Cross-Cultural
Data from eight societies (Brazil, China, Germany, Israel, Malaysia, Norway, Russia, and USA) showed that 39
items had the same rank order across societies: Fate Control: r(6)5.75, rank-order r(6)5.91; Religiosity: r(6)5.99,
rank-order r(6)5.91; Reward for Application: r(6)5.74, rank-order r(6)5.31,ns; Social Complexity: r(6)5.71, rank-
order, r(6)5.66,p,.10; Social Cynicism: r(6)5.58,ns, rank-order r(6)5.74 (Leung et al., 2012 ).
Validity
Convergent/Concurrent
The correlations between the short and long forms of SAS II factors were high for Fate Control (average
r5.93, range 5.92 to .94), Religiosity (average r5.91, range 5.88 to .95), Reward for Application (average r5.89,
range5.84 to .93), Social Complexity (average r5.85, range 5.84 to .86), and Social Cynicism (average r5.90,
range5.87 to .93).
Fate Control correlates positively with Rotter’s (1966) External Locus of Control ( r5.18); Religiosity correlated
positively with Tobacyk and Milford’s (1983) Traditional Christian Beliefs ( r5.64); Reward for Application corre-
lated positively with Martin and Anderson’s (1998) Cognitive Flexibility ( r5.16) and Traditional Christian Beliefs
(r5.16); and Social Complexity correlated positively with Martin and Anderson’s (1998) Cognitive Flexibility
(r5.29). Finally, the SAS I factors had low to moderate correlations with the SVS factors; the highest correlation
was .36 between Other-Concern and Reward for Application.
Divergent/Discriminant
Social Cynicism correlates negatively with Interpersonal Trust ( r52.43) and Cognitive Flexibility ( r52.25;
Singelis, Hubbard, & Pa Her, 2003 ).
Construct/Factor Analytic
For SAS I, cluster analysis and a separate principal component analysis with varimax rotation were used to
extract the dimensions separately in the Hong Kong and Venezuelan samples ( Leung et al., 2002 , Study 1).
Subsequently, confirmatory factor analysis was performed to confirm the extracted factor structure. The results
supported the five factor structure across three societies ( Leung et al., 2002 , Study 2): χ2(44)532.9, p,.01,χ2/
df50.75, GFI 5.950, CFI 51.000, RMR 5.032 in Germany; χ2(67)5188.8, ns,χ2/df52.82, GFI5.879, CFI 5.901,
RMR5.030 in Japan; and χ2(67)573.8, p,.01,χ2/df51.10, GFI 5.919, CFI 5.969, RMR 5.017 in the United
States.
For SAS II, confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to evaluate the structural fit with the 5-factor model
using LISREL 8.80 ( Jo¨reskog & So ¨rbom, 2006 ). In the Leung et al. (2012) study, meta-analysis was performed on
the correlations of the factors from each society to obtain one correlation matrix ( Becker, 1996; Leung, et al.,
2002 ). The fit indices for the hypothesized 5-factor model were satisfactory: χ2(3,310; N52046)512,474, p,.001,
χ2/df53.77, SRMR 5.054, RMSEA 5.043, NNFI 5.88, IFI 5.89, CFI 5.89 in Leung et al., 2012 , Study 1; and
χ2(1,700; N5259)53,219, p,.001,χ2/df51.84, SRMR 5.082, RMSEA 5.068, NNFI 5.80, IFI 5.81, CFI 5.81 in
Leung et al., 2012 , Study 2.
Leung et al. (2012) also performed a procrustes rotation to assess structural equivalence of the SAS factors for
the US and Hong Kong samples ( Leung et al., 2012 ) using Tucker’s (1951) phi values. For Fate Control, average
phi5.78 (range 5.45 to .88) in Study 1 and average phi 5.86 (range 5.86 to .87) in Study 2. For Religiosity, aver-
age phi 5.91 (range 5.82 to .96) in Study 1 and average phi 5.91 (range 5.89 to .92) in Study 2. For Reward for
Application, average phi 5.85 (range 5.67 to .94) in Study 1 and average phi 5.78 (range 5.75 to .80) in Study 2.
For Social Complexity, average phi 5.84 (range 5.77 to .91) in Study 1 and average phi 5.88 (range 5.87 to .88)
in Study 2. For Social Cynicism, average phi 5.90 (range 5.86 to .96) in Study 1 and average phi 5.92
(range5.90 to .93) in Study 2.
Location
SAS I: Leung, K., & Bond, M. (2004). Social axioms: A model for social beliefs in multicultural perspective.
In M.P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 36, pp. 119 /C0197). San Diego, CA: Elsevier
Academic.
SAS II: Leung, K. (2004). Social axioms project. Retrieved May 25, 2014, from http://personal.cityu.edu.hk/
Bmgkleung/sa.htm645 OVERVIEW OF THE MEASURES
VI. SOCIOCULTURAL INTERACTION AND CONFLICT