the societal level for multi-level analysis. Nonetheless, research has shown that the cross-cultural patterns are dif-
ferent between the societal practices and values. Although some researchers have found the discrepancy in the
two cultural manifestations surprising ( Brewer & Venaik, 2010; Maseland & van Hoorn, 2009; Taras, Steel, &
Kirkman, 2010 ), this result is consistent with the general finding that actual consensus and perceived consensus
of cultural values are different constructs ( Wan et al. 2007 ) (see Table 22.3 ).
Horizontal and Vertical Dimensions of Individualism and Collectivism
(Triandis, 1995; Triandis & Gelfand, 1998 ).
Variable
The HVIC was developed to measure the horizontal and vertical subtypes of individualism and collectivism.
Both individualism and collectivism have a horizontal and a vertical subtype ( Singelis, Triandis, Bhawuk, &
Gelfand, 1995; Triandis, 1995 ). Horizontal cultures refer to cultures that emphasize equality. People in horizontal
cultures tend to regard others as having more or less the same self, as is typically found in homogeneous cul-
tures. Vertical cultures refer to cultures that tend to accept inequality ( Triandis, 1995 ). Thus, a culture can be
characterized by the extent to which it rewards horizontal collectivism (HC), vertical collectivism (VC), horizontal
individualism (HI), and vertical individualism (VI).TABLE 22.3 GCV Sample Items
Societal practices: The way things arein your society Societal values: The way things generally should be
in your society
Instructions In this section, we are interested in your beliefs about the
norms, values, and practices in your society. In other words,
we are interested in the way your society is /C0not the way you
think it should be.
There are no right or wrong answers, and answers don’t
indicate goodness or badness of the society.In this section, we are interested in your beliefs about what
the norms, values, practices should be in your society.
Again, there are no right or wrong answers, and answers
don’t indicate goodness or badness of the society.
Please respond to the questions by circling the number that
most closely represents your observations about your society.
Uncertainty
avoidanceIn this society, most people lead highly structured lives with
few unexpected events: ( r)( 15strongly agree; 7 5strongly
disagree)I believe that a person who leads a structured life that has
few unexpected events: ( r)( 15has a lot to be thankful for;
75is missing a lot of excitement)
Future
orientationIn this society, the accepted norm is to: ( r)( 15plan for the
future; 7 5accept the status quo)I believe that the accepted norm in this society should be to:
(r)( 15plan for the future; 7 5accept the status quo)
Power
distanceIn this society, a person’s influence is based primarily on:
(15one’s ability and contribution to the society; 7 5the
authority of one’s position)I believe that a person’s influence in this society should be
based primarily on: (1 5one’s ability and contribution to the
society; 7 5the authority of one’s position)
Institutional
collectivismThe economic system in this society is designed to maximize:
(15individual interests; 7 5collective interests)I believe that the economic system in this society should be
designed to maximize: (1 5individual interests; 7 5collective
interests)
Humane
orientationIn this society, people are generally: ( r)( 15concerned about
others; 7 5not at all concerned about others)In this society, people should be encouraged to be:
(r)( 15concerned about others; 7 5not at all concerned
about others)
Performance
orientationIn this society, being innovative to improve performance is
generally: ( r)( 15substantially rewarded; 4 5somewhat
rewarded; 7 5not rewarded)I believe that being innovative to improve performance should
be: (r)( 15substantially rewarded; 4 5somewhat rewarded;
75not rewarded)
Ingroup
collectivismIn this society, children take pride in the individual
accomplishments of their parents. ( r)( 15Strongly agree;
45Neither agree or disagree; 7 5Strongly disagree)In this society, children should take pride in the individual
accomplishments of their parents. ( r)( 15Strongly agree;
45Neither agree or disagree; 7 5Strongly disagree)
Gender
egalitarianismIn this society, boys are encouraged more than girls to attain
a higher education. (1 5Strongly agree; 4 5Neither agree
or disagree; 7 5Strongly disagree)I believe that boys should be encouraged to attain a higher
education more than girls. (1 5Strongly agree; 4 5Neither
agree or disagree; 7 5Strongly disagree)
Assertiveness In this society, people are generally: ( r)( 15assertive;
75non-assertive)In this society, people should be encouraged to be:
(r)( 15assertive; 7 5non-assertive)
Note: Reproduced with permission. ( r) indicates that the item requires reverse scoring.636 22. MEASURES OF CROSS-CULTURAL VALUES, PERSONALITY AND BELIEFS
VI. SOCIOCULTURAL INTERACTION AND CONFLICT