biomedical waste biomedical waste biomedical waste or hospital waste is any kind of waste containing infectious (or potentially infectious) materials generated during the treatment of humans or animals as well as during research involving biologics. it may also include waste associated with the generation of biomedical waste that visually appears to be of medical or laboratory origin (e.g. packaging, unused bandages, infusion kits etc.), as well research laboratory waste containing biomolecules or organisms that are mainly restricted from environmental release. as detailed below, discarded sharps are considered biomedical waste whether they are contaminated or not, due to the possibility of being contaminated with blood and their propensity to cause injury when not properly contained and disposed. biomedical waste is a type of biowaste. part of a series onpollutionair pollution from a factory air acid rain air quality index atmospheric dispersion modeling chlorofluorocarbon exhaust gas 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septic tanks pit latrine shipping stagnation sulfur water surface runoff turbidity urban runoff water quality misc point source area source legacy pollution lists diseases law by country most polluted cities least polluted cities by pm2.5 treaties categories by country environment portal ecology portal biomedical waste may be solid or liquid. examples of infectious waste include discarded blood, sharps, unwanted microbiological cultures and stocks, identifiable body parts (including those as a result of amputation), other human or animal tissue, used bandages and dressings, discarded gloves, other medical supplies that may have been in contact with blood and body fluids, and laboratory waste that exhibits the characteristics described above. waste sharps include potentially contaminated used (and unused discarded) needles, scalpels, lancets and other devices capable of penetrating skin. biomedical waste is generated from biological and medical sources and activities, such as the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of diseases. common generators (or producers) of biomedical waste include hospitals, health clinics, nursing homes, emergency medical services, medical research laboratories, offices of physicians, dentists, veterinarians, home health care and morgues or funeral homes. in healthcare facilities (i.e. hospitals, clinics, doctor's offices, veterinary hospitals and clinical laboratories), waste with these characteristics may alternatively be called medical or clinical waste. biomedical waste is distinct from normal trash or general waste, and differs from other types of hazardous waste, such as chemical, radioactive, universal or industrial waste. medical facilities generate waste hazardous chemicals and radioactive materials. while such wastes are normally not infectious, they require proper disposal. some wastes are considered multihazardous, such as tissue samples preserved in formalin. effects on humans sharpsmart reusable sharps container disposal of this waste is an environmental concern, as many medical wastes are classified as infectious or biohazardous and could potentially lead to the spread of infectious disease. the most common danger for humans is the infection which also affects other living organisms in the region. daily exposure to the wastes (landfills) leads to accumulation of harmful substances or microbes in the person's body. a 1990 report by the united states agency for toxic substances and disease registry concluded that the general public is not likely to be adversely affected by biomedical waste generated in the traditional healthcare setting. they found, however, that biomedical waste from those settings may pose an injury and exposure risks via occupational contact with medical waste for doctors, nurses, and janitorial, laundry and refuse workers. further, there are opportunities for the general public to come into contact with medical waste, such as needles used illicitly outside healthcare settings, or biomedical waste generated via home health care. management biomedical waste must be properly managed and disposed of to protect the environment, general public and workers, especially healthcare and sanitation workers who are at risk of exposure to biomedical waste as an occupational hazard. steps in the management of biomedical waste include generation, accumulation, handling, storage, treatment, transport and disposal. the development and implementation of a national waste management policy can improve biomedical waste management in health facilities in a country. on-site versus off-site these healthcare workers are being trained to safely handle contaminated wastes before being assigned to an outbreak of ebola hemorrhagic fever. disposal occurs off-site, at a location that is different from the site of generation. treatment may occur on-site or off-site. on-site treatment of large quantities of biomedical waste usually requires the use of relatively expensive equipment, and is generally only cost effective for very large hospitals and major universities who have the space, labour and budget to operate such equipment. off-site treatment and disposal involves hiring of a biomedical waste disposal service (also called a truck service) whose employees are trained to collect and haul away biomedical waste in special containers (usually cardboard boxes, or reusable plastic bins) for treatment at a facility designed to handle biomedical waste. generation and accumulation biomedical waste should be collected in containers that are leak-proof and sufficiently strong to prevent breakage during handling. containers of biomedical waste are marked with a biohazard symbol. the container, marking, and labels are often red. discarded sharps are usually collected in specialized boxes, often called needle boxes. specialized equipment is required to meet osha 29 cfr 1910.1450 and epa 40 cfr 264.173. standards of safety. minimal recommended equipment include a fume hood and primary and secondary waste containers to capture potential overflow. even beneath the fume hood, containers containing chemical contaminants