OVER VIEW OF THE MEASURES
In light of the popularity and broad establishment of the above personality inventories as measures of normal
adult personality, only summary overviews of the measures are presented here and in the following sections.
Our review focuses more extensively on their characteristics in a cross-cultural context. We searched PsycINFO
for publications containing the title of the respective instrument (complete and abbreviated) and the terms ‘cross-
cultural’ or ‘replication’. We provide the available information on reliability and validity from the studies we
reviewed (specifically, studies in a cross-cultural context). Reliability and validity evidence is also available in
monocultural studies; the accumulation of such information, however, would go beyond the point of the present
review.
The empirically based measures have been developed without specific personality models guiding instrument
development. The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) measures personality on two hierarchical
levels, primary and secondary traits, and has been developed as a result of extensive factor analyses of large
arrays of behavioral items. The California Psychological Inventory (CPI) has been developed in a way similar to
the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI, see below) and shares a number of items with it, but
has less of a focus on maladjustment, focusing instead more on everyday folk concepts of personality. The
Comrey Personality Scales (CPS) include scales that have been developed factor-analytically as homogeneous sets
of items (labeled ‘factored homogeneous item dimensions’ /C0akin to Cattell’s ‘item parcels’ intended to increase
reliability of the variables and their intercorrelations prior to factor analysis) and measure eight higher order fac-
tors. The Jackson Personality Inventory (JPI) was developed in sequential steps of item selection and test valida-
tion and contains scales that measure a diverse range of personality and social psychological constructs. The
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was initially developed using items that were frequently
endorsed by individuals with certain clinical diagnoses. The MMPI-2 is a revised version that includes a number
of additional scales. The Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ) was developed through exploratory
factor analysis and measures emotional and temperamental aspects of personality on the levels of discrete traits
and higher order dimensions.
The theory-based instruments have been purposefully developed to measure specific theoretical models of per-
sonality. The Big Five Inventory (BFI) was developed from prototypical definitions (based on expert ratings and
factor analysis of peer ratings) of the Big Five dimensions identified in extensive previous research: Extraversion,
Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism (or Emotional Stability), and Openness (or Intellect). The Big Five
Questionnaire (BFQ) was developed with the aim of providing a hierarchical measurement of the Big Five model
which would be simpler than the model measured by the NEO Personality Inventory (with fewer lower level
facets) and in accordance with definitions derived from a range of studies on the Big Five model. The Five-Factor
Personality Inventory (FFPI) was developed to measure the Big Five model with special attention to item compre-
hensibility and translatability. The NEO Five-Factor Inventory is a short version of the NEO Personality
Inventory that measures the five dimensions of the FFM. The NEO Personality Inventory, Revised (NEO-PI-R) is
one of the best known and most widely used instruments for measuring the FFM, providing scores on factor- as
well as facet level. The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) measures three large factors: Extraversion,
Neuroticism, and Psychoticism. The HEXACO Personality Inventory (HEXACO-PI) measures six factors identi-
fied in psycholexical studies in several languages: the Big Five plus Honesty /C0Humility. The Myers /C0Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI) differs from the other measures reviewed here in that it measures personality types, rather than
traits or dimensions (cf. Boyle, 1995 ). Finally, the Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire (NPQ) and the Personality
Research Form (PRF) were devised to measure traits according to Murray’s (1938) needs theory, with pictorial
stimuli and questions, respectively.
INVENTORIES DERIVED EMPIRICALLY
Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire, 5th Edition (16PF-5)
(Cattell et al., 1993 ).
The 16PF (5th edition) assesses 15 primary personality trait constructs (Warmth, Emotional Stability,
Dominance, Liveliness, Rule-Consciousness, Social Boldness, Sensitivity, Vigilance, Abstractedness, Privateness,
Apprehension, Openness to Change, Self-Reliance, Perfectionism, and Tension), one primary factor measuring
intelligence (Factor B), and five second-order factors that are akin to the Big Five, labeled: Extraversion, Anxiety/763 INVENTORIES DERIVED EMPIRICALLY
VI. SOCIOCULTURAL INTERACTION AND CONFLICT