Civic Life Interrupted: Nightmare and Destiny on August 24, A.D. 79
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Kleiner, Diana E. E.
Roman Architecture (HSAR 252) Professor Kleiner explores the civic, commercial, and religious buildings of Pompeii, an overview made possible only because of an historical happenstance-the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in A.D. 79, which buried the city at the height of its development. While the lecture features the resort town's public architecture-its forum, basilica, temples, amphitheater, theater, and bath complexes-Professor Kleiner also describes such fixtures of daily life as a bakery and a fast food restaurant. The lecture culminates with a brief overview of tomb architecture in Pompeii and a moving account of what happened to the inhabitants of the city of Pompeii when disaster struck.
 Last time we talked about a number of monuments that were connected to one another geographically and also chronologically, and were also made out of the same material, concrete faced with opus and keratin. I remind you of three of those today, of the sanctuary of Jupiter, Anxar at Terracina, of the sanctuary of Hercules Victor at Tivoli, the center, and then on the right the sanctuary of Fortuna Premiginia at Palestrina. We're going to do something entirely different today. We're going to look at a single city, one city, in all its aspects. It's public and private architecture. It's civic, commercial, and religious buildings. We can't do this sort of thing very often because too few Roman cities are either well preserved enough or well excavated enough to allow such an overview. But this is no ordinary city. This is a very special city. The city we will be concentrating on today is Pompeii. Pompeii was located in an area of Italy called Campania. It was located near Naples. It was located near the Mediterranean Sea. It was a small resort town in the late first century B.C. and into the first century A.D. And you can see it on this map here, and it's right here. You can see that this area of Campania is obviously south of Rome. It is along, again, the Mediterranean Sea. And you can see Pompeii here also with its sister city of Herculaneum and some of the other well-known cities from this area, Boscoreale, Applontus, for example, and Naples itself, ancient Neopolis. And you can see this cluster of these cities that make up Campania. This was an area, I mean, the town itself, again, was a small resort town. It was a town that obviously had its own population of people who made their money largely from commerce because they were located so close to the sea. But it was also a spot that was highly favored by the Glitterati of Rome, who used to come down to this area of Rome, not only to go to Pompeii itself, but to establish villas, to build villas in the vicinity of Pompeii. And we have imperial villas at places like Applontus, and at a place called Boscotrecause, that is located here as well. And along what is now the Amalfi Coast and on the island of Capri. So this was a town, again, that was noticed and was visited, even by the most elite in the city of Rome, in Rome itself, in the city, in the center, in the capital city of Rome itself. But what's very important for us from the outset is to recognize that although Pompeii, as we know it today, was essentially a Roman city, it had a history that was much longer than that, that went back much further than that. And I'd like to go over some of the major highlights of the history of Pompeii, because they will situate us and will help us to understand the city's architecture. The history of Pompeii, as I noted, is much longer than the history of Roman Pompeii. It goes back as far as Rome itself. It goes back to the 8th century B.C., the same Iron Age period, when Romulus was founding the city of Rome. Pompeii goes back that far as well. It was first overseen by an Italic tribe called the Oskans, but the Oskans were soon taken over by an even more powerful tribe called the Samnites. And the Samnites are in fact extremely important for the city of Pompeii and for the architecture that we'll review today. The Samnite period in Pompeii lasted from the 4th through the 3rd, and even into the 2nd centuries B.C., up to 80 B.C., because it was in 89 that Pompeii fell to Rome. We've talked about Rome colonizing this particular part of Italy, not only the area right around it, but the area south of it. And Pompeii fell to Rome in an important military campaign in 89 B.C. and in 80 B.C. Sulla made Pompeii a Roman colony. What happened thereafter was the Samnites, who had built homes for themselves in public buildings that we'll study here. The Samnites were essentially thrown out of their homes. Their property was confiscated, and that property was given instead to the Roman veterans. We've talked about the fact that that was the way the Romans operated. They paid back their veterans for loyal service by giving them land, and they usually gave them land of those that they had conquered. So that happens here as well. Samnite property confiscated, and the Roman veterans settle in their homes and begin to redo them, settle into using their public buildings, but begin to remake them in the Roman image. The next century and a half saw the construction of Pompeii's most famous buildings. But we should not forget, and we'll concentrate in part on that today, that some of these buildings had their genesis under the Samnites. During this period there was a very high civilization in Pompeii. There was trade with Greek cities, and especially with the Greek city of Neopolis, Neopolis being the ancient name for Naples, for Naples. The next very important year in the history of Pompeii was the year AD 62, when the city was literally, the city of Pompeii, was literally shaken to its foundations by a very significant earthquake, a very significant earthquake indeed. And to give you some sense of that earthquake, I show you a freeze that encircles a shrine that was located in the house, or that was commissioned for the house, as decoration and as a place to place the household gods, that the owner and his family were preserved. The shrine had a freeze around it. The man himself, by the way, was named Lucius Caikilius Eucundus, and we're very lucky, even remember his name, but Lucius Caikilius Eucundus, and Eucundus, fortunately, we have a portrait preserved of Eucundus, so we can get a good sense of what he looked like, literally warts and all, because you can see that he had a huge wart on the lower left side of his face, and he was willing to have himself memorialized, and here we are sitting and we're going to highlight him today in this classroom in New Haven, as he really was, with this large wart on the lower left side of his face. But a wonderful portrait of Eucundus, the owner of this particular house, who was obviously so struck, and probably so affected in his own life by the earthquake, that he decided to have a relief commission that would depict the event of 62 A.D. And you see exactly, you see what is happening here. You can see, in fact, the great temple of Jupiter, the Capitolium of Pompeii, which we'll talk about today, literally collapsing, and you can see that in front of that temple were two tall bases with equestrian statues, honoring important people of the city. Those look also like they are shaking in their boots, so to speak, and about to fall over. If you look down here, you see the city wall, and note your Ashlar Masonry, your Opus Quadratum, and the use of headers and stretchers in this wall, the wall of the city of Pompeii. But you can see the gate is not doing too well. It is also, seems to be, tottering and about to fall down. So this is a graphic depiction of what happened then, and it gives you some sense of the significance of this for the people of Pompeii. Now at the end of this, like in so many natural disasters, obviously these people loved living where they did, it's a beautiful part of the world, and they essentially stood up and dusted themselves off, and began to remake their city, to restore their city to what it was. And we have, from this point on, from sixty-two on, almost immediately, seventeen years of frenzied building activity in which the Pompeians tried to bring their city back from the dead, so to speak, to bring it back to what it had once been. But you know the punchline here, you know the end of the story, you know that all of this work, all of this seventeen years of hard work, was all for naught, because on that fateful day of August 24th in 79 AD, the long dormant volcano of Vesuvius, which you see looming up behind the Temple of Jupiter in Pompeii today, the long dormant volcano of Vesuvius erupted, covering the city of Pompeii, and all of its sister cities in a mass of, or in a blanket of ash and lava, covering it forever, well not quite forever, almost forever, because as you also know, the city was rediscovered in the eighteenth century. And when it was rediscovered, what happened there first was a period of treasure hunting. Well-to-do individuals primarily from Europe made a beeline for Pompeii once it was rediscovered, and began to build their own personal collections of art from what lay around. They took jewelry, they took precious metal items, they even did the unspeakable by cutting portrait paintings and other paintings out of the walls and taking them back to decorate their own palaces and villas in other parts of the world. That went on for a while, but fortunately not too long. The archaeologists gained the upper hand, and we begin to see not long after that a period of scientific excavation. And I show you two images here which show that scientific excavation, which show some of the houses of Pompeii being revealed by archaeologists. And of course it was all of the good work that they have done, and work continues at pace, and Pompeii excavation still goes on in parts of the city that have allowed most of the city, as far as we can tell, to be revealed to us today. Now this tragedy that befell Pompeii in August of 79 was indeed a tragedy for them, for the people who lived there obviously. It was also a tragedy for the reigning emperor, the man by the name of Titus, T-I-T-U-S, who was the honored and the famous Arch of Titus in Rome. We'll talk about him and his architecture in Rome later in the semester. But it was a disaster for him, and he had to contend with a plague and a fire in Rome also at the same time. It was very difficult for him, and poor man, even though he was quite young, died of natural causes after only three years in office. And I think it was in part this catastrophe that had happened in the Bay of Naples area that led in part to his, the stress of it, led in part to his demise. So this was a great tragedy for him, a great tragedy for the people of Pompeii, a great tragedy for Rome. But it was a stroke of good luck for archaeologists, and in a sense for us as well, because of course what happened to Pompeii is something very different than what happened to Rome. What happened to Pompeii is that it was, its life was snuffed out all at once. It came to an end all at once. Compare this to Rome, which has been inhabited over millennia. In Rome, buildings have been redone, rethought, remade over time. That never happened in Pompeii, because Pompeii again died essentially in August of 79, and everything that was there was preserved, just as it was. And that's how it was discovered when it was excavated in the mid-18th century, as it had been, exactly how it had been on that day in August in 79. This is extremely important. It's one of our only really fixed chronological dates, and it provides us with an incredible laboratory of material because again, everything, nothing is changed from the time that it was left there, except for what the treasure hunters removed. But for the most part, nothing has changed, and we can study it as it was. The other thing that you must remember from the outset, that although what was revealed by excavators in the 18th century, 19th century, and beyond even today, was not just the Pompeii of August 79, but the buildings that stood there were not just the buildings that had been renovated between the earthquake of 62 and the destruction of Asuvius of 79, but some of the very earliest buildings, including the Samnite structures, still stood. And so when we look back, we will be able to trace, in a sense, the city of Pompeii and its architecture from the time of the Samnites up until the time of the emperor Titus. I want to begin with a plan of the city of Pompeii, and you see it here. And the plan that I show you is a plan of the city as it was in AD 79. We see all of the buildings at that juncture. We see that the shape of the city is essentially an irregular rectangle. And we also can see very well that the city is surrounded by a wall, a protective wall, as were, so it was walled like all the other cities that we've talked about thus far this term. You can see some of the major buildings very clearly. The amphitheater that we'll talk about today, the theater and the music hall over here. You can see the streets of the city, the Cardo or North-South Street and the Decumanus, or East-West Street of the city, as well as the fairly regular blocks where the houses and the shops were located. What is important to note, however, is that the Samnite city was obviously much smaller than the city of 79. And to recapture a sense of the Samnite city, we'll look at the bottom left side of this plan, where we see the original Samnite city, which seems to have been roughly a fairly regular square. And in that Samnite city, the Romans, and they followed Roman surveying methodology here, they looked to what was exactly the center of the city, and they placed the Cardo, the North-South Street, and the Decumanus, the East-West Street, at that exact midpoint of the city. And then they located, as they like to do, the forum of the city, the Great Meeting and Marketplace, right at the intersection of the Cardo and of the Decumanus. And that is exactly where we see the forum that was begun in the Samnite period, right at the intersection of those two original streets. Then over time, obviously, as they expanded the city, the Cardo grew and the Decumanus grew, and it didn't end up exactly at the center of the larger city, but it was at the center of the original city. Let's begin, in fact, with the forum, because the forum was begun itself during the time of the Samnites. You'll see from your Monument List that I've given you a date of the second half of the second century B.C. for the forum at Pompeii. And again, that indicates to us, because of the chronology of the city, of the history of the city, that it was begun in Samnite times. You see here on the screen an excellent plan of the forum, as it was and as it grew over time, as buildings were added over time. This plan is from one of your textbooks, from Ward Perkins, and I think it deserves a careful study. Let's describe it together today. We see that the central part of the forum, which was, again, essentially the main meeting and marketplace of the forum, is a very elongated rectangle with the temple, a capitolium, a temple to Jupiter, located on one of the short ends. And you should be immediately, your mind's eye should go immediately to the sanctuary designs that we saw last time. Think, for example, of the sanctuary of Hercules Victor at Tivoli, where we saw that the temple was pushed up against one of the back walls, in that case the long wall, and dominated the space in front of it. We see the same kind of scheme here, where we see this rectangular space, with the temple pushed up, in this case on one of the short walls, pushed up against the back wall, and then dominating the space in front of it. The forum itself is surrounded by columns, a colonnade, as you can see here, and it is open to the sky, open to the sky. Then deployed around it all the other important buildings that needed to be in a forum, the Aquaria or Senate House over here, the Basilica or Law Court over here, another temple, in this case the Temple of Apollo, and then a series of buildings that were added later on the right side. A wonderful building of a woman that we're not going to be talking about this semester called Humachia, and it gives you some sense that women could wield power. It wasn't easy. They couldn't vote. They couldn't hold public office. But they could sometimes wield power, and this particular woman did in Pompeii, a very large building that was for her