deliberately avoid the inclusion of reverse-worded items (e.g., the MCI). Ignoring the empirical factor analytic
evidence, many more recently constructed scales/measures have nonetheless included reverse-worded items
with the apparent aim of reducing response sets.
In addition, many rating scales and self-report measures have relied on less than optimal exploratory factor
analytic methodology in their construction. While many such EFAs have been based on item intercorrelations, it
is important to point out that item responses are notoriously unreliable. For this reason, both Cattell, and
Comrey, for example, recommended using the intercorrelations of item-parcels as the starting point for reliable
factor analysis ( Cattell, 1978; Comrey & Lee, 1992 ).
Finally, theoretical understanding of measures of affect remains limited. Based on self-reports of conscious
states, affective dimensions are difficult to conceptualize within causal models of behavior. Difficult questions
remain about the inter-relationships of conscious feeling states, cognitive processes and neural activity (e.g., see
Izard, 2009 ). A major task for future research is to map affective experience onto psychological and neural pro-
cesses with greater precision than hitherto has been accomplished. To this end, use of reliable and valid multidi-
mensional measures of affects across a wide range of timeframes will be required.
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II. EMOTIONAL DISPOSITIONS