fei75766_ch16_495-533.indd 518  02/06/20 01:34 PM
Part VI    Learning-Cognitive Theories518
answered thisproblem bycomparing creative behavior withnatural selection inevo-
lutionary theory. “Asaccidental traits, arising from mutations, areselected bytheir
contribution tosurvival, soaccidental variations inbehavior areselected bytheir
reinforcing consequences” (p.114). Justasnatural selection explains differentiation 
among thespecies without resorting toanomnipotent creative mind, sobehaviorism 
accounts fornovel behavior without recourse toapersonal creative mind.
Theconcept ofmutation iscrucial tobothnatural selection andcreative behav -
ior.Inbothcases, random oraccidental conditions areproduced thathavesome 
possibility ofsurvival. Creative writers change theirenvironment, thusproducing 
responses thathavesome chance ofbeing reinforced. When their“creativity dries 
up,”theymaymove toadifferent location, travel, read, talktoothers, putwords 
ontheircomputer withlittleexpectancy thattheywillbethefinished product, or
tryoutvarious words, sentences, andideas covertly. ToSkinner, then, creativity is
simply theresult ofrandom oraccidental behaviors (overt orcovert) thathappen to
berewarded. Thefactthatsome people aremore creative thanothers isduebothto
differences ingenetic endowment andtoexperiences thathaveshaped theircreative 
behavior.
Unconscious Behavior
Asaradical behaviorist, Skinner could notaccept thenotion ofastorehouse ofuncon -
scious ideas oremotions. Hedid,however, accept theideaofunconscious behavior. 
Infact,because people rarely observe therelationship between genetic andenviron -
mental variables andtheirownbehavior, nearly allourbehavior isunconsciously 
motivated (Skinner, 1987a). Inamore limited sense, behavior islabeled unconscious 
when people nolonger think about itbecause ithasbeen suppressed through punish -
ment. Behavior thathasaversive consequences hasatendency tobeignored ornot
thought about. Achild repeatedly andseverely punished forsexual playmayboth
suppress thesexual behavior andrepress anythoughts ormemories ofsuchactivity. 
Eventually, thechild maydeny thatthesexual activity tookplace. Such denial avoids 
theaversive aspects connected withthoughts ofpunishment andisthusanegative 
reinforcer. Inother words, thechild isrewarded fornot thinking about certain sexual 
behaviors.
Anexample ofnotthinking about aversive stimuli isachild whobehaves in
hateful ways toward hermother. Indoing so,shewillalsoexhibit some lessantago -
nistic behaviors. Iftheloathsome behavior ispunished, itwillbecome suppressed 
andreplaced bythemore positive behaviors. Eventually ,thechild willberewarded 
forgestures oflove,which willthenincrease infrequency. After atime, herbehavior 
becomes more andmore positive, anditmayevenresemble what Freud (1926/1959a) 
called “reactive love.” Thechild nolonger hasanythoughts ofhatred toward her
mother andbehaves inanexceedingly loving andsubservient manner. 
Dreams
Skinner (1953) sawdreams ascovert andsymbolic forms ofbehavior thataresubject 
tothesame contingencies ofreinforcement asother behaviors are.Heagreed with
Freud thatdreams mayserve awish-fulfillment purpose. Dream behavior isreinforc -
ingwhen repressed sexual oraggressive stimuli areallowed expression. ToactoutFinal PDF to printer