be in better health than those who are low on this dimension (Cohen &
Pressman, 2006; Robles, Brooks, & Pressman, 2009; Steptoe, O’ Donnell,
Marmot, & Wardle, 2008). Perhaps the behavior most consistently associated
with high positive affect is social activity (Watson & Naragon, 2009). People
high in trait positive affect tend to engage in more social activities and tend to
enjoy those activities more than people who score low on this trait (Berry &
Hansen, 1996; Clark & Watson, 1988; Robins, Caspi, & Moffitt, 2002;
Watson, 1988). This finding also extends to romance. People high in traitpositive affect are more likely to be involved in a romantic relationship and
are more satisfied with their partners than are people low in positive affect
(Berry & Willingham, 1997).
Why is positive affect related to social activity? One reason may be that
social activity causes positive affect. That is, because some people are more
social, they experience more positive emotions. Students in one study com-pleted a scale measuring positive and negative mood each week for 13 conse-
cutive weeks (Watson, Clark, McIntyre, & Hamaker, 1992). Participants also
completed a questionnaire each week indicating how often they had engagedin each of 15 different social activities (for example, attending a party, having
a serious discussion, or going to a movie or concert). The researchers found
the more social activities the students engaged in, the higher their positive af-
fect scores that week. A similar finding was uncovered when researchers
looked at the mood and activity levels of Japanese students (Clark &
Watson, 1988). However, it is important to note that this research is correla-
tional (Chapter 2). In other words, it is possible that the causal arrow runs
the other way as well. People may engage in social activity because they expe-
rience positive affect. Consistent with this interpretation, studies find that
when we feel good, we are more likely to seek out friends and to act friendly
toward the people we meet (Cunningham, 1988).
People high in trait positive affect also appear to act in ways that make
friends, which then leads to more social activities. Participants in one studywere asked to engage in a 6-minute conversation with a stranger. When judges
examined videotapes of these conversations, they found high positive affectparticipants generally were more pleasant and engaging than low positive affect
participants (Berry & Hansen, 1996). High positive affect people report fewer
conflicts with their friends (Berry, Willingham, & Thayer, 2000) and are morelikely to be accommodating when they have a disagreement with their romantic
partners (Berry & Willingham, 1997). That is, they are better at resolving con-
flicts and thus maintaining solid, happy relationships. In short, people high intrait positive affect tend to be happy, enthusiastic, and attentive. Little wonder
they develop and keep friendships and romantic partners.
What kinds of behaviors are related to negative affect? Not surprisingly,
high scores on negative affect are generally related to psychological stress(Brissette & Cohen, 2002; Tarlow & Haaga, 1996; Watson, Clark, & Carey,
1988). People on the high end of this dimension suffer from a diverse list of emo-tional problems. Studies also find that negative affect is related to complaints
about health (Leventhal, Hansell, Diefenbach, Leventhal, & Glass, 1996;
Watson & Pennebaker, 1989; Williams, Colder, Lane, McCaskill, Feinglos, &206 CHAPTER 8 The Trait Approach