for its broad range of mental diseases and disorders. which diagnoses exist and are considered valid have changed over time depending on society's norms. homosexuality was considered a mental illness but due to changing attitudes, it is no longer recognised as an illness. historic disorders that are no longer recognised include orthorexia nervosa, sexual addiction, parental alienation syndrome, pathological demand avoidance, and internet addiction disorder. new disorders include compulsive hoarding and binge eating disorder. the act of diagnosis itself has been criticized for being arbitrary with some conditions being overdiagnosed. individuals may be diagnosed with a mental disorder despite having been perceived as having no issues with their behavior. in virginia, u.s., it was found up to 33% of white boys are diagnosed with adhd leading to alarm in the medical community. thomas szasz argued that mental health diagnoses were used as a form of labelling violations of societies norms. bill fullford, introduced the idea of "value-laden" mental health diagnosis with mental health lying between physical health and a moral judgment. under this system personality disorders are seen as not very factual and very value-laden while delirium is quite factual and not very value-laden.: 104 biological basis in 2013, psychiatrist allen frances said that he believes that "psychiatric diagnosis still relies exclusively on fallible subjective judgments rather than objective biological tests". mary boyle argues that psychiatry is actually the study of behavior, but acts as if it is the study of the brain based on a presumed connection between patterns of behavior and the biological function of the brain. she argues that in the case of schizophrenia it is the bizarre behavior of individuals that justifies the presumption of a biological cause for this behavior rather than the existence of any evidence.: 236 she argues that the concept of schizophrenia and its biological basis serves a social function for psychiatrists. she views the concept of schizophrenia as necessary for psychiatry to be considered as a medical field, that the claimed biological link gives psychiatrists protection from accusations of social control, and that the belief in the biological basis for schizophrenia is maintained through secondary source's misrepresentation of underlying data. she argues that schizophrenia and its biological basis also gives families, psychiatrists and society as a whole the ability to avoid blame for the damage they cause individuals and the ineffectiveness of treatment.: 238 schizophrenia diagnosis main article: diagnosis of schizophrenia underlying issues associated with schizophrenia would be better addressed as a spectrum of conditions or as individual dimensions along which everyone varies rather than by a diagnostic category based on an arbitrary cut-off between normal and ill. this approach appears consistent with research on schizotypy, and with a relatively high prevalence of psychotic experiences, mostly non-distressing delusional beliefs, among the general public. in concordance with this observation, psychologist edgar jones, and psychiatrists tony david and nassir ghaemi, surveying the existing literature on delusions, pointed out that the consistency and completeness of the definition of delusion have been found wanting by many; delusions are neither necessarily fixed nor false, and need not involve the presence of incontrovertible evidence. nancy andreasen has criticized the current dsm-iv and icd-10 criteria for sacrificing diagnostic validity for the sake of artificially improving reliability. she argues that overemphasis on psychosis in the diagnostic criteria, while improving diagnostic reliability, ignores more fundamental cognitive impairments that are harder to assess due to large variations in presentation. this view is supported by other psychiatrists. in the same vein, ming tsuang and colleagues argue that psychotic symptoms may be a common end-state in a variety of disorders, including schizophrenia, rather than a reflection of the specific etiology of schizophrenia, and warn that there is little basis for regarding dsm's operational definition as the "true" construct of schizophrenia. neuropsychologist michael foster green went further in suggesting the presence of specific neurocognitive deficits may be used to construct phenotypes that are alternatives to those that are purely symptom-based. these deficits take the form of a reduction or impairment in basic psychological functions such as memory, attention, executive function and problem solving. the exclusion of affective components from the criteria for schizophrenia, despite their ubiquity in clinical settings, has also caused contention. this exclusion in the dsm has resulted in a "rather convoluted" separate disorder—schizoaffective disorder. citing poor interrater reliability, some psychiatrists have totally contested the concept of schizoaffective disorder as a separate entity. the categorical distinction between mood disorders and schizophrenia, known as the kraepelinian dichotomy, has also been challenged by data from genetic epidemiology. jonathan metzl, in his book the protest psychosis, argues that the ionia state hospital in ionia, michigan disproportionately diagnosed african americans with schizophrenia because of their civil rights activism. adhd main article: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder controversies adhd, its diagnosis, and its treatment have been controversial since the 1970s. the controversies involve clinicians, teachers, policymakers, parents, and the media. positions range from the view that adhd is within the normal range of behavior to the hypothesis that adhd is a genetic condition. other areas of controversy include the use of stimulant medications in children, the method of diagnosis, and the possibility of overdiagnosis. in 2012, the national institute for health and care excellence, while acknowledging the controversy, states that the current treatments and methods of diagnosis are based on the dominant view of the academic literature. in 2014, keith conners, one of the early advocates for recognition of the disorder, spoke out against overdiagnosis in an article in the new york times. in contrast, a 2014 peer-reviewed medical literature review indicated that adhd is underdiagnosed in adults. with widely differing rates of diagnosis across countries, states within countries, races, and ethnicities, some suspect factors other than the presence of the symptoms of adhd are playing a role in diagnosis. some sociologists consider adhd to be an example of the medicalization of deviant behavior, that is, the turning of the previously non-medical issue of school performance into a medical one. most healthcare providers accept adhd as a genuine disorder, at least in the small number of people with severe symptoms. among healthcare providers the debate mainly centers on diagnosis and treatment in the much larger number of people with less severe symptoms. as of 2009, 8% of all united states major league baseball players had been diagnosed with adhd, making the disorder common among this population. the increase coincided with the league's 2006 ban on stimulants, which has raised concern that some players are mimicking or falsifying the symptoms or history of adhd to get around the ban on the use of stimulants in sport. treatment psychosurgery