fei75766_ch05_149-178.indd 164  02/06/20 11:22 AM
Part II    Psychodynamic Theories164
Mahler divided theseparation–individuation stage intofouroverlapping 
substages. Thefirstisdifferentiation, which lastsfrom about the5thmonth untilthe
7thto10thmonth ofageandismarked byabodily breaking away from themother–
infant symbiotic orbit. Forthisreason, thedifferentiation substage isanalogous tothe
hatching ofanegg.Atthisage,Mahler observed, infants smile inresponse totheir
ownmother, indicating abond withaspecific other person. Psychologically healthy 
infants whoexpand theirworld beyond themother willbecurious about strangers 
andwillinspect them; unhealthy infants willfearstrangers andrecoil from them.
Asinfants physically begin tomove away from theirmothers bycrawling and
walking, theyenter thepracticing substage ofseparation–individuation, aperiod from 
about the7thto10thmonth ofagetoabout the15thor16thmonth. During thissub-
phase, children easily distinguish theirbody from theirmother’s, establish aspecific 
bond withtheirmother, andbegin todevelop anautonomous ego.Yet,during the
early stages ofthisperiod, theydonotliketolosesight oftheirmother; theyfollow 
herwiththeireyesandshow distress when sheisaway. Later, theybegin towalkand
totakeintheoutside world, which theyexperience asfascinating andexciting.
From about 16to25months ofage,children experience arapprochement with
theirmother; thatis,theydesire tobring theirmother andthemselves backtogether, 
bothphysically andpsychologically. Mahler noticed thatchildren ofthisagewant 
toshare withtheirmother every newacquisition ofskillandevery newexperience. 
Now thattheycanwalkwithease, children aremore physically separate from the
mother, butparadoxically, theyaremore likely toshow separation anxiety during 
therapprochement stage thanduring theprevious period. Their increased cognitive 
skills make them more aware oftheirseparateness, causing them totryvarious ploys 
toregain thedualunity theyonce hadwiththeirmother. Because these attempts are
never completely successful, children ofthisageoften fightdramatically withtheir
mother, acondition called therapprochement crisis.
Thefinalsubphase oftheseparation–individuation process islibidinal object 
constancy, which approximates the3rdyearoflife.During thistime, children must 
develop aconstant inner representation oftheirmother sothattheycantolerate 
being physically separate from her.Ifthislibidinal object constancy isnotdeveloped, 
children willcontinue todepend ontheirmother’s physical presence fortheirown
security. Besides gaining some degree ofobject constancy, children must consolidate 
theirindividuality; thatis,theymust learn tofunction without theirmother andto
develop other object relationships (Mahler etal.,1975).
Thestrength ofMahler’s theory isitselegant description ofpsychological birth 
based onempirical observations thatsheandhercolleagues made onchild–mother 
interactions. Although many ofhertenets relyoninferences gleaned from reactions 
ofpreverbal infants, herideas caneasily beextended toadults. Anyerrors made dur-
ingthefirst3years—the timeofpsychological birth—may result inlaterregressions 
toastage when aperson hadnotyetachieved separation from themother andthusa
sense ofpersonal identity.
Heinz Kohut’s View
Heinz Kohut (1913–1981) wasborninVienna toeducated andtalented Jewish par-
ents(Strozier, 2001). OntheeveofWorld WarII,heemigrated toEngland and,aFinal PDF to printer