They suggest definitions of efficiency of attack and defence, and may even explain the evolution of insurgent organisations from networks of cells to a more virtual leadership that facilitates operations rather than directing them. Finally, we draw some conclusions and present possible directions for future research.
author:
- 'Shishir Nagaraja, Ross Anderson'
title: The topology of covert conflict
---

Introduction
============

Many modern conflicts turn on connectivity. In conventional war, much effort is expended on disrupting the other side’s command, control and communications by jamming or destroying his facilities. Counterterrorism operations involve a similar effort but with different tools: traffic analysis to trace communications, coupled with surveillance of the flows of money, material and recruits, followed by the arrest and interrogation of individuals who appear to be significant nodes. Terrorists are aware of this, and take measures to prevent their networks being traced. Usama bin Laden described his strategy on the videotape captured in Afghanistan as ‘Those who were trained to fly didn’t know the others. One group of people didn’t know the other group’ (see [@Krebs], which describes the hijackers’ networks).

Connectivity matters for social dominance too, as a handful of leading individuals do much of the work of 