To assess the society level values, data are collapsed across individuals within a society. The unit of analysis is
society. Of the 57 items, only 45 have equivalent meaning in within-country analyses. Therefore, only these 45
items are used to measure the cultural value orientations ( Schwartz, 1992 ).
The measurement of cultural value orientations is based on a circumplex model with three underlying dimen-
sions that organize seven basic cultural orientations: Autonomy (Affective and Intellectual Autonomy) vs.
Embeddedness (formerly known as Conservation), Egalitarianism vs. Hierarchy, and Harmony vs. Mastery
(Schwartz, 2009 ). According to Schwartz (2009) , values reflect the shared underlying conceptions of what is good
and desirable in the society. Prevailing cultural value emphases in society are the most direct expressions of cul-
tural orientations. Value emphases generate, justify and support societal institutions, and influence preferences
for appropriate behaviors, attitudes and values. Value emphases also constitute the implicit standards individuals
in the society evaluate and promote actions, norms, and policies in everyday settings.
Schwartz (2009) believes that all societies need to address three major problems in coordinating individual
members’ goal-directed behaviors. First, what is the ideal relationship between the individual and the group?
Second, what is the ideal way to elicit cooperative and productive activities in the society? Third, what is the
optimal way to regulate use of scarce human and natural resources? Solutions to the first problem differ on the
dimension of valuing the individual independent actor to emphasizing the group or role-players embedded in
groups (Autonomy vs. Embeddedness). Solutions to the second problem range from social arrangements that ide-
alize individuals as equally worthy moral agents who voluntarily seek to transcend self-interests, to social
arrangements that rely on assigning individuals to hierarchical roles (Egalitarianism vs. Hierarchy). Solution to
the third problem ranges from those that privilege harmony with and submission to the stable natural and social
order, to those that emphasize mastery, control, and change of the status quo (Harmony vs. Mastery).
The dimension of Autonomy vs. Embeddedness defines ‘the nature of the relations and boundaries between
person and the group’ ( Schwartz, 2009 , p. 129). Affective Autonomy, one of two cultural value orientations that
privilege autonomy, ‘encourages individuals to pursue affectively positive experience for themselves’ ( Schwartz,
2009 , p. 129). This value orientation is concerned with values oriented towards an exciting life and pleasure.
Intellectual Autonomy, the second cultural value orientation that champions autonomy, ‘encourages individuals
to pursue their own ideas and intellectual directions independently’ ( Schwartz, 2009 , p. 129). This value orienta-
tion is concerned with values oriented towards broadmindedness and curiosity. In contrast, the value orientation
of Emdeddedness views people as entities embedded in the collectivity ( Schwartz, 2009 ). Embeddedness is con-
cerned with values oriented towards obedience, respect for tradition and social order.
The dimension of Egalitarianism vs. Hierarchy defines the way ‘people behave in a responsible manner that
preserves the social fabric’ ( Schwartz, 2009 , p. 129). Egalitarianism ‘seeks to induce people to recognize one
another as moral equals who share basic interests as human beings’ ( Schwartz, 2009 , p. 129), and is concerned
with values oriented towards equality and social justice. In contrast, Hierarchy ‘relies on hierarchical systems of
ascribed roles to insure responsible, productive behavior’ ( Schwartz, 2009 , p. 129), and is concerned with values
oriented towards authority and humility.
The dimension of Harmony vs. Mastery defines the way that ‘regulates people’s treatment of human and natu-
ral resources’ ( Schwartz, 2009 , p. 129). Harmony ‘emphasizes fitting into the social and natural world, trying to
appreciate and accept rather than to change, direct, or exploit’ ( Schwartz, 2009 , p. 129), and is concerned with
values oriented towards unity with nature and world peace. In contrast, Mastery ‘encourages active self-assertion
in order to master, direct, and change the natural and social environment to attain group or personal goals’
(Schwartz, 2009 , p. 129), and is concerned with values oriented towards ambition and daring.
Sample
In the validation study ( Schwartz, 1994 ), items were tested on 86 samples (38 samples of grade 3 /C012 school
teachers, 35 samples of university students across different majors, 12 adult samples from various occupations,
and two adolescent samples) from 41 cultural groups in 38 nations. Currently, SVS data are available from more
than 76 cultural groups from 74 countries (retrieved May 25, 2014 from http://isdc.huji.ac.il/ehold10.shtml#E2 ).
Reliability
Internal Consistency
Mean Cronbach alpha coefficients for the 10 individual level scales across respondents from 50 societies ranged
from .52 (for Hedonism) to .58 (Tradition), .60 (Security), .61 (Self-Direction), .65 (Power), .65 (Stimulation), .66
(Achievement), .66 (Conformity), .70 (Benevolence) and .77 (Universalism). The mean alpha coefficient for society626 22. MEASURES OF CROSS-CULTURAL VALUES, PERSONALITY AND BELIEFS
VI. SOCIOCULTURAL INTERACTION AND CONFLICT