 6. Temperament  153
consistently related to N/NE, largely unre -
lated to E/PE, and slightly related to DvC. 
Conversely, PA is strongly and consistently 
related to E/PE and largely unrelated to ei -
ther N/NE or DvC. Clearly and simply, N/
NE and E/PE define the prototype for di -
mensions of temperament as individual dif -
ferences in affectivity.
Social  Behavior
Social engagement is a primary defining 
characteristic of the E/PE dimension. Indeed, 
it seems tautological to present data demon -strating that extraverts have a higher level of 
social involvement than introverts. Rather, it 
is important to establish that social activity 
is associated with the PE component of E/
PE. We have written extensively on this topic 
elsewhere (e.g., Watson & Clark, 1997), so 
we only summarize these data here. First, in 
a series of studies, indices of social behavior 
were shown first to be correlated with mea -
sures of state positive affect (e.g., Clark & 
Watson, 1988). Second, social behavior was 
shown to be as highly correlated with mea -
sures of trait positive affect (e.g., the PANAS 
PA scale) as with more “pure” measures of 
Extraversion (e.g., EPQ E scale). For exam -
ple, the number of hours spent with friends 
(measured daily for approximately 6 weeks) 
was equally correlated (~.30) with measures 
of positive temperament and social domi -
nance. Similarly, a 15-item scale of social 
activity completed weekly for 13 weeks cor -
related equally (again, ~.30) with the PANAS 
PA scale and with EPQ E scale. In both cases, 
social activity was unrelated to either N/NE 
or DvC. More specific measures of social be -
havior, such as number of leadership roles, 
number of close friends or dating partners, 
and frequency of partying versus percentage 
of weekend nights spent alone, showed simi -
lar patterns (see Watson & Clark, 1997). Al -
though these nonaggregated indices of social 
behavior showed somewhat lower correla -
tions with both types of E/PE measures (ap -
proximately .20), they again were virtually 
uncorrelated with the other two Big Three 
dimensions. These types of data demonstrate 
that positive emotionality and social engage -
ment are specific to, and integral parts of, the 
E/PE dimension.
Relatedly, the Ozer and Benet-Martínez 
(2006) meta-  analysis examined correlations 
for a number of what they called interper -
sonal outcomes. They found—and Soto 
(2019) replicated—  the following associa -
tions with E/PE: peer acceptance/friendship, 
dating variety, attractiveness, and peer sta -
tus. Moreover, the following associations 
also were found and replicated: volunteerism 
and leadership (high E/PE), peer status for 
men with low N/NE, within-  couple roman -
tic satisfaction (A and C [DvC]); finally, ro -
mantic abuse and dissolution were both as -
sociated positively with N/NE. Again, most 
of these associations were modest.TABLE 6.3.  Correlations of Disinhibition and Its 
Subscales with Substance Use
Sample DvC CO AB
Alcohol
1. .46 .44 .35
2. .44 .40 .33
3. .43 .41 .29
4. .35 .40 .13
Cigarettes
1. .25 .24 .21
2. .30 .26 .25
Marijuana
1. .40 .34 .34
2. .36 .26 .38
Psychedelics
1. .32 .24 .31
2. .25 .18 .27
Any nonalcohol substance
3. .24 .19 .27
Substance use-related problems
1. .36 .31 .35
2. .38 .27 .34
Note . DvC, Disinhibition versus Constraint; CO, Care -
free Orientation. AB, Antisocial Behavior. Sample 1 N = 
638. Sample 2 N = 827. Sample 3 N = 197. See Watson 
and Clark (1993) for details regarding method, which 
were identical for Studies 1 and 2 and slightly modified 
for Sample 3. Sample 4 N = 115; see text for details. The 
larger of the two subscale correlations is in boldface; if 
the difference between them is significant, it is also under -
lined .