india. the kasur child sexual abuse scandal, which involved forced sex acts and an estimated 280 to 300 children, was termed the largest child abuse scandal in pakistan's history. in 2019, pakistan's human rights minister, shirin mazari has said that pakistan was ranked as the country with the largest numbers of child pornography viewers. geo pakistan, the federal investigation agency, cyber-crime chief has said, "child pornography is a business . . with those involved in the crime linked to international child pornography rings." in taiwan, a survey of adolescents reported 2.5% as having experienced childhood sexual abuse. in uzbekistan, the uk ambassador craig murray wrote that the government, under president islam karimov, used child rape to force false confessions from prisoners. pacific according to unicef, nearly half of reported rape victims in papua new guinea are under 15 years of age and 13% are under 7 years of age while a report by childfund australia citing former parliamentarian dame carol kidu stated 50% of those seeking medical help after rape are under 16, 25% are under 10 and 10% are under 8. additionally, a study found that men with a history of victimization, especially having been raped or otherwise sexually coerced themselves, were more likely than otherwise to have participated in both single-perpetrator and multiple-perpetrator non-partner rape. 57·5% (587/1022) of men who raped a non-partner committed their first rape as teenagers. united states and europe child sexual abuse occurs frequently in western society, although the rate of prevalence can be difficult to determine. research in north america has concluded that approximately 15% to 25% of women and 5% to 15% of men were sexually abused when they were children. in the uk, a 2010 study estimated prevalence at about 5% for boys and 18% for girls (not dissimilar to a 1985 study that estimated about 8% for boys and 12% for girls). more than 23,000 incidents were recorded by the uk police between 2009 and 2010. girls were six times more likely to be assaulted than boys with 86% of attacks taking place against them. barnardo's charity estimates that two thirds of victims in the united kingdom are girls and one third are boys. barnardo's is concerned that boy victims may be overlooked. a firm of solicitors that acts in many cases of child abuse has published a list of over twenty children's homes and group actions that they have an interest in or for which they are lead solicitors. the estimates for the united states vary widely. a literature review of 23 studies found rates of 3% to 37% for males and 8% to 71% for females, which produced an average of 17% for boys and 28% for girls, while a statistical analysis based on 16 cross-sectional studies estimated the rate to be 7.2% for males and 14.5% for females. the us department of health and human services reported 83,600 substantiated reports of sexually abused children in 2005, while state-level child protective services reported 63,527 sexual abuse incidents in 2010. including incidents which were not reported would make the total number even larger. according to emily m. douglas and david finkelhor, "several national studies have found that black and white children experienced near-equal levels of sexual abuse. other studies, however, have found that both blacks and latinos have an increased risk for sexual victimization". surveys have shown that one fifth to one third of all women reported some sort of childhood sexual experience with a male adult. a 1992 survey studying father-daughter incest in finland reported that of the 9,000 15-year-old high school girls who filled out the questionnaires, of the girls living with their biological fathers, 0.2% reported father-daughter incest experiences; of the girls living with a stepfather, 3.7% reported sexual experiences with him. the reported counts included only father-daughter incest and did not include prevalence of other forms of child sexual abuse. the survey summary stated, "the feelings of the girls about their incestual experiences are overwhelmingly negative." others argue that prevalence rates are much higher, and that many cases of child abuse are never reported. one study found that professionals failed to report approximately 40% of the child sexual abuse cases they encountered. a study by lawson & chaffin indicated that many children who were sexually abused were "identified solely by a physical complaint that was later diagnosed as a venereal disease ... only 43% of the children who were diagnosed with venereal disease made a verbal disclosure of sexual abuse during the initial interview." it has been found in the epidemiological literature on csa that there is no identifiable demographic or family characteristic of a child that can be used to bar the prospect that a child has been sexually abused. child marriage is often considered to be another form of child sexual abuse. over 200,000 marriages involving minors were allowed between 2000 and 2015 in the us. these marriages were most often between an adult male and female minor. child marriage in the united states is allowed in the majority of states as long as parental consent or judicial approval (typically for pregnancy) is given. in us schools, according to the united states department of education, "nearly 9.6% of students are targets of educator sexual misconduct sometime during their school career." in studies of student sex abuse by male and female educators, male students were reported as targets in ranges from 23% to 44%. in u.s. school settings same-sex (female and male) sexual misconduct against students by educators "ranges from 18 to 28% of reported cases, depending on the study" significant underreporting of sexual abuse of boys by both women and men is believed to occur due to sex stereotyping, social denial, the minimization of male victimization, and the relative lack of research on sexual abuse of boys. sexual victimization of boys by their mothers or other female relatives is especially rarely researched or reported. sexual abuse of girls by their mothers, and other related and/or unrelated adult females is beginning to be researched and reported despite the highly taboo nature of female–female child sex abuse. in studies where students are asked about sex offenses, they report higher levels of female sex offenders than found in adult reports. this underreporting