156 II. BIOLOGICAL  FOuNDATIONS
version of the behavioral inventory used by 
Watson and Clark (1993). Once again, the 
pattern is clear: Disinhibited individuals 
have more positive attitudes toward casual 
sex and, concomitantly, engage more freely 
in a variety of sexual behaviors, including 
those associated with some risk. Moreover, 
this appears to reflect an antisocial more 
than simply a carefree lifestyle, which is 
consistent with the inclusion of “promiscu -
ous sexual behavior” among the criteria for 
psychopathy (Cleckley, 1964; Hare, 1991).
Watson and Clark (1993) also reported 
that “perceived spirituality” was related 
positively to E/PE and negatively to DvC. 
To examine this further, Samples 3 and 4 
provided additional data on religious beliefs 
and behaviors, shown in Table 6.5. Scores 
from all Big Three factors are shown, be -
cause of the established relations of these be -
haviors to E/PE, as well as DvC. Replicating 
the Watson and Clark findings, all measures 
relating to religious behaviors or beliefs were 
related to both E/PE and DvC, with some mild indication that nonreligiosity reflects a 
more antisocial than simply a carefree life -
style. That religious people should be more 
behaviorally constrained comes as no great 
surprise, although it might be interesting to 
test the generalizability of these relations in 
cultures with a less puritanical streak than 
the United States. The extent to which the 
relation with E/PE may be due to the social 
aspects of religious behavior is unknown, 
and is an issue worth further investigation.
Relatedly, it is worth mentioning that in 
their meta-  analysis of Big Five-  related out -
comes, Ozer and Benet-Martínez (2006) ex -
amined correlates of spirituality and virtues. 
They reported several findings that are con -
sistent with the previous results: MacDonald 
(2000) described five components of spiritu -
ality, three of which related to temperament 
(and the other two to openness). Religious -
ness and perceptions and attitudes regard -
ing spirituality were related to A and C (i.e., 
DvC in Big Three terms), whereas “existen -
tial well-being was strongly predicted by 
TABLE 6.5.  Correlations of the Big Three and DvC Subscales with Selected Lifestyle Variables
Variable (no. of items)Big Three DvC
N/NE E/PE DvC CO AB
Sample 3
Religious behavior (10) –.03  .14 –.32 –.28 –.27
Conservative religious beliefs (11) –.01  .23 –.15 –.12 –.13
Sample 4
Religious service attendance (1)  .06  .15 –.19 –.12 –.22
Importance of religion (1)  .02  .17 –.23 –.15 –.25
Reckless driving (4) –.02  .01  .40  .26  .36
Thrill-seeking behaviors (17) –.14  .24  .24  .15  .17
Sample 5
High school GPA  .01  .03 –.22 –.25 –.13
College GPA  .06 –.02 –.27 –.30 –.17
Sample 6
High school GPA  .02  .01 –.24 –.27 –.10
College GPA  .03  .04 –.42 –.41 –.30
Note . DvC, Disinhibition versus Constraint; CO, Carefree Orientation; AB, Antisocial Behavior; GPA, grade 
point average. Sample 3 N = 197. See Watson and Clark (1993) for details regarding method, which were 
slightly modified for this study. Correlations ≥ .15, p < .05; r ≥ .19, p < .01. Sample 4 (Haig, 1997), N = 408; 
see text for details. Correlations ≥ .10, p < .05; r ≥ .13, p < .01. Sample 5 N = 716 for high school GPA; N = 
831 for college GPA. Sample 6 (E. Gray & Watson, 2002), N = 300. The larger of the two DvC subscale cor -
relations is in boldface ; if the difference between them is significant, it is also underlined .