in kenya ctovc transfers enhanced participation in nonfarm enterprises by seven percentage points for femaleheaded households while the effect was negative for maleheaded households asfaw etal however brazils bolsa familia programme was only positively associated with entrepreneurial investments in urban areas while no impact was observed in rural areas lichand in nicaragua for example participation in the now discontinued red de proteccion social programme actually decreased involvement in informal enterprise maluccio while there were no impacts of cash transfer programmes in ghana and lesotho handa etal