inbreeding inbreeding inbreeding is the production of offspring from the mating or breeding of individuals or organisms that are closely related genetically. by analogy, the term is used in human reproduction, but more commonly refers to the genetic disorders and other consequences that may arise from expression of deleterious or recessive traits resulting from incestuous sexual relationships and consanguinity. animals avoid incest only rarely. common fruit fly females prefer to mate with their own brothers over unrelated males. inbreeding results in homozygosity, which can increase the chances of offspring being affected by recessive traits. in extreme cases, this usually leads to at least temporarily decreased biological fitness of a population (called inbreeding depression), which is its ability to survive and reproduce. an individual who inherits such deleterious traits is colloquially referred to as inbred. the avoidance of expression of such deleterious recessive alleles caused by inbreeding, via inbreeding avoidance mechanisms, is the main selective reason for outcrossing. crossbreeding between populations sometimes has positive effects on fitness-related traits, but also sometimes leads to negative effects known as outbreeding depression. however, increased homozygosity increases probability of fixing beneficial alleles and also slightly decreases probability of fixing deleterious alleles in population. inbreeding can result in purging of deleterious alleles from a population through purifying selection. inbreeding is a technique used in selective breeding. for example, in livestock breeding, breeders may use inbreeding when trying to establish a new and desirable trait in the stock and for producing distinct families within a breed, but will need to watch for undesirable characteristics in offspring, which can then be eliminated through further selective breeding or culling. inbreeding also helps to ascertain the type of gene action affecting a trait. inbreeding is also used to reveal deleterious recessive alleles, which can then be eliminated through assortative breeding or through culling. in plant breeding, inbred lines are used as stocks for the creation of hybrid lines to make use of the effects of heterosis. inbreeding in plants also occurs naturally in the form of self-pollination. inbreeding can significantly influence gene expression which can prevent inbreeding depression. overview offspring of biologically related persons are subject to the possible effects of inbreeding, such as congenital birth defects. the chances of such disorders are increased when the biological parents are more closely related. this is because such pairings have a 25% probability of producing homozygous zygotes, resulting in offspring with two recessive alleles, which can produce disorders when these alleles are deleterious. because most recessive alleles are rare in populations, it is unlikely that two unrelated marriage partners will both be carriers of the same deleterious allele; however, because close relatives share a large fraction of their alleles, the probability that any such deleterious allele is inherited from the common ancestor through both parents is increased dramatically. for each homozygous recessive individual formed there is an equal chance of producing a homozygous dominant individual — one completely devoid of the harmful allele. contrary to common belief, inbreeding does not in itself alter allele frequencies, but rather increases the relative proportion of homozygotes to heterozygotes; however, because the increased proportion of deleterious homozygotes exposes the allele to natural selection, in the long run its frequency decreases more rapidly in inbred populations. in the short term, incestuous reproduction is expected to increase the number of spontaneous abortions of zygotes, perinatal deaths, and postnatal offspring with birth defects. the advantages of inbreeding may be the result of a tendency to preserve the structures of alleles interacting at different loci that have been adapted together by a common selective history. malformations or harmful traits can stay within a population due to a high homozygosity rate, and this will cause a population to become fixed for certain traits, like having too many bones in an area, like the vertebral column of wolves on isle royale or having cranial abnormalities, such as in northern elephant seals, where their cranial bone length in the lower mandibular tooth row has changed. having a high homozygosity rate is problematic for a population because it will unmask recessive deleterious alleles generated by mutations, reduce heterozygote advantage, and it is detrimental to the survival of small, endangered animal populations. when deleterious recessive alleles are unmasked due to the increased homozygosity generated by inbreeding, this can cause inbreeding depression. there may also be other deleterious effects besides those caused by recessive diseases. thus, similar immune systems may be more vulnerable to infectious diseases (see major histocompatibility complex and sexual selection). inbreeding history of the population should also be considered when discussing the variation in the severity of inbreeding depression between and within species. with persistent inbreeding, there is evidence that shows that inbreeding depression becomes less severe. this is associated with the unmasking and elimination of severely deleterious recessive alleles. however, inbreeding depression is not a temporary phenomenon because this elimination of deleterious recessive alleles will never be complete. eliminating slightly deleterious mutations through inbreeding under moderate selection is not as effective. fixation of alleles most likely occurs through muller's ratchet, when an asexual population's genome accumulates deleterious mutations that are irreversible. despite all its disadvantages, inbreeding can also have a variety of advantages, such as ensuring a child produced from the mating contains, and will pass on, a higher percentage of its mother/father's genetics, reducing the recombination load, and allowing the expression of recessive advantageous phenotypes. some species with a haplodiploidy mating system depend on the ability to produce sons to mate with as a means of ensuring a mate can be found if no other male is available. it has been proposed that under circumstances when the advantages of inbreeding outweigh the disadvantages, preferential breeding within small groups could be promoted, potentially leading to speciation. genetic disorders autosomal recessive disorders occur in individuals who have two copies of an allele for a particular recessive genetic mutation. except in certain rare circumstances, such as new mutations or uniparental