the target word. this is similar to the cart; the main difference is that the target words for act are specific to the individual. target words that are important in the life of the individual are emphasized because people with deep or global agraphias do not typically have the same memory for the words as other people with agraphia may. writing can be even more important to these people as it can cue spoken language. act helps in this by facilitating the relearning of a set of personally relevant written words for use in communication. copy and recall treatment (cart) method helps to reestablish the ability to spell specific words that are learned through repeated copying and recall of target words. cart is more likely to be successful in treating lexical agraphia when a few words are trained to mastery than when a large group of unrelated words is trained. words chosen can be individualized to the patient, which makes treatment more personalized. graphemic buffer uses the training of specific words to improve spelling. cueing hierarchies and copy and recall method of specific words are used, to work the words into the short-term memory loop, or graphemic buffer. the segmentation of longer words into shorter syllables helps bring words into short-term memory. problem solving approach is used as a self-correcting method for phonological errors. the individual sounds out the word and attempts to spell it, typically using an electronic dictionary-type device that indicates correct spelling. this method takes advantage of the preserved sound-to-letter correspondences when they are intact. this approach may improve access to spelling memory, strengthen orthographic representations, or both. history in 1553 thomas wilson's book arte of rhetorique held the earliest known description of what would now be called acquired agraphia. in the second half of the nineteenth century, the loss of the ability to produce written language received clinical attention, when ideas about localization in the brain influenced studies about dissociation between written and spoken language as well as reading and writing. paul broca's work on aphasia during this time inspired researchers across europe and north america to begin conducting studies on the correlation between lesions and loss of function in various cortical areas. during the 1850s, clinicians such as armand trousseau and john hughlings jackson held the prevailing view that the same linguistic deficiency occurred in writing as well as speech and reading impairments. in 1856, louis-victor marcé argued that written and spoken language were independent of each other; he discovered that in many patients with languages disorders, both speech and writing was impaired. the recovery of written and spoken language was not always parallel suggesting that these two modes of expression were independent. he believed the ability to write not only involved motor control, but also the memory of the signs and their meaning. in 1867, william ogle, who coined the term agraphia, made several key observations about the patterns of dissociation found in written and spoken language. he demonstrated that some patients with writing impairments were able to copy written letters but struggled arranging the letters to form words. ogle knew that aphasia and agraphia often occurred together, but he confirmed that the impairment of two different types of language (spoken and written) can vary in type and severity. although ogle's review helped make important advancements toward understanding writing disorders, a documented case of pure agraphia was missing. in 1884, over two decades after the research of acquired language disorders began, albert pitres made an important contribution when he published a clinical report of pure agraphia. according to pitres, marcé and ogle were the first to emphasize the dissociation between speech and writing. his work was also strongly influenced by théodule-armand ribot's modular approach to memory. pitres's clinical case study in 1884 argues for the localization of writing in the brain. pitres's reading and writing models consisted of three main components: visual (the memory for letters and how letters are put together to form syllables and word), auditory (the memory for the sounds of each letter), and motor (motor-graphic memory of the letters). he proposed the following classifications of agraphia: agraphia by word blindness: inability to copy a model, but the individual can write spontaneously and in response to dictation. agraphia by word deafness: inability to write to dictation, but the individual can copy a model and write spontaneously. motor agraphia: no ability to write, but the individual can spell. pitres said in aphasia, the intellect is not systematically impaired. research in the twentieth century focused primarily on aphasiology in patients with lesions from cerebrovascular accidents. from these studies, researches gained significant insight into the complex cognitive process of producing written language.