wanted to work at night, and took photographs that showed the monkeys' living conditions. he showed them in july to animal rights activists, including cleveland amory, who gave him money for a better camera and some walkie-talkies, so that a look-out outside could alert him if visitors arrived unexpectedly. he also asked peter hamilton of the vancouver-based lifeforce foundation to assist with the investigation. in august, pacheco began inviting veterinarians and scientists into the lab to witness the conditions. according to the washington post, geza teleki, a primatologist at george washington university, wrote that he had never seen a lab so poorly maintained, and psychologist donald barnes, a former primate researcher, wrote that it was a "miserable and unhealthful environment for the primates" and a health hazard for humans. one local veterinarian, richard weitzman, agreed that the lab was very dirty, but said the monkeys seemed well fed and "in pretty good health". pacheco reported the situation to the montgomery county police, who raided the laboratory on september 11, 1981, under maryland's prevention of cruelty to animals law. peta tipped off the media beforehand, so that the raid was witnessed by several reporters and a camera crew, to the irritation of the police. the officers later testified that the monkeys were living in filthy conditions. richard swain, who led the raid, told the washington post in 1991: "it was absolutely filthy, just incredibly dirty, like nothing i've ever been in. i've executed lots and lots of search warrants. i've worked in murder, in narcotics, in vice, but this was the first time i went into a room and i felt legitimately concerned for my health just being there." taub was charged with 17 counts of animal cruelty and failing to provide adequate veterinary care. the police removed the monkeys from the lab to the basement of a house in rockville owned by lori kenealy of the local humane society. peter carlson writes in the washington post that they were given toys, groomed with toothbrushes by the activists, watched 24 hours a day, and allowed to watch daytime soap operas. in the meantime, taub's lawyers went to court and demanded their return, and ten days after the raid a judge granted the request. and suddenly, carlson writes, the monkeys disappeared. kenealy was not at home when it happened, and insisted she knew nothing about it. richard swain, who had led the police raid, arrested her and put her in the local jail overnight. peta was told there could be no legal action against taub without the monkeys as evidence. carlson writes that, just as suddenly as they had disappeared, they were returned five days later, this time with spanish moss in their cages after a holiday in florida, according to the activists. after another brief stand-off, the monkeys were returned to taub. taub's response taub said he had been set up. he said his laboratory had been clean when he left on vacation, but that pacheco had failed to clean the cages, had neglected the animals, then subjected the laboratory to false reports of cruelty. during taub's vacation that august, which lasted over two weeks, on seven different days in which the animals were supposed to have been fed and the cage area cleaned, the two caretakers failed to show up for work. taub estimated the probability of seven absences in that 2.5 week period at seven in a trillion based on the previous 14 months of attendance records from the workers. on three of those absentee days, pacheco brought people in to look at the monkeys. taub's research assistant, john kunz, a graduate student, said it was simply that the caretakers took advantage of taub's absence to have a holiday of their own. during the trial in october and november 1981 of taub and kunz, taub told the court—as reported by the baltimore sun—that the monkeys had been given "gentle" treatment, and had what he called a "remarkable record of health." he acknowledged that they had not been seen by a veterinarian in the previous two years, because he was an expert himself in the treatment of deafferented monkeys. responding to the images of the monkeys with open sores and decaying bandages, he said that using salves, ointments, and bandages is more dangerous than leaving the conditions untreated; monkeys feel no pain from the deafferented limbs and learn to ignore them, he said, whereas drawing attention to the wounds with salves or bandages would cause the animals to bite or claw at them. bandages might be necessary where the wounds had grown out of control, or where there was massive infection, and it was sometimes better to let the bandages deteriorate, he said. taub also testified that some of the photographs pacheco took had been staged for dramatic effect. norman doidge wrote in 2007 that, according to taub, the monkeys in the photographs had been placed in positions that were not part of the laboratory procedure, a claim pacheco denied. as for the dirt, taub said "monkey rooms are dirty places," and that it was normal in laboratories for fecal matter to lie on the floor and food to drop through the cage bottoms into waste trays. he said employees had used brooms and mops on the floor, and had emptied the waste trays nearly every day. he said the monkeys had been given fresh fruit twice a week, and that he disagreed with the veterinarians who testified for the prosecution that the female monkey, sarah, was underweight. national institutes of health investigation the national institutes of health (nih), which had financed taub's research, suspended his $115,000 research grant. it initiated its own investigation, and sent the office for the protection from research risks (oprr) to assess taub's lab. oprr found that the lab's animal care failed in significant ways, and concluded that it was grossly unsanitary. based on the oprr investigation, nih suspended the remaining funding for the experiments, over $200,000, because of violations of its animal care guidelines. william raub and joe held, officials at nih, wrote in the neuroscience newsletter in april 1983 that deafferented monkeys kept at nih since may 1981, and subjected to the same surgical procedures, had not developed lesions comparable to those in five of the deafferented