always putting in the extra effort to close the gap. Consequently, Adler said
middle-born children are the highest achievers.
Although Adler believed firstborns made up the greatest proportion of
difficult children, he felt last-borns had their problems as well. Last-born chil-
dren are pampered throughout their childhood by all members of the family.
Older children often complain that their little brother or sister “gets away
with murder, ”which would not have happened “when I was that age. ”How-
ever, Adler argued that this special treatment carries a price. A spoiled child isa very dependent child —a child without personal initiative. Last-born chil-
dren also are vulnerable to strong inferiority feelings because everyone in
their immediate environment is older and stronger.
Before applying Adler ’s theory to the members of your own family, you
should note that studies do not always support Adler ’s predictions. Birth
order often does not predict how people will score on personality measures
(Jefferson, Herbst, & McCrae, 1998; Parker, 1998), and effects found in one
study frequently fail to replicate in another (Michalski & Shackelford, 2002).
Moreover, the structure and dynamics of the typical family have changed
dramatically since Adler ’s time. Adler ’s descriptions may fit some families,
According to Adler, second-born children will spend a lifetime trying to catch up with
their older siblings.100 CHAPTER 5 The Psychoanalyt ic Approach