between non-corresponding subscales) in the CSI, WCQ, and COPE Inventory, however. They concluded that the
scales tap similar constructs and are highly congruent.
Amirkhan (1994) assessed the convergent and discriminant validity of the CSI in three studies. Replicating a
procedure by Miller (1987) , participants who scored high on problem solving were most likely to choose to hear
information about an upcoming electric shock; participants who scored high on avoidance were most likely to
choose to hear distracting music; and participants who scored high on social support and avoidance were likely
to choose to talk to a confederate. In a second study, Amirkhan found that students scored higher in problem
solving after completing a critical thinking course compared with completing an introductory psychology course.
Finally, a substance abuse treatment program was evaluated and found to reduce avoidant coping and increase
seeking of social support.
Divergent/Discriminant
In the study by Amirkhan (1994) outlined above, participants who scored high on problem solving were not
likely to seek distraction or support, participants who scored high on avoidance were not likely to seek informa-
tion, and participants who scored high on social support and avoidance were not likely to seek information or
distraction.
Construct/Factor Analytic
Generally, researchers have replicated the 3-factor structure described by Amirkhan (1990) .Ager and
MacLachlan (1998) had 415 Malawian students complete the CSI, and found, using an exploratory factor analysis,
that a three-factor solution explained the data. Desmond, Shevlin, and MacLachlan (2006) had 618 elderly veter-
ans with acquired limb amputations complete the CSI and using confirmatory factor analysis, showed accepted
fit for a three-factor model. However, these researchers have argued that a 4-factor structure distinguishing
between two types of avoidance coping fits the data best (i.e., support seeking, problem solving, avoidance dis-
traction, and avoidance-withdrawal). Both Ager and MacLachlan (1998) andDesmond et al. (2006) demonstrated
that four-factor model had significantly better fit to the data than a three-factor model. Some researchers have
even suggested that an 8-factor model is the most appropriate based on confirmatory factor analysis goodness-of-
fit indices ( Cook & Heppner, 1997 ).
Criterion/Predictive
In general, avoidance is the subscale most commonly predictive of negative mental health outcomes.
Avoidance coping was associated with general stress in college samples ( Amirkhan, Risinger, & Swickert, 1995 ),
and with depression, anxiety, and poor marital adjustment in at-risk patients suffering from a major depressive
disorder ( Spangenber & Theron, 2010 ). Neither problem solving nor seeking social support were associated with
mental health outcomes in these samples.
Location
Desmond, D., Shevlin, M., & MacLachlan, M. (2006). Dimensional analysis of the coping strategy indicator in a
sample of elderly veterans with acquired limb amputations. Personality and Individual Differences, 40 , 249/C0259.
doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2005.04.015.
Results and Comments
Given that the CSI is a situational measure of coping, it can be applied to assess coping in a wide variety of con-
texts. For example, the CSI has been used to investigate how people cope with physical disability (e.g., Kara &
Acikel, 2011 ), alcohol dependence (Campbell & Spangenberg, 2008), partner violence (e.g., Sullivan,
Ashare, Jaquier, & Tennen, 2012 ), spousal bereavement ( Somhlaba & Wait, 2008 ), and dementia caregiving (e.g.,
Ashley & Kleinpeter, 2002 ). Overall, problem solving and social support are associated with positive outcomes and
increased well-being, while use of avoidance coping strategies tend to be associated with pathology and
dysfunction.
The CSI is a useful tool for assessing specific coping strategies. Yet, the measure has been criticized for com-
paratively poor goodness-of-fit statistics at the development stage, and some questionable correlations with other
established coping measures ( Schwarzer & Schwarzer, 1996 ), as reviewed in the Validity section, above. The
range of coping strategies assessed in the CSI is also less than the other well-known situational coping instru-
ment, the Ways of Coping Questionnaire.339 STATE COPING MEASURES
III. EMOTION REGULATION