an apology did not distribute more than those not receiving an apology. Participants who did not experience an
offence distributed a mean of 5 tickets ( SD51.11).
Reliability
The reliability of behavioral manipulations at instigating desired effects is difficult to estimate. Different exper-
imental situations, contexts, and other interacting variables make replication meaningless.
Validity
Convergent/Concurrent
Carlisle et al. (2012) found that the behavioral measure was correlated with the self-report measure of the
desire to express forgiveness through the distribution ( r5.40) and self-reported empathy ( r5.34).
Divergent/Discriminant
Carlisle et al. (2012) found that the behavioral measure was negatively correlated with the self-reported moti-
vation to get pay-back for the partner’s previous distribution (a measure of unforgiveness; r52.58). Also, the
behavioral measure of forgiveness showed no correlation with the motivation to maintain justice ( r52.11) or to
be fair ( r5.27).
Location
Carlisle, R.D., Tsang, J., Ahmad, N.Y., Worthington, E.L., Jr., Witvliet, C.V.O., & Wade, N.G. (2012). Do actions
speak louder than words? Differential effects of restitution and apology on behavioral and self-reported forgive-
ness. Journal of Positive Psychology, 7 , 294/C0305.
Results and Comments
This covert behavioral measure of forgiveness can help address the social desirability and common method
variance confounds inherent in many self-report measures of forgiveness. Participants are likely not aware that
the researcher is assessing forgiveness. Giving up hard-won assets is more costly than is a generous forgiving
self-report, making self-presentation contamination less likely. However, this measure is meant to complement
rather than replace self-report measures of forgiveness.
Defection in a Prisoner’s Dilemma as a Behavioral Measure of Forgiveness
(Exline et al., 2004 , Study 5).
Variable
Behavioral forgiveness was assessed with multiple measures, including defection in a 10-trial prisoner’s
dilemma game, affective tone in a written response to a moderately antagonistic note, and money allocated to
a partner.
Description
To create a moderately severe transgression, a computer program posing as another participant defected on
trials 1, 7, and 10 of a 10-trial prisoner’s dilemma. For all other rounds, the computer used a tit-for-tat strategy.
After Round 5, the computer sent a written message, ‘Is that the best you’ve got?’ Behavioral forgiveness was
interpreted to be the number of times the participant defected, the affective tone in a written response to the mes-
sage, and the amount of money the participant allocated to their partner out of $2. Self-reported forgiveness was
also assessed using ratings of positive and negative emotions felt toward the partner. Exline et al. used these
behavioral measures to study how narcissistic entitlement related to forgiving behavior.
Sample
Exline et al. (2004) recruited 120 undergraduate students (59 women) for their study. The average amount of
money allocated to the partner was $1.53 ( SD5$0.58).492 17. MEASURES OF FORGIVENESS
IV. INTERPERSONAL STYLES