Early Vedic – Morphology, Part 1
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Keydana, Götz
Introduction to the main features of Early Vedic morphology, including word formation and compounding.
 Hello and welcome again to our videos on early Vedic. My name is Goetz Kajdano. In this and the following videos we will talk about Vedic morphology. In this session I'll give you a general overview and introduce you to the morphological devices the language makes use of. We also look at composition. Vedic is a fusion inflectional language and there's quite a lot of evidence for that. One is that stem-finals and endings often merge. However sometimes we can still see the boundary between the two in the actual underlying texts. For example in long A-stems we have the ending A but this is typically two syllables in the meter. Thus it has to be understood as A underline. Other indices for the fusion character we have endings that encode more than one five feature. For example the ending E now of the A-stems denotes the instrumental, the singular and the gender namely masculine or neuter. We have also the phenomenon that different endings encode the same set of features always depending on the stem. For example for the instrumental plural we have consonant stems. We have A and E in thematic stems. We also have a homonymy. For example A in consonant stems may be a generative or ablative singular. It may also be a nominative or vocative or accusative plural and in thematic stems it may be a nominative singular of the masculine. Interestingly quite often features are encoded by more than one morpheme. For example if you look at a perfect like Cacara has made you see that the perfect is marked in each of these morphemes. Perfect is always marked by read application. Perfect is marked by the long vowel here which goes back to historical A and perfect is also marked by the special ending A for the thirteenth singular. The last thing to remark in this context is that Vedic Sanskrit is generally dependent marking. Asen will tell you more about this in session 4.1. Let's now take a short look at the main word classes of Vedic. Vedic has nouns and adjectives also pronouns. We look at them in section 3.2. We have words verbs sorry at which we'll talk in 3.3. There are adverbs and we can distinguish two types of adverbs. One is undirived adverbs which play an interesting role because they also function as other parts of speech. Api for example or Prati and others are derived. There are two ways of deriving an adverb. One is with an adverb forming suffix like ta for example or tra and the other one is to take a case form of noun and use it in an adverb context. For example the accusative nakta means by night the genitive vastho in the morning. Then we have ad positions and these are ad positions are formally identical to undirived adverbs. Most of them can be used as ad positions and if they do they are typically post positions. Next thing are complementizers. We have various complementizers in Vedic for example jad or ca and we'll discuss the syntax of embedding and complementizes in section 4.3. Conjunctions are not very spectacular. We have uta for example and ca. We have two types of negations. One for assertive sentences like na and then one for prohibitions. This is ma. And finally we have a set of discourse particles. We talked about them earlier in the phenology section because most of them are inclinic. Now how is morphological information encoded? The standard way of encoding such information is you have a root, you add a suffix and then you add an ending. However there are various exceptions to this rule. For one thing there are quite a lot of formations without suffixes between the root and the ending. Such formations are called root formations. We have root nouns on the one hand and we have certain verb stems which are also formed by adding the ending directly to the verb. For example from the root i to go you can form a present tense et. T is the ending, e is the stem and then in the zero grade of the same root yantti where y is all what is left from the root. We also have null endings. A famous example is the nominative singular of r stems. Similar things apply in n stems. For example from the stem pitare with a final r here, f. The nominative singular is pitta meaning that the vowel before the r is lengthened and the r is lost. Null endings also occur in the verbal paradigm. For example in the airst, in s-arist, second and third person, you have forms like abhaar without an ending, bahar is the root and similar such constructions. In nominative derivations you can observe a stacking of suffixes. For example from the root noun raj, king, which we see here below, you can form a derivative rajan, still king. From this then you can form rajanya, warrior and then this is only in the classical language. You can still add another suffix kam and then you end up with rajanyakam, which is the band of warriors. Other means in the realm of concatenation are prefixation and infixation. Let's look at them. Generally prefixes are rare. Most of them are the same words we already came upon when we looked at primary adverbs and post positions. These words can also be used as prefixes. For example in annu vratta, obedient or we have a verb from annu madanti, from mad plus annu to applaud and so on. You can also stack these prefixes. For example we have a verb form anv-a libire in the tenth book of the Rigveda. This is made up from annu, which we already saw. This is the first prefix. Then a is the second one and then we have a perfect stem of the root lab. Word negation is the second realm where prefixes occur. Word negation is done by prefixing an a to the word. For example mrta means mortal and amrta is immortal. Udra is water and annu dra, you see there is an n here in between because the next word starts with a vowel. Anu dra means without water. You can also use in this position words like su, good, dusch, bad and sa with. Re-application also always occurs at the left edge of the word. We look at re-application in greater detail in a moment. The last prefix to mention is the augment. The augment is an element a, which we can see here or here, which occurs in preterite tenses in the imperfect and in the hei-rest. For example abhar, an hei-rest, also aichat, an imperfect. The interesting thing about aichat is that what we can see here is an irregular sandy. The form minus the augment would be aichat, then we add the augment and you would expect r plus e to merge into a. But this doesn't happen if the r is the augment. Augments always turn up immediately before the root, meaning that if you have a prefix and then an augment and then the root you always get this serialization. First the prefix like adhi here in this example, then the augment a and finally the stem. The last thing to mention in this context, in the context of prefixes, infixes, suffixes are, sorry, is because it's only one, the n-infix. The n-infix you might be familiar with this from other Indo-European languages occurs in present tense stems like you-nakti, yokes, you-n-janti, they-yoke from a root yuj. Okay, let's now look at some suffixes a bit more closely, because we already mentioned these suffixes but they are quite interesting. They are interesting because they are peculiar in their phonological behavior. Some secondary suffixes, so-called tarita suffixes and a subset of nominal endings behave as if they were words or parts of compounds. This can be seen from the fact that they always undergo external sandy. For example, not always as you see in a moment, but for example what we have here is du-vo, you is our suffix and before you us turns to