fei75766_ch16_495-533.indd 500  02/06/20 01:34 PM
Part VI    Learning-Cognitive Theories500
target. Almost 2years before theUnited States entered thewar,Skinner purchased a
flock ofpigeons forthepurpose oftraining them toguide missiles. Towork full-time 
onProject Pigeon, Skinner obtained agrant from theUniversity ofMinnesota and
financial aidfrom General Mills, thefoodconglomeration housed inMinneapolis. 
Unfortunately, hestilllacked government support. 
Inaneffort tosecure theneeded funds, heprepared afilmoftrained pigeons 
pecking atthecontrols ofamissile andguiding ittoward amoving target. After view-
ingthefilm,government officials rekindled theirinterest andawarded General Mills 
asubstantial grant todevelop theproject. Nevertheless, frustrations layahead. In
1944, Skinner dramatically demonstrated togovernment officials thefeasibility ofthe
project byproducing alivepigeon thatunerringly tracked amoving target. Despite 
thisspectacular demonstration, some observers laughed andmost remained skepti -
cal.Finally, after4years ofwork, more than2ofwhich werefulltime, Skinner was
notified thatfinancial helpcould nolonger becontinued, andtheproject came toa
halt.
Shortly afterSkinner abandoned Project Pigeon andimmediately before the
birth ofhissecond daughter, Debbie, hebecame involved inanother venture—the 
baby-tender. Thebaby-tender wasessentially anenclosed cribwithalarge window 
andacontinual supply offresh warm air.Itprovided aphysically andpsychologically 
safeandhealthy environment forDebbie, onethatalsofreed theparents from unnec -
essary tedious labor. TheSkinners frequently removed Debbie from hercribforplay, 
butformost oftheday,shewasalone inherbaby-tender. After Ladies’ Home Journal 
published anarticle onthebaby-tender, Skinner wasbothcondemned andpraised 
forhisinvention. Interest from other parents persuaded himtomarket thedevice. 
However, difficulties insecuring apatent andhisassociation withanincompetent, 
unscrupulous business partner ledtohisabandonment ofthecommercial venture. 
When Debbie outgrew thebaby-tender atage21/2years, Skinner unceremoniously 
fashioned itintoapigeon cage. 
Atthispoint inhislife,Skinner was40years old,stilldependent onhisfather 
forfinancial help, struggling unsuccessfully towrite abook onverbal behavior, and
notcompletely detached from hisDark Year nearly 20years earlier. Alan Elms 
(1981, 1994) believed thatthefrustrations Skinner experienced overProject Pigeon 
andthebaby-tender ledtoasecond identity crisis, thisoneatmidlife.
Even asSkinner wasbecoming asuccessful andwell-known behaviorist, hewas
slowtoestablish financial independence andinchildlike fashion allowed hisparents 
topayforautomobiles, vacations, hischildren’s education inprivate schools, anda
house forhisfamily (Bjork, 1993; Wiener, 1996). 
Onesignificant experience occurred while Skinner wasstillattheUniversity 
ofMinnesota. Hisfather offered topayhimtheamount ofhissummer school sal-
aryifhewould forego teaching during thesummer months andbring hiswifeand
daughter toScranton. Inhisautobiography, Skinner (1979, p.245)questioned his
father’s motives, saying thatthefather merely “wanted toseemore ofhisadored 
granddaughter.” Nevertheless, Skinner accepted hisfather’s offer, went toScranton, 
setupatable inthebasement (asfaraspossible from theatticthatwashome base
during hisDark Year), andbegan writing. Once again, Scranton proved tobeasterile 
environment, andthebook hewaswriting remained unfinished untilmany years later
(Skinner, 1957).Final PDF to printer