66 I. THEORETICAL  PERSPECTI vES AND  CONCEPT uAL uNITS
& De Fruyt, in press). In college, Conscien -
tiousness predicts higher academic grade-
point averages, whereas Openness predicts 
the total years of education completed by 
middle adulthood (George, Helson, & John, 
2011; Goldberg, Sweeney, Merenda, & 
Hughes, 1998).
Beyond primary and secondary school -
ing, conscientiousness has emerged also as a 
general predictor of job performance across 
a wide range of jobs (for reviews, see Bar -
rick & Mount, 1991; Mount, Barrick, & 
Stewart, 1998). The other Big Five dimen -
sions relate to more specific aspects of job 
performance, such as better performance 
or satisfaction in specific job types or po -
sitions. For example, Agreeableness and 
Neuroticism predict performance in jobs in 
which employees work in groups, Extraver -
sion predicts success in sales and manage -
ment positions, Openness predicts success 
in artistic jobs, and Conscientiousness pre -
dicts success in conventional jobs (Barrick, 
Mount, & Gupta, 2003; George et al., 2011; 
Larson, Rottinghaus, & Borgen, 2002). 
Neuroticism is an important predictor of 
job satisfaction. Highly neurotic individuals 
are more likely to experience burnout and 
change jobs, while more emotionally stable 
individuals feel satisfied and committed to 
their organizations (Thoresen, Kaplan, Bar -
sky, Warren, & de Chermont, 2003). These 
trait-by-job interactions help researchers 
develop a more fine-  grained understanding 
of how different traits are instrumental to 
performance and satisfaction in various job 
environments.
Links to Social Outcomes in Relationship 
and Group Contexts
The Big Five dimensions are also relevant 
for social behaviors and experiences, such as 
relationship maintenance and satisfaction, 
both in dyadic relationships and in groups. 
In terms of family relationships, adolescents 
high in Neuroticism, low in Conscientious -
ness, and low in Extraversion tend to have 
poorer relationships with parents (Belsky, 
Jaffee, Caspi, Moffit, & Silva, 2003). In -
dividuals low in Agreeableness and Extra -
version are more likely to experience peer 
rejection (Newcomb, Bukowski, & Pattee, 
1993). Extraversion, Conscientiousness, and 
low Neuroticism predict greater relation -ship satisfaction and less conflict, abuse, 
or dissolution (Karney & Bradbury, 1995; 
Robins, Caspi, & Moffitt, 2002; Watson, 
Hubbard, & Wiese, 2000). Because most 
social groups form formal or informal sta -
tus hierarchies, one important social goal 
is to attain status (respect, influence, and 
prominence) in one’s social groups. Across 
several types of groups (Anderson, John, 
Keltner, & Kring, 2001; Anderson, John, & 
Keltner, 2012), Extraversion substantially 
predicted higher attainment of status and 
power for both sexes; in contrast, Agree -
ableness was never related to power, so that 
individuals high, low, or average did not dif -
fer in the power they attained. Consistent 
with these findings, extraverted individuals 
were more likely to be chosen as the jury 
foreperson (Clark, Boccaccini, Cailloulet, 
& Chaplin, 2007) and more likely to have 
a firmer “power” handshake (Chaplin, Phil -
lips, Brown, Clanton, & Stein, 2000).
While status and leadership positions are 
not chosen by the individual but awarded 
by one’s peers or coworkers, individuals do 
select their environments or modify many 
of their aspects. Individuals differ in their 
selection and modifications efforts and suc -
cesses, and these individual differences are 
related to personality traits. For example, 
several Big Five dimensions predict how and 
where people spend their time. In a study 
monitoring students’ daily lives (Mehl, Gos -
ling, & Pennebaker, 2006; see also Mehl & 
Wrzus, Chapter 39, this volume), students 
high in Conscientiousness spent more time 
in the classroom or on campus; students 
high in Openness spent more time in coffee 
houses and restaurants; and students high 
in Extraversion engaged in more conversa -
tions and spent less time alone. In a series 
of studies relating independent assessments 
of bedrooms and offices to their inhabitants’ 
personality traits (Gosling, Ko, Manerelli, 
& Morris, 2002), the Big Five dimensions 
predicted how individuals shape and modify 
their physical environments: Highly open in -
dividuals tend to create distinctive-  looking 
work and living spaces (with a large variety 
of different kinds of books), whereas highly 
conscientious individuals tend to keep their 
rooms well-  organized and clutter-  free. High 
Openness also predicts the expression of a 
wider variety of interests and preferences 
(e.g., complex music genres) in online web -