o, which is an external sandy. But as you all can also see another form du-vas-ju is also attested. With para endings things are more regular, with para endings we always have external sandy before the ending, thus du-vo, bis du-vo, bias and so on. Another remarkable trait of Vedic is the fact that some suffixes undergo systematic alternations. These are the so-called karnand suffixes. They are called karnand suffixes because karnand, an endologist from the Netherlands, was the first to observe this pattern. If an adjective is formed with an affix ra, like this, this ra alternates with i in compounds. For example, we have an adjective krurra-bladi and then you can form a compound with this word and the compound is akravihasta. A is the negative particle. Kravih is the e-form of our adjective krurra and then the last part is hasta-hand. This thing means then not having bloody hands and you see here the alternation between ra and e. Same thing applies for dabra and dabhiti and other such forms. Generally we may observe that this alternation is no longer productive in Vedic. Now a morphological device which deserves a closer look because it's very productive in Vedic is redeplication. Redeplication occurs in various verbal stem formations. For example, in present stems, perfect stems, the replicated aeroist, the zitteratives and the intensive. We look at all these forms shortly and we start with the redeplication in the present stem. Generally what we can observe is that in redeplication in present stems and in other stems the least sonorous onset consonant of the root is copied. Thus if you have an onset gürr like in this example, the first consonant is copied and then turned into a palatal but the important thing here is it's the first which is copied. However, if you have for example the sht in the second example, as is more sonorant than the plosive, the plosive is copied. So you get tishtati. As you can already see from the first example, dorsals are always copied as corresponding palatals. Thus you get gigaarti, jihiti and so on. Interestingly we have both an e and an r in the redeplicant depending on the stem. The distribution is not predictable. We have for example i-vocalism in dha-dhaati but i-vocalism in tishtati. In perfect stems redeplication is the general rule. Again the least sonorous onset consonant of the root is copied and you can see this in simple forms like palpata, the only consonant there is is copied. But then if you have palpata for example you can see quite obviously it's the p that is copied and again in tastamba it's the t that is copied. The vowel in the redeplicant may depend on the structure of the root. For example if you have a root containing a v or a diphthong generally then the approximate from the diphthong is copied into the root. Thus you get dudrava, shushuochya and the less transparent ej. Well the e is copied. In perfect redeplication so-called samprasarana occurs. Samprasarana means that if you have a root starting with an approximate this approximate is copied into the redeplicant. For example we have a v here in this root. This v is then copied and surfaces as u. Let's then look at the final example because this is also quite interesting. Tim already told you in the phonology section that a sequence of s plus d preceded by a vowel turns into id. So sazdur turns into seydur. This is according to sound laws. Actually this makes the form quite intransparent and this is the reason why this paradigm spread into forms where it actually doesn't belong. Thus you get forms like yimur, although there never has been an as in the first place and also pdur. Okay let's look at some aerostems which are also formed by redeplication. Here you have a redeplicant consisting again of the first consonant or the least sonorous consonant and then an e. The interesting thing about this redeplicated aerost is that this is again an example of what we already mentioned in the phonology section namely that the language prefers weight contour at the left edge of the word. Thus you get a g-janat for example. Long syllable, heavy syllable, g, short syllable, ja and similarly a v long sorry this is long. Vi vr dat but then you can also get if the root starts with two consonants a short vowel in the redeplicant because of the silver boundary for example in a shishya dat is behind the ash turning the first syllable into a long syllable by position and the same happens in aci karadat. So you always get long vowel short vowel which is quite interesting. This is the replicated aerost yet another type of redeplication occurs with desideratives. Here you have a redeplication with consonant plus e with roots with u you have consonant plus u. For example jignasa this one or ru ruksh. Sometimes the root vowel is lengthened like in chikisha where the lengthening is not belonging actually to the root and sometimes the redeplicant itself is lengthened. What you can see here again is a tendency to weight contour although this is not thus this is not that strict as it is with other formations like the reduplicated aerost. The last type of redeplication in the verbal domain is the intensive stem. Intensives are formed in different ways. If a root ends in a final e or u an approximate the redeplicant is the guna form of the first part of this root. For example if you have a root nej and remember e is actually ae then the ne part is reduplicated. The same with the root prut and bo. Roots in final liquid behave quite similarly in that what is copied is the first consonant the vowel plus the liquid. Thus you get dardr and jangam. In the phonology section I already mentioned that this might be taken as evidence that these two are part of the diphthong. If however a root ends in a final obstrant you get a long a in the reduplicant or you get a guna sequence and an e. So you might stumble upon something like barbad or parpat but then on the other hand you get forms like ganigam and ganigm if you have zero grade in the root. What you can see here again is that there is a tendency to have contour because in ganigam you have a short syllable and then a long syllable and in the second example with the zero grade of the root you have the same pattern because the silver boundary is between the g and the m turning the syllable before the g into a long syllable by prunin position. So you again get this pattern short syllable long syllable. Okay so much about reduplication in the verb but reduplication is not restricted to verb formation. It also occurs with noun stems. There are some isolates, synchronic isolates in Vedic which are reduplicated for example chakra the example above to root char meaning wheel. Then there are some root nouns formed with reduplication. An example is chikit from a root chit. The k is reduplicated, turned into a paratel as usual and then you get chikit or didjhu and didjhud from diav and so on. Then you have nominal intensives like for example ganagana, belligerent from the root han or chala chala, sheiki and so on. An interesting phenomenon are diverbable adjectives which look as if they were formed from the perfect stem. For example from the root kar you have an adjective chakri-active and finally we find onomatopoeic forms like ululi jubilant or da-da-da-da which is said of thunder. Okay so much for reduplication let's now turn to other morphological devices and the first one we will look at is conversion or internal derivation. We can distinguish two types one is from any verbal root you can form a root noun simply by taking this root and adding noun endings. For example you have the root noun vis from root vis or the root noun vaj speech from a root vaj. This device is quite productive