the north sea. "bak and nieuwland (1995) monitored permanent quadrates for over two decades and showed a significant decrease in coral colonies, particularly at disturbed shallower reefs. whereas most of the degradation processes are directly related to human influence, a rise in the temperature of ocean waters will lead to drastic reef degradation in the long run." rising temperatures increase the risk of irreversible loss of marine and coastal ecosystems freshwater ecosystems salt water contamination and cool water species eagle river in central alaska, home to various indigenous freshwater species. species of fish living in cold or cool water can see a reduction in population of up to 50% in the majority of u.s. fresh water streams, according to most climate change models. the increase in metabolic demands due to higher water temperatures, in combination with decreasing amounts of food will be the main contributors to their decline. additionally, many fish species (such as salmon) utilize seasonal water levels of streams as a means of reproducing, typically breeding when water flow is high and migrating to the ocean after spawning. because snowfall is expected to be reduced due to climate change, water runoff is expected to decrease which leads to lower flowing streams, effecting the spawning of millions of salmon. to add to this, rising seas will begin to flood coastal river systems, converting them from fresh water habitats to saline environments where indigenous species will likely perish. in southeast alaska, the sea rises by 3.96 cm/year, redepositing sediment in various river channels and bringing salt water inland. this rise in sea level not only contaminates streams and rivers with saline water, but also the reservoirs they are connected to, where species such as sockeye salmon live. although this species of salmon can survive in both salt and fresh water, the loss of a body of fresh water stops them from reproducing in the spring, as the spawning process requires fresh water. undoubtedly, the loss of fresh water systems of lakes and rivers in alaska will result in the imminent demise of the state's once-abundant population of salmon. species migration in the arctic, the prevalent rise of co2 and temperatures are changing the tundra plants and other xerophytic shrub composition in the ecosystem. for example, in the siberian subarctic, species migration is contributing to another warming albedo-feedback, as needle-shedding larch trees are being replaced with dark-foliage evergreen conifers which can absorb some of the solar radiation that previously reflected off the snowpack beneath the forest canopy. it has been projected many fish species will migrate towards the north and south poles as a result of climate change, and that many species of fish near the equator will go extinct as a result of global warming. migratory birds are especially at risk for endangerment due to the extreme dependability on temperature and air pressure for migration, foraging, growth, and reproduction. much research has been done on the effects of climate change on birds, both for future predictions and for conservation. the species said to be most at risk for endangerment or extinction are populations that are not of conservation concern. it is predicted that a 3.5 degree increase in surface temperature will occur by year 2100, which could result in between 600 and 900 extinctions, which mainly will occur in the tropical environments. species adaptation a young red deer in the wild in scotland. climate change has affected the gene pool of the red deer population on rùm, one of the inner hebrides islands, scotland. warmer temperatures resulted in deer giving birth on average three days earlier for each decade of the study. the gene which selects for earlier birth has increased in the population because those with the gene have more calves over their lifetime. a study in chicago showed that the length of birds' lower leg bones (an indicator of body sizes) shortened by an average of 2.4% and their wings lengthened by 1.3%. a study from central amazon showed that birds have decreased in mass (an indicator of size) by up to 2% per decade, and increased in wing length by up to 1% per decade, with links to temperature and precipitation shifts. the findings of these studies suggest the morphological changes are the result of climate change, and may demonstrate an example of evolutionary change following bergmann's rule. the jutfelt fish ecophysiology lab at the norwegian university of science and technology (ntnu), under their director professor fredrik jutfelt, investigates how evolution can lead to physiological adaptation to the temperature environment where the fish live. they recently performed a large artificial selection experiment, published in proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america (pnas), showing that evolution of tolerance to warming can occur in fish. the rate of evolution, however, was suggested to be too slow for evolutionary rescue to protect fish from the impacts of climate change. impacts of species degradation due to climate change on livelihoods the livelihoods of nature dependent communities depend on abundance and availability of certain species. climate change conditions such as increase in atmospheric temperature and carbon dioxide concentration directly affect availability of biomass energy, food, fiber and other ecosystem services. degradation of species supplying such products directly affect the livelihoods of people relying on them more so in africa. the situation is likely to be exacerbated by changes in rainfall variability which is likely to give dominance to invasive species especially those that are spread across large latitudinal gradients. the effects that climate change has on both plant and animal species within certain ecosystems has the ability to directly affect the human inhabitants who rely on natural resources. frequently, the extinction of plant and animal species create a cyclic relationship of species endangerment in ecosystems which are directly affected by climate change.