688 vI. SELF‑ AND S OCIAL P ROCESSES
field, 2000), although at times the differ -
ences between these two camps have been 
overemphasized (for integrative reviews, see 
Church, 2010).1
The cultural psychology  view endorses 
relativist and constructivist notions of per -
sonality and tends to favor emic (i.e., in -
digenous) over imposed-  etic (i.e., imported) 
approaches to theory and measurement. 
Specifically, it posits that personality—  the 
affective, motivational, and cognitive dispo -
sitions that influence our evaluations and re -
actions to the environment—  cannot be sep -
arated from the macro- and microsocial and 
cultural context in which it develops and is 
expressed (see Figure 32.1).  As eloquently stated by Markus and Kitayama (1998), “A 
cultural psychological perspective implies 
that there is no personality without culture ; 
there is only a biological entity” (p. 67, em -
phasis added). Thus, culture provides the 
context in which personality (including its 
genetic and inherited component) devel -
ops, is observed, and acquires meaning (for 
both the individual and the observer) and, 
as a result, the existence of entirely univer -
sal personality traits has been questioned 
(see McCrae, 2004, for the universalist ap -
proach). Cultural psychology also speaks to 
the socially constructed nature of the con -
cept of personality (e.g., how the notions of 
traits and personality consistency are par -
FIGURE 32.1. Cultural psychology versus cross-  cultural psychology views on personality.The Cultu ral Psychology  (Emi c) View of Personality . Cultural psychologist s believe that 
culture s hapes personalit y. The concept of perso nality is fundament ally shaped by culture (e.g., 
the meaning of “extraversion” might be different in some important way from a culture to 
another).  
The Cross-Cultu ral Ps ycholog y (Etic) View  of Personality . Cross-cultural psychologists 
believe t hat personalit y is somet hing that is measureable everywhere, and comparisons are 
possible.  Culture might modulat e the expressio n of universal f orces (e. g., genet ics) in 
observable behav iors (e. g., the m anifestat ions of “extrav ersio n” might be differ ent across 
cultures: ta lkativeness with a stran ger vs. talk ativeness with a familiar individual).Personality 
Universal Forces Personality 
Culture 