with pre-verbs and in compounds thus you get something like paripad from root pad meaning trap or upastut in vocation and so on and with compounds shraddha for example meaning trust and being built on the root da. Another similar phenomenon is internal derivation we already came across this pattern when we talked about accent and its morphological nature because internal derivation is made by shifting the accent to the right and this turns a noun into an adjective. Thus you get a pass working from a pass work or bergmann priest someone saying a formula from the word bergmann formula. Applaut which you already are familiar with from our videos on phonology is morphological nature. Let's take a short recap first. What you can see here is an overview of the various Applaut patterns I hope you are already a bit familiar with this. What you can see here is we distinguish a full grade a zero grade and a lengthened grade and you have here an overview of the various patterns that occur depending on the final consonant. I don't want to go into this here because Tim already explained this to you. Let's rather look how the language makes use of vowel gradation of Applaut. Applaut is a morphophonological device which can be used in various contexts. One is paradigmatic root Applaut which occurs mostly in a thematic forms. For example in verb stems the first example here is a present stem we saw this already from the root i to go and what you see here is a full grade in the singular et and a zero grade where only the year remains in the plural. This is a stable pattern in this class of verbs. Hanti, benanti is very much the same pattern. We also have paradigmatic suffix Applaut. For example in the nominal domain we have the word mattho, which we already mentioned. This is a nominative singular and if you form the nominative plural you see that you get a full grade of the suffix t turning into thai the same with two and taf in the other example. And finally Applaut is used in derivation. For example if you form a concertive you add an affix but you also lengthen the vowel in the root. Historically this is not a lengthening but an o vowel but in a synchronic this is lengthening. What happens here? Lengthened grades are an especially productive means in derivation as they can be used in vrindhi. Vrindhi the Indian term for this phenomenon literally means growth and this is exactly what happens here. What happens here is that a zero grade is turned into a full grade or a full grade is turned into a lengthened grade to form secondary derivatives. For example very frequently this occurs with names. Kanva is a name and then you have the descendant of Kanva who is Kanva. You can then also add an affix. For example vapush is wonder and vapusha then is wonderful with vrindhi in the first syllable and then the thing is turned into a thematic adjective. You can even have multiple vrindhi for example in certain compounds. Vaishnava varuna for example which occurs in a later text the Shatapata Brahmana meaning something like directed towards Vishnu and Varuna and you have two forms each with vrindhi in this example. So much for the basic morphological means. Let us now turn to another fundamental part of Vedic morphology and that is composition. One phenomenon which is very frequent in Vedic is preverbation. We already came across words like anu, abhi and the like when we talked about adverbs and we already mentioned that these adverbs can be parts of complex nouns or verbs. In verbs we have an interesting phenomenon here that is that we have univirbation with these elements if they are attached to a verb. If the verb is embedded or if it is non-finite. For example pratibhushati is one word. However the very same word occurs as two separate words in the case of a non-embedded finite verb. This is quite remarkable. We already saw when we talked about these particles that they can be stacked. You can have some of them like for example anvar in the example that we had stacked one upon the other. The next thing which is interesting to mention is that these verbal particles are typically adjacent to the verb but they don't have to be adjacent to the verb meaning they can be separated by intervening words. This phenomenon is called temesis. A last thing to note about preverbation is that the semantics of verbs with preverbs may be compositional but it doesn't have to be. For example gam plus abhi may mean to come hither which is totally transparent but it may also mean something like to understand. Except for preverbs, composition in the verbal domain is very rare. We have some cases of incorporation but they are a little later than the rikveda. I give you a few examples. One is with participle. For example hin krnvati a participle meaning making the sound hinh and as you see hinh is incorporated into the verb form. Similarly astangjant going home where astam is incorporated once again. The same thing can apply with gerunds. For example karna grichja seething by the year. Karna means ear. And then there is an interesting construction, the so-called tree construction which is also only post rikvedik. Sort of a light verb construction. For example kruri kurvanti they wound. Literally they make bloody from the adjective krura and kurvanti is a present tense form of the root kar to make. So much about verbs. In the nominal domain however composition is one of the most characteristic traits of early vatic. So let's look at nominal compounds. Let's first look at their shape. They consist usually of two elements. The first is a bare stem regularly but there are some exceptions to that. For example if you have lexicalized juxtapositions meaning words which in the course of time become one unified word you may still have the ending in the first part of the compound. Thus for example you have jazz pati. Two different words besides jazz pati then with only one accent but still with the genitive marker here Lord of the clan. And similarly apsu shad apsu is a locative living in the water. Quite remarkable from this point of view of later Sanskrit is that there is no recursion attested in nominal compounds in Vedic. Recursion becomes extremely productive then in later Sanskrit. Typically compounds form one syntactic object which is quite trivial however there are interesting exceptions. Let's look at the second one here loka jitam swar gamm from the atavaveda. What you see here is a compound loka jitam meaning winning the world. And then the world is further specified by an adjective swar gamm meaning that you have agreement from the first part of the compound into an adjective which is quite remarkable. However these are very rare examples. Let us now turn to the various semantic types attested for nominal compounds. Generally we can distinguish androcentric and exocentric compounds and in androcentric compounds we have amreditas iteratives dvandavas copulatives tadpulushas is one kind of determinative compounds and kamadaharaya sorry the other type of determinative compounds. We look at them in new order and we start with iteratives. Iteratives as the name says has an iterative reading or a distributive reading. For example aganim agnim means agni over and over again and with a distributive reading dame dame in every house literally in house in house. An iterative is built from two inflected forms of one and the same word as you see in the example agnim agnim for example. Generally only the first instantiation is accented which turns the whole thing into a compound. dvandavas then copulatives are the next type we look at. They typically denote pairs of entities for example you have the compound indra vayu meaning indra and vayu and what's quite