652 vI. SELF‑ AND S OCIAL P ROCESSES
reasons. For one, if early childhood experi -
ences with caregivers result in the formation 
of cognitive structures that are relatively 
general and stable, then these structures 
could be the basis for the continuity and co -
herence people display in their many close re -
lationships. Although there are undoubtedly 
variations from one relationship to another 
in how a person relates to significant others, 
a trait perspective implies that there is likely 
to be a common thread tying together the individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior 
across different relationships and contexts.
Despite its appeal, the trait approach to at -
tachment has been criticized on at least two 
grounds. First, researchers have observed 
that people exhibit different attachment 
patterns in different relationships. Baldwin, 
Keelan, Fehr, Ennis, and Koh-  Rangarajoo 
(1996), for example, demonstrated that there 
is considerable within-  person variability in 
the expectations and beliefs that people hold TABLE 30.1.  (continued)
Domain Example study or review
Social and close relationships
Attachment anxiety is associated with decreases in sexual 
desire in early relationships.Mizrahi, Reis, Maniaci, & Birnbaum 
(2019)
Secure individuals are more likely to report satisfaction, 
investment, and commitment in their romantic relationshipsSegal & Fraley (2016)
Avoidant spouses perceive themselves as being less responsive 
in conflict situations and perceive their spouses as being less 
responsive.Beck, Pietromonaco, DeVito, Powers, & 
Boyle (2014)
Attachment anxiety is associated with verbal disfluencies and 
interpersonal awkwardness in early dating contexts.McClure & Lydon (2014)
Attachment insecurity is related to endorsing short-term 
mating strategies.Schmitt (2005)
Attachment related to self-regulatory processes. Orehek, Vazeou-Nieuwenhuis, Quick, & 
Weaverling (2017)
Attachment related to caregiving behavior and social support. Feeney, Collins, Van Vleet, & Tomlinson 
(2013)
Health
Attachment insecurity associated with markers of 
inflammation, such as interleukin (IL-6).Ehrlich et al. (2019)
People high in attachment avoidance showed higher cortisol 
levels when entering the lab and during the discussion but 
recovered rapidly when the discussion ended.Powers, Pietromonaco, Gunlicks, & 
Sayer (2006)
Couples with anxious wives and avoidant husbands showed 
physiological reactivity (sharp cortisol changes) in anticipation 
of conflict.Beck, Pietromonaco, DeBuse, Powers, & 
Sayer (2013)
Anxious individuals report poorer physical health, including 
more bodily pain, more medical symptoms, and impaired daily 
functioning.Stanton & Campbell (2014)
Insecure attachment is related to risky behavior, such as risky 
drinking and a decreased likelihood of using condoms.Matson, Levy, Chung, & Ellen (2014); 
Strachman & Impett (2009)