karen horney in the 1940s, the german freudian psychoanalyst karen horney "developed her mature theory in which individuals cope with the anxiety produced by feeling unsafe, unloved, and undervalued by disowning their spontaneous feelings and developing elaborate strategies of defence." horney defined four so-called coping strategies to define interpersonal relations, one describing psychologically healthy individuals, the others describing neurotic states. the healthy strategy she termed "moving with" is that with which psychologically healthy people develop relationships. it involves compromise. in order to move with, there must be communication, agreement, disagreement, compromise, and decisions. the three other strategies she described – "moving toward", "moving against" and "moving away" – represented neurotic, unhealthy strategies people utilize in order to protect themselves. horney investigated these patterns of neurotic needs (compulsive attachments). the neurotics might feel these attachments more strongly because of difficulties within their lives. if the neurotic does not experience these needs, they will experience anxiety. the ten needs are: affection and approval, the need to please others and be liked. a partner who will take over one's life, based on the idea that love will solve all of one's problems. restriction of one's life to narrow borders, to be undemanding, satisfied with little, inconspicuous; to simplify one's life. power, for control over others, for a facade of omnipotence, caused by a desperate desire for strength and dominance. exploitation of others; to get the better of them. social recognition or prestige, caused by an abnormal concern for appearances and popularity. personal admiration. personal achievement. self-sufficiency and independence. perfection and unassailability, a desire to be perfect and a fear of being flawed. in compliance, also known as "moving toward" or the "self-effacing solution", the individual moves towards those perceived as a threat to avoid retribution and getting hurt, "making any sacrifice, no matter how detrimental." the argument is, "if i give in, i won't get hurt." this means that: if i give everyone i see as a potential threat whatever they want, i will not be injured (physically or emotionally). this strategy includes neurotic needs one, two, and three. in withdrawal, also known as "moving away" or the "resigning solution", individuals distance themselves from anyone perceived as a threat to avoid getting hurt – "the 'mouse-hole' attitude ... the security of unobtrusiveness." the argument is, "if i do not let anyone close to me, i won't get hurt." a neurotic, according to horney desires to be distant because of being abused. if they can be the extreme introvert, no one will ever develop a relationship with them. if there is no one around, nobody can hurt them. these "moving away" people fight personality, so they often come across as cold or shallow. this is their strategy. they emotionally remove themselves from society. included in this strategy are neurotic needs three, nine, and ten. in aggression, also known as the "moving against" or the "expansive solution", the individual threatens those perceived as a threat to avoid getting hurt. children might react to parental in-differences by displaying anger or hostility. this strategy includes neurotic needs four, five, six, seven, and eight. related to the work of karen horney, public administration scholars developed a classification of coping by frontline workers when working with clients (see also the work of michael lipsky on street-level bureaucracy). this coping classification is focused on the behavior workers can display towards clients when confronted with stress. they show that during public service delivery there are three main families of coping: moving towards clients: coping by helping clients in stressful situations. an example is a teacher working overtime to help students. moving away from clients: coping by avoiding meaningful interactions with clients in stressful situations. an example is a public servant stating "the office is very busy today, please return tomorrow." moving against clients: coping by confronting clients. for instance, teachers can cope with stress when working with students by imposing very rigid rules, such as no cellphone use in class and sending everyone to the office when they use a cellphone. furthermore, aggression towards clients is also included here. in their systematic review of 35 years of the literature, the scholars found that the most often used family is moving towards clients (43% of all coping fragments). moving away from clients was found in 38% of all coping fragments and moving against clients in 19%. heinz hartmann in 1937, the psychoanalyst (as well as a physician, psychologist, and psychiatrist) heinz hartmann marked it as the evolution of ego psychology by publishing his paper, "me" (which was later translated into english in 1958, titled, "the ego and the problem of adaptation"). hartmann focused on the adaptive progression of the ego "through the mastery of new demands and tasks". in fact, according to his adaptive point of view, once infants were born they have the ability to be able to cope with the demands of their surroundings. in his wake, ego psychology further stressed "the development of the personality and of 'ego-strengths'...adaptation to social realities". object relations emotional intelligence has stressed the importance of "the capacity to soothe oneself, to shake off rampant anxiety, gloom, or irritability....people who are poor in this ability are constantly battling feelings of distress, while those who excel in it can bounce back far more quickly from life's setbacks and upsets". from this perspective, "the art of soothing ourselves is a fundamental life skill; some psychoanalytic thinkers, such as john bowlby and d. w. winnicott see this as the most essential of all psychic tools." object relations theory has examined the childhood development both of "ndependent coping...capacity for self-soothing", and of "ided coping. emotion-focused coping in infancy is often accomplished through the assistance of an adult." gender differences gender differences in coping strategies are the ways in which men and women differ in managing psychological stress. there is evidence that males often develop stress due to their careers, whereas females often encounter stress due to issues in interpersonal relationships. early studies indicated that "there were gender differences in the sources of stressors, but gender differences in coping were relatively small after controlling for the source of stressors"; and more recent work has similarly revealed "small differences between women's and men's coping strategies when studying individuals in similar situations." in general, such differences as exist indicate that women tend to employ emotion-focused coping and the "tend-and-befriend" response to stress, whereas men tend to use problem-focused coping and the "fight-or-flight" response, perhaps because societal standards encourage men to be more individualistic, while women are often expected to be interpersonal. an alternative explanation for the aforementioned differences involves genetic factors. the degree to which genetic factors and social conditioning influence behavior, is the subject of ongoing debate. physiological basis hormones also play a part in stress management. cortisol, a stress hormone, was found to be elevated in males during stressful situations. in females, however, cortisol levels were decreased in stressful situations, and instead, an increase in limbic activity was discovered. many researchers believe that these results underlie the reasons why men administer a fight-or-flight reaction to stress; whereas, females have a tend-and-befriend reaction. the "fight-or-flight" response activates the sympathetic nervous system in the form of increased focus levels, adrenaline, and epinephrine. conversely, the "tend-and-befriend" reaction refers to the tendency of women to protect their offspring and relatives. although these two reactions support a genetic basis to differences in behavior, one should not assume that in general females cannot implement "fight-or-flight" behavior or that males cannot implement "tend-and-befriend" behavior. additionally, this study implied differing health impacts for each gender as a result of the contrasting stress-processes.