alcohol (drug) alcohol (drug) alcohol, sometimes referred to by the chemical name ethanol, is a depressant drug that is the active ingredient in drinks such as beer, wine, and distilled spirits (hard liquor). it is one of the oldest and most commonly consumed recreational drugs, causing the characteristic effects of alcohol intoxication ("drunkenness"). among other effects, alcohol produces happiness and euphoria, decreased anxiety, increased sociability, sedation, impairment of cognitive, memory, motor, and sensory function, and generalized depression of central nervous system (cns) function. ethanol is only one of several types of alcohol, but it is the only type of alcohol that is found in alcoholic beverages or commonly used for recreational purposes; other alcohols such as methanol and isopropyl alcohol are significantly more toxic. a mild, brief exposure to isopropanol, being only moderately more toxic than ethanol, is unlikely to cause any serious harm. methanol, being profoundly more toxic than ethanol, is lethal in quantities as small as 10–15 milliliters (2–3 teaspoons). this article is about ethanol as a psychoactive or recreational substance. for the class of chemical compounds, see alcohol (chemistry). for types and characteristics of alcoholic beverages, see alcoholic drink. for medical uses of alcohols, see alcohols (medicine). ethanol clinical datapronunciation/ˈɛθənɒl/ other namesabsolute alcohol; alcohol (usp); cologne spirit; drinking alcohol; ethanol (jan); ethylic alcohol; etoh; ethyl alcohol; ethyl hydrate; ethyl hydroxide; ethylol; grain alcohol; hydroxyethane; methylcarbinoldependenceliabilitymoderateaddictionliabilitymoderate (10–15%)routes ofadministrationcommon: by mouth uncommon: suppository, inhalation, ocular, insufflation, injectiondrug classanalgesic; depressants; sedatives; anxiolytics; euphoriants; gabaa receptor positive modulators neurotoxins;atc codev03az01 (who) legal statuslegal status au: unscheduled br: unscheduled ca: unscheduled de: unscheduled nz: unscheduled uk: general sales list (gsl, otc) us: unscheduled un: unscheduled eu: unscheduled in general: legal for recreational use, except in muslim countries of middle east and parts of north africa, and south asia pharmacokinetic databioavailability80%+protein bindingweakly or not at allmetabolismliver (90%):• alcohol dehydrogenase• meos (cyp2e1)metabolitesacetaldehyde; acetic acid; acetyl-coa; carbon dioxide; water; ethyl glucuronide; ethyl sulfateonset of actionpeak concentrations:• range: 30–90 minutes• mean: 45–60 minutes• fasting: 30 minuteselimination half-lifeconstant-rate elimination at typical concentrations:• range: 10–34 mg/dl/hour• mean (men): 15 mg/dl/hour• mean (women): 18 mg/dl/hrat very high concentrations (t1/2): 4.0–4.5 hoursduration of action6–16 hours (amount of time that levels are detectable)excretion• major: metabolism (into carbon dioxide and water)• minor: urine, breath, sweat (5–10%)identifiers iupac name ethanol cas number64-17-5pubchem cid702iuphar/bps2299drugbankdb00898 ychemspider682 yunii3k9958v90mkeggd00068chebichebi:16236 ychemblchembl545 ypdb ligandeoh (pdbe, rcsb pdb)chemical and physical dataformulac2h6omolar mass46.069 g·mol−13d model (jsmol)interactive imagedensity0.7893 g/cm3 (at 20 °c)melting point−114.14 ± 0.03 °c (−173.45 ± 0.05 °f) boiling point78.24 ± 0.09 °c (172.83 ± 0.16 °f) solubility in watermiscible mg/ml (20 °c) smiles cco inchi inchi=1s/c2h6o/c1-2-3/h3h,2h2,1h3key:lfqscwfljhtthz-uhfffaoysa-n alcohol has a variety of short-term and long-term adverse effects. short-term adverse effects include generalized impairment of neurocognitive function, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and hangover-like symptoms. alcohol is addictive to humans, and can result in alcohol use disorder, dependence and withdrawal. it can have a variety of long-term adverse effects on health, such as liver and brain damage, and its consumption can cause cancer. the adverse effects of alcohol on health are most important when it is used in excessive quantities or with heavy frequency. however, some of them, such as increased risk of certain cancers, may occur even with light or moderate alcohol consumption. in high amounts, alcohol may cause loss of consciousness or, in severe cases, death. alcohol works in the brain primarily by increasing the effects of γ-aminobutyric acid (gaba), the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain; by facilitating gaba's actions, alcohol suppresses the activity of the cns. the substance also directly affects a number of other neurotransmitter systems including those of glutamate, glycine, acetylcholine, and serotonin. the pleasurable effects of alcohol ingestion are the result of increased levels of dopamine and endogenous opioids