fei75766_ch16_495-533.indd 506  02/06/20 01:34 PM
Part VI    Learning-Cognitive Theories506
generalize tofearofablock; andfourth, fearofafurry white ratcangeneralize to
other animals aswellastoother white hairy orfurry objects. 
Thekeytothisclassical conditioning experiment wasthepairing ofacondi -
tioned stimulus (thewhite rat)withanunconditioned stimulus (fear ofaloudsudden 
sound) untilthepresence oftheconditioned stimulus (thewhite rat)wassufficient to
elicit theunconditioned stimulus (fear).
Operant Conditioning
Although classical conditioning isresponsible forsome human learning, Skinner 
believed thatmost human behaviors arelearned through operant conditioning. The
keytooperant conditioning istheimmediate reinforcement ofaresponse. Theorgan -
ismfirstdoessomething andthenisreinforced bytheenvironment. Reinforcement, 
inturn, increases theprobability thatthesame behavior willoccur again. Thiscondi -
tioning iscalled operant conditioning because theorganism operates ontheenviron -
ment toproduce aspecific effect. Operant conditioning changes thefrequency ofa
response ortheprobability thataresponse willoccur. Thereinforcement doesnot
cause thebehavior, butitincreases thelikelihood thatitwillberepeated.
Shaping
With most cases ofoperant conditioning, thedesired behavior istoocomplex tobe
emitted without firstbeing shaped bytheenvironment. Shaping isaprocedure in
which theexperimenter ortheenvironment firstrewards gross approximations ofthe
behavior, thencloser approximations, andfinally thedesired behavior itself. Through 
thisprocess ofreinforcing successive approximations, theexperimenter ortheenvi-
ronment gradually shapes thefinalcomplex setofbehaviors (Skinner, 1953).
Shaping canbeillustrated bytheexample oftraining aseverely mentally chal-
lenged boytodress himself. Thechild’s ultimate behavior isputting onallhisown
clothes. Iftheparent withheld reinforcement untilthistarget behavior occurred, the
child would never successfully complete thechore. Totraintheboy,theparent must 
break down thecomplex behavior ofdressing intosimple segments. First, theparent 
gives thechild areward, say,candy, whenever theboyapproximates thebehavior 
ofpositioning hislefthand neartheinside oftheleftsleeve ofhisshirt. Once that
behavior issufficiently reinforced, theparent withholds reward untilthechild places 
hishand intotheproper sleeve. Then ,theparent rewards thechild onlyforputting 
hisleftarmentirely through thesleeve. Following this,thesame procedures areused
withtheright sleeve, thebuttons, trousers, socks, andshoes. After thechild learns 
todress himself completely, reinforcement need notfollow every successful trial.By
thistime, infact,theability toputonallhisclothes willprobably become areward in
itself. Quite apparently, thechild canreach thefinaltarget behavior onlyiftheparent 
breaks upthecomplex behavior intoitscomponent parts andthenreinforces succes -
siveapproximations toeachresponse. 
Inthisexample, asinallinstances ofoperant conditioning, three conditions 
arepresent: theantecedent (A),thebehavior (B),andtheconsequence (C).Theante-
cedent (A)refers totheenvironment orsetting inwhich thebehavior takes place. In
ourexample, thisenvironment would bethehome oranyother place thechild might 
beputting onclothes. Thesecond essential condition inthisexample istheboy’s Final PDF to printer