Chemical Measures of Forgiveness
Variable
Cortisol and oxytocin are potential chemical measures of forgiveness ( Berry & Worthington, 2001 ). Aso, Tabak,
McCullough, Szeto, Mendez, and McCabe (2011, p. 115) stated that, ‘Elevated mean peripheral oxytocin reactivity
(but not baseline levels of oxytocin or cortisol reactivity) was associated with increased post-conflict anxiety and
decreased levels of forgiveness.’
Description
Cortisol has been associated with trait forgivingness ( Berry & Worthington, 2001 ) and can be measured using
blood, salivary, or urine samples analyzed by enzyme or radioimmunoassays (EIAs/RIAs; Nicolas, 2008).
One study determining the association between cortisol and perceived agreeableness of a transgressor used
0.2μg/mL as the minimal detectable level, an intra-assay coefficient of variation (CV) of 5.1% , and an inter-assay
CV of 4.0% ( Tabak & McCullough, 2011 ). Cortisol takes time (at least 15 minutes) to reach a peak after experienc-
ing or thinking about a stressful episode that stimulates unforgiveness.
Oxytocin, a peptide associated with relational attentiveness ( Kemp & Gaustella, 2011 ), has been shown to ele-
vate if forgiveness is low ( Tabak et al., 2011 ). Oxytocin and cortisol were measured with periodic blood samples,
and .38 mL of Aprotinin reagent was added to each sample. Oxytocin was extracted using solid phase chroma-
tography and analyzed using RIA.
Sample
Berry and Worthington (2001) measured salivary cortisol using a sample of 39 students at Virginia
Commonwealth University. Means and standard deviations for baseline and post-imagery salivary cortisol were
(inμg/mL) M5.19 (SD5.11) and M5.16 (SD5.08). Both Tabak and McCullough (2011) andTabak et al. (2011)
sampled 39 students at the University of Miami. Cortisol means and standard deviations for the first and final
time points were (in pg/tube): M518.0 ( SD57.61) and M518.99 ( SD59.17). Oxytocin means and standard
deviations across for the first and final time points were (in pg/mL): M51.61 ( SD52.78) and M51.48
(SD52.60).
Reliability
Salivary assays are a reliable measure of momentary cortisol ( Walker, Riad-Fahmy, & Read, 1978 ) and are
highly correlated with blood cortisol measurement ( Nicolson, 2008 ). RIA and EIA are the best available measures
of oxytocin, but may not be highly reliable ( Tabak et al., 2011 ).
Internal Consistency
Estimates for consistency of assays for these chemical measures of forgiveness have not been established.
Test/C0Retest
Temporal stability for cortisol and oxytocin are low, perhaps due to habituation over time points and to sensi-
tivity of the measures to many environmental and cognitive events ( Young, Abelson, & Lightman, 2004 ).
Temporal stability has yet to be determined for cortisol and oxytocin as measures of forgiveness.
Validity
Despite lower levels being associated with higher forgiveness and related constructs ( Berry & Worthington,
2001; Tabak & McCullough, 2011 ), salivary cortisol is best seen as a measure of transient response to stressors. To
the extent that unforgiveness is a stress response and alternative causes for the stress response can be ruled out,
cortisol might have evidence supporting its construct validity. Berry and Worthington (2001) compared indivi-
duals who were currently in a satisfying romantic relationship relative to those who were in either divorced, sep-
arated, or conflictual relationships. The two groups of individuals also different in theory-consistent ways on two
measures of trait forgivingness, trait anger, salivary cortisol reactivity and baseline levels. Salivary cortisol base-
line and reactivity measures were correlated with trait forgivingness ( r52.35 and r52.36, respectively) and
with trait anger ( r52.20, and r52.42, respectively).
Past research suggests that oxytocin is inversely related to forgiveness and positively associated with relational
stress ( Tabak et al., 2011 ), suggesting that its release may serve as a response to relational distress. Oxytocin has487 STATES OF FORGIVENESS
IV. INTERPERSONAL STYLES