in the reward pathways of the brain. alcohol also has toxic and unpleasant actions in the body, many of which are mediated by its byproduct acetaldehyde. alcohol has been produced and consumed by humans for its psychoactive effects for almost 10,000 years. drinking alcohol is generally socially acceptable and is legal in most countries, unlike with many other recreational substances. however, there are often restrictions on alcohol sale and use, for instance a minimum age for drinking and laws against public drinking and drinking and driving. alcohol has considerable societal and cultural significance and has important social roles in much of the world. drinking establishments, such as bars and nightclubs, revolve primarily around the sale and consumption of alcoholic beverages, and parties, festivals, and social gatherings commonly involve alcohol consumption. alcohol is unique in that it is the only drug that damages others more than the user. it is related to various societal problems, including drunk driving, accidental injuries, sexual assaults, domestic abuse, and violent crime. alcohol remains illegal for sale and consumption in a number of countries, mainly in the middle east. while some religions, including islam, prohibit alcohol consumption, other religions, such as christianity and shinto, utilize alcohol in sacrament and libation. social harm a 2010 study ranking various illegal and legal drugs based on statements by drug-harm experts. alcohol was found to be the overall most dangerous drug, and the only drug that mostly damaged others. addiction experts in psychiatry, chemistry, pharmacology, forensic science, epidemiology, and the police and legal services engaged in delphic analysis regarding 20 popular recreational substances. alcohol was ranked 6th in dependence, 11th in physical harm, and 2nd in social harm. alcohol causes a plethora of detrimental effects in society. many emergency room visits involve alcohol use. as many as 15% of employees show problematic alcohol-related behaviors in the workplace, such as drinking before going to work or even drinking on the job. drunk dialing refers to an intoxicated person making phone calls that they would not likely make if sober. alcohol availability and consumption rates and alcohol rates are positively associated with nuisance, loitering, panhandling, and disorderly conduct in open spaces. alcohol use is stereotypically associated with crime, both violent and non-violent. some crimes are uniquely tied to alcohol, such as public intoxication or underage drinking, while others are simply more likely to occur together with alcohol consumption. crime perpetrators are much more likely to be intoxicated than crime victims. many alcohol laws have been passed to criminalize various alcohol-related activities. underage drinking and drunk driving are the most prevalent alcohol‐specific offenses in the united states and a major problem in many, if not most, countries worldwide. about one-third of arrests in the united states involve alcohol misuse, and arrests for alcohol-related crimes constitute a high proportion of all arrests made by police in the u.s. and elsewhere. in general, programs aimed at reducing society's consumption of alcohol, including education in schools, are seen as an effective long-term solution. strategies aiming to reduce alcohol consumption among adult offenders have various estimates of effectiveness. policing alcohol‐related street disorder and enforcing compliance checks of alcohol‐dispensing businesses has proven successful in reducing public perception of and fear of criminal activities. in the early 2000s, the monetary cost of alcohol-related crime in the united states alone has been estimated at over $205 billion, twice the economic cost of all other drug-related crimes. in a similar period in the united kingdom, the cost of crime and its antisocial effects was estimated at £7.3 billion. another estimate for the uk for yearly cost of alcohol-related crime suggested double that estimate, at between £8 and 13 billion. risky patterns of drinking are particularly problematic in and around russia, mexico and some parts of africa. alcohol is more commonly associated with both violent and non-violent crime than are drugs like marijuana. violent crime the world health organization has noted that out of social problems created by the harmful use of alcohol, "crime and violence related to alcohol consumption" are likely the most significant issue. in the united states, 15% of robberies, 63% of intimate partner violence incidents, 37% of sexual assaults, 45-46% of physical assaults and 40-45% of homicides (murders) involved use of alcohol. a 1983 study for the united states found that 54% of violent crime perpetrators, arrested