fei75766_ch16_495-533.indd 531  02/06/20 01:34 PM
Chapter 16    Skinner: Behavioral Analysis531
variables. Humans are not by nature good, but they can become so if they 
are exposed to the proper contingencies of reinforcement. Although his view 
of the ideal person would be similar to those of Rogers and Abraham H. 
Maslow (see Chapter 9), Skinner believed that the means of becoming 
autonomous, loving, and self-actualizing must not be left to chance, but 
should be specifically designed into the society.
The history of a person determines behavior, and because each human 
has a singular history of reinforcement contingencies, behavior and person -
ality are relatively unique. Genetic differences also account for uniqueness 
among people.  Biological and historical differences mold unique individuals, 
and Skinner emphasized people’s uniqueness more than he did their simi -
larities.
Key Terms and Concepts
•Skinner’s theory ofpersonality isbased largely onhisbehavioral analysis of
ratsandpigeons.
•Although internal states suchasthinking andfeeling exist, theycannot be
usedasexplanations ofbehavior; onlyovert behavior canbestudied bythe
scientist.
•Human behavior isshaped bythree forces: (1)theindividual’s personal 
history ofreinforcement, (2)natural selection, and(3)theevolution of 
cultural practices.
•Operant conditioning isaprocess ofchanging behavior inwhich 
reinforcement (orpunishment) iscontingent ontheoccurrence ofa
particular behavior.
•Apositive reinforcer isanyevent that,when added toasituation, increases 
theprobability thatagiven behavior willoccur.
•Anegative reinforcer isanyaversive stimulus that,when removed from the
environment, increases theprobability ofagiven behavior.
•Skinner alsoidentified twotypes ofpunishment: Thefirstisthepresentation 
ofanaversive stimulus, andthesecond involves theremoval ofapositive 
stimulus.
•Reinforcement canbeeither continuous orintermittent, butintermittent 
schedules aremore efficient.
•Thefourprincipal intermittent schedules ofreinforcement arethefixed-
ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, andvariable-interval.
•Social control isachieved through (1)operant conditioning, (2)describing 
thecontingencies ofreinforcement, (3)depriving orsatiating aperson, or
(4)physically restraining anindividual.
•People canalsocontrol theirownbehavior through self-control, butall
control ultimately restswiththeenvironment andnotfreewill.Final PDF to printer