concurrently pollution from landbased sources including marine litter is threatening species and marine habitats and climate change compounds these effects altering both the thermal and chemical characteristics of the ocean as well as its dynamics and nutrient availability bijma et al since the s for example an estimated of global mangroves have been lost and of coral reefs have disappeared undp the welfare costs that this imposes on society are high estimates suggest that the cumulative economic impact of poor ocean management practices is in the order of usd billion per year undp