Sample
The original validation study of the VSM was performed on IBM employees across several different nations
(Hofstede, 1984 ). Data from 39 nations as well as a non-IBM sample from Yugoslavia were included in the final
analysis. Respondents consisted of unskilled workers, administration staff, technical staff, sales representative,
professionals, and managers ( Hofstede, 1984 ).
Reliability
Internal Consistency
Cronbach alpha coefficients were computed for each value dimension using country means of the items.
Cronbach alpha coefficients reported were .84 for PDI, .77 for IDV, .76 for MAS, and .72 for UAI ( Hofstede,
Hofstede, Minkov, & Vinken, 2008 ).
Validity
Convergent/Concurrent
Individualism (IDV) is positively correlated with the World Values Survey’s (WVS) Secular-Rational vs.
Traditional Authority ( r5.49) and Well-Being vs. Survival ( r5.74), as well as SVS’s Affective Autonomy (student
sample: r5.85, teacher sample: r5.45), Intellectual Autonomy (student sample: r5.48, teacher sample: r5.53),
and Egalitarian Commitment (student sample: r5.45, teacher sample: r5.49). MAS is positively correlated with
SVS’s Mastery (teacher sample: r5.53). UAI is positively correlated with SVS’s Harmony (teacher sample:
r5.45). LTO is positively correlated with SVS’s Hierarchy (teacher sample: r5.56). Finally, IVR is positively cor-
related with GCV’s Gender Egalitarianism values ( r5.49) and Performance Orientation values ( r5.35) ( Hofstede
et al., 2010 ).
Divergent/Discriminant
With the exception of the correlation between PDI and IDV, the correlations between the society scores of the
four dimensions (PDI, IDV, UAI, and MAS) are small to moderate. Specially, IDV has a strong negative correla-
tion with PDI ( r52.67 in Hofstede, 1980 ;r52.68 in Hofstede, 2001 ). Other correlations between the dimensions
are small or non-significant: PDI and UAI had a small correlation in Hofstede’s (1980) 40 countries survey
(r5.28), and the correlation was not significant in Hofstede’s (2001) 53 countries and regions survey ( r5.23).
PDI and MAS were not correlated in both Hofstede (1980) (r5.10) and Hofstede (2001) (r5.06). IDV had a mod-
erate negative correlation with UAI in both Hofstede (1980) (r52.35) and Hofstede (2001) (r52.33). MAS was
not correlated with UAI in both Hofstede (1980) (r5.12) and Hofstede (2001) (r52.03). Finally, IDV and MAS
were not correlated in both Hofstede (1980) (r,.01) and Hofstede (2001) (r5.08).
In addition, the PDI is negatively correlated with WVS’s Secular-Rational vs. Traditional Authority ( r52.56)
and Well-Being vs. Survival ( r52.72). The IDV is negatively correlated with SVS’s Conservatism (student sam-
ple: r52.66, teacher sample: r52.55) and Hierarchy (student sample: r52.22,ns, teacher sample: r52.55)
(Hofstede, 2001 ). WVS’s Well-Being vs. Survival is negatively correlated with MAS ( r52.39), UAI ( r52.55),
and LTO ( r52.53). LTO is also negatively correlated with SVS’s Affective Autonomy (teacher sample: r52.53).
Finally, IVR is negatively correlated with GCV’s Assertiveness Values ( r52.29), Ingroup Collectivism Practices
(r52.46), and Ingroup Collectivism Values ( r52.42) ( Hofstede et al., 2010 ).
Construct/Factor Analytic
Three putative factors were extracted in an ecological factor analysis with orthogonal rotation performed on
the intercorrelations of the mean society scores of the VSM ( N539 countries/regions; Hofstede, 1980 , p. 61).
Items that measure Individualism and Power Distance loaded on the same factor, whereas items measuring
Masculinity and Uncertainty Avoidance loaded on the second and third factor, respectively. This factor structure
was replicated in a subsequent study of 9400 commercial airline pilots in 19 countries (Merrit, 2000). Although
Individualism and Power Distance load on the same factor, they are treated as separate cultural dimensions in
cross-cultural research because of their conceptual distinction.
Location
The VSM has several versions, which can be found in the following sources:
IBM Survey & VSM80: Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values .
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.624 22. MEASURES OF CROSS-CULTURAL VALUES, PERSONALITY AND BELIEFS
VI. SOCIOCULTURAL INTERACTION AND CONFLICT