interesting is such a compound is typically used in the dual indra vayu this year is a dual ending. In most instances both parts of the compound are in the dual thus you get mitravaruna or javaapretiv. But and that is quite remarkable only the last of the two pair words in this pair are inflected is inflected for case. Thus for example the genitive of mitravaruna is mitravarunayu with only a genitive in the last part. In later texts, later Vedic texts you also find plural dvandavas which denote pairs of groups for example ahurathrani days and nights, ajavaya, goats and sheep and so on. This is from the 10th book of the Rigveda on and from the atavaveda on you also find collective dvandavas for example the nice compound krta krtam what has been done and what has not been done. Another type of compounds which is well attested in the Rigveda and also later are determinative compounds. We can distinguish two types. The first type is the so-called tadpurusha compound. In tadpurusha the first member of the compound fills the thematic role of the second member. For example rajaputra son of a king, vishpati lord of a clan. Frequently the second member is a verbal noun as in vajasati for example or bahadravadin uttering an auspicious cry. Some of these determinative compounds are formed from yuksta positions. You can see this from the fact that the first part is still inflected as in asvam isti here or brahmanas parti lord of the formula with the genitive in the first part. The interesting subtype of these tadpurusha compounds are root compounds which are extremely frequent in the Rigveda. In such compounds the head of the compound is a verbal root. An example for this is vrtrahan which is a famous epithet of Indra who is the slayer of vrtra. Han means to slay, vrtra is vrtra or for example vrtradnja knowing the right order a very frequent phenomenon. These are quite remarkable because they're frequent but also because they have a very peculiar semantics. So let's look at this for a moment because we can distinguish two types. The one seems quite familiar and unspectacular and this is they can have a stage-level reading. For example if you look at this first example 324 here you have vrtraha this is our root compound the slayer of vrtra and in this sentence it is said that Indra is a vrtraha sanayu. He's a slayer of vrtra of old. This is not about the event of slaying vrtra this is an attribute for Indra which he once acquired namely when he slayed his his foe. However there are also examples of event-related readings of the very same compounds. For example vrtraha in the second example in this example we have a sequence of two events the first is the slaying of vrtra and the second is that Indra then frees the cows. This is one of the central myths of Rickverick literature and you have here two events meaning vrtraha does not refer to a stage-level attribute of Indra but rather to an event much like a participle which is quite interesting. Okay but let's now return to our list of semantic types. The next in line is the Kamadaharaya compound. Kamadaharayas are quite rare in the Rickveda. They become much more frequent later. In Kamadaharayas the first part is the attribute of the second part. For example Mahagrama great host Ashupatvarn flying swiftly and so on. Okay so much about endocentric compounds. Let's then turn to exocentric ones called Bahuvrihi in the Indian tradition. In these compounds the semantic head of the compound is not part of it. For example Ugra Bahu. Bahu means arm, Ugra means strong so this is our compound but this does not mean strong arm but rather someone who has a strong arm quite similar to arm strong in English. These compounds may either have a tapurusha structure for example rayas karma having desire karma for wealth rayas or Vajra Bahu having a boat on his arm or they may have Kamadaharaya structure as in luchpad having bad feed this one. Okay the final type of compound we look at is the governing compound. Governing compounds are such that the first part governs the second part. Two types can be distinguished. The first one has a preposition or postposition as the first part like anukama according to wish or paramatra excessive. The second one has a verb as the first part. This verb then always shows up as a participle. For example Redhadvara increasing goods this one here this is a participle Redhadvara increasing goods or Taradvisha's overcoming foes. After this overview of the semantics of redic compounds we now turn to some of their formal features. So let's look at the joint between the two parts of the compound. One thing which may happen here is a suffix change. We already mentioned that when we talked about Kala and suffixes. Remember Ra for example turns into E in a compound. Another thing that may happen is lengthening in the joint. For example in Vishvarnara the R here is lengthened. In this case this is probably due to the fact that the word Nara once started with a laryngeal which then lengthened the preceding vowel. But this is not always the case. For example in Shatamagha there is no laryngeal but still lengthening. The R for phenomena worth mentioning typically in later texts. For example what we can find sometimes is an insertion of an A vowel in the joint. For example in the Atavavira we find the word Dura dabna. This A here does neither belong to the first part nor to the second part of the of the compound. Similarly with Ashwinakrata made by the Ashwins. And then there is another interesting phenomena in very rare cases we have stem reduction. For example we have a compound apnaraaj formed from a first part apnas which is actually an S stem. However the S is lost in the compound. And even more opaque prishodara with a mottled belly formed from prishat and you see that the T is lost and udara. And then you get a sandi from R plus U to O which leads eventually to prishodara. Okay one last point about compounds let's look at their accent. As already said Vedic has combinative accent and this is also the rule in compounds. However there are some exceptions. Some compounds are attested with two accents. For example we have shachi pati, lord of power, chanu napad which is a name or we have this in Amritsha house like grehi grehi in each house. One may argue that this second accent in such constructions is a secondary accent but we have no sure evidence for that. Generally the accent when it occurs is on the same syllable as it would be in a simplex. There are interesting exceptions to that. In some bahu vrihis accent shifts. For example we have this compound arhendra sorry belonging in part to Indra and the second part here is Indra. Arha plus Indra is the structure of this compound. The second part here is Indra and Indra has accent on the first syllable but in this compound the accent is on the last syllable so we have an accent shift. And the same may occur in the opposite direction. For example we have the noun Vira, man with accent on the last syllable but in the compound purovira the accent is on the first syllable of this very same word which is quite remarkable. But generally we may say that there is a rather stable pattern that accent is on the first part of a compound in bahu vrihis and also in verbal governing compounds and in Amritsha guitars. It is on the second part in determinative compounds. This brings us to the end of this rather lengthy introduction to Vedic morphology. I hope you enjoyed it. In the next video we'll take a closer look at the nominal morphology of Vedic. Thank you for your attention. Baha- inspiration!
