fei75766_ch17_534-568.indd 557  02/24/20 10:49 AM
Chapter 17    Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory557
holding avariety ofjobsandfrom enjoying many kinds ofrecreational activities. 
Phobias andfears arelearned bydirect contact, inappropriate generalization, and
especially byobservational experiences (Bandura, 1986). They aredifficult toextin -
guish ifthephobic person simply avoids thethreatening object. Unless thefearsome 
object issomehow encountered, thephobia willendure indefinitely. 
Bandura (1986) credits television andother news media forgenerating many 
ofourfears. Well-publicized rapes, armed robberies, ormurders canterrorize acom-
munity, causing people tolivemore confined livesbehind locked doors. Most people 
havenever been raped, robbed, orintentionally injured; yetmany liveinfearofbeing 
criminally assaulted. Violent criminal actsthatseem random andaremost likely to
instigate phobic reactions.
Once established, phobias aremaintained byconsequent determinants: thatis,
thenegative reinforcement thephobic person receives foravoiding thefear-producing 
situation. Forexample, ifpeople expect toreceive aversive experiences (being 
mugged) while walking through thecitypark, theywillreduce theirfeeling ofthreat 
bynotentering theparkorevengoing nearit.Inthisexample, dysfunctional (avoid -
ance) behavior isproduced andmaintained bythemutual interaction ofpeople’s 
expectancies (belief thattheywillbemugged), theexternal environment (thecity
park), andbehavioral factors (their prior experiences withfear).
Aggression
Aggressive behaviors, when carried toextremes, canalsobedysfunctional. Bandura 
(1986) contended thataggressive behavior isacquired through observation ofothers, 
direct experiences withpositive andnegative reinforcements, training, orinstruction, 
andbizarre beliefs.
Phobias caninterfere withdaily functioning. oneclearvision/Getty ImagesFinal PDF to printer