or a conflation of several or all characteristics. We identify the following targets of hate and counter-hate speech:

[*Muslims and Islam*]{};

[*Religious groups:*]{} unspecified, any religion except Islam;

[*Arabs, Middle-Easterners, or North Africans:*]{} descent without reference to religion;

[*Ethnic groups or groups of foreign descent:*]{} unspecified, any foreign descent, except Arab;

[*Immigrants/refugees/foreigners in general:*]{} without indicating a specific religion or descent; and

[*Other groups of non-immigrants:*]{} based on e.g., gender, sexual orientation, appearance, disability, or age.

[**Severity.** ]{} \[subsec:severity\] International organizations are concerned with how hate speech can lead to violent acts [@izsak2015hate]. Expressions of hate take many forms [@ghanea2013intersectionality; @matias2015reporting]; they can be ambiguous, and the perception of what is hateful varies between individuals (Olteanu et al. [-@olteanu2017limits]). Capturing such subtleties is essential to understanding how severe the repercussions of online hate speech can be; for instance, the Jewish *Anti-Defamation League* defines a “Pyramid of Hate,” showing how prejudice enables discrimination, which enables violence, which enables genocide.[^7] We use the following levels of severity of hate speech:

[*Promotes violence:*]{} threaten with violence, incite violent acts, and intend to make the target fear for their safety (e.g., “attack mosque,” “kill muslims”);

[*Intimidates:* ]{} harass or intimidate the target, or invite 