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Wikipedia Biology//"Agathis/" jurassica.txt

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+"Agathis" jurassica
+
+"Agathis" jurassica is an extinct coniferous tree found in the Talbragar Fish Beds of New South Wales. The beds were discovered in 1889 near the Farrs Hills in the Talbragar River valley. Specimens from the area were briefly examined by Australian palaeontologists upon discovery and published by R. Etheridge Jr. later that year. The initial classification identified Agathis jurassica as Podozamites lanceolatus. This name was upheld through further inspections by Walkom in 1921, but the species was reclassified as Agathis jurassica in 1981 by Mary White. In 1999, placement in Agathis was doubted, and the species has been referred to as Podozamites jurassica. The species is found predominantly in the Southern Hemisphere with marginal expanses into the Northern Hemisphere.
+
+
+Description
+
+
+Leaves
+Lanced leaves, between 4–7 cm in length, between .5-.75 cm in width
+Spiral phyllotaxy
+Parallel venation
+between 5-8 veins per leaf
+Swollen stem bases with scale leaves
+Foliage spur branchlets
+
+
+Cones
+Cylindrical cone with sub-triangular bract scales
+
+
+Taxonomy
+The species was originally classified as Podozamites lanceolatus, after a very brief inspection of over one thousand specimens originally collected from the site. A more detailed account of all the flora was performed in 1921 by Walkom where the initial classification was upheld, yet it was noted that the flora from the area was likely coniferous. The fossils found at the Talbragar Fish Beds had similarities in leaf appearance to known records of Podozamites lanceolatus. However, in this species, the pinnae distinctly grow from opposite sides of the rachis rather than growing spirally around it. White notes this error as well as the fact the variation in leaf sizes along smaller branchlets signal that the branches are in fact foliage spurs, which she considered not characteristic of Podozamites. In 1981 these contrasts sparked White to conduct an intensive review of information available on the two genera and led her to the conclusion that the specimen found in the Talbragar Fish Beds were more closely linked to Agathis rather than Podozamites, and the species was described as Agathis jurassica. The reproductive cones recovered from the site were also initially classified under a different name and later also reclassified as White to be those of Agathis jurassica. The cones were believed to be of the same family as Agathis, but were classified as  Araucarites grandis.In 1999, in a review of fossil Araucariaceae, Hill and Brodribb considered that the oldest reliably identified fossils of the genus Agathis were from the Middle Eocene of Australia, and so doubted whether Agathis jurassica had been correctly identified. Subsequent authors have used the name Podozamites jurassica, although this combination had apparently not been validly published as of 2017.
+
+
+Talbragar Fish Beds
+
+The Talbragar Fish Beds are a well known geological site to the Northwest of Sydney and Wollemi National Park in Southeastern Australia that have produced thousands of incredibly preserved individual fossil specimens. The area is believed to have been a large and shallow freshwater lake that was surrounded by lush, woody vegetation, classified as a ‘Kauri Pine’ forest. The lake supported a large population of fish as well as a diverse range of flora along the shore that gave home to many insects as well. Examination of fish at the site give reason to believe there was a large scale event that rapidly inundated the lake with sediment; likely volcanic ash that trapped and buried the fish as well as some of the surrounding vegetation. The fossils in this locale are predominantly siliceous impressions, further supporting the idea that volcanic ash buried the specimen and left the stark white impressions of the flora over time. Fossilization in this area occurred in the Early to Middle Jurassic where Australia was still a part of Gondwana, under the Tethys Sea, and the site's climate was believed to be moderately warm with increased carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere that allowed for lush vegetation to flourish.
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology//"Civilized/" Sexual Morality and Modern Nervous Illness.txt

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+"Civilized" Sexual Morality and Modern Nervous Illness
+
+"Civilized" Sexual Morality and Modern Nervous Illness (German: Die „kulturelle“ Sexualmoral und die moderne Nervosität) is an article published by Sigmund Freud in 1908, in the journal Sexual-Probleme ("Sexual Problems").Referencing Christian von Ehrenfels' distinction between cultural and natural sexual morality, Freud explains the etiological significance of cultural sexual morality as a reason for neurosis. At the beginning, Freud states that cultural sexual mores impose constraints on the individual, which can cause damage to the person, which in turn threatens the culture as a whole.  While von Ehrenfels argues primarily on the basis of Social Darwinism, saying social sexual morality may prevent male sexual selection in reproduction, Freud focuses on the consequences of socially-imposed repression of the sexual instinct as a cause of neurosis.Culture is based on renunciation of drives. There is therefore a tension between a person's body, which seeks fulfilment of drives, and the demands of culture to renounce desire.  Those who cannot conform to these requirements imposed by society are either viewed as criminals and perverts - if they cannot fulfil society's demand for renunciation - or escape into neurosis when the drives are suppressed to such an extent that neurotic substitute pleasures are developed in their stead. Neurosis is thus the negative counterpart of perversion, "because they [neurotics] have the same appetites as the positive perverts in a 'repressed' state."Freud said that the "perverse" part of the libido is caused by a disturbance in development. The libido was originally meant for deriving pleasure, not only at the genitals but also at other erogenous zones; but education has the purpose of limiting autoeroticism and directing love towards objects other than oneself, finally achieving the "primacy of genitals put into the service of procreation". Thus Freud was one of the first people who said that sexuality by itself does not generate any internal conflict, and explained that the conflict arises only through interaction with the outside world, with its social norms and its expectation of repression of instincts, which leads to disease (repression thesis). The suppressed perverse drives are ideally channeled through sublimation and harnessed for cultural work. The sex drive in humans is aperiodic and is divorced from reproduction. Therefore, it can be metonymically shifted and applied to other areas. Thus, culture benefits to a great extent - and is even dependent - on sexual energy that is redirected through sublimation. Therefore, Freud concluded that a complete renunciation of the sex drive is detrimental to culture. Abstinence only produces "brave weaklings", but not great thinkers with bold ideas. Freud thus describes the dilemma of culture, which simultaneously calls for renunciation while still needing the sexual instinct to preserve itself. The repression model that imposes cultural sexual morality should therefore be abandoned in favor of a sublimation, displacement, and distribution model of sexual energies.
+
+
+Notes
+
+
+References
+Freud, Sigmund (1908). "Die "kulturelle" Sexualmoral und die moderne Nervosität" ["Civilized" Sexual Morality and Modern Nervous Illness]. Sexual-Probleme [Sexual Problems] (in German). 4 (3): 107–129.
+Freud, Sigmund (2009). "Die "kulturelle" Sexualmoral und die moderne Nervosität" ["Civilized" Sexual Morality and Modern Nervous Illness]. Das Unbehagen in der Kultur und andere kulturtheoretische Schriften [ Civilization and Its Discontents and other works on cultural theory] (in German). Frankfurt on Main: Fischer Verlag. pp. 109–132. ISBN 9783596902071.
+
+
+External links
+Full text in German
+Excerpts on Google Books (2014. ISBN 978-1-473-39626-5. ISBN 1-47339626-3)

Wikipedia Biology//"G/" Is for Gumshoe.txt

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+"G" Is for Gumshoe
+
+"G" Is for Gumshoe (1990) is the seventh novel in Sue Grafton's "Alphabet" series of mystery novels and features Kinsey Millhone, a private eye based in Santa Teresa, California.In "G" Is for Gumshoe, Kinsey Millhone meets fellow investigator Robert Dietz when someone hires a hit man to kill her.  While Kinsey is being stalked, she uncovers an unsolved murder that haunts the lives of her client Mrs. Irene Gersh and Irene's "mother" who uses the alias "Agnes Grey" (the title of an Anne Brontë novel). In other developments in Kinsey's personal story, she loses her VW car, and her friend Vera Lipton becomes engaged.
+
+
+Plot summary
+Three things happen to Kinsey Millhone on her thirty-third birthday: she moves into her remodeled apartment, which has finally been finished; she is hired by Irene Gersh, a sickly Santa Teresa resident, to head out to the Slabs in the Mojave Desert and locate her mother; and she gets the news that Tyrone Patty, a particularly dangerous criminal she helped the Carson City Police Department track down a few years back, has hired a hit-man to kill her.
+After her first night in her new place, Kinsey heads out early the next day in search of Mrs Gersh's mother, Agnes Grey, who lives in a trailer in the desert. Agnes isn't home, and the trailer seems to be occupied by two teenage runaways; but Kinsey eventually tracks Agnes down at a local convalescent hospital, where she has been since being taken suddenly ill on a trip to a local town sometime before. Agnes, 83 years old, has not been a model patient; and the hospital staff are delighted to hear that she has relatives who can take responsibility for her. Irene makes plans to transfer Agnes to a facility in Santa Teresa. But Agnes seems terrified of going there and tells Kinsey a confused story about a number of people from the past, including Lottie and Emily, who died.
+Kinsey makes plans to come home, but before she can do so, a man in a pick-up truck deliberately runs her off the road, seriously injuring Kinsey and totaling her treasured VW automobile.  Kinsey recognizes the driver as a man traveling with his young son she has seen a couple of times on the journey to the Slabs, and realizes she needs to take the death threat against her seriously. She hires Robert Dietz, the PI who helped her briefly on an earlier case, as a bodyguard. His vigilance initially frustrates Kinsey, who is used to making her own decisions; but they soon begin an affair. Dietz discovers the hitman is Mark Messinger, who absconded with his son, Eric, eight months previously. He arranges a meeting with the child's mother, Rochelle, who is desperate to get her son back, and offers to help her.
+Meanwhile, Agnes goes missing only a few hours after getting to Santa Teresa. She is soon found, yet she dies of fright within a day. Kinsey and Robert Dietz suspect she was kept prisoner somewhere before her death. Irene suffers a serious panic reaction when she sees a tea set Kinsey found among her mother's possessions, and Kinsey suspects this has triggered a buried childhood memory. Further anomalies occur when Irene tries to fill in the paperwork relating to the death: Kinsey realizes that Irene's birth certificate is faked and that Agnes Grey is a pseudonym.  It's Kinsey's CFI colleague Darcy who points out Agnes Grey is the name of a novel by Anne Brontë, which seems to link to the names Emily and Lottie (Charlotte) Agnes had mentioned. Kinsey tracks down a family called Bronfen, who match the circumstances Agnes described, and surmises that the surviving brother of the family, Patrick, murdered Lottie and Emily. She is convinced that when Patrick killed Irene's mother, Sheila, Agnes Grey was Anne Bronfen, a third sister, who took off with Irene to protect her, changing their identities and posing as the young Irene's mother. The three daughters were presumably named for the Brontë sisters, which explains the alias Anne chose to use. Patrick faked Anne's death in order to gain sole possession of the family property.
+Kinsey is convinced that Patrick is responsible for Agnes's death, to cover his past crimes, and discovers evidence of further killings at his home. When she confronts Patrick, she is interrupted by Messinger, who kills Patrick. Dietz and Rochelle have managed to get Eric away from Messinger, and Messinger's stated intention is to use Kinsey as a hostage to exchange for Eric. As she drives Messinger to the airport at gunpoint to intercept Rochelle, Kinsey is convinced Messinger will kill them all; and he succeeds in killing Rochelle's twin Roy, who was attempting to help her escape with Eric. However, Rochelle outsmarts Messinger and kills him first.
+In the epilogue, the third contract killer hired by Tyrone Patty is apprehended; and Patty himself dies as a consequence of a jail altercation. Dietz leaves to pursue his plan of providing anti-terrorism training on military bases.
+
+
+Characters
+Kinsey Millhone: Private investigator hired to find the 83-year-old mother of her client.
+
+
+Reception
+"G" Is for Gumshoe was honored with both the Private Eye Writers of America's Shamus Award for best novel and Bouchercon's 1991 Anthony Award for Best Novel. The reviewer for the School Library Journal considered the book oriented towards adults and suitable for young adults as well and wrote that "this light mystery maintains interest to the end".
+
+
+References
+
+
+External links
+Sue Grafton Alphabet Series official site

Wikipedia Biology//"Holcoceroides/" scythrella.txt

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+"Holcoceroides" scythrella
+
+Holcoceroides is a genus of moths in the family Blastobasidae. It contains only one species, Holcoceroides scythrella, which is found in Russia.
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology//"Mesosuchia/".txt

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+"Mesosuchia"
+
+"Mesosuchia" is an obsolete name for a group of terrestrial, semi-aquatic, or fully aquatic crocodylomorph reptiles. The marine crocodile Metriorhynchus had paddle-like forelimbs, Dakosaurus andiniensis had a skull that was adapted to eat large sea reptiles, and Shamosuchus was adapted for eating molluscs and gastropods. Shamosuchus also looked like modern crocodiles and was very closely related to their direct ancestor.
+The "Mesosuchia" were formerly placed at Suborder rank as within Crocodylia. The "first" crocodiles were placed within their own suborder, Protosuchia; whilst extant species where placed within Suborder Eusuchia (meaning 'true crocodiles'). Mesosuchia were the crocodylians "in between".But it is no longer regarded as genuine because it belongs to a paraphyletic group. It is replaced by its phylogenetic equivalent Mesoeucrocodylia, which contains the taxa herein, the Crocodylia, and some allied forms more recently discovered.
+The "Mesosuchia" was composed as:
+
+Family Hsisosuchidae
+Family Gobiosuchidae
+Infraorder Notosuchia
+Family Notosuchidae
+Family Sebecidae
+Family Baurusuchidae
+Infraorder Neosuchia
+Family Trematochampsidae
+Family Peirosauridae
+Genus Lomasuchus
+Genus Montealtosuchus
+Family Elosuchidae
+Family Atoposauridae
+Family Dyrosauridae
+Family Pholidosauridae
+Genus Sarcosuchus
+Infraorder Thalattosuchia - Sea "Crocodiles"
+Family Teleosauridae
+Family Metriorhynchidae
+Genus Dakosaurus
+Family Goniopholididae
+Family Paralligatoridae
+Genus Shamosuchus
+
+
+External links
+A teleosaurid (Crocodylia, Mesosuchia) from the Toarcian of Madagascar and its palaeobiogeographical significance
+Blue Nile Gorge
+Crocodyliformes

