subsequently, the number of adult mosquitoes. personal protection methods there are other methods that an individual can use to protect themselves from mosquito bites. limiting exposure to mosquitoes from dusk to dawn when the majority of mosquitoes are active and wearing long sleeves and long pants during the period mosquitoes are most active. placing screens on windows and doors is a simple and effective means of reducing the number of mosquitoes indoors. anticipating mosquito contact and using a topical mosquito repellant with deet or icaridin is also recommended. draining or covering water receptacles, both indoor and outdoors, is also a simple but effective prevention method. removing debris and tires, cleaning drains, and cleaning gutters help larval control and reduce the number of adult mosquitoes. vaccines there is a vaccine for yellow fever which was developed in the 1930s, the yellow 17d vaccine, and it is still in use today. the initial yellow fever vaccination provides lifelong protection for most people and provides immunity within 30 days of the vaccine. reactions to the yellow fever vaccine have included mild headache and fever, and muscle aches. there are rare cases of individuals presenting with symptoms that mirror the disease itself. the risk of complications from the vaccine are greater for individuals over 60 years of age. in addition, the vaccine is not usually administered to babies under nine months of age, pregnant women, people with allergies to egg protein, and individuals living with aids/hiv. the world health organization (who) reports that 105 million people have been vaccinated for yellow fever in west africa from 2000 to 2015. to date, there are relatively few vaccines against mosquito-borne diseases, this is due to the fact that most viruses and bacteria caused by mosquitos are highly mutatable. the national institute of allergy and infectious disease (niaid) began phase 1 clinical trials of a new vaccine that would be nearly universal in protecting against the majority of mosquito-borne diseases. education and community involvement the arboviruses have expanded their geographic range and infected populations that had no recent community knowledge of the diseases carried by the aedes aegypti mosquito. education and community awareness campaigns are necessary for prevention to be effective. communities are educated on how the disease is spread, how they can protect themselves from infection and the symptoms of infection. community health education programs can identify and address the social/economic and cultural issues that can hinder preventative measures. community outreach and education programs can identify which preventative measures a community is most likely to employ. leading to a targeted prevention method that has a higher chance of success in that particular community. community outreach and education includes engaging community health workers and local healthcare providers, local schools and community organizations to educate the public on mosquito vector control and disease prevention. treatments yellow fever numerous drugs have been used to treat yellow fever disease with minimal satisfaction to date. patients with multisystem organ involvement will require critical care support such as possible hemodialysis or mechanical ventilation. rest, fluids, and acetaminophen are also known to relieve milder symptoms of fever and muscle pain. due to hemorrhagic complications, aspirin should be avoided. infected individuals should avoid mosquito exposure by staying indoors or using a mosquito net. dengue fever dengue infection's therapeutic management is simple, cost effective and successful in saving lives by adequately performing timely institutionalized interventions. treatment options are restricted, while no effective antiviral drugs for this infection have been accessible to date. patients in the early phase of the dengue virus may recover without hospitalization. however, ongoing clinical research is in the works to find specific anti-dengue drugs. dengue fever occurs via aedes aegypti mosquito( it acts as a vector) zika virus zika virus vaccine clinical trials are to be conducted and established. there are efforts being put toward advancing antiviral therapeutics against zika virus for swift control. present day zika virus treatment is symptomatic through antipyretics and analgesics. currently there are no publications regarding viral drug screening. nevertheless, therapeutics for this infection have been used. chikungunya there are no treatment modalities for acute and chronic chikungunya that currently exist. most treatment plans use supportive and symptomatic care like analgesics for pain and anti-inflammatories for inflammation caused by arthritis. in acute stages of this virus, rest, antipyretics and analgesics are used to subside symptoms. most use non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (nsaids). in some cases, joint pain may resolve from treatment but stiffness remains. latest treatment the sterile insect technique (sit) uses irradiation to sterilize insect pests before releasing them in large numbers to mate with wild females. since they do not produce any offspring, the population, and consequently the disease incidence, is reduced over time. used successfully for decades to combat fruit flies and livestock pests such as screwworm and tsetse flies, the technique can be adapted also for some disease-transmitting mosquito species. pilot projects are being initiated or are under way in different parts of the world. epidemiology mosquito-borne diseases, such as dengue fever and malaria, typically affect developing countries and areas with tropical climates. mosquito vectors are sensitive to climate changes and tend to follow seasonal patterns. between years there are often dramatic shifts in incidence rates. the occurrence of this phenomenon in endemic areas makes mosquito-borne viruses difficult to treat. dengue fever is caused by infection through viruses of the family flaviviridae. the illness is most commonly transmitted by aedes aegypti mosquitoes in tropical and subtropical regions. dengue virus has four different serotypes, each of which are antigenically related but have limited cross-immunity to reinfection. although dengue fever has a global incidence of 50-100 million cases, only several hundreds of thousands of these cases are life-threatening. the geographic prevalence of the disease can be examined by the spread of aedes aegypti. over the last twenty years, there has been a geographic spread of the disease. dengue incidence rates have risen sharply within urban areas which have recently become endemic hot spots for the disease. the recent spread of dengue can also be attributed to rapid population growth, increased coagulation in urban areas, and global travel. without sufficient vector control, the dengue virus has evolved rapidly over time, posing challenges to both government and public health officials. malaria is caused by a protozoan called plasmodium falciparum. p. falciparum parasites are transmitted mainly by the anopheles gambiae complex in rural africa. in just this area, p. falciparum infections comprise an estimated 200 million clinical cases and 1 million annual deaths. 