performance. Some of our recent work indicates that confidence is related to self-beliefs measures /C0anxiety,
self-concept and self-efficacy. Self-efficacy in particular is both conceptually and empirically the closest to
confidence.
Contemporary interest in the online confidence measures was sparked by a desire to compare confidence and
accuracy. This led to proliferation of calibration studies. Several indices were proposed to assess correspondence
between accuracy and confidence but the most commonly used have been Bias and, less frequently,
Discrimination scores. Being derived measures, both tend to have lower reliability estimates than ability and
achievement tests themselves. Their use in studies of individual differences is therefore limited. While they may
be useful in studies that focus on group differences, future research is needed to clarify the reliability and gener-
ality of discrimination scores.
Future work with online confidence measures should focus on further studies of their predictive validity, bio-
logical markers, developmental changes and the examination of the effects of intervention. It should also address
the relationship between confidence and new measures that are suggested by those working in the areas of judg-
ment and decision-making. These new measures are related to real-life behaviors faced not only by professionals
such as business managers and entrepreneurs, medical doctors and lawyers, but also touch upon many decisions
we all make in everyday life.
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II. EMOTIONAL DISPOSITIONS