reasons for their actions when in reality they do not. In contrast, trait and cog-
nitive theorists rely heavily on self-report data in developing their theories andin their research. They assume people can identify and report, for example, their
level of social anxiety or how they organize information in their minds.
However, these psychologists hedge away from an extreme position on this is-
sue. Increasingly, cognitive psychologists recognize that much information pro-
cessing takes place at a level below awareness. Humanistic theorists often take a
middle-ground position on this issue. Although these theorists argue that no oneknows us better than ourselves, they also acknowledge that many people do not
understand why they act the way they do.
Free Will Versus Determinism
To what extent do we decide our own fate, and to what extent are our beha-
viors determined by forces outside our control? This is an old issue in psy-chology that has spilled over from even older discussions in philosophy and
theology. On one extreme we find theorists from the behavioral/social learn-
ing approach called radical behaviorists. Perhaps most outspoken on this is-
sue was B. F. Skinner, who argued that our behavior is not freely chosen but
rather the result of environmental forces and our accumulated history of ex-
periences. Skinner called freedom a myth. Psychoanalytic theorists typicallytake a less extreme position but still emphasize innate needs and unconscious
mechanisms that leave much of human behavior outside of our control. At
the other end of the spectrum are the humanistic theorists, who often identifypersonal choice and responsibility as the cornerstones of mental health. Hu-
manistic psychotherapists frequently encourage clients to recognize the extent
to which they are responsible for their own lives.
Although less clear on this issue, trait, biological, and cognitive theorists
probably fall somewhere between these others. Trait theorists and biological
theorists often emphasize genetic predi spositions that tend to limit develop-
ment in certain areas. But none of these psychologists would argue that per-
sonality is completely dictated by these predispositions. Similarly, cognitive
psychotherapists often encourage their clients to recognize how they cause
many of their own problems and help cl ients to develop strategies to avoid
future difficulties.
Application
The most obvious way personality psychologists use their theories to address
personal and social needs is through psychotherapy. Many of the major per-
sonality theorists were also therapists who developed and refined their ideasabout human personality as they worked with clients. Psychotherapy comes
in many different styles, each reflecting assumptions the therapist makes
about the nature of personality. For example, psychoanalytic therapists attendto unconscious causes of the problem behavior. Humanistic therapists are more
likely to work in a nondirective manner to provide the proper atmosphere in14 CHAPTER 1 What Is Personality?