low emotional intensity. Zuckerman et al. (1993) related stylistic preferences among 19th century paintings to
sensation seeking. Expressionistic art, involving intense color and emotional content (e.g., Van Gogh), was liked
relatively more by high sensation seekers as measured by the SSS-V. Furnham and Walker (2001) , using the SSS
VI, found a preference for Pop art among high sensation seekers, and Furnham and Avison (1997) found that
high sensation seekers also liked surreal art. Both pop and surreal art use familiar objects and images of people
in novel contexts. The preferences of sensation seekers in media, music, and art reflect an appetite for both nov-
elty and intensity in style and violence and eroticism in content. In general, there is a preference for style and
content that is arousing whether in realistic photographic or abstract and novel styles, or some combination of
the two. In music, intensity creates a liking for hard edge rock music although this depends on generational dif-
ferences in exposure.
Behavioral differences between high and low scorers on the SSS scales also depend on genetic, physiological,
biochemical, and neurological differences. A biosocial theory of sensation seeking has been developed as part of
the trait construct. The reader is referred to previous publications on the biological bases of sensation seeking
Zuckerman (2005, 2007, 2008a, 2008b, 2011) . Behavior genetic studies using the SSS-V and twins (both separated
and raised together), have shown a high degree of heritability for the Total Score and its subscales ( Zuckerman,
1994, 2002b ). Molecular genetic studies have shown an association between novelty seeking and the dopamine
receptor 4 gene (DRD4). The monoamine theory of sensation seeking involves three monoamines: dopamine,
serotonin and norepinephrine ( Zuckerman, 1995 ). Dopamine in the medial forebrain bundle and the nucleus
accumbens mediates the approach to novel and arousing stimuli; serotonin reactivity regulates the strength of
inhibition; and noreprinephrine mediates general arousal. Sensation seeking is based on strong dopaminergic
reactivity to novel and intense stimuli, weak serotonergic reactivity, and accounting for the connection between
sensation seeking and impulsivity, and low fear arousability in relation to weak noradrenergic reactivity. This
model bases the trait of sensation seeking on an interaction between these neurotransmitter systems. As for evi-
dence for individual differences in brain function, there are two such models for sensation seeking: Dellu, Piazza,
Mayo, LeMoal, and Simon (1996) employed a model using rats which were highly reactive (exploratory) to novel
environments, whereas Saxton, Siegel, and Lukas (1987) used a psychophysiological marker, related to sensation
seeking in humans, to distinguish high and low sensation seeking cats. Research using functional magnetic reso-
nance imaging (fMRI) in humans is moving brain studies into sensation seeking from lower animals back to
humans. Psychophysiological studies of humans ( Zuckerman, 1990 ) have shown a heightened sensitivity of sen-
sation seekers in their arousal to novel stimuli. Studies using the evoked potential have shown high cortical arou-
sability and tolerance for high intensity stimuli (augmenting) in high sensation seekers, whereas low sensation
seekers show a cortical inhibitory response (reducing).
The first SSS was developed during the author’s re search program into sensory deprivation (see
Zuckerman, 1994 ) involving the idea of individual differences in an Optimal Level of Stimulation (OLS) and an
Optimal Level of Arousal (OLA). The OLS theory postulated that intensity of sensation varies directly with
intensity of stimulation, but affective response varies i n a curvilinear fashion: the pleasurable quality of sensa-
tion increases with intensity up to some optimal level after which it decreases wit h further stimulation and
soon becomes aversive. According to OLS theory, a sens ory deprivation situation would be particularly aver-
sive for high sensation seekers. Hebb transformed OLS theory to an OLA one mainta ining that the curvilinear
relationship between affective response and efficiency of learning and performance was related to level of cen-
tral brain arousal: individuals feel and function best a t intermediate levels of arousal. At very low levels they
are not alert, or interested and do not feel positive emotions; at very high levels there is increasing negative
emotion like anxiety. Hebb localized the OLA in the ascending Reticular Activating System (RAS) and sug-
gested that the cortex has a feedback function that in re sponse to over-arousal can deactivate or inhibit the
sensory sources of arousal through the descending RAS. A fter the initial positive re action to the novelty of the
sensory deprivation situation, the effect of drastic stim ulus reduction decreases arousal of the cortical nervous
system as measured by electroencephalography (EEG). The major stress in long-term sensory deprivation is
due to lowered arousal, which in the waking condition i s experienced as boredom. However the introduction
of even meaningless novel and changing stimuli can t emporarily alleviate the stress (see revision in
Zuckerman, 1994 ) .T h ep r o b l e mw i t ht h ei n i t i a lc o n s t r u c tw a st h ea b s e n c eo far o l ef o rn o v e l t yb e y o n di n t e n -
sity of stimulation. Novelty has some arousal function, but it is difficult to conceive of an ‘ optimal level of
novelty ’. In writing items for the first experimental form o f the SSS, the emphasis was on intensity of sensation
rather than need for novel stimulation . It was expected that factors might be in the form of sensory sources of
stimulation like visual, auditory, gustatory, tactual, a nd olfactory. However, many of the general factor items
emphasized novelty.355 13. MEASURES OF SENSATION SEEKING
III. EMOTION REGULATION