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Part III    Humanistic/Existential Theories334
Looking atthese outcomes another way,thetypical person receiving client-
centered therapy probably never approaches Stage 7hypothesized byRogers and
discussed earlier. Amore realistic expectation might beforclients toadvance to
Stage 3or4.Client-centered therapy iseffective, butitdoesnotresult inthefully
functioning person.
Related Research
Compared toMaslow’s theory, Rogers’ ideas onthepower ofunconditional posi-
tiveregard generated quite abitofempirical research. Indeed, Rogers’ ownresearch 
onthethree necessary andsufficient conditions forpsychological growth werepre-
cursors topositive psychology andhavebeen further supported bymodern research 
(Cramer, 1994, 2002, 2003). Moreover, Rogers’ notion ofincongruence between real
andideal selfandmotivation topursue goals havesparked continued interest from 
researchers.
Real-Ideal Self Discrepancy, Online Gaming, and the Brain
Rogers alsoproposed thatthecornerstone ofmental health wasthecongruency 
between howwereally viewourselves andhowweideally would liketobe.Ifthese 
twoself-evaluations arecongruent, thenoneisrelatively adjusted andhealthy. Ifnot,
thenoneexperiences various forms ofmental discomfort, suchasanxiety, depres -
sion, andlowself-esteem.
Inthe1980s, E.Tory Higgins developed aversion ofRogers’ theory thatcontin -
uestobeinfluential inpersonality andsocial psychological research. Higgins’ version 
ofthetheory iscalled self-discrepancy theory andargues notonlyfortherealself–
ideal selfdiscrepancy butalsoforrealself–ought selfdiscrepancy (Higgins, 1987). 
Onedifference between Rogers andHiggins isthemore specific nature ofHiggins’ 
theory. Byproposing atleasttwodistinct forms ofdiscrepancy, hepredicted dis-
tinctnegative outcomes from each. Forinstance, real-ideal discrepancy should lead
todejection-related emotions (e.g., depression, sadness, disappointment), whereas 
real-ought discrepancy should leadtoagitation-related emotions (e.g., anxiety, fear,
threat). Although more specific, Higgins’ theory nonetheless hasessentially the
same form andassumptions ofRogers’ theory: Individuals withhighlevels ofself-
discrepancy aremost likely toexperience highlevels ofnegative affect intheirlives, 
suchasanxiety anddepression.
Most people currently havesome kindofonline presence, whether itisthrough 
social media suchasInstagram, Snapchat, Twitter, orFacebook oronline gaming. 
These platforms arepopular inpartbecause theyallow ustobenotonlyourselves 
butalsoourideal selves. Onsocial media, wetendtopostidealized versions ofour
lives(Hogan, 2010). Inonline gaming, wearefreetocreate idealized versions of
ourselves through thecharacters wecreate. Thepsychological question, inspired by
Rogers, becomes: Isthisidealization ofselfapositive ornegative thing? Isithealthy 
orunhealthy escapism? Arepeople withlowself-esteem orsuffering from depression 
more orlesslikely toidealize themselves online? Psychologists haveaddressed thisFinal PDF to printer