and for her trade guild, a lorarium or a place, a shrine, a market, or a mackellum up there. Some of these added later. But the ones that are particularly critical to our understanding of the Samnite City are the Capitolium and are the Basilica, which both date to the second century B.C. Here's a view of, oh, I'm sorry, I did want to say something about the Google Earth image on the left. This is a Google Earth image, which I tried to take in such a way that one could can see it almost exactly the same vantage point as the plan. And you can see everything here that I've already pointed out, the open rectangular space, the colonnade, the temple pushed up against the back wall, the temple of Jupiter, the Basilica over here, the temple of Apollo, Humachia's building here, the Senate House over here, and so on. And this again underscores the value of Google Earth as one can look down on these buildings and compare what one sees to the master plan. This is a view of the colonnade. It's a two-story colonnade at the Forum of Pompeii. And you can see the same thing that we saw happening in the Theater of Marcellus in Rome, that the columns that they have used, they have looked at the Greek orders, the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, and they have selected here to use the Doric for the first story and the Ionic for the second story. This colonnade does not date to the Samnite period. We believe that it was put up later, but it's made out of white limestone, and it probably again does belong to a renovation of the Forum of a somewhat later date. Look also near the columns, and you will see a series of bases, a large base over here, a smaller base over here. You see a lot of these still in the Forum today. The bases were for, of course, were to support statues, statues, and then there would have been inscription on the base identifying who that was. Sometimes they were statues of the reigning dynast in Rome, the age of Augustus, it might be Augustus, or his wife, Livia, but they also honored the most important people of the city of Pompeii, magistrates, great benefactors, some Eumachia we know had a portrait inside her own building honoring her, standing next to the Empress Livia. So that's, you have to imagine that while the Forum is quite empty today, that in antiquity there would have been all of these bases with equestrian statues and full-length statues vying with one another for attention. The individuals honored their sort of jostling with one another to underscore their fame, at least within their own city. This is a view of the Temple of Jupiter, the capitolium in the Forum of Pompeii, an extremely important building, and one that you can see from the monument list also began to be put up quite early in 150 BC. But it's triple-sella honoring the capital on Triad, Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, was, it won't surprise you to hear, put up only after the Romans made Pompeii a colony. And that happened in 80 BC. So you'll see that I've given you a date of 150 for the temple, but 80 BC for the renovation of the cellar to incorporate these three spaces for statues of the capital on Triad. Let's look at the plan first. You see it down here at the bottom. Let me move that arrow away. You see it down here at the bottom. And you can see that the plan of the temple corresponds to plans that we've seen for other temples that we've studied thus far, this term, the Temple of Portunus, for example, where we see this combination of an Etruscan plan and a Greek elevation. You can see here the façade emphasis, single staircase, deep porch, freestanding columns in that porch, the flat back wall, as was characteristic of a Etruscan temple design, the plain side walls over here, we can see all of that in this plan. And we also know that the building was made out of stone, tufa, in this case tufa, not from Rome, but tufa from this part of Italy, from the Campanian region, tufa there for both the columns and also the capitals, so a stone building, so this same combination of a Truscan plan and Greek elevation that we saw in Rome. This view of the temple also shows you that it had a tall podium, as was characteristic of these other early temples. Here you can see the remains of the stone columns and of the building itself. It's not as well preserved as we wish it were, but enough is there to give us a very good sense of what the Capitolium looked like in ancient Roman times. I mentioned that the other early structure added to the Forum Complex was the Basilica of Pompeii, and I'd like to turn to that now. The Basilica of Pompeii dates to around 120 B.C. You see its plan here again in the bottom left, and you'll remember it's splayed off from the Forum to the left bottom side as you face the Temple of Jupiter. You can see that the plan of the Basilica is very interesting because it actually is quite similar to the plan of the Forum itself. It is a rectangular space, not as large and not as elongated, but nonetheless a rectangular space. Its entranceway is over here from the Forum. You can see that there are columns inside, a colonnade, just as we saw in the Forum itself, and the building is organized as is the Forum itself axially, so that there is a focus, something at the end that serves as the focus, and then the axiology comes from that. We see the focus over here at the end. It's not another temple. It is a tribunal, a tribunal on which the judge would sit to try the law cases that came here. The main difference between the Basilica and the Forum itself is that the Basilica was roofed in antiquity. The roof is no longer there, as you saw in the Google Earth view, but it was roofed in antiquity, whereas, again, the Forum was open to the sky. The view that you see of the Basilica, as it looks today, is also very illuminating. We are looking toward the tribunal. You can see the tribunal is actually extremely well preserved. We get a very good sense of what it looked like in antiquity. It itself has a tall podium. We can imagine the magistrate holding court up here on the top of that tall podium between the Corinthian columns in this case. We're not absolutely sure, but we believe the second story, which has smaller columns, a diminishing size on the second story, also were Corinthian columns, because you can see at least one of them. One of them is restored at the top right, but that one is a Corinthian capital. So we believe Corinthian order on the lower story, Corinthian order on the second story as well, beginning to show this Roman penchant for the Corinthian order, which we've already discussed. And you can also see here some of the lower parts of the columns that would have been encircling the center of the structure and dividing the central space from two aisles, one on either side. It looks like they're made out of brick, but they're actually made out of a tile that looks like brick. A brick wasn't being used quite this early, but a tile resembling brick was used in Pompeii. And we can see that served as the core of the columns. They would have been stuck out over, though, and looked more like white marble, indicating to us again this desire of the Romans to make things look at least, or the Samnites at this point, and ultimately the Romans when they renovated this structure to make it look as Greek as possible. Yeah. Why are the columns chopped off? Why are the columns chopped off? You mean almost all in the same place. These things were often pieced, and so sometimes that can happen. And it's actually one of the, you raise a very interesting issue, because one of the things that archaeologists are beginning to speculate only recently about, and you see this in some of the most recent literature, is, you know, we think, here we say, and I said it today, that this city was preserved exactly as it was in 79. And yet when you look at what it looks like, it's actually in pretty ruinous state. So that could mean two things, one that they didn't make all that much progress in that 17 years, that they worked very hard, but the damage had been so significant that they were not able to bring these things back as much as they had hoped to. But it also may be just the destruction, I mean, while the ash and lava covered the city and protected it, it obviously wrought some damage as well, so that some of these things obviously came down, and over time the material got washed away or taken away or whatever. But it is curious that they sort of broke in exactly the same place, but it's because of the construction technique and the way in which they were pieced together. Student conversation. Yeah, exactly. Let me show you another view of the right-side wall of the Basilica. You see these columns here again, very regular. There's a young woman standing right here, so that gives you a sense of scale. She's about only up to this point of the column, so you can see how large in scale these were in ancient Roman times. But if you look at the two that are closest to the tribunal, you will see that they have ionic capitals. So that gives us enough to go on to speculate that the first story of columns, and there were two stories on the walls, two stories of columns, the lower ones were ionic, and you can see that they are attached or engaged into the walls. Those were ionic, and then we believe that there was a second story, that we know there was a second story, but that the second story of columns would have been Corinthian capitals up there. This is a restored view of what the Basilica would have looked like in 120 after it was built, 120 BC after it was built, and you can see here the tribunal. We're looking toward the tribunal. It's two-storied, Corinthian order on both stories, tall podium. We see here in black the columns of the central space that divide the center from the two side aisles. And here you can see very well the way in which they created two stories, a bottom story and an upper story. You could walk on that upper story and using the ionic capitals in the first story and smaller Corinthian columns in the second story. And it's important for me to note in terms of the development, the later development of Basilican architecture, that this Basilica in Pompeii of this early date did not have what's called a clear story, C-L-E-R-E-S-T-O-R-Y. C-L-E-R-E-S-T-O-R-Y, a clear story. What is a clear story? A clear story is a series of windows open to the outside that allow views out and light in. This building does not have a clear story. So it probably in its heyday in the Samnite period was probably on the dark side. But we will see that clear story, the clear story is incorporated into later Roman Basilican architecture. One of the greatest buildings without any question at Pompeii, and one that everyone flocks to see. And if you have never been to Pompeii, let me just note that it is a little bit further out than some of the other structures, but it is a to not be missed monument. And in fact, I know at least one of you has already spoken to me about an upcoming trip to Rome and Pompeii. And consequently, I just say that you absolutely need, I mean you could spend days at Pompeii, but you must have a full day for Pompeii because in order to get to the, not just to see the forum and what's in the center and a few of the houses, to get out, it doesn't take that long. It's a nice walk, it's not a huge distance. But people forget to do it because it's on the outskirts. But you really must get to the two endpoints are the amphitheater and the Bill of the Mysteries, both of them absolutely incredible to see, and too often missed by Taurus, but two of the greatest sites at the city of Pompeii. This is the amphitheater, as it looks today, from the air. The amphitheater is one of several buildings that were begun immediately upon the Romans making Pompeii a Roman colony in ADBC. You can only imagine those veterans, those army veterans of war who had just been settled in their new homes, clamoring from day one for the amphitheater, a place where they could go for gladiatorial and animal combat. This is what they wanted to see and consequently no local magistrate or emperor worth their salt would allow the city to continue without, there was no emperor in ADBC, but would allow the city to go on without an amphitheater. So that was one of the first orders of business. This amphitheater at Pompeii, which dates, we believe, to AD270 BC, is an incredibly important building for the history of Roman architecture, because it is our first preserved stone amphitheater. And all the amphitheaters that come later, including the Great Colosseum in Rome, are based on buildings like this one. This was a great experiment in amphitheater design already in AD270 BC. How did they go about building this amphitheater? What they seem to have done is to excavate the central area, the earth of the central area, to create a space for the oval arena, which you see here, and I put the terms on the monument list for you, the arena which you see here. So they've excavated that central space, placed the arena there. Then they have piled up earth. It's essentially an earthen bowl, is what they've created here, an earthen bowl with the excavated space for the arena, and then piled up the earth on the outside to support the seats, to support the seats, to service the support for the seats. There was no natural hill here, so they had to do this on their own. So they build up the earth, they place the seats, they line that earthen bowl with seats, stone seats, and they create the caviar of the amphitheater, because we use the same term for the seats of an amphitheater as for the seats of a theater. The caviar, or C-A-V-E-A, the caviar, or the seats of the amphitheater. And you can also see here, like indicated, the wedge-shaped sections of the seats, just as in the theater, they are called the same thing, the cuneas, C-U-N-E-U-S, or in the plural, cune-E, C-U-N-E-I. So these wedge-shaped individual sections, a cuneas, all of them together, cune-E, the cune-E, or wedge-shaped sections of the seats apparent here. The exits and entrances, and there are a couple of major ones on either side, those have a colorful and unforgettable name. I guarantee you, you will remember this name for the rest of your lives. Those exits and entrances are called vomitoria, which means they literally spit forth spectators, vomitoria. These entrances and exits to the amphitheater. Let me also note that the outer ring, and the outer ring is extremely important because it buttresses the earthen bowl. That outer ring is made of concrete, concrete that we'll see is faced with opus and keratum work, and the entire structure is encircled by an annular vault. One of these ring vaults encircles the entire structure that is made out of concrete. So another early example of the masterful use of concrete faced with opus and keratum work, in this case in the amphitheater in Pompeii. I show you a Google Earth image of this, which gives you a very good sense of the oval shape of the original structure. I think it's important to compare the exterior of the amphitheater at Pompeii, which is extremely well preserved, as you can see here, with the experiment at the much earlier sanctuary of Fortuna premigiania at Palestrina, where we also saw this use of concrete faced with opus and keratum work. If we look at the facade of the amphitheater at Pompeii, we'll see, first of all, how exceedingly well preserved it was. We also see this unique staircase here with stairs, and I'll show you a side view in a moment where you can see those stairs, stairs leading up on both sides to the apex. And then a series of arches in diminishing size, larger in the center and diminishing in size as they go from the ramp to correspond to the shape of the ramp, and then additional arcades over here. These are what are called blind arcades, because you'll see that they have a wall in the back. You can't walk in these arcades and get into the amphitheater. There are only two barrel vaulted corridors, and you saw them in the general view, one on either long side of the oval, that you can actually walk in and out of the amphitheater from them. But you can go up the staircase and enter the amphitheater as well from the caveat. Go up to the top and then just go at the uppermost part of the steps and walk down to your seats that way. So the blind arcades we can see here, we can see that once again, just as we saw in some of the other buildings we looked at last time, the way in which they've used opus and keratum for most of the wall, the facing for the concrete for most