 Hello and welcome again to our videos on early Vedic. My name is Goetz Kajdano.  In this and the following videos we will talk about Vedic morphology. In this  session I'll give you a general overview and introduce you to the  morphological devices the language makes use of. We also look at composition.  Vedic is a fusion inflectional language and there's quite a lot of evidence  for that. One is that stem-finals and endings often merge. However sometimes  we can still see the boundary between the two in the actual underlying texts.  For example in long A-stems we have the ending A but this is typically two  syllables in the meter. Thus it has to be understood as A  underline. Other indices for the fusion character we have endings that encode  more than one five feature. For example the ending E now of the A-stems denotes  the instrumental, the singular and the gender namely masculine or neuter. We have  also the phenomenon that different endings encode the same set of features  always depending on the stem. For example for the instrumental plural we have  consonant stems. We have A and E in thematic stems. We also have  a homonymy. For example A in consonant stems may be a generative or  ablative singular. It may also be a nominative or vocative or  accusative plural and in thematic stems it may be a nominative singular of the  masculine. Interestingly quite often features are encoded by more than one  morpheme. For example if you look at a perfect like Cacara has made you see  that the perfect is marked in each of these morphemes. Perfect is always marked  by read application. Perfect is marked by the long vowel here which goes back to  historical A and perfect is also marked by the special ending A for the  thirteenth singular. The last thing to remark in this context is that Vedic  Sanskrit is generally dependent marking. Asen will tell you more about this in  session 4.1. Let's now take a short look at the main word classes of Vedic. Vedic  has nouns and adjectives also pronouns. We look at them in section 3.2.  We have words verbs sorry at which we'll talk in 3.3. There are adverbs and we  can distinguish two types of adverbs. One is undirived adverbs which play an  interesting role because they also function as other parts of speech.  Api for example or Prati and others are derived. There are two ways of deriving  an adverb. One is with an adverb forming suffix like ta for example or tra and  the other one is to take a case form of noun and use it in an adverb context.  For example the accusative nakta means by night the genitive vastho in the  morning. Then we have ad positions and these are ad positions are formally  identical to undirived adverbs. Most of them can be used as ad positions and if  they do they are typically post positions. Next thing are complementizers. We  have various complementizers in Vedic for example jad or ca and we'll discuss  the syntax of embedding and complementizes in section 4.3.  Conjunctions are not very spectacular. We have uta for example and ca. We have  two types of negations. One for assertive sentences like na and then one for  prohibitions. This is ma. And finally we have a set of discourse particles. We  talked about them earlier in the phenology section because most of them  are inclinic. Now how is morphological information encoded? The standard way of  encoding such information is you have a root, you add a suffix and then you add  an ending. However there are various exceptions to this rule. For one thing  there are quite a lot of formations without suffixes between the root and  the ending. Such formations are called root formations. We have root nouns on  the one hand and we have certain verb stems which are also formed by adding  the ending directly to the verb. For example from the root i to go you can  form a present tense et. T is the ending, e is the stem and then in the zero  grade of the same root yantti where y is all what is left from the root. We also  have null endings. A famous example is the nominative singular of r stems.  Similar things apply in n stems. For example from the stem pitare with a  final r here, f. The nominative singular is pitta meaning that the vowel  before the r is lengthened and the r is lost. Null endings also occur in the  verbal paradigm. For example in the airst, in s-arist, second and third person, you  have forms like abhaar without an ending, bahar is the root and similar  such constructions. In nominative derivations you can observe a stacking  of suffixes. For example from the root noun raj, king, which we see here below,  you can form a derivative rajan, still king. From this then you can form  rajanya, warrior and then this is only in the classical language. You can still  add another suffix kam and then you end up with rajanyakam, which is the  band of warriors. Other means in the realm of concatenation are prefixation  and infixation. Let's look at them. Generally prefixes are rare. Most  of them are the same words we already came upon when we looked at  primary adverbs and post positions. These words can also be used as  prefixes. For example in annu vratta, obedient or we have a verb from  annu madanti, from mad plus annu to applaud and so on. You can also stack  these prefixes. For example we have a verb form anv-a libire in the tenth book  of the Rigveda. This is made up from annu, which we already saw. This is the  first prefix. Then a is the second one and then we have a perfect stem of the  root lab. Word negation is the second realm where prefixes occur. Word  negation is done by prefixing an a to the word. For example mrta means mortal  and amrta is immortal. Udra is water and annu dra, you see there is an n here in  between because the next word starts with a vowel. Anu dra means without  water. You can also use in this position words like su, good, dusch, bad and sa  with. Re-application also always occurs at the left edge of the word. We look at  re-application in greater detail in a moment. The last prefix to mention is  the augment. The augment is an element a, which we can see here or here, which occurs  in preterite tenses in the imperfect and in the hei-rest. For example abhar, an  hei-rest, also aichat, an imperfect. The interesting thing about aichat is that  what we can see here is an irregular sandy. The form minus the augment would  be aichat, then we add the augment and you would expect r plus e to merge into  a. But this doesn't happen if the r is the augment. Augments always turn up  immediately before the root, meaning that if you have a prefix and then an  augment and then the root you always get this serialization. First the prefix  like adhi here in this example, then the augment a and finally the stem. The last  thing to mention in this context, in the context of prefixes, infixes, suffixes  are, sorry, is because it's only one, the n-infix. The n-infix you might be  familiar with this from other Indo-European languages occurs in present tense  stems like you-nakti, yokes, you-n-janti, they-yoke from a root yuj. Okay, let's now  look at some suffixes a bit more closely, because we already mentioned these  suffixes but they are quite interesting. They are interesting because they are  peculiar in their phonological behavior. Some secondary suffixes, so-called  tarita suffixes and a subset of nominal endings behave as if they were words  or parts of compounds. This can be seen from the fact that they always  undergo external sandy. For example, not always as you see in a moment, but for  example what we have here is du-vo, you is our suffix and before you us turns to  o, which is an external sandy. But as you all can also see another form du-vas-ju is  also attested. With para endings things are more regular, with para endings we  always have external sandy before the ending, thus du-vo, bis du-vo, bias and so on.  