Wikipedia Biology/$1,000 genome.txt

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+$1,000 genome
+
+The $1,000 genome refers to an era of predictive and personalized medicine during which the cost of fully sequencing an individual's genome (WGS) is roughly one thousand USD. It is also the title of a book by British science writer and founding editor of Nature Genetics, Kevin Davies. By late 2015, the cost to generate a high-quality "draft" whole human genome sequence was just below $1,500.
+
+
+History
+The "$1,000 genome" catchphrase was first publicly recorded in December 2001 at a scientific retreat to discuss the future of biomedical research following publication of the first draft of the Human Genome Project (HGP), convened by the National Human Genome Research Institute at Airlie House in Virginia. The phrase neatly highlighted the chasm between the actual cost of the Human Genome Project, estimated at $2.7 billion over a decade, and the benchmark for routine, affordable personal genome sequencing.
+On 2 October 2002, Craig Venter introduced the opening session of GSAC (The Genome Sequencing and Analysis Conference) at the Hynes Convention Center in Boston: "The Future of Sequencing: Advancing Towards the $1,000 Genome." Speakers included George M. Church and executives from 454 Life Sciences, Solexa, U.S. Genomics, VisiGen and Amersham plc. In 2003, Venter announced that his foundation would earmark $500,000 for a breakthrough leading to the $1,000 genome. That sum was subsequently rolled into the Archon X Prize.
+In October 2004, NHGRI introduced the first in a series of '$1,000 Genome' grants designed to advance "the development of breakthrough technologies that will enable a human-sized genome to be sequenced for $1,000 or less."In a January 2006 article in Scientific American making the case for the Personal Genome Project, George M. Church wrote
+
+The "$1,000 genome" has become shorthand for the promise of DNA-sequencing capability made so affordable that individuals might think the once-in-a-lifetime expenditure to have a full personal genome sequence read to a disk for doctors to reference is worthwhile.
+In 2007, the journal Nature Genetics invited dozens of scientists to respond to its 'Question of the Year':
+
+The sequencing of the equivalent of an entire human genome for $1,000 has been announced as a goal for the genetics community... What would you do if [the $1,000 genome was] available immediately?
+In May 2007, during a ceremony held at Baylor College of Medicine, 454 Life Sciences founder Jonathan Rothberg presented James D. Watson with a digital copy of his personal genome sequence on a portable hard drive. Rothberg estimated the cost of the sequence—the first personal genome produced using a next-generation sequencing platform—at $1 million. Watson's genome sequence was published in 2008.A number of scientists have highlighted the cost of additional analysis after performing sequencing. Bruce Korf, past president of the American College of Medical Genetics, described "the $1-million interpretation." Washington University's Elaine Mardis prefers "the $100,000 analysis."
+
+
+Commercial efforts
+At the end of 2007, the biotech company Knome debuted the first direct-to-consumer genome sequencing service at an initial price of $350,000 (including analysis). One of the first clients was Dan Stoicescu, a Swiss-based biotech entrepreneur. As the costs of sequencing continued to plummet, in 2008, Illumina announced that it had sequenced an individual genome for $100,000 in reagent costs. Applied Biosystems countered by saying the cost on its platform was $60,000. Pacific Biosciences became the latest entrant in what The New York Times called "a heated race for the '$1,000 genome'". In 2009, Stanford University professor Stephen Quake published a paper sequencing his own genome on an instrument built by Helicos Biosciences (a company he co-founded) for a reported cost in consumables of $48,000. That same year, Complete Genomics debuted its proprietary whole-genome sequencing service for researchers, charging as little as $5,000/genome for bulk orders.In 2010, Illumina introduced its individual genome sequencing service for consumers, who were required to present a doctor's note. The initial price was $50,000/person. One of the first clients was former Solexa CEO John West, who had his entire family of four sequenced. In January 2012, Life Technologies unveiled a new sequencing instrument, the Ion Proton Sequencer, which it said would achieve the $1,000 genome in a day within 12 months. Sharon Begley wrote: "After years of predictions that the '$1,000 genome' – a read-out of a person's complete genetic information for about the cost of a dental crown—was just around the corner, a U.S. company is announcing... that it has achieved that milestone."In January 2014, Illumina launched its HiSeq X Ten Sequencer, claiming to have produced the first $1,000 genome at 30× coverage. Some researchers hailed the HiSeq X Ten's release as a milestone – Michael Schatz of Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory said that "it is a major human accomplishment on par with the development of the telescope or the microprocessor". However, critics pointed out that the $10 million upfront investment required to purchase the system would deter customers. Furthermore, the $1,000 genome cost calculation left out overheads, such as the cost of powering the machine. In September 2015, Veritas Genetics (co-founded by George Church) announced $1,000 full-genome sequencing including interpretation for participants in the Personal Genome Project.In April 2017, the newly formed European company Dante Labs started offering the WGS for $900. In 2017, Beijing Genomics Institute began offering WGS for $600. In July 2018, on Amazon Prime Day, Dante Labs offered it for $349. In November 2018, around the time of Black Friday, Dante Labs offered WGS for the first time less than $200, and Veritas Genetics for two days for the same price of $199 offered WGS limited to a thousand customers. In March of the same year, geneticist Matthew Hurles of Wellcome Sanger Institute noted that the private companies, including Illumina, are currently competing to reach a new target for WGS of only $100. On 18 February 2020, Nebula Genomics announced that has partnered up with BGI Group to start offering 30x WGS for $299.
+
+
+Archon Genomics X PRIZE
+It was originally announced that the revamped Archon Genomics X PRIZE presented by Medco would hold a $10-million grand prize competition in January 2013 for the team that reaches (or comes closest to reaching) the $1,000 genome. The grand prize would go to "the team(s) able to sequence 100 human genomes within 30 days to an accuracy of 1 error per 1,000,000 bases, with 98% completeness, identification of insertions, deletions and rearrangements, and a complete haplotype, at an audited total cost of $1,000 per genome." In August 2013 the Archon Genomics X PRIZE was cancelled, as the founders felt it had been "Outpaced by Innovation," and "was not incentivizing the technological changes".
+
+
+References
+
+
+Further reading
+Misha Angrist. Here is a Human Being. (New York: HarperCollins, 2010). ISBN 0-06-162833-6
+Kevin Davies. The $1,000 Genome. (New York: Free Press, 2010). ISBN 1-4165-6959-6
+Lone Frank. My Beautiful Genome. (London: Oneworld, 2011). ISBN 978-1-85168-833-3
+
+
+Additional resources
+Webcast of James Watson personal genome presentation, 31 May 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20120206220653/http://www.bcm.edu/news/packages/watson_genome.cfm

Wikipedia Biology/'The All-Species Living Tree' Project.txt

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+'The All-Species Living Tree' Project
+
+'The All-Species Living Tree' Project is a collaboration between various academic groups/institutes, such as ARB, SILVA rRNA database project, and LPSN, with the aim of assembling a database of 16S rRNA sequences of all validly published species of Bacteria and Archaea. At one stage, 23S sequences were also collected, but this has since stopped.Currently there are over 10,950 species in the aligned dataset and several more are being added either as new species are discovered or species that are not represented in the database are sequenced. Initially the latter group consisted of 7% of species.
+Similar (and more recent) projects include the Genomic Encyclopedia of Bacteria and Archaea (GEBA), which focused  on whole genome sequencing of bacteria and archaea.
+
+
+Tree
+
+The tree was created by maximum likelihood analysis without bootstrap: consequently accuracy is traded off for size and many phylum level clades are not correctly resolved (such as the Firmicutes). (Eukaryotes not present in analysis). This phylogeny is a summary of the 16S rRNA based LTP_08_2023 and contains all type species with validly published names up to August 2023.
+
+
+See also
+Branching order of bacterial phyla (Woese, 1987)
+Branching order of bacterial phyla (Gupta, 2001)
+Branching order of bacterial phyla (Cavalier-Smith, 2002)
+Branching order of bacterial phyla (Rappe and Giovanoni, 2003)
+Branching order of bacterial phyla (Battistuzzi et al., 2004)
+Branching order of bacterial phyla (Ciccarelli et al., 2006)
+Branching order of bacterial phyla (Genome Taxonomy Database, 2018)
+Bacterial phyla
+List of Archaea genera
+List of bacteria genera
+List of bacterial orders
+LPSN, list of accepted bacterial and archaeal names
+
+
+References
+
+
+External links
+http://www.arb-silva.de/projects/living-tree/

Wikipedia Biology/'Ubayd Allah ibn Bakhtishu.txt

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+'Ubayd Allah ibn Bakhtishu
+
+Abu Sa'id 'Ubayd Allah ibn Bakhtishu (980–1058), also spelled Bukhtishu, Bukhtyashu, and Bakhtshooa in many texts, was an 11th-century Syriac physician, descendant of Bakhtshooa Gondishapoori. He spoke the Syriac language. He lived in Mayyāfāriqīn.He was the last representative of the Bukhtyashu family of Nestorian Christian physicians, who emigrated from Jundishapur to Baghdad in 765. He authored Reminder of the Homestayer, which deals with the philosophical terms used in medicine, and a treatise on lovesickness. He also authored the Book on the Characteristics of Animals and Their Properties and the Usefulness of Their Organs, which covers works by Aristotle, Hippocrates, Galen, Dioscorides, and ʿĪsā ibn ʿAlī.
+
+
+Notes
+
+
+References
+Ibn Bakhtīshūʻ, ʻUbayd Allāh ibn Jibrāʼīl.; Kahl, Oliver; Bos, Gerrit (2018). ʻUbaidallah Ibn Buhtišuʻ on Apparent Death: The Kitab Taḥrīm Dafn Al-aḥyāʼ, Arabic Edition and English Translation. Boston. ISBN 978-90-04-37231-3. OCLC 1040081222.{{cite book}}:  CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
+C. Brocklmann: Encyclopaedia of Islam (t. 1, 601, 1911).
+
+
+See also
+List of Iranian scientists
+The Bukhtishu family.
+Bukhtishu, Gabriel ibn.
+Yuhanna ibn Bukhtishu

Wikipedia Biology/'the other' Jan van Kessel.txt

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+'the other' Jan van Kessel
+
+Jan van Kessel or the other Jan van Kessel (c. 1620, Antwerp – in or after 1661, Amsterdam (?)) was a Flemish painter of still lifes of fruits, hunting pieces and flowers.  After training in Antwerp he moved to the Dutch Republic where he is recorded as operating a studio in Amsterdam.
+
+
+Biography
+Very little information is available about the life of Jan van Kessel.  He was born in Antwerp some time between 1615 and 1625.  He trained with the history painter Simon de Vos.  He was admitted as a master in the Antwerp Guild of St Luke in the Guild year 1644–1645, the same year as Jan van Kessel the Elder with whom he is often confused.
+He is recorded in 1649 in Amsterdam, where he received in September 1649 two assistants: Jan Baptist Walvis and Gerrit Cornelisz.His last recorded work dates from 1661 and he is believed to have died in or after 1661.
+
+
+Work
+'the other' Jan van Kessel was a still life specialist who painted still lifes of fruits, hunting pieces and flowers.  About 30 works have been attributed to Jan van Kessel. Attribution of work to 'the other' Jan van Kessel has been difficult due to confusion with other artists with a similar name all active around the same time.  In addition to the still life painter Jan van Kessel the Elder, there was another Antwerp painter referred to as Jan van Kessel the Younger (the son of Jan van Kessel the Elder) who is believed to have painted still lifes, while in Amsterdam there was a Jan van Kessel known as a landscape painter. His work has often been confused with that of his better known namesake and contemporary, Jan van Kessel the Elder as well as that of Jan van Kessel the Younger.  'the other' Jan van Kessel and Jan van Kessel the Elder have a distinctive manner of signing.
+There are clear stylistic differences between the work of 'the other' Jan van Kessel and Jan van Kessel the Elder. Art historian K. Ertz considers 'the other' Jan van Kessel as not inferior to Jan van Kessel the Elder, and even believes him to eclipse his more famous namesake in his masterpiece Swags of fruit and flowers surrounding a cartouche with a sulphur-crested cockatoo.  This work is in the collection of the Fitzwilliam Museum where it is still attributed to Jan van Kessel the Elder.
+
+
+References
+
+
+External links
+ Media related to 'the other' Jan van Kessel at Wikimedia Commons

Wikipedia Biology/(+)-Benzo(a)pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide.txt

