 4. Achievement Goal Complexes  117
Cellar, D. F., Stuhlmacher, A. F., Young, S. K., Fish -
er, D. M., Adair, C. K., Haynes, S., et al. (2011). 
Trait goal orientation, self-  regulation, and per -
formance: A meta-  analysis. Journal of Business 
and Psychology, 26, 467–483.
Ciani, K. D., & Sheldon, K. M. (2010). Evaluating 
the mastery-  avoidance goal construct: A study 
of elite college baseball players. Psychology of 
Sport and Exercise, 11, 127–132.
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological 
Bulletin, 112,  155–159.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic moti -
vation and self-  determination in human behav -
ior. New York: Plenum Press.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and 
“why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the 
self- determination of behavior. Psychological In -
quiry, 11,  227–268.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2016). Optimizing 
students’ motivation in the era of testing and 
pressure: A self-  determination theory perspec -
tive. In W. C. Liu, J. C. K. Wang, & R. M. 
Ryan (Eds.), Building autonomous learners: 
Perspectives from research and practice using 
self- determination theory  (pp. 9–29). Singapore: 
Springer.
Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & 
Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: 
The self-  determination perspective. Educational 
Psychologist, 26, 325–346.
†Delrue, J., Mouratidis, A., Haerens, L., De 
Muynck, G. J., Aelterman, N., & Vansteenkiste, 
M. (2016). Intrapersonal achievement goals and 
underlying reasons among long distance runners: 
Their relation with race experience, self-talk, 
and running time. Psychologica Belgica, 56, 
288–310.
DeShon, R. P., & Gillespie, J. Z. (2005). A moti -
vated action theory account of goal orientation. 
Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 1096 –1127.
Dompnier, B., Darnon, C., & Butera, F. (2009). Fak -
ing the desire to learn: A clarification of the link 
between mastery goals and academic achieve -
ment. Psychological Science, 20, 939–943.
Dompnier, B., Darnon, C., & Butera, F. (2013). 
When performance-  approach goals predict aca -
demic achievement and when they do not: A 
social value approach. British Journal of Social 
Psychology, 52, 587–596.
Duffy, E. (1941). The conceptual categories of psy -
chology; A suggestion for revision. Psychological 
Review, 48,  177–203.
Dweck, C. S. (1975). The role of expectations and 
attributions in the alleviation of learned helpless -
ness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychol -
ogy, 31,  674–685.
Dweck, C. S. (1986). Motivational processes af -
fecting learning. American Psychologist, 41, 
1040–1048.Dweck, C. S. (1991). Self-  theories and goals: Their 
role in motivation, personality, and development. 
In R. A. Dienstbier (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium 
on Motivation  (Vol. 38, pp. 199–235). Lincoln: 
University of Nebraska Press.
Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social- 
cognitive approach to motivation and personal -
ity. Psychological Review, 95, 256–273.
Elliot, A. J. (1994). Approach and avoidance 
achievement goals: An intrinsic motivation anal -
ysis. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univer -
sity of Wisconsin–  Madison, Madison, WI.
Elliot, A. J. (1999). Approach and avoidance moti -
vation and achievement goals. Educational Psy -
chologist, 34,  169–189.
Elliot, A. J. (2005). A conceptual history of the 
achievement goal construct. In A. J. Elliot & C. 
Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and 
motivation  (pp. 52–72). New York: Guilford 
Press.
Elliot, A. J. (2006). The hierarchical model of 
approach-  avoidance motivation. Motivation and 
Emotion, 30, 111–116.
Elliot, A. J., & Church, M. A. (1997). A hierarchi -
cal model of approach and avoidance achieve -
ment motivation. Journal of Personality and So -
cial Psychology, 72, 218–232.
Elliot, A. J., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). Ap -
proach and avoidance achievement goals and 
intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. 
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 
70, 968–980.
Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (2001). A 2 × 2 
achievement goal framework. Journal of Person -
ality and Social Psychology, 80, 501–519.
Elliot, A. J., & Murayama, K. (2008). On the mea -
surement of achievement goals: Critique, illustra -
tion, and application. Journal of Educational 
Psychology, 100, 613–628.
Elliot, A. J., Murayama, K., & Pekrun, R. (2011). A 
3 × 2 achievement goal model. Journal of Educa -
tional Psychology, 103, 632–648.
Elliot, A. J., & Thrash, T. M. (2001). Achievement 
goals and the hierarchical model of achievement 
motivation. Educational Psychology Review, 13, 
139–156.
Elliott, E. S., & Dweck, C. S. (1988). Goals: An ap -
proach to motivation and achievement. Journal 
of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 5–12.
†Gaudreau, P. (2012). Goal self-  concordance mod -
erates the relationship between achievement goals 
and indicators of academic adjustment. Learning 
and Individual Differences, 22, 827–832.
†Gaudreau, P., & Braaten, A. (2016). Achievement 
goals and their underlying goal motivation: Does 
it matter why sport participants pursue their 
goals? Psychologica Belgica, 56, 244–268.
†Gillet, N., Huyghebaert, T., Barrault, S., Bucourt, 
E., Gimenes, G., Maillot, A., et al. (2017). Au -