fei75766_ch16_495-533.indd 519  02/06/20 01:34 PM
Chapter 16    Skinner: Behavioral Analysis519
sexual fantasies andtoactually inflict damage onanenemy aretwobehaviors likely 
tobeassociated withpunishment. Even tocovertly think about these behaviors may
havepunitive effects, butindreams ,these behaviors maybeexpressed symbolically 
andwithout anyaccompanying punishment. 
Social Behavior
Groups donotbehave; onlyindividuals do.Individuals establish groups because 
theyhavebeen rewarded fordoing so.Forexample, individuals form clans sothat
theymight beprotected against animals, natural disasters, orenemy tribes. Individu -
alsalsoform governments, establish churches, orbecome partofanunruly crowd 
because theyarereinforced forthatbehavior.
Membership inasocial group isnotalways reinforcing; yet,foratleastthree 
reasons, some people remain amember ofagroup. First, people mayremain ina
group thatabuses them because some group members arereinforcing them; sec-
ond,some people, especially children, maynotpossess themeans toleave the
group; andthird, reinforcement mayoccur onanintermittent schedule sothatthe
abuse suffered byanindividual isintermingled withoccasional reward. Iftheposi-
tivereinforcement isstrong enough, itseffects willbemore powerful thanthose of
punishment.
Control of Human Behavior
Ultimately, anindividual’s behavior iscontrolled byenvironmental contingencies. 
Those contingencies mayhavebeen erected bysociety, byanother individual, orby
oneself; buttheenvironment, notfreewill,isresponsible forbehavior.
Social Control
Individuals acttoform social groups because suchbehavior tends tobereinforc -
ing.Groups, inturn, exercise control overtheirmembers byformulating written or
unwritten laws, rules, andcustoms thathavephysical existence beyond thelivesof
individuals. Thelawsofanation, therules ofanorganization, andthecustoms ofa
culture transcend anyoneindividual’s means ofcountercontrol andserve aspowerful 
controlling variables inthelivesofindividual members. 
Asomewhat humorous example ofbothunconscious behavior andsocial con-
trolinvolved Skinner andErich Fromm, oneofSkinner’s harshest critics. Atapro-
fessional meeting attended bybothmen, Fromm argued thatpeople arenotpigeons 
andcannot becontrolled through operant conditioning techniques. While seated 
across atable from Fromm andwhile listening tothistirade, Skinner decided to
reinforce Fromm’s arm-waving behavior. Hepassed anotetooneofhisfriends that
read: “‘Watch Fromm’s lefthand. Iamgoing toshape achopping motion’” (Skinner, 
1983, p.151). Whenever Fromm raised hislefthand, Skinner would lookdirectly at
him.IfFromm’s leftarmcame down inachopping motion, Skinner would smile and
nodapprovingly. IfFromm heldhisarmrelatively still,Skinner would lookaway or
appear tobebored withFromm’s talk.After 5minutes ofsuchselective reinforce -
ment, Fromm unknowingly began toflailhisarmsovigorously thathiswristwatch 
keptslipping overhishand.Final PDF to printer