just utilized at different times. for example, restriction is used to pre-empt any emotion activation, while bingeing–vomiting is used after an emotion has been activated. parental influence parental influence has been shown to be an intrinsic component in the development of eating behaviors of children. this influence is manifested and shaped by a variety of diverse factors such as familial genetic predisposition, dietary choices as dictated by cultural or ethnic preferences, the parents' own body shape and eating patterns, the degree of involvement and expectations of their children's eating behavior as well as the interpersonal relationship of parent and child. this is in addition to the general psychosocial climate of the home and the presence or absence of a nurturing stable environment. it has been shown that maladaptive parental behavior has an important role in the development of eating disorders. as to the more subtle aspects of parental influence, it has been shown that eating patterns are established in early childhood and that children should be allowed to decide when their appetite is satisfied as early as the age of two. a direct link has been shown between obesity and parental pressure to eat more. coercive tactics in regard to diet have not been proven to be efficacious in controlling a child's eating behavior. affection and attention have been shown to affect the degree of a child's finickiness and their acceptance of a more varied diet. adams and crane (1980), have shown that parents are influenced by stereotypes that influence their perception of their child's body. the conveyance of these negative stereotypes also affects the child's own body image and satisfaction. hilde bruch, a pioneer in the field of studying eating disorders, asserts that anorexia nervosa often occurs in girls who are high achievers, obedient, and always trying to please their parents. their parents have a tendency to be over-controlling and fail to encourage the expression of emotions, inhibiting daughters from accepting their own feelings and desires. adolescent females in these overbearing families lack the ability to be independent from their families, yet realize the need to, often resulting in rebellion. controlling their food intake may make them feel better, as it provides them with a sense of control. peer pressure in various studies such as one conducted by the mcknight investigators, peer pressure was shown to be a significant contributor to body image concerns and attitudes toward eating among subjects in their teens and early twenties. eleanor mackey and co-author, annette m. la greca of the university of miami, studied 236 teen girls from public high schools in southeast florida. "teen girls' concerns about their own weight, about how they appear to others and their perceptions that their peers want them to be thin are significantly related to weight-control behavior", says psychologist eleanor mackey of the children's national medical center in washington and lead author of the study. "those are really important." according to one study, 40% of 9- and 10-year-old girls are already trying to lose weight. such dieting is reported to be influenced by peer behavior, with many of those individuals on a diet reporting that their friends also were dieting. the number of friends dieting and the number of friends who pressured them to diet also played a significant role in their own choices. elite athletes have a significantly higher rate in eating disorders. female athletes in sports such as gymnastics, ballet, diving, etc. are found to be at the highest risk among all athletes. women are more likely than men to acquire an eating disorder between the ages of 13–25. 0–15% of those with bulimia and anorexia are men. other psychological problems that could possibly create an eating disorder such as anorexia nervosa are depression, and low self-esteem. depression is a state of mind where emotions are unstable causing a person's eating habits to change due to sadness and no interest of doing anything. according to psycom "studies show that a high percentage of people with an eating disorder will experience depression." depression is a state of mind where people seem to refuge without being able to get out of it. a big factor of this can affect people with their eating and this can mostly affect teenagers. teenagers are big candidates for anorexia for the reason that during the teenage years, many things start changing and they start to think certain ways. according to life works an article about eating disorders "people of any age can be affected by pressure from their peers, the media and even their families but it is worse when you're a teenager at school." teenagers can develop eating disorder such as anorexia due to peer pressure which can lead to depression. many teens start off this journey by feeling pressure for wanting to look a certain way of feeling pressure for being different. this brings them to finding the result in eating less and soon leading to anorexia which can bring big harms to the physical state. western perspective there is a cultural emphasis on thinness which is especially pervasive in western society. a child's perception of external pressure to achieve the ideal body that is represented by the media predicts the child's body image dissatisfaction, body dysmorphic disorder and an eating disorder. "the cultural pressure on men and women to be 'perfect' is an important predisposing factor for the development of eating disorders". further, when women of all races base their evaluation of their self upon what is considered the culturally ideal body, the incidence of eating disorders increases. socioeconomic status (ses) has been viewed as a risk factor for eating disorders, presuming that possessing more resources allows for an individual to actively choose to diet and reduce body weight. some studies have also shown a relationship between increasing body dissatisfaction with increasing ses. however, once high socioeconomic status has been achieved, this relationship weakens and, in some cases, no longer exists. the media plays a major role in the way in which people view themselves. countless magazine ads and commercials depict thin celebrities. society has taught people that being accepted by others is necessary at all costs. this has led to the belief that in order to fit in one must look a certain way. televised beauty competitions such as the