pure apocrine carcinoma of the breast pure apocrine carcinoma of the breast pure apocrine carcinoma of the breast (pacb) is a rare carcinoma derived from the epithelial cells in the lactiferous ducts of the mammary gland. the mammary gland is an apocrine gland. its lactiferous ducts have two layers of epithelial cells, a luminal layer which faces the duct's lumen (i.e. passageway) and a basal layer which lies beneath the luminal layer. there are at least 4 subtypes of epithelial cells in these ducts: luminal progenitor cells and luminal mature cells which reside in the luminal layer and mammary stem cells and basal cells which reside in the basal layer. examination of the genes expressed in pacb cancer cells indicate that most of these tumors consist of cells derived from luminal cells but a minority of these tumors consist of cells derived from basal cells. pure apocrine carcinoma of the breast≥other namespure apocrine carcinoma, pure invasive apocrine carcinomafig 1specialtyoncology, surgical oncology invasive apocrine carcinomas of the breast with an appreciable amount of apocrine gland-like tissue was termed apocrine breast tumors for decades when in 1988 d'amore et al named a subset of these carcinomas in which >90% of its tissue consisted of apocrine gland-like tissue as pure invasive apocrine carcinoma. in 2010, vranic and colleagues added further to the definition of pacp to establish the criteria currently used for its diagnosis. they defined it as a carcinoma that: a) has a component(s) which invades adjacent tissue; b) consists of >90% apocrine gland-like tissue; c) has at least 10% of its cancer cells that express androgen receptors; and d) lacks cancer cells that express estrogen receptors and progesterone receptors. many pacb tumors have cancer cells which overexpress the her2/neu receptor-like protein. the world health organization (2019) did not define any of the other invasive apocrine carcinomas as diagnostically distinct entities, but did recognize invasive ductal breast carcinoma in which >90% of its cancer cells were apocrine gland cells as "carcinoma with apocrine differentiation." non-invasive apocrine carcinoma of the breast, i.e. apocrine ductal carcinoma in situ, is classified as a variant of ductal carcinoma in situ breast tumors. invasive carcinomas consisting of 10%-90% apocrine tumor tissue have been termed apocrine-like invasive carcinoma; these carcinomas sometime have estrogen receptor-positive and/or progesterone receptor-positive tumor cells. both of these carcinomas are described in the last section (other types of apocrine carcinomas) of this article. as defined by the criteria established by vranic and colleagues, pacb is a rare carcinoma that accounts for about 1% of all breast cancers, occurs primarily in postmenopausal females, and usually presents as an asymptomatic mass that in many cases has spread to nearby axillary (i.e. armpit) lymph nodes. while earlier studies used only some of these criteria to diagnose pacb, the studies reviewed here used all four of them. presentation due to its rarity and more recent definition, pacb studies have generally consisted of small numbers of patients. in these studies, most individuals diagnosed with pacb presented with an asymptomatic breast tumor discovered by self-palpation or screening methods such as mammography. the mammographic features of pacb included a spectrum of dense masses with associated microcalcifications; these findings are non-specific and similar to those seen in, e.g. invasive carcinoma of no special type. uncommonly, pacb tumors caused breast symptoms such as a pulling sensation, skin puckering, pain, nipple discharge, or overt ulceration. in one study, 41 individuals presenting with pacb were females aged 32–75 years (mean: 59 years) with 12 (53.7%) being over 59 years old, 35 (85.4%) being postmenopausal, and 6 (14.6%) being of childbearing age; their tumors widest diameter was 0.47–10.00 centimeters (cm) (average: 2.4 cm); and axillary lymph node metastases on the same side as the tumor were present in 20 (48.8%) cases. a study of 15 individuals found 5 (33%) with lymph node metastases, again on the same side as the tumor. a study of 18 females all of whom had her2/new-positive pacb tumors reported that they were 44–83 years old (median age: 55.5 years); 14 (77.8%) were postmenopausal; the widest diameter