was used to treat swellings, inflammations, and tumors. early puritan settlers in new england adopted this remedy from the natives, and its use became widely established in the united states. it is a flowering plant with multiple species native to north america. it has been widely used by native americans for its medicinal benefits, leading white settlers to incorporate it into their own medical practices. an extract of witch hazel stems is used to treat sore muscles, skin and eye inflammation and to stop bleeding. witch hazel is utilized by many tribes, including the menominee for sore legs of tribesmen who participate in sporting games, the osage for skin ulcers and sores, the potawatomi in sweat lodges for sore muscles and the iroquois in tea for coughs and colds. tribe uses cherokee pain relief, colds, skin issues and fever chippewa skin issues, emetic, sore eyes iroquois confederation antidiarrheal, blood purifier, arthritis, appetite stimulant menominee predictor of future healing potawatomi sore muscles mohegan dowsing witch hazel works as an astringent, a substance that causes the constriction of body tissues. the tannins and flavonoids found in witch hazel have astringent and antioxidant properties, respectively, which are thought to contract and protect blood vessels, thereby reducing inflammation. however, modern witch hazel extracts are often distilled and do not contain tannins due to health concerns. heracleum maximum, used by various native american peoples. perhaps the most common use was to make poultices to be applied to bruises or sores.an infusion of the flowers can be rubbed on the body to repel flies and mosquitoes. holodiscus discolor, used by indian tribes, such as the stl'atl'imx. they would steep the berries in boiling water to use as a treatment for diarrhea, smallpox, chickenpox and as a blood tonic. holodiscus dumosus, used by the paiute and shoshone as medicine for problems such as stomachaches and colds. hydrangea arborescens, used in the treatment of kidney and bladder stones. hydrangea cinerea, used by the cherokee. i ilex verticillata, used by native americans for medicinal purposes, the origin of the name "fever bush". iris missouriensis, the roots of which were used by some plateau tribes to treat toothache. j jeffersonia diphylla – the cherokee reportedly used an infusion of this plant for treating dropsy and urinary tract problems, it was also used as a poultice for sores and inflammation. the iroquois used a decoction of the plant to treat liver problems and diarrhea. juniperus communis – western american tribes combined the berries of juniperus communis with berberis root bark in a herbal tea. native americans also used juniper berries as a female contraceptive. juniperus scopulorum, the leaves and inner bark of which were boiled by some plateau tribes to create an infusion to treat coughs and fevers. the berries were also sometimes boiled into a drink used as a laxative and to treat colds. k krascheninnikovia lanata, used for a wide variety of ailments. l larrea tridentata, used by native americans in the southwest as a treatment for many maladies, including sexually transmitted diseases, tuberculosis, chicken pox, dysmenorrhea, and snakebite. the shrub is still widely used as a medicine in mexico. it contains nordihydroguaiaretic acid. lobelia, used to treat respiratory and muscle disorders, and as a purgative. the species used most commonly in modern herbalism is lobelia inflata (indian tobacco). m mahonia aquifolium, used by some plateau tribes to treat dyspepsia. mahonia nervosa, an infusion of the root of which was used some plateau tribes to treat rheumatism. mahonia repens, used by the tolowa and karok of northwest california used the roots for a blood and cough tonic, as well as by other tribes for various purposes. malosma, the root bark of which was used by the chumash to make an herbal tea for treating dysentery. menispermum canadense, cherokee used as a laxative, and as a gynecological and venereal aid. the root was used for skin diseases. the lenape used it in a salve for sores on the skin. o osmunda claytoniana, used by the iroquois for blood and venereal diseases and conditions. p pectis papposa, used as food and medicine. persicaria amphibia, used medicinally. pinus quadrifolia, used medicinally by the cahuilla by taking the resin and making a face cream usually used by girls to prevent sunburn. the resin was also used as a glue for fixing pottery and reattaching arrowheads to the arrow shafts. the nuts were given to babies as an alternative for breast milk; were ground then mixed with water as a drink; were roasted; were ground into mush; and were an important trade item. the pine needles and roots were materials for basketry and the bark was used as roofing material of houses. the wood was burnt as firewood because of high combustibility and incense for the pleasant smell it emitted when burnt. the diegueno also ate nuts and the seeds also. pinus strobus, the resin of which was used by the chippewa to treat infections and gangrene. pluchea sericea, used as an antidiarrheal and eyewash. podophyllum peltatum, used as an emetic, cathartic, and anthelmintic agent. they also boiled the poisonous root, and used the water to treat stomach aches. populus tremuloides, the bark of which contains a substance that can be extracted and used as a quinine substitute. prunus emarginata, used by kwakwaka'wakw and other tribes for medicinal purposes, such as poultices and bark infusions. prunus virginiana, the root bark of which was once made into an asperous-textured concoction used to ward off or treat colds, fever and stomach maladies by native americans. pseudognaphalium obtusifolium, ssp obtusifolium, see article for full information. r ribes aureum, used as medicine by several tribes. ribes divaricatum, used by various tribes in the pacific northwest. ribes glandulosum (skunk currant), used in a compound decoction of the root for back pain and for "female weakness" by the ojibwa people. the cree people use a decoction of the stem, either by itself or mixed with wild red raspberry, to prevent clotting after