fei75766_ch18_569-609.indd 586  02/24/20 10:50 AM
Part VI    Learning-Cognitive Theories586
ignored orrejected bysomeone. Toobtain love,shemaybecome socially aggressive 
(anonproductive, self-defeating strategy), orshemaywithdraw from people, which 
prevents herfrom being hurtbythem butwhich isalsononproductive.
Setting goals toohighisonlyoneofseveral possible contributors tomaladap -
tivebehavior. Another frequent cause islowfreedom ofmovement. People mayhave
lowexpectancies ofsuccess because theylackinformation ortheability toperform 
those behaviors thatwillbefollowed bypositive reinforcement. Aperson whovalues 
love,forexample, maylacktheinterpersonal skills necessary toobtain it.
People mayalsohavelowfreedom ofmovement because theymake afaulty 
evaluation ofthepresent situation. Forexample, people sometimes underestimate 
theirintellectual abilities because, inthepast,theyhavebeen toldthattheywerestu-
pid.Even though theirneed values arenotunrealistically high, theyhavealowexpec -
tation ofsuccess because theywrongly believe thattheyareincapable, forexample, of
performing wellinschool orcompeting successfully forahigher leveljob.
Another possibility isthatpeople havelowfreedom ofmovement because they
generalize from onesituation inwhich, perhaps, theyarerealistically inadequate to
other situations inwhich theycould havesufficient ability tobesuccessful. Forexam -
ple,aphysically weak adolescent wholacks theskills tobeanaccomplished athlete 
mayerroneously seehimself asunable tocompete foraroleintheschool playorto
bealeader inasocial club. Heinappropriately generalizes hisinadequacies insports 
tolackofability inunrelated areas.
Insummary, maladjusted individuals arecharacterized byunrealistic goals, 
inappropriate behaviors, inadequate skills, orunreasonably lowexpectancies ofbeing 
abletoexecute thebehaviors necessary forpositive reinforcement. Although they
havelearned inadequate ways ofsolving problems within asocial context, theycan
unlearn these behaviors andalsolearn more appropriate oneswithin thecontrolled 
social environment provided bypsychotherapy.
Psychotherapy
ToRotter (1964), “theproblems ofpsychotherapy areproblems ofhowtoeffect 
changes inbehavior through theinteraction ofoneperson withanother. Thatis,
theyareproblems inhuman learning inasocial situation” (p.82).Although Rotter 
adopted aproblem-solving approach topsychotherapy, hedidnotlimithisconcern to
quick solutions toimmediate problems. Hisinterest wasmore longrange, involving a
change inthepatient’s orientation toward life.
Ingeneral, thegoalofRotter’s therapy istobring freedom ofmovement and
need value intoharmony, thusreducing defensive andavoidance behaviors. The
therapist assumes anactive roleasateacher andattempts toaccomplish thethera -
peutic goalintwobasic ways: (1)changing theimportance ofgoals and (2)eliminat -
ingunrealistically lowexpectancies forsuccess (Rotter, 1964, 1970, 1978; Rotter &
Hochreich, 1975).
Changing Goals
Many patients areunable tosolve life’sproblems because theyarepursuing skewed 
ordistorted goals. Theroleofthetherapist istohelpthese patients understand theFinal PDF to printer