near synonym for "anxiety". the second edition of the dsm (dsm-ii) in 1968 described neuroses thusly: anxiety is the chief characteristic of the neuroses. it may be felt and expressed directly, or it may be controlled unconsciously and automatically by conversion , displacement and various other psychological mechanisms. generally, these mechanisms produce symptoms experienced as subjective distress from which the patient desires relief. the neuroses, as contrasted to the psychoses, manifest neither gross distortion or misinterpretation of external reality, nor gross personality disorganization...included in this category were the conditions: hysterical neurosis hysterical neurosis, conversion type hysterical neurosis, dissociative type phobic neurosis obsessive compulsive neurosis depressive neurosis neurasthenic neurosis (neurasthenia) depersonalization neurosis (depersonalization syndrome) hypochondriacal neurosis other neurosis unspecified neurosis what was previously "gross stress reaction" and "adult situational reaction" was combined into the new "adjustment disorder of adult life", a condition covering mild to strong reactions. other adjustment disorders for other times-of-life were also included. (also, the category "transient situational personality disorders" was renamed "transient situational disturbances.") anxiety and neurosis was a popular mass-market book released in 1968 by british psychologist charles rycroft. neuroses and personality disorders was a popular textbook released by american psychologist elton b mcneil in 1970. the book primal scream. primal therapy: the cure for neurosis by american psychologist arthur janov was released in 1970. it established primal therapy as a treatment for neurosis. it is based on the idea that neurosis is caused by the repressed pain of childhood trauma. janov argued that repressed pain can be sequentially brought to conscious awareness for resolution through re-experiencing specific incidents and fully expressing the resulting pain during therapy. janov criticizes the talking therapies as they deal primarily with the cerebral cortex and higher-reasoning areas and do not access the source of pain within the more basic parts of the central nervous system. (a second edition of the book was published in 1999). dąbrowski expanded on his earlier book with psychoneurosis is not an illness: neuroses and psychoneuroses from the perspective of positive disintegration in 1972. in 1975, americans the nurse ann burgess and sociologist lynda lytle holmstrom defined rape trauma syndrome in order to draw attention to the striking similarities between the experiences of soldiers returning from war and of rape victims. beta-blockers are a class of medication that block the receptor sites for epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) on beta receptors, of the sympathetic nervous system, which mediates the fight-or-flight response. by the mid-1970s, beta blockers were used to reduce symptoms of anxiety. (scottish pharmacologist james black had synthesized the first clinically significant beta blockers (propranolol and pronethalol) in 1964). in 1977, benzodiazepines had become the most prescribed medications globally. that was the year the highly addictive benzodiazepine lorazepam (ativan) entered the us market, (having earlier been invented by american chemist stanley c bell in 1963.) american psychiatrist and historian kenneth levin's freud's early psychology of the neuroses: a historical perspective was published in 1978.aaron beck advanced cognitive behavioral therapy, and developed a cognitive theory of depression. albert ellis' work was expanded on by fellow american, psychiatrist aaron beck. the well-cited book cognitive therapy of depression was written by beck, american psychiatrist a. john rush, canadian psychologist brian f. shaw and american psychologist gary emery. it was released in 1979. it launched the beck's cognitive triad explanation of depression, and lead to cbt becoming the main talking-therapy used to treat depression. beck's cognitive therapy became popular, eventually becoming the most popular form of cbt and often being known by that name. in january 1980, stanley rachman published a well-cited working definition of "emotional processing", aiming to define the "certain psychological experiences" freud had mentioned in his 1923 book (and had earlier referred to). dsm-iii (1980-1994) the dsm eliminated its neurosis category in 1980 with the release of the dsm-iii, because of a decision by its editors to provide descriptions of behavior rather than descriptions of hidden psychological mechanisms. this change was controversial. the various anxiety-related conditions previously considered neuroses are now classified differently. this edition of the book also included a condition named "post-traumatic stress disorder" for the first time, as one of the "anxiety disorders". this was similar in definition to the "gross stress reaction" of the dsm-i. the time-of-life based subtypes of "adjustment disorder" were abolished, replaced with combinations with co-morbid syndromes (such as "adjustment disorder with depressed mood" and "adjustment disorder with anxious mood"). adjustment disorder returned to being a short-term condition. the phobia society of america was founded by psychologist jerilyn ross and others in 1980. it would later expand its scope to cover all anxiety disorders and depression, which was reflected in it becoming known as the anxiety and depression association of america. in 1981, american psychologists richard lazarus and susan folkman suggested that stress can be thought of as resulting from an "imbalance between demands and resources" or as occurring when "pressure exceeds one's perceived ability to cope". they developed the transactional model of stress. also in 1981, american psychologists christina maslach and susan e. jackson published an instrument for assessing occupational burnout, the maslach burnout inventory. the two researchers described burnout in terms of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization (feeling low empathy towards other people in an occupational setting), and reduced feelings of work-related personal accomplishment. the highly addictive benzodiazepine alprazolam (xanax) was approved for medical use in the united states in 1981, (having been invented by american chemist jackson hester in 1971.) this and accounts of valium addiction issues (particularly that of barbara gordon) led to the latter no longer being the most prescribed drug in the united states in 1982. acceptance and commitment therapy (act) was started by american psychologist steven c. hayes in around 1982. the core conception of act is that psychological suffering is usually caused by experiential avoidance, cognitive entanglement, and resulting psychological rigidity that leads to a failure to take needed behavioral steps in accord with core values. american psychiatrist george f. drinka released the history book birth of neurosis: myth, malady, and the victorians