its critics, was rejected for fielding in iraq due to pentagon fears that it would be used as an instrument of torture. academic research in 1939, at the iowa soldiers' orphans' home in davenport, iowa, 22 children were the subjects of the so-called "monster" experiment. this experiment attempted to use psychological abuse to induce stuttering in children who spoke normally. the experiment was designed by dr. wendell johnson, one of the nation's most prominent speech pathologists, for the purpose of testing one of his theories on the cause of stuttering. in 1961, in response to the nuremberg trials, the yale psychologist stanley milgram performed his "obedience to authority study", also known as the milgram experiment, to determine if it was possible that the nazi genocide could have resulted from millions of people who were "just following orders". the milgram experiment raised questions about the ethics of scientific experimentation because of the extreme emotional stress suffered by the participants, who were told, as part of the experiment, to apply electric shocks to test subjects (who were actors and did not really receive electric shocks). in 1971, stanford university psychologist philip zimbardo conducted the stanford prison experiment in which twenty-four male students were randomly assigned roles of prisoners and guards in a mock prison situated in the basement of the stanford psychology building. the participants adapted to their roles beyond zimbardo's expectations with prison guards exhibiting authoritarian status and psychologically abusing the prisoners who were passive in their acceptance of the abuse. the experiment was largely controversial with criticisms aimed toward the lack of scientific principles and a control group, and for ethical concerns regarding zimbardo's lack of intervention in the prisoner abuse. pharmacological research at harvard university, in the late 1940s, researchers began performing experiments in which they tested diethylstilbestrol, a synthetic estrogen, on pregnant women at the lying-in hospital of the university of chicago. the women experienced an abnormally high number of miscarriages and babies with low birth weight (lbw). none of the women were told that they were being experimented on. in 1962, researchers at the laurel children's center in maryland tested experimental acne medications on children. they continued their tests even after half of the children developed severe liver damage from the medications. in 2004, university of minnesota research participant dan markingson died by suicide while enrolled in an industry-sponsored pharmaceutical trial comparing three fda-approved atypical antipsychotics: seroquel (quetiapine), zyprexa (olanzapine), and risperdal (risperidone). writing on the circumstances surrounding markingson's death in the study, which was designed and funded by seroquel manufacturer astrazeneca, university of minnesota professor of bioethics carl elliott noted that markingson was enrolled in the study against the wishes of his mother, mary weiss, and that he was forced to choose between enrolling in the study or being involuntarily committed to a state mental institution. further investigation revealed financial ties to astrazeneca by markingson's psychiatrist, dr. stephen c. olson, oversights and biases in astrazeneca's trial design, and the inadequacy of university institutional review board (irb) protections for research subjects. a 2005 fda investigation cleared the university. nonetheless, controversy around the case has continued. a mother jones article resulted in a group of university faculty members sending a public letter to the university board of regents urging an external investigation into markingson's death. other experiments the 1846 journals of walter f. jones of petersburg, virginia, describe how he poured boiling water onto the backs of naked slaves afflicted with typhoid pneumonia, at four-hour intervals, because he thought that this might "cure" the disease by "stimulating the capillaries". in 1942, the harvard university biochemist edwin joseph cohn injected 64 massachusetts prisoners with cow blood, as part of an experiment sponsored by the u.s. navy. in 1950, researchers at the cleveland city hospital ran experiments to study changes in cerebral blood flow: they injected people with spinal anesthesia, and inserted needles into their jugular veins and brachial arteries to extract large quantities of blood and, after massive blood loss which caused paralysis and fainting, measured their blood pressure. the experiment was often performed multiple times on the same subject. in a series of studies which were published in the medical journal pediatrics, researchers from the university of california department of pediatrics performed experiments on 113 newborns ranging in age from one hour to three days, in which they studied changes in blood pressure and blood flow. in one of the studies, researchers inserted a catheter through the babies' umbilical arteries and into their aortas, and then submerged their feet in ice water. in another of the studies, they strapped 50 newborn babies to a circumcision board, and turned them upside down so that all of their blood rushed into their heads. the san antonio contraceptive study was a clinical research study published in 1971 about the side effects of oral contraceptives. women coming to a clinic in san antonio, texas, to prevent pregnancies were not told they were participating in a research study or receiving placebos. ten of the women became pregnant while on placebos. during the decade of 2000–2010, artificial blood was transfused into research subjects across the united states without their consent by northfield labs. later studies showed the artificial blood caused a significant increase in the risk of heart attacks and death. in the 2010s, facebook breached ethical