fei75766_ch18_569-609.indd 588  02/24/20 10:50 AM
Part VI    Learning-Cognitive Theories588
Asecond source oflowfreedom ofmovement isfaulty evaluation ofthepresent 
situation. Forexample, anadult maylackassertiveness withhercolleagues because, 
during childhood, shewaspunished forcompeting withhersiblings. Thispatient 
must learn todifferentiate between pastandpresent aswellasbetween siblings and
colleagues. Thetherapist’s taskistohelphermake these distinctions andtoteach her
assertiveness techniques inavariety ofappropriate situations.
Finally, lowfreedom ofmovement canspring from inadequate generalization. 
Patients often usefailure inonesituation asproof thattheycannot besuccessful 
inother areas. Take theexample ofthephysically feeble adolescent who, because 
hewasunsuccessful insports, generalized hisfailure tononathletic areas. Hispres-
entproblems come from faulty generalization, andthetherapist must reinforce even
small successes insocial relationships, academic achievements, andother situations. 
Thepatient willeventually learn todiscriminate between realistic shortcomings in
oneareaandsuccessful behaviors inother situations.
Although Rotter recognized thattherapists should beflexible intheirtechniques 
andshould utilize different approaches withdifferent patients, hesuggested several 
interesting techniques thathefound tobeeffective. Thefirstistoteach patients to
lookforalternative courses ofaction. Patients frequently complain thattheirspouse, 
parent, child, oremployer doesnotunderstand them, treats them unjustly, andisthe
source oftheirproblems. Inthissituation, Rotter would simply teach thepatient to
change theother person’s behavior. Thischange canbeaccomplished byexamining 
those behaviors ofthepatient thattypically leadtonegative reactions byspouse, 
parent, child, oremployer. Ifthepatient canfindanalternative method ofbehav -
ingtoward important others, thenthose others willprobably change theirbehavior 
toward thepatient. Thereafter, thepatient willberewarded forbehaving inamore 
appropriate fashion.
Rotter alsosuggested atechnique tohelppatients understand other people’s 
motives. Many patients haveasuspicious ordistrustful attitude toward others, believ -
ingthataspouse, teacher, orbossisintentionally andspitefully trying toharm them. 
Rotter would attempt toteach these patients tolookatways inwhich theymaybe
contributing totheother person’s defensive ornegative behavior andtohelpthem 
realize thattheother person isnotsimply nasty orspiteful butmaybefrightened or
threatened bythepatient.
Therapists canalsohelppatients lookatthelong-range consequences oftheir
behaviors andtounderstand thatmany maladaptive behaviors produce secondary 
gains thatoutweigh thepatients’ present frustration. Forexample, awoman may
adopt theroleofahelpless child inorder togaincontrol overherhusband. Shecom-
plains tohertherapist thatsheisdissatisfied withherhelplessness andwould like
tobecome more independent, bothforhersakeandforthebenefit ofherhusband. 
What shemaynotrealize, however, isthathercurrent helpless behavior issatisfy -
ingherbasic need fordominance. Themore helpless sheacts,themore control 
sheexercises overherhusband, whomust respond toherhelplessness. Theposi-
tivereinforcement shereceives from herhusband’s recognition isstronger thanher
accompanying negative feelings. Inaddition, shemaynotclearly seethelong-range 
positive consequences ofself-confidence andindependence. Thetaskoftherapists is
totrainpatients topostpone minor contemporary satisfactions formore important 
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