Inter-Rater
Dadds et al. (2008) reported that inter-parent ratings for total scores were: (boys r5.63, girls r5.69), affective
scores (boys r5.47, girls r5.41), and cognitive scores (boys r5.52, girls r5.47).
Validity
Convergent/Concurrent
Dadds and Hawes (2004) reported that for mothers, correlations between GEM total, cognitive, and affective
empathy scores, and Maximum Distress Allowed (measured via the Interpersonal Response Test) were .38, .56,
and .30, respectively. The GEM cognitive empathy component correlated .30 with verbal IQ scores ( Dadds et al.,
2008 ). Positive correlations were found between the GEM and the Cruelty to Animals Inventory (Dadds et al.,
2004). Observed Pet Nurturance correlated .25 with the total GEM scale, and .34 with the GEM affective
component.
Divergent/Discriminant
Although the GEM did not correlate with verbal IQ ( r5.01), the affective empathy component correlated 2.15
with verbal IQ scores ( Dadds et al., 2008 ). Negative correlations were found between the GEM and the Cruelty to
Animals Inventory (Dadds et al., 2004). Observed Pet Cruelty correlated 2.31 with the total GEM scale, 2.35
with the affective GEM component, and 2.12 with the cognitive GEM component. Dadds et al. (2009) examined
the relationship between parent-rated cognitive and affective empathy (on the GEM) with psychopathic traits.
For males, psychopathic traits correlated negatively with cognitive ( r52.41) and affective ( r52.17) empathy.
For females, psychopathic traits correlated negatively with cognitive ( r52.39) but not affective ( r52.02) empa-
thy. For 155 mother and father ratings on the GEM, mothers tended to rate their children more highly on total,
cognitive, and affective components ( Dadds et al., 2008 ).
Construct/Factor Analytic
GEM item intercorrelations were subjected to a principal components analysis with oblique (direct oblimin)
rotation, revealing separate cognitive and affective components ( Dadds et al., 2008 ). The two components were
found to be independent ( r5.07). A confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated an acceptable fit (CFI 5.90;
RMSEA 5.05), providing support for the proposed two-dimensional structure of the GEM across genders and
age groups.
Criterion/Predictive
Dadds and Hawes (2004) reported that Reaction Time (measured via the Interpersonal Response Test) corre-
lated negatively with total and affective empathy ( r52.56, and r52.57) but not with cognitive empathy scores
(r5.15). Using behavioral measures of children’s’ nurturing behavior as well as cruel behaviors towards pets,
Observed Pet Nurturance correlated .25 with the GEM total score (.34 with the affective component, and .05 with
the cognitive component) ( Dadds et al., 2008 ).
Location
Dadds, M.R. et al. (2008). A measure of cognitive and affective empathy in children using parent ratings. Child
Psychiatry and Human Development, 39 , 111/C0122.
Results and Comments
The cognitive component of the GEM, while seeming stable, does not show high internal consistency.
Furthermore, the principal components analysis extraction employed by Dadds et al. (2008) can increase the risk
of falsely inflating component loadings. It would be recommended for future research using the GEM to re-visit
the scales factor structure. The GEM also does not incorporate a means of systematically reducing response bias.
GEM SAMPLE ITEMS
My child rarely understands why other people cry
My child becomes sad when other children around
him/her are sadNote: Items are rated on a 9-point Likert-type scale
ranging from: 145‘Strongly agree ’t o/C045‘Strongly
disagree’ .268 10. MEASURES OF EMPATHY: SELF-REPORT , BEHAVIORAL, AND NEUROSCIENTIFIC APPROACHES
III. EMOTION REGULATION