authors demonstrated predicted positive associations between ‘desirable’ coping strategies and ‘desirable’ per-
sonality traits (e.g., active coping and optimism, r5.32, planning and self-esteem, r5.22, positive reinterpreta-
tion and optimism, r5.41), Clark, Bormann, Cropanzano, and James (1995) provided evidence that the COPE
subscales correlated as expected with corresponding subscales in the CSI ( Amirkhan, 1990 ; e.g. COPE active cop-
ing, planning, and suppression of competing activities and CSI problem-solving, r5.69, COPE mental disengage-
ment and CSI avoidance, r5.89) and WCQ ( Folkman & Lazarus, 1988 ; e.g. WCQ seeking social support and
COPE seeking instrumental and social support, r5.86).
Divergent/Discriminant
As evidence of discriminant validity, many of the COPE subscales were uncorrelated with social desirability
(Carver et al., 1989 ) and the more adaptive coping strategies showed inverse associations with ‘undesirable’ traits
(e.g., active coping and anxiety, r52.25).
Construct/Factor Analytic
Carver et al. (1989) initially found evidence for an 11-factor structure, with the active coping and planning sub-
scales loading on one factor. The authors subsequently separated these scales on theoretical grounds. Cook and
Heppner (1997) found both 12-factor and 14-factor solutions, although the confirmatory factor analysis fit indices
for the 14-factor solution were slightly better. Lyne and Roger (2000) found that 11-, 12-, and 13-factor solutions
fit the data equally well, and reported that a high number of items loaded on more than one factor at over .40.
The most robust subscales in their analysis were seeking social support, personal growth, planning and active
coping, turning to religion, venting, denial, and behavioral disengagement. Based on the observation that the
COPE structure was highly unstable, Lyne and Roger (2000) suggested a new scoring key that reduces the scale
to three factors labeled (1) rational or active coping; (2) emotion coping; and (3) avoidance coping or
helplessness.
Criterion/Predictive
In an analysis that compared the COPE with the CSI ( Amirkhan, 1990 ) and WCQ ( Folkman & Lazarus, 1988 ),
Clark et al. (1995) demonstrated that the COPE Inventory explained the most variance in relevant outcome mea-
sures such as physical stress symptoms (35%, versus 22% for WCQ and 14% for CSI), life satisfaction (30% vs.
26% for WCQ and 15% for CSI), positive affect (41% vs. 28% for WCQ and 15% for CSI) and negative affect (40%
vs. 33% for WCQ and 23% for CSI).
In general, problem-focused coping subscales such as active coping and planning are found to predict positive
social and well-being outcomes, including more functional attachment styles ( Cooper et al., 2008 ), fewer symp-
toms of psychological distress ( Khawaja, 2008 ), more physical and psychological well-being at work ( Muhonen &
Torkelson, 2011 ), and an absence of anxiety and depression ( Fillion et al., 2002 ). The relationship between
emotion-focused subscales such as seeking emotional support from close others, and mental health outcomes is
less clear. Often using emotional support is associated with more problematic mental states, including anxiety
and depression ( Fillion et al., 2002; Khawaja, 2008 ), although this is likely reflective of individuals’ attempts to
improve their mental state, rather than a negative mental health outcome of using emotional support.
Location
Carver, C.S., Scheier, M.F., & Weintraub, J.K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically based
approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56 , 267/C0283. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.2.267.
Results and Comments
The COPE Inventory is one of the most widely used coping measures in the literature. The instrument has
been used to assess how people cope in a variety of stressful situations, ranging from the health domain (e.g., Antoni,
Esterling, Lutgendorf, Fletcher, & Schneiderman, 1995; Carver et al., 1993; Ironson et al., 1994; Mackay, Charles,
Kemp, & Heckhausen, 2011 ), to sporting activity (e.g., Abrahamsen, Roberts, Pensgaard, & Ronglan, 2008 ;V o i g h t ,
2009), academic achievement (e.g., Carver et al., 1989; Thompson & Gaudreau, 2008 ), work stress (e.g., Muhonen &
Torkelson, 2011 ), and even missile attacks (e.g., Ben-Zur & Zeidner, 1991; Zeidner & Hammer, 1992 ). The COPE
Inventory has proven to be a useful and effective measure of dispositional coping styles.
The COPE taps more fine-grained, or specific forms of coping than other measures of coping styles (e.g., the
CISS), meaning that it may have greater practical utility ( Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004 ). A potential limitation of336 12. MEASURES OF COPING FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING
III. EMOTION REGULATION