its cross-cultural equivalence is limited compared with the larger NEO-PI-R (see next section) and comes mostly
from European and other Western samples. Further evidence on its cross-cultural applicability is needed.
NEO Personality Inventory, Revised (NEO-PI-R)
(Costa & McCrae, 1992 ).
The NEO-PI-R measures the five factors of the FFM (Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness,
Neuroticism, and Openness) as well as 30 lower level facets, six per factor. The NEO-PI-R is one of the most
researched and widely used inventories measuring the FFM. It provides scores both on the level of higher order
domains and of lower order facets. The inventory has a self-report and a peer-report form. Church et al. (2011)
reported Cronbach alpha coefficients for the facet scales ranging from .24 to .82, with median values across coun-
tries ranging from .62 to .70; see Table 26.1 . For the peer-report form, McCrae, Terracciano, and 78 Members of
the Personality Profiles of Cultures Project (2005a) reported alpha coefficients ranging from .25 to .96, with
median values across the five factors ranging from .88 to .94 ( Table 26.1 ).McCrae (2002) examined the validity of
the NEO-PI-R self-report form at country level by analyzing its associations with EPQ data in 18 countries. Both
Neuroticism ( r5.80) and Extraversion ( r5.51) were positively correlated between the two inventories. McCrae,
Terracciano, and 79 Members of the Personality Profiles of Cultures Project (2005b) analyzed country-level asso-
ciations of the NEO-PI-R peer-report form with the self-report form and with two sets of EPQ data. Support was
found especially for the validity of N, E, O, and C. As well, country-level associations with external variables
such as beliefs, attitudes, and values have been documented ( McCrae, 2002; McCrae et al., 2005b ).
Both the self- and peer-report form have been translated into tens of languages from several language families,
sometimes with minor item adaptations. The self-report form has been used in 36 countries ( McCrae, 2002 ). The
factor structure of the total sample was target-rotated toward the US structure; the congruence coefficients of N,
A, and C were over .90, but those of E (.85) and O (.87) were lower. On an individual level, Rolland (2002) exam-
ined the structural equivalence in 16 cultures and found average congruence coefficients mostly above .90, with a
number of individual coefficients failing to reach that value ( Table 26.1 ). The peer-report form was administered
in 50 cultures ( McCrae et al., 2005a ). The congruence coefficients of the total sample with the US (self-report)
structure were all above .95. The congruence coefficients of individual countries were on average above .90,
although there were individual coefficients as low as .53. African countries had some of the lowest congruence
coefficients. The authors examined two hypotheses explaining the weak congruence: that it may be due to a dis-
tinctive African personality structure different from the FFM or to questionnaire inapplicability in this cultural
context. They found more evidence for the latter hypothesis.
In one of the few studies on metric equivalence of the NEO-PI-R, Church and colleagues (2011) examined DIF
in the US, Philippines, and Mexico. They found DIF in 40% to 50% of cultural comparisons and interpreted the
results as warranting caution in cross-cultural comparisons of personality profiles.
Extensive data have been presented on the NEO-PI-R’s cross-cultural applicability. There is evidence for struc-
tural equivalence across cultures, although deviations are also found, especially in African data. Cross-level
analyses can also be performed given the evidence for isomorphism of the constructs at individual and country
level. There is less support, however, for scalar equivalence, which should be kept in mind when scale score
comparisons are considered.
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ-R)
(Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975 ).
The EPQ-R is designed to measure the three factors posited by Eysenck: Extraversion (E), Neuroticism (N),
and Psychoticism (P). It also measures dissimulation tendencies, or lying (L). Van Hemert et al. (2002) reported
Cronbach alpha coefficients ranging from .52 to .91 across the three broad scales in 31 countries ( Table 26.1 ). P
has been found to have lower reliability values than the other factors, with a median value of .68 in a reliability
generalization study, where the values for the other factors were .82 (E), .83 (N), and .79 (L) ( Caruso, Witkiewitz,
Belcourt-Dittloff, & Gottlieb, 2001 ). The EPQ has been translated and/or adapted into a number of languages,
usually with back-translation ( Barrett & Eysenck, 1984 ). In a study of the factor structures in 34 countries, Barrett,
Petrides, Eysenck, and Eysenck (1998) reported congruence coefficients above .90 for E and N, but below that
value for P and L (see Table 26.1 ). Similarly, Van Hemert et al. (2002) found evidence in data from 24 countries
for the cross-level equivalence between individual and country level for the former two factors, but not the latter768 26. MEASURES OF PERSONALITY ACROSS CULTURES
VI. SOCIOCULTURAL INTERACTION AND CONFLICT