 2. History, Measurement, and Conceptual Elaboration of the Big‑Five Trait Taxonomy  65
addition to these cognitive processes of per -
ceiving and attending to the environment, 
traits also influence the way individuals se -
lect both social and nonsocial environments 
(e.g., college classes, jobs, places to live, rela -
tionship partners, and even music) and how 
they then modify those environments (e.g., 
their bedrooms). It is through their system -
atic interaction with environmental affor -
dances and risks that traits are hypothesized 
to influence the behavioral, emotional, so -
cial, and material life outcomes of the indi -
vidual.
Links to  Health, Health Behaviors, and  Longevity
Although research on personality and health 
has a long tradition in the field, the emer -
gence of the Big Five taxonomy has greatly 
helped clarify and organize the links among 
personality, health behaviors, illness, and 
mortality across the lifespan. Multiple stud -
ies have provided converging evidence that 
Conscientiousness is one of the Big Five di -
mensions that predicts good health habits, 
health outcomes, and longevity (for a review, 
see Friedman & Hampson, Chapter 37, this 
volume). For example, low Conscientious -
ness predicts the likelihood of engaging in 
risky behaviors such as smoking, substance 
abuse, and poor diet and exercise habits 
(Bogg & Roberts, 2004; Hampson, An -
drews, Barckley, Lichtenstein, & Lee, 2000; 
Trull & Sher, 1994). Moreover, highly con -
scientious individuals diagnosed with an ill -
ness are more likely to adhere to their treat -
ment regimens (Kenford et al., 2002) and 
have been shown to live longer lives (Dan -
ner, Snowdon, & Friesen, 2001; Friedman, 
Hawley, & Tucker, 1994; Weiss & Costa, 
2005). Other Big Five dimensions are also 
related to health-  related risk factors. Low 
Agreeableness (especially hostility) predicts 
cardiovascular disease (Miller, Smith, Turn -
er, Guijarro, & Hallet, 1996). High Neu -
roticism predicts less successful coping and 
poorer reactions to illness, in part because 
highly neurotic individuals are more likely 
to ruminate about their situation (David & 
Suls, 1999; Scheier & Carver, 1993; see also 
Carver & Scheier, Chapter 25, this volume). 
Individuals high in Extraversion, on the 
other hand, have available more social sup -
port and close relationships important for coping with illness (Berkman, Glass, Bris -
sette, & Seeman, 2000).
Links to  Psychopathology, Personality Disorders, 
and Adjustment  Problems
The availability of the Big Five taxonomy has 
also renewed interest in the links between 
personality and psychopathology, especially 
personality disorders (e.g., Wiggins & Pin -
cus, 1989; Costa & Widiger, 2002); findings 
from this burgeoning literature have been re -
viewed by Krueger and Tackett (2006) and 
Widiger and Oltmanns (Chapter 36, this 
volume). From a developmental perspective, 
the Big Five dimensions may serve as risks or 
buffers for subsequent adjustment problems. 
In adolescents, for example, both low Agree -
ableness and low Conscientiousness predict 
delinquency and externalizing problems, 
whereas high Neuroticism and low Consci -
entiousness predict internalizing problems 
such as depression and anxiety (John et al., 
1994; Measelle et al., 2005; Robins, John, 
& Caspi, 1994; Robins, John Caspi, Moffitt, 
& Stouthamer-  Loeber, 1996). Low Consci -
entiousness is also the personality trait most 
strongly linked to attention-  deficit/hyperac -
tivity disorder (ADHD), at least when diag -
nosed in adulthood (Nigg et al., 2002); more 
specifically, low Conscientiousness predicts 
attentional and organizational problems that 
can lead to broader adjustment problems in 
school settings and even relationships. Ulti -
mately, findings linking Big Five profiles to 
developmental or adjustment problems may 
help identify children at risk and design ap -
propriate interventions, such as teaching 
children relevant behaviors and skills (e.g., 
strategies for delaying gratification).
Links to Academic and Work Outcomes
Industrial and organizational researchers 
have also rediscovered the importance of 
personality traits, and a growing body of re -
search has linked the Big Five to academic 
and work achievement. Early studies showed 
that both Conscientiousness and Openness 
predict school performance measured with 
teacher ratings or objective tests in early 
adolescence (John et al., 1994; Robins et 
al., 1994; see also Andersen, Gensowski, 
Ludeke, & John, 2020; Primi, John, Santos, 