Part II    Psychodynamic Theories102
of personal superiority may account for the need many narcissists appear to have 
for others to validate their superiority.
Critique of Adler
Adler’s theory, like that of Freud, produced many concepts that do not easily lend 
themselves to either verification or falsification. For example, although research 
has consistently shown a relationship between early childhood recollections and 
a person’s present style of life (Clark, 2002), these results do not verify Adler’s 
notion that present style of life shapes one’s early recollections. An alternate, causal 
explanation is also possible; that is, early experiences may cause present style of 
life. Thus, one of Adler’s most important concepts—the assumption that present 
style of life determines early memories rather than vice versa—is difficult to either 
verify or falsify.
Another function of a useful theory is to generate research,  and on this criterion 
we rate Adler’s theory above average. Much of the research suggested by individual 
psychology has investigated early recollections, social interest, and style of life. Arthur 
J. Clark (2002), for example, cites evidence showing that early recollections relate 
to myriad personality factors, including dimensions of personality clinical disorders, 
vocational choice, explanatory style, and psychotherapy processes and outcomes. In 
addition, Adler’s theory has encouraged researchers to construct several social inter -
est scales, for example, the Social Interest Scale (Crandall, 1975, 1981), the Social 
Interest Index (Greever, Tseng, & Friedland, 1973), and the Sulliman Scale of Social 
Interest (Sulliman, 1973). Research activity on these scales and on birth order, early 
recollections, and style of life gives Adlerian theory a moderate to high rating on its 
ability to generate research.
How well does Adlerian theory organize knowledge into a meaningful frame -
work? In general, individual psychology is sufficiently broad to encompass possible 
explanations for much of what is known about human behavior and development. 
Even seemingly self-defeating and inconsistent behaviors can be fit into the frame -
work of striving for superiority. Adler’s practical view of life’s problems allows us to 
rate his theory high on its ability to make sense out of what we know about human 
behavior.
We also rate Adlerian theory high on its ability to guide action.  The theory serves 
the psychotherapist, the teacher, and the parent with guidelines for the solution to 
practical problems in a variety of settings. Adlerian practitioners gather information 
through reports on birth order, dreams, early recollections, childhood difficulties, and 
physical deficiencies. They then use this information to understand a person’s style of 
life and to apply those specific techniques that will both increase that person’s indi -
vidual responsibility and broaden his or her freedom of choice.
Is individual psychology internally consistent?  Does it include a set of opera -
tionally defined terms? Although Adlerian theory is a model for self-consistency, it 
suffers from a lack of precise operational definitions.  Terms such as goal of superiority 
and creative power  have no scientific definition. Nowhere in Adler’s works are they 
operationally defined, and the potential researcher will look in vain for precise defini -
tions that lend themselves to rigorous study. The term creative power  is an especially 
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