sublimation, displacement, reaction formation, denial, intellectualization,
and projection. With the exception of sublimation, the ego uses these de-fense mechanisms at a cost.
3. Among the most controversial aspects of Freud ’s theory is his description
of the psychosexual stages of development. Freud maintained thatyoung children pass through stages of development characterized by the
primary erogenous zone for each stage. Children pass through oral, anal,
and phallic stages on their way to healthy sexual expression in thegenital stage. Excessive trauma during these early years may cause
psychic energy to become fixated, and the adult personality will reflect
the characteristics of the fixated stage of development. An importantstep in the development of adult personality takes place with the
resolution of the Oedipus complex at the end of the phallic stage.
4. Psychoanalysts have developed several methods for getting at uncon-
scious material. Freud called dreams the “royal road to the unconscious. ”
He interpreted the symbols in his patients ’dreams to understand uncon-
scious impulses. In addition, Freudian psychologists use projective tests,
free association, and hypnosis to get at this material. Clues about uncon-
scious feelings also may be expressed in Freudian slips, accidents, and
symbolic behavior.
5. Freud also developed the first system of psychotherapy, called psycho-
analysis. Most of the time in this lengthy therapy procedure is spentbringing unconscious sources of the clients ’problems into awareness.
A Freudian therapist actively interprets the true (unconscious) meanings
of the clients ’words, dreams, and actions for them. One of the first signs
that psychoanalysis is progressing is resistance, in which a client stops
cooperating with the therapeutic process in order to halt the therapist ’s
threatening efforts to bring out key hidden material.
6. Many Freudian psychologists rely on projective tests to measure the con-
cepts of interest to them. Typically, test takers are asked to respond to
ambiguous stimuli, such as inkblots. Because there are no real answers,
responses are assumed to reflect unconscious associations. The use ofprojective tests is controversial. Critics point to unacceptably low indica-
tors of reliability and validity. However, if used correctly, these tests may
provide insights into clients ’personalities and sources of psychological
problems.
7. Among the strengths of the Freudian approach is the tremendous influ-
ence Freud had on personality theorists for many years to follow.In addition, Freud developed the first system of psychotherapy and
introduced many concepts into the domain of scientific inquiry. Critics
point out that many of Freud ’s ideas were not new and that many
aspects of his theory are not testable. Others criticize his use of biased
data in developing his theory. Many of those who studied with Freud
also disliked his emphasis on instinctual over social causes of psycho-logical disorders and the generally negative picture he painted of human
nature.66 CHAPTER 3 The Psychoanalyt ic Approach