brain implant brain implant brain implants, often referred to as neural implants, are technological devices that connect directly to a biological subject's brain – usually placed on the surface of the brain, or attached to the brain's cortex. a common purpose of modern brain implants and the focus of much current research is establishing a biomedical prosthesis circumventing areas in the brain that have become dysfunctional after a stroke or other head injuries. this includes sensory substitution, e.g., in vision. other brain implants are used in animal experiments simply to record brain activity for scientific reasons. some brain implants involve creating interfaces between neural systems and computer chips. this work is part of a wider research field called brain–computer interfaces. (brain–computer interface research also includes technology such as eeg arrays that allow interface between mind and machine but do not require direct implantation of a device.) neural implants such as deep brain stimulation and vagus nerve stimulation are increasingly becoming routine for patients with parkinson's disease and clinical depression, respectively. purpose brain implants electrically stimulate, block or record (or both record and stimulate simultaneously) signals from single neurons or groups of neurons (biological neural networks) in the brain. the blocking technique is called intra-abdominal vagal blocking. this can only be done where the functional associations of these neurons are approximately known. because of the complexity of neural processing and the lack of access to action potential related signals using neuroimaging techniques, the application of brain implants has been seriously limited until recent advances in neurophysiology and computer processing power. much research is also being done on the surface chemistry of neural implants in effort to design products which minimize all negative effects that an active implant can have on the brain, and that the body can have on the function of the implant. researchers are also exploring a range of delivery systems, such as using veins, to deliver these implants without brain surgery; by leaving the skull sealed shut, patients could receive their neural implants without running as great a risk of seizures, strokes, or permanent neural impairments, all of which can be caused by open-brain surgery. research and applications research in sensory substitution has made significant progress since 1970. especially in vision, due to the knowledge of the working of the visual system, eye implants (often involving some brain implants or monitoring) have been applied with demonstrated success. for hearing, cochlear implants are used to stimulate the auditory nerve directly. the vestibulocochlear nerve is part of the peripheral nervous system, but the interface is similar to that of true brain implants. multiple projects have demonstrated success at recording from the brains of animals for long periods of time. as early as 1976, researchers at the nih led by edward schmidt made action potential recordings of signals from rhesus monkey motor cortexes using immovable "hatpin" electrodes, including recording from single neurons for over 30 days, and consistent recordings for greater than three years from the best electrodes. the "hatpin" electrodes were made of pure iridium and insulated with parylene, materials that are currently used in the cyberkinetics implementation of the utah array. these same electrodes, or derivations thereof using the same biocompatible electrode materials, are currently used in visual prosthetics laboratories, laboratories studying the neural basis of learning, and motor prosthetics approaches other than the cyberkinetics probes. schematic of the "utah" electrode array other laboratory groups produce their own implants to provide unique capabilities not available from the commercial products. breakthroughs include: studies of the process of functional brain re-wiring throughout the learning of a sensory discrimination, control of physical devices by rat brains, monkeys over robotic arms, remote control of mechanical devices by monkeys and humans, remote control over the movements of roaches, the first reported use of the utah array in a human for bidirectional signaling. currently a number of groups are conducting preliminary motor prosthetic implants in humans. these studies are presently limited to several months by the longevity of the implants. the array now forms the sensor component of the braingate. much research is also being done on the surface chemistry of neural implants in effort to design products which minimize all negative effects that an active implant can have on the brain, and that the body can have on the function of the implant. another type of neural implant that is being experimented on is prosthetic neuronal memory silicon chips, which imitate the signal processing done by functioning neurons that allows peoples' brains to create long-term memories. for implants, potentially including brain implants, all-organic devices could be advantageous because they could be biocompatible. if organic neuromorphic devices reach that point, "implants could allow humans to control powered exoskeletons" for example. genetically modified neurons may enable connecting external components – such as prosthetic limbs – to nerves. there also is research of potentially implantable physical artificial neurons. there is research of potential implants for drug delivery to the brain. in 2016, scientists at the university of illinois at urbana–champaign announced development of tiny brain sensors for use postoperative monitoring, which melt away when they are no longer needed. in 2020, scientists out of the university of melbourne, who formed the company synchron in 2016, published clinical data related to a discovery for stentrode, a device implanted via the jugular vein, without the need for open brain surgery. the technology was shown to enable two patients to control a computer using thought alone. it may ultimately help diagnose and treat a range of brain pathologies, such as epilepsy and parkinson's disease. in 2023, researchers reported no serious adverse events during the first year in all four patients who used the device to operate a computer. military darpa has announced its interest in developing "cyborg insects" to transmit data from sensors implanted into the insect during the pupal stage. the insect's motion would be controlled from a micro-electro-mechanical system (mems) and could conceivably survey an environment or detect explosives and gas. similarly, darpa is developing a neural implant to remotely control the movement of sharks. the shark's unique senses would then be exploited to provide data feedback in relation to enemy ship movement or underwater explosives. in 2006, researchers at cornell university invented a new surgical procedure to implant artificial structures into insects during their metamorphic development. the first insect cyborgs, moths with integrated electronics in their thorax, were demonstrated by the same researchers. the initial success of the techniques has resulted in increased research and the creation of a program called hybrid-insect-mems, hi-mems. its goal, according to darpa's microsystems technology office, is to develop "tightly coupled machine-insect interfaces by placing micro-mechanical systems inside the insects during the early stages of metamorphosis". the use of neural implants has recently been attempted, with success, on cockroaches. surgically applied electrodes were put on the insect, which were remotely controlled by a human. the results, although sometimes different, basically showed that the cockroach could be controlled by the impulses it received through the electrodes. darpa is now funding this research because of its obvious beneficial applications to the military and other areas in 2009 at the institute of electrical and electronics engineers (ieee) micro-electronic mechanical systems (mems) conference in italy, researchers demonstrated the first "wireless" flying-beetle cyborg. engineers at the university of california at berkeley pioneered the design of a "remote controlled beetle", funded by the darpa hi-mems program. this was followed later that year by the demonstration of wireless control of a "lift-assisted" moth-cyborg. eventually researchers plan to develop hi-mems for dragonflies, bees, rats and pigeons. for the hi-mems cybernetic bug to be considered a success, it must fly 100 metres (330 ft) from a starting point, guided via computer into a controlled landing within 5 metres (16 ft) of a specific end point. once landed, the cybernetic bug must remain in place. in 2012, darpa provided seed funding to dr. thomas oxley, a neurointerventionist at mount sinai hospital in new york city, for a technology that became known as stentrode. oxley's group in australia was the only non-us-based funded by darpa as part of the reliable neural interface technology (re-net) program. this technology is the first to attempt to provide neural implants through a minimally invasive surgical procedure that does not require cutting into the skull. that is, an electrode array built onto a self-expanding stent, implanted into the brain via cerebral angiography. this pathway can provide safe, easy access and capture a strong signal for a number of indications beyond addressing paralysis, and is currently in clinical trials in patients with severe paralysis seeking to regain the ability to communicate. in 2015 it was reported that scientists from the perception and recognition neuro-technologies laboratory at the southern federal university in rostov-on-don suggested using rats with microchips planted in their brains to detect explosive devices. in 2016 it was reported that american engineers are developing a system that would transform locusts into "remote controlled explosive detectors" with electrodes in their brains beaming information about dangerous substances back to their operators. rehabilitation