Another remarkable trait of Vedic is the fact that some suffixes undergo  systematic alternations. These are the so-called karnand suffixes. They are  called karnand suffixes because karnand, an endologist from the Netherlands, was  the first to observe this pattern. If an adjective is formed with an affix ra, like  this, this ra alternates with i in compounds. For example, we have an  adjective krurra-bladi and then you can form a compound with this word and the  compound is akravihasta. A is the negative particle.  Kravih is the e-form of our adjective krurra and then the last part is  hasta-hand. This thing means then not having bloody hands and you see here the  alternation between ra and e. Same thing applies for dabra and dabhiti and  other such forms. Generally we may observe that this alternation is no  longer productive in Vedic. Now a morphological device which deserves a  closer look because it's very productive in Vedic is redeplication.  Redeplication occurs in various verbal stem formations. For example, in  present stems, perfect stems, the replicated aeroist, the zitteratives and  the intensive. We look at all these forms shortly and we start with the  redeplication in the present stem. Generally what we can observe is  that in redeplication in present stems and in other stems the least sonorous  onset consonant of the root is copied. Thus if you have an onset gürr like in  this example, the first consonant is copied and then turned into a palatal  but the important thing here is it's the first which is copied. However, if you  have for example the sht in the second example, as is more sonorant than the  plosive, the plosive is copied. So you get tishtati. As you can already see  from the first example, dorsals are always copied as corresponding palatals.  Thus you get gigaarti, jihiti and so on. Interestingly we have both an e and an  r in the redeplicant depending on the stem. The distribution is not predictable.  We have for example i-vocalism in dha-dhaati but i-vocalism in tishtati.  In perfect stems redeplication is the general rule. Again the least sonorous  onset consonant of the root is copied and you can see this in simple forms like  palpata, the only consonant there is is copied. But then if you have  palpata for example you can see quite obviously it's the p that is copied and  again in tastamba it's the t that is copied. The vowel in the  redeplicant may depend on the structure of the root. For example if you have a  root containing a v or a diphthong generally then the approximate from the  diphthong is copied into the root. Thus you get dudrava, shushuochya and the  less transparent ej. Well the e is copied. In perfect  redeplication so-called samprasarana occurs. Samprasarana means that if you  have a root starting with an approximate this approximate is copied into  the redeplicant. For example we have a v here in this root. This v is  then copied and surfaces as u. Let's then look at the final example because  this is also quite interesting. Tim already told you in the phonology  section that a sequence of s plus d preceded by a vowel turns into id. So  sazdur turns into seydur. This is according to sound laws. Actually this  makes the form quite intransparent and this is the reason why this paradigm  spread into forms where it actually doesn't belong. Thus you get forms like  yimur, although there never has been an as in the first place and also pdur.  Okay let's look at some aerostems which are also formed by redeplication. Here  you have a redeplicant consisting again of the first consonant or the least  sonorous consonant and then an e. The interesting thing about this redeplicated  aerost is that this is again an example of what we already mentioned in the  phonology section namely that the language prefers weight contour at  the left edge of the word. Thus you get a g-janat for example. Long syllable,  heavy syllable, g, short syllable, ja and similarly a v long sorry this is long.  Vi vr dat but then you can also get if the root starts with two consonants a  short vowel in the redeplicant because of the silver boundary for example in  a shishya dat is behind the ash turning the first syllable into a long syllable  by position and the same happens in aci karadat. So you always get long vowel  short vowel which is quite interesting. This is the replicated aerost yet another  type of redeplication occurs with desideratives. Here you have a  redeplication with consonant plus e with roots with u you have consonant plus u.  For example jignasa this one or ru ruksh. Sometimes the root vowel is lengthened  like in chikisha where the lengthening is not belonging actually to the root and  sometimes the redeplicant itself is lengthened. What you can see here again  is a tendency to weight contour although this is not thus this is not that  strict as it is with other formations like the reduplicated aerost. The last  type of redeplication in the verbal domain is the intensive stem. Intensives  are formed in different ways. If a root ends in a final e or u an approximate  the redeplicant is the guna form of the first part of this root. For example if  you have a root nej and remember e is actually ae then the ne part is  reduplicated. The same with the root prut and bo. Roots in final liquid behave  quite similarly in that what is copied is the first consonant the vowel plus the  liquid. Thus you get dardr and jangam. In the phonology section I already  mentioned that this might be taken as evidence that these two are part of  the diphthong. If however a root ends in a final obstrant you get a long a in the  reduplicant or you get a guna sequence and an e. So you might stumble upon  something like barbad or parpat but then on the other hand you get forms like  ganigam and ganigm if you have zero grade in the root. What you can see  here again is that there is a tendency to have contour because in ganigam you  have a short syllable and then a long syllable and in the second example with  the zero grade of the root you have the same pattern because the silver boundary  is between the g and the m turning the syllable before the g into a long  syllable by prunin position. So you again get this pattern short syllable long  syllable. Okay so much about reduplication in the verb but reduplication is not  restricted to verb formation. It also occurs with noun stems. There are some  isolates, synchronic isolates in Vedic which are reduplicated for example  chakra the example above to root char meaning wheel. Then there are some root  nouns formed with reduplication. An example is chikit from a root chit. The  k is reduplicated, turned into a paratel as usual and then you get chikit or  didjhu and didjhud from diav and so on. Then you have nominal intensives like  for example ganagana, belligerent from the root han or chala chala, sheiki and  so on. An interesting phenomenon are diverbable adjectives which look as if  they were formed from the perfect stem. For example from the root kar you have  an adjective chakri-active and finally we find onomatopoeic forms like  ululi jubilant or da-da-da-da which is said of thunder. Okay so much for  reduplication let's now turn to other morphological devices and the first one  we will look at is conversion or internal derivation. We can distinguish two  types one is from any verbal root you can form a root noun simply by taking  this root and adding noun endings. For example you have the root noun vis  from root vis or the root noun vaj speech from a root vaj. This device is  quite productive with pre-verbs and in compounds thus you get something like  paripad from root pad meaning trap or upastut in vocation and so on and with  compounds shraddha for example meaning trust and being built on the root da.  