two. In summary, the support for cross-cultural equivalence in the EPQ is stronger for the E and N than the P
and L scales.
HEXACO Personality Inventory (HEXACO-PI)
(Ashton & Lee, 2008; Lee & Ashton, 2006 ).
The HEXACO model proposes one additional dimension above the Big Five, Honesty /C0Humility, based on a
reanalysis of lexical data from several languages of different families. The HEXACO-PI has been developed for mea-
surement in the HEXACO model ( Lee & Ashton, 2006 ). The HEXACO-PI includes six broad scales (and 24 facets):
Honesty-Humility (Sincerity, Fairness, Greed Avoidance, and Modesty), Emotionality (Fearfulness, Anxiety,
Dependence, Sentimentality), Extraversion (Social Self-Esteem, Social Boldness, Sociability, Liveliness), Agreeableness
(Forgiveness, Gentleness, Flexibility, Patience), Conscientiousness (Organization, Diligence, Perfectionism, Prudence),
and Openness to Experience (Aesthetic Appreciation, Inquisitiveness, Creativity, Unconventionality). Ashton et al.
(2006) reported Cronbach alpha coefficients rangin g from .79 to .84 in an Italian student sample ( N5327), from
.79 to .86 in a Dutch student sample ( N5161), and from .89 to .92 in a sample of English-speaking Canadian stu-
dents ( N5214). Boies, Yoo, Ebacher, Lee, and Ashton (2004) reported alpha coefficients between .81 and .86 in
French-speaking Canadian students ( N5149) and between .75 and .88 in Korean students ( N5211). Both
Ashton et al. (2006) and Boies et al. (2004) found evidence for convergent validity in the correlation patterns of
the HEXACO-PI with external, adjective-based scales in each examined language (e.g., convergent correlations
from .42 to .87 across Italian, Dutch, and Englis h samples before correction for unreliability in Ashton et al.,
2006 ). Both Ashton et al. (2006) and Boies et al. (2004) found evidence for discrimina nt validity in the correlation
patterns of the HEXACO-PI with external, adjective-bas ed scales in each examined language (e.g., discriminant
correlations from .00 to /C0.45 across Italian, Dutch, and English sample s before correction for unreliability in
Ashton et al., 2006 ). The HEXACO-PI holds promise as a measure of a new personality model based on psycho-
lexical data from a number of languages from different language families. However, data on its properties in
cross-cultural application have yet to appear.
Myers/C0Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
(Myers et al., 1998 ).
The MBTI has been developed to measure the assignment of individuals into one of 16 personality types
(derived from the combination of four dichotomous attitudes or functioning styles: Extraversion /C0Introversion,
Judgment /C0Perception, Thinking /C0Feeling, and Sensing /C0Intuition) inspired from Jung’s (1921/1971) theory. The
instrument has multiple forms with different scoring formats. Rather than sum scores indicating standing on an
underlying trait, the scales provide type assignments. The MBTI has been claimed to be ‘the most widely used
personality inventory in the world’ ( McCaulley & Moody, 2008 , p. 408). It has been translated into more than 30
languages, of which over 10 versions are approved by the publisher. However, there are no direct examinations
of cross-cultural equivalence in a factor-analytic and DIF framework. The theoretical types have nonetheless been
replicated in all cultures examined, with varying distribution ( McCaulley & Moody, 2008 ). Only (satisfactory)
data from monocultural studies were reported by McCaulley and Moody (2008) . References to some (hardly
accessible) publications on studies in non-US populations have also been provided. A number of concerns have
been raised regarding the psychometric properties of the MBTI ( Boyle, 1995; McCrae & Costa, 1989 ). Despite the
MBTI’s popularity, the instrument’s adequacy for cross-cultural comparisons cannot be assessed in the psycho-
metric framework adopted in the present review.
Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire (NPQ)
(Paunonen et al., 1990 ).
The NPQ has been developed to measure Murray’s (1938) traits using pictorial stimuli. The NPQ has been
developed in Canada as a structured, nonverbal assessment tool parallel to the Personality Research Form (see
next section) and, similarly to it, has a structure that can be interpreted in the framework of the Big Five. The
instrument measures 16 traits: Achievement, Affiliation, Aggression, Autonomy, Dominance, Endurance,
Exhibition, Thrill Seeking, Impulsivity, Nurturance, Order, Play, Sentience, Social Recognition, Succorance, and
Understanding. Because it is nonverbal, it is thought to be especially suitable for cross-cultural use ( Paunonen,769 INVENTORIES BASED ON THEORETICAL MODELS
VI. SOCIOCULTURAL INTERACTION AND CONFLICT