free from bovine tb. according to barbara gutmann rosenkrantz, the late 19th-century discovery of the relationship between bovine and human tuberculosis led to state and federal attempts to stamp out bovine tuberculosis. the campaigns for clean milk and meat frightened city people into supporting controls, although at the time, little evidence showed that tuberculosis was spread to humans through infected meat or milk. the campaigns against impure meat and milk led to tension between the developing veterinarian profession and the medical profession, each claiming that area as part of their own expertise. by 1917, 5% of american cattle were infected with m. bovis (bovine tuberculosis or btb), including 10% dairy animals and 1–2% of beef cattle. the rates were going up. around 1900, 15,000 americans, mostly children, died each year from btb, and many more suffered pain and disfigurement. threatened by a sales cutoff ordered by urban public health officials, vermont state government officials launched an innovative eradication campaign against btb on farms, 1877 to 1936. they made use of the latest german research, and thereby kept the new york city and boston markets. vermont was exceptional, for across the country many farmers strenuously resisted bovine tuberculosis eradication as an expensive violation of their libertarian right to farm. in recent decades, m. bovis infections in cattle herds in the united states are not common. m. bovis is endemic in white-tailed deer (odocoileus virginianus) in the northeastern portion of michigan and northern minnesota, and sporadically imported from mexico. only the white-tailed deer has been confirmed as a maintenance host in the michigan outbreak of btb, although other mammals such as raccoons (procyon lotor), opossums (didelphis virginiana), and coyotes (canis latrans) can serve as spill-over and dead-end hosts. the fact that white-tailed deer are a maintenance host for m. bovis remains a significant barrier to the us nationwide eradication of the disease in livestock. in 2008, 733,998 licensed deer hunters harvested around 489,922 white-tailed deer in attempts to control the disease spread. these hunters purchased more than 1.5 million deer-harvest tags. the economic value of deer hunting to michigan's economy in the drive to eradicate tb is substantial. for example, in 2006, hunters spent us$507 million hunting white-tailed deer in michigan. global the disease is found in cattle throughout the globe, but some countries have been able to reduce or limit the incidence of the disease through a process of "test and cull" of the cattle stock. most of europe and several caribbean countries (including cuba) are virtually free of m. bovis. australia is officially free of the disease since the successful btec program, but residual infections might exist in feral water buffalo in isolated parts of the northern territory. in canada, affected wild elk and white-tailed deer are found in and around riding mountain national park in manitoba. to improve control and eliminate btb, the canadian food inspection agency has split manitoba into two management areas: the riding mountain tb eradication area, where the disease has been found, and the manitoba tb eradication area, the rest of the province outside rmea where the disease has not been found. the disease has also been found in african buffalo in south africa. m. bovis can be transmitted from human to human; an outbreak occurred in birmingham, england, in 2004, and from human to cattle, but such occurrences are rare. in mexico, the disease is prevalent and rising among humans. zoonotic tuberculosis the infection of humans with m. bovis is referred to as zoonotic tuberculosis. in 2017, the world health organization (who), world organization for animal health (oie), food and agriculture organization (fao), and the international union against tuberculosis and lung disease (the union), published the first roadmap for zoonotic tuberculosis, recognizing zoonotic tuberculosis as a prominent global health problem. the main route of transmission is through the consumption of unpasteurized milk or other dairy products, although transmission via inhalation and via consumption of poorly cooked meat has also been reported. in 2018, based on the most recent global tuberculosis report, an estimated 142,000 new cases of zoonotic tuberculosis, and 12,500 deaths due to the disease occurred. cases of zoonotic tuberculosis have been reported in africa, the americas, europe, the eastern mediterranean, and the western pacific. human zoonotic tuberculosis cases are linked to the presence of bovine tuberculosis in cattle, and regions without adequate disease control measures and/or disease surveillance are at higher risk. it is difficult to clinically distinguish zoonotic tuberculosis from tuberculosis caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis in people, and the current most commonly used diagnostics cannot effectively distinguish between m. bovis and m. tuberculosis, which contributes to an underestimation of total cases worldwide. controlling this disease requires animal health, food safety, and human health sectors to work together under a one health approach (multi-disciplinary collaborations to improve the health of animals, people, and the environment). the 2017 roadmap identified ten priority areas for addressing zoonotic tuberculosis, which include collecting more accurate data, improving diagnostics, closing research gaps, improving food safety, reducing m. bovis in animal populations, identifying risk factors for transmission, increasing awareness, developing policies, implementing interventions, and increasing investments. to align with goals outlined in the stop tb partnership global plan to end tb 2016-2020, the roadmap outlines specific milestones and goals to be met within this time frame. treatment m. bovis is innately resistant to pyrazinamide, so the standard human treatment is isoniazid and rifampicin for 9 months. most cattle that test positive are killed.