disomy, both parents of an individual with such a disorder will be carriers of the gene. these carriers do not display any signs of the mutation and may be unaware that they carry the mutated gene. since relatives share a higher proportion of their genes than do unrelated people, it is more likely that related parents will both be carriers of the same recessive allele, and therefore their children are at a higher risk of inheriting an autosomal recessive genetic disorder. the extent to which the risk increases depends on the degree of genetic relationship between the parents; the risk is greater when the parents are close relatives and lower for relationships between more distant relatives, such as second cousins, though still greater than for the general population. children of parent-child or sibling-sibling unions are at an increased risk compared to cousin-cousin unions.: 3 inbreeding may result in a greater than expected phenotypic expression of deleterious recessive alleles within a population. as a result, first-generation inbred individuals are more likely to show physical and health defects, including: reduced fertility both in litter size and sperm viability increased genetic disorders fluctuating facial asymmetry lower birth rate higher infant mortality and child mortality smaller adult size loss of immune system function increased cardiovascular risks the isolation of a small population for a period of time can lead to inbreeding within that population, resulting in increased genetic relatedness between breeding individuals. inbreeding depression can also occur in a large population if individuals tend to mate with their relatives, instead of mating randomly. due to higher prenatal and postnatal mortality rates, some individuals in the first generation of inbreeding will not live on to reproduce. over time, with isolation, such as a population bottleneck caused by purposeful (assortative) breeding or natural environmental factors, the deleterious inherited traits are culled. island species are often very inbred, as their isolation from the larger group on a mainland allows natural selection to work on their population. this type of isolation may result in the formation of race or even speciation, as the inbreeding first removes many deleterious genes, and permits the expression of genes that allow a population to adapt to an ecosystem. as the adaptation becomes more pronounced, the new species or race radiates from its entrance into the new space, or dies out if it cannot adapt and, most importantly, reproduce. the reduced genetic diversity, for example due to a bottleneck will unavoidably increase inbreeding for the entire population. this may mean that a species may not be able to adapt to changes in environmental conditions. each individual will have similar immune systems, as immune systems are genetically based. when a species becomes endangered, the population may fall below a minimum whereby the forced interbreeding between the remaining animals will result in extinction. natural breedings include inbreeding by necessity, and most animals only migrate when necessary. in many cases, the closest available mate is a mother, sister, grandmother, father, brother, or grandfather. in all cases, the environment presents stresses to remove from the population those individuals who cannot survive because of illness. there was an assumption that wild populations do not inbreed; this is not what is observed in some cases in the wild. however, in species such as horses, animals in wild or feral conditions often drive off the young of both sexes, thought to be a mechanism by which the species instinctively avoids some of the genetic consequences of inbreeding. in general, many mammal species, including humanity's closest primate relatives, avoid close inbreeding possibly due to the deleterious effects.: 6 examples although there are several examples of inbred populations of wild animals, the negative consequences of this inbreeding are poorly documented. in the south american sea lion, there was concern that recent population crashes would reduce genetic diversity. historical analysis indicated that a population expansion from just two matrilineal lines was responsible for most of the individuals within the population. even so, the diversity within the lines allowed great variation in the gene pool that may help to protect the south american sea lion from extinction. heterozygous in lions, prides are often followed by related males in bachelor groups. when the dominant male is killed or driven off by one of these bachelors, a father may be replaced by his son. there is no mechanism for preventing inbreeding or to ensure outcrossing. in the prides, most lionesses are related to one another. if there is more than one dominant male, the group of alpha males are usually related. two lines are then being "line bred". also, in some populations, such as the crater lions, it is known that a population bottleneck has occurred. researchers found far greater genetic heterozygosity than expected. in fact, predators are known for low genetic variance, along with most of the top portion of the trophic levels of an ecosystem. additionally, the alpha males of two neighboring prides can be from the same litter; one brother may come to acquire leadership over another's pride, and subsequently mate with his 'nieces' or cousins. however, killing another male's cubs, upon the takeover, allows the new selected gene complement of the incoming alpha male to prevail over the previous male. there are genetic assays being scheduled for lions to determine their genetic diversity. the preliminary studies show results inconsistent with the outcrossing paradigm based on individual environments of the studied groups. in central california, sea otters were thought to have been driven to extinction due to over hunting, until a small colony was discovered in the point sur region in the 1930s. since then, the population has grown and spread along the central californian coast to around 2,000 individuals, a level that has remained stable for over a decade. population growth is limited by the fact that all californian sea otters are descended from the isolated colony, resulting in inbreeding. cheetahs are another example of inbreeding. thousands of years ago, the cheetah went through a population bottleneck that reduced its population dramatically so the animals that are alive today are all related to one another. a consequence from inbreeding for this species has been high juvenile mortality, low fecundity, and poor breeding success. in a study on an island population of song sparrows, individuals that were inbred showed significantly lower survival rates than outbred individuals during a severe winter weather related population crash. these