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Part II    Psychodynamic Theories216
critical topeople’s ability toadapt. HetoldRichard Evans (1967) that“when we
enter asituation, wemust beabletodifferentiate howmuch wecantrustandhow
much wemust mistrust, andIusemistrust inthesense ofareadiness fordanger and
ananticipation ofdiscomfort” (p.15).
Theinevitable clash between basic trustandbasic mistrust results inpeople’s 
firstpsychosocial crisis. Ifpeople successfully solve thiscrisis, theyacquire theirfirst
basic strength— hope.
Hope: The Basic Strength of Infancy
Hope emerges from theconflict between basic trustandbasic mistrust. Without the
antithetical relationship between trustandmistrust, people cannot develop hope. 
Infants must experience hunger, pain, anddiscomfort aswellasthealleviation of
these unpleasant conditions. Byhaving bothpainful andpleasurable experiences, 
infants learn toexpect thatfuture distresses willmeet withsatisfactory outcomes.
Ifinfants donotdevelop sufficient hope during infancy, theywilldemonstrate 
theantithesis ortheopposite ofhope— withdrawal, thecore pathology ofinfancy. 
With littletohope for,theywillretreat from theoutside world andbegin thejourney 
toward serious psychological disturbance.
Early Childhood
Thesecond psychosocial stage isearly childhood, aperiod paralleling Freud’s anal
stage andencompassing approximately the2ndand3rdyears oflife.Again, some 
differences existbetween theviews ofFreud andErikson. InChapter 2,weexplained 
thatFreud regarded theanusastheprimary erogenous zone during thisperiod and
thatduring theearly sadistic-anal phase, children receive pleasure indestroying or
losing objects, while latertheytakesatisfaction indefecating.
Once again, Erikson tookabroader view. Tohim,young children receive plea-
surenotonlyfrom mastering thesphincter muscle butalsofrom mastering other 
body functions suchasurinating, walking, throwing, holding, andsoon.Inaddition, 
children develop asense ofcontrol overtheirinterpersonal environment, aswellasa
measure ofself-control. However, early childhood isalsoatimeofexperiencing doubt 
andshame aschildren learn thatmany oftheirattempts atautonomy areunsuccessful.
Anal–Urethral–Muscular Mode
During the2ndyearoflife,children’s primary psychosexual adjustment isthe
anal–urethral–muscular mode. Atthistime, children learn tocontrol theirbody, espe-
cially inrelation tocleanliness andmobility. Early childhood ismore thanatimeoftoilet 
training; itisalsoatimeoflearning towalk, run,hugparents, andholdontotoysandother 
objects. Witheachofthese activities, young children arelikely todisplay some stubborn 
tendencies. They mayretain theirfeces oreliminate them atwill,snuggle uptotheir
mother orsuddenly pushheraway, delight inhoarding objects orruthlessly discard them.
Early childhood isatimeofcontradiction, atimeofstubborn rebellion and
meek compliance, atimeofimpulsive self-expression andcompulsive deviance, atime
ofloving cooperation andhateful resistance. Thisobstinate insistence onconflicting 
impulses triggers themajor psychosocial crisis ofchildhood—autonomy versus shame 
anddoubt (Erikson, 1968).Final PDF to printer