guidelines by conducting a research experiment to manipulate 700,000 users' emotions without their consent. according to the 2008 report by the u.s. congressional research service, "developments in biotechnology, including genetic engineering, may produce a wide variety of live agents and toxins that are difficult to detect and counter; and new chemical warfare agents and mixtures of chemical weapons and biowarfare agents are being developed . . . countries are using the natural overlap between weapons and civilian applications of chemical and biological materials to conceal chemical weapon and bioweapon production." legal, academic and professional policy during the nuremberg medical trials, several of the nazi doctors and scientists who were being tried for their human experiments cited past unethical studies performed in the united states in their defense, namely the chicago malaria experiments conducted by joseph goldberger. subsequent investigation led to a report by andrew conway ivy, who testified that the research was "an example of human experiments which were ideal because of their conformity with the highest ethical standards of human experimentation". the trials contributed to the formation of the nuremberg code in an effort to prevent such abuses. a secret aec document dated april 17, 1947, titled medical experiments in humans stated: "it is desired that no document be released which refers to experiments with humans that might have an adverse reaction on public opinion or result in legal suits. documents covering such fieldwork should be classified secret." at the same time, the public health service was instructed to tell citizens downwind from bomb tests that the increases in cancers were due to neurosis, and that women with radiation sickness, hair loss, and burned skin were suffering from "housewife syndrome". in 1964, the world medical association passed the declaration of helsinki, a set of ethical principles for the medical community regarding human experimentation. in 1966, the united states national institutes of health (nih) office for protection of research subjects (oprr) was created. it issued its policies for the protection of human subjects, which recommended establishing independent review bodies to oversee experiments. these were later called institutional review boards. in 1969, kentucky court of appeals judge samuel steinfeld dissented in strunk v. strunk, 445 s.w.2d 145. he made the first judicial suggestion that the nuremberg code should be applied to american jurisprudence. in 1974, the national research act established the national commission for the protection of human subjects. it mandated that the public health service come up with regulations to protect the rights of human research subjects. project mkultra was first brought to wide public attention in 1975 by the u.s. congress, through investigations by the church committee, and by a presidential commission known as the rockefeller commission. in 1975, the department of health, education and welfare (dhew) created regulations which included the recommendations laid out in the nih's 1966 policies for the protection of human subjects. title 45 of the code of federal regulations, known as "the common rule", requires the appointment and use of institutional review boards (irbs) in experiments using human subjects. on april 18, 1979, prompted by an investigative journalist's public disclosure of the tuskegee syphilis experiments, the united states department of health, education, and welfare (later renamed to health and human services) released a report entitled ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research, written by dan harms. it laid out many modern guidelines for ethical medical research. in 1987 the united states supreme court ruled in united states v. stanley, 483 u.s. 669, that a u.s. serviceman who was given lsd without his consent, as part of military experiments, could not sue the u.s. army for damages. stanley was later awarded over $400,000 in 1996, two years after congress passed a private claims bill in reaction to the case. dissenting the original verdict in u.s. v. stanley, justice sandra day o'connor stated: no judicially crafted rule should insulate from liability the involuntary and unknowing human experimentation alleged to have occurred in this case. indeed, as justice brennan observes, the united states played an instrumental role in the criminal prosecution of nazi scientists who experimented with human subjects during the second world war, and the standards that the nuremberg military tribunals developed to judge the behavior of the defendants stated that the 'voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential ... to satisfy moral, ethical, and legal concepts.' if this principle is violated, the very least that society can do is to see that the victims are compensated, as best they can be, by the perpetrators. on january 15, 1994, president bill clinton formed the advisory committee on human radiation experiments (achre). this committee was created to investigate and report the use of human beings as test subjects in experiments involving the effects of ionizing radiation in federally funded research. the committee attempted to determine the causes of the experiments and reasons that the proper oversight did not exist. it made several recommendations to help prevent future occurrences of similar events. as of 2007, not a single u.s. government researcher had been prosecuted for human experimentation. the preponderance of the victims of u.s. government experiments have not received compensation or, in many cases, acknowledgment of what was done to them. some authors have proposed a structured ethical framework based on an ethics of political commemoration for offering institutional gestures of redress for transgressions, based on an approach similar to the just war theory.