fei75766_ch16_495-533.indd 522  02/06/20 01:34 PM
Part VI    Learning-Cognitive Theories522
Inappropriate Behaviors
Inappropriate behaviors follow from self-defeating techniques ofcounteracting social 
control orfrom unsuccessful attempts atself-control, especially when either ofthese 
failures isaccompanied bystrong emotion. Likemost behaviors, inappropriate or
unhealthy responses arelearned. They areshaped bypositive andnegative reinforce -
ment andespecially bytheeffects ofpunishment.
Inappropriate behaviors include excessively vigorous behavior, which makes no
sense interms ofthecontemporary situation, butmight bereasonable interms ofpast
history; andexcessively restrained behavior, which people useasameans ofavoiding 
theaversive stimuli associated withpunishment. Another typeofinappropriate behav -
iorisblocking outreality bysimply paying noattention toaversive stimuli. 
Afourth form ofundesirable behavior results from defective self-knowledge and
ismanifested insuchself-deluding responses asboasting, rationalizing, orclaiming to
betheMessiah. Thispattern ofbehavior isnegatively reinforcing because theperson 
avoids theaversive stimulation associated withthoughts ofinadequacy.
Another inappropriate behavior pattern isself-punishment, exemplified either 
bypeople directly punishing themselves orbyarranging environmental variables so
thattheyarepunished byothers. 
Psychotherapy
Skinner (1987b) believed thatpsychotherapy isoneofthechief obstacles blocking 
psychology’s attempt tobecome scientific. Nevertheless, hisideas onshaping behav -
iornotonlyhavehadasignificant impact onbehavior therapy butalsoextend toa
description ofhowalltherapy works.
Regardless oftheoretical orientation, atherapist isacontrolling agent. Notall
controlling agents, however, areharmful, andapatient must learn todiscriminate 
between punitive authority figures (both pastandpresent) andapermissive therapist. 
Whereas apatient’s parents mayhavebeen coldandrejecting, thetherapist iswarm 
andaccepting; whereas thepatient’s parents werecritical andjudgmental, thethera -
pistissupportive andempathic. 
Theshaping ofanybehavior takes time, andtherapeutic behavior isnoexcep -
tion.Atherapist molds desirable behavior byreinforcing slightly improved changes 
inbehavior. Thenonbehavioral therapist mayaffect behavior accidentally orunknow -
ingly, whereas thebehavioral therapist attends specifically tothistechnique (Skinner, 
1953).
Traditional therapists generally explain behaviors byresorting toavariety of
fictional constructs suchasdefense mechanisms, striving forsuperiority, collective 
unconscious, andself-actualization needs. Skinner, however, believed thatthese and
other fictional constructs arebehaviors thatcanbeaccounted forbylearning prin-
ciples. Notherapeutic purpose isserved bypostulating explanatory fictions andinter-
nalcauses. Skinner reasoned thatifbehavior isshaped byinner causes, thensome 
force must beresponsible fortheinner cause. Traditional theories must ultimately 
account forthiscause, butbehavior therapy merely skips itanddeals directly withthe
history oftheorganism; anditisthishistory that,inthefinalanalysis, isresponsible 
foranyhypothetical internal cause.Final PDF to printer