vinegar vinegar vinegar (formerly also called eisel) is an aqueous solution of acetic acid and trace compounds that may include flavorings. vinegar typically contains from 5% to 8% acetic acid by volume. usually, the acetic acid is produced by a double fermentation, converting simple sugars to ethanol using yeast, and ethanol to acetic acid using acetic acid bacteria. many types of vinegar are made, depending on source materials. the product is now mainly used in the culinary arts as a flavorful, acidic cooking ingredient, or in pickling. various types are used as condiments or garnishes, including balsamic vinegar and malt vinegar. a variety of flavored vinegars, for culinary use, on sale in france as the most easily manufactured mild acid, it has a wide variety of industrial and domestic uses, including functioning as a household cleaner. etymology fast aerobic fermentation stainless steel vessels the word "vinegar" arrived in middle english from old french (vyn egre; sour wine), which in turn derives from latin: vīnum (wine) + ācre (neuter gender of ācer, sour). the word "acetic" derives from latin acētum (vinegar). chemistry the conversion of ethanol (ch3ch2oh) and oxygen (o2) to acetic acid (ch3cooh) takes place by the following reaction: ch 3 ch 2 oh + o 2 ⟶ ch 3 cooh + h 2 o polyphenols vinegar contains numerous flavonoids, phenolic acids, and aldehydes, which vary in content depending on the source material used to make the vinegar, such as orange peel or various fruit juice concentrates. history while vinegar making may be as old as alcoholic brewing, the first documented evidence of vinegar making and use was by the ancient babylonians around 3000 bc. they primarily made vinegar from dates, figs, and beer and used it for both culinary and medicinal purposes. traces of it also have been found in egyptian urns. in east asia, the chinese began professionalizing vinegar production in the zhou dynasty. the book zhou li mentions that many noble or royal households had a "vinegar maker" as a specialized occupation. most vinegar-making then was concentrated in what is now shanxi province near the city of taiyuan, which remains a famous vinegar-making region today. many chinese kinds of vinegar and their uses for culinary and medicinal purposes were written down in the agricultural manual qimin yaoshu (齊民要術). the greeks and romans frequently used vinegar made from wine. the spartans had vinegar as a part of their traditional broth melas zomos. the roman columella described the ingredients and process for making several types of vinegar in his work res rustica. in the late middle ages, vinegar making was slowly being professionalized in europe, with the french city of orléans becoming particularly famous for the quality of its vinegar through a formalized fermentation and aging process, which became known as the orléans process. during this time, malt vinegar also began to develop in england, where it was first known as alegar. balsamic vinegar also began its evolution in the duchy of modena in italy, though it would not become widely known until the napoleonic wars after being sold abroad by french troops. in the 19th century, vinegar production underwent many dramatic changes, such as rapid industrialization and scientific analysis. karl sebastian schüzenbach invented the first large-scale industrial process for vinegar production in the kingdom of baden in 1823. known as the packed generator, it circulated alcohol over beechwood shavings to reduce fermentation times from several months down to 1–2 weeks. this process also facilitated the rise of vinegar made from pure alcohol called spirit vinegar or distilled white vinegar. japan also began industrializing vinegar production during the last days of the tokugawa shogunate, when matazaemon nakano, a man from a traditional sake brewing family, discovered that sake lees could be used to make rice vinegar. this helped provide ample vinegar for the burgeoning popularity of sushi in japan. the company he founded, now known as mizkan, is headquartered in handa (near nagoya) and is the largest vinegar producer in the world. meanwhile, vinegar fermentation became understood as a natural and biological process. louis pasteur made the decisive discovery that a special type of bacteria, later known as acetic acid bacteria, was the agent of fermentation for vinegar production. in the 20th century, vinegar production was again revolutionized by the invention of the submerged fermentation process that cut production times down to 1–2 days. this allowed the mass production of cheap vinegar around the world. production main article: acetic acid § production commercial vinegar is produced either by a fast or a slow fermentation process. in general, slow methods are used in traditional vinegars, where fermentation proceeds over the course of a few months to a year. the longer fermentation period allows for the accumulation of a nontoxic slime composed of acetic acid bacteria and their cellulose biofilm, known as mother of vinegar. fast methods add the aforementioned mother of vinegar as a bacterial culture to the source liquid before adding air to oxygenate and promote the fastest fermentation. in fast production processes, vinegar may be produced in 1–3 days. varieties the source materials for making vinegar are varied – different fruits, grains, alcoholic beverages, and other fermentable materials are used. fruit raisin vinegar fruit vinegars are made from fruit wines, usually without any additional flavoring. common flavors of fruit vinegar include apple, blackcurrant, raspberry, quince, and tomato. typically, the flavors of the original fruits remain in the final product. most fruit vinegars are produced in europe, where a market exists for high-priced vinegars made solely from specific fruits (as opposed to nonfruit vinegars that are infused with fruits or fruit flavors). several varieties are produced in asia. persimmon vinegar, called gam sikcho, is common in south korea. jujube vinegar, called zaocu or hongzaocu, and wolfberry vinegar are produced in china.persimmon vinegar produced in south korea apple cider vinegar is made from cider or apple must, and has a brownish-gold color. it is sometimes sold unfiltered and unpasteurized with the