fei75766_ch16_495-533.indd 516  02/06/20 01:34 PM
Part VI    Learning-Cognitive Theories516
tothescientific analysis ofbehavior. Third, aprivate event transpired “within the
skin” oftheworker. Thisprivate event, along withherverbal report tothefriend, 
canbescientifically analyzed. Atthetimethattheworker feltlikequitting, shemight 
haveobserved thefollowing covert behavior: “Iamobserving within myself increas -
ingdegrees offrustration, which areraising theprobability thatIwillinform my
bossthatIamquitting.” Thisstatement ismore accurate thansaying “Ialmost quit
myjob,” anditrefers tobehavior that,although private, iswithin theboundaries of
scientific analysis.
Drives
From theviewpoint ofradical behaviorism, drives arenotcauses ofbehavior, but
merely explanatory fictions. ToSkinner (1953), drives simply refertotheeffects of
deprivation andsatiation andtothecorresponding probability thattheorganism will
respond. Todeprive aperson offoodincreases thelikelihood ofeating; tosatiate a
person decreases thatlikelihood. However, deprivation andsatiation arenottheonly
correlates ofeating. Other factors thatincrease ordecrease theprobability ofeating 
areinternally observed hunger pangs, availability offood, andprevious experiences 
withfoodreinforcers.
Ifpsychologists knew enough about thethree essentials ofbehavior (anteced -
ent,behavior, andconsequences), thentheywould know whyaperson behaves, 
thatis,what drives arerelated tospecific behaviors. Only thenwould drives havea
legitimate roleinthescientific study ofhuman behavior. Forthepresent, however, 
explanations based onfictionalized constructs suchasdrives orneeds aremerely 
untestable hypotheses.
Emotions
Skinner (1974) recognized thesubjective existence ofemotions, ofcourse, buthe
insisted thatbehavior must notbeattributed tothem. Heaccounted foremotions bythe
contingencies ofsurvival andthecontingencies ofreinforcement. Throughout themil-
lennia, individuals whoweremost strongly disposed toward fearoranger werethose 
whoescaped from ortriumphed overdanger andthuswereabletopassonthose char-
acteristics totheir offspring. Onanindividual level, behaviors followed bydelight, 
joy,pleasure, andother pleasant emotions tendtobereinforced, thereby increasing 
theprobability thatthese behaviors would recur inthelifeofthatindividual.
Purpose and Intention
Skinner (1974) alsorecognized theconcepts ofpurpose andintention, butagain, he
cautioned against attributing behavior tothem. Purpose andintention existwithin 
theskin,buttheyarenotsubject todirect outside scrutiny. Afelt,ongoing purpose 
mayitself bereinforcing. Forexample, ifyoubelieve thatyourpurpose forjogging is
tofeelbetter andlivelonger, thenthisthought perseactsasareinforcing stimulus, 
especially while undergoing thedrudgery ofjogging orwhen trying toexplain your
motivation toanonrunner.
Aperson may“intend” toseeamovie Friday evening because viewing similar 
films hasbeen reinforcing. Atthetimetheperson intends togotothemovie, sheFinal PDF to printer