ethylene glycol is rapidly absorbed, gastric decontamination is unlikely to be of benefit unless it is performed within 60 minutes of ingestion. traditionally, gastric lavage or nasogastric aspiration of gastric contents are the most common methods employed in ethylene glycol poisoning. the usefulness of gastric lavage has, however, been questioned, and it is now no longer used routinely in poisoning situations. ipecac-induced vomiting is not recommended. as activated charcoal does not adsorb glycols, it is not recommended as it will not be effective at preventing absorption. it is only used in the presence of a toxic dose of another poison or drug. people with significant poisoning often present in a critical condition. in this situation stabilization of the person including airway management with intubation should be performed in preference to gastrointestinal decontamination. people presenting with metabolic acidosis or seizures require treatment with sodium bicarbonate and anticonvulsives such as a benzodiazepine respectively. sodium bicarbonate should be used cautiously as it can worsen hypocalcemia by increasing the plasma protein binding of calcium. if hypocalcemia occurs it can be treated with calcium replacement although calcium supplementation can increase the precipitation of calcium oxalate crystals leading to tissue damage. intubation and respiratory support may be required in severely intoxicated people; people with hypotension require treatment with intravenous fluids and possibly vasopressors. antidotes following decontamination and the institution of supportive measures, the next priority is inhibition of further ethylene glycol metabolism using antidotes. the antidotes for ethylene glycol poisoning are ethanol and fomepizole. this antidotal treatment forms the mainstay of management of ethylene glycol poisoning. the toxicity of ethylene glycol comes from its metabolism to glycolic acid and oxalic acid. the goal of pharmacotherapy is to prevent the formation of these metabolites. ethanol acts by competing with ethylene glycol for alcohol dehydrogenase (adh), the first enzyme in the degradation pathway. because ethanol has nearly 100 times more affinity for adh, it blocks the breakdown of ethylene glycol into glycolaldehyde, thus preventing further degradation to oxalic acid and the associated nephrotoxic effects. the unreacted ethylene glycol remains in the body and is eventually excreted in the urine; however, supportive therapy for the cns depression and metabolic acidosis will be required until the ethylene glycol concentrations fall below toxic limits. pharmaceutical grade ethanol is usually given intravenously as a 5 or 10% solution in 5% dextrose, but it is also sometimes given orally in the form of a strong spirit such as whisky, vodka, or gin. fomepizole is a potent inhibitor of alcohol dehydrogenase; similar to ethanol, it acts to block the formation of the toxic metabolites. fomepizole has been shown to be highly effective as an antidote for ethylene glycol poisoning. it is the only antidote approved by the u.s. food and drug administration for the treatment of ethylene glycol poisoning. both antidotes have advantages and disadvantages. ethanol is readily available in most hospitals, is inexpensive, and can be administered orally as well as intravenously. its adverse effects include intoxication, hypoglycemia in children, and possible liver toxicity. people receiving ethanol therapy also require frequent blood ethanol concentration measurements and dosage adjustments to maintain a therapeutic ethanol concentration. people therefore must be monitored in an intensive care unit. alternatively, the adverse side effects of fomepizole are minimal and the approved dosing regimen maintains therapeutic concentrations without the need to monitor blood concentrations of the drug. the disadvantage of fomepizole is that it is expensive. costing us$1,000 per gram, an average course used in an adult poisoning would cost approximately $3,500 to $4,000. despite the cost, fomepizole is gradually replacing ethanol as the antidote of choice in ethylene glycol poisoning. adjunct agents including thiamine and pyridoxine are often given, because they may help prevent the formation of oxalic acid. the use of these agents is based on theoretical observations and there is limited evidence to support their use in treatment; they may be of particular benefit in people who could be deficient in these vitamins such as those who are malnourished or alcoholic. hemodialysis in addition to antidotes, an important treatment for poisoning is the use of hemodialysis. hemodialysis is used to enhance the removal of unmetabolized ethylene glycol, as well as its metabolites from the body. it has been shown to be highly effective in the removal of ethylene glycol and its metabolites from the blood. hemodialysis also has the added benefit of correcting other metabolic derangements or supporting deteriorating kidney function. hemodialysis is usually indicated in people with severe metabolic acidosis (blood ph less than 7.3), kidney failure, severe electrolyte imbalance, or if the person's condition is deteriorating despite treatment. often both antidotal treatment and hemodialysis are used together in the treatment of poisoning. because hemodialysis will also remove the antidotes from the blood, doses of antidotes need to be increased to compensate. if hemodialysis is not available, then peritoneal dialysis also removes ethylene glycol, although less efficiently. prognosis treatment for antifreeze poisoning needs to be started as soon after ingestion as possible to be effective; the earlier treatment is started, the greater the chance of survival. cats must be treated within 3 hours of ingesting of antifreeze to be effective, while dogs must be treated within 8–12 hours of ingestion. once kidney failure develops, the prognosis is poor. generally, if the person is treated and survives then a full recovery is expected. people who present early to medical facilities and have prompt medical treatment typically will have a favorable outcome. alternatively, people presenting late with signs and symptoms of coma, hyperkalemia, seizures, or severe acidosis have a poor prognosis. people who develop severe central nervous system manifestations or stroke who survive may