fei75766_ch17_534-568.indd 556  02/24/20 10:49 AM
Part VI    Learning-Cognitive Theories556
Displace or Diffuse Responsibility
Thefourth method ofdissociating actions from theirconsequences istodisplace or 
diffuse responsibility (seelower boxinFigure 17.2). With displacement, people mini-
mize theconsequences oftheiractions byplacing responsibility onanoutside source. 
Examples include anemployee whoclaims thatherbossisresponsible forherinef-
ficiency andacollege student whoblames hisprofessor forlowgrades.
Arelated procedure istodiffuse responsibility —tospread itsothinthatno
oneperson isresponsible. Acivilservant maydiffuse responsibility forheractions 
throughout theentire bureaucracy withsuchcomments as“That’s thewaythings are
done around here” or“That’s justpolicy.” 
Dysfunctional Behavior
Bandura’s concept oftriadic reciprocal causation assumes thatbehavior islearned 
asaresult ofamutual interaction of(1)theperson, including cognition andneuro -
physiological processes; (2)theenvironment, including interpersonal relations and
socioeconomic conditions; and(3)behavioral factors, including previous experiences 
withreinforcement. Dysfunctional behavior isnoexception. Bandura’s concept of
dysfunctional behavior lends itself most readily todepressive reactions, phobias, and
aggressive behaviors.
Depression
High personal standards andgoals canleadtoachievement andself-satisfaction. 
However, when people settheirgoals toohigh, theyarelikely tofail.Failure fre-
quently leads todepression, anddepressed people often undervalue theirownaccom -
plishments. Theresult ischronic misery, feelings ofworthlessness, lackofpurposefulness, 
andpervasive depression. Bandura (1986, 1997) believes thatdysfunctional depression 
canoccur inanyofthethree self-regulatory subfunctions: (1)self-observation, (2)judg-
mental processes, and(3)self-reactions.
First, during self-observation, people canmisjudge theirownperformance or
distort theirmemory ofpastaccomplishments. Depressed people tendtoexaggerate 
theirpastmistakes andminimize theirprior accomplishments, atendency thatper-
petuates theirdepression.
Second, depressed people arelikely tomake faulty judgments. They settheirstan-
dards unrealistically highsothatanypersonal accomplishment willbejudged asafail-
ure.Even when theyachieve success intheeyesofothers, theycontinue toberate their
ownperformance. Depression isespecially likely when people setgoals andpersonal 
standards much higher thantheirperceived efficacy toattain them.
Finally, theself-reactions ofdepressed individuals arequite different from those 
ofnondepressed persons. Depressed people notonlyjudge themselves harshly, but
theyarealsoinclined totreatthemselves badly fortheirshortcomings. 
Phobias
Phobias arefears thatarestrong enough andpervasive enough tohavesevere debili -
tating effects onone’s daily life.Forexample, snake phobias prevent people from Final PDF to printer