label-scarce educational problems (dotted lines).[]{data-label="fig:am_pre_fine"}](assessment_pre_fine.pdf){width="50.00000%"}

In this subsection, we provide examples of important yet scarce educational labels and argue that assessment modeling enables effective prediction of such labels.

\[ex:non-interactive\] In many applications, an IES is often integrated as part of larger learning process. Accordingly, the ultimate evaluation of the learning process is mostly done independently from the IES. For example, academic abilities of students are measured by course grades or standardized exams, and the ability to perform a complicated job or task is assured by professional certificates. Such labels hold great importance due to the pedagogical and social needs for consistent evaluation of students’ ability. However, obtaining the labels are often challenging due to their scarcity compared to features automatically collected from student-system interactions. We give the following examples (see Figure \[fig:am\_def\]).

-   `exam_score` : A student’s standardized exam score.

-   `grade` : A student’s final grade in enrolled course.

-   `certification` : Professional certification obtained by completion of educational programs or examinations.

\[ex:sporadic\] All assessments are collected by IESs automatically, but some are few in number as the events occur rarely in practice, which introduces data scarcity problem. For example, it is natural for students to invest more time 