fei75766_ch07_206-241.indd 211  02/06/20 11:52 AM
Chapter 7    Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory211
Although adolescence isordinarily thetimewhen these three components arechang -
ingmost rapidly, alterations inbody ego,egoideal, andegoidentity cananddotake
place atanystage oflife.
Society’s Influence
Although inborn capacities areimportant inpersonality development, theego
emerges from andislargely shaped bysociety. Erikson’s emphasis onsocial andhis-
torical factors wasincontrast withFreud’s mostly biological viewpoint. ToErikson, 
theegoexists aspotential atbirth, butitmust emerge from within acultural envi-
ronment. Different societies, withtheirvariations inchild-rearing practices, tend
toshape personalities thatfittheneeds andvalues oftheirculture. Forexample, 
Erikson (1963) found thatprolonged andpermissive nursing ofinfants oftheSioux 
nation (sometimes foraslongas4or5years) resulted inwhat Freud would call
“oral” personalities: thatis,people whogaingreat pleasure through functions of
themouth. TheSioux place great value ongenerosity, andErikson believed that
thereassurance resulting from unlimited breast feeding laysthefoundation forthe
virtue ofgenerosity. However, Sioux parents quickly suppress biting, apractice that
maycontribute tothechild’s fortitude andferocity. Ontheother hand, people of
theYurok nation setstrict regulations concerning elimination ofurine andfeces, 
practices thattendtodevelop “anality,” orcompulsive neatness, stubbornness, and
miserliness. InEuropean American societies, orality andanality areoften considered 
undesirable traits orneurotic symptoms. Erikson (1963), however, argued thatoral-
ityamong theSioux hunters andanality among theYurok fishermen areadaptive 
characteristics thathelpboththeindividual andtheculture. ThefactthatEuropean 
American culture views orality andanality asdeviant traits merely displays itsown
ethnocentric viewofother societies. Erikson (1968, 1974) argued thathistorically 
alltribes ornations, including theUnited States, havedeveloped what hecalled a
pseudospecies: thatis,anillusion perpetrated andperpetuated byaparticular society 
thatitissomehow chosen tobethehuman species. Inpastcenturies, thisbelief has
aided thesurvival ofthetribe, butwithmodern means ofworld annihilation, sucha
prejudiced perception (asdemonstrated byNazi Germany) threatens thesurvival of
every nation.
OneofErikson’s principal contributions topersonality theory washisextension 
oftheFreudian early stages ofdevelopment toinclude school age,youth, adulthood, 
andoldage.Before looking more closely atErikson’s theory ofegodevelopment, we
discuss hisviewofhowpersonality develops from onestage tothenext.
Epigenetic Principle
Erikson believed thattheegodevelops throughout thevarious stages oflifeaccording 
toanepigenetic principle, atermborrowed from embryology. Epigenetic develop -
ment implies astep-by-step growth offetalorgans. Theembryo doesnotbegin as
acompletely formed littleperson, waiting tomerely expand itsstructure andform. 
Rather, itdevelops, orshould develop, according toapredetermined rateandina
fixed sequence. Iftheeyes, liver, orother organs donotdevelop during thatcritical 
period fortheirdevelopment, thentheywillnever attain proper maturity.Final PDF to printer