fei75766_ch16_495-533.indd 503  02/06/20 01:34 PM
Chapter 16    Skinner: Behavioral Analysis503
inorder tobetter predict andcontrol subsequent eating behavior. Both deprivation 
andeating arephysical events thatareclearly observable andtherefore within the
province ofscience. Scientists whosaythatpeople eatbecause theyarehungry are
assuming anunnecessary andunobservable mental condition between thephysical 
factofdeprivation andthephysical factofeating. Thisassumption clouds theissue 
andrelegates much ofpsychology tothatrealm ofphilosophy known ascosmology, 
ortheconcern withcausation. Tobescientific, Skinner (1953, 1987a) insisted, psy-
chology must avoid internal mental factors andconfine itself toobservable physical 
events. 
Although Skinner believed thatinternal states areoutside thedomain ofsci-
ence, hedidnotdeny their existence. Such conditions ashunger, emotions, values, 
self-confidence, aggressive needs, religious beliefs, andspitefulness exist; butthey
arenotexplanations forbehavior. Tousethem asexplanations notonlyisfruit-
lessbutalsolimits theadvancement ofscientific behaviorism. Other sciences have
made greater advances because theyhave longsince abandoned thepractice of
attributing motives, needs, orwillpower tothemotion (behavior) ofliving organ -
ismsandinanimate objects. Skinner’s scientific behaviorism follows their lead
(Skinner, 1945).
Philosophy of Science
Scientific behaviorism allows foraninterpretation ofbehavior butnotanexplanation 
ofitscauses. Interpretation permits ascientist togeneralize from asimple learning 
condition toamore complex one.Forexample, Skinner generalized from animal 
studies tochildren andthentoadults. Anyscience, including thatofhuman behav -
ior,begins withthesimple andeventually evolves generalized principles thatpermit 
aninterpretation ofthemore complex. Skinner (1978) usedprinciples derived from 
laboratory studies tointerpret thebehavior ofhuman beings butinsisted thatinter-
pretation should notbeconfused withanexplanation ofwhypeople behave theway
theydo.
Characteristics of Science
According toSkinner (1953), science hasthree main characteristics: First, science is
cumulative; second, itisanattitude thatvalues empirical observation; andthird, sci-
enceisasearch fororder andlawful relationships.
Science, incontrast toart,philosophy, andliterature, advances inacumu -
lative manner. Theamount andnature ofscientific knowledge thattoday’s high
school students haveofphysics orchemistry isvastly more sophisticated thanthat
ofeventhemost educated Greeks 2,500 years ago.Thesame cannot besaidforthe
humanities. Thewisdom andgenius ofPlato, Michelangelo, andShakespeare are
clearly notinferior tothewisdom andgenius ofanymodern philosopher, artist, 
orwriter. However, cumulative knowledge isnottobeconfused withtechnologi -
calprogress. Science isunique notbecause oftechnology butrather because ofits
attitude. 
Thesecond andmost critical characteristic ofscience isan attitude thatplaces 
value onempirical observation above allelse.InSkinner’s (1953) words: “ItisaFinal PDF to printer