in that country, had been consuming alcohol before their offenses. in 2002, it was estimated that 1 million violent crimes in the u.s. were related to alcohol use. more than 43% of violent encounters with police involve alcohol. alcohol is implicated in more than two-thirds of cases of intimate partner violence. studies also suggest there may be links between alcohol abuse and child abuse. in the united kingdom, in 2015/2016, 39% of those involved in violent crimes were under alcohol influence. international studies are similar, with an estimate that 63% of violent crimes worldwide involves the use of alcohol. the relation between alcohol and violence is not yet fully understood, as its impact on different individuals varies. studies and theories of alcohol abuse suggest, among others, that use of alcohol likely reduces the offender's perception and awareness of consequences of their actions. heavy drinking is associated with vulnerability to injury, marital discord, and domestic violence. moderate drinkers are more frequently engaged in intimate violence than are light drinkers and abstainers, however generally it is heavy and/or binge drinkers who are involved in the most chronic and serious forms of aggression. research found that factors that increase the likelihood of alcohol‐related violence include difficult temperament, hyperactivity, hostile beliefs, history of family violence, poor school performance, delinquent peers, criminogenic beliefs about alcohol's effects, impulsivity, and antisocial personality disorder. the odds, frequency, and severity of physical attacks are all positively correlated with alcohol use. in turn, violence decreases after behavioral marital alcoholism treatment. automobile accidents an estonian billboard warning against drunk driving a 2002 study found 41% of people fatally injured in traffic accidents were in alcohol-related crashes. misuse of alcohol is associated with more than 40% of deaths that occur in automobile accidents every year. the risk of a fatal car accident increases exponentially with the level of alcohol in the driver's blood. most countries have passed laws prohibiting driving a motor vehicle while impaired by alcohol. in the u.s., these crimes are generally referred to as driving under the influence (dui), although there are many naming variations among jurisdictions, such as driving while intoxicated (dwi). with alcohol consumption, a drunk driver's level of intoxication is typically determined by a measurement of blood alcohol content or bac; but this can also be expressed as a breath test measurement, often referred to as a brac. a bac or brac measurement in excess of the specific threshold level, such as 0.08% in the u.s., defines the criminal offense with no need to prove impairment. in some jurisdictions, there is an aggravated category of the offense at a higher bac level, such as 0.12%, 0.15% or 0.25%. in many jurisdictions, police officers can conduct field tests of suspects to look for signs of intoxication. criminologist hung‐en sung has concluded in 2016 that with regards to reducing drunk driving, law enforcement has not generally proven to be effective. worldwide, the majority of those driving under the influence do not end up arrested. at least two thirds of alcohol‐involved fatalities involve repeat drinking drivers. sung, commenting on measures for controlling drunk driving and alcohol‐related accidents, noted that the ones that have proven effective include "lowering legal blood alcohol concentrations, controlling liquor outlets, nighttime driving curfews for minors, educational treatment programs combined with license suspension for offenders, and court monitoring of high‐risk offenders." sexual assault main article: alcohol and sex alcohol abuse increases the risk of individuals either experiencing or perpetrating sexual violence and risky, causal sex. caffeinated alcoholic drinks are particularly implicated. often, a victim becomes incapacitated due to having consumed alcohol, which then facilitates sexual assault or rape, a crime known as drug-facilitated sexual assault. over 50% of reported rapes involve alcohol. alcohol remains the most commonly used predator drug, and is said to be used in the majority of sexual assaults. many assailants use alcohol because their victims often willingly imbibe it, and can be encouraged to drink enough to lose inhibitions or consciousness. sex with an unconscious victim is considered rape in most if not all jurisdictions, and some assailants have committed "rapes of convenience" whereby they have assaulted a victim after he or she had become unconscious from drinking too much. public drunkenness drunkard passed out on a bench public drunkenness or intoxication is a common problem in many