fei75766_ch16_495-533.indd 521  02/06/20 01:34 PM
Chapter 16    Skinner: Behavioral Analysis521
incontrolling someone else’s behavior, andultimately these variables lieoutside 
themselves.
Skinner andMargaret Vaughan (Skinner &Vaughan, 1983) havediscussed 
several techniques thatpeople canusetoexercise self-control without resorting to
freechoice. First, theycanusephysical aidssuchastools, machines, andfinancial 
resources toaltertheirenvironment. Forexample, aperson maytakeextra money 
when going shopping togiveherself theoption ofimpulse buying. Second, people can
change theirenvironment, thereby increasing theprobability ofthedesired behavior. 
Forexample, astudent wanting toconcentrate onhisstudies canturnoffadistract -
ingtelevision set.Third, people canarrange theirenvironment sothattheycanescape 
from anaversive stimulus onlybyproducing theproper response. Forexample, a
woman cansetanalarm clock sothattheaversive sound canbestopped onlybyget-
tingoutofbedtoshutoffthealarm. 
Fourth, people cantakedrugs, especially alcohol, asameans ofself-control. 
Forexample, amanmayingest tranquilizers tomake hisbehavior more placid. Fifth, 
people cansimply dosomething elseinorder toavoid behaving inanundesirable 
fashion. Forexample, anobsessive woman maycount repetitious patterns inwall-
paper toavoid thinking about previous experiences thatwould create guilt. Inthese 
examples, thesubstitute behaviors arenegatively reinforcing because theyallow a
person toavoid unpleasant behaviors orthoughts.
The Unhealthy Personality
Unfortunately, thetechniques ofsocial control andself-control sometimes produce 
detrimental effects, which result ininappropriate behavior andunhealthy personality 
development. 
Counteracting Strategies
When social control isexcessive, people canusethree basic strategies forcounteract -
ingit—they canescape, revolt, orusepassive resistance (Skinner, 1953). With the
defensive strategy ofescape, people withdraw from thecontrolling agent either physi -
callyorpsychologically. People whocounteract byescape finditdifficult tobecome 
involved inintimate personal relationships, tendtobemistrustful ofpeople, andpre-
fertolivelonely livesofnoninvolvement.
People whorevolt against society’s controls behave more actively, counterat -
tacking thecontrolling agent. People canrebel through vandalizing public property, 
tormenting teachers, verbally abusing other people, pilfering equipment from employ -
ers,provoking thepolice, oroverthrowing established organizations suchasreligions 
orgovernments.
People whocounteract control through passive resistance aremore subtle 
thanthose whorebel andmore irritating tothecontrollers thanthose whorely
onescape. Skinner (1953) believed thatpassive resistance ismost likely tobe
used where escape andrevolt have failed. Theconspicuous feature ofpassive 
resistance isstubbornness. Achild withhomework todofinds adozen excuses 
whyitcannot befinished; anemployee slows down progress byundermining the
work ofothers.Final PDF to printer