Another similar phenomenon is internal derivation we already came  across this pattern when we talked about accent and its morphological nature  because internal derivation is made by shifting the accent to the right and  this turns a noun into an adjective. Thus you get a pass working from a pass  work or bergmann priest someone saying a formula from the word bergmann formula.  Applaut which you already are familiar with from our videos on phonology is  morphological nature. Let's take a short recap first. What you can see here is an  overview of the various Applaut patterns I hope you are already a bit  familiar with this. What you can see here is we distinguish a full grade a zero  grade and a lengthened grade and you have here an overview of the various  patterns that occur depending on the final consonant. I don't want to go  into this here because Tim already explained this to you. Let's rather  look how the language makes use of vowel gradation of Applaut. Applaut is a  morphophonological device which can be used in various contexts. One is  paradigmatic root Applaut which occurs mostly in a thematic forms. For example  in verb stems the first example here is a present stem we saw this already from  the root i to go and what you see here is a full grade in the singular et and a  zero grade where only the year remains in the plural. This is a stable pattern in  this class of verbs. Hanti, benanti is very much the same pattern. We also have  paradigmatic suffix Applaut. For example in the nominal domain we have the  word mattho, which we already mentioned. This is a nominative singular and if you  form the nominative plural you see that you get a full grade of the suffix t  turning into thai the same with two and taf in the other example. And finally  Applaut is used in derivation. For example if you form a concertive you add  an affix but you also lengthen the vowel in the root. Historically this is not a  lengthening but an o vowel but in a synchronic this is lengthening.  What happens here? Lengthened grades are an especially productive means in  derivation as they can be used in vrindhi. Vrindhi the Indian term for this  phenomenon literally means growth and this is exactly what happens here. What  happens here is that a zero grade is turned into a full grade or a full grade  is turned into a lengthened grade to form secondary derivatives. For example  very frequently this occurs with names. Kanva is a name and then you have the  descendant of Kanva who is Kanva. You can then also add an affix. For example  vapush is wonder and vapusha then is wonderful with vrindhi in the first  syllable and then the thing is turned into a thematic adjective. You can even  have multiple vrindhi for example in certain compounds. Vaishnava varuna for  example which occurs in a later text the Shatapata Brahmana meaning something  like directed towards Vishnu and Varuna and you have two forms each with  vrindhi in this example. So much for the basic morphological means. Let us now  turn to another fundamental part of Vedic morphology and that is composition.  One phenomenon which is very frequent in Vedic is preverbation. We already came  across words like anu, abhi and the like when we talked about adverbs and we  already mentioned that these adverbs can be parts of complex nouns or verbs.  In verbs we have an interesting phenomenon here that is that we have  univirbation with these elements if they are attached to a verb. If the verb is  embedded or if it is non-finite. For example pratibhushati is one word.  However the very same word occurs as two separate words in the case of a  non-embedded finite verb. This is quite remarkable. We already saw when we  talked about these particles that they can be stacked. You can have some of them  like for example anvar in the example that we had stacked one upon the other.  The next thing which is interesting to mention is that these verbal particles  are typically adjacent to the verb but they don't have to be adjacent to the  verb meaning they can be separated by intervening words. This phenomenon is  called temesis. A last thing to note about preverbation is that the semantics of  verbs with preverbs may be compositional but it doesn't have to be. For  example gam plus abhi may mean to come hither which is totally transparent but  it may also mean something like to understand. Except for preverbs, composition  in the verbal domain is very rare. We have some cases of incorporation but they  are a little later than the rikveda. I give you a few examples. One is with  participle. For example hin krnvati a participle meaning making the sound  hinh and as you see hinh is incorporated into the verb form. Similarly astangjant  going home where astam is incorporated once again. The same thing can apply  with gerunds. For example karna grichja seething by the year. Karna means ear.  And then there is an interesting construction, the so-called tree  construction which is also only post rikvedik. Sort of a light verb  construction. For example kruri kurvanti they wound. Literally they make bloody  from the adjective krura and kurvanti is a present tense form of the root  kar to make. So much about verbs. In the nominal domain however composition is  one of the most characteristic traits of early vatic. So let's look at nominal  compounds. Let's first look at their shape. They consist usually of two  elements. The first is a bare stem regularly but there are some exceptions  to that. For example if you have lexicalized juxtapositions meaning  words which in the course of time become one unified word you may still have  the ending in the first part of the compound. Thus for example you have  jazz pati. Two different words besides jazz pati then with only one accent but  still with the genitive marker here Lord of the clan. And similarly apsu  shad apsu is a locative living in the water. Quite remarkable from this point  of view of later Sanskrit is that there is no recursion attested in nominal  compounds in Vedic. Recursion becomes extremely productive then in later  Sanskrit. Typically compounds form one syntactic object which is quite trivial  however there are interesting exceptions. Let's look at the second one here  loka jitam swar gamm from the atavaveda. What you see here is a compound loka  jitam meaning winning the world. And then the world is further specified by an  adjective swar gamm meaning that you have agreement from the first part of  the compound into an adjective which is quite remarkable. However these are very  rare examples. Let us now turn to the various semantic types attested for  nominal compounds. Generally we can distinguish androcentric and exocentric  compounds and in androcentric compounds we have amreditas iteratives  dvandavas copulatives tadpulushas is one kind of determinative compounds and  kamadaharaya sorry the other type of determinative compounds. We  look at them in new order and we start with iteratives. Iteratives as the name  says has an iterative reading or a distributive reading. For example  aganim agnim means agni over and over again and with a distributive reading  dame dame in every house literally in house in house. An iterative is built  from two inflected forms of one and the same word as you see in the  example agnim agnim for example. Generally only the first  instantiation is accented which turns the whole thing into a compound.  