75% of individuals affected in this region are children. as with dengue, changing environmental conditions have led to novel disease characteristics. due to increased illness severity, treatment complications, and mortality rates, many public health officials concede that malaria patterns are rapidly transforming in africa. scarcity of health services, rising instances of drug resistance, and changing vector migration patterns are factors that public health officials believe contribute to malaria's dissemination. climate heavily affects mosquito vectors of malaria and dengue. climate patterns influence the lifespan of mosquitos as well as the rate and frequency of reproduction. climate change impacts have been of great interest to those studying these diseases and their vectors. additionally, climate impacts mosquito blood feeding patterns as well as extrinsic incubation periods. climate consistency gives researchers an ability to accurately predict annual cycling of the disease but recent climate unpredictability has eroded researchers' ability to track the disease with such precision. advances in biological control of arboviruses in many insect species, such as drosophila melanogaster, researchers found that a natural infection with the bacteria strain wolbachia pipientis increases the fitness of the host by increasing resistance to rna viral infections. robert l. glaser and mark a. meola investigated wolbachia-induced resistance to west nile virus (wnv) in drosophila melanogaster (fruit flies). two groups of fruit flies were naturally infected with wolbachia. glaser and meola then cured one group of fruit flies of wolbachia using tetracycline. both the infected group and the cured groups were then infected with wnv. flies infected with wolbachia were found to have a changed phenotype that caused resistance to wnv. the phenotype was found to be caused by a “dominant, maternally transmitted, cytoplasmic factor”. the wnv-resistance phenotype was then reversed by curing the fruit flies of wolbachia. since wolbachia is also maternally transmitted, it was found that the wnv-resistant phenotype is directly related to the wolbachia infection. west nile virus is transmitted to humans and animals through the southern house mosquito, culex quinquefasciatus. glaser and meola knew vector compatibility could be reduced through wolbachia infection due to studies done with other species of mosquitoes, mainly, aedes aegypti. their goal was to transfer wnv resistance to cx. quinquefasciatus by inoculating the embryos of the mosquito with the same strain of wolbachia that naturally occurred in the fruit flies. upon infection, cx. quinquefasciatus showed an increased resistance to wnv that was transferable to offspring. the ability to genetically modify mosquitoes in the lab and then have the infected mosquitoes transmit it to their offspring showed that it was possible to transmit the bacteria to wild populations to decrease human infections. in 2011, ary hoffmann and associates produced the first case of wolbachia-induced arbovirus resistance in wild populations of aedes aegypti through a small project called eliminate dengue: our challenge. this was made possible by an engineered strain of wolbachia termed wmel that came from d. melanogaster. the transfer of wmel from d. melanogaster into field-caged populations of the mosquito aedes aegypti induced resistance to dengue, yellow fever, and chikungunya viruses. although other strains of wolbachia also reduced susceptibility to dengue infection, they also put a greater demand on the fitness of ae. aegypti. wmel was different in that it was thought to only cost the organism a small portion of its fitness. wmel-infected ae. aegypti were released into two residential areas in the city of cairns, australia over a 14-week period. hoffmann and associates, released a total of 141,600 infected adult mosquitoes in yorkeys knob suburb and 157,300 in gordonvale suburb. after release, the populations were monitored for three years to record the spread of wmel. population monitoring was gauged by measuring larvae laid in traps. at the beginning of the monitoring period but still within the release period, it was found that wmel-infected ae. aegypti had doubled in yorkeys knob and increased 1.5-fold in gordonvale. uninfected ae. aegypti populations were in decline. by the end of the three years, wmel-infected ae. aegypti had stable populations of about 90%. however, these populations were isolated to the yorkeys knob and gordonvale suburbs due to unsuitable habitat surrounding the neighborhoods. although populations flourished in these areas with nearly 100% transmission, no signs of spread were noted, proving disappointing for some. following this experiment, tom l. schmidt and his colleagues conducted an experiment releasing wolbachia-infected aedes aegypti using different site selection methods occurred in different areas of cairns during 2013. the release sites were monitored over two years. this time the release was done in urban areas that were adjacent to adequate habitat to encourage mosquito dispersal. over the two years, the population doubled, and spatial spread was also increased, unlike the first release, giving ample satisfactory results. by increasing the spread of the wolbachia-infected mosquitoes, the researchers were able to establish that population of a large city was possible if the mosquitoes were given adequate habitat to spread into upon release in different local locations throughout the city. an important detail in both of these studies is that no adverse effects on public health or the natural ecosystem occurred. this made it an extremely attractive alternative to traditional insecticide methods given the increased pesticide resistance occurring from heavy use. from the success seen in australia, the researchers were able to begin operating in more threatened portions of the world. the eliminate dengue program spread to 10 countries throughout asia, latin america, and the western pacific blooming into the non-profit organization, world mosquito program, as of september 2017. they still use the same technique of infecting wild populations of ae. aegypti as they did in australia, but their target diseases now include zika, chikungunya and yellow fever as well as dengue. although not alone in their efforts to use wolbachia-infected mosquitoes to reduce mosquito-borne disease, the world mosquito program method is praised for being self-sustaining in that it causes permanent phenotype change rather than