the material after the recognition for achievement is gone (Rawsthorne &
Elliot, 1999). The student who reads Charles Dickens with the goal of obtain-ing a deeper appreciation for fine literature is more likely to read good books
during the summer than the student who reads Dickens only to do well on
the exam.
This is not to say reliance on performance goals is all bad. Both mastery
and performance goals can lead to achievement, and it is possible to aspire to
both a sense of mastery and recognition for accomplishments. In some cases,researchers find a combination of mastery and performance goals can be par-
ticularly effective (Barron & Harackiewicz, 2001; Harackiewicz, Barron,
Pintrich, Elliot, & Thrash, 2002; Senko & Harackiewicz, 2005). However,the advantages of focusing on performance appear to be limited to
performance-approach goals (Darnon, Harackiewicz, Butera, Mugny, &
Quiamzade, 2007; Elliot, Shell, Bouas, & Maier, 2005; Roney & O ’Connor,
2008). Students who approach assignments motivated only by a desire to not
look bad when they fail tend to do more poorly than those who come to class
with other achievement goals.
Finally, research on achievement goals has implications for how educators
structure the goals and assignments in their classes (Meece, Anderman, &
Anderman, 2006; Murayama & Elliot, 2009). Researchers find higher levels
of motivation and learning when teachers emphasize mastery and improving
skills (Kaplan & Maehr, 2007; Meece et al., 2006). Unfortunately, many
schools emphasize the opposite —grades, competition among students, and
the threat of a poor performance. Although some students respond well to
these incentives, many do not, and a focus on performance rather than learn-
ing can often lead to a decrease in academic motivation.
TYPE A, HOSTILITY AND HEALTH
Several decades ago, some physicians and medical researchers were frustrated
by their inability to identify which patients were likely to suffer from cardio-vascular problems. Although they knew high blood pressure, smoking, obe-
sity, and inactivity all contributed to the risk of heart disease, combinations
of these factors were still unable to predict new cases with much accuracy
(Jenkins, 1971, 1976). But these medical professionals also noticed that their
heart attack patients seemed to act differently than other patients (Friedman
& Rosenman, 1974). Heart attack victims were more active, more energetic,and more driving than those without cardiovascular problems. In short, they
seemed to have different personalities.
This personality dimension was identified as the coronary-prone behavior
pattern because it seemed to consist of a combination of behaviors associated
with coronary disease. Later, this dimension was called Type A –Type B, or
sometimes just Type A. Strictly speaking, the name is inappropriate because
it is not a true typology. Instead of identifying two types of people, A and B,
we should think of a trait continuum with extreme Type A people at one end
and extreme Type B people at the other. Typical Type A people are stronglymotivated to overcome obstacles and are driven to achieve. They are attracted
to competition, enjoy power and recognition, and are easily aroused to angerType A, Hostility and Health 193