 11. Personality Development across the Life Course 265
ford, & Cohen 2006). Being more invested 
and committed to one’s work is associated 
with increases in conscientiousness (Hud -
son, Roberts, & Lodi-Smith, 2012; Hudson 
& Roberts, 2014). Particular types of work 
are also associated with distinct patterns of 
personality trait change. For example, peo -
ple who followed work roles with more lead -
ership demands increased in extraversion 
(Wille, Beyers, & De Fruyt, 2012). In addi -
tion, positive experiences in work are reli -
ably associated with increases in traits tied 
to the domain of emotional stability (Le et 
al., 2014; Roberts & Chapman, 2000; Scol -
lon & Diener, 2006; Specht et al., 2011; van 
Aken et al., 2006).
Marital and family experiences have also 
been found to be associated with changes 
in personality traits. For example, engaging 
in a serious partnership for the first time in 
young adulthood is associated with decreas -
es in neuroticism and increases in conscien -
tiousness and self-  esteem (Lehnart, Neyer, 
& Eccles, 2010; Neyer & Asendorpf, 2001; 
Neyer & Lehnart, 2007). Men who get mar -
ried or remarried in late middle age and old 
age tend to decrease in neuroticism over time 
(Mroczek & Spiro, 2003). However, these 
initial estimates of the effect of partnering 
may have been overstated (Wagner, Becker, 
Lüdtke, & Trautwein, 2015). The question 
of whether getting married is a cause or con -
sequence of personality development was 
addressed in a co-twin control study (Burt et 
al., 2010). Holding genetic confounds con -
stant, getting married was associated with 
decreases in antisocial behavior, indicat -
ing the possibility that forming traditional 
bonds may lead to changes in traits from the 
domains of agreeableness and conscientious -
ness.
Relationship experiences beyond the pro -
cess of partnering itself are also associated 
with personality trait change. Individuals 
who experience satisfying and fulfilling re -
lationships become more emotionally stable 
and conscientious (Lehnart & Neyer, 2006; 
Roberts & Bogg, 2004; Roberts & Chap -
man, 2000; Robins, Caspi, & Moffitt, 
2002; Scollon & Diener, 2006). Negative re -
lationship experiences, such as difficulties in 
one’s sex life, are associated with increased 
neuroticism (Lüdtke et al., 2011). Receiving 
more support from family members dur -
ing adolescence is associated with increases in agreeableness (Asendorpf & van Aken, 
2003; Branje, van Lieshout, van Aken, & 
Haselager, 2004).
A host of experiences beyond love and 
work have been investigated as potential 
correlates of personality trait change. Nega -
tive life experiences in general, whether in 
aggregate or in particular, are associated 
with increases in neuroticism (Jeronimus, 
Riese, Sanderman, & Ormel, 2014; La -
ceulle, Nederhof, Karreman, Ormel, & van 
Aken, 2012; Lüdtke et al., 2011; Riese et al. 
2014). Moreover, in a recent genetically in -
formed study, the link between changes in 
stress and changes in personality traits ap -
peared to be entirely due to environmental, 
rather than genetic, factors (Luo, Derringer, 
Briley, & Roberts, 2017). Clinical issues are 
also associated with personality trait change 
or the lack of normative personality trait 
change. For example, continuing or increas -
ing substance use and abuse is associated 
with a failure to increase in conscientious -
ness and a decrease in emotional stability 
(Lee, Ellingson, & Sher, 2015; Roberts & 
Bogg, 2004). Similarly, changes in mental 
health and depression are associated with 
decreases in most of the Big Five, and emo -
tional stability in particular (Chow & Rob -
erts, 2014; Mu, Luo, Nickel, & Roberts, 
2016). Interestingly, travel abroad is associ -
ated with positive personality trait change. 
In one study of Germans, travel to another 
country was associated with increases in 
agreeableness and openness, and decreases 
in neuroticism (Lüdtke et al., 2011). A sec -
ond study of German “soujourners” (stu -
dents who study abroad) found strikingly 
similar results. Similar to those who simply 
traveled to another country, these soujourn -
ers grew more agreeable and open, and less 
neurotic the longer they stayed abroad (Zim -
mermann & Neyer, 2013). In contrast to the 
positive aspects of studying abroad, young 
adults who entered the military for a period 
of time failed to increase in agreeableness 
as much as their peers who chose a differ -
ent path (Jackson, Thoemmes, Jonkmann, 
Lüdtke, & Trautwein, 2012).
In summary, individual differences in per -
sonality trait change and correlates of per -
sonality trait change exist at all ages across 
the life course, including old age (Lodi-Smith 
& Roberts, 2012; Hill, Payne, Jackson, 
Stine-  Morrow, & Roberts, 2014). However, 