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+(+)-Benzo(a)pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide
+
+(+)-Benzo[a]pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide is an organic compound with molecular formula C20H14O3.  It is a metabolite and derivative of benzo[a]pyrene (found in tobacco smoke) as a result of oxidation to include hydroxyl and epoxide functionalities.  (+)-Benzo[a]pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide binds to the N2 atom of a guanine nucleobase in DNA, distorting the double helix structure by intercalation of the pyrene moiety between base pairs through π-stacking.  The carcinogenic properties of tobacco smoking are attributed in part to this compound binding and inactivating the tumor suppression ability of certain genes, leading to genetic mutations and potentially to cancer.
+
+
+Structure
+Pyrene is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon consisting of four benzene rings fused together in a planar aromatic arrangement which approximates a rhombus in shape.  Benzo[a]pyrene is a derivative in which a fifth benzene ring has been fused to the pyrene system, and is a component of tobacco smoke which is a procarcinogen partly responsible for the carcinogenic and mutagenic effects of smoking.  Benzo[a]pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide is a metabolite of benzo[a]pyrene formed by the introduction of vicinal hydroxyl and epoxide functional groups to the fifth benzene ring.  These oxidations are stereoselective, producing the pair of enantiomers with the hydroxyl groups on opposite sides of the pyrene plane and with the epoxide on the same side as its adjacent hydroxyl group.   (+)-Benzo[a]pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide is specifically the (7R,8S,8aR,9aS) stereoisomer.
+
+
+Biosynthesis
+The metabolism of the tobacco smoke procarcinogen benzo[a]pyrene involves three distinct steps – the introduction of an epoxide group in the 7,8-position, its hydration to a vicinal diol and the introduction of an epoxide in the 9,10-position.  In the first step, a cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1) catalysed oxidation produces several products including (+)-benzo[a]pyrene-7,8-epoxide.  The enzyme epoxide hydrolase, then hydrates the epoxide ring to yield the vicinal diol (−)-benzo[a]pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol, which is then oxidised by cytochrome P450 oxidase again forming the mutagen and carcinogen (+)-benzo[a]pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide.  This diol epoxide covalently binds to DNA by a ring-opening to alkylate the nucleobase forming a distorted structure, as shown at right, with intercalation of a pyrene polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon moiety between the base pairs favouring π-stacking; these distortions have been confirmed by X-ray crystallographic and nuclear magnetic resonance structure studies.  Aflatoxin has a similar mechanism of action, though its binding is through the N7, rather than the N2, position of guanine.  Multiple stereochemical outcomes are possible from these transformations.  The anti stereoisomer (shown here) and its enantiomer are the ultimate carcinogens from benzo[a]pyrene, but the syn isomers are also produced.
+
+
+Biochemistry
+(+)-Benzo[a]pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide has been shown to bind to an N2 atom of a guanine nucleobase in DNA, distorting the double helix structure by intercalation of the pyrene moiety between base pairs through π-stacking.There are indications that (+)-benzo[a]pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide specifically targets the protective p53 gene; More than 50 percent of human tumors contain a mutation or deletion of the p53 gene.  This gene is a transcription factor that regulates the cell cycle and hence functions as a tumor suppressor. The anti-benzo[a]pyrene diol epoxides induce guanine to thymine transversions in related areas of p53, thereby inactivating its tumor suppression ability in certain cells, leading to genetic mutations and potentially to cancer.Induction of CYP1A1 by benzo[a]pyrene occurs via binding to the aryl hydrocarbon receptor in the cytosol, leading the transformed receptor to translocate to the nucleus where it dimerises with aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator and then binds xenobiotic response elements in DNA located upstream of certain genes.  This process increases transcription of genes including CYP1A1, resulting in increased CYP1A1 protein production. This process is similar to induction of CYP1A1 by certain polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins. Seemingly, CYP1A1 activity in the intestinal mucosa prevents major amounts of ingested benzo[a]pyrene to enter portal blood and systemic circulation. Intestinal, but not hepatic, expression of CYP1A1 depends on TOLL-like receptor 2 (TLR2), which is a eucaryotic receptor for bacterial surface structures such as lipoteichoic acid. Moreover, benzo[a]pyrene has been found to activate a transposon, LINE1, in humans.
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology/(+)-Naloxone.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+(+)-Naloxone
+
+(+)-Naloxone (dextro-naloxone) is a drug which is the opposite enantiomer of the opioid antagonist drug (−)-naloxone. Unlike (-)-naloxone, (+)-naloxone has no significant affinity for opioid receptors, but instead has been discovered to act as a selective antagonist of Toll-like receptor 4. This receptor is involved in immune system responses, and activation of TLR4 induces glial activation and release of inflammatory mediators such as TNF-α and Interleukin-1.
+
+
+Relation with opioids
+Both active and inactive enantiomers of various opioid analgesic drugs including morphine, meperidine, fentanyl, methadone and buprenorphine, as well as some otherwise inactive metabolites like morphine-3-glucuronide, have been found to act as agonists of TLR4, and chronic use of these drugs consequently causes constant low-level release of TNF-α and IL-1β as well as other downstream effects. This is thought to be involved in various adverse properties of opioid analgesic drugs, such as loss of efficacy with extended use and the associated development of tolerance and dependence, as well as the development of side effects such as hyperalgesia and allodynia, which can cause long-term use of opioid analgesics to not only fail to treat neuropathic pain, but ultimately exacerbate it.
+
+
+Applications of (+)-naloxone and related drugs
+Several opioid antagonist drugs were found to act as antagonists for TLR4, including naloxone and naltrexone. However it was found that not only the (-) enantiomers, but also the (+) enantiomers of these drugs acted as TLR4 antagonists (though (+)-nalmefene was inactive). Since (+)-naloxone and (+)-naltrexone lack affinity for opioid receptors, they do not block the effects of opioid analgesic drugs, and so can be used to counteract the TLR4-mediated side effects of opioid agonists without affecting analgesia, though (+)-naloxone does reduce the reinforcing effects of opioid drugs. (+)-Naloxone was also found to be neuroprotective, and both (+)-naloxone and (+)-naltrexone are effective in their own right at treating symptoms of neuropathic pain in animal models. However (+)-naloxone was also found to reduce the effects of stimulant drugs, suggesting additional actions beyond TLR4 antagonism (possibly as a sigma receptor antagonist), that might potentially result in unwanted side effects or drug interactions.
+
+
+See also
+Dextromethorphan
+Eritoran
+Methylnaltrexone
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology/(2-Chlorophenyl)thiourea.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+(2-Chlorophenyl)thiourea
+
+(2-Chlorophenyl)thiourea is a chemical compound used as an herbicide. As of 1998, the Environmental Protection Agency did not have it registered as a pesticide in the United States.
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology/(2-Nitrophenyl)acetic acid.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+(2-Nitrophenyl)acetic acid
+
+2-Nitrophenylacetic acid is an organic compound used in organic synthesis that has also been used as an herbicide. It is a derivative of phenylacetic acid, containing a phenyl functional group, a carboxylic acid functional group, and a nitro functional group. It is an important reagent for many organic reactions, especially for the formation of heterocycles. 
+
+
+Synthesis
+This compound may be prepared by the nitration of phenylacetic acid.
+
+
+Applications
+In organic synthesis, 2-nitrophenylacetic acid can be used as a protecting group for primary alcohols. The alcohol is esterified with 2-nitrophenylacetic acid, proceeding through the acid chloride or acid anhydride. The acid itself can also protect the alcohol through the Mitsunobu reaction: reacting the alcohol and the acid with diethyl azidocarboxylate and triphenylphosphine in dichloromethane. The protecting group is selectively removed using zinc and ammonium chloride, and is compatible with other existing alcohol protecting groups. 
+ 
+In addition, 2-nitrophenylacetic acid is a precursor for many heterocycles. Complete reduction of 2-nitrophenylacetic acid yields anilines, which quickly cyclize to form lactams. Partial reductive cyclization of the acids using weaker reducing agents forms hydroxamic acids.
+Both of these processes are useful in the synthesis of many biologically active molecules. 2-nitrophenylacetic acid is a precursor of quindoline, which although it does not have many practical applications on its own, quindoline derivatives and modifications can be treated as enzyme inhibitors and anticancer agents.
+Derivatives of 2-nitrophenylacetic acids are useful in total synthesis for their ability to form heterocycles. 2-nitrophenylacetic acid is a precursor to (-)-phaitanthrin D, a clinically useful molecule originally isolated from the Phaius mishmensis orchid. The carboxylic acid on the 2-nitrophenylacetic acid is first protected using menthol, 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide (EDCl), hydroxybenzotriazole(HOBt) and N,N-iisopropylethylamine(DIPEA). A pattern of reducing the nitro group to an amino group and subsequently forming amides by the addition to carboxylic acids (namely nitrobenzoic acid) occurs. Reductive cyclization of the subsequent product using hexamethyldisilazane, zinc chloride and dimethylformamide forms the disubstituted heterocycle present in the (-)-phaitantrin D molecule. 
+
+Outside of organic synthesis, 2-nitrophenylacetic acid has been used as an herbicide, as it displays selective herbicidal properties. It has also been used as an internal standard for measurement of salicylamide-O-acetic acid (an anti-asthma drug) using high performance liquid chromatography. 
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology/(6S)-6-Fluoroshikimic acid.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+(6S)-6-Fluoroshikimic acid
+
+(6S)-6-Fluoroshikimic acid is an antibacterial agent acting on the aromatic biosynthetic pathway. It may be used against Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent of malaria. The molecule is targeting the enzymes of the shikimate pathway. This metabolic pathway is not present in mammals. The mechanism of action of the molecule is not through the inhibition of chorismate synthase but by the inhibition of 4-aminobenzoic acid synthesis.The use of the molecule led to resistances in Escherichia coli.
+
+
+See also
+Shikimic acid
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology/(E)-4-Hydroxy-3-methyl-but-2-enyl pyrophosphate.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+(E)-4-Hydroxy-3-methyl-but-2-enyl pyrophosphate
+
+(E)-4-Hydroxy-3-methyl-but-2-enyl pyrophosphate (HMBPP or HMB-PP) is an intermediate of the  MEP pathway (non-mevalonate pathway) of isoprenoid biosynthesis. The enzyme HMB-PP synthase (GcpE, IspG) catalyzes the conversion of 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 2,4-cyclodiphosphate (MEcPP) into HMB-PP. HMB-PP is then converted further to isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) by HMB-PP reductase (LytB, IspH).
+HMB-PP is an essential metabolite in most pathogenic bacteria including Mycobacterium tuberculosis as well as in malaria parasites, but is absent from the human host.HMB-PP is the physiological activator ("phosphoantigen") for human Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells, the major γδ T cell population in peripheral blood. With a bioactivity of 0.1 nM it is 10,000-10,000,000 times more potent than any other natural compound, such as IPP or alkyl amines. HMB-PP functions in this capacity by binding the B30.2 domain of BTN3A1.
+
+
+References
+
+
+External links
+4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-enyl+pyrophosphate at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)

Wikipedia Biology/(E,E)-2,4-Decadienal.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+(E,E)-2,4-Decadienal
+
+(E,E)-2,4-Decadienal is an aromatic substance found in butter, cooked beef, fish, potato chips, roasted peanut, buckwheat and wheat bread crumb.
+In an isolated state, it smells of deep fat flavor, characteristic of chicken aroma (at 10ppm).   At lower concentration, it has the odor of citrus, orange or grapefruit.
+It might be carcinogenic. It has been used as aroma in the EU, but use restrictions apply until the required data have been submitted.
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology/(Histone-H3)-lysine-36 demethylase.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+(Histone-H3)-lysine-36 demethylase
+
+(Histone-H3)-lysine-36 demethylase (EC 1.14.11.27, JHDM1A, JmjC domain-containing histone demethylase 1A, H3-K36-specific demethylase, histone-lysine (H3-K36) demethylase, histone demethylase, protein-6-N,6-N-dimethyl-L-lysine,2-oxoglutarate:oxygen oxidoreductase) is an enzyme with systematic name protein-N6,N6-dimethyl-L-lysine,2-oxoglutarate:oxygen oxidoreductase. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction
+
+protein N6,N6-dimethyl-L-lysine + 2 2-oxoglutarate + 2 O2 
+  
+    
+      
+        ⇌
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \rightleftharpoons }
+   protein L-lysine + 2 succinate + 2 formaldehyde + 2 CO2 (overall reaction)
+(1a) protein N6,N6-dimethyl-L-lysine + 2-oxoglutarate + O2 
+  
+    
+      
+        ⇌
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \rightleftharpoons }
+   protein N6-methyl-L-lysine + succinate + formaldehyde + CO2
+(1b) protein N6-methyl-L-lysine + 2-oxoglutarate + O2 
+  
+    
+      
+        ⇌
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \rightleftharpoons }
+   protein L-lysine + succinate + formaldehyde + CO2(Histone-H3)-lysine-36 demethylase contains iron(II).
+
+
+References
+
+
+External links
+(histone-H3)-lysine-36+demethylase at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)

Wikipedia Biology/(S)-Ipsdienol.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+(S)-Ipsdienol
+
+(S)-Ipsdienol is a terpene alcohol. It is one of the major aggregation pheromones of the bark beetle. It was first identified from Ips confusus, in which it is believed to be a principle sex attractant. 
+It is suggested that the compound plays a role in interspecies communication between Ips latidens and Ips ini, facilitating reductions in competition for breeding material and/or mating interference.
+
+
+Synthesis
+The compound has been synthesized from D-mannitol. Alternative syntheses were realized through the asymmetric isoprenylation of correspondent aldehyde (prenal) and alcohol (prenol).Chiral resolution of racemic precursor has been found to provide both enantiomers of ipsdienol in high enantiomeric purity and in preparative scale.
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology/(Un)well.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+(Un)well
+
+(Un)well is an American documentary series about the wellness industry. The series was produced by Left/Right Productions and premiered on August 12, 2020, on Netflix. Reviewers point out the episodes tend to give more weight to enthusiastic testimonials than to expert advice, painting a positive picture of treatments that are often ineffective or dangerous.
+
+
+Summary
+Through interviews with practitioners, consumers and experts, the series questions the efficacy and safety of six treatments offered by the "wellness" industry. Presented without a narrator, the audience is left to make up their own minds about the information presented.
+
+
+Episodes
+
+
+Reception
+Reviewers give credit to the series for exposing some of the worst abuse of the wellness industry. However, the series suffers from false balance, drowning the advice of experts in lengthy testimonies by sympathetic practitioners of alternative medicine and their clients.
+
+At CNN, Brian Lowry points to the interviews with scientists and journalists sprinkled through the episodes as an explanation of how people can be manipulated by those who seek to sell treatments "more rooted in faith than science". It's also a commentary on the poor state of the healthcare system, with people looking for quick fixes elsewhere. Lowry quotes Steven Novella's warning that the promises of the wellness industry are often nothing more than false hopes.
+Writing for Science-Based Medicine, Harriet Hall gives the series "two thumbs down". She believes it fails in its attempt to present a balanced view of the issues discussed: "The people who made (Un)well seem to believe testimonials and hearsay are good evidence and are just as credible as scientific studies, perhaps even more so." Hall worries that viewers, seduced by slickly-produced testimonials, will be motivated to try the treatment presented, even though it is likely ineffective and possibly dangerous.
+Jonathan Jarry of the Office for Science and Society says the series "observes but never judges, and this impartial approach causes it to commit the sin of false balance." The advice of experts presented throughout the episodes tends to be drowned out by anecdotes of enthusiastic patients. The show does present people who were severely harmed by pseudoscientific treatments, but always goes back to a practitioner who appears to adopt a more benign approach. In the end, for Jarry, (Un)Well "warns against extremes in the search for health but allows so many pseudoscientific claims to stand unchecked, it practically endorses many of the practices it aims to denounce."
+Writing for The Daily Beast, Laura Bradley worried that despite using interviews with genuine experts, the series risks promoting the conspiracy theorists and health gurus it also presents: "As much as (Un)Well clearly wants to serve as an even-handed guide into the strange world of wellness, the show's insistence on letting each side speak for itself without tipping its hand means all it's really doing is providing a platform for quackery and false hope." While the show clearly identifies problems with some companies (Young Living gets the harsh treatment), others are let off easy. She also thought the material presented would fit better into a 30-minute format rather than the 50 minutes per episode used.
+Writing for Culture Whisper, Sarah Joan Ross gave the series three stars out of five. The series "does effectively expose a few of the darker sides of the wellness industry", but the scientific analysis does not go very deep. The testimonies of clients who tried the various treatments gives energy to the episodes, but they don't have the humor and production value of a series like The Goop Lab.
+
+
+References
+
+
+External links
+(Un)well on Netflix 
+(Un)well at IMDb

