Sample
Initial item analyses performed on the large pool of HFMPS items were based on responses from 156 psychol-
ogy students. The next phase of scale development was conducted with 1106 university students and 263 psychi-
atric patients. Means for the various subscales for these samples and five other samples are displayed in Table 1
of the original scale development paper ( Hewitt & Flett, 1991 ). Norms are also available in the test manual
(Hewitt & Flett, 2004 ).
Reliability
Internal Consistency
Hewitt and Flett (1991) reported Cronbach alpha coefficients of .88, .74, and .81 for self-oriented, other-
oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism, respectively, in a sample of 263 psychiatric patients (also see
Hewitt, Flett, Turnbull-Donovan, & Mikail, 1991 ).
Test/C0Retest
Hewitt and Flett (1991) reported results for 49 clinical outpatients who completed the HFMPS on two occa-
sions over a three-month interval. The test /C0retest reliability coefficients were .69 for self-oriented perfectionism,
.66 for other-oriented perfectionism, and .60 for socially prescribed perfectionism. Data from a small student sam-
ple yielded test /C0retest coefficients of .88 for self-oriented perfectionism, .85 for other-oriented perfectionism, and
.75 for socially prescribed perfectionism ( Hewitt & Flett, 1991 ).Cox and Enns’ (2003) study of patients with cur-
rent and remitted depression revealed relative stability across the three HFMPS trait dimensions. Further evi-
dence of temporal stability emerged from a recent longitudinal study of perfectionism and sleep with university
students in Portugal (see Maia, Soares, & Pereira, 2011 ).
Validity
Convergent/Concurrent
Extensive evidence of the validity of the subscales is summarized in the HFMPS manual (see Hewitt & Flett,
2004). Table 2 in the original scale development article by Hewitt and Flett (1991) displays much of the initial
validity evidence with student samples. Also, Hewitt et al. (1991) reported data from 60 psychiatric patients
showing that both self-oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism were associated robustly
with another measure of high standards and with various measures of self-punitiveness (i.e., self-criticism,
overgeneralization, and perseveration). In addition, Burns Perfectionism Scale scores were positively associated
with self-oriented perfectionism ( r5.62) and socially prescribed perfectionism ( r5.69). Regarding the FMPS sub-
scales, self-oriented perfectionism had the expected high correlation with the personal standards subscale
(r5.64) and it also linked with concern over mistakes and doubts about actions, but it was not associated with
the other subscales. Frost et al. (1993) demonstrated substantial associations between the respective subscales of
the FMPS and the HFMPS. Flett, Sawatzky, and Hewitt (1995) established that self-oriented perfectionism in par-
ticular was associated with greater reported commitment to various perfectionism goals (e.g., perfect perfor-
mance, perfect appearance, perfect manners, etc.). The study by Hill et al. (2004) also included the HFMPS. The
largest correlation of self-oriented perfectionism was associated strongly with striving for excellence ( r5.79).
Other-oriented perfectionism was linked with high standards for others ( r5.62). Socially prescribed perfection-
ism had its strongest associations with concern over mistakes ( r5.62), rumination ( r5.61), and perceived paren-
tal pressure ( r5.58). The study by Stairs et al. (2012) also included the HFMPS. Significant correlations for the
HFMPS included the following: self-oriented perfectionism ( rof .60 with high standards), other-oriented perfec-
tionism ( rof .62 with perfectionism toward others), and socially prescribed perfectionism ( rof .54 with dissatis-
faction and rof .67 with perceived pressure).
Shafran, Cooper, and Fairburn (2002) suggested that ‘the core psychopathology of perfectionism is expressed
as a morbid fear of failure and relentless pursuit of success’ (p. 779). Self-oriented perfectionism has been linked
empirically with an inability to tolerate failure (Flett et al., 1991) and fear of failure ( Flett, Blankstein, Hewitt, &
Koledin, 1992 ).Conroy, Kaye, and Fifer (2007) with a sample of 372 students showed that a latent fear of failure
construct comprised of multiple subscales from Conroy’s (2001) Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory was
linked with all three HFMPS factors, but only socially prescribed perfectionism still had an association after con-
trolling for the other HFMPS subscales.
Initial psychometric work on the HFMPS included a focus on the link between self-reports and observer rat-
ings (see Hewitt & Flett, 1991 ; Study 2). Substantial concordance was found but this work was based on relatively602 21. MEASURES OF PERFECTIONISM
V. VICES AND VIRTUES