mother of vinegar present. it can be diluted with fruit juice or water or sweetened (usually with honey) for consumption. a byproduct of commercial kiwifruit growing is a large amount of waste in the form of misshapen or otherwise-rejected fruit (which may constitute up to 30% of the crop) and kiwifruit pomace. one of the uses for pomace is the production of kiwifruit vinegar, produced commercially in new zealand since at least the early 1990s, and in china in 2008. vinegar made from raisins is used in cuisines of the middle east. it is cloudy and medium brown in color, with a mild flavor. vinegar made from dates is a traditional product of the middle east, and used in eastern arabia. palm coconut vinegar from the philippines coconut vinegar, made from fermented coconut water or sap, is used extensively in southeast asian cuisine (notably the philippines, where it is known as sukang tuba), as well as in some cuisines of india and sri lanka, especially goan cuisine. a cloudy, white liquid, it has a particularly sharp, acidic taste with a slightly yeasty note. in the philippines, other types of vinegar are made from palm sap. like coconut vinegar, they are by-products of tubâ (palm wine) production. two of the most widely produced are nipa palm vinegar (sukang nipa or sukang sasa) and kaong palm vinegar (sukang kaong or sukang irok). along with coconut and cane vinegar, they are the four main traditional vinegar types in the philippines and are an important part of filipino cuisine. nipa palm vinegar is made from the sap of the leaf stalks of nipa palm. its flavor has notes of citrus and imparts a distinctly musky aroma. kaong palm vinegar is made from the sap of flower stalks of the kaong palm. it is sweeter than all the other philippine vinegar types and is commonly used in salad dressing. vinegar from the buri palm sap is also produced, but not with the same prevalence as coconut, nipa, and kaong vinegars. kaong palm vinegar is also produced in indonesia and malaysia, though it is not as prevalent as in the philippines because the palm wine industry is not as widespread in these muslim-majority countries. balsamic balsamic vinegar is an aromatic, aged vinegar produced in the modena and reggio emilia provinces of italy. the original product — traditional balsamic vinegar — is made from the concentrated juice, or must, of white trebbiano grapes. it is dark brown, rich, sweet, and complex, with the finest grades being aged in successive casks made variously of oak, mulberry, chestnut, cherry, juniper, and ash wood. originally a costly product available to only the italian upper classes, traditional balsamic vinegar is marked tradizionale or "doc" to denote its protected designation of origin status, and is aged for 12 to 25 years. a cheaper non-doc commercial form described as aceto balsamico di modena (balsamic vinegar of modena) became widely known and available around the world in the late 20th century, typically made with concentrated grape juice mixed with a strong vinegar, then coloured and slightly sweetened with caramel and sugar. balsamic vinegar is made from a grape product. it contains no balsam, though was traditionally aged in balsam as one of the steps. a high acidity level is somewhat hidden by the sweetness of the other ingredients, making it mellow. in terms of its nutrition content, balsamic vinegar contains the carbohydrates of grape sugars (some 17% of total composition), making it some five times higher in caloric content than typical distilled or wine vinegar. cane vinegar made from sugarcane juice is traditional to and is most popular in the philippines, in particular in the northern ilocos region (where it is called sukang iloko or sukang basi). it ranges from dark yellow to golden brown in color, and has a mellow flavor, similar in some respects to rice vinegar, though with a somewhat "fresher" taste. because it contains no residual sugar, it is no sweeter than any other vinegar. in the philippines, it often is labeled as sukang maasim (tagalog for "sour vinegar"). cane vinegars from ilocos are made in two different ways. one way is to simply place sugar cane juice in large jars; it becomes sour by the direct action of bacteria on the sugar. the other way is through fermentation to produce a traditional wine known as basi. low-quality basi is then allowed to undergo acetic acid fermentation that converts alcohol into acetic acid. contaminated basi also becomes vinegar. cane vinegar is also produced in other countries, like france and the united states. a white variation has become quite popular in brazil in recent years, where it is the cheapest type of vinegar sold. it is now common for other types of vinegar (made from wine, rice, and apple cider) to be sold mixed with cane vinegar to lower the cost. sugarcane sirka is made from sugarcane juice in parts of northern india. during summer, people put cane juice in earthenware pots with iron nails. the fermentation takes place due to the action of wild yeast. the cane juice is converted to vinegar having a blackish color (from ferrous oxide and acetate). the sirka is used to preserve pickles and for flavoring curries. grains malt vinegar made from ale, also called "alegar", is made by malting barley, causing the starch in the grain to turn to maltose. then an ale is brewed from the maltose and allowed to turn into vinegar, which is then aged. it is typically light-brown in color. malt vinegar (along with salt) is a traditional seasoning for fish and chips, and in the united kingdom and canada, a popular seasoning for french fries in general. some fish and chip shops replace it with non-brewed condiment. salt and vinegar are combined as a common, traditional flavouring for potato crisps; in some varieties this involves the conversion of the vinegar to sodium acetate or sodium diacetate, to avoid dampening the product in manufacture. chinese black vinegar chinese black vinegar is an aged product made from rice, wheat, millet, sorghum, or a combination thereof. it has an inky black color and a complex, malty flavor. the recipe is not fixed, so some chinese black vinegars may contain added sugar, spices, or caramel color. the most popular variety, zhenjiang vinegar, originates in the city of zhenjiang in jiangsu