Wikipedia Biology/(Z)-9-Tricosene.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+(Z)-9-Tricosene
+
+(Z)-9-Tricosene, known as muscalure, is an insect pheromone found in dipteran flies such as the housefly. Females produce it to attract males to mate. It is used as a pesticide, as in Maxforce Quickbayt by Bayer, luring males to traps to prevent them from reproducing.
+
+
+Biological functions
+(Z)-9-Tricosene is a sex pheromone produced by female house flies (Musca domestica) to attract males.  In bees, it is one of the communication pheromones released during the waggle dance.
+
+
+Uses
+As a pesticide, (Z)-9-tricosene is used in fly paper and other traps to lure male flies, trap them, and prevent them from reproducing.
+
+
+Biosynthesis
+(Z)-9-Tricosene is biosynthesized in house flies from nervonic acid.  The acid is converted into the acyl-CoA derivative and then reduced to the aldehyde (Z)-15-tetracosenal.  Through a decarboxylation reaction, the aldehyde is converted to (Z)-9-tricosene.  The process is mediated by a cytochrome P450 enzyme and requires oxygen (O2) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH).
+
+
+Safety
+Products containing (Z)-9-tricosene are considered safe for humans, wildlife, and the environment.
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology/-ase.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+-ase
+
+The suffix -ase is used in biochemistry to form names of enzymes. The most common way to name enzymes is to add this suffix onto the end of the substrate, e.g. an enzyme that breaks down peroxides may be called peroxidase; the enzyme that produces telomeres is called telomerase. Sometimes enzymes are named for the function they perform, rather than substrate, e.g. the enzyme that polymerizes (assembles) DNA into strands is called polymerase; see also reverse transcriptase.
+
+
+Etymology
+The -ase suffix is a libfix derived from "diastase", the first recognized enzyme. Its usage in subsequently discovered enzymes was proposed by Émile Duclaux, with the intention of honoring the first scientists to isolate diastase.
+
+
+See also
+Amylase
+DNA polymerase
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology/-bacter.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+-bacter
+
+The suffix -bacter is in microbiology for many genera and is intended to mean "bacteria".
+
+
+Meaning
+Bacter is a Neo-Latin (i.e. Modern Latin) term coined from bacterium, which in turn derives from the Greek βακτήριον, meaning small staff (diminutive of βακτηρία). Consequently, it formally means "rod".
+It differs from the suffix -bacterium in grammatical gender, the former being male and the latter being neuter; this was decided in Juridical (or Judicial) Opinion n° 3 of the Bacteriological Code.Nevertheless, for historical reasons, two archaeal species finish in -bacter: Methanobrevibacter and Methanothermobacter.
+
+
+Usage
+
+Juridical Opinion n° 2 in the Bacteriological Code discusses the declension of the word, given that authors differently assumed the genitive case of bacter to be bactris (3rd declension words of Latin origin ending in =ter), bacteri (2nd declension) or bacteris (3rd declension, used for words of Greek origin, such as astris).  The Opinion opts for the latter: consequently, higher taxa are formed with the stem =bacter- and not =bactr-. In Juridical Opinion n° 3 it was established to be masculine.
+For example, Campylobacter is a genus of Campylobacterales.
+These rules were established so that the specific epithets were paired with the correct gender as imposed by the Bacteriological Code and the correct higher taxon names were formed.
+An interesting effect of this is that the genus Fibrobacter gives its name both to the phylum Fibrobacteres, which obeys Latin grammar, and to the class Fibrobacteria, which follows the recommendation of using the suffix -ia
+
+
+Genera
+
+
+See also
+-monas
+Bacteriological Code
+bacterial taxonomy has a discussion of endings of Bacterial phyla
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology/-monas.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+-monas
+
+The suffix -monas is used in microbiology for many genera and is intended to mean "unicellular organism".
+
+
+Meaning
+The suffix -monas found in many genera in microbiology is similar in usage to -bacter, -bacillus, -coccus or -spirillum. The genera with the suffix are not a monophyletic group and the suffix is chosen over -bacter, often simply out of stylistic preferences to match with Greek words.
+The first genus to be given the suffix -monas was Pseudomonas, a genus of gammaproteobacteria. The generic epithet Pseudomonas was coined by Walter Migula in 1894, who did not give an etymology.
+Since the 7th edition of Bergey's manual (=top authority in bacterial nomenclature), other authors have given the etymology to be: Greek pseudēs (ψευδής, false) and monas (μονάς, single unit or monad), which can mean "false unit". However, "false unit" conceptually does not make much sense, namely, it does not mean "an organism which may falsely appear as a single unit but it is not" as it is not found in multicellular chains nor was it ever described as such. One speculation is that the name was chosen simply out of aesthetics, while the most plausible theory states that Migula intended it as false Monas, a nanoflagellate protist (Chrysophyceae: Ochromonadales: Ochromonadaceae: Chrysomonadida: Ochromonadidae). Subsequently, the term "monas" was used in the early history of microbiology to denote single-celled organisms.
+
+
+Grammar
+
+In English to make a vernacular name for members of a genus, i.e. trivialising the scientific name, the scientific name is taken and written with sentence case and in roman type (i.e. "standard") as opposed to uppercase italic, the plurals are generally constructed by adding an "s", regardless of Greco-Roman grammar. In the case of genera ending in monas the ending is changed to monad with plural -monads. Example: a member of the genus Pseudomonas is a pseudomonad, while two are pseudomonads. The use of the stem for non-nominative cases is seen more often in botany, where trivialisation is more common, e.g. a bromeliad is a member of the genus Bromelia.
+
+
+Archaeal genera
+
+
+Bacterial genera
+
+
+See also
+-bacter
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology/...First Do No Harm.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+...First Do No Harm
+
+...First Do No Harm is a 1997 American made-for-television drama film directed by Jim Abrahams about a boy whose severe epilepsy, unresponsive to medications with terrible side effects, is controlled by the ketogenic diet. Aspects of the story mirror Abrahams' own experience with his son Charlie.
+
+
+Plot
+The film tells a story in the life of a Midwestern family, the Reimullers. Lori (played by Meryl Streep) is the mother of three children, and the wife of Dave (Fred Ward), a truck driver. The family are presented as happy, normal and comfortable financially: they have just bought a horse and are planning a holiday to Hawaii. Then the youngest son, Robbie (Seth Adkins), has a sudden unexplained fall at school. A short while later, he has another unprovoked fall while playing with his brother, and is seen having a convulsive seizure. Robbie is taken to the hospital where a number of procedures are performed: a CT scan, a lumbar puncture, an electroencephalogram (EEG) and blood tests. No cause is found but the two falls are regarded as epileptic seizures and the child is diagnosed with epilepsy.
+Robbie is started on phenobarbital, an old anticonvulsant drug with well-known side effects including cognitive impairment and behavior problems. The latter cause the child to run berserk through the house, leading to injury. Lori urgently phones the physician to request a change of medication. It is changed to phenytoin (Dilantin) but the dose of phenobarbital must be tapered slowly, causing frustration. Later, the drug carbamazepine (Tegretol) is added.
+Meanwhile, the Reimullers discover that their health insurance is invalid and their treatment is transferred from private to county hospital. In an attempt to pay the medical bills, Dave takes on more dangerous truck loads and works long hours. Family tensions reach a head when the children realize the holiday is not going to happen and a foreclosure notice is posted on the house.
+Robbie's epilepsy gets worse, and he develops a serious rash known as Stevens–Johnson syndrome as a side effect of the medication. He is admitted to hospital where his padded cot is designed to prevent him escaping. The parents fear he may become a "vegetable" and are losing hope. At one point, Robbie goes into status epilepticus (a continuous convulsive seizure that must be stopped as a medical emergency). Increasing doses of diazepam (Valium) are given intravenously to no effect. Eventually, paraldehyde is given rectally. This drug is described as having possibly fatal side effects and is seen dramatically melting a plastic cup (a glass syringe is required).
+The neurologist in charge of Robbie's care, Dr. Melanie Abbasac (Allison Janney), has poor bedside manner and paints a bleak picture. Abbasac wants the Reimullers to consider surgery and start the necessary investigative procedures to see if this is an option. These involve removing the top of the skull and inserting electrodes on the surface of the brain to achieve a more accurate location of any seizure focus than normal scalp EEG electrodes. The Reimullers see surgery as a dangerous last resort and want to know if anything else can be done.
+Lori begins to research epilepsy at the library. After many hours, she comes across the ketogenic diet in a well-regarded textbook on epilepsy. However, their doctor dismisses the diet as having only anecdotal evidence of its effectiveness. After initially refusing to consider the diet, she appears to relent but sets impossible hurdles in the way: the Reimullers must find a way to transport their son to Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland with continual medical support—something they cannot afford.
+That evening, Lori attempts to abduct her son from the hospital and, despite the risk, fly with him to an appointment she has made with a doctor at Johns Hopkins. However, she is stopped by hospital security at the exit to the hospital. A sympathetic nurse warns Lori that she could lose custody of her son if a court decides she is putting her son's health at risk.
+Dave makes contact with an old family friend who once practiced as a physician and is still licensed. This doctor and the sympathetic nurse agree to accompany Lori and Robbie on the trip to Baltimore. During the flight, Robbie has a prolonged convulsive seizure, which causes some concern to the pilot and crew.
+When they arrive at Johns Hopkins, it becomes apparent that Lori has deceived her friends as her appointment (for the previous week) was not rescheduled and there are no places on the ketogenic diet program. After much pleading, Dr. Freeman agrees to take Robbie on as an outpatient. Lori and Robbie stay at a convent in Baltimore.
+The diet is briefly explained by Millicent Kelly (played by herself) a dietitian who has helped run the ketogenic diet program since the 1940s. Robbie's seizures begin to improve during the initial fast that is used to kick-start the diet. Despite the very high-fat nature of the diet, Robbie accepts the food and rapidly improves. His seizures are eliminated and his mental faculties are restored. The film ends with Robbie riding the family horse at a parade through town. Closing credits claim Robbie continued the diet for a couple of years and has remained seizure- and drug-free ever since.
+
+
+Cast
+Meryl Streep as Lori Reimuller
+Fred Ward as Dave Reimuller
+Seth Adkins as Robbie Reimuller
+Allison Janney as Dr. Melanie Abbasac
+Margo Martindale as Marjean
+Leo Burmester as Bob Purdue
+Tom Butler as Dr. Jim Peterson
+Mairon Bennett as Lynne Reimuller
+Michael Yarmush as Mark Reimuller
+
+
+Background
+The director and producer, Jim Abrahams, was inspired to make the film as a result of his own experiences with his son Charlie. Charlie developed a very serious seizure condition that proved intractable despite several medications and surgery. His cognitive decline was described by Abrahams as "a fate worse than death". He came across the diet in a book on childhood epilepsy by John Freeman, director of the Pediatric Epilepsy Center at Johns Hopkins Hospital. Charlie was started on the diet and rapidly became seizure-free. In addition, medications were tapered and his mental development restored. Abrahams was outraged that nobody had informed him of the diet. He created the Charlie Foundation to promote the diet and funded research studies to demonstrate its effectiveness.
+Although the film plot has parallels with the Abrahams' story, the character of Robbie is a composite one and the family circumstances are fictional. Several minor characters in the film are played by people who have been on the ketogenic diet and had their epilepsy "cured" as a result. The dietitian Millicent Kelly plays herself. Charlie Abrahams appears as a young boy playing with Robbie in the hospital, whose mother quickly removes him when she discovers Robbie has epilepsy—as though it were an infectious disease.
+Commenting on the film, John Freeman said "The movie was based on a true story and we see this story often, but not everyone is cured by the diet and not everyone goes home to ride in a parade." He later noted that the film had "fueled a grass-roots effort for more research on the diet."
+The film was first broadcast on 16 February 1997. It was subsequently released  on DVD.
+Meryl Streep's performance was nominated for an Emmy, a Golden Globe and in the Satellite Awards in the category Best Actress in a TV Film. Writer Ann Beckett was nominated for the Humanitas Prize (90 minute category). Seth Adkins won a Young Artist Award for his performance as Robbie.
+
+
+See also
+Never event
+Primum non nocere
+
+
+References
+Jim Abrahams (2003). "Things I Wish They Had Told Us: A Parent's Perspective on Childhood Epilepsy". The Charlie Foundation. Archived from the original on 2008-02-13. Retrieved 2008-03-30.
+John Freeman (2003). "Talk with John Freeman: Tending the Flame". Brainwaves. 16 (2). Archived from the original on 7 May 2008. Retrieved 2008-03-30.
+Denise Mann (2000-07-06). "Movie First Do No Harm Boosts Popularity of Diet for Epileptic Children". WebMD Medical News.
+Venita Jay (April 1997). "...first do no harm". Epilepsy Ontario 'Sharing' News. Archived from the original on 2007-12-15. Retrieved 2008-03-30.
+Kathleen Fackelmann (1999-01-12). "Recognizing a 'miracle' The high-fat ketogenic diet can ease seizures in epileptic children". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2009-11-13. Retrieved 2010-07-23.
+Freeman JM, Kossoff EH, Hartman AL (March 2007). "The ketogenic diet: one decade later". Pediatrics. 119 (3): 535–43. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-2447. PMID 17332207. S2CID 26629499.
+
+
+External links
+...First Do No Harm at IMDb 
+...First Do No Harm at AllMovie

Wikipedia Biology/.NET Bio.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+.NET Bio
+
+.NET Bio is an open source bioinformatics and genomics library created to enable simple loading, saving and analysis of biological data. It was designed for .NET Standard 2.0 and was part of the Microsoft Biology Initiative in the eScience division.
+
+
+History
+.NET Bio was originally built and released by Microsoft Research under the name Microsoft Biology Foundation (MBF) and was later repackaged and released by the Outercurve Foundation as a fully public and open source project under the Apache License 2.0.
+
+
+Capabilities
+The library consists of a set of object-oriented classes written in C# to perform common bioinformatic tasks such as:
+
+Read and write standard alignment and sequence-oriented data files such as FASTA and GenBank.
+Access online web services such as NCBI BLAST to search known databases for sequence fragments.
+Algorithms for local and global alignments.
+Algorithms for sequence assembly, including a parallel DeNovo assembler implementation.Even though the library itself is written in C#, it may be used from any .NET compatible language and has samples of various usages including from IronPython scripting.
+
+
+See also
+Genome Compiler
+Open Bioinformatics Foundation
+BioJava, BioPerl, BioPython, BioRuby
+Bioclipse
+
+
+References
+
+
+External links
+.NET Bio Website
+Original MBF Website
+Microsoft Biology Initiative

