results with rates between 4% and 43% of female offenders. maletzky (1993) found that, of his sample of 4,402 convicted child sex offenders, 0.4% were female. according to research conducted in australia by kelly richards on child sexual abuse, 35.1% of female victims were abused by another male relative and 16.4% of male victims were abused by another male relatives. male relatives were found to be the most relevant predators in the case of both gender. in u.s. schools, educators who offend range in age from "21 to 75 years old, with an average age of 28". according to c.e. dettmeijer-vermeulen, dutch national spokeswoman on human traffic and sexual violence against children, in the netherlands, 3% of the convicted perpetrators are women, 14.58% of the victims are boys and "most victims were abused by a family member, friend or acquaintance." one in six perpetrators is underage. typology early research in the 1970s and 1980s began to classify offenders based on their motivations and traits. groth and birnbaum (1978) categorized child sexual offenders into two groups, "fixated" and "regressed". fixated were described as having a primary attraction to children, whereas regressed had largely maintained relationships with other adults, and were even married. this study also showed that adult sexual orientation was not related to the sex of the victim targeted, e.g. men who molested boys often had adult relationships with women. later work (holmes and holmes, 2002) expanded on the types of offenders and their psychological profiles. they are divided as follows: situational – does not prefer children, but offend under certain conditions. regressed – typically has relationships with adults, but a stressor causes them to seek children as a substitute. morally indiscriminate – all-around sexual deviant, who may commit other sexual offenses unrelated to children. naive/inadequate – often mentally disabled in some way, finds children less threatening. preferential – has true sexual interest in children. mysoped – sadistic and violent, target strangers more often than acquaintances. fixated – little or no activity with own age, described as an "overgrown child". causal factors causal factors of child sex offenders are not known conclusively. the experience of sexual abuse as a child was previously thought to be a strong risk factor, but research does not show a causal relationship, as the vast majority of sexually abused children do not grow up to be adult offenders, nor do the majority of adult offenders report childhood sexual abuse. the us government accountability office concluded, "the existence of a cycle of sexual abuse was not established." before 1996, there was greater belief in the theory of a "cycle of violence", because most of the research done was retrospective—abusers were asked if they had experienced past abuse. even the majority of studies found that most adult sex offenders said they had not been sexually abused during childhood, but studies varied in terms of their estimates of the percentage of such offenders who had been abused, from 0 to 79 percent. more recent prospective longitudinal research—studying children with documented cases of sexual abuse over time to determine what percentage become adult offenders—has demonstrated that the cycle of violence theory is not an adequate explanation for why people molest children. offenders may use cognitive distortions to facilitate their offenses, such as minimization of the abuse, victim blaming, and excuses. pedophilia main article: pedophilia pedophilia is a condition in which an adult or older adolescent is primarily or exclusively attracted to prepubescent children, whether the attraction is acted upon or not. a person with this paraphilia is called a pedophile. in law enforcement, the term pedophile is sometimes used to describe those accused or convicted of child sexual abuse under sociolegal definitions of child (including both prepubescent children and adolescents younger than the local age of consent); however, not all child sexual offenders are pedophiles and not all pedophiles engage in sexual abuse of children. for these reasons, researchers recommend against imprecisely describing all child molesters as pedophiles. the term pedocriminality (de: pädokriminalität; fr: pédocriminalité) is a controversial term which originated in the 1980s and has been used by organisations such as unicef, unhrc, the world health organization and the council of europe to refer to child sexual abuse and sexual violence used against children, child prostitution, child trafficking and the use of child pornography. the term "cyber-pedocriminality" has been used to refer to the activities of viewers of child pornography online. recidivism although reconviction data suggest that not many sex offenders reoffend, ojp reported that observed recidivism rates of sex offenders are underestimated of actual reoffending. estimated rates among child sex offenders vary by surveys and it is difficult to estimate accurately. one study found that 42% of offenders re-offended (either a sex crime, violent crime, or both) after they were released. risk for re-offense was highest in the first 6 years after release, but continued to be significant even 10–31 years later, with 23% offending during this time. a study done in california in 1965 found an 18.2% recidivism rate for offenders targeting the opposite sex and a 34.5% recidivism rate for same-sex offenders after 5 years. because recidivism is defined and measured differently from study to study, one can arrive at inaccurate conclusions being made based on comparison of two or more studies that are not conducted with similar methodology. other children main article: child-on-child sexual abuse when a prepubescent child is sexually abused by one or more other children or adolescent youths, and no adult is directly involved, it is defined as child-on-child sexual abuse. the definition includes any sexual activity between children that occurs without consent, without equality, or due to coercion, whether the offender uses physical force, threats, trickery or emotional manipulation to compel cooperation. when sexual abuse is perpetrated by one sibling upon another, it is known as "intersibling abuse", a form of incest. unlike research on adult offenders, a strong causal relationship has been established between child and adolescent offenders and these offenders' own prior victimization, by either adults