said. He dug under the rock with the spoon. Then he tried to pull it towards him with the towel, but it was too heavy. 

Then Beverly, the lamb, started pushing the rock with her forehead. At first, the rock only rolled around in its hole. Then, when Billy pulled and Beverly pushed at the same time, it rolled downhill. 

"Thank you, Beverly," Billy said. "I couldn't have done it without you." 

Billy and Beverly looked where the rock had been. In the middle of the circle of dirt, they saw a little cave with some baby bunnies in it. The bunnies looked hungry, and were crying for food. Billy went back home and told Judy, and she gave the bunnies some lettuce.

1. a noise
2. by a rock
3. Billy's lamb

Numbered questions:
1. What was Billy curious about?
2. Where was it?
3. Who is Beverly?

Q: CHAPTER FORTY-TWO 

PROJECT OF A DICTIONARY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES--DISAPPOINTMENT--NEGLIGENT AUTHORSHIP--APPLICATION FOR A PENSION--BEATTIE'S ESSAY ON TRUTH--PUBLIC ADULATION--A HIGH-MINDED REBUKE 

The works which Goldsmith had still in hand being already paid for, and the money gone, some new scheme must be devised to provide for the past and the future--for impending debts which threatened to crush him, and expenses which were continually increasing. He now projected a work of greater compass than any he had yet undertaken; a Dictionary of Arts and Sciences on a comprehensive scale, which was to occupy a number of volumes. For this he received promises of assistance from several powerful hands. Johnson was to contribute an article on ethics; Burke, an abstract of his Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful, an essay on the Berkleyan system of philosophy, and others on political science; Sir Joshua Reynolds, an essay on painting; and Garrick, while he undertook on his own part to furnish an essay on acting, engaged Dr. Burney to contribute an article on music. Here was a great array of talent positively engaged, while other writers of eminence were to be sought for the various departments of science. Goldsmith was to edit the whole. An undertaking of this kind, while it did not incessantly task and exhaust his inventive powers by original composition, would give agreeable and profitable exercise to his taste and judgment in selecting, compiling, and arranging, and he calculated to diffuse over the whole the acknowledged graces of his style. 

He drew up a prospectus of the plan, which is said by Bishop Percy, who saw it, to have been written with uncommon ability, and to have had that perspicuity and elegance for which his writings are remarkable. This paper, unfortunately, is no longer in existence. 

1. Bishop Percy
2. yes
3. written with uncommon ability
4. yes
5. elegance
6. no
7. yes
8. Goldsmith
9. impending debts
10. yes
11. expenses which were continually increasing
12. a Dictionary of Arts and Sciences
13. no
14. yes
15. Burke
16. with an abstract of his Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful
17. Sir Joshua Reynolds
18. an essay on painting
19. no
20. he was to edit the whole

Numbered questions:

1. Who had seen a prospect that had been written?
2. Did he think it was any good?
3. How did he describe it?
4. Any other adjectives?
5. Such as?
6. Can you still access it?
7. Was someone having financial issues?
8. Who?
9. An example of an issue?
10. Any others?
11. Such as?
12. What was his next attempt?
13. Was it going to be small?
14. Would anyone help him?
15. Such as?
16. In what way?
17. Who else?
18. Adding what?
19. Would he hire an editor?
20. Why not?