question: Among the vast varieties of microorganisms, relatively few cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals. Infectious disease results from the interplay between those few pathogens and the defenses of the hosts they infect. The appearance and severity of disease resulting from any pathogen, depends upon the ability of that pathogen to damage the host as well as the ability of the host to resist the pathogen. However a host's immune system can also cause damage to the host itself in an attempt to control the infection. Clinicians therefore classify infectious microorganisms or microbes according to the status of host defenses - either as primary pathogens or as opportunistic pathogens: 

One way of proving that a given disease is "infectious", is to satisfy Koch's postulates (first proposed by Robert Koch), which demands that the infectious agent be identified only in patients and not in healthy controls, and that patients who contract the agent also develop the disease. These postulates were first used in the discovery that Mycobacteria species cause tuberculosis. Koch's postulates can not be applied ethically for many human diseases because they require experimental infection of a healthy individual with a pathogen produced as a pure culture. Often, even clearly infectious diseases do not meet the infectious criteria. For example, Treponema pallidum, the causative spirochete of syphilis, cannot be cultured in vitro - however the organism can be cultured in rabbit testes. It is less clear that a pure culture comes from an animal source serving as host than it is when derived from microbes derived from plate culture. Epidemiology is another important tool used to study disease in a population. For infectious diseases it helps to determine if a disease outbreak is sporadic (occasional occurrence), endemic (regular cases often occurring in a region), epidemic (an unusually high number of cases in a region), or pandemic (a global epidemic).
1. What is used to study a disease among certain groups?
2. What is it used for?
3. What is a way to show that a disease can be spread to others?
4. How many microorganisms cause disease?
5. What are the infectious ones grouped as?
6. Why can't Koch's proposal be morally applied?
7. What is beneficial to explore during a disease outbreak?
8. Who else can a host's immune system cause harm to>
9. What causes tuberculosis?
10. What is unable to be cultured in vitro?
****
answer: 1. Epidemiology
2. to study disease in a population
3. satisfy Koch's postulates
4. relatively few
5. as primary pathogens or as opportunistic pathogens
6. it would require experimental infection of a healthy individual
7. to determine if a disease outbreak is sporadic
8. to the host itself
9. Mycobacteria species
10. syphilis


question: CHAPTER XXIII. 

STRANGE DISCOVERIES. 

Frank Massanet was surprised and delighted to have Richard come to work again. 

"You have indeed a good friend in Mr. Joyce," he remarked when the boy had told him what the leather merchant had done. "One such is worth a thousand of the common sort." 

During the afternoon Earle Norris had occasion to come up to the stock- room. He started back upon seeing Richard at work. 

"Why, I thought you had taken a vacation!" he exclaimed. 

"So I did--for an hour," replied Richard, and without further words went on with his work. 

"Why, I thought--" began the shipping-clerk. 

"What did you think?" demanded Frank, coming forward. 

"Why I--I----" stammered Norris. "What business is it of _yours_?" he added rudely. 

"You thought he was discharged," went on Frank. "You've been trying your best to get him discharged." 

"Who says so?" demanded Norris, but he turned slightly pale as he uttered the words. "I say so. I don't understand your scheme, but that's what you are trying to do; and I warn you that you had better quit it." 

It was seldom that Frank Massanet spoke in such an arbitrary way, yet it was plain to see that he meant every word he said. 

"You're mistaken," returned Norris, hardly knowing how to reply. "But it's only natural that you should stick up for your mother's boarders. They help support the family, I suppose." 

And with this parting shot the shipping-clerk hurried below. 

In the middle of the afternoon Mr. Mann sent for Richard and asked the boy to accompany him to an office on lower Broadway. 
1. Who wanted to see Richard?
2. When?
3. What does he want Richard to do?
4. Where?
5. Whose mother has renters?
6. Who is one of them?
7. Who came back to work?
8. How does Frank feel about that?
9. Was Earle surprised to see him?
10. What did he claim he thought happened to Richard?
11. What did he really think?
12. Why?
13. Who accuses him of that?
14. Does he deny it?
15. what happens to his face?
16. Does Frank threaten Norris?
17. Does Frank always talk like that?
18. Who is Mr. Joyce?
19. Who says he's a good friend?
20. To who?
****
answer: 1. Mr. Mann
2. In the middle of the afternoon
3. accompany him to an office
4. on lower Broadway.
5. Frank Massanet
6. Richard
7. Richard
8. surprised and delighted
9. yes
10. "he had taken a vacation
11. he was discharged
12. he's been tryng to get him discharged
13. Frank
14. yes
15. it turned pale
16. yds
17. no
18. a leather merchant
19. Frank
20. Richard


question: No one likes to make mistakes. But a new study says organizations learn more from their failures than from their successes, and keep that knowledge longer. 

One of the researchers was Vinit Desai, an assistant professor at the University of Colorado Denver Business School. He worked with Peter Madsen from the Marriott School of Management at Brigham Young University in Utah. 

They did not find much long-term "organizational learning" from success. It is possible, they say. But Professor Desai says they found that knowledge gained from failure lasts for years. He says organizations should treat failures as a learning opportunity and not try to ignore them. 

The study looked at companies and organizations that launch satellites--and other space vehicles. Professor Desai compared two shuttle flights. 

In two thousand two, a piece of insulating material broke off during launch and damaged a rocket on the Atlantis. Still, the flight was considered a success. 

Then, in early two thousand three, a piece of insulation struck the Columbia during launch. This time, the shuttle broke apart on re-entry and the seven crew members died. NASA officials suspended all flights and an investigation led to suggested changes. 

Professor Desai says the search for solutions after a failure can make leaders more open-minded. He points to airlines as an example of an industry that has learned from failures in the past. 

He advises organizations to look for useful information in small failures and failures they avoided. He also urges leaders to encourage the open sharing of information. The study appeared in the Academy of Management Journal. 

The mistakes we learn from do not have to be our own. We recently asked people on our Facebook page to tell us a time they had done something really silly. 

Fabricio Cmino wrote: Not long ago I wanted to watch TV, but it wouldn't turn on, so I did everything I could to start it. Thirty minutes later my mum showed up and, passing by, said to me "Did you try plugging it'? I'm just dusting, Mum!"So she wouldn't notice how dumb I am sometimes! 

Bruno Kanieski da Silva told about a time he looked everywhere for his key. It was in hispocket. He wrote: I always promise I will never do it again, but after-a few weeks,where is mywallet? For sure it will be in a very logical place.
1. Who headed the study?
2. What does he want to prove?
3. How long does this type of learning last?
****
answer:
1. Vinit Desai
2. He says organizations should treat failures as a learning opportunity and not try to ignore them.
3. lasts for years.