168 II. BIOLOGICAL  FOuNDATIONS
assessed via self-  report, but in many cases 
moderately to strongly even when the rating 
of a psychopathological domain is based on 
semistructured interviews.
In summary, the temperament-  based 
model of personality that has emerged from 
the study of trait psychology is a power -
ful tool that has been fruitful in integrat -
ing diverse findings regarding personality 
structure and processes, the neurobiology 
of personality, diverse lifestyle variables, 
and psychopathology, including its associ -
ated dysfunction. No doubt the full specifi -
cation of this model will be extraordinarily 
complex. Nonetheless, we are confident that 
the broad outlines of a temperament-  based 
paradigm are clear and robust, and that ex -
plicating the nature and scope of these tem -
peramental systems will continue to carry us 
well into the 21st century.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Richard Depue for his comments on 
the original version of this chapter, and Leigh 
Smithkors (née Wensman) for her tireless efforts 
tracking down relevant new research to help us 
with the 2008 update.
NOTES
1. Some authors (e.g., Musek, 2007; Rushton 
& Irwing, 2008) have argued for the existence of a 
“Big One” or general factor of personality, whereas 
others (e.g., Davies, Connelly, Ones, & Birkland, 
2015; de Vries, 2011) have argued that it is a non -
substantive, statistical artifact; no consensus has 
been reached on the issue in the field.
2. It is important to acknowledge here that Block 
(e.g., Block & Block, 2006) earlier used the terms 
undercontrolled  and overcontrolled  to characterize 
the contrasting poles of his construct ego control, 
which overlaps with both E and DvC.
3. We use the term personality pathology  rather 
than the more common personality disorder  to em -
phasize that personality pathology is a domain in 
which continuous trait dimensions are a primary 
component, not one composed of distinct categori -
cal disorders.
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