miss america competition contribute to the idea of what it means to be beautiful because competitors are evaluated on the basis of their opinion. in addition to socioeconomic status being considered a cultural risk factor so is the world of sports. athletes and eating disorders tend to go hand in hand, especially the sports where weight is a competitive factor. gymnastics, horse back riding, wrestling, body building, and dancing are just a few that fall into this category of weight dependent sports. eating disorders among individuals that participate in competitive activities, especially women, often lead to having physical and biological changes related to their weight that often mimic prepubescent stages. oftentimes as women's bodies change they lose their competitive edge which leads them to taking extreme measures to maintain their younger body shape. men often struggle with binge eating followed by excessive exercise while focusing on building muscle rather than losing fat, but this goal of gaining muscle is just as much an eating disorder as obsessing over thinness. the following statistics taken from susan nolen-hoeksema's book, (ab)normal psychology, show the estimated percentage of athletes that struggle with eating disorders based on the category of sport. aesthetic sports (dance, figure skating, gymnastics) – 35% weight dependent sports (judo, wrestling) – 29% endurance sports (cycling, swimming, running) – 20% technical sports (golf, high jumping) – 14% ball game sports (volleyball, soccer) – 12% although most of these athletes develop eating disorders to keep their competitive edge, others use exercise as a way to maintain their weight and figure. this is just as serious as regulating food intake for competition. even though there is mixed evidence showing at what point athletes are challenged with eating disorders, studies show that regardless of competition level all athletes are at higher risk for developing eating disorders that non-athletes, especially those that participate in sports where thinness is a factor. pressure from society is also seen within the homosexual community. gay men are at greater risk of eating disorder symptoms than heterosexual men. within the gay culture, muscularity gives the advantages of both social and sexual desirability and also power. these pressures and ideas that another homosexual male may desire a mate who is thinner or muscular can possibly lead to eating disorders. the higher eating disorder symptom score reported, the more concern about how others perceive them and the more frequent and excessive exercise sessions occur. high levels of body dissatisfaction are also linked to external motivation to working out and old age; however, having a thin and muscular body occurs within younger homosexual males than older. most of the cross-cultural studies use definitions from the dsm-iv-tr, which has been criticized as reflecting a western cultural bias. thus, assessments and questionnaires may not be constructed to detect some of the cultural differences associated with different disorders. also, when looking at individuals in areas potentially influenced by western culture, few studies have attempted to measure how much an individual has adopted the mainstream culture or retained the traditional cultural values of the area. lastly, the majority of the cross-cultural studies on eating disorders and body image disturbances occurred in western nations and not in the countries or regions being examined. while there are many influences to how an individual processes their body image, the media does play a major role. along with the media, parental influence, peer influence, and self-efficacy beliefs also play a large role in an individual's view of themselves. the way the media presents images can have a lasting effect on an individual's perception of their body image. eating disorders are a worldwide issue and while women are more likely to be affected by an eating disorder it still affects both genders (schwitzer 2012). the media influences eating disorders whether shown in a positive or negative light, it then has a responsibility to use caution when promoting images that projects an ideal that many turn to eating disorders to attain. to try to address unhealthy body image in the fashion world, in 2015, france passed a law requiring models to be declared healthy by a doctor to participate in fashion shows. it also requires re-touched images to be marked as such in magazines. there is a relationship between "thin ideal" social media content and body dissatisfaction and eating disorders among young adult women, especially in the western hemisphere. new research points to an "internalization" of distorted images online, as well as negative comparisons among young adult women. most studies have been based in the u.s, the u.k, and australia, these are places where the thin ideal is strong among women, as well as the strive for the "perfect" body. in addition to mere media exposure, there is an online "pro-eating disorder" community. through personal blogs and twitter, this community promotes eating disorders as a "lifestyle", and continuously posts pictures of emaciated bodies, and tips on how to stay thin. the hashtag "#proana" (pro-anorexia), is a product of this community, as well as images promoting weight loss, tagged with the term "thinspiration". according to social comparison theory, young women have a tendency to compare their appearance to others, which can result in a negative view of their own bodies and altering of eating behaviors, that in turn can develop disordered eating behaviors. when body parts are isolated and displayed in the media as objects to be looked at, it is called objectification, and women are affected most by this phenomenon. objectification increases self-objectification, where women judge their own body parts as a mean of praise and pleasure for others. there is a significant link between self-objectification, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating, as the beauty ideal is altered through social media. although eating disorders are typically under diagnosed in people of color, they still experience eating disorders in great numbers. it is thought that the stress that those of color face in the united states from being multiply marginalized may contribute to their rates of eating disorders. eating disorders, for these women, may be a response to environmental stressors