should remain closed when not in use. an open funnel placed in the mouth of a waste container has been shown to allow significant evaporation of chemicals into the surrounding atmosphere, which is then inhaled by laboratory personnel, and contributes a primary component to the threat of completing the fire triangle. to protect the health and safety of laboratory staff as well as neighboring civilians and the environment, proper waste management equipment, such as the burkle funnel in europe and the eco funnel in the u.s., should be utilized in any department which deals with chemical waste. it is to be dumped after treatment. storage and handling storage refers to keeping the waste until it is treated on-site or transported off-site for treatment or disposal. there are many options and containers for storage. regulatory agencies may limit the time for which waste can remain in storage. handling is the act of moving biomedical waste between the point of generation, accumulation areas, storage locations and on-site treatment facilities. workers who handle biomedical waste must observe standard precautions. treatment the goals of biomedical waste treatment are to reduce or eliminate the waste's hazards, and usually to make the waste unrecognizable. treatment should render the waste safe for subsequent handling and disposal. there are several treatment methods that can accomplish these goals. it includes segregating the bio waste. biomedical waste is often incinerated. an efficient incinerator will destroy pathogens and sharps. source materials are not recognizable in the resulting ash. alternative thermal treatment can also include technologies such as gasification and pyrolysis including energy recovery with similar waste volume reductions and pathogen destruction. an autoclave may also be used to treat biomedical waste. an autoclave uses steam and pressure to sterilize the waste or reduce its microbiological load to a level at which it may be safely disposed of. many healthcare facilities routinely use an autoclave to sterilize medical supplies. if the same autoclave is used to sterilize supplies and treat biomedical waste, administrative controls must be used to prevent the waste operations from contaminating the supplies. effective administrative controls include operator training, strict procedures, and separate times and space for processing biomedical waste. microwave disinfection can also be employed for treatment of biomedical wastes. microwave irradiation is a type of non-contact heating technologies for disinfection. microwave chemistry is based on efficient heating of materials by microwave dielectric heating effects. when exposed to microwave frequencies, the dipoles of the water molecules present in cells re-align with the applied electric field. as the field oscillates, the dipoles attempts to realign itself with the alternating electric field and in this process, energy is lost in the form of heat through molecular friction and dielectric loss. microwave disinfection is a recently developed technology which provides advantage over old existing technologies of autoclaves as microwave based disinfection has less cycle time, power consumption and it requires minimal usage of water and consumables as compared to autoclaves. for liquids and small quantities, a 1–10% solution of bleach can be used to disinfect biomedical waste. solutions of sodium hydroxide and other chemical disinfectants may also be used, depending on the waste's characteristics. other treatment methods include heat, alkaline digesters and the use of microwaves. for autoclaves and microwave systems, a shredder may be used as a final treatment step to render the waste unrecognizable. some autoclaves have built in shredders. country-wise regulation and management the international symbol for biological hazard. united kingdom in the uk, clinical waste and the way it is to be handled is closely regulated. applicable legislation includes the environmental protection act 1990 (part ii), waste management licensing regulations 1994, and the hazardous waste regulations (england & wales) 2005, as well as the special waste regulations in scotland. a scandal erupted in october 2018 when it emerged that healthcare environment services, which had contracts for managing clinical waste produced by the nhs in scotland and england, was in breach of the environmental permits at four of its six sites by having more waste on site than their permit allows and storing waste inappropriately. seventeen nhs trusts in yorkshire terminated their contracts immediately. the company sued for compensation. amputated limbs were said to be among 350 tonnes of clinical waste stockpiled instead of incinerated in normanton. the company maintains that the problem was caused by a reduction in incineration capacity, and the re-classification of clinical waste as “offensive”, which meant more needed incineration. the government's contingency plans included installing temporary storage units at hospitals, but the company say that this is more dangerous than allowing them to exceed their permitted allowances. the company still has contracts with 30 other trusts in england, and a waste disposal contract with nhs england for primary care and pharmacy. united states in the united states, biomedical waste is usually regulated as medical waste. in 1988 the u.s. federal government passed the medical waste tracking act which allowed the epa to establish rules for management of medical waste in some parts of the country. after the act expired in 1991, responsibility to regulate and pass laws concerning the disposal of medical waste returned to the individual states. the states vary in their regulations from none to very strict. in addition to on-site treatment or pickup by a biomedical waste disposal firm for off-site treatment, a mail-back disposal option allows generators of waste to return it to the manufacturer. for instance, waste medicines and equipment can be returned. the waste is shipped through the u.s. postal service. while available in all 50 u.s. states, mail-back medical waste disposal is limited by very strict postal regulations (i.e., collection