comparison of the other-task with the baseline, females showed stronger activation in the inferior frontal cortex
than males.
Criterion/Predictive
Using fMRI, Jackson et al. (2005) asked participants to imagine the feelings of another person and oneself in
painful situations and to rate the pain level from different perspectives. Adopting the perspective of the other
person was found to correlate positively with regional activation in the posterior cingulate/precuneus and right
temporo-parietal junction. Jackson et al. (2006) found in a sample of 15 healthy adults that subjective ratings of
pain of targets in photographic stimuli correlated significantly with activity in the anterior cingulate cortex sug-
gesting predictive validity for the brain region activations, and possibly of empathy for pain in others.
Nummenmaa et al. (2008) compared fMRI scans to images designed to elicit affective or cognitive components of
empathy. The cognitive empathy conditions depicted targets in everyday situations, whereas the affective condi-
tions depicted targets in hard, threat, or suffering situations. The affective condition elicited greater activation of
the thalamus (emotion processing), fusiform gyrus (face and body perception), and inferior parietal lobule and
premotor cortex (mirroring of motor actions) than did the cognitive condition.
Location
Singer, T. (2006). The neuronal basis and ontogeny of empathy and mind reading: Review of literature and
implications for future research. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 30 , 855/C0863.
Results and Comments
Among fMRI and PET research analyzing empathy, most of the studies have investigated empathy for pain
(Jackson et al., 2005 ), disgust ( Wicker et al., 2003; Benuzzi, Lui, Duzzi, Nichelli, & Porro, 2008 ), threat
(Nummenmaa et al., 2008 ) and pleasantness ( Jabbi, Swart, & Keysers, 2007 ). Research that examines empathy
using stimuli depicting facial expressions in different situations or social interactions is at risk of confounding
empathy with emotion perception. In addition, fMRI and PET research is interpreted to reflect the neural
responses related to empathy. However, it might be argued that such responses are actually related to aversive
responses coupled with motor preparation for defensive actions in general ( Yamada & Decety, 2009 ).
Facial Electromyography (EMG)
(Westbury & Neumann, 2008 ).
Variable
Electromyography is the measurement of the electrical potentials produced by skeletal muscles when they con-
tract ( Neumann & Westbury, 2011 ). In contrast to alternative approaches to measuring facial expressions (e.g.,
observer ratings), EMG activity has the advantage of being able to detect muscle activity that occurs below the
visual threshold. It provides a non-verbal index of motor mimicry which many theorists argue underlies
empathic responding (e.g., Preston & de Waal, 2008).
Description
Facial EMG recordings can be obtained by attaching small surface electrodes on the skin over the site of the
muscles that play a role in the facial expression of interest. These muscles are primarily the corrugator supercilli ,
zygmaticus major ,lateral frontalis ,medial frontalis ,levator labii superioris ,orbicularis oculi , and masseter . Inferences
regarding the intensity of the facial expression are gained by measuring the magnitude of the EMG signal.
However, the application of electrodes onto the face may increase awareness of facial expressiveness and lead to
exaggerated facial reactions or more general demand characteristics.
Sample
The four studies that have examined facial EMG measurement of empathy have sampled from healthy adult
university populations. Westbury and Neumann (2008) used 36 male and 37 female university students with a
mean age of 22.5 years ( SD56.9). Similarly, Sonnby-Borgstro ¨m (2002) used 21 male and 22 female university stu-
dents with a median age of 23 years (range 18 to 37) and Sonnby-Borgstro ¨m, Jo¨nsson, and Svensson (2003) used
36 male and 24 female university students with a median age of 22 years (range 19 to 35). Brown, Bradley, and280 10. MEASURES OF EMPATHY: SELF-REPORT , BEHAVIORAL, AND NEUROSCIENTIFIC APPROACHES
III. EMOTION REGULATION