of their tumors ranged from 0.8 to 5 cm (average: 4 cm); and 9 (50%) had axillary lymph node metastases. these metastases were detected in from 1 to 10 lymph nodes on the same side as the tumor although one individual had metastases in the lymph nodes of both axillae and another had simultaneous metastases in infraclavicular, i.e. below the clavicle, lymph nodes. rarely, individuals with pacb have presented with metastases in more distant tissues such as in the lymph nodes of the mediastinum (i.e. central compartment of the thoracic cavity) or in the deltopectoral lymph nodes, i.e. lymph nodes situated below the clavicle and between the pectoralis major and deltoid muscles. also rarely, individuals previously treated for pacb have later presented with recurrence of their disease in sites where the tumors were surgically removed, in the nearby skin or chest wall, and/or in more distant tissues such as a bone or the brain. pathology histopathology fig. 2 breast apocrine carcinoma fig. 3 breast apocrine carcinoma the microscopic histopathology of pacb tumors prepared with hematoxylin and eosin staining shows that >90% of the tumors consist of apocrine gland-like tissue. the lesions must also show that tumor cells have broken through their ducts of origin to invade adjacent tissue in at least one area. most of the tumor cells (termed type a cells) typically appear somewhat more irregular than normal apocrine gland cells. they have abundant eosinophilic (i.e. pink due to the uptake of the eosin dye) cytoplasm which contain numerous granules and large mitochondria. their nuclei are large, variably sized and shaped, have multiple nucleoli (which are eosinophilic and may be distinctively large in size), and are surrounded by highly visible nuclear membranes. the cells are arranged into solid sheets, nests, papillae, and/or cords (see figs. 1 and 2). the tumor cells' cytoplasmic granules test positive when treated with the pas diastase stain. binucleated cells, i.e. cells with two nuclei, are common. less commonly, type b apocrine cells are present; these cells have a more foamy and vacuolated cytoplasm (i.e. containing multiple vacuoles) than type a cells and often resemble foamy histiocytes or sebaceous gland cells. the tumor cells have low to moderate rates of proliferation based on their ki-67 protein levels. pacb tissues may have localized areas that contain mucin-like secretions within their luminal ducts, localized areas of necrosis (i.e. foci containing dead or dying cells), and/or microcalcifications spotted throughout the apocrine tissue. the stroma (i.e. connective tissue between the sheets, nests, papilla and cords of cells) typically contains non-malignant, infiltrating lymphocytes (see fig. 3). in an examination of 41 pabc tumors, 33 (80.5%) had <50% of their stroma tissues infiltrated with these cells while 8 (19.5%) had ≥50% of their stroma tissues infiltrated with them. tumors with ≥50% of their stroma infiltrated with lymphocytes tended to have carcinoma cells that had high rates of proliferation. metastatic and recurrent pacb tumors have a histopathology similar to their original primary tumors. using the nottingham system which classifies breast cancers into 3 grades based or their progressively more aggressive histopathology and potentially poorer prognoses, studies have found the pacb tumors in: a) 20 individuals were grade 1, 2, and 3 tumors in 3, 11, 6 cases, respectively; b) 41 individuals were grade 1, 2, and 3 tumors in 0, 30, and 11 cases, respectively; and c) 18 individuals, all of whom had her2/neu tumors, were grade 1, 2, or 3 in 1, 11 and 6 cases, respectively. using the american joint committee on guidelines for classifying breast cancer tumors into 4 stages with progressively poorer prognoses based on increasing tumor size (stages i to iii) or nearby chest wall or skin involvement or distant tissue metastases (stage 1v): a) the study of 41 cases of pacb reported 5 had stage i, 24 had stage ii, 9 had stage iii, and 3 had stage iv disease; b) the study of 20 individuals reported 14 had stage i, 4 had stage ii, 2 had stage iii, and none had stage iv disease; and c) the study of 18 individuals with triple-negative tumors reported 7 had stage i, 9 had stage ii, 2 had stage iii, and none had stage iv disease. immunohistochemistry the definition of pacb requires that immunohistochemical