of the wall, the stone, both blocks of stone and these bourgeois blocks, wedge-shaped blocks, to articulate the arcades, to make them more prominent and also to give the building additional stability. What's interesting here, and one of the reasons I also bring back the sanctuary of Portuna Premiginia, is the fact that the Romans again are giving you some options in terms of how you get into this building. You can get in through the barrel vaulted corridors, or you can climb up this distinctive staircase. And by the way, we have no other, this truly is a unique staircase. We have no other one like it in the history of Roman architecture. So you have those options, but again, they are still predetermining the way in which you go. I mean, they give you a few options, but within that scheme it is clearly a predetermined path up the staircase over here and then through only those two barrel vaulted corridors. I've talked about that at the Portuna Premiginia Sanctuary, up the ramps, and then up the staircase in the center, a very similar way of thinking about getting people from one place to another in an orderly way. The staircase is so distinctive that, and here I show you a side view of it, where you can actually see the steps leading up. And if you go visit there, you should try both options. I mean, go down the corridor, but also it's a lot of fun to go up the steps and into the caveat. But it's so distinctive and never to be repeated that when we look, there's a painting that survives from a Pompeian house. We'll look at it in more detail later in the semester. But I wanted to just show it to you now, because it is so apparent that it is a representation of the amphitheater at Pompeii, which is not surprising since this is a house in Pompeii. But you see that distinctive staircase here with the steps, the way in which you can enter into the cavea. You see the sense of the cavea and the kind of goings-on that happened in this Pompeii amphitheater. But you can also see, this is a very important detail, that this is the only place where we actually have a representation of it. You can see that at the uppermost part of the cavea, there is an awning called a velarium. And I put that word on the monument list for you. An awning that was supported by poles that were located on brackets at the uppermost part of the amphitheater. And that awning, the purpose of that awning, the Pompeians seemed to have a thing for protecting the Romans in general, for protecting people in inclement weather. So they put these awnings up. When it rained, they put these awnings up to protect those who were there, to see a gladiatorial combat, to protect them from that rain. One last view of the amphitheater of Pompeii. We are looking at its bowl-shaped arena, as you can see here, and the seats that do survive to get a sense of the interior. Here you can see very well the two barrel vaulted entrances and exits, one on either side. And that's the only way. Again, those blind arcades, you can't get in that way. And you can see that very well here. Those are the only entrances or exits into the theater besides the staircase. And in the introductory lecture, I made the point, and I'll just bring it back home again, that the Yale Bowl here in New Haven is based on the amphitheater in Pompeii. There's no question about that. In fact, if one goes back in the literature on the bowl and its original construction, it is even mentioned in original articles that the architects were looking back. I mean, I'm not making this up. The architects were actually looking back at the Pompeii amphitheater as a model. And you can see the relationship. When you look at the bowl from the air, you can see it is a bowl shape, almost exactly like the shape of the Pompeii amphitheater. This aerial view, by the way, was taken at the time of the hundredth game between Yale and Harvard. And you can see the stands were packed. The major difference between these two amphitheaters is the fact that the one in Pompeii was made to hold 20,000 people. The one in Yale can hold up to as many as 78,000 people. So we have a larger amphitheater, so to speak, than they did and do in the city of Pompeii. I want to move from the amphitheater to the other great entertainment district of Pompeii, and that was the theater and the musical, the theater and the musical. And I want to show those to you fairly quickly. We see them here in plan, the theater in red and the musical here in a kind of, I don't know, chartreuse. As you can see, it dates to 80 to 70 B.C. So another example of a building that was added when the Romans gained ascendance of this part of the world. And a couple of terms again. We can see, if we look at the theater, we can see the fact that the theater is semicircular in shape, or the caveat is semicircular in shape. We can see the wedge-shaped cuneii up there. We can also see that the orchestra is semicircular in shape, not round, and that there's a skeina, a ce-na, or a skeinai franz, as I called it last time, a stage building at the front. There is also a space over here which we call the porticus. Again, I put that on the monument list for you, the porticus. What was the porticus? The porticus was an open rectangular space with covered colonnades on either side. The purpose of the porticus was to have a place where people could go during intermission to stretch their legs during the intermission of the comedy or tragedy that they were there to see. And there were little shops along the way, little spaces along the way. Some of them served as shops for playbills and other souvenirs from the evening's experience, but also that served as spaces where props and scenery and costumes and all sorts of things that were needed in the theatrical performances could be kept. So that's the porticus. Then over here we see the music hall. It's a smaller version of the theater, but it's designed in exactly the same way, with a semicircular orchestra, the semicircular caveat, a division into cunei, as you can see here, a small and much less elaborate skeina in the front. The major difference between the two, and we see this not just in Pompeii, but throughout Roman architecture, is not just the scale, that the theater is always much bigger than the music hall, but that the theater was open to the sky and the music hall had a roof. And that roof, the reason for the roof and the smaller music hall and the reason for the smaller size was to make the acoustics as good as they could possibly be, and that was easier to do in a roof building and in a building of smaller scale. So a Google Earth view of the theater and music hall, as they look today, and you can see they're quite well preserved. You can see the exact shapes that we looked at in plan over there. Here's our porticus, for example, and you get a sense of how pleasant that might be able to be during intermission time. What this view also gives you a sense of, however, is the way in which these two buildings are embedded in the rest of the city, that they do make up an entertainment district, but at the same time they are very close to the city streets that have along them houses and shops and so on and so forth. So very closely embedded into the life, into the commercial life and the residential life of the city, even though this was intended, again, as a great entertainment area for those who live there. And I made this point before, but I'll make it quickly again, that while Roman theaters like the theater at Pompeii are based on Greek prototypes, there are some differences. The two theaters, this is the Greek theater at Epidaurus of the mid-fourth century B.C. They both have these stone seats. They both have, which is called the cavia, they both have these wedge-shaped sections of seats. They both have a stage building, although the Greek one is much simpler. And they also, but the major differences between the two is that the Greek theater has a circular orchestra, whereas the Roman theater has a, and this is the theater of Pompeii, has a semicircular orchestra, and the other major difference, the most significant one, is the Greeks built their theaters on hillside. As you can see at Epidaurus, the Romans built their theaters, and this is the case in Pompeii, on a hill made out of concrete. I want to turn to an extremely important building, and one that I am going to come back to on a number of occasions during this semester. So put an asterisk next to this one as a particularly important building, and one that's almost certain I'll find some way of incorporating into the first midterm, because I think it's so significant, and it will turn up again and again and again in the course of the term, especially when we talk about later bath architecture. It is the Stabian baths of Pompeii. It dates to the second half of the second century B.C., and it was remodeled in the first half of the first century B.C. The Stabian baths are one of several bath buildings at Pompeii. I mentioned in the introductory lecture that these houses in Pompeii did not have running water, and so access to bathing and to water for daily use was obviously critical, and the baths served that purpose, the place where one could go and bathe, but they also became great social centers, great places where you really wanted to go and hang out with your friends while you were sitting in the sauna. And so they take on a very important piece of life in cities like Pompeii. The Stabian baths, as their date indicate, are very early. They've begun already under the Samnites, and they have some extremely interesting features, and once again I'm going to have to go over some of the bath terminology. You can see here that if you walk along the street you just see a series of cubicles which served as shops, so fairly unprepossessing, but there is an entranceway through those shops into a very large open space surrounded by columns on three sides that is called the palestra of the baths. The palestra was the exercise courts where you jogged and ran around and so on, and after you exerted yourself and got all sweaty you could jump into the pool that was located over here. This was not a place to do laps. It was pretty much a soaking pool, a pool where you could cool off, but the technical term for that is either a piece of piscina, which is what's on the monument list for you, or a natatio, a little pool where you could splash yourself after exerting yourself by exercising in the palestra. The bath block itself, the bathing rooms themselves, are located on the other side of the plan, on the right side as you see it here, the northern side actually of the plan, and we see two sets of spaces. This set of four down here, this one, this one, this one, and this one, and then a set of a comparable number of rooms up there. These early Roman baths, there was a separation between the men's section of the baths and the women's section of the baths. And I'm sorry, ladies, but we'll have to accept the fact that at least in ancient Pompeii the women's section was quite nondescript. It was much smaller than the men's. At least they had one, thank goodness. But it was smaller than the men's, and the rooms had no architectural distinction whatsoever. All of the designer's effort went into creating a wonderful set of rooms for the men. We see the men's rooms again over here, these four, and the women's at the top. Consequently, the only ones that have any merit architecturally in my showing you today are the ones for the men's baths down here. The four rooms, the four key rooms to both the men's and women's sections, were the apoditarium, and again these words are on the monument list for you, the apoditarium, which was the dressing room. It's a fairly, again, it's large, but a fairly nondescript, rectangular room here. You can see it right down here. And the way it was designed was that you went in, and there were no lockers, no private lockers, but there were benches where you could, when you got undressed, you could just take your clothes and put them in a little pile on that bench. You had to just take on faith that no one was going to steal any of your belongings. And if you were very well to do, some of the very well to do Romans, men and women, brought slaves with them, their slave, their private slave, to watch their stuff while they were in the sauna with their friends. From the apoditarium you go into the so-called tepidarium of the baths, also usually a plain rectangular room, even in the men's section, which served as the warm room, where you started to warm yourself up. You went from the tepidarium into the cauldarium of the bath, which was the hot room, where you really, where you really, it was the sauna, essentially, of the bath. And consequently there was a basin over here with cold water. So if you got too hot, you could go and splash yourself with that cold water. So apoditarium, tepidarium, cauldarium. By then you're really heated up, and you can make your way back into this room over here, which is called the frigidarium, or the cold room. The frigidarium was the place that you could really cool off. And I think you can see by looking at these the two most important rooms architecturally, you can see this even in plan, are the cauldarium, which has an apse or curved element at the end, and this room in particular, the frigidarium, because it is a round structure with radiating alcoves, and we're going to see that it's domed. This is a particularly, again, star, star, star, one of the most important rooms that I've shown you, probably the most important room I've shown you this semester, in that it is going to have a very long future architecturally. What you see here basically ends up as the pantheon some day. This round space, round structure with radiating alcoves, and as we'll see a dome, and not only a dome, but a hole in the ceiling, an oculus that allows light into the structure. How were these baths heated? How were the hot rooms heated? This system called a hypocost. Again, I put the word on the monument list for you. A hypocost, H-Y-P-O-C-A-U-S-T. What was a hypocost system? A hypocost system was a system by which they put terracotta tubes in the floor and behind the walls. They blew hot air into those, and they also raised up the pavement of the floor on a series of stacked tiles, and you can see that extremely well. There's a very well-preserved hypocost from the Stabian bath. Place these tiles on stacked, stacked of tiles, leaving space in between them, and put brasures between those metal brasures, metal bowls that held hot coals, and so on. And that, from those hot coals, obviously, it's slaves who had to keep those coals hot, but coals that were placed in these pans that were placed in the floor that helped also to heat the pavement that was located above. This very important room, the frigidarium of the Stabian baths, you see it here as it looks today, a small, round space. It would have had a pool in the center, a round pool, radiating alcoves, a dome, a dome that is open to the sky with an oculus that allows light into it. You can see the remains of paint stucco, and then paint blue and red paint, probably some kind of marine scene included here. But this, I can't underscore enough the importance of this particular room and the future that this design has for Roman architecture. I'd like to show you another bath at Pompeii, the so-called Forum Baths. The Forum Baths are interesting because they're later, they date to, as you can see from your previous work, the first 80 BC. So this is what the Romans did when they came in and took over Pompeii, and were making it into one of those mini-Romes, those cities in the model of Rome. And you can see it is very, very similar to what was going on in the Stabian baths in the earlier Samnite baths, with the same palestra. We see a palestra up at two, the exercise court. We don't seem to have a natatio in this particular plan. We see the men's section over here at three, four, five, and six, and the women's section over here, seven, eight, nine, ten. Again, the women's section off to the side of no architectural distinction whatsoever. The men's over here, and you could enter the men's either through the palestra or from an opening over here at one. We see the same set of rooms that we saw at the Stabian baths. We see the Appoditarium, or undressing and dressing room over here at three, the Teppodarium at five, the Caldarium at six, and the Caldarium at six is of the same shape as the Caldarium in the Stabian baths, a rectangular room with an apse at the end, and a basin for