fei75766_ch18_569-609.indd 574  02/24/20 10:50 AM
Part VI    Learning-Cognitive Theories574
Thesecond approach toprediction istoholdreinforcement value constant and
varyexpectancy. Iftotalreinforcements from eachpossible behavior areofequal 
value, thentheonewiththegreatest expectation ofreinforcement ismost likely to
occur. More specifically, ifreinforcements from robbing thecashier, buying thebusi-
ness, andordering adinner areallvalued equally, thentheresponse thatismost likely 
toproduce areinforcement hasthehighest behavior potential.
Rotter employed abroad definition ofbehavior, which refers toanyresponse, 
implicit orexplicit, thatcanbeobserved ormeasured directly orindirectly. This
comprehensive concept allowed Rotter toinclude asbehavior suchhypothetical con-
structs asgeneralizing, problem solving, thinking, analyzing, andsoforth.
Expectancy
Expectancy (E)refers toaperson’s expectation thatsome specific reinforcement or
setofreinforcements willoccur inagiven situation. Theprobability isnotdetermined 
bytheindividual’s history ofreinforcements, asSkinner contended, butissubjec -
tively heldbytheperson. History, ofcourse, isacontributing factor, butsotooare
unrealistic thinking, expectations based onlackofinformation, andfantasies, solong
astheperson sincerely believes thatagiven reinforcement orgroup ofreinforcements 
arecontingent onaparticular response.
Expectancies canbegeneral orspecific. Generalized expectancies (GEs)are
learned through previous experiences withaparticular response orsimilar responses 
andarebased onthebelief thatcertain behaviors willbefollowed bypositive rein-
forcement. Forexample, college students whose previous hardwork hasbeen rein-
forced byhighgrades willhaveageneralized expectancy offuture reward andwill
work hardinavariety ofacademic situations.
Specific expectancies aredesignated asE ′(E prime ).Inanysituation, the
expectancy foraparticular reinforcement isdetermined byacombination ofaspecific 
expectancy (E ′ )andthegeneralized expectancy (GE).Forexample, astudent mayhave
general expectancy thatagiven levelofacademic work willberewarded bygood grades 
butmaybelieve thatanequal amount ofhardwork inaFrench classwillgounrewarded. 
Total expectancy ofsuccess isafunction ofbothone’s generalized expectancy 
andone’s specific expectancy. Total expectancy partially determines theamount of
effort people willexpend inpursuit oftheirgoals. Aperson withlowtotalexpec -
tancy forsuccess inobtaining aprestigious jobisnotlikely toapply fortheposition, 
whereas aperson withhighexpectancy forsuccess willexert much effort andpersist 
inthefaceofsetbacks toachieve goals thatappear possible.
Reinforcement Value
Another variable intheprediction formula isreinforcement value (RV),which isthe
preference aperson attaches toanyreinforcement when theprobabilities forthe
occurrence ofanumber ofdifferent reinforcements areallequal. 
Reinforcement value canbeillustrated byawoman’s interactions withavend -
ingmachine thatcontains several possible selections, eachcosting thesame. The
woman approaches themachine ableandwilling topay75cents inorder toreceive Final PDF to printer