488 v. AFFECTI vE PROCESSES
to pursue potential rewards than a person 
with a tendency toward low BAS activity. As 
noted earlier, most discussions of BAS treat it 
as a general-  purpose system. However, some 
have also posited that the human approach 
system is specialized somewhat in the direc -
tion of social incentives in particular. Thus, 
it has been argued that sociability and ex -
ploration are also indicators of engagement 
of this system (Depue & Iacono 1989).
In the following sections, we review mea -
sures of BAS sensitivity and their psycho -
metric qualities, and consider gender differ -
ences, stability, and developmental shifts in 
BAS sensitivity across the life course and val -
idation of BAS self-  report measures against 
biological and behavioral indices. We briefly 
discuss genetic contributions to BAS. We 
then consider how BAS sensitivity shapes 
outcomes related to normative variation in 
goal regulation, affect, close relationships, 
and several psychopathologies. We conclude 
with a brief discussion of future directions.
Self-Report Measures Pertaining to the BAS
Several research groups have developed self- 
report measures of BAS reactivity. Some 
of the most well-  validated and widely used 
measures include the Behavioral Inhibi -
tion Scale/Behavioral Activation Scale (BIS/
BAS; Carver & White, 1994), the Sensitiv -
ity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Re -
ward Questionnaire (SPSRQ; Torrubia, 
Ávila, Moltó, & Caseras, 2001), the Snaith– 
Hamilton Pleasure Scale (SHAPS; Snaith et 
al., 1995), and the Temporal Experience of 
Pleasure Scale (TEPS; Gard, Gard, Kring, 
& John, 2006). Both the BIS/BAS and the 
SPSRQ focus on a range of responses to re -
wards, while the SHAPS and TEPS focus 
more closely on the experience of pleasure 
in the presence or anticipation of rewards.
The BIS/BAS
Before development of the BIS/BAS (Carver 
& White, 1994), theories about BAS had 
been tested mainly using animal models. 
Carver and White developed the BIS/BAS to 
measure self-  reported sensitivity to threats 
and rewards in humans. The BAS-  relevant 
items were based in part on Gray’s (1990, 1994) earlier theory of the appetitive moti -
vation system, postulated to underlie move -
ment toward goals and generate positive 
emotion in response to reward-  related cues 
or incentives. The BAS-  related items reflect 
emotional responses to obtaining reward, 
active pursuit of goals, and the tendency to 
seek out rewarding and novel experiences, 
all of which are properties that Gray had at -
tributed to BAS function. Although not orig -
inally intended to form separate scales, the 
BAS-  related items consistently separate into 
distinct (albeit correlated) BAS subscales in 
factor analyses (Table 22.1).
Large-scale studies have replicated this 
factor structure in the English version (Jorm 
et al., 1999; Johnson, Turner, & Iwata, 
2003) and in a Spanish version (Segarra, 
Poy, López, & Moltó, 2014). Campbell- 
Sills, Liverant, and Brown (2004) found 
support for the four-  factor structure (three 
BAS scales, one BIS scale), with the excep -
tion of a single item that failed to load on 
the Reward Responsiveness scale. Their 
findings also supported a higher-  order fac -
tor of overall BAS, in addition to the three 
subscales. Findings of one study of 562 un -
dergraduates did not support either of these 
factor structures (Cogswell, Alloy, van Dul -
men, & Fresco, 2006). Overall, though, the 
bulk of the evidence supports the four-  factor 
structure of the BIS/BAS scales, providing 
evidence for multifaceted, and distinguish -
able, manifestations of approach motivation 
in personality.
The SPSRQ
Whereas the Carver and White (1994) 
scale’s items focus on general rewards, 
Torrubia and colleagues (2001) developed 
the Specific Rewards (SR) scale within the 
SPSRQ to measure sensitivity to a variety of 
specific rewards, such as money, sex, and so -
cial power, as well as impulsivity in the con -
text of rewards. They designed the SR scale 
to capture a single dimension of approach 
motivation (rather than separable subscales), 
which they expected would relate to both 
extraversion and neuroticism. Each item is 
phrased in the form of a yes–no question. 
Many items on the SR scale are socially rel -
evant, encompassing hypersexuality, atten -
tion seeking, and social dominance. This 