 21. Emotion and Personality  457
Shiota et al., 2017; Silvia, 2008a, 2008b). 
Increasing attention is also being directed 
to the study of the emotions that Bowlby 
long ago proposed as the core of attachment 
processes: attachment and nurturant love, 
desire, and sympathy or compassion (e.g., 
DeSteno, 2015; Diamond, 2003; Eisenberg 
et al., 1989; Gonzaga, Keltner, Londahl, 
& Smith, 2001; Goetz et al., 2010; O’Neil, 
Danvers, & Shiota, 2018).
Empirical investigations of emotion- 
specific responses have moved far beyond 
the Basic Six to map distinct profiles of 
upwards of 20 different emotions. For ex -
ample, with self-  report and narrative meth -
ods, there are now systematic studies of the 
distinct appraisals that give rise to over 20 
emotion states (e.g., B. Campos et al., 2013; 
Roseman, 2013). With respect to emotional 
experience, consider one recent study that re -
lied on new statistical techniques to uncover 
the structure of emotional experience in re -
sponse to over 2,100 short videos or graphi -
cal interchange formats (GIFs) (Cowen & 
Keltner, 2017). Participants’ emotional ex -
periences could not be reduced to the Basic 
Six, much less to a two-  dimensional space 
defined solely by valence and arousal; rather, 
analyses suggested 27 distinct feeling states 
in response to this wide array of stimuli.
A strong case for expanding the taxono -
my of distinct emotions emerges from 21st- 
century research on emotional expression. 
In this literature, scientists have moved be -
yond facial muscle movements to consider 
other expressive modalities, such as gaze, 
head movement, posture and body move -
ment, touch, and respiratory patterns char -
acterizing the expressive behavior of 25 or 
more states; a summary is presented in Table 
21.2.  Early studies documented that embar -
rassment, shame, and pride have distinct 
facial/postural displays (e.g., Keltner, 1995; 
Tracy & Robins, 2004) that are recognized 
across widely different cultures (e.g., Haidt 
& Keltner, 1999; Tracy, Shariff, Zhao, & 
Henrich, 2013). In coding the displays posed 
by participants describing a specific emo -
tional experience, B. Campos and colleagues 
(2013) found that several positive emotions 
were differentiated in terms of head move -
ments, postural features, and facial muscle 
movements beyond the Duchenne smile. 
Additional research has revealed that brief tactile contact to the arm of a stranger can 
reliably communicate relationship-  related 
emotions, such as love, gratitude, and sym -
pathy (Hertenstein, Keltner, App, Bulleit, & 
Jaskolka, 2006). In one recent study, partici -
pants from five different cultures were given 
22 different emotion-  specific scenarios and 
asked to express the emotion in any way they 
felt appropriate (Cordaro et al., 2018). Anal -
ysis of these expressions uncovered distinct 
patterns of expressive behavior in the face, 
body, gaze, gesture, and respiration. More -
over, on average, 50% of the behaviors in 
individual expressions of specific emotions 
were found to overlap with the behaviors of 
people from the four other cultures. New 
participants from 10 cultures were then pre -
sented with narratives of emotion-  eliciting 
events, and asked to match the event to one 
of four still photos of 18 prototypical ex -
pressions (Keltner & Cordaro, 2017). In all 
10 cultures, these 18 emotions were recog -
nized at levels of accuracy well above chance 
(see Table 21.3).
The human voice is proving to be just 
as rich a medium for communicating emo -
tions. One modality is prosody—  the non -
lexical patterns of tune, rhythm, and timbre 
in speech, modulated by the instruments of 
human vocal control: air pressure from the 
lungs; tension in the vocal cords; and filtra -
tion through the tongue, palate, cheeks, lips, 
and nasal passage (Titze & Martin, 1998). 
Prosody interacts with spoken words to con -
vey emotional feelings and attitudes, includ -
ing dispositions felt toward the objects and 
ideas described in speech (Mitchell & Ross, 
2013; Scherer & Bänziger, 2004). In one of 
the most comprehensive studies of emotional 
prosody, actors from five English-  speaking 
countries were asked to communicate 11 
different emotions when uttering sentences 
of non-  emotional content: anger, contempt, 
fear, happiness, interest, lust, pride, relief, 
sadness, shame, and a neutral state. When 
these sentences were played to hearers from 
four countries, nine of the 11 emotions were 
recognized at above-  chance levels (Laukka 
et al., 2016; see also Juslin & Laukka, 2003; 
Scherer, Johnstone, & Klasmeyer, 2003).
Humans also communicate emotion 
through vocal bursts—  brief nonlinguistic 
sounds that occur between speech incidents 
or in the absence of speech (Hawk, van Kleef, 