CHAPTER
17
Measures of Forgiveness: Self-Report,
Physiological, Chemical, and
Behavioral Indicators
Everett L. Worthington, Jr.1, Caroline Lavelock1, Charlotte vanOyen Witvliet2,
Mark S. Rye3, Jo-Ann T sang4and Loren T oussaint5
1Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA;2Hope College, MI, USA;3Skidmore College, Saratoga
Springs, NY, USA;4Baylor University, Waco, TX, USA;5Luther College, Decorah, IA, USA
Forgiveness is one way that people can respond to transgressions. Because people frequently misunderstand,
hurt, and offend each other, forgiveness is important in understanding romantic relations, families, work organi-
zations, crimes, and political and economic interactions. It is vital to know whether people who have been
offended hold grudges that are filled with resentment and vengeful motives, seek to avoid their offenders, cut off
relationships, or seek to restore more positive motives and emotions toward the offender and to forgive.
The most common models of forgiveness include the stress-and-coping model of forgiveness ( Strelan & Covic,
2006; Worthington, 2006 ), the process model of forgiveness ( Enright & Fitzgibbons, 2000 ), and the evolutionary
model of forgiveness ( McCullough, 2008 ). We will rely most heavily on the stress-and-coping model, but the
models are complementary. A transgression is a moral and relational injustice that violates people’s physical,
psychological, relational, and/or spiritual boundaries. Unforgiveness is an emotional and motivational state
toward an offender that includes grudges, revenges, and other negative responses. If the injustice is not dealt
with, or if rumination is prolonged, then unforgiveness can occur. A transgression is not only an injustice, but is
also a stressor that prompts stress responses. If we understand this offence using stress-and-coping theory
(Lazarus, 1999 ), as has been proposed by Strelan and Covic (2006) andWorthington (2006) , we might expect that
people who are transgressed against engage in appraisals. First, threat appraisal is first engaged, and if the trans-
gression is seen as threatening, a secondary appraisal of coping adequacy is made. Worthington (2006 ; see also
Exline, Worthington, Hill, & McCullough, 2003 ) suggested that a third appraisal is made regarding injustice. The
injustice gap is subjectively the net injustice currently experienced given an accounting of subsequent events that
exacerbate or mitigate it. For instance, an offender’s denial of responsibility and refusal to show remorse exacer-
bates the sense of injustice, but an offender’s abject apology and offer of restitution mitigates the sense of
injustice.
People who experience chronic stress or frequent intermittent stressors experience physical, psychological,
interpersonal, and spiritual effects. The physical, emotional, and psychological responses are considered stress
responses ( Lazarus, 1999 ). These tend to trigger attempts to cope with the stress, the appraisals, and the trans-
gression, and to modify the stressful situation to mitigate its effects and protect from future harm. Forgiveness is
one of many possible responses ( Strelan & Covic, 2006; Worthington, 2006 ). Others include seeking justice, reap-
praising the transgression as less harmful, reattributing the motives of the transgressor to be less pernicious, or
accepting the transgression and moving on with life /C0to name a few.
474Measures of Personality and Social Psychological Constructs.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386915-9.00017-6 ©2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.