462 v. AFFECTI vE PROCESSES
of states within a particular category, such 
as the multiple varieties of disgust (Rozin, 
1996), embarrassment (Miller & Tang -
ney, 1994; Tangney, 1992), awe (Keltner & 
Haidt, 2003), pride (Tracy & Robins, 2007), 
and compassion (Goetz et al., 2010). Impor -
tantly, much of human emotional experi -
ence, perhaps even most of it, involves mix -
tures or blends of emotions (Ekman, 1972; 
J. Larsen, McGraw, Mellers, & Cacioppo, 
2004; Schimmack, Oishi, & Diener, 2002; 
Shiota, Campos, Gonzaga, Keltner, & Peng, 
2010; Watson & Stanton, 2017; Zelenski 
& Larsen, 2000). However, our brief over -
view highlights the rich possibilities for fu -
ture work on individual differences in these 
many constructs. Some research is begin -
ning to explore this territory. For example, 
Tracy and Robins (2007) have examined the 
distinct personality correlates of authentic 
versus hubristic pride; Shiota and colleagues 
(2007) have examined the distinct aspects of 
self- concept associated with awe-  proneness; 
and Dickens and DeSteno (2016) have found 
that highly grateful individuals are more likely to delay gratification of an immediate 
reward in favor of a larger, later one. These 
are just tastes, however, from the potential 
banquet of research on individual differ -
ences in the experience of specific emotions.
Mechanisms of  Emotional  Experience: 
Appraisal,  Neurotransmission, 
and Interoception
The third advance in emotion research with 
great potential for personality psychol -
ogy involves our growing understanding of 
the mechanisms of emotional experience. 
Study any emotion, or any emotion-  related 
response, and one is certain to encounter 
significant individual differences. Intensive 
muscle-  by- muscle coding of facial expres -
sions among people in different cultures re -
veals not only universals and culture-  specific 
dialects but also individual differences in 
movements for 22 emotions (Cordaro et al., 
2018). Individuals express emotions in idio -
syncratic ways in the face, voice, and body— TABLE 21.5.  A Synthesis of Theoretical Accounts of Positive Emotions
Emotion Appraisal tendency Action tendency
Contentment Pleasing stimulusa Savoringb, c
Enthusiasm Reward likelya Goal approacha, d
Love Perceived commitmente Affectionf
Sexual desire Sexual cue or opportunityg Flirtation; sexual activityh
Compassion Undeserved sufferingi, j Prosocial approachk
Gratitude Unexpected benefit given by anotherl Promote reciprocityl, m
Pride Self-relevant achievementa, n Status displaya, n
Awe Self is small vis-à-vis something vast, 
beyond current understandinga, oCognitive accommodation, devotion, 
reverencea, q, r
Interest Novel opportunitysExplorationt, u, v
Amusement Safety, cognitive flexibility, incongruity 
resolutiona, w, xPlayy
Relief Cause of distress endszSignal safety
vNote . aShiota et al. (2014). bavFredrickson (1998). cWood, Heimpel, and Michela (2003). dDepue and Collins (1999). 
eGonzaga et al. (2001). fHazan and Shaver (1987). gDiamond (2003). hBuss (1992). iDavidson and Harrington (2001). 
jNussbaum (1996). kTaylor (2002). lMcCullough, Kilpatrick, Emmons, and Larson (2001). mTrivers (1971). nTracy and 
Robins (2007). oKeltner and Haidt (2003). pGriskevicius, Shiota, and Neufeld (2010). qDanvers and Shiota (2017). rWood -
ruff (2002). sIzard (1977). tReeve (1993). uSilvia (2005). vPanksepp (1998). wLatta (2011). xRuch (1993). yPelligrini (1992). 
zTomkins (1984).