fei75766_ch16_495-533.indd 505  02/06/20 01:34 PM
Chapter 16    Skinner: Behavioral Analysis505
conditioning (also called Skinnerian conditioning), abehavior ismade more likely to
recur when itisimmediately reinforced.
Onedistinction between classical andoperant conditioning isthat,inclassical 
conditioning, behavior iselicited from theorganism, whereas inoperant conditioning, 
behavior isemitted .Anelicited response isdrawn from theorganism, whereas an
emitted response isonethatsimply appears. Because responses donotexistinside 
theorganism andthuscannot bedrawn out,Skinner preferred theterm“emitted.” 
Emitted responses donotpreviously existinside theorganism; theysimply appear 
because oftheorganism’s individual history ofreinforcement orthespecies’ evolu -
tionary history.
Classical Conditioning
Inclassical conditioning, aneutral (conditioned) stimulus ispaired with—that 
is,immediately precedes—an unconditioned stimulus anumber oftimes untilitis
capable ofbringing about apreviously unconditioned response, nowcalled thecon-
ditioned response. Thesimplest examples include reflexive behavior. Light shined in
theeyestimulates thepupil tocontract; foodplaced onthetongue brings about saliva -
tion;andpepper inthenostrils results inthesneezing reflex. With reflexive behavior, 
responses areunlearned, involuntary, andcommon notonlytothespecies butacross 
species aswell.Classical conditioning, however, isnotlimited tosimple reflexes. It
canalsoberesponsible formore complex human learning likephobias, fears, and
anxieties. 
Anearly example ofclassical conditioning withhumans wasdescribed byJohn 
Watson andRosalie Rayner in1920 andinvolved ayoung boy—Albert B.,usually 
referred toasLittle Albert. Albert wasanormal, healthy child who, at9months of
age,showed nofearofsuchobjects asawhite rat,arabbit, adog,amonkey with
masks, andsoforth. When Albert was11months old,theexperimenters presented 
himwithawhite rat.JustasAlbert wasbeginning totouch therat,oneoftheexperi -
menters struck abarbehind Albert’s head. Thelittleboyimmediately showed signs 
offear,although hedidnotcry.Then, justashetouched theratwithhisother hand, 
anexperimenter struck thebaragain. Once more Albert showed fearandbegan to
whimper. Aweek later, Watson andRayner repeated theprocedure several times 
andfinally presented thewhite ratwithout theloud, sudden sound. Bythistime, 
Albert hadlearned tofeartheratbyitself andquickly began tocrawl away from it.A
fewdayslater, theexperimenters presented Albert withsome blocks. Heshowed no
fear.Next, theyshowed himtheratbyitself. Albert showed fear.Then, theyoffered 
himtheblocks again. Nofear.They followed thispartoftheexperiment byshowing 
Albert arabbit byitself. Albert immediately began tocryandcrawl away from the
rabbit. Watson andRayner thenshowed Albert theblocks again, thenadog,then
blocks again, thenafurcoat, andthenapackage ofwool. Forallobjects except the
blocks, Albert showed some fear.Finally, Watson brought inaSanta Claus mask, 
towhich Albert showed signs offear.Thisexperiment, which wasnever completed 
because Albert’s mother intervened, demonstrated atleastfourpoints. First, infants 
havefew,ifany,innate fears ofanimals; second, theycanlearn tofearananimal ifit
ispresented inassociation withanaversive stimulus; third, infants candiscriminate 
between afurry white ratandahardwooden block, sothatfearofaratdoesnotFinal PDF to printer