 18. Implicit Motives  403
al., 2011). The field’s growth spurt is due, in 
part, to new conceptual developments, such 
as the replacement of McClelland’s (1980) 
problematic suggestion that implicit motives 
do not respond to identifiable stimuli with 
accounts that pinpoint the nature of motive- 
specific stimuli (MFT; Stanton et al., 2010) 
or the renewed efforts to understand why 
the PSE, the primary measure of implicit 
motives, is a reliable and valid instrument 
(Lang, 2014; Schult  heiss & Schult  heiss, 
2014). With regard to the latter issue, we be -
lieve that Borsboom et al.’s (2004) seminal 
work on the importance of causal relation -
ships between attributes and their measures 
has helped to vindicate a foundational va -
lidity principle on which implicit motive re -
search has been built. It is an ironic twist in 
the history of science that the implicit motive 
approach, which once resided outside of the 
mainstream of personality psychology with 
its traditional emphases on classical test 
theory and construct validity, has suddenly 
become a poster child for the natural-  science 
type of validity espoused by Borsboom et al 
(2004). We are certain that this property is 
ultimately responsible for the long endur -
ance, recent growth, and bright future pros -
pects of the implicit motive concept.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Parts of the research summarized in this chapter 
were supported by Deutsche Forschungsmein -
schaft Grant Nos. SCHU 1210/1-2, 1-3, 2-2, and 
3-1; National Institute of Mental Health Grant 
No. 1 R03 MH63069-01; and National Science 
Foundation Grant No. BCS 0444301.
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