we can say that the findings from these studies are at least consistent with
predictions from Freud’ s theory.
Another phenomenon of interest to dream researchers is the recurrent
dream. Most of us have experienced a dream that we believe we have had
before. For some people, the same dream occurs every night for several nightsin a row. Sometimes a dream appears off and on for months or even years.
From a psychoanalytic perspective, the dream reappears night after night be-
cause the conflict expressed in the dream is important yet remains unresolved.Consistent with this interpretation, researchers find most recurrent dreams in-
clude threatening images, usually situations in which the dreamer is in danger
(Zadra, Desjardins, & Marcotte, 2006).
The psychoanalytic interpretation also helps to explain why recurrent
dreamers are more likely to suffer from anxiety and generally poor adjust-ment during waking hours than people not experiencing recurrent dreams(Brown & Donderi, 1986; Zadra, O’ Brien, & Donderi, 1998). The uncon-
scious conflict surfaces in the dream at night but is expressed in the form of
anxiety during the day. But the cause-and-effect arrow could also run theother direction. It may also be the case that the anxiety people experience
during the day contributes to the frequency of recurring dreams. One study
compared the number recurrent dreams students experienced during exam
weeks versus weeks without exams (Duke & Davidson, 2002). Students who
experienced recurrent dreams had considerably more of these dreams during
exam weeks than when they were under less stress.
But what of the most provocative aspect of Freud ’s dream interpretation
theory —that seemingly innocent objects and actions are symbolic representa-
tions of sexuality and sexual activity? According to some psychoanalytic re-
searchers, people who are anxious about sexual matters are unable to
express their sexual desires directly. Instead, these individuals are left to ex-
press their sexual feelings through dream symbols. To test this hypothesis,one team of researchers asked participants to keep diaries of their dreams
and their daily level of anxiety for 10 days (Robbins, Tanck, & Houshi,
1985). Consistent with the psychoanalytic position, the higher the partici-pants’anxiety level, the more often classic Freudian sexual symbols (pencils,
boxes, flying) appeared in their dreams.
So, was Freud correct about dream symbols? Although researchers some-
times find results that support psychoanalytic theory, direct and convincing
tests of the notion that dream images are sexual symbols remain elusive.
Most dream researchers agree that the content of our dreams is not random.But determining why some images appear in our dreams more often than
others remains a challenge.
The Function of Dreams
A more challenging question than what people dream is why people dream at
all. Freud maintained that unconscious impulses cannot be suppressed for-
ever. Therefore, one of the major functions of dreams is to allow the symbolic
expression of these impulses. Dreams provide a safe and healthy outlet for
expressing unconscious conflicts. But researchers had to wait for technologyDream Interpretation 73