circular arrangement, such that adjacent domains are conceptually similar (e.g., Achievement and Enjoyment;
Self-Direction and Maturity), while domains located across the circle from one another are conceptually opposed
(i.e., Self-Direction vs. Restricted Conformity, Achievement vs. Security, Achievement vs. Prosocial, and
Enjoyment vs. Prosocial). Schwartz and Bilsky (1987) supported these hypothesized distinctions using transla-
tions of the Rokeach Value Survey in samples of Israeli public school teachers and German college students,
using seven-point ratings of the relative importance of the values.
Schwartz (1992) substantially revised this earlier work, proposing a modified set of 10 motivational types. He
also added 35 new values to the 21 values retained from the original 36 Rokeach values; the resulting 56 values
formed the original Schwartz Value Survey (SVS), which measures these 10 motivational types. The SVS, which
contains lists of 30 terminal values and 26 instrumental values, asks respondents to use a 9-point scale (7 to 21)
to rate each value, ‘As a guiding principle in my life.’ Schwartz’s (1992) interpretations of Guttman-Lingoes
Smallest Space Analyses generally supported his theoretical circular structure. Finally, Schwartz’s (1992, 1994;
Schwartz & Bardi, 2001) cross-cultural work largely confirmed his specification of 10 motivationally distinctive,
cross-culturally present value types, as well as the circumplex structure postulated to order them.
Schwartz et al. (2001; see also Schwartz, 2012) introduced the Portrait Values Questionnaire (PVQ) as a more
concrete alternative to the SVS that would be appropriate to measure the 10 basic values in children and indivi-
duals with limited formal education. The PVQ also is recommended for use in cross-national samples and in
online surveys. The PVQ presents short ‘verbal portraits of 40 different people, gender-matched with the respon-
dent ...[that] describe a person’s goals, aspirations, or wishes that point implicitly to the importance of a value’
(Schwartz, 2012 , p. 11). Respondents indicate their perceived similarity to each portrait, in a manner that avoids a
direct focus on values.
The Values in Action Questionnaire (VIA; Peterson & Seligman, 2004 ), was developed as a ‘manual of the
sanities’ that would complement the DSM (American Psychiatric Association 1994). The classification was driven
largely by the advent of positive psychology ( Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000 ), and itself is intentionally mod-
eled on the Linnaean classification of species. The classification is divided into three conceptual levels: virtues,
character strengths, and situational themes. The VIA deals primarily with the first two of these levels. Peterson
and Seligman (2004) intended the measure to help positive psychologists in generating a clear definition of char-
acter, and second to inform the framing of interventions to promote good character.
Haidt and Joseph (2004) , and Graham et al. (2011) have proposed a new model of morality that incorporates
evolutionary, personality, and developmental perspectives. Moral Foundations Theory (MFT) explores the rela-
tionship between moral intuitions and virtues. The authors believe that intuitions are automatic processes that
humans are born with alongside the innate ability to learn ( Haidt, 2001 ). This is an important distinction from
simply stating that moral intuitions are inherited; it is not that we are born with innate moral intuitions, but
rather that our minds have evolved to prepare us to learn certain moral principles ( Haidt & Joseph, 2004 ).
Haidt and Joseph (2004) drew support from research about modularity of mental functioning. Modules are
evolved cognitive processes that function similarly to heuristics in that they facilitate quick, automatic
responses to appropriate environmental triggers. Modules are often applied to either proper or actual domains.
Proper domains are the situations the module was evolved to respond to, like seeing your child in distress;
actual domains are the range of situations that the module applies to in everyday life, like seeing a suffering
child on television. Haidt and Joseph (2004) connect modules to intuitive morality by positing that behavior
can act as the trigger for modular thinking, leading to approval or disapproval according to specific beliefs.
Thus cheating triggers the modular moral thinking and results in disapproval, and altruistic actions trigger
positive moral intuitions. Subsequent research on MFT established the Moral Foundations Questionnaire
(MFQ) as a methodology through which to investigate both cross-cultural variability and shared views regard-
ing morality ( Graham et al., 2011 ).
Study of Values /C04th edition (SOV4)
(Kopelman et al., 2003 ).
Variable
The original (Allport /C0Vernon /C0Lindzey) SOV was distinctive in three respects. First, it was designed to mea-
sure Spranger’s six value types (theoretical, economic, aesthetic, social, political, and religious). Second, it was
designed and scored to measure the relative ‘prominence’ of each of the six values within the respondent’s507 OVERVIEW OF THE MEASURES
V. VICES AND VIRTUES