fei75766_ch07_206-241.indd 221  02/06/20 11:52 AM
Chapter 7    Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory221
thathavebeen accepted orrejected. Thus, theseeds 
ofidentity begin tosprout during infancy andcon-
tinue togrow through childhood, theplayage,and
theschool age.Then during adolescence, identity 
strengthens intoacrisis asyoung people learn to
cope withthepsychosocial conflict ofidentity ver-
susidentity confusion.
Acrisis should notsuggest athreat orcatas -
trophe butrather “aturning point, acrucial period 
ofincreased vulnerability andheightened potential” 
(Erikson, 1968, p.96).Anidentity crisis maylast
formany years andcanresult ineither greater or
lesser egostrength.
According toErikson (1982), identity 
emerges from twosources: (1)adolescents’ affir-
mation orrepudiation ofchildhood identifications 
and(2)theirhistorical andsocial contexts, which 
encourage conformity tocertain standards. Young 
people frequently reject thestandards oftheir
elders, preferring instead thevalues ofapeergroup 
organg. Inanyevent, thesociety inwhich theylive
plays asubstantial roleinshaping theiridentity.
Identity isdefined bothpositively andnega-
tively, asadolescents aredeciding what theywant 
tobecome andwhat theybelieve while alsodiscov -
ering what theydo not wishtobeandwhat theydo 
notbelieve. Often theymust either repudiate the
values ofparents orreject those ofthepeergroup, a
dilemma thatmayintensify theiridentity confusion.
Identity confusion isasyndrome ofproblems 
thatincludes adivided self-image, aninability toestablish intimacy, asense oftime
urgency, alackofconcentration onrequired tasks, andarejection offamily orcom-
munity standards. Aswiththeother dystonic tendencies, some amount ofidentity 
confusion isbothnormal andnecessary. Young people must experience some doubt 
andconfusion about whotheyarebefore theycanevolve astable identity. They may
leave home (asErikson did)towander alone insearch ofself;experiment withdrugs 
andsex;identify withastreet gang; joinareligious order; orrailagainst theexisting 
society, withnoalternative answers. Ortheymaysimply andquietly consider where 
theyfitintotheworld andwhat values theyholddear.
Once again, Erikson’s theory isconsistent withhisownlife.Atage18andfeel-
ingalienated from thestandards ofhisbourgeois family, Erikson setabout searching 
foradifferent styleoflife.Gifted atsketching andwithmore identity confusion than
identity, hespent thenext7years wandering through southern Europe insearch of
anidentity asanartist. Erikson (1975) referred tothisstage ofhislifeasatimeof
discontent, rebellion, andidentity confusion.
Although identity confusion isanecessary partofoursearch foridentity, too
much confusion canleadtopathological adjustment intheform ofregression toearlier 
Identity involves finding outwhich groups youbelong toand
which youdon’t. fotostorm/Getty ImagesFinal PDF to printer