theories, most are also concerned with characterizing individuals. Peo -
ple differ in the needs, values, and goals that must be organized and
harmonized by the ego, but they also differ in the ways in which the egogoes about its task of coordination. It is not simply that people makeplans for the future: Some plan wisely , some poorly , some hardly at all.Individual differences in ego processes are an important issue in person -
ality theory .
Jane Loevinger’s theory of ego stages is a clear example. Men and
women in the lower stages of development are subject to strong andprimitive impulses and tend to express them immediately . Because theirego functioning is undeveloped, they cannot resolve conflicts effectivelyor set up efficient schedules. In the long run they are unable to satisfymany needs, at least without provoking guilt or reprisals from others.Persons with higher levels of ego development have far more sensitiveand sophisticated ways of integrating their needs and values. On theother hand, the lives of individuals with high ego levels are correspond-ingly more complex, and they are troubled by abstract problems towhich persons with low ego levels are oblivious. Thus, high ego devel-opment does not necessarily mean greater satisfaction or happiness(McCrae & Costa, 1983b).
Other theories of individual differences in ego functioning are at-
tentive to overall adjustment. Ego strength is a characteristic discussed
by a number of psychoanalytic writers, who generally define it as theability of the individual to manage successfully the competing forces ofinstinctual demands, internal prohibitions, and social reality . HenryMurray used the term to describe characteristics needed to lead a well-ordered life. People thought to be low in ego strength are less intelli -
gent, more ethnocentric, and generally more prone to many kinds of
psychopathology (Barron, 1980).
Jack Block (1965) distinguished two dimensions of ego function -
ing. Ego resiliency is defined as the individual’s ability to adapt to new
demands. Individuals high in ego resiliency are resourceful and flexible;those who are low are touchy , moody , and uncomfortable in their world.Ego control , a second dimension, is seen in characteristic levels of im -
pulse control. Overcontrolled individuals are overconforming, narrow
in interests, and interpersonally distant; undercontrolled people arespontaneous, inclined toward immediate gratification of impulses, andwilling to act in new and untried ways.Ego Psychologies and Projective Methods 147