or other children. teachers according to a 2010 unicef report, 46% of congolese schoolgirls confirmed that they had been victims of sexual harassment, abuse, and violence committed by their teachers or other school personnel. in mozambique, a study by the ministry of education found that 70 percent of female respondents reported knowing teachers who use sexual intercourse as a necessary condition to advance students to the next grade. a survey by promundo found that 16% of girls in north kivu said they had been forced to have sex with their teachers. according to unicef, teachers in mali are known to use "la menace du bic rouge" ("the threat of the red pen"), using the threat of bad grades to coerce girls into acquiescing to sexual advances. according to plan international, 16% of children in togo, for instance, named a teacher as responsible for the pregnancy of a classmate. prevalence global based on self-disclosure data, a 2011 meta-analysis of 217 studies estimated a global prevalence of 12.7%–18% for girls and 7.6% for boys. the rates of self-disclosed abuse for specific continents were as follows: region girls boys africa 20.2% 19.3% asia 11.3% 4.1% australia 21.5% 7.5% europe 13.5% 5.6% south america 13.4% 13.8% us/canada 20.1% 8% a 2009 meta-analysis of 65 studies from 22 countries found a global prevalence of 19.7% for females and 7.9% for males. in that analysis, africa had the highest prevalence rate of child sexual abuse (34.4%), primarily because of high rates in south africa; europe showed the lowest prevalence rate (9.2%); and america and asia had prevalence rates between 10.1% and 23.9%. africa further information: virgin cleansing myth a ten-country school-based study in southern africa in 2007 found 19.6% of female students and 21.1% of male students aged 11–16 years reported they had experienced forced or coerced sex. rates among 16-year-olds were 28.8% in females and 25.4% in males. comparing the same schools in eight countries between 2003 and 2007, age-standardised on the 2007 botswana male sample, there was no significant decrease between 2003 and 2007 among females in any country and inconsistent changes among males. the prevalence of child sexual abuse in africa is compounded by the virgin cleansing myth that sexual intercourse with a virgin will cure a man of hiv or aids. the myth is prevalent in south africa, zimbabwe, zambia and nigeria and is being blamed for the high rate of sexual abuse against young children. in november 2007, thomson reuters foundation reported that child rape is on the rise in the war-ravaged eastern democratic republic of the congo. aid workers blame combatants on all sides, who operate with much impunity, for a culture of sexual violence. south africa has some of the highest incidences of child rape (including the rape of babies) in the world (also see sexual violence in south africa). a survey by ciet found around 11% of boys and 4% of girls admitted to forcing someone else to have sex with them. in a related survey conducted among 1,500 schoolchildren, a quarter of all the boys interviewed said that "jackrolling", a term for gang rape, was fun. more than 67,000 cases of rape and sexual assaults against children were reported in 2000 in south africa, compared to 37,500 in 1998. child welfare groups believe that the number of unreported incidents could be up to 10 times that number. the largest increase in attacks was against children under seven. the virgin cleansing myth is especially common in south africa, which has the highest number of hiv-positive citizens in the world. eastern cape social worker edith kriel notes that "child abusers are often relatives of their victims – even their fathers and providers." a number of high-profile baby rapes appeared since 2001 (including the fact that they required extensive reconstructive surgery to rebuild urinary, genital, abdominal, or tracheal systems). in 2001, a 9-month-old was raped and likely lost consciousness as the pain was too much to bear. in february 2002, an 8-month-old infant was reportedly gang-raped by four men. one has been charged. the infant has required extensive reconstructive surgery. the 8-month-old infant's injuries were so extensive, increased attention on prosecution has occurred. asia in afghanistan, some boys are forced to participate in sexual activities with men. they are also termed 'dancing boys'. the custom is connected to sexual slavery and child prostitution. in bangladesh, child prostitutes are known to take the drug oradexon, an over-the-counter steroid, usually used by farmers to fatten cattle, to make child prostitutes look larger and older. charities say that 90% of prostitutes in the country's legalized brothels use the drug. according to social activists, the steroid can cause diabetes and high blood pressure and is highly addictive. in 2007, the ministry of women and child development published the "study on child abuse: india 2007." it sampled 12447 children, 2324 young adults and 2449 stakeholders across 13 states. it looked at different forms of child abuse: physical abuse, sexual abuse and emotional abuse and girl child neglect in five evidence groups, namely, children in a family environment, children in school, children at work, children on the street and children in institutions. the study's main findings included: 53.22% of children reported having faced sexual abuse. among them, 52.94% were boys and 47.06% girls. andhra pradesh, assam, bihar and delhi reported the highest percentage of sexual abuse among both boys and girls, as well as the highest incidence of sexual assaults. 21.90% of child respondents faced severe forms of sexual abuse, 5.69% had been sexually assaulted and 50.76% reported other forms of sexual abuse. children on the street, at work and in institutional care reported the highest incidence of sexual assault. the study also reported that 50% of abusers are known to the child or are in a position of trust and responsibility and most children had not reported the matter to anyone. despite years of lack of any specific child sexual abuse laws in india, which treated them separately from adults in case of sexual offense, the 'protection of children against sexual offences bill, 2011' was passed the indian parliament on may 22, 2012, which came into force from 14 november 2012. in pakistan, sexual abuse of children is a problem in some madrassas. child sexual abuse has also been reported in madrassas across bangladesh and