have long term neurologic dysfunction; in some cases they may recover, although convalescence may be prolonged. the most significant long-term complication is related to the kidneys. cases of permanent kidney damage, often requiring chronic dialysis or kidney transplantation, have been reported after severe poisoning. epidemiology ethylene glycol poisoning is a relatively common occurrence worldwide. human poisoning often occurs in isolated cases, but may also occur in epidemics. many cases of poisoning are the result of using ethylene glycol as a cheap substitute for alcohol or intentional ingestions in suicide attempts. less commonly it has been used as a means of homicide. children or animals may be exposed by accidental ingestion; children and animals often consume large amounts due to ethylene glycol having a sweet taste. in the united states there were 5816 cases reported to poison centers in 2002. additionally, ethylene glycol was the most common chemical responsible for deaths reported by us poison centers in 2003. in australia there were 17 cases reported to the victorian poison center and 30 cases reported to the new south wales poison center in 2007. however, these numbers may underestimate actual numbers because not all cases attributable to ethylene glycol are reported to poison control centers. most deaths from ethylene glycol are intentional suicides; deaths in children due to unintentional ingestion are extremely rare. in an effort to prevent poisoning, often a bittering agent called denatonium benzoate, known by the trade name bitrex, is added to ethylene glycol preparations as an adversant to prevent accidental or intentional ingestion. the bittering agent is thought to stop ingestion as part of the human defense against ingestion of harmful substances is rejection of bitter tasting substances. in the united states, eight states (oregon, california, new mexico, virginia, arizona, maine, tennessee, washington) have made the addition of bittering agents to antifreeze compulsory. three follow up studies targeting limited populations or suicidal persons to assess the efficacy of bittering agents in preventing toxicity or death have, however, shown limited benefit of bittering ethylene glycol preparations in these two populations. specifically, mullins finds that bittering of antifreeze does not reduce reported cases of poisoning of preschoolers in the us state of oregon. similarly, white found that adding bittering agents did not decrease the frequency or severity of antifreeze poisonings in children under the age of 5. additionally, another study by white found that suicidal persons are not deterred by the bittered taste of antifreeze in their attempts to kill themselves. these studies did not focus on poisoning of domestic pets or livestock, for example, or inadvertent exposure to bittered antifreeze among a large population (of non-preschool age children). poisoning of a raccoon was diagnosed in 2002 in prince edward island, canada. an online veterinary manual provides information on lethal doses of ethylene glycol for chicken, cattle, as well as cats and dogs, adding that younger animals may be more susceptible. history ethylene glycol was once thought innocuous; in 1931 it was suggested as being suitable for use as a vehicle or solvent for injectable pharmaceutical preparations. numerous cases of poisoning have been reported since then, and it has been shown to be toxic to humans. environmental effects ethylene glycol involved in aircraft de-icing and anti-icing operations is released onto land and eventually to waterways. a report prepared for the world health organization in 2000 stated that laboratory tests exposing aquatic organisms to stream water receiving runoff from airports have shown toxic effects and death (p. 12). field studies in the vicinity of an airport have reported toxic signs consistent with ethylene glycol poisoning, fish kills, and reduced biodiversity, although those effects could not definitively be ascribed to ethylene glycol (p. 12). the process of biodegrading of glycols also increases the risk to organisms, as oxygen levels become depleted in surface waters (p. 13). another study found the toxicity to aquatic and other organisms was relatively low, but the oxygen-depletion effect of biodegradation was more serious (p. 245). further, "anaerobic biodegradation may also release relatively toxic byproducts such as acetaldehyde, ethanol, acetate, and methane (p. 245)." in canada, environment canada reports that "in recent years, management practices at canada’s major airports have improved with the installation of new ethylene glycol application and mitigation facilities or improvements to existing ones." since 1994, federal airports must comply with the glycol guidelines of the canadian environmental protection act, monitoring and reporting on concentrations of glycols in surface water. detailed mitigation plans include storage and handling issues (p. 27), spill response procedures, and measures taken to reduce volumes of fluid (p. 28). considering factors such as the "seasonal nature of releases, ambient temperatures, metabolic rates and duration of exposure", environment canada stated in 2014 that "it is proposed that ethylene glycol is not entering the environment in a quantity or concentration or under conditions that have or may have an immediate or long-term harmful effect on the environment or its biological diversity". in the u.s., airports are required to obtain stormwater discharge permits and ensure that wastes from deicing operations are properly collected and treated. large new airports may be required to collect 60 percent of aircraft deicing fluid after deicing. airports that discharge the collected aircraft deicing fluid directly to waters of the u.s. must also meet numeric discharge requirements for chemical oxygen demand. a report in 2000 stated that ethylene glycol was becoming less popular for aircraft deicing in the u.s., due to its reporting requirements and adverse environmental impacts (p. 213), and noted a shift to the use of propylene glycol (p. i-3). other animals once kidney failure has developed in dogs and cats, the outcome is poor. the treatment is generally the same, although vodka or rectified spirits may be substituted for pharmaceutical grade ethanol in iv injections.