speech on social media platforms. We adapt these categorizations to define the following stances of speech for our study:

[*Takes a favorable stance in support of individuals, groups, or ideas:* ]{} defend, show solidarity, propose counter narratives, denounce, or comment on acts of hatred, or emphasize the positive traits of individuals, groups, or ideas (e.g., \#ThisIsNotIslam, \#NotInMyName);

[*Takes an unfavorable stance against individuals, groups, or ideas:* ]{} attack, blame, denigrate, demean, discriminate, employ negative stereotypes, seek to silence, or generally emphasizes the negative traits of an individual or group (e.g., “kill all Muslims,” \#RefugeesNotWelcome);

[*Commentary on negative actions or speech against individuals, groups, or ideas:* ]{} comment on or characterize acts of violence, hatred, harassment, or discrimination (e.g., “hate speech,” “racial slur”); and

[*Neutral, factual, or unclear if it is in support or against a person or group:* ]{} none of the above; report news facts or comments, describe an event, or not related to a minority or vulnerable group (e.g., “seven injured,” “white van”).

[**Target.** ]{} \[subsec:group\] Hate speech can target any minority or vulnerable group by singling out its identifying characteristics. In the case of Muslims or Islam, these characteristics include religion, country of origin, immigration status, ethnicity, 