suggestions (Gorassini, Sowerby, Creighton, & Fry, 1991; Gorassini &
Spanos, 1986). In addition, the more motivated people are to experience hyp-nosis, the more responsive they will be. Finally, what people expect to happen
during the hypnotic experience affects their responsiveness (Benham, Woody,
Wilson, & Nash, 2006; Fassler, Lynn, & Knox, 2008). Participants told in
one study that responding to suggestions was difficult were not as responsive
as those told it was easy (Barber & Calverley, 1964). Similarly, students who
first watched a highly responsive participant were more responsive to hyp-notic suggestions than those who watched a nonresponsive model (Klinger,
1970). In short, people tend to act under hypnosis the way they think they
are supposed to act. This is why people who expect to see bizarre behaviorat a hypnosis show often act bizarrely when they are brought up on stage and
hypnotized.
SUMMARY
1. A common thread runs through the four topics covered in this chapter. In
each case, evidence supporting the Freudian position has been produced
by researchers, yet questions about how to interpret these findings re-
main. Although it seems fair to conclude that some empirical support has
been obtained for Freud ’s theory, in no case is this support clear and
unequivocal.
2. Researchers examining the content of dreams find that men tend to
dream about male characters twice as often as they dream about female
characters. Some researchers interpret this finding as evidence of men ’s
preoccupation with other men, a holdover from unresolved Oedipal im-
pulses. The discovery of REM sleep allowed investigators to better exam-
ine the function of dreams. Although deprivation of REM sleep is not
related to psychological disorders, some research indicates that dreamingmay help the sleeper work through ongoing problems.
3. Researchers use projective tests and other procedures to determine which
defense mechanisms people use. Studies find young children tend to rely
on unsophisticated defense mechanisms, such as denial, whereas adults
more often use defense mechanisms like identification. Researchers also
find individual differences in preferred defense mechanisms. People who
rely heavily on immature defense mechanisms may have more difficulties
with personal adjustment and well-being than those who use more effi-
cient and productive defense mechanisms.
4. Freud outlined a theory of humor, arguing that sexual and aggressive
themes underlie much of what we find funny. In support of his theory,researchers find that people think hostile humor is funnier when it is
aimed at someone they dislike. In addition, some research indicates that
hostile humor reduces the likelihood of aggression, as Freud predicted.
However, other studies find the opposite. The more tension people expe-
rience before receiving a punch line, the funnier they find a joke.
Although many research findings are consistent with Freud’ s theory,
many also are open to alternative interpretations.92 CHAPTER 4 The Freudian Approach