The answer is “No.”In the same experiment, the researchers also looked at
dispositional optimists. In contrast to the defensive pessimists, thinking about
their thoughts beforehand made the optimists more anxious and caused them
to perform more poorly on the arithmetic problems. If given a choice, optimists
expect to succeed and prefer not to think about failure. In this way, optimists
avoid the anxiety that comes from fretting over worst-case scenarios. One
study found that optimists did best at a dart-throwing game when allowed to
relax for 10 minutes as they waited to play (Spencer & Norem, 1996).Predictably, defensive pessimists in this study did better when given 10 minutes
to think about how they would deal with all the things that might go wrong.
The benefits defensive pessimists derive from focusing on the negative are
not limited to achievement situations. Defensive pessimists in one study weretold they were to have a short conversation with a stranger and that this other
person would evaluate them afterward (Showers, 1992). In many ways this ex-perimental situation is similar to dates, first meetings, and other social situa-
tions in which we are concerned about making a good impression. As in the
earlier experiment, half the defensive pessimists were allowed to engage in theirtypical strategy. These participants were instructed to think about all the things
that could go wrong in the upcoming conversation (for example, long, awk-
ward silences). The other half was told to imagine positive outcomes (for exam-
ple, an easy-flowing conversation). The participants then spent 5 minutes
talking to a student they did not know. How did the conversations go? The de-
fensive pessimists allowed to contemplate potential negative consequences
talked significantly more and were liked more by the person they spoke with
than the defensive pessimists forced to think about potential positive outcomes
only. Again, this pattern was not found when the researchers looked at people
who generally take an optimistic approach to their social encounters. Thus, in
social settings as well as achievement situations, thinking about the worst ap-
pears to help some people do their best.
SUMMARY
1. Achievement motivation has been an important research topic for several
decades. Much of the early work in this area was based on Henry
Murray’ s description of people high in need for Achievement. More
recent investigations look at the effects of attributions and achievement
goals on achievement behavior. Researchers find mastery goals often lead
to more achievement than performance goals.
2. Research on the Type A behavior pattern developed out of observations
by medical professionals about people who suffer heart attacks. Althoughearly researchers found a strong link between Type A behavior and car-
diovascular problems, later studies did not always replicate these find-ings. Researchers now know that one Type A component —hostility —is
responsible for the increase in cardiovascular problems found in the ear-lier studies.
3. Research on socially anxious people finds a number of characteristic be-
haviors that interfere with the shy person ’s ability to interact effectivelySummary 219