across jurisdictions [@sellars2016defining]. As we study hate speech directed at followers of a religion (Islam) that is often conflated with a particular ethnicity and culture, we use the definition by the Council of Europe covering “all forms of expression which spread, incite, promote or justify racial hatred, xenophobia, anti-Semitism or other forms of hatred based on intolerance, including: intolerance expressed by aggressive nationalism and ethnocentrism, discrimination and hostility against minorities, migrants and people of immigrant origin.” [@ce1997hate]. We extend this definition to further consider as hate speech “animosity or disparagement of an individual or a group on account of a group characteristic such as race, color, national origin, sex, disability, religion, or sexual orientation” [@nockleby2000hate], allowing us to juxtapose hateful speech directed at Muslims with other groups (e.g., LGBTQ, immigrants).

[**Counter-hate speech.** ]{} Censoring hate speech may clash with legal protections on free speech rights. Partially due to this tension, the position of international agencies like UNESCO is that “the free flow of information should always be the norm. Counter-speech is generally preferable to suppression of speech" [@gagliardone2015countering]. Thus, it is important not only to study hate speech, but also to contrast it with counter-speech efforts—a rare juxtaposition in social 