fei75766_ch10_309-344.indd 335  02/06/20 12:29 PM
Chapter 10    Rogers: Person-Centered Theory 335
question using atheory thatultimately derives from Roger’s real-ideal self-congruency 
theory, namely, Higgin’s self-discrepancy theory (1987).
Bessiere, Seay, &Kiesler (2007) examined real-ideal self-identities inplay-
ersofanonline multiplayer game, where theycreated characters. Bessiere andcol-
leagues predicted thatpeople willcreate characters more likethemselves thanlike
others. They alsopredicted lessdiscrepancy between character selfandideal self
thanbetween realselfandideal self.Finally, theypredicted thatplayers whohave
lowself-esteem andhigher levels ofdepression willhavecreate characters more like
theirideal thanrealselfthanthose withhighself-esteem andlowdepression. Totest
these predictions, theysurveyed 51online game players, most ofwhom played War
ofWarcraft andadministered measures ofpersonality, self-esteem, anddepression. 
Participants completed thepersonality measure three times: forrealself,forideal 
self,andformain character self.Inaddition, tothese personality ratings, participants 
alsocompleted measures ofself-esteem anddepression. Results generally supported 
thepredictions. Personality ofonline characters aremore liketheirownself-ratings 
thanlikeother players’ self-ratings. Secondly, character selves werecloser toideal rat-
ingsonconscientiousness, extraversion, andneuroticism thantorealratings onthese 
dimensions. Andfinally, players highest indepression andlowest inself-esteem cre-
atedmore idealized characters. Bessiere andcolleagues argue thatthese findings sug-
gestthatgaming allows people thefreedom tocreate successful andidealized selves 
regardless oftheirrealselves.
Similarly, Suh(2013) usedself-discrepancy theory toexamine whether dif-
ferences between real-self andvirtual-self areassociated withpositive psychologi -
caloutcomes, suchasautonomy andtheability torecover from injury ornegative 
experiences intherealworld. Suhdefined autonomy astheextent towhich people 
arewilling totrynewexperiences, engage increative acts,break social norms, and
behave inanuninhibited way.Suhusedself-concept measures toassess twoforms 
ofself:theselfintherealworld andtheselfinthevirtual world, thatis:“Who 
areyouintherealworld?” and“Who areyouinyourvirtual community (VC)?” 
Suhsurveyed 158menand141women, most ofwhom were college students, and
allofwhom hadtobeamember ofavirtual community. Suhalsodistinguished 
andmeasured twoforms ofself-discrepancy: individual andsocial. Individual self-
discrepancy wasthedifference (subtraction) between virtual selfandrealselfon
traits suchasintelligence, education, andexpertise. Social self-discrepancy wasthe
difference between thevirtual andrealselfontraits suchasmorality, sociability, 
andadherence tosocial norms. Suhfound thatpeople whohavehigher individual 
self-discrepancy (i.e.,presented themselves asmore educated, intelligent andexpert 
online thaninreallife)were bestabletorecover from injury andnegative experi -
ences. However, those withhighsocial self-discrepancy (presented themselves as
lessmoral, sociable, andadhering tosocial norms online thaninreallife)hadlower 
autonomy andrecovery from negative experiences. Thatis,people whoactlesspro-
socially andmorally intheir virtual worlds thanintheir realworlds havelower levels 
ofpsychological well-being.
Another study investigated whether real-ideal self-discrepancy anddepres -
sionwereassociated withescapism andpathological gaming. Li,Liau, andKhoo 
(2011) found thatstudents withhighreal-ideal self-discrepancy andhigher levels ofFinal PDF to printer