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Part III    Humanistic/Existential Theories350
Background of Existentialism
Modern existential psychology hasroots inthewritings ofSøren Kierkegaard (1813–
1855), Danish philosopher andtheologian. Kierkegaard wasconcerned withthe
increasing trend inpostindustrial societies toward thedehumanization ofpeople. He
opposed anyattempt toseepeople merely asobjects, butatthesame time, heopposed 
theviewthatsubjective perceptions areone’s onlyreality. Instead, Kierkegaard was
concerned withboththeexperiencing person andtheperson’s experience. Hewished 
tounderstand people astheyexistintheworld asthinking, active, andwilling beings. 
AsMay(1967) putit,“Kierkegaard sought toovercome thedichotomy ofreason and
emotion byturning [people’s] attentions tothereality oftheimmediate experience 
which underlies bothsubjectivity andobjectivity” (p.67).
Kierkegaard, likelaterexistentialists, emphasized abalance between freedom 
andresponsibility. People acquire freedom ofaction through expanding theirself-
awareness andthenbyassuming responsibility fortheiractions. Theacquisition of
freedom andresponsibility, however, isachieved onlyattheexpense ofanxiety. As
people realize that,ultimately, theyareincharge oftheirowndestiny, theyexperi -
encetheburden offreedom andthepainofresponsibility.
Kierkegaard’s views hadlittleeffect onphilosophical thought during hiscom-
paratively short lifetime (hediedatage42);butthework oftwoGerman philoso -
phers, Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) andMartin Heidegger (1899–1976), helped 
popularize existential philosophy during the20thcentury. Heidegger exerted consid -
erable influence ontwoSwiss psychiatrists, Ludwig Binswanger andMedard Boss. 
Binswanger andBoss, along withKarlJaspers, Victor Frankl, andothers, adapted the
philosophy ofexistentialism tothepractice ofpsychotherapy.
Existentialism alsopermeated 20th-century literature through thework ofthe
French writer Jean-Paul Sartre andtheFrench-Algerian novelist Albert Camus; reli-
gionthrough thewritings ofMartin Buber, PaulTillich, andothers; andtheworld 
ofartthrough thework ofCezanne, Matisse, andPicasso, whose paintings break 
through theboundaries ofrealism anddemonstrate afreedom ofbeing rather than
thefreedom ofdoing (May, 1981).
After World WarII,European existentialism initsvarious forms spread tothe
United States andbecame evenmore diversified asitwastaken upbyanassorted 
collection ofwriters, artists, dissidents, college professors andstudents, playwrights, 
clergy, andothers. 
What Is Existentialism?
Although philosophers andpsychologists interpret existentialism invarious ways, 
some common elements arefound among most existential thinkers. First, existence 
takes precedence overessence. Existence means toemerge ortobecome; essence 
implies astatic immutable substance. Existence suggests process; essence refers toa
product. Existence isassociated withgrowth andchange; essence signifies stagnation 
andfinality. Western civilization, andparticularly Western science, hastraditionally 
valued essence overexistence. Ithassought tounderstand theessential composition 
ofthings, including humans. Bycontrast, existentialists affirm thatpeople’s essence is
theirpower tocontinually redefine themselves through thechoices theymake.Final PDF to printer