cold water splashes. And then you go back again to the Frigidarium, and you can see the Frigidarium in the baths, the Forum baths of Pompeii, the same shape as that in the Stabian baths of Pompeii, a small round room with radiating alcoves. I can show you views both of the Teppodarium of the Forum baths extremely well preserved, as you can see here. You can also see they've used a great barrel vault for this room. It isn't as large as it looks here, but it's a sizable room. And this is a very good place to show you, the way to give you a sense of how these things were decorated, how so many rooms, Roman rooms today, Roman buildings today, are stripped of their original decoration. But that decoration was often quite beautiful and ostentatious, and we can see here, we can get here a sense of that. You can see the wall has been stuccoed over, and then also in stucco these great flowering acanthus plants and creatures flying above, animals, human feature, gods and goddesses flying above. They used paint as well, red and blue and white and other colors to accentuate the design. This gives you some sense of the flavor of these, and then this wonderful detail below of these atlas figures who are shown holding up the vault of this particular room. It gives you some sense of why Romans flocked to these places, not only because they had the only place they could bathe themselves, but also because it was just a wonderful space to be in and to enjoy, again, the company of friends. This is a view of what room? The Forum Baths, the Caldarium, excellent, Neil, the Caldarium over here with its rectangular shape and then its apps and its cold water basin for cold water splashes. And then look at the ceiling, how wonderful. In that apps you see a semi-dome, a round hole or an oculus in that semi-dome to allow light into it. So here we see them exploring oculi in semi-domes as well as in domes, and then the square and rectangular spaces, holes in the ceiling, openings in the ceiling that have been placed there also to allow light into the system so that you could use the room, but also to create the kind of wonderful light effects that it does when you have rays of sunshine coming in on you while you are in your sauna. This is a couple of more views of the Frigidarium of the Forum Baths. You can see the dome up above, the oculus in that dome. You can see some of the stucco decorations still preserved. You can see the alcoves here, the radiating alcoves, and some of the stucco decoration. Here are sea creatures against a red background, and this is a restored view of what the Frigidarium would have looked like with the pool in the center, a nice place to relax. The radiating apps is over here, and then the dome with the oculus and with the light streaming in. Again, I can't underscore enough the importance of both of these for Ghadaria for the future of Roman architecture. The other importance of the Forum Baths is the Forum Baths is today where you can eat, and if you're there for the full day, as I recommend you be, you're going to want to eat at some point, and there is a cafeteria, which doesn't look like much, but actually the food is not bad. Italians have a very hard time making bad pasta, so you can always get some good pasta at the snack bar, and you will want to make your way, there's a few views of it, make your way to the Forum Baths if you're there for any length of time. Very quickly, I just want to remind you, we talked about this in the introductory lecture, that one of the main reasons that Pompey is so interesting to us today is because it tells us so much about the daily life, not only of the Pompeians, but of the Romans in general, because we have all these wonderful shops still preserved at Pompey. This was a bakery. We see the millstones that were actually used for the grinding and the grains still preserved. We see the oven over here looking wonderfully like a modern pizza oven, as you can see, and we also believe it or not have from Pompey a petrified bread that still is preserved that gives you a sense of what Pompey and bread looked like, and it looks strikingly like our pizzas with the segments of the bread. So if you want to have a sense of where pizza came from here, I told you the Romans, again, there's nothing the same as bread, pizza, whatever. But you see that petrified bread giving you a very good sense of what was produced in this particular bakery. I also mentioned in the introductory lecture the fast food stands of Pompey, the thermopolium in the singular, and the thermopolia in the plural, these fast food stands where you could get a bite real quickly. The way they were designed was to have a great counter in them with recesses, fresh, hot, and cold food was put out obviously every day. And if you were hungry, you just went up to the counter, you took a peek at what was there, you pointed out what you wanted, and you could eat on the run. The Romans were never far to have their state religion and their family religion, far from them, and you can also see a nod to the gods over here. There's a shrine with some of the representations of the household gods, even in this fast food emporium. We have wine shops from Pompey as well. I show you actually a scene of one of the storage rooms at Pompey that you can see actually as you walk along. It's a wonderful ruffling of turning to the next page. These wine, these amphoras, these great clay amphoras that held wine that are located in one of these storage areas that one can see as one walks along the forum on the left side in Pompey today. But you can imagine these on shelves in a wine shop of ancient Pompey, offering wines gathered from all over the world for discerning enophiles, is that the word, enophiles. Connecting all of these shops to one another, where of course the streets of the city, the streets of the city, are extremely well preserved. I show you here a couple of views of the crossing of the Cardo and the Decumanus in Pompey, and you can see exactly what the streets look like. You can see the multi-sided paving stones of the streets. You can see the sidewalks looking uncannily modern. You can see, I don't, you can't see exactly here, but there are drains along the way to allow rainwater to filter off the streets. And all of this, again, an extremely modern look, and the streets of Pompey give us the best sense of any streets of any preserved ancient city of what the streets look like in any given Roman town. These streets had along them, again, because of needs for water, had along them fountains. Here's a very modest fountain, where we see a representation of the goddess Ceres, C-E-R-E-S series, with her cornucopia and the fountain spout coming out of her mouth. And you can see this is the sort of thing when the Romans just needed a little bit of water for household use. They would go out to the local fountain. So as you walk along the streets of Pompey, you see a lot of these small fountains. You see graffiti. What would a city be without some graffiti on its buildings? Any of you who have been in Rome recently know there is too much graffiti. There's like a graffiti craze. I mean, the Romans have always had a lot of graffiti, but it's gotten so bad. It's almost unimaginable now. But the graffiti tradition was alive and well in Pompey, and you see it here, covered with glass, but you see it here, you see it here and there, and the city is you wander by, and it gives you a sense that people did right, right on their buildings. What they wrote on these buildings tended to be political, for the most part, and you'd see graffiti that would say things like, vote for Barbatis, the bearded one. He'll be the best guy for the office, and he's pretty handsome, too. That's the kind of graffiti that you'll see as you walk along, if your Latin is good, that you'll see as you walk along the streets of Pompey. You'll also see these big blocks of stone. And there are people who look at these and they think, oh, how interesting, that's debris from Vesuvius. It's not debris from Vesuvius, clearly. These are there deliberately. These are stepping stones. The Romans were so ingenious and so again concerned about how to protect people in inclement weather that they created, they put these stepping stones all around the city, usually at the cross sections of two streets, so that if there was torrential rain, and if the water piled up, and if the drains couldn't quite handle it, you could get across the street without stepping in the water. I mean, would that we had this, and the slushiness that was New Haven in the last week? I can't tell you how many times I think, why doesn't El have stepping stones? We really could use them. But here they are, and you can see very clearly, the ruts that come from the carts that were made between the stepping stones by those carts constantly riding through them, and it shows you that they had to orchestrate the wheels of the carts in such a way that they would span the stepping stones. But it's a very ingenious thing. They're fun to look at, fun to walk on, really fun to take pictures. I have tons of them. I didn't decide not to bring a personal picture this time of me or anyone else in my family on stepping stones, or other Yalees. I've got lots of those too. I didn't bring those today, but I did bring something I'm really proud of, because in all the years I've taught this monument, this city, excuse me, I've always wanted to actually show what it looked like when rain, when it had rained. And since I've been to Pompeii so, so many times over the years, but it doesn't tend to rain when I go there, you know, June, July, August, it just doesn't rain. So I've never been able to do that. I was there this past June, and lo and behold, I was very upset because who wants to wander around the city of Pompeii in the rain? But I had one day to go there, and I was there, and I said, wow, it's raining. Here's my chance. So I finally was able to get some views of what happens, and this was right at, we had a torrential rain for about a half an hour, and the sun came out, and this is what you see as you wander the streets. You see that the water has accumulated, but again, lo and behold, you can easily make your way across that street, across those stepping stones, nonetheless. Just a very few words on what happens to the streets of the city of Pompeii, or any Roman city for that matter. When you leave the gates and you go out on the intercity roads, many of those intercity roads become cemeteries. The Romans used these roads as their cemeteries. The Romans had a religious belief that there was a separation between the city of the living and the city of the dead, so all of the tombs are outside the walls of the city. So you see at Pompeii two extremely well-preserved tomb streets, the street of the tombs and the via nucea, which is the one you see here, and you see ERA, with tombs of all sorts of shapes and sizes. I'm not going to go into these in any detail in this course. There is a paper topic for any of you who get interested in tomb architecture on the tombs of Pompeii. We will look at some tombs in Rome in great detail, but I'm just going to give you a glimpse of them here. They come in all sizes and shapes. They're very, very interesting. They honor the people who were buried there, including there's a bench tomb, for example, where you can sit and think on the life and times of the individual who was buried there. So an absolutely fascinating, fascinating street with a lot of different tomb types that show the variety of tomb architecture under the Romans. I'd like to end today by making at least a passing reference to a matter which is of huge concern to archeologists and huge concern to all of us as human beings. And that is what happened to the people of Pompeii in those very last moments of life. And archeologists have been able to reconstruct exactly what happened to, or not exactly, but as close as possible in the time from which Pompeii was excavated to now, to reconstruct again what happened to these human beings at the time of the eruption of the Suveus. They've been able to, again, to reconstruct a very moving picture of their last moments of life. What we know is that the ash and lava from the Suveus, and you see a restored view here of what that would have looked like, and you can see the Suveus, and you can see the Forum over here with the Temple of Jupiter and the Temple of Apollo and throngs of people inside the Forum at this particular juncture as they look up and see what is happening. And on the right-hand side, this is actually a view of Mount St. Helens, which as you know erupted in 1980, and the eruption's not so different as you gaze upon them and look at them in comparison today. But we know that the eruption of the Suveus did not happen all at once. It didn't just happen and cover the city. It was gradual. There was actually quite a bit of time. There was time to escape. The Pompeians saw what was happening, and those who were smart did escape. But like any other natural disaster, there were of course a group of hardy souls, or perhaps we would call them foolhardy souls, who thought that they could ride it out. And they thought they could ride it out by hiding in their own houses or by some of the smarter ones of the foolhardy type, decided that they could ride it out in some of the very strong walled buildings, public buildings of the city, for example the bath buildings, the Stavian baths or the Forum baths that we looked at today. They were gravely mistaken, gravely mistaken. We don't know how many stayed. We think it was actually a fairly small number. Some have said about a thousand. We don't know. But whatever, those who did stay had made a grave error because they were not actually killed by the ash and lava, the molten ash and lava, despite the fact that it was extremely hot. But what killed them was the noxious gases that came into the city after the eruption that followed that ash and lava. They were asphyxiated by those gases. Before, after they had died, but before their bodies decomposed, the ash and lava formed a protective shell around their bodies, protecting them. And what the archaeologists were clever enough to do is when the modern archaeologists, when they were working with their bodies, and when that pickaxe hit a hollow in the ash and lava, they poured plaster into that hollow. Sometimes that produced nothing, but sometimes it produced bodies, the actual shape of the bodies of those whose bodies had decomposed there. And we can look at those bodies still today. And I show you a scene of a number of the victims of Pompeii huddled together for mutual and indeed ultimately futile action. I can show you the body of an individual who is lying on the ground, his face and his hands, trying to protect himself obviously from those noxious gases that have come into the city. I can show you the body of the plaster cast, obviously, of the body of another Pompeii, who was sitting with his knees up and his hands in front of his face, trying to protect himself once again from those fumes that are about to overtake him any second. The body of an individual who's essentially given up at this point, he is expired, he's lying on his back, there's no hope any longer for him, a poor fellow who died on that day. And then this fellow, this heroic fellow who is lifting himself in his last moment of life, lifting himself either to gasp a last breath or perhaps to whisper something to an endear, a family member who is by his side. And we even have the body of a dog. This story is particularly sad because this dog, this plaster cast of this dog, was found with a chain around his neck. So probably what happened here is the owner of this particular dog, had the dog chained up, didn't have time either to take the dog or to release the dog from his chain so that he could try himself to escape, and that poor dog perished on that day. And we have the plaster cast of his body still today. All of these bodies can still be seen on the site of Pompeii and make a visit there all the more poignant. I know of no more moving human document from the ancient world than these bodies of these Pompeians kept in perpetuity and for us to commiserate with and to understand even today. Thank you.
