mkultra mkultra project mkultra (or mk-ultra) was an illegal human experimentation program designed and undertaken by the u.s. central intelligence agency (cia), intended to develop procedures and identify drugs that could be used during interrogations to weaken people and force confessions through brainwashing and psychological torture . it began in 1953 and was halted in 1973. mkultra used numerous methods to manipulate its subjects' mental states and brain functions, such as the covert administration of high doses of psychoactive drugs (especially lsd) and other chemicals without the subjects' consent, electroshocks, hypnosis, sensory deprivation, isolation, verbal and sexual abuse, and other forms of torture. declassified mkultra documents mkultra was preceded by two drug-related experiments, project bluebird and project artichoke. it was organized through the cia's office of scientific intelligence and coordinated with the united states army biological warfare laboratories. the program engaged in illegal activities, including the use of u.s. and canadian citizens as unwitting test subjects.: 74 mkultra's scope was broad, with activities carried out under the guise of research at more than 80 institutions aside from the military, including colleges and universities, hospitals, prisons, and pharmaceutical companies. the cia operated using front organizations, although some top officials at these institutions were aware of the cia's involvement. mkultra was first brought to public attention in 1975 by the church committee of the united states congress and gerald ford's united states president's commission on cia activities within the united states (also known as the rockefeller commission). investigative efforts were hampered by cia director richard helms's order that all mkultra files be destroyed in 1973; the church committee and rockefeller commission investigations relied on the sworn testimony of direct participants and on the small number of documents that survived helms's order. in 1977, a freedom of information act request uncovered a cache of 20,000 documents relating to mkultra, which led to senate hearings. some surviving information about mkultra was declassified in july 2001. background sidney gottlieb approved of an mkultra sub-project on lsd in this june 9, 1953, letter. origin of the project according to stephen kinzer, the cia project "was a continuation of the work begun in wwii-era japanese facilities and nazi concentration camps on subduing and controlling human minds." kinzer writes that mkultra's use of mescaline on unwitting subjects was a practice that nazi doctors had begun in the camps at auschwitz and dachau. kinzer gives evidence of the continuation of a nazi agenda, citing the cia's secret recruitment of nazi torturers and vivisectionists to continue experimenting on thousands of subjects, and nazis were brought to fort detrick, maryland, to instruct cia officers on the lethal uses of sarin gas. the soviet union also contributed greatly to the motivation for this project; according to cia director allen dulles, fear of "soviet brain perversion techniques" was palpable. the cia wanted to verse itself in this type of "mind control" to be able to recognize and use it in case of a conflict with the ussr. fear of the enemy ran rampant among americans, especially upon the sharp increase in ptsd in korean prisoners of war. the damage inflicted on these survivors was so severe that mind control was thought to be the culprit. aims and leadership sidney gottlieb, sept. 21, 1977 the project was headed by sidney gottlieb but began on the order of cia director allen dulles on april 13, 1953. its aim was to develop mind-controlling drugs for use against the soviet bloc in response to alleged soviet, chinese, and north korean use of mind control techniques on u.s. prisoners of war during the korean war. the cia wanted to use similar methods on their own captives, and was interested in manipulating foreign leaders with such techniques, devising several schemes to drug fidel castro. it often conducted experiments without the subjects' knowledge or consent. in some cases, academic researchers were funded through grants from cia front organizations but were unaware that the cia was using their work for these purposes. the project attempted to produce a perfect truth drug for interrogating suspected soviet spies during the cold war, and to explore other possibilities of mind control. subproject 54 was the navy's top-secret "perfect concussion" program, which was supposed to use sub-aural frequency blasts to erase memory; the program was never carried out. most mkultra records were destroyed in 1973 by order of cia director richard helms, so it has been difficult for investigators to gain a complete understanding of the more than 150 funded research subprojects sponsored by mkultra and related cia programs. the project began during a period of what english journalist rupert cornwell described as "paranoia" at the cia, when the u.s. had lost its nuclear monopoly and fear of communism was at its height. cia counter-intelligence chief james jesus angleton believed that a mole had penetrated the organization at the highest levels. the agency poured millions of dollars into studies examining ways to influence and control the mind and to enhance its ability to extract information from resistant subjects during interrogation. some historians assert that one goal of mkultra and related cia projects was to create a manchurian candidate-style subject. american historian alfred w. mccoy has claimed that the cia attempted to focus media attention on these sorts of "ridiculous" programs so that the public would not look at the research's primary goal, which was effective methods of interrogation. scale of the project one 1955 mkultra document gives an indication of the size and range of the effort. it refers to the study of an assortment of mind-altering substances described as follows: substances which will promote illogical thinking and impulsiveness to the point where the recipient would be discredited in public. substances which increase the efficiency of mentation and perception. materials which will prevent or counteract the intoxicating effect of alcohol. materials which will promote the intoxicating effect of alcohol. materials which will produce the signs and symptoms of recognized diseases in a reversible way so they may be used for malingering, etc. materials which will render the induction of hypnosis easier or otherwise enhance its usefulness. substances which will enhance the ability of individuals to