10.Fraboni Scale of Ageism ( Fraboni, Saltstone, & Hughes, 1990 )
11.Succession, Identity, and Consumption Scale of Prescriptive Ageism ( North & Fiske, 2013b )
Note. Due to space limitations, some measures are not reviewed here, for example: mental illness stigma ( Link,
Yang, Phelan, & Collins, 2004 ), anti-fat prejudices ( Crandall, 1994 ), ableism ( Dovidio, Pagotto, & Hebl, 2011 ),
anti-Asian bias ( Lin, Kwan, Cheung, & Fiske, 2005 ), and sexual prejudice ( Herek & Lemore, 2013 ).
OVER VIEW OF THE MEASURES
All these measures assess category-based biases. The methods vary from survey questionnaires to reaction-
time measures. The first two scales, Social Dominance Orientation and the Stereotype Content Model, assess atti-
tudes toward hierarchies across a variety of societal groups.
The next four scales focus on racial biases. Starting in the 1970s, subtle new-wave approaches replaced explicit
indicators of blatant old-fashioned racism: Modern forms explore symbolic, modern, ambivalent, implicit, indi-
rect, and aversive racism. Each addresses the cultural shifts in expressions of racism, from more unabashed
hatred to perhaps well-intentioned but clueless, or at least self-conscious and norm-abiding forms that neverthe-
less have damaging consequences. Of these forms, this chapter defers to an earlier review ( Biernat & Crandall,
1999 ) for coverage of modern racism ( McConahay, 1986 ), ambivalent racism ( Katz & Hass, 1988 ), and subtle prej-
udice ( Pettigrew & Meertens, 1995 ), to focus here on more recent measures.
In this review, the next three scales focus on gender biases. After the original, overt Attitudes Toward Women
Scale ( Spence, Helmreich, & Stapp, 1973 ), several approaches tackled more subtle forms of sexism (for a review,
seeMcHugh & Frieze, 1997 ). Building on modern forms of racism, three highly cited sexism scales /C0modern sex-
ism, neo-sexism, and ambivalent sexism /C0each take a related but distinct approach to gender attitudes, focusing
on anti-female sexism as either gender-relevant policy preferences (modern sexism and neosexism) or hostile/
benevolent prescriptive opinions (ambivalent sexism).
The review’s final two scales focus on age biases, an area less often studied. Both measures examine stereo-
types and prejudices relevant to the 21st century context, one scale more policy-oriented and the other more pre-
scriptive opinions. Together, all 11 scales illustrate the current landscape of major barometers of bias.
Social Dominance Orientation (SDO)
(Pratto et al., 1994 ).
Variable
Social dominance orientation is an individual-difference variable expressing preference for unequal relation-
ships among categories of people; contexts also vary in social dominance, as the broader theory indicates
(Sidanius & Pratto, 1999 ). People who score highly on this measure believe that group hierarchies are natural,
unavoidable, and desirable. For them, the ‘dog-eat-dog’ world requires group competition, so dominance is only
realistic and adaptive. A socially dominant person might endorse the inevitability of patriarchy, older-generation
authority, white racial dominance, and upper-class hegemony.
Description
The 16-item SDO scale elicits agreement-disagreement with statements such as: ‘Inferior groups should stay in
their place’ and ‘No one group should dominate in society [reverse-scored]’ ( Pratto et al., 1994 ). The SDO assesses
social dominance, as opposed to individual dominance or self-esteem ( Pratto et al., 1994 ).
Sample
The original samples comprised 1977 students from Stanford, University of California-Berkeley, and San Jose
State University, ages 17 to 59, about half women. Across 13 samples, Euro-Americans ranged from 19 to 59%,
Asian-Americans 16 /C051%, Hispanics 4 /C017%, Blacks 2 /C015%, and Arab-Americans 0 /C08%. Modal family income,
when measured, ranged across samples from under $20K up to $100K per annum .
Later samples from every continent support generalizability across cultures ( Lee, Pratto, & Johnson, 2011;
Pratto et al., 2000 ). One meta-analysis from 27 societies ( n550,971; 95 samples) found reliable measurement and
meaningful associations with societal variables ( Fischer, Hanke, & Sibley, 2012 ; cf.Lee et al., 2011 ).685 OVERVIEW OF THE MEASURES
VI. SOCIOCULTURAL INTERACTION AND CONFLICT