masculinity. Stereotypically, men are independent, and women are dependent.
Men are achieving and powerful; women are unassertive and conforming.Men are leaders, whereas women are followers. Given these descriptions, it
makes sense that those who fit the masculine role might accomplish more
and feel better about themselves than those who do not. Women do not have
to abandon their femininity to get ahead in the traditionally male business
world, but they may need some traditionally masculine attributes to be
successful.
Several investigations find support for the masculinity model (Cheng,
1999; Marsh, Antill, & Cunningham, 1987; O’ Heron & Orlofsky, 1990;
Orlofsky & O’ Heron, 1987; Roos & Cohen, 1987). Because masculine peo-
ple are more likely to use direct, problem-focused strategies, they are better
able to deal with stressors than those low in masculinity (Helgeson &
Lepore, 1997). Masculine men in one study coped better with the loss of theirspouse and the subsequent changes in their life than did other widowers
(Bowers, 1999). Women who possess masculine traits are good at influencing
others and getting what they want and are, therefore, less likely than mostwomen to suffer from helplessness and depression (Sayers, Baucom, & Tierney,
1993). Support for the masculinity model is particularly strong when looking at
the relationship between gender type and self-esteem (Whitley, 1983). People
who possess traditionally masculine attributes (such as achieving, athletic, pow-
erful) also feel good about themselves.
The third explanation is the androgyny model. According to this view,
people whose behavioral repertoires lack either masculine or feminine beha-viors are ill-prepared to respond to many situations they encounter. Without
masculine characteristics such as decisiveness and assertiveness, both men
and women are likely to falter in achievement situations. At the same time,
people unable to express emotions have difficulty establishing good interper-
sonal relationships. Only androgynous people are capable of getting ahead onthe job while relating well with friends and loved ones in their leisure time.
Several investigations find support for the androgyny model (Bem &
Lenny, 1976; Bem, Martyna, & Watson, 1976; Cheng, 2005; Lefkowitz &Zeldow, 2006; Shaw, 1982; Stake, 2000). When taking care of a baby,
feminine and androgynous —but not masculine —individuals show appropriate
nurturant behavior. Feminine people are easily swayed by the opinions of
others, whereas masculine and androgynous people better resist conformity
pressures. Individuals who possess only masculine or feminine characteristics
often do poorly when faced with stressful situations where taking action and
seeking comfort from others is beneficial.
However, overall support for the androgyny model is mixed. Whereas
many studies show the superior adaptability of androgynous individuals,others do not (Taylor & Hall, 1982; Woodhill & Samuels, 2004). Although
androgynous people may be well-prepared to deal with many situations, this
does not always translate into a sense of well-being or high self-esteem.
So what are we to conclude? First, very little research supports the con-
gruence model. Second, some of the inconsistent findings may reflect the waymasculinity and femininity are measured. For example, the most widely usedIndividual Differences in Gender-Role Behavior 381