might say they were lucky or that the test was easy. Internals also are better
at adjusting their expectancies following feedback, which means they have abetter idea of how to prepare for the next exam. Externals are more likely to
make excuses following a poor performance (Basgall & Snyder, 1988). An
external student who decides the teacher is an unfair grader probably will
not prepare much for the next test. Because they believe academic success is
up to them, internal students also pay attention to information that will help
them reach their goals. One investigator found internal undergraduates weremore likely than externals to know about test dates, grading policies, and
other relevant information that would help them do well in their classes
(Dollinger, 2000). Internal students also are more ambitious than external stu-dents. Because they see outcomes as under their control, they are more likely to
work to reach their goals. Internal college students are more likely than exter-
nals to complete their degrees in a timely fashion (Hall, Smith, & Chia, 2008).They also are more likely to apply to graduate school (Nordstrom & Segrist,
2009).
Higher achievement by internals is not limited to the classroom. Studies
in career settings also find higher levels of performance for internal workersthan externals (Judge & Bono, 2001; Ng et al., 2006). People who believe
making a sale, inspiring employees, or completing a job on time is largely up
to them are more likely to reach those goals than workers who fail to see
their role in achieving work objectives (Judge, Erez, & Bono, 1998). Internal
workers also tend to seek out positions that provide the opportunities and re-
wards they prefer (Spector, 1982). Not surprisingly, researchers find internals
score higher than externals on measures of job satisfaction (Judge & Bono,
2001, Ng et al., 2006).
The relationship between perceived control and achievement may be
universal. One team of investigators examined locus of control and job satis-
faction among managers in large corporations in 24 countries (Spector et al.,2001). Across different cultures, managers who experienced a great deal of
control over their work environment reported consistently higher levels of
satisfaction with their jobs than managers who felt they had little control.
Psychotherapy
As a general rule, clients tend to become more internal as they pass through
successful psychotherapy (Strickland, 1978). Consider the case of Israeli sol-
diers suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder following their experiences
with intense combat (Solomon, Mikulincer, & Avitzur, 1988). These men suf-
fered from a variety of symptoms often found after a profoundly stressful ex-
perience. When tested shortly after combat, the soldiers scored fairly external
on locus of control measures. However, as they recovered from their traumaover the next 3 years, they became increasingly internal. As the soldiers came
to appreciate the control they could exercise over many parts of their lives,
they took an important step toward recovery.
Does this mean that therapists should focus on giving clients more control
over therapy? Not necessarily. Although internals respond well when givencontrol over their treatment, externals sometimes do better when treatmentLocus of Control 405