logically necessary uncertainty. Moreover, with the discovery of the phenomenon of deterministic chaos emerging in the classic three body problem, uncertainties emerged even within the islands of established mathematics. Meanwhile, in physics, while thermodynamics had long seemed to be somehow problematic because of the nature of entropy, at least it produced deterministic laws. During the second half of the 20th century, however, it was shown by Prigogine [@prigogine1981; @prigogine1984] and others [@nicolis1977] that these laws are special cases, and that there are no laws governing most phenomena arising in such systems, because the phenomena of interest arise when the systems are far from thermodynamic equilibrium, whereas the laws describe the equilibrium state. At the same time, in biology, there was a growing realisation that living systems exist in the energetic realm in which the traditional laws of thermodynamics are of only limited use. And with the discovery that DNA is the genetic material of life, much of biology was transformed into what might be termed the informatics of life.

All of these developments have in common that they introduced, irrevocably and in a radical way, uncertainty and unpredictability into mathematics and science. They also have in common that they arose 