monkeys from taub's lab. "based on these observations," they wrote, "it would appear that fractures, dislocations, lacerations, punctures, contusions, and abrasions with accompanying infection, acute and chronic inflammation, and necrosis are not the inevitable consequences of deafferentation." after the appeal, according to doidge writing in 2007, 67 professional societies made representations on taub's behalf, and the nih reversed its decision not to fund his research. in 1991 neuroscientist david hubel, referring to both the silver spring monkeys case and a peta film about the university of pennsylvania's head injury clinic in 1984, said the science was sound, that the people involved were not cruel, and that at the time there was a "laxness of standards" in animal care that, he wrote, would hardly be conceivable today. trials and appeal first trial (october 1981) according to peter carlson, every aspect of the case was disputed by experts on both sides during the first trial in october 1981. the prosecution said that taub's lab was filthy and unhealthy, and federal inspection reports and witnesses supported the charge. taub said the lab was no dirtier than any other, and he also produced federal inspection reports and witnesses to support his position. veterinarians speaking for the prosecution said taub's failure to bandage the monkeys' wounds was a threat to their health; veterinarians for the defense, including two who had worked with monkeys whose limbs had been deafferented, said bandaging them would cause the animals to attack the limbs. carlson writes that the prosecution produced 70 photographs of dirty conditions and injured monkeys, while researchers who had worked in the lab testified for the defense that they had never seen the lab looking like that. the judge—district court judge stanley klavan—found taub guilty of six counts of cruelty to animals for failing to provide adequate veterinary care in respect of six of the monkeys, and acquitted him of the other 11 charges against him. he fined taub $3,000. the laboratory assistant, john kunz, was acquitted of all 17 charges. second trial and appeal (1982 and 1983) taub managed to secure a second trial in june 1982. after three weeks at the montgomery county circuit court, a jury acquitted him of five of the convictions, and upheld the sixth charge of inadequate veterinary care of nero, whose wounds were such that an nih veterinarian later amputated his deafferented arm. taub was fined $500. the sixth charge was set aside on appeal, when the court ruled that maryland's prevention of cruelty to animals law did not apply to federally funded laboratories. fight for custody after the monkeys were returned to taub's custody, they were transferred to an nih facility. they were later removed to the tulane regional primate research center in covington, louisiana, still under the care and control of the nih. two primate sanctuaries, moorpark college in california and primarily primates in texas, offered them a permanent home, but the nih refused to release them. they were moved by the nih to the delta primate center in june 1986, where animal rights activists, who had been able to visit and groom the animals at the previous center, were told they could no longer see them. in 1987, the custodians of 14 of the remaining monkeys recommended that eight of them be euthanized, because they were judged to be beyond hope of resocialization. a lawsuit filed by peta and others sought to block euthanasia and transfer the animals to a facility under their control. the new england anti-vivisection society and peta ran ads in the new york times on december 26, 1989, the washington post on december 27, and in the washington times on january 3, 1990, asking president bush to save the monkeys, and concerned citizens to petition the white house. after the court denied custody to peta, two of the monkeys, titus and allen, were kept for the national institutes of health at a tulane university primate center, where they were later euthanized. final experiments and euthanasia the homunculi showing which parts of the body are controlled by the sensory cortex and motor cortex. taub's research on the silver spring monkeys challenged the paradigm that brain functions are fixed in certain locations. the nih had said in 1987 that no further invasive research would be conducted on the monkeys, but in fact further experiments were performed on them in 1990. nih presented the experiments in the lawsuit for custody of the animals in 1989. it proposed to perform deep surgical anesthesia during all procedures followed by euthanasia. after euthanasia, tissue examination would continue. the court allowed a group of researchers from the nih to conduct a terminal experiment on january 14, 1990, on one of the monkeys who had become ill. under anesthesia, electrodes were placed in his brain and hundreds of recordings taken. the laboratory primate newsletter said it revealed an "unprecedented degree of reorganization of the sensory cortex. an 8–10-millimeter-wide area that would normally receive input from the hand was found to have completely filled in with input from the face." brainmapping studies were conducted on the remaining monkeys on july 6, 1990, three days after peta's application for custody was rejected. the monkeys were subsequently euthanized. during these experiments, scientists discovered an unpredicted change in thalamus structure apparently caused by progressive nerve degeneration through the dorsal root ganglia (which were severed) and the dorsal columns all the way to the thalamus (a second order synaptic target). constraint-induced movement therapy based in part on his work with the silver spring monkeys, taub went on to develop novel physical therapy techniques to help stroke victims, and those with other forms of brain injury, regain the use of affected limbs. the american stroke association regards taub's therapy, known as constraint-induced movement therapy (ci), as "at the forefront of a revolution" in the treatment of stroke survivors. with ci therapy, the patient is forced to use the affected limb, to whatever minimal extent he can, by having the unaffected one restrained. the affected limb is then used intensively for three