Wikipedia Biology/.hack.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,85 @@
+.hack
+
+.hack (pronounced "Dot Hack") is a Japanese multimedia franchise that encompasses two projects: Project .hack and .hack Conglomerate. They were primarily created and developed by CyberConnect2, and published by Bandai Namco Entertainment. The series features an alternative history setting in the rise of the new millennium regarding the technological rise of a new version of the internet following a major global computer network disaster in the year 2005, and the mysterious events regarding the wildly popular fictional massively multiplayer online role-playing game  The World. The series mainly comprises anime and video game titles which have been subsequently adapted into manga, novels, and other related media.
+
+
+Project .hack
+Project .hack was the first project of the .hack series. It launched in 2002 with the anime series .hack//Sign in April 2002 and the PlayStation 2 game .hack//Infection in June 2002. Project developers included Koichi Mashimo (Bee Train), Kazunori Itō (Catfish) and Yoshiyuki Sadamoto (Gainax). Since then, Project .hack has spanned television, video games, manga and novels. It centers mainly on the events and affairs of the prime installment of The World. The franchise began internationally when Bandai announced .hack//Infection, which was released in 2003 and .hack//Sign got an English dub, which was released on Cartoon Network in the same year.
+
+
+Games
+.hack, a series of four PlayStation 2 games that follow the story of the .hackers, Kite and BlackRose, and their attempts to find out what caused the sudden coma of Kite's friend, Orca, and BlackRose's brother, Kazu. The volumes included .hack//Infection, .hack//Mutation, .hack//Outbreak and .hack//Quarantine.
+.hack//frägment, the first .hack Massively multiplayer online game (online role-playing game). It was released only in Japan, the online servers began on November 23, 2005 and ended on January 18, 2007.
+.hack//Enemy, a collectible card game created by Decipher Inc. based on the .hack series. It was discontinued after running five separate expansions between 2003 and 2005.
+
+
+Anime
+.hack//Sign is an anime television series directed by Kōichi Mashimo and produced by studio Bee Train and Bandai Visual. It consists of twenty six original episodes and three additional ones, released on DVD as original video animations. The series focuses on a Wavemaster (magic user) named Tsukasa, a player character in the virtual reality game. He wakes up to find himself in a dungeon in The World, but he suffers amnesia as he wonders where he is and how he got there. The situation gets worse when he discovers he cannot log out and is trapped in the game. Tsukasa embarks with other players on a quest to find the truth behind the abnormal situation. The series is influenced by psychological and sociological subjects, such as anxiety, escapism and interpersonal relationships. The series premiered in Japan on TV Tokyo between April 4, 2002 and September 25, 2002. It was later broadcast across East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, and Latin America by the anime television network, Animax; and across the United States, Nigeria, Canada, and the United Kingdom by Cartoon Network, YTV, and AnimeCentral (English and Japanese) respectively. It is distributed across North America by Bandai Entertainment.
+.hack//Legend of the Twilight is a miniseries adaptation of the manga series written by Tatsuya Hamazaki and drawn by Rei Izumi. The series was directed by Koichi Mashimo and Koji Sawai, and produced by Bee Train. Set in a fictional MMORPG, The World, the series focuses on twins Rena and Shugo, who receive chibi avatars in the design of the legendary .hackers known as Kite and BlackRose. After Shugo is given the Twilight Bracelet by a mysterious girl, the two embark on a quest to find Aura and unravel the mystery of the Twilight Bracelet. The anime series features many of the same characters as the manga version, but with an alternative storyline. It was localized as .hack//Dusk, among other names, in fan translations prior to the official English release.
+.hack//Liminality is a set of four DVD OVAs included with the .hack video game series for the PlayStation 2. Liminality is focused on the real world as opposed to the games' MMORPG The World. Separated into four volumes; each volume was released with its corresponding game. The initial episode is 45 minutes long and each subsequent episode is 30 minutes long. The video series was directed by Koichi Mashimo, and written by Kazunori Itō with music by Yuki Kajiura. Primary animation production was handled by Mashimo's studio Bee Train which collaborated for the four games as well as handled major production on .hack//Sign. Liminality follows the story of Mai Minase, Yuki Aihara, Kyoko Tohno, and ex-CyberConnect employee Junichiro Tokuoka as they attempt to find out why players are falling into comas when playing in The World.
+.hack//Gift, a self-deprecating, tongue-in-cheek, OVA that was created as a "gift" for those who had bought and completed all four .hack video games. It was released under Project .hack. In Japan, it was available when the Data Flag on the memory card file in .hack//Quarantine was present, whereas the American version included Gift on the fourth Liminality DVD. It is predominantly a comedy that makes fun of everything that developed throughout the series, even the franchise's own shortcomings. Character designs are deliberately simplistic.
+
+
+Novels
+.hack//AI buster, a novel released under Project .hack, in 2002. It tells the story of Albireo and a prototype of the ultimate AI, Lycoris, and of how Orca and Balmung defeated "The One Sin" and became the Descendants of Fianna.
+.hack//AI buster 2, a collection of stories released under Project .hack. It involves the characters of AI Buster and Legend of the Twilight Bracelet: ".hack//2nd Character", ".hack//Wotan's Spear", ".hack//Kamui", ".hack//Rumor" and ".hack//Firefly". "Rumor" was previously released with the Rena Special Pack in Japan.
+.hack//Another Birth, a novel series released under Project .hack. It retells the story of the .hack video games from BlackRose's point of view.
+.hack//Zero, a novel series released under Project .hack. It tells the story of a Long Arm named Carl, of what happened to Sora after he was trapped in The World by Morganna, and of Tsukasa's real life after being able to log out from The World.
+.hack//Epitaph of Twilight, a novel series telling the story of Harald Hoerwick's niece, Lara Hoerwick, who finds herself trapped in an early version of The World.
+
+
+Manga
+.hack//Legend of the Twilight, a manga series released under Project .hack. It tells the story of two player characters Shugo and Rena, as they win a mysterious contest that earns them chibi character models of the legendary .hackers Kite & BlackRose.
+
+
+.hack Conglomerate
+.hack Conglomerate is the current project of .hack by CyberConnect2 and various other companies and successor to Project .hack. The companies include Victor Entertainment, Nippon Cultural Broadcasting, Bandai, TV Tokyo, Bee Train, and Kadokawa Shoten. It encompasses a series of three PlayStation 2 games called .hack//G.U., an anime series called .hack//Roots, prose, and manga. .hack Conglomerate focuses on times and installments after the original The World MMORPG.
+
+
+Games
+.hack//G.U. is a series of three video games (Vol. 1 Rebirth, Vol. 2 Reminisce, and Vol. 3 Redemption) released for the .hack Conglomerate project. Taking place in the installment of The World R:2 in the year 2017, the series focuses on the player Haseo's search for a cure after his friend was attacked by a player known as Tri-edge, which led to his eventual involvement with Project G.U, and the mysterious anomalies called AIDA that plague The World R:2. A remastered collection was released on November 3, 2017 for the PlayStation 4 and PC that included all three previous volumes and added a new 4th volume called Reconnection.
+.hack//Link, a PSP game released under the .hack Conglomerate project. It was claimed to be the last game in the series; the game centers on a youth named Tokio in the year 2020, who is given a free copy of The World R:X by the popular but mysterious new classmate Saika Amagi. Contains unplayable characters from .hack and .hack//G.U. video games.
+.hack//Versus, a PS3 game released under the .hack Conglomerate project. The game is the first .hack fighter game, which is bundled with the film .hack//The Movie.
+.hack//Guilty Dragon, a card-based mobile game for Android and iOS, it was exclusive for Japan. Its services began from October 15, 2012 and ended on March 23, 2016.
+.hack//G.U. The Card Battle is a trading card game similar to that of .hack//Enemy released under the .hack Conglomerate project. Unlike .hack//Enemy, the game was made by the original creators of .hack//G.U.. There are two sets of rules, one based on the mini game in the G.U. series, Crimson VS, and the one specifically designed for the trading card game. This game won the Origins Award for Best Trading Card Game of 2003.
+New World Vol. 1: Maiden of Silver Tears, an Android & iOS game released under the .hack Conglomerate project. it was a Japanese exclusive mobile game, it served as a reboot to the franchise. Services began on January 8, 2016 and ended on December 20, 2016.
+
+
+Anime
+.hack//Roots is an anime series released under the .hack Conglomerate project. It follows Haseo and his joining (and subsequent exploits with) the Twilight Brigade guild. It also shows his rise to power and how he becomes known as "The Terror of Death". Towards the end of the series we see the start of .hack.//G.U. This series is the last in the .hack anime series to be licensed by Bandai Entertainment.
+.hack//G.U. Trilogy, a CGI movie adaptation of the .hack//G.U. video games released under the .hack Conglomerate project.
+.hack//G.U. Returner, a short follow up OVA and the conclusion to .hack//Roots released under the .hack Conglomerate project. It tells the story about the characters of .hack//G.U. in one last adventure.
+.hack//Quantum, a three part OVA series from Kinema Citrus and the first in the anime series of .hack to be licensed by Funimation.
+.hack//The Movie, a CGI movie, announced on August 23, 2011. On January 21, 2012, it was launched in theaters throughout Japan. The movie takes place in the year 2024, where a reboot of The World under the name FORCE:ERA is released to a new generation of players.
+Thanatos Report, OVA in .hack//Versus unlocked after finishing Story Mode.
+
+
+Novels
+.hack//Cell, a novel series released under the .hack Conglomerate project, written by Ryo Suzukaze. .hack//CELL takes place at the same time as .hack//Roots. The main premise of the story covers the happenings that Midori and Adamas witness and experience in The World R:2, an extremely popular MMORPG that is a new version of the original game, The World. Midori meets numerous characters from .hack//Roots (most notably Haseo) and .hack//G.U. (such as Silabus and Gaspard). The main plot centers around Midori selling herself out to would-be PKers, and some real-world events that center around the girl who also bears the name Midori (Midori Shimomura) who is in a coma. It is later revealed that Midori is a sentient PC, a result of the "virtual cell" that was taken from Midori Shimomura's blood. After Midori Shimomura awakens from her coma, she enters The World R:2 with a PC identical to Midori. Tokyopop has obtained the rights to .hack//CELL and was released on March 2, 2010.
+.hack//G.U., a novel series adaptation of the three .hack//G.U. Video games released under the .hack Conglomerate project.
+.hack//bullet, a web novel that follows Flugel after the events of .hack//Link.
+
+
+Manga
+.hack//4koma, a yonkoma manga series most of the 4-Koma is filled with gags and parodies centring mostly around the main characters of the original .hack video game series and the .hack//G.U. video games series.
+.hack//Alcor, a manga series released under the .hack Conglomerate project. It focuses on a girl called Nanase, who appears to be quite fond of Silabus, as well as Alkaid during her days as empress of the Demon Palace.
+.hack//GnU, a humorous manga series released under the .hack Conglomerate project. It revolves around a male Blade Brandier called Raid and the seventh division of the Moon Tree guild.
+.hack//G.U.+, a manga adaptation series loosely based on  the three .hack//G.U. video games, released under the .hack Conglomerate project.
+.hack//XXXX (read as "X-Fourth"), a manga adaptation series released under the .hack Conglomerate project. The manga is loosely based on the four original .hack video games.
+.hack//Link, manga series released under the .hack Conglomerate project. It occurs three years after the end of .hack//G.U. in a new version of The World called The World R:X. It focuses on a player named Tokio and a mysterious exchange student named Saika.
+
+
+Other appearances
+A few characters from the franchise appear in the Nintendo 3DS games Project X Zone and Project X Zone 2.
+
+
+References
+
+
+External links
+.hack// - Official (Worldwide)
+.hack// - Official Archived 2020-04-27 at the Wayback Machine (Worldwide)
+.hack// - Official (in Japanese)
+Project .hack// - Official (in Japanese)
+.hack// Conglomerate - Official (in Japanese)
+.hack//Trilogy - Official (in Japanese)

Wikipedia Biology/.hiv.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+.hiv
+
+.hiv is a generic top-level domain (gTLD) proposed by the Berlin-based nonprofit dotHIV and owned by Uniregistry as of September 2014. It is the first open charitable gTLD and its ICANN designation states that the domain's operator is precluded from making a profit. Funds raised from .hiv domain sales will initially benefit projects to increase access to HIV/AIDS treatment in Rwanda, South Africa, Turkey, and the United States.
+
+
+History
+The top-level domain (TLD) was inspired by an anti-HIV/AIDS campaign by thjnk, a German advertising agency. A group of co-founders, including charity-experienced Carolin Silbernagl, thjnk's co-owner Michael Trautmann and creative director Philipp Kafkoulas, established dotHIV gemeinnütziger e.V. as a charitable association and applied for the .hiv TLD. Despite the global relevance of HIV/AIDS, dotHIV was the only applicant for the .hiv TLD. The charity signed a registration contract with ICANN in March 2014. Domains were made available for select companies and individuals during the July "sunrise" period, becoming generally available in August 2014. hiv became the first open charitable TLD and, according to one press release, "opens up a dedicated namespace that brings website owners together behind one goal: The end of AIDS".In September 2015, dotHIV and Cayman Islands-based domain company Uniregistry jointly announced Uniregistry's acquisition of .hiv and accompanying plan to complete the change in ownership before World AIDS Day on December 1, 2015. One announcement read, "Today, Uniregistry takes over the lead in this unique journey to use a top-level domain to promote a social good. The dotHIV charity will continue its work for .hiv and focus on community support. The creative agency thjnk from Hamburg, Germany, longstanding partner of the initiative, will continue to work on behalf of the .hiv top-level domain, exploring new and existing opportunities for social change."Uniregistry's acquisition of .hiv came after a planned auction for the gTLD was cancelled when no companies signed up to participate. The cancelled auction's reserve price had been $200,000. The price ultimately paid by Uniregistry in the private deal was not publicly disclosed.
+
+
+Model and donation recipients
+The contract for .hiv with ICANN does not allow the extension operator to make a profit on the TLD. Before Uniregistry took over, visits to .hiv domains (even redirected ones) generated small donations of approximately one-tenth of a cent, made from dotHIV's general fund to a project fund. The company's general fund was the result of .hiv domain sales, which retailed for 150 euros. dotHIV hoped to direct 70 percent of its income from domain sales to the general fund. Domain sales also funded dotHIV's operations and the debt required to finance the .hiv application process and subsequent launch. According to Slate, dotHIV planned to reimburse "zero- or low-interest loans provided by business angels and the technology development fund of the city-state of Berlin that have allowed the charity to operate so far". Nonprofit organizations in the HIV/AIDS field are eligible to receive .hiv domains at no cost..hiv's launch has been called "one of the strangest and riskiest business models of any new gTLD to date". Uniregistry has said it will continue to operate the extension using the same model as dotHIV for the immediate future.dotHIV identified four initial projects to support; they are located in Rwanda (We-ActsX), South Africa, Turkey, and the United States, and focus on patient access to HIV/AIDS treatment. The company intended to let .hiv domain owners vote on which projects to support in the future.
+
+
+Domains
+In 2014, Trautmann announced that 10,000 requests for .hiv domains were made (which would result in US$200 million in annual income if all domains were sold and purchased at the 150 euro price). Bono's Product Red organization was the first .hiv domain launched during the extension's "sunrise" period in July 2014. Amazon.com, BMW, Gilead Sciences, Instagram, LinkedIn, Paulaner Brewery, Plus.de, POZ, Samsung, Sixt, TED, Tumblr, and Wired have also purchased .hiv domains. In April 2014, when dotHIV put its contract with ICANN up for auction, there were 345 paid registrations generating $83,000 in revenue. According to Domain Name Wire, there were 500 .hiv registrations in the zone file in September 2015.
+
+
+Reception
+Prior to .hiv's transition to Uniregistry, Slate's Marc Naimark contrasted the gTLD with the Product Red campaign. He was more critical of the latter, saying it "reinforces consumerism" and functions more as a public relations strategy for participating brands. He wrote: Reaching the coffee chain's website by using starbucks.hiv does not provide quite the same visibility for consumers as (RED) products, since it lacks the public broadcasting tote-bag effect. But dotHIV does offer real benefits in terms of action. The money is already in the bank, thanks to the sale of .hiv domains. The projects benefiting from the funding are small in scale and are clearly indicated on the dotHIV website. As operations continue, the outcomes of these specific projects will become clearer than those offered by the bulk funding of the Global Fund. Companies can use their .hiv domain as a landing page to provide further information. And nonprofits will benefit from a free domain name to showcase their actions in the fight against HIV/AIDS. Because funds are released only when .hiv websites are visited, all website owners have an incentive to promote their .hiv domain names, enhancing the 'red ribbon' effect.
+
+
+References
+
+
+External links
+Delegation Record for .HIV, Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
+.hiv -- a global idea to fight HIV and AIDS on YouTube by dotHIV

