Part II    Psychodynamic Theories22
fei75766_ch02_019-071.indd 22  02/19/20 08:59 AMAlthough Freud regarded himself primarily asascientist, hisdefinition ofsci-
encewould besomewhat different from thatheldbymost psychologists today. Freud 
relied more ondeductive reasoning thanonrigorous research methods, andhemade 
observations subjectively andonarelatively small sample ofpatients, most ofwhom 
werefrom theupper-middle andupper classes. Hedidnotquantify hisdata, nor
didhemake observations under controlled conditions. Heutilized thecasestudy 
approach almost exclusively, typically formulating hypotheses afterthefactsofthe
casewereknown.
Biography of Sigmund Freud
Sigismund (Sigmund) Freud wasborneither onMarch 6orMay6,1856, inFreiberg, 
Moravia, which isnowpartoftheCzech Republic. (Scholars disagree onhisbirth 
date—the firstdatewasbut8months afterthemarriage ofhisparents.) Freud wasthe
firstborn child ofJacob andAmalie Nathanson Freud, although hisfather hadtwo
grown sons, Emanuel andPhilipp, from aprevious marriage. Jacob andAmalie Freud 
hadseven other children within 10years, butSigmund remained thefavorite ofhis
young, indulgent mother, which mayhavepartially contributed tohislifelong self-
confidence (E.Jones, 1953). Ascholarly, serious-minded youth, Freud didnothave
aclose friendship withanyofhisyounger siblings. Hedid,however, enjoy awarm, 
indulgent relationship withhismother, leading himinlateryears toobserve thatthe
mother/son relationship wasthemost perfect, themost freefrom ambivalence ofall
human relationships (Freud, 1933/1964).
When Sigmund wasthree, thetwoFreud families leftFreiberg. Emanuel’s fam-
ilyandPhilipp moved toEngland, andtheJacob Freud family moved firsttoLeipzig 
andthentoVienna. TheAustrian capital remained Sigmund Freud’s home fornearly 
80years, until1938 when theNazi invasion forced himtoemigrate toLondon, where 
hediedonSeptember 23,1939.
When Freud wasabout ayearandahalfold,hismother gavebirth toher
second son,Julius, anevent thatwastohaveasignificant impact onFreud’s psychic 
development. Sigmund wasfilled withhostility toward hisyounger brother andhar-
bored anunconscious wishforhisdeath. When Julius diedat6months ofage,Sig-
mund wasleftwithfeelings ofguiltathaving caused hisbrother’s death. When Freud 
reached middle age,hebegan tounderstand thathiswishdidnotactually cause his
brother’s death andthatchildren often haveadeath wishforayounger sibling. This
discovery purged Freud oftheguilthehadcarried intoadulthood and,byhisown
analysis, contributed tohislaterpsychic development (Freud, 1900/1953).
Freud wasdrawn intomedicine, notbecause heloved medical practice, but
because hewasintensely curious about human nature (Ellenberger, 1970). Heentered 
theUniversity ofVienna Medical School withnointention ofpracticing medicine. 
Instead, hepreferred teaching anddoing research inphysiology, which hecontinued 
evenafterhegraduated from theuniversity’s Physiological Institute.
Freud might havecontinued thiswork indefinitely haditnotbeen fortwo
factors. First, hebelieved (probably withsome justification) that,asaJew,his
opportunities foracademic advancement would belimited. Second, hisfather, who
helped finance hismedical school expense, became lessabletoprovide monetary Final PDF to printer