fei75766_ch16_495-533.indd 502  02/06/20 01:34 PM
Part VI    Learning-Cognitive Theories502
theconsequences ofbehavior wasEdward L.Thorndike, whoworked originally with
animals (Thorndike, 1898, 1913) andthenlaterwithhumans (Thorndike, 1931). 
Thorndike observed thatlearning takes place mostly because oftheeffects thatfol-
lowaresponse, andhecalled thisobservation thelaw of effect. Asoriginally con-
ceived byThorndike, thelawofeffect hadtwoparts. Thefirststated thatresponses 
tostimuli thatarefollowed immediately byasatisfier tendtobe“stamped in”;the
second heldthatresponses tostimuli thatarefollowed immediately byanannoyer 
tendtobe“stamped out.” Thorndike lateramended thelawofeffect byminimizing 
theimportance ofannoyers. Whereas rewards (satisfiers) strengthen theconnection 
between astimulus andaresponse, punishments (annoyers) donotusually weaken 
thisconnection. Thatis,punishing abehavior merely inhibits thatbehavior; itdoes
not“stamp itout.” Skinner (1954) acknowledged thatthelawofeffect wascrucial to
thecontrol ofbehavior andsawhisjobasmaking surethattheeffects dooccur and
thattheyoccur under conditions optimal forlearning. Healsoagreed withThorndike 
thattheeffects ofrewards aremore predictable thantheeffects ofpunishments in
shaping behavior.
Asecond andmore direct influence onSkinner wasthework ofJohn B.
Watson (Watson, 1913, 1925; Watson &Rayner, 1920 ).Watson hadstudied both
animals andhumans andbecame convinced thattheconcepts ofconsciousness 
and introspection must playnoroleinthescientific study ofhuman behavior. In
Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, Watson (1913) argued thathuman behavior, 
likethebehavior ofanimals andmachines, canbestudied objectively. Heattacked 
notonlyconsciousness andintrospection butalsothenotions ofinstinct, sensation, 
perception, motivation, mental states, mind, andimagery. Each ofthese concepts, 
heinsisted, isbeyond therealm ofscientific psychology. Watson further argued that
thegoalofpsychology istheprediction andcontrol ofbehavior andthatgoalcould 
bestbereached bylimiting psychology toanobjective study ofhabits formed through 
stimulus-response connections.
Scientific Behaviorism
LikeThorndike andWatson before him,Skinner insisted thathuman behavior should 
bestudied scientifically. Hisscientific behaviorism holds thatbehavior canbestbe
studied without reference toneeds, instincts, ormotives. Attributing motivation to
human behavior would belikeattributing afreewilltonatural phenomena. Thewind 
doesnotblow because itwants toturnwindmills; rocks donotrolldownhill because 
theypossess asense ofgravity; andbirds donotmigrate because theyliketheclimate 
better inother regions. Scientists caneasily accept theideathatthebehavior ofthe
wind, rocks, andevenbirds canbestudied without reference toaninternal motive, 
butmost personality theorists assume thatpeople aremotivated byinternal drives 
andthatanunderstanding ofthedrives isessential.
Skinner disagreed. Why postulate ahypothetical internal mental function? 
People donoteatbecause theyarehungry. Hunger isaninner condition not
directly observable. Ifpsychologists wishtoincrease theprobability thataperson 
willeat,thentheymust firstobserve thevariables related toeating. Ifdeprivation 
offoodincreases thelikelihood ofeating, thentheycandeprive aperson offoodFinal PDF to printer