fei75766_ch16_495-533.indd 511  02/06/20 01:34 PM
Chapter 16    Skinner: Behavioral Analysis511
primary reinforcers asfoodandphysical contact. When children arebeing fedor
held, theyarealsoreceiving attention. After foodandattention arepaired anumber 
oftimes, attention itself becomes reinforcing through theprocess ofrespondent (clas -
sical) conditioning. Children, andadults too,willwork forattention withnoexpecta -
tionofreceiving foodorphysical contact. Inmuch thesame way,approval, affection, 
submission ofothers, andmoney acquire generalized reinforcement value. Behavior 
canbeshaped andresponses learned withgeneralized conditioned reinforcers supply -
ingthesolereinforcement.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Anybehavior followed immediately bythepresentation ofapositive reinforcer or
theremoval ofanaversive stimulus tends thereafter tooccur more frequently. The
frequency ofthatbehavior, however, issubject totheconditions under which train-
ingoccurred, more specifically, tothevarious schedules ofreinforcement (Ferster &
Skinner, 1957).
Reinforcement canfollow behavior oneither acontinuous schedule oran
intermittent one.With acontinuous schedule, theorganism isreinforced forevery 
response. Thistypeofschedule increases thefrequency ofaresponse butisaninef-
ficient useofthereinforcer. Skinner preferred intermittent schedules notonlybecause 
theymake more efficient useofthereinforcer butbecause theyproduce responses 
thataremore resistant toextinction. Interestingly, Skinner firstbegan using intermit -
tentschedules because hewasrunning lowonfoodpellets (Wiener, 1996). Intermit -
tentschedules arebased either onthebehavior oftheorganism oronelapsed time; 
theyeither canbesetatafixed rateorcanvaryaccording toarandomized program. 
Ferster andSkinner (1957) recognized alarge number ofreinforcement schedules, 
butthefourbasic intermittent schedules arefixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, 
andvariable-interval. 
Fixed-Ratio  With afixed-ratio schedule, theorganism isreinforced intermittently 
according tothenumber ofresponses itmakes. Ratio refers totheratioofresponses 
toreinforcers. Anexperimenter maydecide toreward apigeon withagrain pellet 
forevery fifthpeckitmakes atadisc.Thepigeon isthenconditioned atafixed-ratio 
schedule of5to1,thatis,FR5.
Nearly allreinforcement schedules begin onacontinuous basis, butsoon the
experimenter canmove from continuous reward toanintermittent reinforcement. In
thesame way,extremely highfixed-ratio schedules, like200to1,must begin atalow
rateofresponses andgradually build toahigher one.Apigeon canbeconditioned to
work longandrapidly inexchange foronefoodpellet provided ithasbeen previously 
reinforced atlower rates.
Technically, almost nopayscale forhumans follows afixed-ratio oranyother 
schedule because workers ordinarily donotbegin withacontinuous schedule of
immediate reinforcement. Anapproximation ofafixed-ratio schedule would bethe
paytobricklayers whoreceive afixed amount ofmoney foreachbrick theylay.
Variable-Ratio  With afixed-ratio schedule, theorganism isreinforced afterevery 
nthresponse. With thevariable-ratio schedule, itisreinforced afterthenthresponse Final PDF to printer