Naomi ’s quest for solitude in a different light. When Abraham Maslow stud-
ied psychologically healthy people, he found a curious similarity among mem-
bers of this select group. Although these self-actualized people possessed
characteristics that made them the warmest of friends, they also spent a sur-
prisingly large amount of time by themselves. “For all my subjects it is true
that they can be solitary without harm to themselves and without discom-
fort,”Maslow (1970) observed. “Furthermore, it is true for almost all that
they positively like solitude and privacy to a definitely greater degree than
the average person ”(p. 160).
Maslow ’s observations thus provide another explanation for Naomi ’s
preference for solitude. It is possible that she is not introverted, socially anx-ious, or lonely. Perhaps Naomi ’s desire to spend time by herself is something
positive. Her preference for solitude may be both a reflection of and a con-tributor to her personal growth and development. Maslow was quick to pointout that psychologically healthy people also tend to express a great deal of in-
terpersonal warmth and have especially close relationships with their dearest
friends. People with a high desire for solitude are not necessarily trying to es-cape from relationships. Rather, some people who spend a great deal of time
by themselves have come to recognize the benefits of solitude.
Time Alone
Although most of us live in social worlds, in truth we also spend a good deal of
our day alone. To determine how often we spend time by ourselves, investiga-tors sometimes use a procedure known as the Experience Sampling Method
(Larson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1980; Larson, Csikszentmihalyi, & Graef, 1982;
Larson & Richards, 1991; Larson, Zuzanek, & Mannell, 1985). Participants
in these studies carry electronic pagers or handheld computers with them 24
hours a day for about a week. At random intervals throughout each day, the
researchers signal participants that it is time to fill out a quick report on whatthey are doing and how they feel at that moment. The results of this research,
shown in Figure 12.6, confirm that Americans spend a significant amount of
their waking hours alone. Moreover, solitude becomes a more common experi-ence as we age.
How do people react to time alone? As suggested by conventional wis-
dom, most of us find time by ourselves less pleasant than time spent withothers (Larson, 1990). People typically complain of loneliness and boredom
when they are by themselves. After spending a long period of time alone,
most people eagerly seek out social interactions (O ’Connor & Rosenblood,
1996). Emotional difficulties are often made worse when there is no one
around. People prone to depression often experience negative emotion when
alone. One study found that bulimics had a particularly negative reaction to
solitude (Larson & Johnson, 1985). The researchers speculate that the loneli-
ness and confusion experienced by bulimics when alone contributes to their
eating disorder.
Clearly, time by oneself can be unpleasant and unsatisfying for many
people. But consider the results of one national survey (Crossen, 1996). Only6% of American adults in that survey said they wanted less time by334 CHAPTER 12 The Humanistic Approach