in 1984. the 1984 book stress, appraisal and coping by lazarus and folkman is the 17th most cited book in social science. the society for traumatic stress studies (stss) was founded in the united states in march 1985 for professionals to share information about the effects of trauma. it later became the international society for traumatic stress studies (istss). stress inoculation training was developed to reduce anxiety in doctors during times of intense stress by american doctor donald meichenbaum in 1985.edna foa co-developed prolonged exposure therapy. in 1986, "emotional processing theory" was first presented by psychologists edna foa (israeli-american) and michael j kozak (american). this lead to their development of prolonged exposure therapy for ptsd. it is characterized by two main treatment procedures. "imaginal exposure" is repeated purposeful retelling of the trauma memory. "in vivo exposure" is gradually confronting situations, places, and things that are reminders of the trauma or feel dangerous (despite being objectively safe). the first selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (ssri) medication went on the market in belgium in 1986. they became available in the united states in 1988, and in other places around this time. this class of drugs largely replaced moais and tcas, as they were much safer. in the united states, these drugs are most commonly known as prozac, zoloft, paxil, luvox, celexa and lexapro. (the first ssri was developed by chemists including the scottish-american bryan molloy and chinese-american david t wong.) the ssris were soon supplemented with the similar snri class, which includes effexor. antidepressant discontinuation syndrome is a significant issue with the use of both classes. azapirones are a group of drugs that work at the 5‐ht1a serotonin receptor, and are used to reduce anxiety. the first available azapirone buspirone (buspar), was approved in the united states in 1986. (it was invented by a team at mead johnson in the us in 1968). the only other drug in this class that is widely used in tandospirone (sediel), which is available in some asian countries. eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (emdr) is a form of exposure therapy devised by american psychologist francine shapiro from 1987, with the first papers on it published in 1989. it involves focusing on traumatic memories while engaging in side-to-side eye movements or other similar distractions. (the technique became more broadly known after the release of shapiro's book eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: basic principles, protocols, and procedures in 2001.) cognitive processing therapy (cpt) was developed by american psychologist patricia resick from 1988. the primary focus of the treatment is to help the client understand and reconceptualize their traumatic event in a way that reduces its ongoing negative effects on their current life. decreasing avoidance of the trauma is crucial to this, since it is necessary for the client to examine and evaluate their meta-emotions and beliefs generated by the trauma. in 1988, the first european conference on traumatic stress studies was held in lincoln, with the participation of the stss. the european trauma network was formed at this time. this became the european society for traumatic stress studies (estss) in 1993. the conservation of resources (cor) theory of stress was proposed by american psychologist stevan hobfoll in 1989. it is a heavily cited theory that describes the motivation that drives humans to both maintain their current resources and to pursue new resources. the world's main psychoanalysis bodies decided to admit people who weren't medical doctors in 1989, after a major lawsuit was made against them. the anxiety and phobia workbook was first released in august 1990. it has since sold over a million copies, and had seven editions. it was written by american philosopher and behavioural scientist edmund j. bourne. the international karen horney society was founded in 1991. after decades of development, the american psychologist marsha m. linehan published a defining paper for a new treatment for borderline personality disorder, called dialectical behavior therapy (dbt) in december 1991. this has come to be used to treat emotional dysregulation more broadly. the world association of psychoanalysis was founded in january 1992, and became the largest organisation devoted to the psychotherapy of jacques lacan. the first world conference on traumatic stress was held in amsterdam in june 1992, organised by the istss. dsm-iv (1994-2013) the conditions acute stress reaction and acute stress disorder were added to the dsm-iv (1994), describing what had previously been considered some types of adjustment disorder. acute stress reaction referred to the symptoms experienced immediately to 48 hours after exposure to a traumatic event. acute stress disorder was defined by symptoms experienced 48 hours to one month following the event. symptoms experienced for longer than one month were considered to be ptsd. the anxiety disorders association of victoria was established in melbourne in 1994. trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy (tf-cbt) was developed by american psychiatrists anthony mannarino, judith cohen, and esther deblinger in the mid-1990s to help children and adolescents with ptsd. there are 3 treatment phases: stabilization, trauma narration and processing, and integration and consolidation. australia's "national centre for war-related ptsd" was founded in 1995. in 2000 it broadened its focus to include all post-traumatic mental health, and become "phoenix australia – centre for posttraumatic mental health" in 2015. the popular book traumatic stress: the effects of overwhelming experience on mind, body, and society was edited by dutch-american psychiatrist bessel van der kolk, australian psychiatrist alexander c. mcfarlane and norwegian psychiatrist lars weisaeth. it was released in 1996. the world association for person centered & experiential psychotherapy & counseling (wapcepc) was established in july 1996, furthering the work of carl rogers. the deutschsprachige gesellschaft für psychotraumatologie (german-speaking society for psychotraumatology) was established in 1998. it was co-founded by german psychologist andreas maercker. bestselling book change your brain, change your life: the breakthrough program for conquering anxiety, depression, obsessiveness, anger, and impulsiveness was released by american doctor daniel g. amen in december 1998. anxiety canada was established in 1999. in 2000, a cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder was published by psychologists anke ehlers (german-british) and david m. clark (british). they and others followed this with a publishing of a treatment method based on this model in 2005. the three components of this are to: modify negative appraisals of the trauma; reduce re-experiencing symptoms by discussing trauma memories and learning how to differentiate between types of