(which includes both natural ecosystems and social amenities), which has been viewed as subordinate to agricultural biosecurity in the national biosecurity system, and thus received less funding. among its recommendations was the appointment of a new position of chief community and environmental biosecurity officer (ccebo) within the environment department, to perform a national policy leadership role similar to the chief veterinary officer and chief plant protection officer in the national biosecurity system. the report stated that australia has a mixture of biosecurity strategies and policies that have been tailor-made for each jurisdiction, taxon and/or agency, and that an agreed national approach for prioritising exotic pest and disease risks is desirable, to guide governments' investments. in the area of research, it concluded that the system "no longer the required structure, focus or capacity to address existing and emerging national biosecurity challenges" with "many players but no captain". it recommended several steps for improved governance, including that the nbc should improve its transparency and accountability, including making more information publicly available". in all, it published 41 recommendations to improve australia's biosecurity system. managing biosecurity risk has become more challenging due to increasing risks, the changing nature of risks, and increases in associated management costs. factors such as globalisation, international and interstate migration, climate change, tourism, and the increasing movement of goods are all contributing to increases in biosecurity risks. while the igab and nbc had been pivotal in fostering improved government collaboration, there was room for the nbc to improve its transparency and accountability, making more information publicly available. the igab had provided a strong mandate for advancing national biosecurity capacity and capability, which critically impacts whole-of economy and whole-of-government arrangements, affecting trade and market access, tourism, agricultural productivity, human health, environmental quality, biodiversity and social amenity. the report considered future challenges, funding measures, governance and performance measurement, listed 42 recommendations, and outlined an implementation pathway for its recommendations, and the potential features of a future system. in june 2018, the role of chief environmental biosecurity officer (cebo) was created to oversee environmental biosecurity, with ian thompson appointed to the role. igab2 a second agreement was effected in january 2019, known as igab2, with all states and governments as signatories, following the review. national biosecurity committee (nbc) the national biosecurity committee (nbc) was established under the igab in 2012. the nbc is "responsible for managing a national, strategic approach to biosecurity threats relating to plant and animal pests and diseases, marine pests and aquatics, and the impact of these on agricultural production, the environment, community well-being and social amenity", with one of its core objectives being to cooperation, coordination and consistency among the various government agencies involved. the secretary of the department of agriculture, water and the environment (andrew metcalfe ao as of may 2020) chairs the nbc and up to two senior officials from the federal, state and territory primary industry and/or environment agencies and jurisdictions. it provides advice on national biosecurity matters, and provides updates on progress towards implementing the recommendations of the 2017 review to the agriculture senior officials committee. state-based agencies and legislation summary of state-based legislation state and territory governments have authority for biosecurity within their jurisdiction and administer specific biosecurity legislation to manage pests and diseases, including the movement of goods, plants and animals between states that pose a biosecurity risk. as of may 2020, the nsw, wa, queensland and tasmanian governments have developed and passed consolidated biosecurity acts. the australian capital territory government has developed a framework for a new act, which will closely align with the new south wales legislation. the government of south australia is in the process of developing a new act. act the environment, planning and sustainable development directorate of the australian capital territory is responsible for biosecurity. as of may 2020, two acts provide the mechanisms "to protect the health and welfare of people and animals and to protect markets relating to animals and plants and associated products": the animal diseases act 2005 and the plant diseases act 2002, while the pest plants and animals act 2005 protects land and aquatic resources from threats posed by from animal and plant pests in the act. between 2017 and 2019, consultation took place on proposals for a new act biosecurity act, to manage biosecurity as a shared responsibility consistent with approaches taken by the other states and the commonwealth. new south wales the nsw department of primary industries is the primary agency responsible for biosecurity in the state, executing its functions under the biosecurity act 2015 (nsw), which came into effect on 1 june 2017. in addition, the public health act 2010 was amended in september 2017 to expand the scope of public health orders relating to relate to a few very serious notifiable (category 4 and 5) conditions, such as mers or ebola, to enable people to be detained as a public health risk, where they do not cooperate with voluntary quarantine. the changes were made to bring the public health act into line with the federal biosecurity act 2015. during the covid-19 pandemic in australia, a serious breach of biosecurity occurred when the cruise ship ruby princess was allowed to dock and its 2,777 passengers to disembark, despite some passengers having been diagnosed with covid-19, with serious consequences. australian border force is responsible for passport control and customs, while the federal department of agriculture is responsible for biosecurity; however, it is up to each state's health department to prevent illness in the community. responsibility for the breakdown in communications will be determined by a later enquiry. queensland biosecurity queensland, which is part of the department of agriculture and fisheries, is responsible for biosecurity in the state. the state's biosecurity act 2014 and the queensland biosecurity strategy 2018-2023 govern and guide the department's responsibilities with regard to biosecurity in queensland. queensland has had frequent biosecurity incursions affecting a wide range of crops and livestock including fall armyworm, myrtle rust, panama tr4 disease and red imported fire ants. queensland health liaises with the department of agriculture and fisheries in biosecurity matters which relate to public health (whether by human or animal transmission, for example