dvandavas then copulatives are the next type we look at. They typically denote  pairs of entities for example you have the compound indra vayu meaning indra  and vayu and what's quite interesting is such a compound is typically used in  the dual indra vayu this year is a dual ending. In most instances both parts of  the compound are in the dual thus you get mitravaruna or javaapretiv. But and  that is quite remarkable only the last of the two pair words in this pair are  inflected is inflected for case. Thus for example the genitive of mitravaruna  is mitravarunayu with only a genitive in the last part. In later texts, later  Vedic texts you also find plural dvandavas which denote pairs of groups  for example ahurathrani days and nights, ajavaya, goats and sheep and so on. This  is from the 10th book of the Rigveda on and from the atavaveda on you also find  collective dvandavas for example the nice compound krta krtam what has been  done and what has not been done. Another type of compounds which is well  attested in the Rigveda and also later are determinative compounds. We can  distinguish two types. The first type is the so-called tadpurusha compound. In  tadpurusha the first member of the compound fills the thematic role of  the second member. For example rajaputra son of a king, vishpati lord of a clan.  Frequently the second member is a verbal noun as in vajasati for example or  bahadravadin uttering an auspicious cry. Some of these determinative compounds  are formed from yuksta positions. You can see this from the fact that the  first part is still inflected as in asvam isti here or brahmanas parti lord of  the formula with the genitive in the first part. The interesting subtype of  these tadpurusha compounds are root compounds which are extremely frequent  in the Rigveda. In such compounds the head of the compound is a verbal root. An  example for this is vrtrahan which is a famous epithet of Indra who is the slayer  of vrtra. Han means to slay, vrtra is vrtra or for example vrtradnja knowing  the right order a very frequent phenomenon. These are quite remarkable  because they're frequent but also because they have a very peculiar  semantics. So let's look at this for a moment because we can distinguish two  types. The one seems quite familiar and unspectacular and this is they can have a  stage-level reading. For example if you look at this first example 324 here you  have vrtraha this is our root compound the slayer of vrtra and in this  sentence it is said that Indra is a vrtraha sanayu. He's a slayer of vrtra  of old. This is not about the event of slaying vrtra this is an attribute for  Indra which he once acquired namely when he slayed his his foe. However there are  also examples of event-related readings of the very same compounds. For example  vrtraha in the second example in this example we have a sequence of two events  the first is the slaying of vrtra and the second is that Indra then frees the  cows. This is one of the central myths of Rickverick literature and you have  here two events meaning vrtraha does not refer to a stage-level attribute of  Indra but rather to an event much like a participle which is quite interesting.  Okay but let's now return to our list of semantic types. The next in line is the  Kamadaharaya compound. Kamadaharayas are quite rare in the Rickveda. They become  much more frequent later. In Kamadaharayas the first part is the attribute of  the second part. For example Mahagrama great host Ashupatvarn flying swiftly  and so on. Okay so much about endocentric compounds. Let's then turn to  exocentric ones called Bahuvrihi in the Indian tradition. In these compounds the  semantic head of the compound is not part of it. For example Ugra Bahu. Bahu  means arm, Ugra means strong so this is our compound but this does not mean  strong arm but rather someone who has a strong arm quite similar to arm strong  in English. These compounds may either have a tapurusha structure for example  rayas karma having desire karma for wealth rayas or Vajra Bahu having a  boat on his arm or they may have Kamadaharaya structure as in luchpad  having bad feed this one. Okay the final type of compound we look at is the  governing compound. Governing compounds are such that the first part governs  the second part. Two types can be distinguished. The first one has a  preposition or postposition as the first part like anukama according to  wish or paramatra excessive. The second one has a verb as the first part. This  verb then always shows up as a participle. For example Redhadvara  increasing goods this one here this is a participle Redhadvara increasing  goods or Taradvisha's overcoming foes. After this overview of the semantics  of redic compounds we now turn to some of their formal features. So let's look  at the joint between the two parts of the compound. One thing which may happen  here is a suffix change. We already mentioned that when we talked about  Kala and suffixes. Remember Ra for example turns into E in a compound.  Another thing that may happen is lengthening in the joint. For example in  Vishvarnara the R here is lengthened. In this case this is probably due to the  fact that the word Nara once started with a laryngeal which then lengthened  the preceding vowel. But this is not always the case. For example in Shatamagha  there is no laryngeal but still lengthening. The R for phenomena worth  mentioning typically in later texts. For example what we can find sometimes is  an insertion of an A vowel in the joint. For example in the Atavavira we find  the word Dura dabna. This A here does neither belong to the first part nor to  the second part of the of the compound. Similarly with Ashwinakrata made by  the Ashwins. And then there is another interesting phenomena in very rare cases  we have stem reduction. For example we have a compound apnaraaj formed from a  first part apnas which is actually an S stem. However the S is lost in the  compound. And even more opaque prishodara with a mottled belly formed from prishat  and you see that the T is lost and udara. And then you get a sandi from R plus  U to O which leads eventually to prishodara. Okay one last point about  compounds let's look at their accent. As already said Vedic has  combinative accent and this is also the rule in compounds. However there are some  exceptions. Some compounds are attested with two accents. For example we have  shachi pati, lord of power, chanu napad which is a name or we have this in  Amritsha house like grehi grehi in each house. One may argue that this  second accent in such constructions is a secondary accent but we have no sure  evidence for that. Generally the accent when it occurs is on the same syllable  as it would be in a simplex. There are interesting exceptions to that. In some  bahu vrihis accent shifts. For example we have this compound arhendra sorry  belonging in part to Indra and the second part here is Indra. Arha plus Indra  is the structure of this compound. The second part here is Indra and Indra has  accent on the first syllable but in this compound the accent is on the last  syllable so we have an accent shift. And the same may occur in the opposite  direction. For example we have the noun Vira, man with accent on the last  syllable but in the compound purovira the accent is on the first syllable of  this very same word which is quite remarkable. But generally we may say  that there is a rather stable pattern that accent is on the first part of a  compound in bahu vrihis and also in verbal governing compounds and in Amritsha  guitars. It is on the second part in determinative compounds. This brings us  to the end of this rather lengthy introduction to Vedic morphology. I hope  you enjoyed it. In the next video we'll take a closer look at the nominal  morphology of Vedic. Thank you for your attention.  Baha- inspiration!
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