Information:  - Piracetam (sold under many brand names) is a nootropic drug in the racetams group, with chemical name "2-oxo-1-pyrrolidine acetamide". It shares the same 2-oxo-pyrrolidone base structure with pyroglutamic acid. Piracetam is a cyclic derivative of GABA (gamma-Aminobutyric acid). Presently piracetam is used in many European countries, Asia and South America. In the United States, it is not approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for any medical use and it is not permitted to be sold as a dietary supplement. In the UK, piracetam is prescribed mainly for myoclonus, but is used off-label for other conditions. Evidence to support its use for many conditions is unclear.  - Levetiracetam, marketed under the trade name Keppra among others, is a medication used to treat epilepsy. It is used for partial onset, myoclonic, or tonic-clonic seizures. It is the S-enantiomer of etiracetam.  - Phenylpiracetam (INN: fonturacetam, brand names Phenotropil, Carphedon), also called is a phenylated analog of the drug piracetam which was developed in 1983 in Russia where it is available as a prescription drug. Research on animals has indicated that phenylpiracetam may have anti-amnesic, antidepressant, anticonvulsant, antipsychotic, anxiolytic, and memory enhancement effects.  - Anticonvulsants (also commonly known as antiepileptic drugs or as antiseizure drugs) are a diverse group of pharmacological agents used in the treatment of epileptic seizures. Anticonvulsants are also increasingly being used in the treatment of bipolar disorder and borderline personality disorder, since many seem to act as mood stabilizers, and for the treatment of neuropathic pain. Anticonvulsants suppress the rapid and excessive firing of neurons during seizures. Anticonvulsants also prevent the spread of the seizure within the brain. Some investigators have observed that anticonvulsants themselves may cause reduced IQ in children. However these adverse effects must be balanced against the significant risk epileptic seizures pose to children and the distinct possibility of death and devastating neurological sequelae secondary to seizures. Anticonvulsants are more accurately called antiepileptic drugs (abbreviated "AEDs"), and are often referred to as antiseizure drugs because they provide symptomatic treatment only and have not been demonstrated to alter the course of epilepsy.  - Etiracetam is a chemical compound belonging to the racetam family, which was developed as a nootropic drug. It is racemic; its biologically active enantiomeric form is levetiracetam, now marketed as an antiepileptic drug.  - Stimulants (also referred to as psychostimulants) is an overarching term that covers many drugs including those that increase activity of the body, drugs that are pleasurable and invigorating, or drugs that have sympathomimetic effects. Due to their rendering a characteristic "up" feeling, stimulants are also occasionally referred to as "uppers". Depressants or "downers", which decrease mental and/or physical function, are in stark contrast to stimulants and are considered to be the functionally opposite drug class. Stimulants are widely used throughout the world as prescription medicines as well as without a prescription (either legally or illicitly) as performance-enhancing or recreational drugs. The most frequently prescribed stimulants as of 2013 were lisdexamfetamine, methylphenidate, and amphetamine. It is estimated that the percent of the population that has abused amphetamines, cocaine and MDMA combined is between .8% and 2.1%.  - Motivation is a theoretical construct used to explain behaviour. It gives the reasons for people's actions, desires, and needs. Motivation can also be defined as one's direction to behavior, or what causes a person to want to repeat a behavior and vice versa. A motive is what prompts the person to act in a certain way, or at least develop an inclination for specific behavior. According to Maehr and Meyer, "Motivation is a word that is part of the popular culture as few other psychological concepts are."  - Nootropicsalso called smart drugs or cognitive enhancersare drugs, supplements, or other substances that improve cognitive function, particularly executive functions, memory, creativity, or motivation, in healthy individuals. The use of cognition-enhancing drugs by healthy individuals in the absence of a medical indication is one of the most debated topics among neuroscientists, psychiatrists, and physicians which spans a number of issues, including the ethics and fairness of their use, concerns over adverse effects, and the diversion of prescription drugs for nonmedical uses, among others. Nonetheless, the international sales of cognition-enhancing supplements exceeded billion in 2015 and the global demand for these compounds is still growing rapidly.  - In medicine, an adverse effect is an undesired harmful effect resulting from a medication or other intervention such as surgery.  - Epilepsy is a group of neurological diseases characterized by epileptic seizures. Epileptic seizures are episodes that can vary from brief and nearly undetectable to long periods of vigorous shaking. These episodes can result in physical injuries including occasionally broken bones. In epilepsy, seizures tend to recur, and have no immediate underlying cause. Isolated seizures that are provoked by a specific cause such as poisoning are not deemed to represent epilepsy. People with epilepsy in some areas of the world experience stigma due to the condition. The cause of most cases of epilepsy is unknown, although some people develop epilepsy as the result of brain injury, stroke, brain tumors, infections of the brain, and birth defects. Known genetic mutations are directly linked to a small proportion of cases. Epileptic seizures are the result of excessive and abnormal nerve cell activity in the cortex of the brain. The diagnosis involves ruling out other conditions that might cause similar symptoms such as fainting and determining if another cause of seizures is present such as alcohol withdrawal or electrolyte problems. This may be partly done by imaging the brain and performing blood tests. Epilepsy can often be confirmed with an electroencephalogram (EEG), but a normal test does not rule out the condition. Epilepsy that occurs as a result of other issues may be preventable. Seizures are controllable with medication in about 70% of cases. Inexpensive options are often available. In those whose seizures do not respond to medication, then surgery, neurostimulation, or dietary changes may be considered. Not all cases of epilepsy are lifelong, and many people improve to the point that treatment is no longer needed. As of 2013 about 22 million people have epilepsy. Nearly 80% of cases occur in the developing world. In 2013 it resulted in 116,000 deaths up from 112,000 deaths in 1990. Epilepsy is more common in older people. In the developed world, onset of new cases occurs most frequently in babies and the...  - A drug is any substance (other than food that provides nutritional support) that, when inhaled, injected, smoked, consumed, absorbed via a patch on the skin, or dissolved under the tongue, causes a physiological change in the body.  - Oxiracetam (ISF 2522) is a nootropic drug of the racetam family and very mild stimulant. Several studies suggest that the substance is safe even when high doses are consumed for a long period of time. However, the mechanism of action of the racetam drug family is still a matter of research. Oxiracetam is not approved by Food and Drug Administration for any medical use in the United States.  - Executive functions (collectively referred to as executive function and cognitive control) are a set of cognitive processes  including attentional control, inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, as well as reasoning, problem solving, and planning  that are necessary for the cognitive control of behavior: selecting and successfully monitoring behaviors that facilitate the attainment of chosen goals. Executive functions gradually develop and change across the lifespan of an individual and can be improved at any time over the course of a person's life. Similarly, these cognitive processes can be adversely affected by a variety of events which affect an individual. Neuropsychological tests are used to measure executive functions, and are usually performed as part of a more comprehensive assessment to diagnose neurological and psychiatric disorders.  - Racetams are a class of drugs that share a pyrrolidone nucleus. Some, such as piracetam, are considered nootropics. Some such as oxiracetam and phenylpiracetam are also stimulants. Others such as levetiracetam and seletracetam are anticonvulsants.  - Etiracetam is a nootropic drug of the racetam family . It is racemic ; its biologically active enantiomeric form is levetiracetam .  - Seletracetam (UCB 44212) is a pyrrolidone-derived drug of the racetam family that is structurally related to levetiracetam (trade name Keppra). It was under development by UCB Pharmaceuticals as a more potent and effective anticonvulsant drug to replace levetiracetam but its production has been halted.  - In chemistry, an enantiomer, also known as an optical isomer, is one of two stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other that are non-superposable (not identical), much as one's left and right hands are the same except for being reversed along one axis (the hands cannot be made to appear identical simply by reorientation). Organic compounds that contain a chiral carbon atom usually have two non-superposable structures. These two structures are mirror images of each other and are, thus, commonly called enantiomorphs ("enantio" = opposite ; "morph" = form), hence this structural property is now commonly referred to as enantiomerism.    What object entity has the relation of 'instance of' with the subject 'etiracetam'?   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chemical compound