and Hill and Appleton (2011) showed that the PCI predicted a significant amount of unique variance in athlete
burnout (3 /C04%) over and above the variance attributable to trait perfectionism. Collectively, there is extensive
evidence that the PCI accounts for unique variance in psychological distress beyond variance attributable to trait
perfectionism ( Flett et al., 1998, 2008, 2012 ). Some 56 student participants completed the PCI and recorded their
thoughts in diaries over a three day period. Subsequent scoring of the diary entries by trained raters revealed a
significant positive association ( r5.41) with the number of spontaneously produced perfectionistic thoughts
(Flett et al., 1998 ).Flett, Madorsky, Hewitt, and Heisel (2002) administered the PCI to a sample of 65 university
students and showed that perfectionistic cognitions were positively predictive of intrusive cognitions following a
stressful event ( r5.28) and with the ruminative response style described by Nolen-Hoeksema (1991) that contri-
butes to the persistence of depression ( r5.48). Subsequent research has linked high PCI scores in students to ele-
vated levels of overall anxiety sensitivity ( r5.41), as well as various facets such as fears of cognitive dyscontrol
(r5.42) (see Flett, Greene, & Hewitt, 2004 ).Ferrari (1995) examined the correlates of the PCI in a sample of 65
adults with a reported history of diagnosed obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Strong links were found between
the PCI and both obsessions ( r5.69) and compulsions ( r5.67). The PCI was also correlated positively in a sec-
ond sample of 262 students with self-reports of obsessions ( r5.44), compulsions ( r5.44), and anger-in ( r5.35).
Besser et al. (2008) reported that while in a negative mood state, individuals with high PCI scores exhibited
enhanced recognition memory for negative words. The PCI was used in another experiment and predicted
spending more time persisting in trying to solve unsolvable anagrams ( r5.39) (see Lo & Abbott, 2013 ).
Significant associations involving the PCI were still found after controlling for maladaptive perfectionism using
the APS-R discrepancy subscale according to supplementary analyses provided to us by the authors.
Location
Flett, G.L., Hewitt, P.L., Blankstein, K.R., & Gray, L. (1998). Psychological distress and the frequency of per-
fectionistic thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology ,75, 1363/C01381.
Results and Comments
The PCI is a unique measure with its focus on the frequency of thoughts rather than self-ratings of the degree
of trait perfectionism. It can be used as a predictor variable but can also be used as a dependent measure for
those who are interested in evaluating whether cognitive-behavioral interventions are useful in reducing per-
fectionistic tendencies. Flett et al. (1998) noted that the PCI consists mostly of self-oriented thoughts and a key
future research issue is whether it is possible to develop a multidimensional version. Such a measure has been
developed by one team of researchers (see Kobori & Tanno, 2004; Stoeber, Kobori, & Tanno, 2010 ) and it remains
to be determined whether it will prove useful across a variety of contexts.
PERFECTIONISM COGNITIONS INVENTORY
Listed below are a variety of thoughts that pop into people’s heads. Please read each thought and indicate how
frequently, if at all, the thought has occurred to you over the last week . Please read each item carefully and circle the
appropriate number.
12 3 4 5
Not at
allSometimes Moderately
oftenOften All the
time
1.Why can’t I be perfect? 1 2 3 4 5
2.I need to do better 1 2 3 4 5
3.I should be perfect 1 2 3 4 5
4.I should never make the same mistake twice 1 2 3 4 5
5.I’ve got to keep working on my goals 1 2 3 4 5
6.I have to be the best 1 2 3 4 5
7.I should be doing more 1 2 3 4 5
8.I can’t stand to make mistakes 1 2 3 4 5
9.I have to work hard all the time 1 2 3 4 5
12 3 4 5610 21. MEASURES OF PERFECTIONISM
V. VICES AND VIRTUES