Chapter 2    Freud: Psychoanalysis41
fei75766_ch02_019-071.indd 41  02/19/20 08:59 AMFixation
Psychical growth normally proceeds inasomewhat continuous manner through the
various stages ofdevelopment. Theprocess ofpsychologically growing up,however, 
isnotwithout stressful andanxious moments. When theprospect oftaking thenext
stepbecomes tooanxiety provoking, theegomayresort tothestrategy ofremaining 
atthepresent, more comfortable psychological stage. Such adefense iscalled fixa-
tion.Technically, fixation isthepermanent attachment ofthelibido ontoanearlier, 
more primitive stage ofdevelopment (Freud, 1917/1963). Likeother defense mecha -
nisms, fixations areuniversal. People whocontinually derive pleasure from eating, 
smoking, ortalking mayhaveanoralfixation, whereas those whoareobsessed with
neatness andorderliness maypossess ananalfixation.
Regression
Once thelibido haspassed adevelopmental stage, itmay, during times ofstress and
anxiety, revert backtothatearlier stage. Such areversion isknown asregression 
(Freud, 1917/1963). Regressions arequite common andarereadily visible inchil-
dren. Forexample, acompletely weaned child mayregress todemanding abottle 
ornipple when ababybrother orsister isborn. Theattention given tothenewbaby
poses athreat totheolder child. Regressions arealsofrequent inolder children and
inadults. Acommon wayforadults toreact toanxiety-producing situations isto
revert toearlier, safer, more secure patterns ofbehavior andtoinvest theirlibido 
ontomore primitive andfamiliar objects. Under extreme stress oneadult mayadopt 
thefetalposition, another mayreturn home tomother, andstillanother mayreact by
remaining alldayinbed,wellcovered from thecoldandthreatening world. Regres -
sivebehavior issimilar tofixated behavior inthatitisrigidandinfantile. Regressions, 
however, areusually temporary, whereas fixations demand amore orlesspermanent 
expenditure ofpsychic energy.
Projection
When aninternal impulse provokes toomuch anxiety, theegomayreduce thatanxi-
etybyattributing theunwanted impulse toanexternal object, usually another person. 
Thisisthedefense mechanism ofprojection, which canbedefined asseeing inoth-
ersunacceptable feelings ortendencies thatactually reside inone’s ownunconscious 
(Freud, 1915/1957b). Forexample, amanmayconsistently interpret theactions of
older women asattempted seductions. Consciously, thethought ofsexual intercourse 
witholder women maybeintensely repugnant tohim,butburied inhisunconscious 
isastrong erotic attraction tothese women. Inthisexample, theyoung mandeludes 
himself intobelieving thathehasnosexual feelings forolder women. Although this
projection erases most ofhisanxiety andguilt, itpermits himtomaintain asexual 
interest inwomen whoremind himofhismother.
Anextreme typeofprojection isparanoia, amental disorder character -
izedbypowerful delusions ofjealousy andpersecution. Paranoia isnotaninevi -
table outcome ofprojection butsimply asevere variety ofit.According toFreud 
(1922/1955), acrucial distinction between projection andparanoia isthatparanoia Final PDF to printer