High scores on loneliness scales are related to high scores on social anxiety
and self-consciousness and low levels of self-esteem and assertiveness (Bruch,Kaflowitz, & Pearl, 1988; Jones, Freemon, & Goswick, 1981; Solano &
Koester, 1989). Lonely people are more likely to be introverted, anxious, and
sensitive to rejection (Russell et al., 1980) and more likely to suffer from de-
pression (Joiner, Catanzaro, Rudd, & Rajab, 1999; Wei, Russell, & Zakalik,
2005). High loneliness scores also are associated with pessimism and negative
mood (Cacioppo et al., 2006).
Not surprisingly, lonely people have more than their share of social diffi-
culties (Heinrich & Gullone, 2006). They have a hard time trusting other peo-ple (Rotenberg, 1994) and are often uncomfortable when others open up tothem (Rotenberg, 1997). Lonely people spend less time with friends, date less
frequently, attend fewer parties, and have fewer close friends than nonlonely
people (Archibald, Bartholomew, & Marx, 1995). They have difficulty initiat-ing social activity and participating in groups (Horowitz & de Sales French,
1979). Acquaintances of lonely people confirm the accuracy of these assess-
ments. College students say their relationships with lonely people are noticeablyless intimate than they are with nonlonely people (Williams & Solano, 1983).
In addition to the emotional and social toll that comes with feeling alone,
a growing body of research indicates that loneliness also may be hazardous toyour health (Cacioppo & Patrick, 2008; Cacioppo, Hawkley, Crawford et al.,
2002; Cohen & Janicki-Devers, 2009; Uchino, Cacioppo, & Kiecolt-Glaser,
1996). Compared to those who have few social contacts, people with a large
and diverse social network have a decreased risk of cancer recurrence
(Helgeson, Cohen, & Fritz, 1998), stroke (Rutledge et al., 2008), and heart
disease (Kop et al., 2005). Not surprisingly, people with large social networks
also live longer (Berkman, 1995). Healthy adults in one study were— with
permission —deliberately exposed to a cold virus (Cohen, Doyle, Turner,
Alper, & Skoner, 2003). Researchers found that the more social the participants,the less likely they were to come down with a cold. Lonely students in another
study had a poorer antibody response to r eceiving a flu shot than did nonlonely
students (Pressman, Cohen, Miller, Barkin, Rabin, & Treanor, 2005).
But why does loneliness affect health? As shown in Table 12.1, researchers
have identified five possible pathways (Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2007). First,
lonely people often have poorer health habits than nonlonely people. Mostnoteworthy, they tend to be less active physically (Hawkley, Thisted, &
Cacioppo, 2009). Whereas nonlonely people are out hiking, dancing, golfing,
etc. with friends, lonely people are staying home watching TV. This lack of ac-tivity combined with a poorer diet makes lonely people more prone to obesity
than nonlonely individuals (Lauder, Mummery, Jones, & Caperchione, 2006).
Lonely people also are more likely to smoke (Lauder et al., 2006). Second,lonely people are subject to more sources of stress than nonlonely individuals.
People who suffer from chronic loneliness tend to experience stress in more
areas of their lives (e.g., financial, social, employment) than nonlonely people(Hawkley, Burleson, Berntson, & Cacioppo, 2003). Third, lonely people do
not cope with this stress as well as nonlonely people. Seeking emotional support
from friends when times are rough is an effective coping strategy. However,320 CHAPTER 12 The Humanistic Approach