fei75766_ch07_206-241.indd 233  02/06/20 11:52 AM
Chapter 7    Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory233
beseenbythefinding thatbetween two-thirds and
three-fourths ofthose whoidentify withtheoppo -
sitesexinchildhood nolonger doinadolescence 
(Steensma etal.,2013; Wallien &Cohen-Kettenis, 
2008). Forthem, gender identity ismore fluidand
changeable. Forothers, however, especially those 
whoareintense, consistent, andpersistent intheir
atypical identity, gender identity isnotsomething 
thatiseasytochange (Steensma etal.,2013).
Inrecent times, thehighest-profile caseof
someone identifying withthegender theywere
notbornwithisCaitlyn Jenner. Bruce Jenner 
grew upastheall-American boyandmanand
went ontowinthe“world’s greatest (male) ath-
leteaward” bywinning the1976 decathlon atthe
summer Olympics. Asmany people nowknow, 
however, Bruce isnowCaitlyn (andparent ofthe
Kardashian girls). In2015, attheageof65,Bruce 
Jenner went public withhismale tofemale transi -
tionandbecame Caitlyn. 
Itmaybeasurprise tomany, butsome cul-
tures believe, suchastheBugis ofIndonesia, that
fivegenders exist(male, female, male tofemale, 
female tomale, andbothmale andfemale). Cul-
tures within India, Pakistan, andNepal acknowl -
edgethree genders: male, female, andtransgender 
(Nutt, 2015). Then again, Facebook nowlists
more than50gender options, including agender, 
bigender, androgynous, gender fluid, andnonbinary.
Impact of Nature and Nurture on Gender Identity 
Formation
Forces ofnature andnurture helpexplain gender identity. Gender identity isinflu-
enced bydifferences ingenes, hormones, andbrain structures. First, variation in
genes andbrain structures havebeen associated withtransgender identity (Klink &
DenHijer, 2014; Kreukels &Guillamon, 2016; Saraswat, Weinand, &Safer, 2015). 
Second, social andcognitive theories explain gender andgender identity development 
asaproduct ofenvironmental, personal, andbehavioral forces (Bussey &Bandura, 
1999). Environmental forces include social andcultural norms ofappropriate male 
andfemale behavior. Some cultures make verystrong distinctions ofwhat ismale and
female andevenhavelawsenforcing them. Forexample, insome countries, women 
arenotallowed todrive orvote, andmenandwomen arenotallowed tobeinthe
same room. Other cultures—such asScandinavian countries—are veryegalitarian and
make littledifferentiation between male andfemale roles.
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