Variable
In the PVP, empathy is conceptualized as an individual’s self-reported response to empathy-eliciting visual
images.
Description
The PVP is a simple task in which images depicting individuals (termed targets ) are depicted in certain situa-
tions. Often these are negative (e.g., confinement, injury, grief), but they may also be positive. Image duration is
typically between 6 and 10 seconds. Participants view the images and make a rating response. Ratings may also
relate to different components (e.g., affective and cognitive) or related constructs (e.g., sympathy, distress).
Physiological recordings may also be taken during the image presentation. Westbury and Neumann (2008)
defined empathy on a 9-point scale as, ‘to what degree you are able to imagine feeling and experiencing what the
target is experiencing, in other words, your ability to put yourself in the others’ situation.’ They also measured
corrugator electromyographic activity and skin conductance responses. Images were sourced from the
International Affective Picture System (IAPS; Lang, Bradley, and Cuthbert, 1999 ) or other media (e.g., Internet).
Variations of the PVP were also used, such as using video clips instead of static images ( Westbury & Neumann,
2008 ). In addition, participants were asked to concentrate on their own feelings while viewing the images or con-
centrate on the feelings of the target /C0a ‘self’ versus ‘other’ distinction (e.g., Schulte-Ru ¨ther et al., 2008 ).
Sample
Westbury and Neumann (2008) used a sample of 73 undergraduates (mean age 522.5 years, SD59.41). A sec-
ond sample comprised 33 undergraduates (mean age 524.6 years). Neumann, Boyle, and Chan (2013) subse-
quently employed a sample of 26 male and 73 female Caucasian participants (mean age 525.44 years, SD59.41)
as well as a sample of 29 male and 70 female Asian participants (mean age 520.89 years, SD51.70).
Reliability
Internal Consistency
Westbury and Neumann (2008) reported Cronbach alpha coefficients for subjective empathy ratings of .91 (first
sample) and .94 (second sample). Subsequently, Neumann et al. (2012) reported high alpha coefficients for
empathy-perspective taking ( α5.98), empathy-affect ( α5.98), and empathy-understanding ( α5.98), suggesting
the possibility of some narrowness of measurement (cf. Boyle, 1991 ).
Test/C0Retest
Test/C0retest reliability has not been reported for empathy-related PVT itself. In research unrelated to empathy
that used the IAPS, Lang et al. (1993) reported stability coefficients (time interval unspecified) for arousal
(r5.93), valence ( r5.99), the corrugator response ( r5.98) and zygomatic response ( r5.84).
Validity
Convergent/Concurrent
Self-reported PVP empathy ratings in Westbury and Neumann (2008) , correlated positively with BEES scores
in the first ( r5.56) and second ( r5.43) samples. In the second sample, empathy ratings correlated positively
with ratings of sympathy ( r5.66) and distress ( r5.59).
Divergent/Discriminant
Kring and Gordon (1998) used videotaped facial expressions that represented the emotions of happiness, sad-
ness, and fear. Participants watched video clips unaware their facial expressions were being recorded during film
presentation. Following each clip, participants were asked to rate the extent to which they experienced sadness,
fear, disgust, and happiness. Females reacted more expressively than males across all film clips.
Criterion/Predictive
No criterion/predictive validity coefficients have been reported to-date.
Location
Westbury, H.R., & Neumann, D.L. (2008). Empathy-related responses to moving film stimuli depicting human
and non-human animal targets in negative circumstances. Biological Psychology, 78 ,6 6/C074.272 10. MEASURES OF EMPATHY: SELF-REPORT , BEHAVIORAL, AND NEUROSCIENTIFIC APPROACHES
III. EMOTION REGULATION