dence of maladjustment at all ages. They are, for example, likely to be
dissatisfied with life and exhibit low morale (Costa & McCrae, 1980a).Maas and Kuypers (1974) found in a 40-year follow-up study of a groupof men that “old age does not usher in or introduce decremental psy -
chological processes. Rather, old age may demonstrate, in perhaps exac -
erbated form, problems that have long-term antecedents” (p. 203).
There is evidence that, regardless of age, individuals high in Neuroti -
cism are more likely to use ineffective coping mechanisms such as hos -
tile reactions, passivity , wishful thinking, and self-blame in dealing with
stress (McCrae & Costa, 1986). Vaillant (1977) has documented thepervasive influence of neurotic coping styles on the lives of an elitegroup, Harvard graduates.
The antecedents of adult Neuroticism can already be seen in child -
hood, and its lifelong consequences have begun to be traced. For exam -
ple, children with a history of temper tantrums (who were perhaps low
in Agreeableness as well as high in Neuroticism) later showed distur-bances in career and marriage, with a higher probability of downwardoccupational mobility and divorce (Caspi, Elder, & Bem, 1987). Thoseveterans who were characterized by higher levels of inadequacy andanxiety during adolescence were more likely to have had stress reac-tions after World War II than were other combat veterans (Elder &Clipp, 1988).
Liker and Elder (1983) set out to explore the joint impact of an en-
vironmental event (downward economic mobility caused by the GreatDepression) and the disposition of Neuroticism on a significant life out -
come: the quality of marital relations. They found that the emotional
stability of both partners had a continuing impact on the quality of theirmarriage, although the quality of their marriage had no influence ontheir personality .
In a sense, this is nothing new; it is merely a restatement of the fact
that Neuroticism is an enduring and consequential disposition. It is ininteraction with age and life circumstances that the influence of Neurot -
icism becomes most intriguing. Consider, for example, individuals who
experience a so-called midlife crisis. Everyone acknowledges that thereare such people, although there is still some dispute as to how many .The problems and concerns of this syndrome are distinct: They revolvearound the themes of lost youth, abandoned dreams, and meaninglessrelationships. When Farrell and Rosenberg (1981) interviewed five sub -
jects who seemed to be in this state, they concluded from detailed lifeInfluences of Personality on the Life Course 219