grants from the nimh center for studies of crime and delinquency. the edinburgh study was led by shirley ratcliffe who focused her career on it and published the results in 1999. 1970s in december 1969, lore zech at the karolinska institute in stockholm first reported intense fluorescence of the a t-rich distal half of the long arm of the y chromosome in the nuclei of metaphase cells treated with quinacrine mustard. in april 1970, peter pearson and martin bobrow at the mrc population genetics unit in oxford and canino vosa at the university of oxford reported fluorescent "male" sex chromatin bodies in the nuclei of interphase cells in buccal smears treated with quinacrine dihydrochloride, which could be used to screen for y chromosome aneuploidies like 47,xyy. in december 1970, at the annual meeting of the american association for the advancement of science (aaas), its retiring president, geneticist h. bentley glass, cheered by the legalization of abortion in new york, envisioned a future where pregnant women would be required by the government to abort xyy "sex deviants". mischaracterization of the xyy genetic condition was quickly incorporated into high school biology textbooks and medical school psychiatry textbooks, where misinformation still persists decades later. in 1973, child psychiatrist herbert schreier at children's hospital told harvard medical school microbiologist jon beckwith of science for the people that he thought walzer's boston xyy study was unethical; science for the people investigated the study and, regarding the study, filed an ethics complaint with harvard medical school in march 1974. in november 1974, science for the people went public with their objections to the boston xyy study in a press conference and a new scientist article alleging inadequate informed consent, a lack of benefit (since no specific treatment was available) but substantial risk (by stigmatization with a false stereotype) to the subjects, and that the unblinded experimental design could not produce meaningful results regarding the subjects' behavior. in december 1974, the harvard standing committee on medical research issued a report supporting the boston xyy study, and in march 1975, the faculty voted 199–35 to allow continuation of the study. after april 1975, screening of newborns was discontinued—changes to informed consent procedures and pressure from additional advocacy groups, including the children's defense fund, having led to the discontinuation of the last active u.s. newborn screening programs for sex chromosome abnormalities in boston and denver. in august 1976, science published a retrospective cohort study by educational testing service psychologist herman witkin and colleagues that screened the tallest 16% of men (over 184 cm (6'0") in height) born in copenhagen from 1944 to 1947 for xxy and xyy karyotypes, and found an increased rate of minor criminal convictions for property crimes among sixteen xxy and twelve xyy men may be related to the lower intelligence of those with criminal convictions, but found no evidence that xxy or xyy men were inclined to be aggressive or violent. 1980s and later the march of dimes sponsored five international conferences in june 1974, november 1977, may 1981, june 1984, and june 1989 and published articles from the conferences in book form in 1979, 1982, 1986, and 1991 from seven longitudinal prospective cohort studies on the development of over 300 children and young adults with sex chromosome abnormalities identified in the screening of almost 200,000 consecutive births in hospitals in denver, edinburgh, new haven, toronto, aarhus, winnipeg, and boston from 1964 to 1975. these seven studies—the only unbiased studies of unselected individuals with sex chromosome abnormalities—have replaced the older, biased studies of institutionalized individuals in understanding the development of individuals with sex chromosome abnormalities. in may 1997, nature genetics published the discovery by ercole rao and colleagues of the x/y chromosome pseudoautosomal region (par1) shox gene, haploinsufficiency of which leads to short stature in turner syndrome (45,x). it was subsequently postulated that the increased gene dosage of three shox genes leads to tall stature in the sex chromosome trisomies 47,xxx, 47,xxy, and 47,xyy. in july 1999, psychological medicine published a case-control study by royal edinburgh hospital psychiatrist michael götz and colleagues that found an increased rate of criminal convictions among seventeen xyy men identified in the edinburgh newborn screening study compared to an above-average-iq control group of sixty xy men, which multiple logistic regression analysis indicated was mediated mainly through lowered intelligence. in june 2002, the american journal of medical genetics published results from a longitudinal prospective cohort denver family development study led by pediatrician and geneticist arthur robinson, which found that in fourteen prenatally diagnosed 47,xyy boys (from high socioeconomic status families), iq scores available for six boys ranged from 100 to 147 with a mean of 120. for the eleven of fourteen boys with siblings, in nine instances their siblings were stronger academically, but in one case the subject was performing equal to, and in another case superior to, his siblings. society and culture some medical geneticists question whether the term "syndrome" is appropriate for this condition because many people with this karyotype appear normal. in popular culture in june 1970, the xyy man was published—the first of seven kenneth royce spy novels whose fictional tall, intelligent, nonviolent xyy hero was a reformed expert cat burglar recruited by british intelligence for dangerous assignments—and later adapted into a thirteen-episode british summer television series broadcast in 1976 and 1977. in other fictional television works, a january 1971 episode "by the pricking of my thumbs ..." of the british science fiction tv series doomwatch featured an xyy boy expelled from school because his genetic condition led him to be falsely accused of nearly blinding another boy. a november 1993 episode of the american police procedural tv series law & order, "born bad", portrays a 14-year-old xyy sociopathic murderer. the may 2007 season finale episode, "born to kill", of the american police procedural tv series csi: miami depicts a 34-year-old xyy serial killer. the false stereotype of xyy boys and men as violent criminals has also been used as a plot device in the horror films il gatto a nove code in february 1971 (dubbed into english as the cat o' nine tails in may 1971) and alien 3 in may 1992.