has been attributed to cultural denial of female-perpetrated child sex abuse, because "males have been socialized to believe they should be flattered or appreciative of sexual interest from a female." journalist cathy young writes that under-reporting is contributed to by the difficulty of people, including jurors, in seeing a male as a "true victim". in the united kingdom, reported child sex abuse has increased, but this may be due to greater willingness to report. police need more resources to deal with it. also parents and schools need to give children and adolescents regular advice about how to spot abuse and about the need to report abuse. software providers are urged to do more to police their environment and make it safe for children. international law child sexual abuse is outlawed nearly everywhere in the world, generally with severe criminal penalties, including in some jurisdictions, life imprisonment or capital punishment. an adult's sexual intercourse with someone below the legal age of consent is defined as statutory rape, based on the principle that a child is not capable of consent and that any apparent consent by a child is not considered to be legal consent. the united nations convention on the rights of the child (crc) is an international treaty that legally obliges states to protect children's rights. articles 34 and 35 of the crc require states to protect children from all forms of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse. this includes outlawing the coercion of a child to perform sexual activity, the prostitution of children, and the exploitation of children in creating pornography. states are also required to prevent the abduction, sale, or trafficking of children. as of november 2008, 193 countries are bound by the crc, including every member of the united nations except the united states and south sudan. the council of europe has adopted the council of europe convention on the protection of children against sexual exploitation and sexual abuse in order to prohibit child sexual abuse that occurs within home or family. in the european union, child sexual abuse is subject to a directive. this directive deals with several forms of sexual abuse of children, especially commercial sexual exploitation of children. history child sexual abuse has gained public attention since the 1970s and has become one of the most high-profile crimes. while sexual use of children by adults has been present throughout history, public interest in prevention has tended to fluctuate. initially, concern centered around children under the age of ten, but over time, advocates have attracted attention toward the sexual abuse of children between the ages of 11 and 17. up until the 1930s, the psychological impact of sexual abuse was not emphasized, instead emphasis was placed on the physical harm or the child's reputation. widespread public awareness of children's sexual abuse did not occur until the 1970s in the west. early writings the first published work dedicated specifically to child sexual abuse appeared in france in 1857: medical-legal studies of sexual assault (etude médico-légale sur les attentats aux mœurs), by auguste ambroise tardieu, the noted french pathologist and pioneer of forensic medicine. public concern child sexual abuse became a public issue in the 1970s and 1980s. prior to this point in time, sexual abuse remained rather secretive and socially unspeakable. studies on child molestation were nonexistent until the 1920s and the first national estimate of the number of child sexual abuse cases was published in 1948. by 1968 44 out of 50 u.s. states had enacted mandatory laws that required physicians to report cases of suspicious child abuse. legal action began to become more prevalent in the 1970s with the enactment of the child abuse prevention and treatment act in 1974 in conjunction with the creation of the national center for child abuse and neglect. since the creation of the child abuse and treatment act, reported child abuse cases have increased dramatically. finally, the national abuse coalition was created in 1979 to create pressure in congress to create more sexual abuse laws. second wave feminism brought greater awareness of child sexual abuse and violence against women, and made them public, political issues. judith lewis herman, harvard professor of psychiatry, wrote the first book ever on father-daughter incest when she discovered during her medical residency that a large number of the women she was seeing had been victims of father-daughter incest. herman notes that her approach to her clinical experience grew out of her involvement in the civil rights movement. her second book trauma and recovery coined the term complex post-traumatic stress disorder and included child sexual abuse as a cause. in 1986, congress passed the child abuse victims' rights act, giving children a civil claim in sexual abuse cases. the number of laws created in the 1980s and 1990s began to create greater prosecution and detection of child sexual abusers. during the 1970s a large transition began in the legislature related to child sexual abuse. megan's law which was enacted in 1996 gives the public access to knowledge of sex offenders nationwide. anne hastings described these changes in attitudes towards child sexual abuse as "the beginning of one of history's largest social revolutions." according to john jay college of criminal justice professor b.j. cling, "by the early 21st century, the issue of child sexual abuse has become a legitimate focus of professional attention, while increasingly separated from second wave feminism ... as child sexual abuse becomes absorbed into the larger field of interpersonal trauma studies, child sexual abuse studies and intervention strategies have become degendered and largely unaware of their political origins in modern feminism and other vibrant political movements of the 1970s. one may hope that unlike in the past, this rediscovery of child sexual abuse that began in the 70s will not again be followed by collective amnesia. the institutionalization of child maltreatment interventions in federally funded centers, national and international societies, and a host of research studies (in which the united states continues to lead the world) offers grounds for cautious optimism. nevertheless, as judith herman argues cogently, 'the systematic study of psychological trauma ...