fei75766_ch16_495-533.indd 517  02/06/20 01:34 PM
Chapter 16    Skinner: Behavioral Analysis517
feelsaphysical condition within thebody andlabels itan“intention.” What arecalled 
intentions orpurposes, therefore, arephysically feltstimuli within theorganism and
notmentalistic events responsible forbehavior. “The consequences ofoperant behav -
iorarenotwhat thebehavior isnowfor;theyaremerely similar totheconsequences 
thathaveshaped andmaintained it”(Skinner, 1987a, p.57).
Complex Behavior
Human behavior canbeexceedingly complex, yetSkinner believed thateventhemost 
abstract andcomplex behavior isshaped bynatural selection, cultural evolution, or
theindividual’s history ofreinforcement. Once again, Skinner didnotdeny theexis-
tence ofhigher mental processes suchascognition, reason, andrecall; nordidhe
ignore complex human endeavors likecreativity, unconscious behavior, dreams, and
social behavior. 
Higher Mental Processes
Skinner (1974) admitted thathuman thought isthemost difficult ofallbehaviors to
analyze; butpotentially, atleast, itcanbeunderstood aslongasonedoesnotresort 
toahypothetical fiction suchas“mind.” Thinking, problem solving, andreminisc -
ingarecovert behaviors thattakeplace within theskinbutnotinside themind. As
behaviors, theyareamenable tothesame contingencies ofreinforcement asovert 
behaviors. Forexample, when awoman hasmisplaced hercarkeys, shesearches for
them because similar searching behavior hasbeen previously reinforced. Inlikeman-
ner,when sheisunable torecall thename ofanacquaintance, shesearches forthat
name covertly because thistypeofbehavior hasearlier been reinforced. However, 
theacquaintance’s name didnotexistinhermind anymore thandidthecarkeys. 
Skinner (1974) summed upthisprocedure, saying that“techniques ofrecall arenot
concerned withsearching astorehouse ofmemory butwithincreasing theprobability 
ofresponses” (pp.109–110).
Problem solving alsoinvolves covert behavior andoften requires theperson 
tocovertly manipulate therelevant variables untilthecorrect solution isfound. Ulti-
mately ,these variables areenvironmental anddonotspring magically from theper-
son’s mind. Achess player seems tobehopelessly trapped, surveys theboard, and
suddenly makes amove thatallows hismarker toescape. What brought about this
unexpected burst of“insight”? Hedidnotsolve theproblem inhismind. Hemanip -
ulated thevarious markers (notbytouching them butincovert fashion), rejected 
moves notaccompanied byreinforcement, andfinally selected theonethatwasfol-
lowed byaninternal reinforcer. Although thesolution mayhavebeen facilitated by
hisprevious experiences ofreading abook onchess, listening toexpert advice, or
playing thegame, itwasinitiated byenvironmental contingencies andnotmanufac -
tured bymental machinations.
Creativity
How doestheradical behaviorist account forcreativity? Logically, ifbehavior were
nothing other thanapredictable response toastimulus, creative behavior could not
existbecause onlypreviously reinforced behavior would beemitted. Skinner (1974) Final PDF to printer