 Last time we talked about a number of monuments that were  connected to one another geographically and also  chronologically, and were also made out of the  same material, concrete faced with opus and  keratin.  I remind you of three of those today,  of the sanctuary of Jupiter, Anxar at Terracina,  of the sanctuary of Hercules Victor at Tivoli,  the center, and then on the right the sanctuary of  Fortuna Premiginia at Palestrina.  We're going to do something entirely different today.  We're going to look at a single city, one city,  in all its aspects.  It's public and private architecture.  It's civic, commercial, and religious buildings.  We can't do this sort of thing very often because too few  Roman cities are either well preserved enough or well  excavated enough to allow such an overview.  But this is no ordinary city.  This is a very special city.  The city we will be concentrating on today is Pompeii.  Pompeii was located in an area of Italy called Campania.  It was located near Naples.  It was located near the Mediterranean Sea.  It was a small resort town in the late first century B.C.  and into the first century A.D.  And you can see it on this map here, and it's right here.  You can see that this area of Campania is obviously south  of Rome.  It is along, again, the Mediterranean Sea.  And you can see Pompeii here also with its sister city of  Herculaneum and some of the other well-known cities from this  area, Boscoreale, Applontus, for example, and Naples itself,  ancient Neopolis.  And you can see this cluster of these cities that make up  Campania.  This was an area, I mean, the town itself, again, was a small  resort town.  It was a town that obviously had its own population of people  who made their money largely from commerce because they were  located so close to the sea.  But it was also a spot that was highly favored by the  Glitterati of Rome, who used to come down to this  area of Rome, not only to go to Pompeii  itself, but to establish villas, to build villas in the vicinity  of Pompeii.  And we have imperial villas at places like Applontus,  and at a place called Boscotrecause,  that is located here as well.  And along what is now the Amalfi Coast and on the island of  Capri.  So this was a town, again, that was noticed and was  visited, even by the most elite in the city of Rome,  in Rome itself, in the city, in the center,  in the capital city of Rome itself.  But what's very important for us from the outset is to recognize  that although Pompeii, as we know it today,  was essentially a Roman city, it had a history that was much  longer than that, that went back much further  than that.  And I'd like to go over some of the major highlights of the  history of Pompeii, because they will situate us and  will help us to understand the city's architecture.  The history of Pompeii, as I noted, is much longer than the  history of Roman Pompeii.  It goes back as far as Rome itself.  It goes back to the 8th century B.C., the same Iron Age  period, when Romulus was founding the city of Rome.  Pompeii goes back that far as well.  It was first overseen by an Italic tribe called the  Oskans, but the Oskans were soon taken over by an even more  powerful tribe called the Samnites.  And the Samnites are in fact extremely important for the city  of Pompeii and for the architecture that we'll review  today.  The Samnite period in Pompeii lasted from the 4th through the  3rd, and even into the 2nd centuries B.C.,  up to 80 B.C., because it was in 89 that Pompeii fell to Rome.  We've talked about Rome colonizing this particular part  of Italy, not only the area right around it,  but the area south of it.  And Pompeii fell to Rome in an important military campaign in  89 B.C.  and in 80 B.C.  Sulla made Pompeii a Roman colony.  What happened thereafter was the Samnites,  who had built homes for themselves in public buildings  that we'll study here.  The Samnites were essentially thrown out of their homes.  Their property was confiscated, and that property was given  instead to the Roman veterans.  We've talked about the fact that that was the way the Romans  operated.  They paid back their veterans for loyal service by giving them  land, and they usually gave them land of those that they had  conquered.  So that happens here as well.  Samnite property confiscated, and the Roman veterans settle in  their homes and begin to redo them, settle into using their  public buildings, but begin to remake them in the  Roman image.  The next century and a half saw the construction of Pompeii's  most famous buildings.  But we should not forget, and we'll concentrate in part on  that today, that some of these buildings had their genesis  under the Samnites.  During this period there was a very high civilization in  Pompeii.  There was trade with Greek cities, and especially with the  Greek city of Neopolis, Neopolis being the ancient name  for Naples, for Naples.  The next very important year in the history of Pompeii was the  year AD 62, when the city was literally,  the city of Pompeii, was literally shaken to its  foundations by a very significant earthquake,  a very significant earthquake indeed.  And to give you some sense of that earthquake,  I show you a freeze that encircles a shrine that was  located in the house, or that was commissioned for  the house, as decoration and as a place to place the  household gods, that the owner and his family  were preserved.  The shrine had a freeze around it.  The man himself, by the way, was named Lucius  Caikilius Eucundus, and we're very lucky,  even remember his name, but Lucius Caikilius Eucundus,  and Eucundus, fortunately, we have a portrait  preserved of Eucundus, so we can get a good sense of  what he looked like, literally warts and all,  because you can see that he had a huge wart on the lower left  side of his face, and he was willing to have  himself memorialized, and here we are sitting and  we're going to highlight him today in this classroom in New  Haven, as he really was, with this large wart on the  lower left side of his face.  But a wonderful portrait of Eucundus, the owner of this  particular house, who was obviously so struck,  and probably so affected in his own life by the earthquake,  that he decided to have a relief commission that would depict  the event of 62 A.D.  And you see exactly, you see what is happening here.  You can see, in fact, the great temple of Jupiter,  the Capitolium of Pompeii, which we'll talk about today,  literally collapsing, and you can see that in front of  that temple were two tall bases with equestrian statues,  honoring important people of the city.  Those look also like they are shaking in their boots,  so to speak, and about to fall over.  If you look down here, you see the city wall,  and note your Ashlar Masonry, your Opus Quadratum,  and the use of headers and stretchers in this wall,  the wall of the city of Pompeii.  But you can see the gate is not doing too well.  It is also, seems to be, tottering and about to fall down.  So this is a graphic depiction of what happened then,  and it gives you some sense of the significance of this for  the people of Pompeii.  Now at the end of this, like in so many natural  disasters, obviously these people loved living where they did,  it's a beautiful part of the world, and they essentially stood  up and dusted themselves off, and began to remake their city,  to restore their city to what it was.  And we have, from this point on, from sixty-two on,  almost immediately, seventeen years of frenzied  building activity in which the Pompeians tried to bring their  city back from the dead, so to speak,  to bring it back to what it had once been.  But you know the punchline here, you know the end of the story,  you know that all of this work, all of this seventeen years of  hard work, was all for naught,  because on that fateful day of August 24th in 79 AD,  the long dormant volcano of Vesuvius,  which you see looming up behind the Temple of Jupiter in  Pompeii today, the long dormant volcano of  Vesuvius erupted, covering the city of Pompeii,  and all of its sister cities in a mass of,  or in a blanket of ash and lava, covering it forever,  well not quite forever, almost forever,  because as you also know, the city was rediscovered in the  eighteenth century.  And when it was rediscovered, what happened there first was a  period of treasure hunting.  Well-to-do individuals primarily from Europe made a beeline for  Pompeii once it was rediscovered, and began to build their own  personal collections of art from what lay around.  They took jewelry, they took precious metal items,  they even did the unspeakable by cutting portrait paintings and  other paintings out of the walls and taking them back to  decorate their own palaces and villas in other parts of the  world.  That went on for a while, but fortunately not too long.  The archaeologists gained the upper hand, and we begin to see  not long after that a period of scientific excavation.  And I show you two images here which show that scientific  excavation, which show some of the houses of  Pompeii being revealed by archaeologists.  And of course it was all of the good work that they have done,  and work continues at pace, and Pompeii excavation still goes  on in parts of the city that have allowed most of the city,  as far as we can tell, to be revealed to us today.  Now this tragedy that befell Pompeii in August of 79 was  indeed a tragedy for them, for the people who lived there  obviously.  It was also a tragedy for the reigning emperor,  the man by the name of Titus, T-I-T-U-S,  who was the honored and the famous Arch of Titus in Rome.  We'll talk about him and his architecture in Rome later in  the semester.  But it was a disaster for him, and he had to contend with a  plague and a fire in Rome also at the same time.  It was very difficult for him, and poor man,  even though he was quite young, died of natural causes after  only three years in office.  And I think it was in part this catastrophe that had happened  in the Bay of Naples area that led in part to his,  the stress of it, led in part to his demise.  So this was a great tragedy for him, a great tragedy for the  people of Pompeii, a great tragedy for Rome.  But it was a stroke of good luck for archaeologists,  and in a sense for us as well, because of course what happened  to Pompeii is something very different than what happened to  Rome.  What happened to Pompeii is that it was, its life was snuffed  out all at once.  It came to an end all at once.  Compare this to Rome, which has been inhabited over  millennia.  In Rome, buildings have been redone,  rethought, remade over time.  That never happened in Pompeii, because Pompeii again died  essentially in August of 79, and everything that was there was  preserved, just as it was.  And that's how it was discovered when it was excavated in the  mid-18th century, as it had been,  exactly how it had been on that day in August in 79.  This is extremely important.  It's one of our only really fixed chronological dates,  and it provides us with an incredible laboratory of material  because again, everything, nothing is changed from the  time that it was left there, except for what the treasure  hunters removed.  But for the most part, nothing has changed,  and we can study it as it was.  The other thing that you must remember from the outset,  that although what was revealed by excavators in the 18th  century, 19th century, and beyond even today,  was not just the Pompeii of August 79,  but the buildings that stood there were not just the buildings  that had been renovated between the earthquake of 62 and the  destruction of Asuvius of 79, but some of the very earliest  buildings, including the Samnite structures,  still stood.  And so when we look back, we will be able to trace,  in a sense, the city of Pompeii and its architecture from  the time of the Samnites up until the time of the emperor  Titus.  I want to begin with a plan of the city of Pompeii,  and you see it here.  And the plan that I show you is a plan of the city as it was in  AD 79.  We see all of the buildings at that juncture.  We see that the shape of the city is essentially an irregular  rectangle.  And we also can see very well that the city is surrounded by a  wall, a protective wall, as were, so it was walled like all  the other cities that we've talked about thus far this term.  You can see some of the major buildings very clearly.  The amphitheater that we'll talk about today,  the theater and the music hall over here.  You can see the streets of the city, the Cardo or North-South  Street and the Decumanus, or East-West Street of the city,  as well as the fairly regular blocks where the houses and the  shops were located.  What is important to note, however, is that the Samnite  city was obviously much smaller than the city of 79.  And to recapture a sense of the Samnite city,  we'll look at the bottom left side of this plan,  where we see the original Samnite city,  which seems to have been roughly a fairly regular square.  And in that Samnite city, the Romans,  and they followed Roman surveying methodology here,  they looked to what was exactly the center of the city,  and they placed the Cardo, the North-South Street,  and the Decumanus, the East-West Street,  at that exact midpoint of the city.  And then they located, as they like to do,  the forum of the city, the Great Meeting and Marketplace,  right at the intersection of the Cardo and of the Decumanus.  And that is exactly where we see the forum that was begun in the  Samnite period, right at the intersection of those two  original streets.  Then over time, obviously, as they expanded the city,  the Cardo grew and the Decumanus grew,  and it didn't end up exactly at the center of the larger city,  but it was at the center of the original city.  Let's begin, in fact, with the forum,  because the forum was begun itself during the time of the  Samnites.  You'll see from your Monument List that I've given you a date  of the second half of the second century B.C.  for the forum at Pompeii.  And again, that indicates to us,  because of the chronology of the city, of the history of the  city, that it was begun in Samnite times.  You see here on the screen an excellent plan of the forum,  as it was and as it grew over time, as buildings were added  over time.  This plan is from one of your textbooks,  from Ward Perkins, and I think it deserves a careful  study.  Let's describe it together today.  We see that the central part of the forum,  which was, again, essentially the main meeting and  marketplace of the forum, is a very elongated rectangle  with the temple, a capitolium,  a temple to Jupiter, located on one of the short  ends.  And you should be immediately, your mind's eye should go  immediately to the sanctuary designs that we saw last time.  Think, for example, of the sanctuary of Hercules  Victor at Tivoli, where we saw that the temple was  pushed up against one of the back walls,  in that case the long wall, and dominated the space in  front of it.  We see the same kind of scheme here, where we see this  rectangular space, with the temple pushed up,  in this case on one of the short walls,  pushed up against the back wall, and then dominating the  space in front of it.  The forum itself is surrounded by columns,  a colonnade, as you can see here,  and it is open to the sky, open to the sky.  Then deployed around it all the other important buildings that  needed to be in a forum, the Aquaria or Senate House over  here, the Basilica or Law Court over here,  another temple, in this case the Temple of Apollo,  and then a series of buildings that were added later on the  right side.  A wonderful building of a woman that we're not going to be  talking about this semester called Humachia,  and it gives you some sense that women could wield power.  It wasn't easy.  They couldn't vote.  They couldn't hold public office.  But they could sometimes wield power, and this particular  woman did in Pompeii, a very large building that was  for her and for her trade guild, a lorarium or a place,  a shrine, a market, or a mackellum up there.  Some of these added later.  But the ones that are particularly critical to our  understanding of the Samnite City are the Capitolium and are  the Basilica, which both date to the  second century B.C.  Here's a view of, oh, I'm sorry, I did want to say  something about the Google Earth image on the left.  This is a Google Earth image, which I tried to take in such a  way that one could can see it almost exactly the same vantage  point as the plan.  And you can see everything here that I've already pointed out,  the open rectangular space, the colonnade,  the temple pushed up against the back wall,  the temple of Jupiter, the Basilica over here,  the temple of Apollo, Humachia's building here,  the Senate House over here, and so on.  