human skeleton human skeleton the human skeleton is the internal framework of the human body. it is composed of around 270 bones at birth – this total decreases to around 206 bones by adulthood after some bones get fused together. the bone mass in the skeleton makes up about 14% of the total body weight (ca. 10–11 kg for an average person) and reaches maximum mass between the ages of 25 and 30. the human skeleton can be divided into the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. the axial skeleton is formed by the vertebral column, the rib cage, the skull and other associated bones. the appendicular skeleton, which is attached to the axial skeleton, is formed by the shoulder girdle, the pelvic girdle and the bones of the upper and lower limbs. "bone structure" redirects here. for skeletal systems of other animals, see skeleton. for for the scientific study of bones, see osteology. human skeletona human skeleton on exhibit at the museum of osteology, oklahoma city, oklahomadetailsidentifiersgreekσκελετόςta98a02.0.00.000anatomical terminology the human skeleton performs six major functions: support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals, and endocrine regulation. the human skeleton is not as sexually dimorphic as that of many other primate species, but subtle differences between sexes in the morphology of the skull, dentition, long bones, and pelvis exist. in general, female skeletal elements tend to be smaller and less robust than corresponding male elements within a given population. the human female pelvis is also different from that of males in order to facilitate childbirth. unlike most primates, human males do not have penile bones. divisions axial main article: axial skeleton the axial skeleton (80 bones) is formed by the vertebral column (32–34 bones; the number of the vertebrae differs from human to human as the lower 2 parts, sacral and coccygeal bone may vary in length), a part of the rib cage (12 pairs of ribs and the sternum), and the skull (22 bones and 7 associated bones). the upright posture of humans is maintained by the axial skeleton, which transmits the weight from the head, the trunk, and the upper extremities down to the lower extremities at the hip joints. the bones of the spine are supported by many ligaments. the erector spinae muscles are also supporting and are useful for balance. appendicular main article: appendicular skeleton the appendicular skeleton (126 bones) is formed by the pectoral girdles, the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle or pelvis, and the lower limbs. their functions are to make locomotion possible and to protect the major organs of digestion, excretion and reproduction. functions the skeleton serves six major functions: support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals and endocrine regulation. support the skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains its shape. the pelvis, associated ligaments and muscles provide a floor for the pelvic structures. without the rib cages, costal cartilages, and intercostal muscles, the lungs would collapse. movement the joints between bones allow movement, some allowing a wider range of movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck. movement is powered by skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on bones. muscles, bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all coordinated by the nervous system. it is believed that the reduction of human bone density in prehistoric times reduced the agility and dexterity of human movement. shifting from hunting to agriculture has caused human bone density to reduce significantly. protection the skeleton helps to protect many vital internal organs from being damaged. the skull protects the brain the vertebrae protect the spinal cord. the rib cage, spine, and sternum protect the lungs, heart and major blood vessels. blood cell production the skeleton is the site of haematopoiesis, the development of blood cells that takes place in the bone marrow. in children, haematopoiesis occurs primarily in the marrow of the long bones such as the femur and tibia. in adults, it occurs mainly in the pelvis, cranium, vertebrae, and sternum. storage the bone matrix can store calcium and is involved in calcium metabolism, and bone marrow can store iron in ferritin and is involved in iron metabolism. however, bones are not entirely made of calcium, but a mixture of chondroitin sulfate and hydroxyapatite, the latter making up 70% of a bone. hydroxyapatite is in turn composed of 39.8% of calcium, 41.4% of oxygen, 18.5% of phosphorus, and 0.2% of hydrogen by mass. chondroitin sulfate is a sugar made up primarily of oxygen and carbon. endocrine regulation bone cells release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar (glucose) and fat deposition. osteocalcin increases both insulin secretion and sensitivity, in addition to boosting the number of insulin-producing cells and reducing stores of fat. sex differences during construction of the york to scarborough railway bridge in 1901, workmen discovered a large stone coffin, close to the river ouse. inside was a skeleton, accompanied by an array of unusual and expensive objects. this chance find represents one of the most significant discoveries ever made from roman york. study of the skeleton has revealed that it belonged to a woman. anatomical differences between human males and females are highly pronounced in some soft tissue areas, but tend to be limited in the skeleton. the human skeleton is not as sexually dimorphic as that of many other primate species, but subtle differences between sexes in the morphology of the skull, dentition, long bones, and pelvis are exhibited across human populations. in general, female skeletal elements tend to be smaller and less robust than corresponding male elements within a given population. it is not known whether or to what extent those differences are genetic or environmental. skull a variety of gross morphological traits of the human skull demonstrate sexual dimorphism, such as the median nuchal line, mastoid processes, supraorbital margin, supraorbital ridge, and the chin. dentition human inter-sex dental dimorphism centers on the canine teeth, but it is not nearly as pronounced as in the other great apes. long bones long bones are generally larger in males than in females within a given population. muscle attachment sites on long bones are often more robust in males than in females, reflecting a difference in overall muscle mass and development between sexes. sexual dimorphism in the long bones is commonly characterized by morphometric or gross morphological analyses. pelvis the human pelvis exhibits greater sexual dimorphism than other bones, specifically in the size and shape of the pelvic cavity, ilia, greater sciatic notches, and the sub-pubic angle. the phenice method is commonly used to determine the sex of an unidentified human skeleton by anthropologists with 96% to 100% accuracy in some populations. women's pelvises are wider in the pelvic inlet and are wider throughout the pelvis to allow for child birth. the sacrum in the women's pelvis is curved inwards to allow the child to have a "funnel" to assist in the child's pathway from the uterus to the birth canal. clinical significance