fei75766_ch16_495-533.indd 520  02/06/20 01:34 PM
Part VI    Learning-Cognitive Theories520
LikeErich Fromm, eachofusiscontrolled byavariety ofsocial forces and
techniques, butallthese canbegrouped under thefollowing headings: (1)oper-
antconditioning, (2)describing contingencies, (3)deprivation andsatiation, and
(4)physical restraint (Skinner, 1953).
Society exercises control overitsmembers through thefourprincipal methods 
ofoperant conditioning: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, andthetwo
techniques ofpunishment (adding anaversive stimulus andremoving apositive one).
Asecond technique ofsocial control istodescribe toaperson thecontingen -
ciesofreinforcement. Describing contingencies involves language, usually verbal, to
inform people oftheconsequences oftheirnot-yet-emitted behavior. Many examples 
ofdescribing contingencies areavailable, especially threats andpromises. Amore 
subtle means ofsocial control isadvertising, designed tomanipulate people topur-
chase certain products. Innone ofthese examples willtheattempt atcontrol beper-
fectly successful, yeteachofthem increases thelikelihood thatthedesired response 
willbeemitted.
Third, behavior canbecontrolled either bydepriving people orbysatiating them 
withreinforcers. Again, eventhough deprivation andsatiation areinternal states, the
control originates withtheenvironment. People deprived offoodaremore likely to
eat;those satiated arelesslikely toeatevenwhen delicious foodisavailable. 
Finally, people canbecontrolled through physical restraints, suchasholding 
children backfrom adeep ravine orputting lawbreakers inprison. Physical restraint 
actstocounter theeffects ofconditioning, anditresults inbehavior contrary tothat
which would havebeen emitted hadtheperson notbeen restrained.
Some people might saythatphysical restraint isameans ofdenying anindi-
vidual’s freedom. However, Skinner (1971) heldthatbehavior hasnothing todo
withpersonal freedom butisshaped by
thecontingencies ofsurvival, theeffects of
reinforcement, andthecontingencies ofthe
social environment. Therefore, theactof
physically restraining aperson doesnomore 
tonegate freedom thandoesanyother tech-
nique ofcontrol, including self-control.
Self-Control
Ifpersonal freedom isafiction, thenhow
canaperson exercise self-control? Skinner 
would saythat,justaspeople canalterthe
variables inanother person’s environment, 
sotheycanmanipulate thevariables within 
their ownenvironment andthusexercise 
some measure ofself-control. Thecontin -
gencies ofself-control, however, donot
reside within theindividual andcannot be
freely chosen. When people control their 
ownbehavior, theydosobymanipulat -
ingthesame variables thattheywould use
Physical restraint isonemeans ofsocial 
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