analyses find that at least 10% of its cancer cells express androgen receptors but none of these cells express estrogen or progesterone receptors. her2/neu (which is located on the surface membrane of cells) is not upregulated, and therefore scored as her/neu-negative, in 43%, 58.5%, 70.8%, or 90% of pacb cases. her/neu-negative pacb is one of the triple-negative breast cancers (tnbcs). tnbcs are a group of estrogen receptor-, androgen receptor-, and her2/neu-negative tumors that account for 10%-15% of all breast cancers and are particularly aggressive cancers that generally have a poorer prognosis than other breast cancer subtypes. her2/neu is in the epidermal growth factor receptor family. another member of this family, epidermal growth factor receptor (also termed her1) is sometimes (e.g. 6% of cases) overexpressed in pacb, particularly in cases that are her2/neu-negative. all pacb cases have tumor cells which express the alpha-methylacyl-coa racemase protein and nearly all of these cases have tumor cells which express the gata3 protein. the identification of these two proteins in tumor cells has helped support the diagnosis of pacb. prolactin-induced protein, a product of the pip gene, has been reported to be expressed by the tumor cells in up to 75% of pabc tumors in earlier studies and 100% (26 of 26 cases) in a more recent study. since this protein is commonly expressed in many other types of breast carcinoma, its identification has not useful for diagnosing pacb. finally, a study of 14 individuals with pacb found that 7 had infiltrating lymphocytes that expressed pd-l1 (i.e. programmed death-ligand 1), a protein that when upregulated may allow cancer cells to evade the host immune system. however, another study found that only 2 of 17 cases had pacb infiltrating lymphocytes that expressed pd-l1 protein. gene abnormalities a study of 14 individuals with pacb reported that their tumor cells commonly had abnormalities in genes that code for proteins in three intercellular signaling pathways known to be responsible for regulating cell growth, proliferation, and/or survival. these pathways were the pi3k/akt/mtor, cyclin-dependent kinase, and mapk/erk pathways. all of these pathways, when dysregulated, are implicated in promoting the development and/or progression of various types of breast cancers. the most commonly identified gene mutations in the carcinoma cells of 18 individuals with pacb were the pik3ca gene in 12, pten tumor suppressor gene in 6, and tp53 tumor suppressor gene in 5 individuals. less commonly, these cells had mutations in the braf, hras, kras, proto-oncogenes, or map3k1 gene all of which are in mapk/erk pathways, the ck4, ck6a, ck6b, or ck6c gene in the cyclin-dependent pathways, and the fgf2 gene (i.e. the basic fibroblast growth factor gene). one or more of these dysregulated pathways and mutated genes, many studies suggest, contribute to the development and/or progression of pacb tumors. diagnosis the diagnosis of pacb is based on its histopathology which should show an invasive tumor consisting of >90% apocrine morphology (see histopathology section) with apocrine-like cancinoma cells that do not express estrogen or progesterone receptors but in at least 10% of these cells do express the androgen receptor. the uptake of pas diastase stain by the tumor's carcinoma cells' cytoplasmic granules can aid in making the diagnosis. pacb is distinguished from three other very rare breast cancers with which it shares a similar morphology. oncocytic carcinoma of the breast differs from pabc in being composed of tumor cells dominated by excessive numbers of mitochondria. granular cell tumor of the breast and breast tumors consisting predominantly of cells with foamy cytoplasm resembling histiocytes (i.e. histiocytoid variant of invasive lobular carcinoma also termed hystiocytoid breast carcinoma) differ from pacb in that their cancer cells do not express gata3 or alpha-methylacyl-coa racemase but do express the s100 protein. treatment and prognosis pacb tumors have commonly been treated with regimens similar to those used to treat various non-apocrine breast carcinomas. the standard treatment for pacb has been tumor removal using either breast-conserving surgery or mastectomy with removal of any nearby axillary lymph nodes suspected of containing metastases. because of the predicted severity