intimate information in a reciprocal manner need not always return to
this pattern. Other studies find that men and women are restricted inwhat they disclose by what societ y deems appropriate. Holding trau-
matic secrets inside may take its toll on a person ’sh e a l t h .
3. Loneliness is not the same as isolation. Researchers define loneliness as a
discrepancy between the amount and quality of social contact we desire
and the amount and quality we receive. Although loneliness is influenced
by social situations, people tend to suffer from loneliness at a fairly stablelevel. Research on chronically lonely people indicates they approach con-
versations with negative expectations and lack some basic social skills.
Because of this tendency, they inadvertently stifle social interactions anddiscourage potential friends.
4. High and low self-esteem people react differently to failure. Low self-
esteem people become discouraged and unmotivated when they receivenegative feedback, whereas high self-esteem people employ tactics to blunt
the effects of failure. Studies suggest that people base their self-esteem on
how they perform in selected domains. Although people typically use areasin which they excel for their contingencies of self-worth, some individuals
select contingencies that make it difficult for them to feel good about
themselves. Research indicates that notions about the self and self-esteem
taken from individualistic cultures may not apply to collectivist cultures.
5. Maslow observed that virtually all of his psychologically healthy people
reported a high preference for solitude. Subsequent research finds thatmost people spend a large percentage of their time in solitude. Although
some people typically find this time unpleasant, others seek out and enjoy
their time alone. Researchers find that people differ in the extent to which
they prefer solitude. People with a high preference for solitude enjoy their
time alone but also enjoy time spent with others.
KEY TERMS
contingencies of self-worth (p. 328)
self-disclosure (p. 308)
self-esteem (p. 325)
MEDIA RESOURCES
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psychology/burger to find online resources
directly linked to your book, including quizzing,
glossary, flashcards, and more.Summary 339