And this again underscores the value of Google Earth as one can  look down on these buildings and compare what one sees to the  master plan.  This is a view of the colonnade.  It's a two-story colonnade at the Forum of Pompeii.  And you can see the same thing that we saw happening in the  Theater of Marcellus in Rome, that the columns that they have  used, they have looked at the Greek orders,  the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian,  and they have selected here to use the Doric for the first  story and the Ionic for the second story.  This colonnade does not date to the Samnite period.  We believe that it was put up later, but it's made out of  white limestone, and it probably again does belong  to a renovation of the Forum of a somewhat later date.  Look also near the columns, and you will see a series of  bases, a large base over here, a smaller base over here.  You see a lot of these still in the Forum today.  The bases were for, of course, were to support statues,  statues, and then there would have been inscription on the base  identifying who that was.  Sometimes they were statues of the reigning dynast in Rome,  the age of Augustus, it might be Augustus,  or his wife, Livia, but they also honored the most  important people of the city of Pompeii, magistrates,  great benefactors, some Eumachia we know had a  portrait inside her own building honoring her,  standing next to the Empress Livia.  So that's, you have to imagine that while the Forum is quite  empty today, that in antiquity there would  have been all of these bases with equestrian statues and  full-length statues vying with one another for attention.  The individuals honored their sort of jostling with one  another to underscore their fame, at least within their own  city.  This is a view of the Temple of Jupiter,  the capitolium in the Forum of Pompeii,  an extremely important building, and one that you can see from  the monument list also began to be put up quite early in 150 BC.  But it's triple-sella honoring the capital on Triad,  Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, was, it won't surprise you to  hear, put up only after the Romans made Pompeii a colony.  And that happened in 80 BC.  So you'll see that I've given you a date of 150 for the temple,  but 80 BC for the renovation of the cellar to incorporate these  three spaces for statues of the capital on Triad.  Let's look at the plan first.  You see it down here at the bottom.  Let me move that arrow away.  You see it down here at the bottom.  And you can see that the plan of the temple corresponds to  plans that we've seen for other temples that we've studied thus  far, this term, the Temple of Portunus,  for example, where we see this combination of an  Etruscan plan and a Greek elevation.  You can see here the façade emphasis, single staircase,  deep porch, freestanding columns in that porch,  the flat back wall, as was characteristic of a  Etruscan temple design, the plain side walls over here,  we can see all of that in this plan.  And we also know that the building was made out of stone,  tufa, in this case tufa, not from Rome,  but tufa from this part of Italy, from the Campanian region,  tufa there for both the columns and also the capitals,  so a stone building, so this same combination of  a Truscan plan and Greek elevation that we saw in Rome.  This view of the temple also shows you that it had a tall  podium, as was characteristic of these other early  temples.  Here you can see the remains of the stone columns and of the  building itself.  It's not as well preserved as we wish it were,  but enough is there to give us a very good sense of what the  Capitolium looked like in ancient Roman times.  I mentioned that the other early structure added to the Forum  Complex was the Basilica of Pompeii, and I'd like to turn to  that now.  The Basilica of Pompeii dates to around 120 B.C.  You see its plan here again in the bottom left,  and you'll remember it's splayed off from the Forum to the left  bottom side as you face the Temple of Jupiter.  You can see that the plan of the Basilica is very interesting  because it actually is quite similar to the plan of the Forum  itself.  It is a rectangular space, not as large and not as  elongated, but nonetheless a rectangular space.  Its entranceway is over here from the Forum.  You can see that there are columns inside,  a colonnade, just as we saw in the Forum itself,  and the building is organized as is the Forum itself axially,  so that there is a focus, something at the end that  serves as the focus, and then the axiology comes  from that.  We see the focus over here at the end.  It's not another temple.  It is a tribunal, a tribunal on which the judge would sit to  try the law cases that came here.  The main difference between the Basilica and the Forum itself  is that the Basilica was roofed in antiquity.  The roof is no longer there, as you saw in the Google Earth  view, but it was roofed in antiquity,  whereas, again, the Forum was open to the sky.  The view that you see of the Basilica, as it looks today,  is also very illuminating.  We are looking toward the tribunal.  You can see the tribunal is actually extremely well preserved.  We get a very good sense of what it looked like in antiquity.  It itself has a tall podium.  We can imagine the magistrate holding court up here on the top  of that tall podium between the Corinthian columns in this case.  We're not absolutely sure, but we believe the second story,  which has smaller columns, a diminishing size on the second  story, also were Corinthian columns,  because you can see at least one of them.  One of them is restored at the top right,  but that one is a Corinthian capital.  So we believe Corinthian order on the lower story,  Corinthian order on the second story as well,  beginning to show this Roman penchant for the Corinthian order,  which we've already discussed.  And you can also see here some of the lower parts of the  columns that would have been encircling the center of the  structure and dividing the central space from two aisles,  one on either side.  It looks like they're made out of brick,  but they're actually made out of a tile that looks like brick.  A brick wasn't being used quite this early,  but a tile resembling brick was used in Pompeii.  And we can see that served as the core of the columns.  They would have been stuck out over, though,  and looked more like white marble, indicating to us again  this desire of the Romans to make things look at least,  or the Samnites at this point, and ultimately the Romans  when they renovated this structure to make it look as  Greek as possible.  Yeah.  Why are the columns chopped off?  Why are the columns chopped off?  You mean almost all in the same place.  These things were often pieced,  and so sometimes that can happen.  And it's actually one of the, you raise a very interesting  issue, because one of the things that archaeologists are  beginning to speculate only recently about,  and you see this in some of the most recent literature,  is, you know, we think, here we say,  and I said it today, that this city was preserved  exactly as it was in 79.  And yet when you look at what it looks like,  it's actually in pretty ruinous state.  So that could mean two things, one that they didn't make all  that much progress in that 17 years,  that they worked very hard, but the damage had been so  significant that they were not able to bring these things back  as much as they had hoped to.  But it also may be just the destruction,  I mean, while the ash and lava covered the city and protected  it, it obviously wrought some damage as well,  so that some of these things obviously came down,  and over time the material got washed away or taken away or  whatever.  But it is curious that they sort of broke in exactly the same  place, but it's because of the construction technique and the  way in which they were pieced together.  Student conversation.  Yeah, exactly.  Let me show you another view of the right-side wall of the  Basilica.  You see these columns here again, very regular.  There's a young woman standing right here,  so that gives you a sense of scale.  She's about only up to this point of the column,  so you can see how large in scale these were in ancient  Roman times.  But if you look at the two that are closest to the tribunal,  you will see that they have ionic capitals.  So that gives us enough to go on to speculate that the first  story of columns, and there were two stories on  the walls, two stories of columns,  the lower ones were ionic, and you can see that they are  attached or engaged into the walls.  Those were ionic, and then we believe that there  was a second story, that we know there was a second  story, but that the second story of columns would have been  Corinthian capitals up there.  This is a restored view of what the Basilica would have looked  like in 120 after it was built, 120 BC after it was built,  and you can see here the tribunal.  We're looking toward the tribunal.  It's two-storied, Corinthian order on both stories,  tall podium.  We see here in black the columns of the central space that  divide the center from the two side aisles.  And here you can see very well the way in which they created  two stories, a bottom story and an upper story.  You could walk on that upper story and using the ionic capitals  in the first story and smaller Corinthian columns in the second  story.  And it's important for me to note in terms of the development,  the later development of Basilican architecture,  that this Basilica in Pompeii of this early date did not have  what's called a clear story, C-L-E-R-E-S-T-O-R-Y.  C-L-E-R-E-S-T-O-R-Y, a clear story.  What is a clear story?  A clear story is a series of windows open to the outside that  allow views out and light in.  This building does not have a clear story.  So it probably in its heyday in the Samnite period was probably  on the dark side.  But we will see that clear story, the clear story is incorporated  into later Roman Basilican architecture.  One of the greatest buildings without any question at Pompeii,  and one that everyone flocks to see.  And if you have never been to Pompeii, let me just note that  it is a little bit further out than some of the other structures,  but it is a to not be missed monument.  And in fact, I know at least one of you has already spoken to  me about an upcoming trip to Rome and Pompeii.  And consequently, I just say that you absolutely need,  I mean you could spend days at Pompeii, but you must have a  full day for Pompeii because in order to get to the,  not just to see the forum and what's in the center and a few  of the houses, to get out, it doesn't take that long.  It's a nice walk, it's not a huge distance.  But people forget to do it because it's on the outskirts.  But you really must get to the two endpoints are the amphitheater  and the Bill of the Mysteries, both of them absolutely  incredible to see, and too often missed by Taurus,  but two of the greatest sites at the city of Pompeii.  This is the amphitheater, as it looks today,  from the air.  The amphitheater is one of several buildings that were  begun immediately upon the Romans making Pompeii a Roman  colony in ADBC.  You can only imagine those veterans, those army veterans of  war who had just been settled in their new homes,  clamoring from day one for the amphitheater,  a place where they could go for gladiatorial and animal  combat.  This is what they wanted to see and consequently no local  magistrate or emperor worth their salt would allow the city  to continue without, there was no emperor in ADBC,  but would allow the city to go on without an amphitheater.  So that was one of the first orders of business.  This amphitheater at Pompeii, which dates, we believe,  to AD270 BC, is an incredibly important building for the  history of Roman architecture, because it is our first  preserved stone amphitheater.  And all the amphitheaters that come later, including the Great  Colosseum in Rome, are based on buildings like this  one.  This was a great experiment in amphitheater design already in  AD270 BC.  How did they go about building this amphitheater?  What they seem to have done is to excavate the central area,  the earth of the central area, to create a space for the oval  arena, which you see here, and I put the terms on the  monument list for you, the arena which you see here.  So they've excavated that central space,  placed the arena there.  Then they have piled up earth.  It's essentially an earthen bowl, is what they've created here,  an earthen bowl with the excavated space for the arena,  and then piled up the earth on the outside to support the  seats, to support the seats, to service the support for the  seats.  There was no natural hill here, so they had to do this on  their own.  So they build up the earth, they place the seats,  they line that earthen bowl with seats, stone seats,  and they create the caviar of the amphitheater,  because we use the same term for the seats of an amphitheater  as for the seats of a theater.  The caviar, or C-A-V-E-A, the caviar,  or the seats of the amphitheater.  And you can also see here, like indicated,  the wedge-shaped sections of the seats,  just as in the theater, they are called the same thing,  the cuneas, C-U-N-E-U-S, or in the plural,  cune-E, C-U-N-E-I.  So these wedge-shaped individual sections,  a cuneas, all of them together, cune-E,  the cune-E, or wedge-shaped sections of the seats apparent  here.  The exits and entrances, and there are a couple of  major ones on either side, those have a colorful and  unforgettable name.  I guarantee you, you will remember this name for the  rest of your lives.  Those exits and entrances are called vomitoria,  which means they literally spit forth spectators,  vomitoria.  These entrances and exits to the amphitheater.  Let me also note that the outer ring, and the outer ring is  extremely important because it buttresses the earthen bowl.  That outer ring is made of concrete,  concrete that we'll see is faced with opus and keratum work,  and the entire structure is encircled by an annular vault.  One of these ring vaults encircles the entire structure  that is made out of concrete.  So another early example of the masterful use of concrete  faced with opus and keratum work, in this case in the  amphitheater in Pompeii.  I show you a Google Earth image of this,  which gives you a very good sense of the oval shape of the  original structure.  I think it's important to compare the exterior of the  amphitheater at Pompeii, which is extremely well preserved,  as you can see here, with the experiment at the much  earlier sanctuary of Fortuna premigiania at Palestrina,  where we also saw this use of concrete faced with opus and  keratum work.  If we look at the facade of the amphitheater at Pompeii,  we'll see, first of all, how exceedingly well preserved  it was.  We also see this unique staircase here with stairs,  and I'll show you a side view in a moment where you can see  those stairs, stairs leading up on both  sides to the apex.  And then a series of arches in diminishing size,  larger in the center and diminishing in size as they go  from the ramp to correspond to the shape of the ramp,  and then additional arcades over here.  These are what are called blind arcades,  because you'll see that they have a wall in the back.  You can't walk in these arcades and get into the amphitheater.  There are only two barrel vaulted corridors,  and you saw them in the general view,  one on either long side of the oval,  that you can actually walk in and out of the amphitheater from  them.  But you can go up the staircase and enter the amphitheater as  well from the caveat.  Go up to the top and then just go at the uppermost part of the  steps and walk down to your seats that way.  So the blind arcades we can see here,  we can see that once again, just as we saw in some of the  other buildings we looked at last time,  the way in which they've used opus and keratum for most of the  wall, the facing for the concrete for most of the wall,  the stone, both blocks of stone and these  bourgeois blocks, wedge-shaped blocks,  to articulate the arcades, to make them more prominent and  also to give the building additional stability.  What's interesting here, and one of the reasons I also bring  back the sanctuary of Portuna Premiginia,  is the fact that the Romans again are giving you some options  in terms of how you get into this building.  