fei75766_ch07_206-241.indd 230  02/06/20 11:52 AM
Part II    Psychodynamic Theories230
Unlike neurotic individuals whose identity crises result incorepathologies, 
Gandhi haddeveloped strength from thisandother crises. Erikson (1969) described 
thedifference between conflicts ingreat people, suchasGandhi, andpsychologi -
callydisturbed people: “This, then, isthedifference between acasehistory andalife-
history: patients, great orsmall, areincreasingly debilitated bytheirinner conflicts, 
butinhistorical actuality inner conflict onlyaddsanindispensable momentum toall
superhuman effort” (p.363).
Related Research
OneofErikson’s major contributions wastoextend personality development into
adulthood. Byexpanding Freud’s notion ofdevelopment allthewayintooldage,
Erikson challenged theideathatpsychological development stops withchildhood. 
Erikson’s most influential legacy hasbeen histheory ofdevelopment and,inpar-
ticular, thestages from adolescence intooldage.Hewasoneofthefirsttheorists to
emphasize thecritical period ofadolescence andtheconflicts revolving around one’s 
search foranidentity. Adolescents andyoung adults often ask:Who amI?Where am
Igoing? Andwhat doIwant todowiththerestofmylife?How theyanswer these 
questions plays animportant roleinwhat kinds ofrelationships theydevelop, who
theychoose foralife-partner, andwhat career paths theyfollow. 
Recall thatErikson argued thateachstage ofdevelopment emerges fromandis
builtupon aprevious stage. So,forexample, identity achievement inadolescence involves 
having explored various elements ofone’s self,bothideological (religion, politics) and
interpersonal (friendship, dating), andcoming towhatErikson called acommitment. 
Studies ofWestern cultures conclude thatidentity achievement isthehealthiest egoiden-
titystatus, andthatitought topredict successful resolutions ofthenextdevelopmental 
tasks ofintimacy andgenerativity. However, Erikson (1959) alsoargued that,despite this
step-wise quality ofpersonality unfolding, alldevelopmental tasks arepresent insome 
wayatevery stage oflife,eveniftheyvaryinhowpressing theyareatdifferent points. 
Thus, forteens involved insolidifying theiridentity, concerns about intimacy, andeven
generativity, aremeaningful andpresent. Scholars havethusstudied “later” psychosocial 
crises inearlier stages oflifeasawayofseeing howsuccessful resolution ofdevelopmen -
taltasks canbefostered atyounger ages(Lawford, Pratt, Hunsberger, &Pancer, 2005). 
Incontrast tomost other psychodynamic theorists, Erikson stimulated quite 
abitofempirical research, much ofitonadolescence, young adulthood, andadult -
hood. Here wediscuss recent research onhowInternet useaffects adolescent identity 
andthedevelopment ofgender identity inadolescence andyoung adulthood.
Adolescent Identity and the Internet
Recall thattheprimary argument Erikson made about adolescence wasthemajor 
conflict andtension comes from teenagers’ need toform anidentity andbeing con-
fused about whotheyareandwhat theybelieve. Marcia added sexual identity tothe
mix.Inall,identity formation circles primarily around sexual identity (towhom are
weattracted?), occupational identity (what dowewant tospend therestofourlives
doing?), andideological identity (what doIbelieve about religion andpolitics?).Final PDF to printer