Part II    Psychodynamic Theories90
there is an element of aggressive accusation in all unhealthy lifestyles. Unhealthy peo -
ple invariably act to cause the people around them to suffer more than they do.
The third form of neurotic aggression, self-accusation,  is marked by self-torture 
and guilt. Some people use self-torture, including masochism, depression, and suicide, as 
means of hurting people who are close to them. Guilt is often aggressive, self-accusatory 
behavior. “I feel distressed because I wasn’t nicer to my grandmother while she was still 
living. Now, it’s too late.”
Self-accusation is the converse of depreciation, although both are aimed toward 
gaining personal superiority. With depreciation, people who feel inferior devalue oth -
ers to make themselves look good. With self-accusation, people devalue themselves 
in order to inflict suffering on others while protecting their own magnified feelings of 
self-esteem (Adler, 1956).
Withdrawal
Personality development can be halted when people run away from difficulties. Adler 
referred to this tendency as withdrawal,  or safeguarding through distance. Some peo -
ple unconsciously escape life’s problems by setting up a distance between themselves 
and those problems.
Adler (1956) recognized four modes of safeguarding through withdrawal: 
(1) moving backward, (2) standing still, (3) hesitating, and (4) constructing  obstacles.
Moving backward  is the tendency to safeguard one’s fictional goal of superiority 
by psychologically reverting to a more secure period of life. Moving backward is simi -
lar to Freud’s concept of regression in that both involve attempts to return to earlier, 
more comfortable phases of life. Whereas regression takes place unconsciously and 
protects people against anxiety-filled experiences, moving backward may sometimes 
be conscious and is directed at maintaining an inflated goal of superiority. Moving 
backward is designed to elicit sympathy, the deleterious attitude offered so generously 
to pampered children.
Psychological distance can also be created by standing still.  This withdrawal 
tendency is similar to moving backward but, in general, it is not as severe. People who 
stand still simply do not move in any direction; thus, they avoid all their responsibili -
ties by ensuring themselves against any threat of failure. They safeguard their fictional 
aspirations because they never do anything to prove that they cannot accomplish their 
goals. A person who never applies to graduate school can never be denied entrance; a 
child who shies away from other children will not be rejected by them. By doing noth -
ing, people safeguard their self-esteem and protect themselves against failure.
Closely related to standing still is hesitating.  Some people hesitate or vacillate 
when faced with difficult problems. Their procrastinations eventually give them the 
excuse “It’s too late now.” Adler believed that most compulsive behaviors are attempts 
to waste time. Compulsive hand washing, retracing one’s steps, behaving in an obses -
sive orderly manner, destroying work already begun, and leaving work unfinished are 
examples of hesitation. Although hesitating may appear to other people to be self-
defeating, it allows neurotic individuals to preserve their inflated sense of self-esteem.
The least severe of the withdrawal safeguarding tendencies is constructing 
obstacles.  Some people build a straw house to show that they can knock it down. By 
overcoming the obstacle, they protect their self-esteem and their prestige. If they fail 
to hurdle the barrier, they can always resort to an excuse.
fei75766_ch03_072-106.indd 90  02/06/20  11:03 AMFinal PDF to printer