after September 11, 2001—is a key factor behind the increase in Islamophobic attitudes [@diene2006muslims]. A significant increase in anti-Muslim hate crimes was observed after terrorist attacks by individuals that identify as “Muslim or acting in the name of Islam," with those having a “visible Muslim identity” being the most vulnerable to hostility, including online and offline intimidation, abuse and threats of violence [@awan2015we].

Observational Studies Using Social Media {#hate-online}
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[**Hate speech on online social platforms.** ]{} While social media platforms provide tools to meet new people, maintain relationships, promote ideas, and promote oneself; they have also opened up new avenues for harassment based on physical appearance, race, ethnicity, and gender [@duggan2017harassment]. This has led to efforts to detect, understand, and quantify such harmful speech online, with goals such as modeling socially deviant behavior [@cheng2017anyone], building better content filtering and moderation tools [@matias2015reporting], and informing policy makers [@faris2016understanding].

The main categorization criteria for online hate speech has been based on the group being targeted (e.g., “black people,” “fat people”), the basis for hate (e.g., race, religion) [@silva2016analyzing; @saleem2016web], and the speech severity [@davidson2017automated]. For instance, @silva2016analyzing found “soft" targets like “fat people" to be among the top target groups; yet, 