diphtheria), issues health alerts to the public and provides advice regarding travel and other restrictions on residents' activities relating to biosecurity risk. northern territory the department of primary industry and resources and the department of environment and natural resources are responsible for biosecurity in the northern territory of australia. banana freckle disease, cucumber green mottle mosaic virus, browsing ant (lepisiota frauenfeldi) and asian honey bee have been recent threats to agriculture and the environment. the northern territory biosecurity strategy 2016-2026 was developed in order to address increasing biosecurity risks. south australia primary industries and regions sa (pirsa) manages the risks related to animal and plant pests and diseases, food-borne illnesses, and misuse of rural chemicals in south australia. as of 2020, pirsa is managing a review of current biosecurity legislation in south australia, which has been covered by multiple pieces of legislation, with the aim of creating a new single and cohesive biosecurity act for the state based on the current policy developed by pirsa. the discussion paper was published in 2019. sa health, "the brand name for the health portfolio of services and agencies responsible to...the minister for health and wellbeing", says that biosecurity sa, under pirsa, is responsible for managing the "risks and potential harm to the south australian community, environment, and economy from pests and diseases". it cites a partnership known as "one health", supported by the zoonoses working group, which supports collaboration and coordination among stakeholders with regard to human, animal and environmental health. tasmania the island state of tasmania has extremely stringent biosecurity requirements. the department of primary industries, parks, water and environment (dpipwe) is the parent department of the biosecurity tasmania agency. tasmania's biosecurity act 2019 (assented to 26 august 2019) replaced seven separate acts, whose regulations are still being applied until full implementation of the act, expected around 2023. one of the key products of the act was the creation of the biosecurity advisory committee. the state has benefited from its geographic isolation but has seen a number of incursions more recently including blueberry rust (with one incursion successfully eradicated), myrtle rust, european red fox (eradicated), indian myna (eradicated) and queensland fruit fly (eradicated). victoria agriculture victoria, an agency of the department of jobs, precincts and regions (djpr) is responsible for managing biosecurity in victoria. the executive director, biosecurity services is in charge of biosecurity. the victorian chief plant health officer unit (cpho), who exercises powers provided by the plant biosecurity act 2010 and plant biosecurity regulations 2016, is the technical lead on plant health management in victoria. victoria's chief health officer is also chief human biosecurity officer for victoria. western australia the biosecurity council of western australia was established on 27 february 2008 as a specialist advisory group to the minister for agriculture and food and the director-general of the department of primary industries and regional development, under the biosecurity and agriculture management act 2007 (bam act). the biosecurity and agriculture management regulations 2013 support the act. the bam act replaced 16 older acts and 27 sets of regulations with one act and nine sets of regulations. within the department of health, the state health coordinator and state human epidemic controller form part of the hazard management structure created by the state emergency management committee (semc), which was established by the emergency management act 2005 (em act). the state hazard plan was created in 2019. csiro the commonwealth scientific and industrial research organisation (csiro), the government agency responsible for scientific research, collaborates with the relevant government departments, as well as industry, universities and other international agencies, to help protect australian people, livestock, plants and the environment. in 2014, csiro produced an 87-page document titled australia's biosecurity future: preparing for future biological challenges. past and present threats 2020: coronavirus main article: covid-19 pandemic in australia on 18 march 2020, a human biosecurity emergency was declared in australia owing to the risks to human health posed by the covid-19 pandemic, after the national security committee met the previous day. the biosecurity act 2015 specifies that the governor-general may declare such an emergency exists if the health minister (currently greg hunt) is satisfied that "a listed human disease is posing a severe and immediate threat, or is causing harm, to human health on a nationally significant scale". this gives the minister sweeping powers, including imposing restrictions or preventing the movement of people and goods between specified places, and evacuations. the biosecurity (human biosecurity emergency) (human coronavirus with pandemic potential) declaration 2020 was declared by the governor-general, david hurley, under section 475 of the act. the act only allows for three months, but may be extended for a further three if the governor-general is satisfied that it is required. the biosecurity (human biosecurity emergency) (human coronavirus with pandemic potential) (emergency requirements) determination 2020, made by the health minister on the same day, forbids international cruise ships from entering australian ports before 15 april 2020. on 25 march 2020, the health minister made a second determination, the biosecurity (human biosecurity emergency) (human coronavirus with pandemic potential) (overseas travel ban emergency requirements) determination 2020, which "forbids australian citizens and permanent residents from leaving australian territory by air or sea as a passenger". on 25 april 2020, the biosecurity (human biosecurity emergency) (human coronavirus with pandemic potential) (emergency requirements—public health contact information) determination 2020, made under subsection 477(1) of the act, was signed into law by the health minister. the purpose of the new legislation is "to make contact tracing faster and more effective by encouraging public acceptance and uptake of covidsafe", covidsafe being the new mobile app created for the purpose. the function of the app is to record contact between any two people who both have the app on their phones when they come within 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) of each other. the encrypted data would remain on the phone for 21 days of not encountering a person logged with confirmed covid-19. as of april 2020, the (federal) department of health has a page devoted to the pandemic, which is updated daily. the state and territory governments used existing legislation relating to public health emergencies in order to bring in various