fei75766_ch16_495-533.indd 509  02/06/20 01:34 PM
Chapter 16    Skinner: Behavioral Analysis509
noises, shocks, andhunger pangs would benegatively reinforcing because they
strengthen thebehavior immediately preceding them. Negative reinforcement differs 
from positive reinforcement inthatitrequires theremoval orsubtraction ofan
aversive condition, whereas positive reinforcement involves thepresentation oraddi-
tionofabeneficial stimulus. Theeffect ofnegative reinforcement, however, isiden-
ticaltothatofpositive reinforcement—both strengthen behavior. Some people eat
because theylikeaparticular food; others eattodiminish hunger pangs. Forthe
firstgroup ofpeople, foodisapositive reinforcer; forthesecond group, removal 
ofhunger isanegative reinforcer. Inbothinstances, thebehavior ofeating is
strengthened because theconsequences arerewarding.
There isanalmost unlimited number ofaversive experiences, theremoval of
which maybenegatively reinforcing. Anxiety, forexample, isusually anaversive, 
negative experience, andanybehavior thatreduces itisreinforcing. These behaviors 
might include exercising, repressing unpleasant memories, making excuses forinap-
propriate behavior, smoking cigarettes, drinking alcohol, andamultitude ofother 
behaviors designed intentionally orunintentionally toreduce theunpleasantness of
anxiety.
Punishment
Negative reinforcement should notbeconfused withpunishment. Negative rein-
forcers remove, subtract, reduce, orhelpusavoid aversive consequences. The
removal oftheconsequence isreinforcing, sowedothebehaviors thatenabled 
thatremoval more (e.g., clicking ourseatbelt inbefore backing outofourparking 
spotsothattheannoying buzzer sound willcease). Incontrast, punishment isthe
presentation oraddition ofanegative, aversive consequence such asahefty fine
foranable-bodied driver parking inahandicapped spot(“positive punishment”) 
ortheremoval ofapositive one,such asrevoking ateenager’s driving privileges 
fortexting anddriving (“negative punishment”). These punishments aredesigned 
todecrease behavior. Again, reinforcement (whether positive/adding ornegative/
subtracting) ismeant tostrengthen orincrease behavior, andittypically does
this.Punishment, incontrast (whether positive/adding ornegative/subtracting), is
meant toweaken ordecrease behavior, butitdoesnotinevitably doso.Skinner 
(1953) agreed withThorndike thattheeffects ofpunishment arelesspredictable 
thanthose ofreinforcement.
Four Types of Consequences in Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement (increases behavior) Punishment (decreases behavior)
Positive (Add) Add a positive 
Ex.Being taken outtodinner in
recognition ofyourall-A’s report card.Add a negative 
Ex.Getting aticket forspeeding. 
Negative (Subtract)  Subtract a negative  
Ex.Doing yogatocalm yourfeelings 
ofanxiety. Subtract a positive
Ex.Having yoursmart phone taken 
away because youdefied curfew.Final PDF to printer