Wikipedia Biology/.org.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+.org
+
+The domain name .org is a generic top-level domain (gTLD) of the Domain Name System (DNS) used on the Internet. The name is truncated from 'organization'. It was one of the original domains established in 1985, and has been operated by the Public Interest Registry since 2003. The domain was originally "intended as the miscellaneous TLD for organizations that didn't fit anywhere else." It is commonly used by non-profit organizations, open-source projects, and communities, but is an open domain that can be used by anyone. The number of registered domains in .org has increased from fewer than one million in the 1990s, to ten million in 2012, and held steady between ten and eleven million since then.
+
+
+History
+The domain ".org" was one of the original top-level domains and was established in January 1985. The other early top-level domains were .com, .us, .edu, .gov, .mil and .net. It was originally intended for non-profit organizations or organizations of a non-commercial character that did not meet the requirements for other gTLDs. The MITRE Corporation was the first group to register an .org domain with mitre.org in July 1985. The TLD has been operated since January 1, 2003 by Public Interest Registry, who assumed the task from VeriSign Global Registry Services, a division of Verisign.In November 2019, the Public Interest Registry (PIR) was to be sold by the Internet Society to shell company Ethos Capital for US$1.135 billion. The PIR also announced it would abandon its non-profit status to become a B Corporation. However, this move was criticized by non-profits and various digital rights groups on concerns that Ethos Capital, a private equity firm, would raise fees or censor the domain. The sale was blocked by Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) in April 2020 on the basis that transfer of control of the domain to the private equity firm would create "unacceptable uncertainty" for non-profits that relied on the .org domain.
+
+
+Registrations
+Registrations of subdomains are processed via accredited registrars worldwide. Anyone can register a second-level domain within org, without restrictions. In some instances subdomains are being used also by commercial sites, such as craigslist.org. According to the ICANN Dashboard (Domain Name) report, the composition of the TLD is diverse, including cultural institutions, associations, sports teams, religious, and civic organizations, open-source software projects, schools, environmental initiatives, social, and fraternal organizations, health organizations, legal services, as well as clubs, and community-volunteer groups. In some cases subdomains have been created for crisis management.
+Although organizations anywhere in the world may register subdomains, many countries, such as Australia (au), Canada (ca), Japan (jp), Argentina (ar), Bolivia (bo), Uruguay (uy), Turkey (tr), Somalia (so), Sierra Leone (sl), Russia (ru), Bangladesh (bd), India (in) and the United Kingdom (uk), have established a second-level domain with a similar purpose under their ccTLD. Such second-level domains are usually named org or or.In 2009, the .org domain consisted of more than 8 million registered domain names, 8.8 million in 2010, and 9.6 million in 2011. The Public Interest Registry registered the ten millionth .ORG domain in June, 2012. When the 9.5 millionth second-level domain was registered in December 2011, org became the third largest gTLD.As of November 2019, according to the Tranco ranking of the top 1M global domains, domains under .org were about 6 % of the top 1000 and 7 % of the top 100 thousand and 1 million domains.
+
+
+Internationalized domain names
+The .org domain registry allows the registration of selected internationalized domain names (IDNs) as second-level domains. For German, Danish, Hungarian, Icelandic, Korean, Latvian, Lithuanian, Polish, and Swedish IDNs this has been possible since 2005. Spanish IDN registrations have been possible since 2007.
+
+
+Domain name security
+On June 2, 2009, The Public Interest Registry announced that the org domain is the first open generic top-level domain and the largest registry overall that has signed its DNS zone with Domain Name System Security Extensions (DNSSEC). This allows the verification of the origin authenticity and integrity of DNS data by conforming DNS clients.
+As of June 23, 2010, DNSSEC was enabled for individual second-level domains, starting with 13 registrars.
+
+
+Cost of registration
+Since 2003, the Public Interest Registry (PIR) charged its accredited registrars a capped price of US$9.05 per year for each domain name. The registrars may set their charges to end users without restrictions.
+In April 2019, ICANN proposed an end to the price cap of .org domains and effectively removed it in July in spite of having received 3,252 opposing comments and only six in favor. A few months later, the owner of the domain, the Public Interest Registry, proposed to sell the domain to investment firm Ethos Capital. After intense criticism from nonprofit groups and significant figures in Internet history, the proposal was scrapped.
+
+
+Regulatory positions
+In March 2001, the Ethics Committee of the State Bar of Arizona issued Ethics Opinion 01-05, which discussed the limitations to which a law firm is subject when creating or using a website address for its law firm website.  Among other conclusions, the Committee opined that a for-profit law firm may not use a domain name that contains the suffix “.org,” on the ground that such use “creates a false impression that the firm either is a non-profit or is in some way specifically affiliated with a non-profit.”
+In light of the widespread use of the “.org” suffix by for-profit organizations in the years since Ariz. Ethics Op. 01-05 was issued, the Committee, reconsidering the matter in December 2011, concluded that the possibility that the public will be misled by a for-profit law firm’s use of “.org’ in its website address is remote, as a reasonable person, desiring to verify whether an entity is non-profit, would not rely solely on the entity’s website address.
+Therefore, the mere use of “.org” by a for-profit law firm was declared not to be a violation of the Arizona Rules of Professional Conduct, and Opinion 01-05 was modified accordingly.  Arizona lawyers were cautioned, however, that a lawyer or law firm may not use a domain name that falsely implies that the lawyer or law firm is affiliated with a particular non-profit organization or with a governmental entity or which otherwise is false or misleading.
+
+
+References
+
+
+External links
+.ORG site
+Save DotOrg

Wikipedia Biology/1,2,4,5-Tetrachloro-3-nitrobenzene.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+1,2,4,5-Tetrachloro-3-nitrobenzene
+
+1,2,4,5-Tetrachloro-3-nitrobenzene (tecnazene) is an organic compound with the formula HC6Cl4NO2.  It is a colorless solid. A related isomer is 1,2,3,4-tetrachloro-5-nitrobenzene.
+It is used as a standard for quantitative analysis by nuclear magnetic resonance.1,2,4,5-Tetrachloro-3-nitrobenzene is also a fungicide used to prevent dry rot and sprouting on potatoes during storage.
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology/1,2-Dichloro-2-nitrosopropane.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+1,2-Dichloro-2-nitrosopropane
+
+1,2-Dichloro-2-nitrosopropane is a chlorinated nitrosoalkane. It's a deep blue liquid with powerful lachrymatory effects.
+
+
+See also
+Chloropicrin
+Trifluoronitrosomethane
+Trichloronitrosomethane
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology/1,2-Dioleoyl-sn-glycerophosphoethanolamine.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+1,2-Dioleoyl-sn-glycerophosphoethanolamine
+
+1,2-Dioleoyl-sn-glycerophosphoethanolamine is a non-bilayer lipid of the phosphatidylethanolamine class, it adopts non-lamellar reverse hexagonal structures. It forms part of Lipofectamine, a common transfection reagent.
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology/1,3-Bisphosphoglyceric acid.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+1,3-Bisphosphoglyceric acid
+
+1,3-Bisphosphoglyceric acid (1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate or 1,3BPG) is a 3-carbon organic molecule present in most, if not all, living organisms. It primarily exists as a metabolic intermediate in both glycolysis during respiration and the Calvin cycle during photosynthesis. 1,3BPG is a transitional stage between glycerate 3-phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate during the fixation/reduction of CO2. 1,3BPG is also a precursor to 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate which in turn is a reaction intermediate in the glycolytic pathway.
+
+
+Biological structure and role
+1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate is the conjugate base of 1,3-bisphosphoglyceric acid. It is phosphorylated at the number 1 and 3 carbons. The result of this phosphorylation gives 1,3BPG important biological properties such as the ability to phosphorylate ADP to form the energy storage molecule ATP.
+
+
+In glycolysis
+
+Compound C00118 at KEGG Pathway Database. Enzyme 1.2.1.12 at KEGG Pathway Database. Compound C00236 at KEGG Pathway Database. Enzyme 2.7.2.3 at KEGG Pathway Database. Compound C00197 at KEGG Pathway Database.
+As previously mentioned 1,3BPG is a metabolic intermediate in the glycolytic pathway. It is created by the exergonic oxidation of the aldehyde in G3P. The result of this oxidation is the conversion of the aldehyde group into a carboxylic acid group which drives the formation of an acyl phosphate bond. This is incidentally the only step in the glycolytic pathway in which NAD+ is converted into NADH. The formation reaction of 1,3BPG requires the presence of an enzyme called glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase.
+The high-energy acyl phosphate bond of 1,3BPG is important in respiration as it assists in the formation of ATP. The molecule of ATP created during the following reaction is the first molecule produced during respiration. The reaction occurs as follows;
+
+1,3-bisphosphoglycerate + ADP ⇌ 3-phosphoglycerate + ATPThe transfer of an inorganic phosphate from the carboxyl group on 1,3BPG to ADP to form ATP is reversible due to a low ΔG. This is as a result of one acyl phosphate bond being cleaved whilst another is created. This reaction is not naturally spontaneous and requires the presence of a catalyst. This role is performed by the enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase. During the reaction phosphoglycerate kinase undergoes a substrate induced conformational change similar to another metabolic enzyme called hexokinase.
+Because two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate are formed during glycolysis from one molecule of glucose, 1,3BPG can be said to be responsible for two of the ten molecules of ATP produced during the entire process. Glycolysis also uses two molecules of ATP in its initial stages as a committed and irreversible step. For this reason glycolysis is not reversible and has a net produce of 2 molecules of ATP and two of NADH. The two molecules of NADH themselves go on to produce approximately 3 molecules of ATP each.
+Click on genes, proteins and metabolites below to link to respective articles.
+
+
+In the Calvin cycle
+1,3-BPG has a very similar role in the Calvin cycle to its role in the glycolytic pathway. For this reason both reactions are said to be analogous. However the reaction pathway is effectively reversed. The only other major difference between the two reactions is that NADPH is used as an electron donor in the calvin cycle whilst NAD+ is used as an electron acceptor in glycolysis. In this reaction cycle 1,3BPG originates from 3-phosphoglycerate and is made into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate by the action of specific enzymes.
+Contrary to the similar reactions of the glycolytic pathway, 1,3BPG in the Calvin cycle does not produce ATP but instead uses it. For this reason it can be considered to be an irreversible and committed step in the cycle. The outcome of this section of the cycle is an inorganic phosphate is removed from 1,3BPG as a hydrogen ion and two electrons are added to the compound+.
+In complete reverse of the glycolytic pathway reaction, the enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase catalyses the reduction of the carboxyl group of 1,3BPG to form an aldehyde instead. This reaction also releases an inorganic phosphate molecule which is subsequently used as energy for the donation of electrons from the conversion of NADPH to NADP+. Overseeing this latter stage of the reaction is the enzyme glyceraldehyde-phosphate dehydrogenase.
+
+
+In oxygen transfer
+During normal metabolism in humans approximately 20% of the 1,3BPG produced does not go any further in the glycolytic pathway. It is instead shunted through an alternate pathway involving the reduction of ATP in the red blood cells. During this alternate pathway it is made into a similar molecule called 2,3-bisphosphoglyceric acid (2,3BPG). 2,3BPG is used as a mechanism to oversee the efficient release of oxygen from hemoglobin. Levels of this 1,3BPG will raise in a patient's blood when oxygen levels are low as this is one of the mechanisms of acclimatization. Low oxygen levels trigger a rise in 1,3BPG levels which in turn raises the level of 2,3BPG which alters the efficiency of oxygen dissociation from hemoglobin.
+
+
+References
+
+Alberts, Bruce; et al. (2001). Molecular Biology of the Cell. New York: Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-4072-9.
+Germann, William J.; Stanfield, Cindy L. (2002). Principles of Human Physiology. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-6056-5.
+Stryer, Lubert; et al. (2002). Biochemistry (5th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-4684-0.
+
+
+External links
+1,3BPG in Glycolysis and Fermentation
+Medical Dictionary reference for 1,3BPG
+1,3BPG enzyme mechanisms Archived 2013-04-14 at archive.today
+1,3BPG in Photosynthesis

Wikipedia Biology/1,3-Dichloropropene.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+1,3-Dichloropropene
+
+1,3-Dichloropropene, sold under diverse trade names, is an organochlorine compound with the formula C3H4Cl2. It is a colorless liquid with a sweet smell. It is feebly soluble in water and evaporates easily. It is used mainly in farming as a pesticide, specifically as a preplant fumigant and nematicide. It is widely used in the US and other countries, but is banned in 34 countries (including the European Union).
+
+
+Production, chemical properties, biodegradation
+It is a byproduct in the chlorination of propene to make allyl chloride.It is usually obtained as a mixture of the geometric isomers, called (Z)-1,3-dichloropropene, and (E)-1,3-dichloropropene.  Although it was first applied in agriculture in the 1950s, at least two biodegradation pathways have evolved.  One pathway degrades the chlorocarbon to acetaldehyde via chloroacrylic acid.
+
+
+Safety
+The TLV-TWA for 1,3-dichloropropene (DCP) is 1 ppm. It is a contact irritant. A wide range of complications have been reported.
+
+
+Carcinogenicity
+Evidence for the carcinogenicity of 1,3-dichloropropene in humans is inadequate, but results from several cancer bioassays provide adequate evidence of carcinogenicity in animals. In the US, the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) has determined that 1,3-dichloropropene may reasonably be anticipated to be a carcinogen. In California, the Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment has determined that 1,3-dichloropropene is a carcinogen, and in 2022 established a No Significant Risk Level (NSRL) of 3.7 micrograms/day. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has determined that 1,3-dichloropropene is possibly carcinogenic to humans. The EPA has classified 1,3-dichloropropene as a probable human carcinogen.
+
+
+Use
+1,3-Dichloropropene is used as a pesticide in the following crops:
+
+
+Contamination
+The ATSDR has extensive contamination information available.
+
+
+Market history
+Under the brand name Telone, 1,3-D was one of Dow AgroSciences's products until the merger into DowDuPont. Then it was spun off with Corteva, and as of 2020 has been licensed to Telos Ag Solutions and is no longer a Corteva product.
+
+
+References
+
+ATSDR ToxFAQs: Dichloropropenes
+USGS Pesticide National Synthesis Project – Crop & Compound
+
+
+Further reading
+ATSDR Toxicological Profile (9.2 MB)
+CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards

Wikipedia Biology/1,3-Difluoro-2-propanol.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+1,3-Difluoro-2-propanol
+
+1,3-Difluoro-2-propanol is a metabolic poison which disrupts the citric acid cycle and is used as a rodenticide, similar to sodium fluoroacetate. It is the main ingredient (along with 1-chloro-3-fluoro-2-propanol) in the rodenticide product Gliftor which was widely used in the former USSR and still approved in China.
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology/1,3-Diphenylurea.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+1,3-Diphenylurea
+
+1,3-Diphenylurea is a phenylurea-type compound with the formula (PhNH)2CO (Ph = C6H5).  It is a colorless solid that is prepared by transamidation of urea with aniline.
+DPU is a cytokinin, a type of plant hormone that induces flower development. It occurs in coconut milk. The cytokinin effect of DPU is relatively low, but other more potent phenylurea-type cytokinins have been reported.
+
+
+References
+
+
+External links
+ The dictionary definition of Diphenylurea at Wiktionary

Wikipedia Biology/1-800-FREE-411.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+1-800-FREE-411
+
+1-800-FREE-411 is an American service offering advertising-supported directory assistance, operated by Marchex.
+
+
+Service
+Callers dial 1-800 (888 or 866)-FREE411 [373-3411] from any phone in the United States to use the toll-free service. Sponsors cover part of the service cost by playing advertising messages during the call. Callers always hear an ad at the beginning of the call, and then another after they have made their request. Callers then identify the city and state for the desired information, and can then search either by name or by business type. Free directory assistance is also available from an application for the iPhone and Android mobile phones, and from their website. The service, provided entirely by computer and with no human operators, uses a voice-recognition database to recognize names or places spoken by the user. 
+
+
+Corporate overview
+The original parent corporation, Jingle Networks, was formed in 2005, and received its initial funding from First Round Capital of $400,000. By the spring of 2008 it had, according to TechCrunch, "captured a six percent market share of directory assistance calls." At that time, Jingle Networks received 20 million calls per month. Since that peak, the company has reported fewer calls, around 15 million per month, as consumers shift to smart-phones to get directory information.On October 23, 2006, Jingle Networks announced that it raised $30 million in fourth round financing from Goldman Sachs and Hearst Corporation. This came after a $26 million round in April 2006, and a $5 million round in December 2005. Also on that date, Jingle Network's CEO volunteered on TechCrunch that his company was losing on average 5 cents for every call they processed. On June 25, 2008, TechCrunch repeated Jingle's press releases that they had reached per-call profitability.Jingle Networks aims at attracting customers away from an existing fee-based market. The Wall Street Journal described it as "inspired by the business model of Google".
+From 2005 through the early 2010, Jingle Networks guessed they saved consumers $1 billion based on an inflated rate of $2 a call for directory assistance.
+In April 2011, Marchex bought Jingle Networks for $62.5M in combination of cash and stock. Marchex says Jingle Networks will generate more than $26 million in 2011 revenue, up more than 40 percent over 2010. Marchex said it expects call-driven revenue to make up 75 percent of the company's 2011 revenue.
+
+
+See also
+4-1-1
+800-THE-INFO (discontinued)
+Bing Mobile § Bing 411 (discontinued)
+GOOG-411 (discontinued)
+List of speech recognition software
+Speech recognition
+Tellme Networks
+
+
+References
+
+
+External links
+Official website

Wikipedia Biology/1-Arseno-3-phosphoglycerate.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
+1-Arseno-3-phosphoglycerate
+
+1-Arseno-3-phosphoglycerate is a compound produced by the enzyme glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, present in high concentrations in many organisms, from glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and arsenate in the glycolysis pathway.
+The compound is unstable and hydrolyzes spontaneously to 3-phosphoglycerate, bypassing the energy producing step of glycolysis.
+
+
+Effects on glycolysis
+1-Arseno-3-phosphoglycerate can be derived from the glycolytic pathway via the bonding of Arsenate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, which is catalyzed by glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH). The net production of ATP is zero as a result of the formation of the intermediate, 1-arseno-3-phosphoglycerate, as opposed to the conventional pathway, which produces a net result of two ATP molecules.
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Glyceraldehyde
+          
+            −
+          
+          3
+          
+          
+            −
+          
+          phosphate
+          +
+          
+            AsO
+            
+              4
+            
+            
+              3
+              −
+            
+          
+          +
+          
+            NAD
+            
+              +
+            
+          
+          
+            
+              →
+              
+                G
+                A
+                P
+                D
+                H
+              
+            
+          
+          NADH
+          +
+          
+            H
+            
+              +
+            
+          
+          +
+          1
+          
+          
+            −
+          
+          Arseno
+          
+            −
+          
+          3
+          
+          
+            −
+          
+          phosphoglycerate
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\ce {Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate + AsO4^3- + NAD+ ->[GAPDH] NADH +H+ + 1-Arseno-3-phosphoglycerate}}}
+  
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology/1-Deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+1-Deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate
+
+1-Deoxy-d-xylulose 5-phosphate is an intermediate in the non-mevalonate pathway.
+
+
+See also
+DXP synthase
+DXP reductoisomerase

Wikipedia Biology/1-Docosanol.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+1-Docosanol
+
+1-Docosanol, also known as behenyl alcohol, is a saturated fatty alcohol containing 22 carbon atoms, used traditionally as an emollient, emulsifier, and thickener in cosmetics.In July 2000, docosanol was approved for medical use in the United States as an antiviral agent for reducing the duration of cold sores. It is an over-the-counter medication (OTC). It is sold under the brand name Abreva among others.
+
+
+Side effects
+One of the most common side effects that has been reported from docosanol is headache. Headaches caused by the medication tend to be mild and can occur in any region of the head. In clinical trials, headache occurred in 10.4% of people treated with docosanol cream and 10.7% of people treated with placebo.The most serious side effects, although rare, are allergic reactions. Some of the patients experienced the symptoms of allergic reactions, including difficulty breathing, confusion, angioedema (facial swelling), fainting, dizziness, hives or chest pain.Other side effects may include: acne, burning, dryness, itching, rash, redness, acute diarrhea, soreness, swelling.
+
+
+Mechanism of action
+Docosanol is thought to work by interfering with and stabilizing the host cell's surface phospholipids, preventing the fusion of the herpes virus's viral envelope with the human host cell. This disrupted ability of the virus to fuse with the host cell membrane prevents entry and subsequent replication.
+
+
+History
+The drug was approved as a cream for oral herpes after clinical trials by the FDA in July 2000.
+It was shown to shorten the healing by 17.5 hours on average (95% confidence interval: 2 to 22 hours) in a placebo-controlled trial. Another trial showed no effect when treating the infected backs of guinea pigs.Two experiments with 1-docosanol cream failed to show statistically significant differences by any parameter between 1-docosanol cream and vehicle control–treated sites or between 1-docosanol and untreated infection sites.
+
+
+Society and culture
+
+
+Controversy
+In March 2007, it was the subject of a US nationwide class-action suit against Avanir and GlaxoSmithKline as the claim that it cut recovery times in half was found to have been misleading in a California court, but the case was eventually settled and the "cuts healing time in half" claim had not been used in product advertising for some years.
+
+
+References
+
+
+External links
+"Docosanol". Drug Information Portal. U.S. National Library of Medicine.

Wikipedia Biology/1-Ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+1-Ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide
+
+1-Ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide (EDC, EDAC or EDCI) is a water-soluble carbodiimide usually handled as the hydrochloride.It is typically employed in the 4.0-6.0 pH range. It is generally used as a carboxyl activating agent for the coupling of primary amines to yield amide bonds. While other carbodiimides like dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC) or diisopropylcarbodiimide (DIC) are also employed for this purpose, EDC has the advantage that the urea byproduct formed (often challenging to remove in the case of DCC or DIC) can be washed away from the amide product using dilute acid.  Additionally, EDC can also be used to activate phosphate groups in order to form phosphomonoesters and phosphodiesters. Common uses for this carbodiimide include peptide synthesis, protein crosslinking to nucleic acids, but also in the preparation of immunoconjugates. EDC is often used in combination with N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) for the immobilisation of large biomolecules. Recent work has also used EDC to assess the structure state of uracil nucleobases in RNA.
+
+
+Preparation
+EDC is commercially available. It may be prepared by coupling ethyl isocyanate to N,N-dimethylpropane-1,3-diamine to give a urea, followed by dehydration:
+
+
+Mechanism
+EDC couples primary amines, and other nucleophiles, to carboxylic acids by creating an activated ester leaving group. First, the carbonyl of the acid attacks the carbodiimide of EDC, and there is a subsequent proton transfer. The primary amine then attacks the carbonyl carbon of the acid which forms a tetrahedral intermediate before collapsing and discharging the urea byproduct. The desired amide is obtained.
+
+
+References
+
+
+Further reading
+López-Alonso, JP; Diez-Garcia, F; Font, J; Ribó, M; Vilanova, M; Scholtz, JM; González, C; Vottariello, F; Gotte, G; Libonati, M; Laurents, DV (2009). "Carbodiimide EDC Induces Cross-Links That Stabilize RNase A C-dimer against Dissociation: EDC Adducts Can Affect Protein Net Charge, Conformation and Activity". Bioconjugate Chemistry. 20 (8): 1459–1473. doi:10.1021/bc9001486. PMID 19606852.
+Nakajima, N; Ikada, Y (1995). "Mechanism of Amide Formation by Carbodiimide for Bioconjugation in Aqueous Media". Bioconjugate Chemistry. 6 (1): 123–130. doi:10.1021/bc00031a015. PMID 7711098.