withstand privation, torture, and coercion during interrogation and so-called "brain-washing". materials and physical methods which will produce amnesia for events preceding and during their use. physical methods of producing shock and confusion over extended periods of time and capable of surreptitious use. substances which produce physical disablement such as paralysis of the legs, acute anemia, etc. substances which will produce "pure" euphoria with no subsequent let-down. substances which alter personality structure in such a way the tendency of the recipient to become dependent upon another person is enhanced. a material which will cause mental confusion of such a type the individual under its influence will find it difficult to maintain a fabrication under questioning. substances which will lower the ambition and general working efficiency of men when administered in undetectable amounts. substances which promote weakness or distortion of the eyesight or hearing faculties, preferably without permanent effects. a knockout pill which can be surreptitiously administered in drinks, food, cigarettes, as an aerosol, etc., which will be safe to use, provide a maximum of amnesia, and be suitable for use by agent types on an ad hoc basis. a material which can be surreptitiously administered by the above routes and which in very small amounts will make it impossible for a person to perform physical activity. applications the 1976 church committee report found that, in the mkdelta program, "drugs were used primarily as an aid to interrogations, but mkultra/mkdelta materials were also used for harassment, discrediting or disabling purposes." other related projects in 1964, mksearch was the name given to the continuation of the mkultra program. the mksearch program was divided into two projects dubbed mkoften and mkchickwit. funding for mksearch commenced in 1965, and ended in 1971. the project was a joint project between the u.s. army chemical corps and the cia's office of research and development to find new offensive-use agents, with a focus on incapacitating agents. its purpose was to develop, test, and evaluate capabilities in the covert use of biological, chemical, and radioactive material systems and techniques of producing predictable human behavioral and/or physiological changes in support of highly sensitive operational requirements. by march 1971 over 26,000 potential agents had been acquired for future screening. the cia was interested in bird migration patterns for chemical and biological warfare (cbw) research; subproject 139 designated "bird disease studies" at penn state. mkoften was to deal with testing and toxicological transmissivity and behavioral effects of drugs in animals and, ultimately, humans. mkchickwit was concerned with acquiring information on new drug developments in europe and asia, and with acquiring samples. experiments on americans cia documents suggest that they investigated "chemical, biological, and radiological" methods of mind control as part of mkultra. they spent an estimated $10 million or more, roughly $87.5 million adjusted for inflation. lsd early cia efforts focused on lsd-25, which later came to dominate many of mkultra's programs. the cia wanted to know if they could make soviet spies defect against their will and whether the soviets could do the same to the cia's own operatives. documents obtained from the cia by john d. marks under freedom of information in 1976 showed that, in 1953, the cia considered purchasing 10 kilograms of lsd, enough for 100 million doses. the proposed purchase aimed to stop other countries from controlling the supply. the documents showed that the cia purchased some quantities of lsd from sandoz laboratories in switzerland. once project mkultra got underway in april 1953, experiments included administering lsd to mental patients, prisoners, drug addicts, and prostitutes – "people who could not fight back," as one agency officer put it. in one case, they administered lsd to a mental patient in kentucky for 174 days. they also administered lsd to cia employees, military personnel, doctors, other government agents, and members of the general public to study their reactions. the aim was to find drugs that would bring out deep confessions or wipe a subject's mind clean and program them as "a robot agent." military personnel who received the mind-altering drugs were also threatened with court-martials if they told anyone about the experiments. lsd and other drugs were often administered without the subject's knowledge or informed consent, a violation of the nuremberg code the u.s. had agreed to follow after world war ii. many veterans who were subjected to experimentation are now seeking legal and monetary reparations. in operation midnight climax, the cia set up several brothels within agency safehouses in san francisco to obtain a selection of men who would be too embarrassed to talk about the events. the men were dosed with lsd, the brothels were equipped with one-way mirrors, and the sessions were filmed for later viewing and study. in other experiments where people were given lsd without their knowledge, they were interrogated under bright lights with doctors in the background taking notes. they told subjects they would extend their "trips" if they refused to reveal their secrets. the people under this interrogation were cia employees, u.s. military personnel, and agents suspected of working for the other side in the cold war. long-term debilitation and several deaths resulted from this. heroin addicts were bribed into taking lsd with offers of more heroin. at the invitation of stanford psychology graduate student vik lovell, an acquaintance of richard alpert and allen ginsberg, ken kesey volunteered to take part in what turned out to be a cia-financed study under the aegis of mkultra, at the menlo park veterans' hospital where he worked as a night aide. the project studied the effects of psychoactive drugs, particularly lsd, psilocybin, mescaline, cocaine, amt and dmt on people. the office of security used lsd in interrogations, but sidney gottlieb, the chemist who directed mkultra, had other ideas: he thought it could be used in covert operations. since its effects were temporary, he believed it could be given to high-ranking officials and in this way affect the course of important meetings, speeches, etc. since he realized there was a difference in testing the drug in a laboratory and using it in clandestine operations, he initiated a series of experiments where lsd was given to people in "normal" settings without warning. at first, everyone