You can get in through the barrel vaulted corridors,  or you can climb up this distinctive staircase.  And by the way, we have no other,  this truly is a unique staircase.  We have no other one like it in the history of Roman architecture.  So you have those options, but again,  they are still predetermining the way in which you go.  I mean, they give you a few options,  but within that scheme it is clearly a predetermined path up  the staircase over here and then through only those two  barrel vaulted corridors.  I've talked about that at the Portuna Premiginia Sanctuary,  up the ramps, and then up the staircase in the  center, a very similar way of thinking about getting people  from one place to another in an orderly way.  The staircase is so distinctive that, and here I show you a  side view of it, where you can actually see the  steps leading up.  And if you go visit there, you should try both options.  I mean, go down the corridor, but also it's a lot of fun to  go up the steps and into the caveat.  But it's so distinctive and never to be repeated that when we  look, there's a painting that survives from a Pompeian house.  We'll look at it in more detail later in the semester.  But I wanted to just show it to you now, because it is so  apparent that it is a representation of the amphitheater  at Pompeii, which is not surprising since this is a house  in Pompeii.  But you see that distinctive staircase here with the steps,  the way in which you can enter into the cavea.  You see the sense of the cavea and the kind of goings-on that  happened in this Pompeii amphitheater.  But you can also see, this is a very important detail,  that this is the only place where we actually have a  representation of it.  You can see that at the uppermost part of the cavea,  there is an awning called a velarium.  And I put that word on the monument list for you.  An awning that was supported by poles that were located on  brackets at the uppermost part of the amphitheater.  And that awning, the purpose of that awning,  the Pompeians seemed to have a thing for protecting the Romans  in general, for protecting people in inclement  weather.  So they put these awnings up.  When it rained, they put these awnings up to protect those who  were there, to see a gladiatorial combat,  to protect them from that rain.  One last view of the amphitheater of Pompeii.  We are looking at its bowl-shaped arena,  as you can see here, and the seats that do survive to get a  sense of the interior.  Here you can see very well the two barrel vaulted entrances and  exits, one on either side.  And that's the only way.  Again, those blind arcades, you can't get in that way.  And you can see that very well here.  Those are the only entrances or exits into the theater besides  the staircase.  And in the introductory lecture, I made the point,  and I'll just bring it back home again, that the Yale Bowl here  in New Haven is based on the amphitheater in Pompeii.  There's no question about that.  In fact, if one goes back in the literature on the bowl and  its original construction, it is even mentioned in original  articles that the architects were looking back.  I mean, I'm not making this up.  The architects were actually looking back at the Pompeii  amphitheater as a model.  And you can see the relationship.  When you look at the bowl from the air, you can see it is a  bowl shape, almost exactly like the shape of the  Pompeii amphitheater.  This aerial view, by the way, was taken at the time of the  hundredth game between Yale and Harvard.  And you can see the stands were packed.  The major difference between these two amphitheaters is the  fact that the one in Pompeii was made to hold 20,000 people.  The one in Yale can hold up to as many as 78,000 people.  So we have a larger amphitheater, so to speak,  than they did and do in the city of Pompeii.  I want to move from the amphitheater to the other great  entertainment district of Pompeii, and that was the theater and  the musical, the theater and the musical.  And I want to show those to you fairly quickly.  We see them here in plan, the theater in red and the  musical here in a kind of, I don't know, chartreuse.  As you can see, it dates to 80 to 70 B.C.  So another example of a building that was added when the  Romans gained ascendance of this part of the world.  And a couple of terms again.  We can see, if we look at the theater, we can see the fact  that the theater is semicircular in shape,  or the caveat is semicircular in shape.  We can see the wedge-shaped cuneii up there.  We can also see that the orchestra is semicircular in  shape, not round, and that there's a skeina,  a ce-na, or a skeinai franz, as I called it last time,  a stage building at the front.  There is also a space over here which we call the porticus.  Again, I put that on the monument list for you, the porticus.  What was the porticus?  The porticus was an open rectangular space with covered  colonnades on either side.  The purpose of the porticus was to have a place where people  could go during intermission to stretch their legs during the  intermission of the comedy or tragedy that they were there to  see.  And there were little shops along the way,  little spaces along the way.  Some of them served as shops for playbills and other souvenirs  from the evening's experience, but also that served as spaces  where props and scenery and costumes and all sorts of things  that were needed in the theatrical performances could be kept.  So that's the porticus.  Then over here we see the music hall.  It's a smaller version of the theater, but it's designed in  exactly the same way, with a semicircular orchestra,  the semicircular caveat, a division into cunei,  as you can see here, a small and much less elaborate  skeina in the front.  The major difference between the two, and we see this not just  in Pompeii, but throughout Roman architecture,  is not just the scale, that the theater is always much bigger  than the music hall, but that the theater was open to the sky  and the music hall had a roof.  And that roof, the reason for the roof and the smaller music  hall and the reason for the smaller size was to make the  acoustics as good as they could possibly be,  and that was easier to do in a roof building and in a building  of smaller scale.  So a Google Earth view of the theater and music hall,  as they look today, and you can see they're quite  well preserved.  You can see the exact shapes that we looked at in plan over  there.  Here's our porticus, for example, and you get a sense  of how pleasant that might be able to be during intermission  time.  What this view also gives you a sense of, however,  is the way in which these two buildings are embedded in the  rest of the city, that they do make up an  entertainment district, but at the same time they are  very close to the city streets that have along them houses and  shops and so on and so forth.  So very closely embedded into the life, into the commercial life  and the residential life of the city, even though this was  intended, again, as a great entertainment area for those who  live there.  And I made this point before, but I'll make it quickly again,  that while Roman theaters like the theater at Pompeii are based  on Greek prototypes, there are some differences.  The two theaters, this is the Greek theater at  Epidaurus of the mid-fourth century B.C.  They both have these stone seats.  They both have, which is called the cavia,  they both have these wedge-shaped sections of seats.  They both have a stage building, although the Greek one is much  simpler.  And they also, but the major differences between the two is  that the Greek theater has a circular orchestra,  whereas the Roman theater has a, and this is the theater of  Pompeii, has a semicircular orchestra,  and the other major difference, the most significant one,  is the Greeks built their theaters on hillside.  As you can see at Epidaurus, the Romans built their theaters,  and this is the case in Pompeii, on a hill made out of concrete.  I want to turn to an extremely important building,  and one that I am going to come back to on a number of occasions  during this semester.  So put an asterisk next to this one as a particularly important  building, and one that's almost certain I'll find some way of  incorporating into the first midterm, because I think it's so  significant, and it will turn up again and again and again in the  course of the term, especially when we talk about  later bath architecture.  It is the Stabian baths of Pompeii.  It dates to the second half of the second century B.C.,  and it was remodeled in the first half of the first century B.C.  The Stabian baths are one of several bath buildings at  Pompeii.  I mentioned in the introductory lecture that these houses in  Pompeii did not have running water, and so access to bathing  and to water for daily use was obviously critical,  and the baths served that purpose, the place where one could go  and bathe, but they also became great social  centers, great places where you really wanted to go and hang out  with your friends while you were sitting in the sauna.  And so they take on a very important piece of life in cities  like Pompeii.  The Stabian baths, as their date indicate,  are very early.  They've begun already under the Samnites,  and they have some extremely interesting features,  and once again I'm going to have to go over some of the bath  terminology.  You can see here that if you walk along the street you just see  a series of cubicles which served as shops,  so fairly unprepossessing, but there is an entranceway  through those shops into a very large open space surrounded by  columns on three sides that is called the palestra of the baths.  The palestra was the exercise courts where you jogged and ran  around and so on, and after you exerted yourself  and got all sweaty you could jump into the pool that was  located over here.  This was not a place to do laps.  It was pretty much a soaking pool, a pool where you could cool  off, but the technical term for that is either a piece of  piscina, which is what's on the monument list for you,  or a natatio, a little pool where you could splash yourself  after exerting yourself by exercising in the palestra.  The bath block itself, the bathing rooms themselves,  are located on the other side of the plan, on the right side as  you see it here, the northern side actually of the plan,  and we see two sets of spaces.  This set of four down here, this one, this one,  this one, and this one, and then a set of a comparable  number of rooms up there.  These early Roman baths, there was a separation between  the men's section of the baths and the women's section of the  baths.  And I'm sorry, ladies, but we'll have to accept the fact  that at least in ancient Pompeii the women's section was  quite nondescript.  It was much smaller than the men's.  At least they had one, thank goodness.  But it was smaller than the men's, and the rooms had no  architectural distinction whatsoever.  All of the designer's effort went into creating a wonderful set  of rooms for the men.  We see the men's rooms again over here, these four,  and the women's at the top.  Consequently, the only ones that have any merit  architecturally in my showing you today are the ones for the  men's baths down here.  The four rooms, the four key rooms to both the men's and  women's sections, were the apoditarium,  and again these words are on the monument list for you,  the apoditarium, which was the dressing room.  It's a fairly, again, it's large,  but a fairly nondescript, rectangular room here.  You can see it right down here.  And the way it was designed was that you went in,  and there were no lockers, no private lockers,  but there were benches where you could, when you got undressed,  you could just take your clothes and put them in a little pile on  that bench.  You had to just take on faith that no one was going to steal  any of your belongings.  And if you were very well to do, some of the very well to do  Romans, men and women, brought slaves with them,  their slave, their private slave,  to watch their stuff while they were in the sauna with their  friends.  From the apoditarium you go into the so-called  tepidarium of the baths, also usually a plain rectangular  room, even in the men's section,  which served as the warm room, where you started to warm  yourself up.  You went from the tepidarium into the cauldarium of the bath,  which was the hot room, where you really,  where you really, it was the sauna,  essentially, of the bath.  And consequently there was a basin over here with cold water.  So if you got too hot, you could go and splash yourself  with that cold water.  So apoditarium, tepidarium, cauldarium.  By then you're really heated up, and you can make your way back  into this room over here, which is called the frigidarium,  or the cold room.  The frigidarium was the place that you could really cool off.  And I think you can see by looking at these the two most  important rooms architecturally, you can see this even in  plan, are the cauldarium, which has an apse or curved  element at the end, and this room in particular,  the frigidarium, because it is a round structure with  radiating alcoves, and we're going to see that it's  domed.  This is a particularly, again, star, star, star,  one of the most important rooms that I've shown you,  probably the most important room I've shown you this  semester, in that it is going to have a very long future  architecturally.  What you see here basically ends up as the pantheon some day.  This round space, round structure with radiating  alcoves, and as we'll see a dome,  and not only a dome, but a hole in the ceiling,  an oculus that allows light into the structure.  How were these baths heated?  How were the hot rooms heated?  This system called a hypocost.  Again, I put the word on the monument list for you.  A hypocost, H-Y-P-O-C-A-U-S-T.  What was a hypocost system?  A hypocost system was a system by which they put terracotta tubes  in the floor and behind the walls.  They blew hot air into those, and they also raised up the  pavement of the floor on a series of stacked tiles,  and you can see that extremely well.  There's a very well-preserved hypocost from the Stabian bath.  Place these tiles on stacked, stacked of tiles,  leaving space in between them, and put brasures between those  metal brasures, metal bowls that held hot coals,  and so on.  And that, from those hot coals, obviously,  it's slaves who had to keep those coals hot,  but coals that were placed in these pans that were placed  in the floor that helped also to heat the pavement that was  located above.  This very important room, the frigidarium of the Stabian  baths, you see it here as it looks today,  a small, round space.  It would have had a pool in the center, a round pool,  radiating alcoves, a dome, a dome that is open to the  sky with an oculus that allows light into it.  You can see the remains of paint stucco, and then paint blue and  red paint, probably some kind of marine scene included here.  But this, I can't underscore enough the importance of this  particular room and the future that this design has for Roman  architecture.  I'd like to show you another bath at Pompeii,  the so-called Forum Baths.  The Forum Baths are interesting because they're later,  they date to, as you can see from your  previous work, the first 80 BC.  So this is what the Romans did when they came in and took over  Pompeii, and were making it into one of those mini-Romes,  those cities in the model of Rome.  And you can see it is very, very similar to what was going  on in the Stabian baths in the earlier Samnite baths,  with the same palestra.  We see a palestra up at two, the exercise court.  We don't seem to have a natatio in this particular plan.  We see the men's section over here at three,  four, five, and six, and the women's section over here,  seven, eight, nine, ten.  Again, the women's section off to the side of no architectural  distinction whatsoever.  The men's over here, and you could enter the men's  either through the palestra or from an opening over here at one.  We see the same set of rooms that we saw at the Stabian baths.  We see the Appoditarium, or undressing and dressing room  over here at three, the Teppodarium at five,  the Caldarium at six, and the Caldarium at six is of the same  shape as the Caldarium in the Stabian baths,  a rectangular room with an apse at the end,  and a basin for cold water splashes.  