Part II    Psychodynamic Theories80
thieves, and con artists are obvious examples of people who strive for personal gain. 
Some people create clever disguises for their personal striving and may consciously or 
unconsciously hide their self-centeredness behind the cloak of social concern. A col -
lege teacher, for example, may appear to have a great interest in his students because 
he establishes a personal relationship with many of them. By conspicuously displaying 
much sympathy and concern, he encourages vulnerable students to talk to him about 
their personal problems. This teacher possesses a private intelligence that allows him 
to believe that he is the most accessible and dedicated teacher in his college. To a 
casual observer, he may appear to be motivated by social interest, but his actions are 
largely self-serving and motivated by overcompensation for his exaggerated feelings of 
personal superiority.
Striving for Success
In contrast to people who strive for personal gain are those psychologically healthy 
people who are motivated by social interest and the success of all humankind. These 
healthy individuals are concerned with goals beyond themselves, are capable of help -
ing others without demanding or expecting a personal payoff, and are able to see oth -
ers not as opponents but as people with whom they can cooperate for social benefit. 
Their own success is not gained at the expense of others but is a natural tendency to 
move toward completion or perfection.
People who strive for success rather than personal superiority maintain a sense 
of self, of course, but they see daily problems from the view of society’s development 
rather than from a strictly personal vantage point. Their sense of personal worth is 
tied closely to their contributions to human society. Social progress is more impor -
tant to them than personal credit (Adler, 1956).
Subjective Perceptions
Adler’s second tenet is: People’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior and 
personality.
People strive for superiority or success to compensate for feelings of inferiority, 
but the manner in which they strive is not shaped by reality but by their subjective 
perceptions of reality, that is, by their fictions,  or expectations of the future.
Fictionalism
Our most important fiction is the goal of superiority or success, a goal we created 
early in life and may not clearly understand. This subjective, fictional final goal guides 
our style of life, gives unity to our personality. Adler’s ideas on fictionalism originated 
with Hans Vaihinger’s book The Philosophy of “As If”  (1911/1925). Vaihinger believed 
that fictions are ideas that have no real existence, yet they influence people as if they 
really existed. One example of a fiction might be: “Men are superior to women.” 
Although this notion is a fiction, many people, both men and women, act as if it 
were a reality. A second example might be: “Humans have a free will that enables 
them to make choices.” Again, many people act as if they and others have a free will 
and are thus responsible for their choices. No one can prove that free will exists, yet 
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