Unfortunately, the data obtained from factor analysis typically are not as
neat and clear-cut as this example suggests. If they were, we would have de-
termined the number of source traits a long time ago. One serious limitation
of factor analysis is that the procedure is confined by the type of data chosen
for analysis. For example, what would happen if you took a few tests out of
the previous example and inserted a few new ones, such as independence, ab-
sentmindedness , and honesty ? Most likely, this would change the number of
categories (called factors) and the traits associated with them (or, in factor an-alytic terms, “loaded on ”them).
In response to this problem, Cattell looked at information about person-
ality from many different sources. He examined data from records, such asreport cards and ratings by employers, data about how people act when
placed in lifelike situations, and data from personality questionnaires. He
called these three L-data, T-data , and Q-data . Cattell identified 16 basic traits
in his research and in 1949 published the first version of the Sixteen Per-
sonality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF) to measure these traits. A revised ver-
sion of the 16 PF remains a widely used personality inventory today (Cattell,2004; Cattell & Mead, 2008).
The Big Five
Efforts to identify and describe the basic dimensions of personality did not end
with Cattell ’s original model. Rather, this question has been an ongoing issue
in personality research for decades. Since Cattell ’s early work, sophisticated
statistical tests, computers to crunch the numbers, and larger, more varied sets
of data have been added to the search. And although there may never be com-
plete agreement, researchers have noticed a surprisingly consistent finding in
factor analytic studies of personality. Different teams of investigators using
many different kinds of data repeatedly find evidence for five basic dimensionsof personality (Digman, 1990; Goldberg, 1992; John, Nauman, & Soto, 2008;
McCrae & Costa, 1997, 2008). Although there is still some controversy about
the names and exact number of factors, researchers have frequently uncoveredfactors that look like the ones listed in Table 7.2.
The five factors described in the table have shown up in so many studies
using a variety of methods that researchers now refer to them as the Big Five .
Remember, these investigators did not begin with a theory about how many fac-
tors they would find or what these basic dimensions of personality would look
like. Rather, they let the data do the talking. Once researchers saw which traitsclustered with one another, they had to come up with descriptive terms for the
five dimensions. Although different researchers sometimes use different names,
the most commonly used terms are Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness,
Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. Alert students have recognized that the
beginning letters of the five labels cover the OCEAN of human personality.
TheNeuroticism dimension places people along a continuum according
to their emotional stability and personal adjustment. People who frequentlyexperience emotional distress and wide swings in emotions will score high on
measures of Neuroticism. People high in Neuroticism tend to become more
upset over daily stressors than those low on this dimension (Gunthert,
Cohen, & Armeli, 1999; Lahey, 2009). Although there are many differentFactor Analysis and the Search for the Structure of Personality 159