hostile cognitions. Aspects of the situation that the person associates with
aggression activate these hostile cogniti ons. These situational variables in-
clude visual aggressive cues, such as weapons, fists, and blood, but also in-
clude any sounds, smells, or sights that the person cognitively links to
hostile thoughts.
People recently exposed to violent images, such as scenes from violent mo-
vies or violent video games, also have highly accessible hostile cognitions.
Similarly, frustrated people are likely to have highly accessible hostile thoughts.Individuals who frequently expose themselves to violent images may have
chronically accessible hostile cognitions. In a sense, these people move through
their worlds ready to think aggressively about whatever they might encounter.
Among the hostile cognitions potentially activated in this process are ag-
gressive behavior scripts . These are potential patterns of behavior that have
been learned and sometimes practiced. In many cases, the aggressive scripthas been learned by watching aggressive models. Even though you may never
have punched someone in the face, you have seen the behavior modeled often
enough in your life that you probably could act out this script if you needed to.Aggressive scripts that have been practiced are even more likely to be acted out.
People can practice aggressive scripts simply by imagining themselves taking
an aggressive action or by reliving in their minds a violent sequence they may
have experienced or seen. People also practice aggressive scripts when they
physically rehearse the behavior, such as during karate drills or target practice.
The more accessible the behavior script, the more likely the individual will act
aggressively.
This cognitive analysis helps us understand why violent movies and tele-
vision programs sometimes lead to aggression. Recall from Chapter 14 thatpeople often imitate acts of aggression. However, researchers find that partici-
pants frequently act in violent ways not modeled in the movie or program.
Psychologists explain this effect in terms of hostile thoughts and emotionsthat are primed by the violent images (Anderson & Huesmann, 2003). When
violent memories and thoughts are primed and therefore highly accessible, the
likelihood that the viewer will act aggressively increases. Consistent with thisanalysis, a large number of studies find exposure to violent movies or violent
video games increases aggressive thoughts (Carlson, Marcus-Newhall, &
Miller, 1990; Todorov & Bargh, 2002). Even exposure to songs with violentlyrics has been found to increase aggressive thoughts and feelings (Anderson,
Carnagey, & Eubanks, 2003; Fischer & Greitemeyer, 2006).
Aggressive cognitions not only trigger aggressive behavior scripts, they also
affect the way we interpret situations. Returning to the example of the teenageboys in the park, if hostile thoughts and emotions were easily accessible (per-
haps you just came from a violent movie), you might very well interpret thesituation as a threat, perhaps even one that called for an aggressive reaction
on your part. However, psychologists are quick to point out that a great deal
of aggression takes place in a more-or-less automatic or impulsive manner(Berkowitz, 2008; Fontaine & Dodge, 2006). Sometimes when someone steps
on our toes or bumps us from behind we respond without thinking. In these in-
stances, highly accessible hostile cognitions can be particularly dangerous.438 CHAPTER 16 The Cognitive Approach