1989). Researchers in one study intentionally provoked unsuspecting people
standing in lines in stores, banks, and at ticket windows (Harris, 1974). Be-
cause previous studies had shown greater frustration the closer people are to
their goal, the investigators cut in front of either the 3rd person in line (close
to the goal) or the 12th person in line. The researcher glanced back to notice
the person ’s response and, after 20 seconds, apologized and left. Responses
were coded for verbal aggression, such as making threatening comments, and
nonverbal aggression, such as pushing and shoving. The results are shown in
Figure 6.1. As expected, frustrated people toward the front of the line ex-
pressed more aggression than the less frustrated people toward the end.
Thus data from a variety of sources indicate that frustration cancause
aggression. Although this conclusion validates one aspect of the originalfrustration-aggression hypothesis, most researchers believe the original hy-pothesis was too limited. They argue that frustration is but one of many neg-
ative emotions that increase aggression (Berkowitz, 1989, 1994, 1998; Lindsay
& Anderson, 2000). Things that frustrate us are unpleasant, and it is the
unpleasantness that we respond to when frustrated. Consistent with this
analysis, researchers find that uncomfortably high temperatures, at least up to
a point, increase aggression (Anderson & Anderson, 1998). Similarly, irritating
cigarette smoke and loud noise increase the amount of punishment people
give to innocent bystanders (Berkowitz, 1989). Thus the question is not whether
a particular event is frustrating but rather how unpleasant the accompanying
emotion is..2.3.4.5.6.7Mean Aggression Score
Back of
LineFront of
LineVerbal Aggression
Nonverbal Aggression
FIGURE 6.1 Verbal and Nonverbal Aggression as a Function of
Place in Line
Source: Adapted from Harris (1974).134 CHAPTER 6 The Neo-Freudian Theories