birth. the algonquin people use the berries as food. ribes laxiflorum, used an infusion to make an eyewash (roots and or branches, by the bella coolah). decoctions of: bark to remedy tuberculosis (with the roots, by the skokomish); or for the common cold (skagit): leaves and twigs, as a general tonic (lummi). ribes oxyacanthoides, used medicinally. s sage is a small evergreen shrub used to treat inflammation, bacterial or viral infection and chronic illness. commonly treated conditions include abdominal cramping/pain, bloating, bleeding, bruising, skin disease, cough, excessive sweating, menstrual cramps and flu as well as depression, obesity heart disease and cancer. sage can be administered in tea, food, as a poultice or in smoke. sage contains multiple essential oils as well as tannins and flavonoids, which have "carminative, antispasmodic, antiseptic, and astringent properties". in addition to being used in modern food preparation, sage is still utilized for herbal and pharmaceutical medicines with strong evidence supporting its impacts. the following table examines why various tribes use sage. tribe uses cahuilla colds, shampoo, deodorant, cleanse hunting equipment of bad luck costanoan eye cleanser, fevers dakota (oglala) disinfectant, stomach ache diegueno colds, poison oak treatment, general strengthening eskimo inflammation mahuna heal damage from birth tübatulabal consumed seeds as food salvia apiana, several tribes used the seed for removing foreign objects from the eye, similar to the way that clary sage seeds were used in europe. a tea from the roots was used by the cahuilla women for healing and strength after childbirth. the leaves are also burnt by many native american tribes, with the smoke used in different purification rituals. a study performed at the university of arizona in 1991 demonstrated that salvia apiana has potential antibacterial properties against staphylococcus aureus, bacillus subtilis, klebsiella pneumoniae, and candida brassicae. salvia mellifera, the leaves and stems of the plant were made by the chumash into a strong sun tea. this was rubbed on the painful area or used to soak one's feet. the plant contains diterpenoids, such as aethiopinone and ursolic acid, that are pain relievers. senegalia greggii, the fresh pods were eaten unripe by the chemehuevi, pima, and the cahuilla. the cahuilla dried the pods then ground it for mush and cakes, the havasupai ground it to make bread flour, and the seri ground it to meal to mix with water and sea lion oil for porridge. the diegueno used it as food for domesticated animals. the cahuilla and pima used it for construction material and firewood. the havasupai split the twigs to make as basket material and used bundles as a broom for dusting off metates. the papago broke the twigs in half to make baskets, and were curved to make difficult weaves in the baskets. the pima piled dried bushes for a brush fence, and used the branches for cradle frames too. the papago deer hunters wore the branches as a disguise as a deer, and the buds and blossoms were dried for perfume pouches. the branches were used to dislodge saguaro fruits from the body, and the rods were used to remove flesh from animal skins. the pima used the wood for bows. silene latifolia, subspecies alba: infusion used by the ojibwa as a physic. note that this plant is not native to the americas and was introduced by europeans. t tobacco, previously used for a variety of medicinal purposes trichostema lanatum, used for a variety of medicinal purposes. trichostema lanceolatum, used by natives of northern california as a cold and fever remedy, a pain reliever, and a flea repellent. triodanis perfoliata, see article for full information. u poultices of umbellularia leaves were used to treat rheumatism and neuralgias. a tea was made from the leaves to treat stomach aches, colds, sore throats, and to clear up mucus in the lungs. the leaves were steeped in hot water to make an infusion that was used to wash sores. the pomo and yuki tribes of mendocino county treated headaches by placing a single leaf in the nostril or bathing the head with a laurel leaf infusion. v viburnum prunifolium, a decoction of which was to treat gynecological conditions, including menstrual cramps, aiding recovery after childbirth, and in treating the effects of menopause. virginia iris – cherokee and other tribes in the southeastern united states are known to have used virginia iris for its medicinal properties. the root was pounded into a paste that was used as a salve for skin. an infusion made from the root was used to treat ailments of the liver, and a decoction of root was used to treat "yellowish urine". virginia iris may have been one of the iris species used by the seminole to treat "shock following alligator-bite". w the inner bark of willow trees has been used by native american groups for health issues including headache, bleeding cuts, skin sores, fever, cough and hoarseness, menstrual cramping, stomach pain and diarrhea. the inner bark is most often made into tea and drank, though it is also made into a poultice to cover the skin over broken bones or used to wash skin and hair to promote skin repair and hair growth. tribe uses keres analgesic hualapai antirheumatic alabama antidiarrheal abnaki cough medicine navajo ceremonial medicine thompson orthopedic aid (i.e. broken bones), colds, coughs, laxative seminole analgesic willow bark contains salicin, a compound similar to aspirin that has anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and analgesic properties. the following table examines why various tribes use willow. one reason for the vast differences in the use of the willow is that there are many ways to prepare it and these different preparations allow for it to be utilized in different ways. for example, the thompson people would make a concoction of wood, willow, soapberry branches and "anything weeds" to treat broken bones. if they wanted to treat a cold, however, the thompson people would make a decoction of red willow branches and wild rose roots. y yucca glauca, used by the blackfoot, cheyenne, lakota, and other tribes.