Lang (2006) recruited two samples from a university population: one consisting of 21 male and 22 female African
Americans and the other 20 male and 20 female European Americans. The ages for each sample were not
described, although it was reported that 98% of the total sample were aged between 17 and 25 years.
Reliability
Internal Consistency
Westbury and Neumann (2008) reported a Cronbach alpha coefficient of .92 over all stimuli used in a picture-
viewing paradigm.
Test/C0Retest
‘Facial EMG shows moderate test /C0retest stability over relatively long intervals ...’(Harrigan, Rosenthal, &
Scherer, 2008 , p. 41).
Validity
Convergent/Concurrent
‘Facial EMG has high concurrent validity with visible intensity changes in onset phase of zygomatic major,
with average correlation above 0.90.’ ( Harrigan et al., 2008 , p. 40). Westbury and Neumann (2008) reported that
ratings on the BEES were significantly correlated with corrugator EMG activity when viewing images of human
and non-human animals in negative circumstances ( r5.35). In addition, subjective ratings of empathy towards
the targets in the images were significantly correlated with corrugator EMG activity ( r5.41). Subjective empathy
ratings and corrugator EMG showed the same pattern across different animal groups (e.g., higher for human tar-
gets than bird targets). Activity of the orbicularis oculi muscle when viewing another person receiving painful
sonar treatment has shown to be significantly correlated with scores on the IRI perspective taking subscale
(r5.39). Facial EMG during pictures of happy and angry facial expressions has been shown to be correlated with
scores on the EETS ( Sonnby-Borgstro ¨m, 2002; Sonnby-Borgstro ¨m et al., 2003 ). In recordings of the orbicularis
occuli, indicative of wincing, participants showed greater activity relative to a pre-stimulus baseline when view-
ing others undergoing painful sonar treatment when taking the perspective of the other person ( Lamm, Porges,
Cacioppo, & Decety, 2008 ).
Divergent/Discriminant
Brown et al. (2006) conducted a study in which African American and European American participants
viewed images depicting pleasant and unpleasant facial expressions. African American participants showed
larger corrugator EMG responses to unpleasant pictures of Black targets than to unpleasant pictures of White tar-
gets. However, the same ethnic difference was not found in the European American participants. Sex differences
may also be observed in facial EMG ( Dimberg & Lundquist, 1990 ).
Location
Westbury, H.R., & Neumann, D.L. (2008). Empathy-related responses to moving film stimuli depicting human
and non-human animal targets in negative circumstances. Biological Psychology, 78 ,6 6/C074.
Results and Comments
EMG activity is advantageous in its ability to detect muscle activity that occurs below the visual threshold.
Although, researchers should take care to ensure that any motor mimicry observed through facial EMG recording
reflect the stimuli the participant is being exposed to and not other stimuli. For example, corrugator EMG can be
elicited by non-facial visual stimuli and even sounds ( Larsen, Norris, & Cacioppo, 2003 ).
Electroencephalogram (EEG) and Event Related Potentials (ERPs)
(Neumann & Westbury, 2011 ).
Variable
The EEG and ERP measure the electrical activity produced by the firing of neurons in the scalp. The firing of
the neurons is presumed to reflect psychological processes, including the empathic response. Short-term changes
in the EEG are termed event-related potentials (ERPs).281 NEUROSCIENTIFIC MEASURES OF EMPATHY
III. EMOTION REGULATION