Migration and Water Resources: Existing Concerns and Proposed Solutions
Environmental degradation and hazards, water stress, population growth, and economic and social instability have become major concerns of governments and people in the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean in the past few decades (IP
Migration and Water Resources: Existing Concerns and Proposed Solutions
Environmental degradation and hazards, water stress, population growth, and economic and social instability have become major concerns of governments and people in the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean in the past few decades (IPPC, 2021; Castro & Ribera, 2020; Adamo & Al-Ansari, 2018). In countries like Jordan and Lebanon, water supply has become insufficient for drinking, sanitation, agriculture and industry demands (Zeitoun et al., 2011; Hussein et al., 2020; Adamo & Al-Ansari, 2018). Despite their own environment already being in a precarious state, Jordan and Lebanon host large numbers of refugees from neighbouring countries (Hussein et al., 2020). The strategies developed to deal with refugees’ needs in the two countries seem to have a short timeframe rather than considering long-term concerns related to water consumption, waste production or food security (Gomez & Christensen, 2021). Moreover, the urgency of the humanitarian response following the influx of refugees makes the environmental footprint of these population flows less noticeable despite increased demand on natural resources (Al-Ajarma et al., 2018). Several studies, for instance, argue that the influx of migrants or refugees might cause damaging environmental practices, such as forest depletion, exhaustion of water and energy resources, waste production, sanitation problems, and land, air and water pollution (Gomez & Christensen, 2021; Fajth et al., 2019; Martin, 2005; FAO, 2019). The International Organization for Migration (IOM) predicts that the numbers of migrants will continue to rise due to the environmental effects of climate change, leading to more pressure on host countries (Brown, 2008).
Taking into consideration the existing concerns of water stress and human migration, as well as their spiralling impacts on agriculture, water consumption and infrastructure, this policy brief examines environmental problems in Jordan and Lebanon, the world’s highest per capita refugee hosting countries (UNHCR, 2017). The research team, comprising of an anthropologist, two hydrologists and an environmental engineer, used secondary resources (including government statements, news, and non-governmental organization [NGO] reports) to discuss environmental concerns in both countries, including those existing before the latest influx of refugees, those related to settlement conditions, and those claimed to be caused by refugees and migrants. They also conducted primary observation and interviews with Jordanian nationals and migrants, and conversations with researchers and water professionals in both Jordan and Lebanon. They also looked into some of the plans, projects and initiatives that have been implemented in both countries since the beginning of the arrival of Syrian refugees. Building on those findings, the team suggests some practical practices to manage the combined effects of migrant fluxes and climate change on hosting communities. These practices include introducing a settlement intervention, which is referred to here as “eco-camp model”, in addition to policy recommendations that could be adopted in collaboration with governments and the international community to prioritise interventions for environmental mitigation.
Water stress in migration contexts
Jordan and Lebanon are two countries with a long history as hosts of migrants and refugees, including Palestinians, Iraqis and Syrians (Arsan, 2018; Klaus, 2003). During the Syrian refugee crisis, the two countries combined hosted more than two million “registered” refugees. The majority of refugees (registered and unregistered) have been living in urban and rural areas and mostly have access to similar services granted to local communities (Shteiwi & Ruisi, 2016). Around 16% of Syrian refugees in Jordan live in refugee camps (Shteiwi & Ruisi, 2016), whereas in Lebanon they reside in communities and Palestinian camps across the country (Makdisi, 2015), where construction of new camps was not allowed.
Even before the Syrian refugee crisis, the environmental situation in both countries was already precarious (Yahya et al., 2018; Makdisi, 2015). Jordan, for example, is under water scarcity pressure, which has increased over the years due to rapid population growth, poorly planned urbanisation, unsustainable agricultural practices, and inadequate waste management (Breulmann et al., 2021). The annual average water use in Jordan is 103 m3/capita (Waternet, 2021). While Lebanon has more water resources than Jordan, the country’s per capita ren