Wikipedia Biology/1-Hydroxy-7-azabenzotriazole.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+1-Hydroxy-7-azabenzotriazole
+
+1-Hydroxy-7-azabenzotriazole (HOAt) is a triazole used as a peptide coupling reagent. It suppresses racemization that can otherwise occur during the reaction.HOAt has a melting point between 213 and 216 degrees Celsius. As a liquid, it is transparent and without any color.
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology/1-Hydroxypyrene.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+1-Hydroxypyrene
+
+1-Hydroxypyrene is a human metabolite. It can be found in urine of outdoor workers exposed to air pollution.
+
+
+Biochemistry
+Experiments in pig show that urinary 1-hydroxypyrene is a metabolite of pyrene, when given orally.A Mycobacterium sp. strain isolated from mangrove sediments produced 1-hydroxypyrene during the degradation of pyrene.
+
+
+Relationship with smoking
+Highly significant differences and dose-response relationships with regard to cigarettes smoked per day were found for 2-, 3- and 4-hydroxyphenanthrene and 1-hydroxypyrene, but not for 1-hydroxyphenanthrene.
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology/1-Lysophosphatidylcholine.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+1-Lysophosphatidylcholine
+
+2-acyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholines are a class of phospholipids that are intermediates in the metabolism of lipids. Because they result from the hydrolysis of an acyl group from the sn-1 position of phosphatidylcholine, they are also called 1-lysophosphatidylcholine (or 1-lysoPC, in short). The synthesis of phosphatidylcholines with specific fatty acids occurs through the synthesis of 1-lysoPC. The formation of various other lipids generates 1-lysoPC as a by-product.
+Other synonyms for this class of compounds are 2-acylglycero-3-phosphocholine, 1-lyso-2-acyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, β-lysophosphatidylcholine, 2-acylglycerophosphocholine, L-1-lysolecithin and 1-lecithin.
+
+
+Chemical properties
+1-LysoPC can convert to the structurally similar 2-lysoPC. This happens by the migration of the acyl group from the sn-1 position of the glycerol backbone to the sn-2 position.
+
+The lowest rate of isomerization is at pH 4-5. Starting from either 1-lysoPC or 2-lysoPC, an equilibrium mixture of 90% 2-lysoPC and 10% 1-lysoPC is obtained with a half-time of about 10 minutes under physiological conditions and about 1 hour under typical laboratory conditions. Thus, unless special care is taken to slow this isomerization reaction, characterization of either of these lipids using laboratory assays that take a significant amount of time is likely to produce results on a mixture of the two lipids.In the fungus 'Penicillium notatum, an enzyme called lysolecithin acylmutase has been reported that can catalyze this isomerization reaction at low pHs at which the uncatalyzed reaction occurs very slowly.
+
+
+Metabolic reactions
+Because 1-lysoPC has a relatively short half-life (see above), it is primarily a metabolic intermediate or side-product in the formation or breakdown of other lipids.
+
+
+As product of reactions
+1-LysoPC can be produced from phosphatidylcholine by enzymes having phospholipase A1 activity, that is, enzymes hydrolyzing specifically at the sn-1 position of a phospholipid and releasing a fatty acid. Enzymes having phospholipase B activity hydrolyze both the sn-1 and sn-2 positions, so they produce both 1-lysoPC and 2-lysoPC. In humans, a number of enzymes with phospholipase A1 exist: they include two from the brain (with different optimal pHs), two from the liver (one cytosomal and one membrane-bound) and one from the mitochondrion.
+1-LysoPC can be produced as a by-product of the reaction transferring an acyl group from a phosphatidylcholine to an acceptor molecule, resulting in the formation of an esterified acceptor molecule. In the human, an example of such a transacylation reaction is that catalyzed by the enzyme LRAT that converts an all-trans retinol to an all-trans-retinyl ester. The latter is a storage form of Vitamin A in various tissues, as well as a retinal precursor in the retina (see visual cycle).
+1-LysoPC is also a by-product of the reaction in which N-arachidonoyl-1,2-diacyl-glycerol 3-phosphoethanolamine (NAPE) is produced. This is a rate-limiting step for the synthesis of anandamide and related signaling lipids. Two enzymes are known to catalyze this reaction. LRAT-like protein (RLP-1; a product of the gene HRASLS5), catalyzes transfer of an acyl group from phosphatidylcholine (PC) to phosphatidylethanol (PE), resulting in the formation of radioactive NAPE. RLP-1 does not show selectivity with respect to the sn-1 and sn-2 positions of PC as an acyl donor and therefore can generate N-arachidonoyl-PE (an anandamide precursor) from 2-arachidonoyl-PC and PE. There is also a Ca2+-dependent, membrane-associated enzyme (whose gene is currently not known) that is specific for the sn-1-acyl group of PC.
+
+
+As substrate of reactions
+1-lysoPC can be hydrolyzed further by lysophospholipases to lose the remaining fatty acid and yield L-1-glycero-3-phosphocholine. In humans, 1-lysoPC can be hydrolyzed by ten different enzymes: calcium-independent phospholipase A2-gamma (coded by the gene PNPLA8), neuropathy target esterase (PNPLA6), lysophospholipase (PLB1), eosinophil lysophospholipase (CLC), galactoside-binding soluble lectin 13 (LGALS13), Group XV phospholipase A2 (PLA2G15), acyl-protein thioesterase 1 (LYPLA1), lysophospholipase (PLA2G4A), acyl-protein thioesterase 2 (LYPLA2) and PNPLA7 (Some of these enzymes also have phospholipase A2 activity). Other organisms have different numbers of enzymes that catalyze the same chemical reaction. For example the bacterium E. coli has only the gene products of tesA and pldB, while the yeast S. cerevisiae has the gene products of NTE1, PLB2, PLB1 and PLB3.
+
+There appear to be at least two enzymes that can produce a phosphatidylcholine molecule from 1-lysoPC. 2-acylglycerophosphocholine O-acyltransferase, an enzyme purified in liver microsomes, catalyzes specifically the acylation of 1-lysoPC with acyl-CoA to create a phosphatidylcholine molecule. This reaction is important for the synthesis of phosphatidylcholine containing specific fatty acids, but are not used for the de-novo synthesis of phosphatidylcholine. In contrast to these finding from rat liver microsomes, mammalian acyl transferase from dog lungs was found to exhibit no preference between 1-lyso-2-acyl-phosphatidylcholine and 1-acyl-2-lyso-phosphatidylcholine. These differences have been attributed to the remodeling of membrane phospholipids in order to regulate membrane fluidity and the accumulation of physiologically important fatty acids such as arachidonic acid.
+In humans, triglyceride synthesis occurs through the Kennedy pathway, in which glycerol-3-phosphate is sequentially acylated to produce triacylglycerol. In plants and fungi, however, triacylglycerol synthesis can be catalyzed by phospholipid:diacylglycerol acyltransferase (PDAT). Thus, diacylglycerol is the acceptor of a fatty acid coming from phosphatidylcholine, resulting in the release of a 1-lysoPC.
+A rat enzyme was found to transfer the acyl group from 2-lysoPC to 1-lysoPC, producing phosphatidylcholine.
+
+
+Transport systems
+In the human body, 1-lysoPC that is made in the liver is carried by albumin in the blood plasma to various tissues where it is acylated to produce PC molecules with specific acyl groups. In the liver, 1-lysoPC is released by phospholipase A1 and is also formed by hepatic lipase. Albumin-bound 1-lysoPC is an important pathway to access tissue compartments such as the brain, which take up few lipoproteins. Fatty acyl chains delivered by this route can then be acylated into tissue membrane phospholipids. Lysophosphatidylcholine processing has been discovered to be an essential component of normal human brain development: those born with genes that prevent adequate uptake suffer from lethal microcephaly. MFSD2a has been shown to transport LPC-bound polyunsaturated fatty acids, including DHA and EPA, across the blood-brain and blood-retinal barriers.
+In the human body, lysoPC (1-lysoPC and 2-lysoPC together) represent 5-20% of all phospholipids in the blood plasma. Taking care to control for the chemical isomerization between 1-lysoPC and 2-lysoPC (see above), about half of the lysoPC molecules in plasma have been shown to be in the 1-lysoPC form. Most (~60%) of the lysoPC is bound to albumin, and the rest is associated with lipoproteins. Of the total (free and esterified form) fatty acids carried by albumin, about one third is in the form of lysoPC.In addition to transport across tissues in the body, there are transport systems within cells to transport 1-lysoPC from where it is synthesized, or where it is delivered from other tissues, to where it is needed.
+Most organisms have transfer proteins (type IV ATPases) to transport phospholipid across their cell membranes. These proteins are likely to transport 1-lysoPC as well but their substrate specificities have not been established yet. E. coli and other bacteria have such a transporter protein that is a specialized lysophospholipid transporter (the LplT gene product). It can "flip" 1-lysoPC and the related compound 2-acylglycerophosphoethanolamine from the outer leaflet of the lipid bilayer to inner layer.
+
+
+Synthesis in the laboratory
+In the laboratory, a method to prepare relatively pure 1-lysoPC and purify away the reaction side-products is available.
+
+
+References
+
+
+External links
+1-LysoPC page at the Chemical Entities of Biological Interest
+1-LysoPC page at KEGG

Wikipedia Biology/1-Methylcytosine.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+1-Methylcytosine
+
+1-Methylcytosine is a methylated form of the DNA base cytosine.
+In 1-methylcytosine, a methyl group is attached to the 1st atom in the 6-atom ring. This methyl group distinguishes 1-methylcytosine from cytosine.
+
+
+History
+Miriam Rossi worked on the refinement of 1-methylcytosine.1-Methylcytosine is used as a nucleobase of hachimoji DNA, in which it pairs with isoguanine.
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology/1-Methylhistamine.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+1-Methylhistamine
+
+1-Methylhistamine (also known as Nτ-methylhistamine (NMH)) is a metabolite of histamine.
+
+
+Background
+NMH is formed by Nτ-methylation of histamine, catalyzed by the enzyme Histamine N-methyltransferase.
+NMH is excreted in the urine and can be measured as a biomarker of histamine activity. While NMH has some biological activity on its own, it is much weaker than histamine. It can bind to histamine receptors, still, NMH has a lower affinity and efficacy than histamine for these receptors, meaning that it binds less strongly and activates them less effectively. Depending on the receptor subtype and the tissue context, NMH may act as a partial agonist or an antagonist for some histamine receptors. NMH may have some modulatory effects on histamine signalling, but it is unlikely to cause significant allergic or inflammatory reactions by itself. NMH may also serve as a feedback mechanism to regulate histamine levels and prevent excessive histamine release.In clinical settings, urinary NMH can be measured when systemic mastocytosis is suspected. Systemic mastocytosis and anaphylaxis are typically associated with at least a two-fold increase in urinary NMH levels, which are also increased in patients taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors and in patients on histamine-rich diets.
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology/1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase
+
+In enzymology, a 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase (EC 1.2.1.88) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction
+
+(S)-1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate + NAD+ + 2 H2O 
+  
+    
+      
+        ⇌
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \rightleftharpoons }
+   L-glutamate + NADH + H+The three substrates of this enzyme are (S)-1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate, NAD+, and H2O, whereas its three products are glutamate, NADH, and H+.
+This enzyme belongs to the family of oxidoreductases, specifically those acting on the CH-NH group of donors with NAD+ or NADP+ as acceptor.  The systematic name of this enzyme class is (S)-1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate:NAD+ oxidoreductase. Other names in common use include delta-1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase, 1-pyrroline dehydrogenase, pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase, pyrroline-5-carboxylic acid dehydrogenase, L-pyrroline-5-carboxylate-NAD+ oxidoreductase, and 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate:NAD+ oxidoreductase. This enzyme participates in glutamate metabolism and arginine and proline metabolism.
+
+
+Structural studies
+As of late 2007, 14 structures have been solved for this class of enzymes, with PDB accession codes 2BHP, 2BHQ, 2BJA, 2BJK, 2EHQ, 2EHU, 2EII, 2EIT, 2EIW, 2EJ6, 2EJD, 2EJL, 2IY6, and 2J40.
+
+
+Human gene
+In human, the protein is encoded by ALDH4A1 gene.
+
+
+References
+
+Adams E, Goldstone A (December 1960). "Hydroxyproline metabolism. IV. Enzymatic synthesis of gamma-hydroxyglutamate from Delta 1-pyrroline-3-hydroxy-5-carboxylate". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 235 (12): 3504–12. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)64498-9. PMID 13681370.
+Strecker HJ (1960). "The interconversion of glutamic acid proline. III Delta1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylic acid dehydrogenase". J. Biol. Chem. 235: 3218–3223. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(20)81340-4.

Wikipedia Biology/1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylic acid.txt

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+1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylic acid
+
+1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylic acid (systematic name 3,4-dihydro-2H-pyrrole-2-carboxylic acid) is a cyclic imino acid. Its conjugate base and anion is 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate (P5C). In solution, P5C is in spontaneous equilibrium with glutamate-5-semialdhyde (GSA).
+
+
+Biochemistry
+The stereoisomer (S)-1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate (also referred to as L-P5C) is an intermediate metabolite in the biosynthesis and degradation of proline and arginine.In prokaryotic proline biosynthesis, GSA is synthesized from γ-glutamyl phosphate by the enzyme γ-glutamyl phosphate reductase. In most eukaryotes, GSA is synthesised from the amino acid glutamate by the bifunctional enzyme 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthase (P5CS). The human P5CS is encoded by the ALDH18A1 gene. The enzyme pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase converts P5C into proline
+In proline degradation, the enzyme proline dehydrogenase produces P5C from proline, and the enzyme 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase converts GSA to glutamate. In many prokaryotes, proline dehydrogenase and P5C dehydrogenase form a bifunctional enzyme that prevents the release of P5C during proline degradation. In arginine degradation, the enzyme ornithine-δ-aminotransferase mediates the transamination between ornithine and a 2-oxo acid (typically α-ketoglutarate) to form P5C and an L-amino acid (typically glutamate). Under specific conditions, P5C may also be used for arginine biosynthesis via the reverse reaction of ornithine-δ-aminotransferase.
+
+
+References

Wikipedia Biology/10 Ways to End the World.txt

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+10 Ways to End the World
+
+10 Ways to End the World, aka Last Days of Man (original title Mänsklighetens sista dagar, literally "The Final Days of Humanity") is a Swedish TV series by Magnus Sjöström documenting catastrophes that could endanger human existence. The series is produced by Sveriges Utbildningsradio (UR) and was aired on Kunskapskanalen (in English: The Knowledge Channel) in December 2010 under the Swedish name Mänsklighetens sista dagar (Last days of Man) and on National Geographic and Arte in 2012. The series was nominated for the Scandinavian TV award, Kristallen, in 2011.In the form of a top ten list, a set of doomsday scenarios—disasters that have the capacity to wipe out our species—is examined scientifically. The first part deals with threats to humanity from nature's violent forces. The second part deals with various threats that human society has created.
+
+
+See also
+Life After People
+
+
+References
+
+
+External links
+10 Ways to End the World - National Geographic UK

Wikipedia Biology/10 cm Nebelwerfer 35.txt

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+10 cm Nebelwerfer 35
+
+The  10 cm Nebelwerfer 35  (10 cm NbW 35) was a heavy mortar used by Germany during World War II. Much like the American M2 4.2 inch mortar it was intended to deliver chemical munitions, such as gas and smoke shells. Unlike the American weapon it appears to have had an ordinary high-explosive shell from the beginning. It was of conventional design, and was virtually a scaled-up 8 cm GrW 34. It broke down into the standard three loads for transport. The tube weighed 31.7 kg (70 lb), the baseplate 36.3 kg (80 lb) and the bipod 32.2 kg (71 lb). Each could be man-packed for some distance, but small handcarts were issued for longer distances. Each mortar squad consisted of a squad leader, three gunners and three ammunition bearers.It was initially deployed in (German: Nebelwerfer "smoke mortar") battalions belonging to the Chemical Corps of the Heer; exactly how the American initially fielded their own 4.2 inch mortar in chemical mortar battalions. From 1941 they were replaced by the 10 cm Nebelwerfer 40 and the 15 cm Nebelwerfer 41 multiple rocket launcher.
+
+
+Operational use
+Initially they were deployed in Nebelwerfer battalions numbered 1 to 9, plus the Nebel-Lehr Abteilung (Demonstration Battalion) and saw service in the Battle of France and Russia during Operation Barbarossa.
+Specialist units using these mortars were also formed, such as Gebirgs-Werfer-Abteilung (Mountain Mortar Battalion) 10 which was formed in Finland in early 1942 by expanding Nebelwerfer-Batterie 222., This had itself been converted from 8th Battery of Artillery Regiment 222 of the 181st Infantry Division during the invasion of Norway.Following their replacement in the chemical corps, further uses were found for the mortars, including issue to Fallschirmjager units as Heavy Mortars.
+
+
+Notes
+
+
+References
+Gander, Terry and Chamberlain, Peter. Weapons of the Third Reich: An Encyclopedic Survey of All Small Arms, Artillery and Special Weapons of the German Land Forces 1939-1945. New York: Doubleday, 1979 ISBN 0-385-15090-3
+
+
+External links
+mortar page from TM-E 30-451 Handbook on German Military Forces

Wikipedia Biology/10 cm Nebelwerfer 40.txt

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+10 cm Nebelwerfer 40
+
+The  10 cm Nebelwerfer 40  (10 cm NbW 40) was a heavy mortar used by Germany during the Second World War. Much like the American M2 4.2 inch mortar it was intended to deliver chemical munitions, such as gas and smoke shells, as well as ordinary high-explosive shells. It was derived from Rheinmetall's Nebelwerfer 51 and 52 prototypes of the late 1930s which were attempts to develop a more accurate and longer-ranged mortar than the 10 cm Nebelwerfer 35. The NbW 40 is one of the better examples of German overengineering since it fired a slightly heavier bomb over twice as far as the NbW 35, but weighed almost eight times more than the earlier model.
+It was an innovative breech-loading design with the wheels permanently attached to the carriage, from which it was fired, and which wasn't disassembled for transport. It replaced the NbW 35 in (German: Nebelwerfer "smoke-mortar") battalions belonging to the Chemical Corps of the Heer; exactly how the American fielded their own M2s in chemical mortar battalions. It was replaced by the 15 cm Nebelwerfer 41 multiple rocket launcher from 1941.
+
+
+Operational use
+They began to replace the 10 cm Nebelwerfer 35 mortars from late 1941 in the Nebelwerfer battalions, and were used by Gebirgs-Werfer-Abteilung (Mountain Mortar Battalion) 10 plus the first battalion of the Nebel-Lehr Regiment (Demonstration Regiment) and saw service in the North Africa, Finland and Russia.
+
+
+Gallery
+
+			
+			
+		
+
+
+References
+Gander, Terry and Chamberlain, Peter. Weapons of the Third Reich: An Encyclopedic Survey of All Small Arms, Artillery and Special Weapons of the German Land Forces 1939–1945. New York: Doubleday, 1979 ISBN 0-385-15090-3
+
+
+External links
+mortar page from TM-E 30-451 Handbook on German Military Forces on Lone Sentry