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Part III    Humanistic/Existential Theories340
andincluded group dynamics, classroom learning, social problems, andinternational 
relations. Therefore, werateperson-centered theory highonitsability toexplain what 
iscurrently known about human behavior.
Fourth, howwelldoesperson-centered theory serve asaguide for the solu -
tion of practical problems? Forthepsychotherapist, theanswer isunequivocal. To
bring about personality change, thetherapist must possess congruence andbeable
todemonstrate empathic understanding andunconditional positive regard forthe
client. Rogers suggested thatthese three conditions arebothnecessary andsufficient 
toaffect growth inanyinterpersonal relationship, including those outside oftherapy.
Fifth, isperson-centered theory internally consistent, withasetofoperational 
definitions? Werateperson-centered theory veryhighforitsconsistency anditscare-
fullyworked-out operational definitions. Future theory builders canlearn avaluable 
lesson from Rogers’ pioneering work inconstructing atheory ofpersonality.
Finally, isRogerian theory parsimonious andfreefrom cumbersome concepts 
anddifficult language? Thetheory itself isunusually clear andeconomical, butsome 
ofthelanguage isawkward andvague. Concepts suchas“organismic experiencing,” 
“becoming,” “positive self-regard,” “need forself-regard,” “unconditional self-regard,” 
and“fully functioning” aretoobroad andimprecise tohaveclear scientific meaning. 
Thiscriticism isasmall one,however, incomparison withtheoverall tightness and
parsimony ofperson-centered theory.
 Concept of Humanity
Rogers’ concept of humanity was clearly stated in his famous debates with 
B. F. Skinner during the mid-1950s and early 1960s. Perhaps the most 
famous debates in the history of American psychology, these discussions 
consisted of three face-to-face confrontations between Rogers and Skinner 
regarding the issue of freedom and control (Rogers & Skinner, 1956). Skinner 
(see Chapter 16) argued that people are always controlled, whether they 
realize it or not. Because we are controlled mostly by haphazard contingen -
cies that have no grand design or plan, we often have the illusion that we 
are free (Skinner, 1971).
Rogers, however, contended that people have some degree of  free 
choice  and some capacity to be self-directed. Admitting that some portion 
of human behavior is controlled, predictable, and lawful, Rogers argued that 
the important values and choices are within the scope of personal control.
Throughout his long career, Rogers remained cognizant of the human 
capacity for great evil, yet his concept of humanity is realistically optimistic.  
He believed that people are essentially forward moving and that, under 
proper conditions, they will grow toward self-actualization. People are basi -
cally trustworthy, socialized, and constructive. They ordinarily know what is 
best for themselves and will strive for completion provided they are prized Final PDF to printer