Construct/Factor Analytic
An exploratory principal axis factor analysis ( N56823) supported a one-factor unrotated structure ( Gelfand
et al., 2011 ). Structural equivalence was established in 33 nations. The mean identity coefficient was .97
(Median 5.98,SD5.03).
Location
Gelfand et al. (2011). Differences between tight and loose cultures: A 33-Nation study. Science, 332 , 1100/C01104.
Results and Comments
By focusing on individuals’ perceptions of how strict normative control is in their society, the T&LS directly
measures the normative variables that mediate cultural differences. Its reliability and validity are well documen-
ted. As such, it provides a useful tool for studying normative cultural influence.
TIGHTNESS /C0LOOSENESS SCALE
Instructions
The follow statements refer to [COUNTRY NAME] as a whole.
Please indicate whether you agree or disagree with the following statements using the following scale.
Note that the statements sometimes refer to ‘social norms’, which are standards for behavior that are generally
unwritten.
12 3 4 5 6
Strongly Disagree Moderately Disagree Slightly Disagree Slightly
AgreeModerately Agree Strongly
Agree
1.There are many social norms that people are supposed to abide by in this country.
2.In this country, there are very clear expectations for how people should act in most situations.
3.People agree upon what behaviors are appropriate versus inappropriate in most situations in this country
4.People in this country have a great deal of freedom in deciding how they want to behave in most situations. (r)
5.In this country, if someone acts in an inappropriate way, others will strongly disapprove.
6.People in this country almost always comply with social norms.
Note: Reproduced with permission. (r) indicates that the item requires reverse scoring.
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
Several encouraging trends are evident in research on measuring culture. First, inspired by the early success of
the VSM and SVS, the majority of cross-cultural measures seek to break new grounds in the assessment of society
differences in value systems (COS, HVIC, GCV). At the same time, new measures are developed to measure
other important psychological aspects of culture such as cultural personalities (CPAI), shared beliefs (SAS) and
shared perceptions of normative control in the society (T&LS). This trend, which has broadened the coverage of
cross-cultural measures, should continue.
Another trend is to identify and measure sub-dimensions of global cultural constructs. One example is the dif-
ferentiation of individualism and collectivism into their horizontal and vertical types in the HVIC. This trend
reflects increased interests in measuring more nuanced differences between societies, constructing more precise
measures, and examining interactions between important cultural constructs (e.g., the interplay of power rela-
tions and self-other relations). These developments should be promoted.
Earlier cross-cultural measures such as the WVS and VSM and aim at assessing the values individuals in the
society have internalized. Some newer measures have expanded the scope of assessment to shared perceptions of
the reality (e.g., SAS, T&LS) and perceived cultural consensus (e.g., GVC, COS). Cross-cultural research using
measures of shared perception and perceived cultural consensus highlights the distinction between shared per-
ceptions and internalized preferences, which are now known to be two different routes to cultural influence
(Chiu et al., 2010 ). People are aware of the shared reality but do not internalize all the cultural contents in their648 22. MEASURES OF CROSS-CULTURAL VALUES, PERSONALITY AND BELIEFS
VI. SOCIOCULTURAL INTERACTION AND CONFLICT