And then you go back again to the Frigidarium,  and you can see the Frigidarium in the baths,  the Forum baths of Pompeii, the same shape as that in the  Stabian baths of Pompeii, a small round room with  radiating alcoves.  I can show you views both of the Teppodarium of the Forum baths  extremely well preserved, as you can see here.  You can also see they've used a great barrel vault for this  room.  It isn't as large as it looks here, but it's a sizable room.  And this is a very good place to show you,  the way to give you a sense of how these things were decorated,  how so many rooms, Roman rooms today,  Roman buildings today, are stripped of their original  decoration.  But that decoration was often quite beautiful and ostentatious,  and we can see here, we can get here a sense of that.  You can see the wall has been stuccoed over,  and then also in stucco these great flowering acanthus plants  and creatures flying above, animals, human feature,  gods and goddesses flying above.  They used paint as well, red and blue and white and other  colors to accentuate the design.  This gives you some sense of the flavor of these,  and then this wonderful detail below of these atlas figures who  are shown holding up the vault of this particular room.  It gives you some sense of why Romans flocked to these places,  not only because they had the only place they could bathe  themselves, but also because it was just a wonderful space to  be in and to enjoy, again, the company of friends.  This is a view of what room?  The Forum Baths, the Caldarium,  excellent, Neil, the Caldarium over here with its rectangular  shape and then its apps and its cold water basin for cold water  splashes.  And then look at the ceiling, how wonderful.  In that apps you see a semi-dome, a round hole or an  oculus in that semi-dome to allow light into it.  So here we see them exploring oculi in semi-domes as well as  in domes, and then the square and rectangular spaces,  holes in the ceiling, openings in the ceiling that  have been placed there also to allow light into the system so  that you could use the room, but also to create the kind of  wonderful light effects that it does when you have rays of  sunshine coming in on you while you are in your sauna.  This is a couple of more views of the Frigidarium of the Forum  Baths.  You can see the dome up above, the oculus in that dome.  You can see some of the stucco decorations still preserved.  You can see the alcoves here, the radiating alcoves,  and some of the stucco decoration.  Here are sea creatures against a red background,  and this is a restored view of what the Frigidarium would have  looked like with the pool in the center,  a nice place to relax.  The radiating apps is over here, and then the dome with the  oculus and with the light streaming in.  Again, I can't underscore enough the importance of both of  these for Ghadaria for the future of Roman architecture.  The other importance of the Forum Baths is the Forum Baths is  today where you can eat, and if you're there for the full  day, as I recommend you be,  you're going to want to eat at some point,  and there is a cafeteria, which doesn't look like much,  but actually the food is not bad.  Italians have a very hard time making bad pasta,  so you can always get some good pasta at the snack bar,  and you will want to make your way, there's a few views of it,  make your way to the Forum Baths if you're there for any length  of time.  Very quickly, I just want to remind you,  we talked about this in the introductory lecture,  that one of the main reasons that Pompey is so interesting to us  today is because it tells us so much about the daily life,  not only of the Pompeians, but of the Romans in general,  because we have all these wonderful shops still preserved  at Pompey.  This was a bakery.  We see the millstones that were actually used for the grinding  and the grains still preserved.  We see the oven over here looking wonderfully like a modern pizza  oven, as you can see, and we also believe it or not  have from Pompey a petrified bread that still is preserved that  gives you a sense of what Pompey and bread looked like,  and it looks strikingly like our pizzas with the segments of  the bread.  So if you want to have a sense of where pizza came from here,  I told you the Romans, again, there's nothing the  same as bread, pizza, whatever.  But you see that petrified bread giving you a very good sense  of what was produced in this particular bakery.  I also mentioned in the introductory lecture the fast food  stands of Pompey, the thermopolium in the singular,  and the thermopolia in the plural, these fast food stands  where you could get a bite real quickly.  The way they were designed was to have a great counter in them  with recesses, fresh, hot, and cold food was put out  obviously every day.  And if you were hungry, you just went up to the counter,  you took a peek at what was there, you pointed out what you  wanted, and you could eat on the run.  The Romans were never far to have their state religion and  their family religion, far from them,  and you can also see a nod to the gods over here.  There's a shrine with some of the representations of the  household gods, even in this fast food emporium.  We have wine shops from Pompey as well.  I show you actually a scene of one of the storage rooms at  Pompey that you can see actually as you walk along.  It's a wonderful ruffling of turning to the next page.  These wine, these amphoras, these great clay amphoras that  held wine that are located in one of these storage areas that  one can see as one walks along the forum on the left side in  Pompey today.  But you can imagine these on shelves in a wine shop of  ancient Pompey, offering wines gathered from all  over the world for discerning enophiles,  is that the word, enophiles.  Connecting all of these shops to one another,  where of course the streets of the city,  the streets of the city, are extremely well preserved.  I show you here a couple of views of the crossing of the  Cardo and the Decumanus in Pompey,  and you can see exactly what the streets look like.  You can see the multi-sided paving stones of the streets.  You can see the sidewalks looking uncannily modern.  You can see, I don't, you can't see exactly here,  but there are drains along the way to allow rainwater to filter  off the streets.  And all of this, again, an extremely modern look,  and the streets of Pompey give us the best sense of any streets  of any preserved ancient city of what the streets look like in  any given Roman town.  These streets had along them, again, because of needs for  water, had along them fountains.  Here's a very modest fountain, where we see a representation  of the goddess Ceres, C-E-R-E-S series,  with her cornucopia and the fountain spout coming out of her  mouth.  And you can see this is the sort of thing when the Romans  just needed a little bit of water for household use.  They would go out to the local fountain.  So as you walk along the streets of Pompey,  you see a lot of these small fountains.  You see graffiti.  What would a city be without some graffiti on its buildings?  Any of you who have been in Rome recently know there is too  much graffiti.  There's like a graffiti craze.  I mean, the Romans have always had a lot of graffiti,  but it's gotten so bad.  It's almost unimaginable now.  But the graffiti tradition was alive and well in Pompey,  and you see it here, covered with glass,  but you see it here, you see it here and there,  and the city is you wander by, and it gives you a sense that  people did right, right on their buildings.  What they wrote on these buildings tended to be political,  for the most part, and you'd see graffiti that  would say things like, vote for Barbatis,  the bearded one.  He'll be the best guy for the office, and he's pretty handsome, too.  That's the kind of graffiti that you'll see as you walk along,  if your Latin is good, that you'll see as you walk along  the streets of Pompey.  You'll also see these big blocks of stone.  And there are people who look at these and they think,  oh, how interesting, that's debris from Vesuvius.  It's not debris from Vesuvius, clearly.  These are there deliberately.  These are stepping stones.  The Romans were so ingenious and so again concerned about how  to protect people in inclement weather that they created,  they put these stepping stones all around the city,  usually at the cross sections of two streets,  so that if there was torrential rain, and if the water piled up,  and if the drains couldn't quite handle it,  you could get across the street without stepping in the water.  I mean, would that we had this, and the slushiness that was New Haven  in the last week?  I can't tell you how many times I think,  why doesn't El have stepping stones?  We really could use them.  But here they are, and you can see very clearly,  the ruts that come from the carts that were made between the  stepping stones by those carts constantly riding through them,  and it shows you that they had to orchestrate the wheels of the carts  in such a way that they would span the stepping stones.  But it's a very ingenious thing.  They're fun to look at, fun to walk on,  really fun to take pictures.  I have tons of them.  I didn't decide not to bring a personal picture this time of me  or anyone else in my family on stepping stones,  or other Yalees.  I've got lots of those too.  I didn't bring those today, but I did bring something I'm  really proud of, because in all the years I've  taught this monument, this city, excuse me,  I've always wanted to actually show what it looked like when rain,  when it had rained.  And since I've been to Pompeii so, so many times over the years,  but it doesn't tend to rain when I go there, you know,  June, July, August, it just doesn't rain.  So I've never been able to do that.  I was there this past June, and lo and behold,  I was very upset because who wants to wander around the city  of Pompeii in the rain?  But I had one day to go there, and I was there,  and I said, wow, it's raining.  Here's my chance.  So I finally was able to get some views of what happens,  and this was right at, we had a torrential rain for about  a half an hour, and the sun came out,  and this is what you see as you wander the streets.  You see that the water has accumulated,  but again, lo and behold, you can easily make your way  across that street, across those stepping stones,  nonetheless.  Just a very few words on what happens to the streets of the  city of Pompeii, or any Roman city for that matter.  When you leave the gates and you go out on the intercity roads,  many of those intercity roads become cemeteries.  The Romans used these roads as their cemeteries.  The Romans had a religious belief that there was a separation  between the city of the living and the city of the dead,  so all of the tombs are outside the walls of the city.  So you see at Pompeii two extremely well-preserved tomb  streets, the street of the tombs and the  via nucea, which is the one you see here,  and you see ERA, with tombs of all sorts of  shapes and sizes.  I'm not going to go into these in any detail in this course.  There is a paper topic for any of you who get interested in  tomb architecture on the tombs of Pompeii.  We will look at some tombs in Rome in great detail,  but I'm just going to give you a glimpse of them here.  They come in all sizes and shapes.  They're very, very interesting.  They honor the people who were buried there,  including there's a bench tomb, for example,  where you can sit and think on the life and times of the  individual who was buried there.  So an absolutely fascinating, fascinating street with a lot  of different tomb types that show the variety of tomb  architecture under the Romans.  I'd like to end today by making at least a passing reference  to a matter which is of huge concern to archeologists and huge  concern to all of us as human beings.  And that is what happened to the people of Pompeii in those  very last moments of life.  And archeologists have been able to reconstruct exactly what  happened to, or not exactly, but as close as possible in the  time from which Pompeii was excavated to now,  to reconstruct again what happened to these human beings at  the time of the eruption of the Suveus.  They've been able to, again, to reconstruct a very moving  picture of their last moments of life.  What we know is that the ash and lava from the Suveus,  and you see a restored view here of what that would have  looked like, and you can see the Suveus,  and you can see the Forum over here with the Temple of Jupiter  and the Temple of Apollo and throngs of people inside the  Forum at this particular juncture as they look up and see what  is happening.  And on the right-hand side, this is actually a view of  Mount St. Helens, which as you know erupted in 1980,  and the eruption's not so different as you gaze upon them  and look at them in comparison today.  But we know that the eruption of the Suveus did not happen all  at once.  It didn't just happen and cover the city.  It was gradual.  There was actually quite a bit of time.  There was time to escape.  The Pompeians saw what was happening, and those who were  smart did escape.  But like any other natural disaster, there were of course a  group of hardy souls, or perhaps we would call them  foolhardy souls, who thought that they could ride it out.  And they thought they could ride it out by hiding in their own  houses or by some of the smarter ones of the foolhardy type,  decided that they could ride it out in some of the very strong  walled buildings, public buildings of the city,  for example the bath buildings, the Stavian baths or the  Forum baths that we looked at today.  They were gravely mistaken, gravely mistaken.  We don't know how many stayed.  We think it was actually a fairly small number.  Some have said about a thousand.  We don't know.  But whatever, those who did stay had made a grave error  because they were not actually killed by the ash and lava,  the molten ash and lava, despite the fact that it was  extremely hot.  But what killed them was the noxious gases that came into  the city after the eruption that followed that ash and lava.  They were asphyxiated by those gases.  Before, after they had died, but before their bodies  decomposed, the ash and lava formed a protective shell  around their bodies, protecting them.  And what the archaeologists were clever enough to do is when  the modern archaeologists, when they were working with their  bodies, and when that pickaxe hit a hollow in the ash and lava,  they poured plaster into that hollow.  Sometimes that produced nothing, but sometimes it produced  bodies, the actual shape of the bodies of those whose bodies  had decomposed there.  And we can look at those bodies still today.  And I show you a scene of a number of the victims of Pompeii  huddled together for mutual and indeed ultimately futile  action.  I can show you the body of an individual who is lying on the  ground, his face and his hands, trying to protect himself  obviously from those noxious gases that have come into the  city.  I can show you the body of the plaster cast,  obviously, of the body of another Pompeii,  who was sitting with his knees up and his hands in front of his  face, trying to protect himself once again from those fumes that  are about to overtake him any second.  The body of an individual who's essentially given up at this  point, he is expired, he's lying on his back,  there's no hope any longer for him, a poor fellow who died on  that day.  And then this fellow, this heroic fellow who is lifting  himself in his last moment of life, lifting himself either to  gasp a last breath or perhaps to whisper something to an  endear, a family member who is by his side.  And we even have the body of a dog.  This story is particularly sad because this dog,  this plaster cast of this dog, was found with a chain around  his neck.  So probably what happened here is the owner of this particular  dog, had the dog chained up, didn't have time either to take  the dog or to release the dog from his chain so that he could  try himself to escape, and that poor dog perished on  that day.  And we have the plaster cast of his body still today.  All of these bodies can still be seen on the site of Pompeii and  make a visit there all the more poignant.  I know of no more moving human document from the ancient world  than these bodies of these Pompeians kept in perpetuity and  for us to commiserate with and to understand even today.  Thank you.
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