components extracted; the first component loaded positively on AI and PC-Ch and negatively on PC-Ob. The sec-
ond component loaded positively on PC-Ch and negatively on AI.
Criterion/Predictive
Vo¨llm et al. (2006) showed that affective empathy conditions activated the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC),
temporo-parietal junction (TPj), middle temporal gyrus, middle occipital gyrus, lingualis gyrus, and cerebellum.
Affective empathy was associated with more activations of paracingulate, anterior and posterior cingulate, and
the amygdala, related to emotional processing.
Location
Vo¨llm, B.A. et al. (2006). Neuronal correlates of theory of mind and empathy: A functional magnetic resonance
imaging study in a nonverbal task. NeuroImage, 29 ,9 0/C098.
Results and Comments
The CST may be overly simplistic and unable to appropriately estimate an individual’s cognitive understand-
ing or responsiveness in an empathy inducing situation ( Reid et al., 2012 ). Also, this type of stimulus has been
characterized as not reflecting ‘real-life’ situations which are often more complex and involve multiple persons
(Reid et al., 2012 ). The psychometric properties of the task require further investigation. However, the CST does
provide a performance based measure (i.e., it is an actual test) of empathy, in contrast to the plethora of subjec-
tive self-report measures.
Picture Story Stimuli (PSS)
(Nummenmaa et al., 2008 ).
Variable
In the PSS, empathy is conceptualized as the ability to interpret visual scenes and predict the most likely
behavioral consequence based on cognitive or affective cues.
Description
Nummenmaa et al. (2008) used 60 digitized color pictures. The pictures comprise two categories depicting two
individuals in visually matched aversive (30) and neutral (30) scenes. Aversive pictures depict interpersonal
attack scenes, such as strangling, while neutral pictures present daily (non-emotional) scenes, such as having a
conversation. Participants are required either to ‘watch’ (as though watching TV) the scene or ‘empathize’ (men-
tally simulate how the person in the scene thinks and feels). On corners of the picture yellow arrows instruct par-
ticipants how to respond, for instance, during an ‘empathize’ block, all arrows point towards the area in which
the target of the empathy is depicted in the scene (e.g. an attacker, victim, or a person engaged in a non-
emotional activity). On ‘watch’ blocks, the arrows in the left visual field point left and those in the right visual
field point right. The pictures are matched on visual variables such as luminosity, average contrast density,
global energy, complexity, and pixel area covered by faces in each scene, as well as how often the actors looking
towards the camera.
Reliability
No test /C0retest reliability coefficients for the PSS are currently available.
Validity
Convergent/Concurrent
No convergent/concurrent validity evidence is currently available.
Divergent/Discriminant
No divergent/discriminant validity evidence is currently available.274 10. MEASURES OF EMPATHY: SELF-REPORT , BEHAVIORAL, AND NEUROSCIENTIFIC APPROACHES
III. EMOTION REGULATION