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Part II    Psychodynamic Theories166
candidate forpsychoanalysis, butKohut heldthatpsychotherapy could beeffective 
withthese patients.
John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory
John Bowlby (1907–1990) wasborninLondon, where hisfather wasawell-known 
surgeon. From anearly age,Bowlby wasinterested innatural science, medicine, and
psychology—subjects hestudied atCambridge University. After receiving amedical 
degree, hestarted hispractice inpsychiatry andpsychoanalysis in1933. Atabout the
same time, hebegan training inchild psychiatry under Melanie Klein. During World 
WarII,Bowlby served asanarmy psychiatrist, andin1946 hewasappointed director 
oftheDepartment forChildren andParents oftheTavistock Clinic. During thelate
1950s, Bowlby spent some timeatStanford’s Center fortheAdvanced Study inthe
Behavioral Sciences butreturned toLondon, where heremained untilhisdeath in
1990 (vanDijken, 1998).
Inthe1950s, Bowlby became dissatisfied withtheobject relations perspective, 
primarily foritsinadequate theory ofmotivation anditslackofempiricism. With his
knowledge ofethology andevolutionary theory (especially Konrad Lorenz’s ideaof
early bonding toamother-figure), herealized thatobject relations theory could be
integrated withanevolutionary perspective. Byforming suchanintegration hefelt
hecould correct theempirical shortcomings ofthetheory andextend itinanew
direction. Bowlby’s attachment theory alsodeparted from psychoanalytic thinking by
taking childhood asitsstarting point andthenextrapolating forward toadulthood 
(Bowlby, 1969/1982, 1988). Bowlby firmly believed thattheattachments formed dur-
ingchildhood haveanimportant impact onadulthood. Because childhood attach -
ments arecrucial tolaterdevelopment, Bowlby argued thatinvestigators should study 
childhood directly andnotrelyondistorted retrospective accounts from adults.
Theorigins ofattachment theory came from Bowlby’s observations thatboth
human andprimate infants gothrough aclear sequence ofreactions when separated 
from theirprimary caregivers. Bowlby observed three stages ofthisseparation  anxiety. 
When theircaregiver isfirstoutofsight, infants willcry,resist soothing byother 
people, andsearch fortheircaregiver. Thisstage istheprotest stage. Asseparation 
continues, infants become quiet, sad,passive, listless, andapathetic. Thissecond stage 
iscalled despair. Thelaststage—the onlyoneunique tohumans—is detachment. During 
thisstage, infants become emotionally detached from other people, including their
caregiver. Iftheircaregiver (mother) returns, infants willdisregard andavoid her.
Children whobecome detached arenolonger upset when theirmother leaves them. 
Astheybecome older, theyplayandinteract withothers withlittleemotion butappear 
tobesociable. However, theirinterpersonal relations aresuperficial andlackwarmth.
From suchobservations, Bowlby developed hisattachment theory, which he
published inatrilogy titled Attachment and Loss (1969/1982, 1973, 1980). Bowlby’s 
theory restsontwofundamental assumptions: First, aresponsive andaccessible care-
giver (usually themother) must create asecure baseforthechild. Theinfant needs to
know thatthecaregiver isaccessible anddependable. Ifthisdependability ispresent, 
thechild isbetter abletodevelop confidence andsecurity inexploring theworld. 
Thisbonding relationship serves thecritical function ofattaching thecaregiver tothe
infant, thereby making survival oftheinfant, andultimately thespecies, more likely.Final PDF to printer