Bigger Is Better: The Baths of Caracalla and Other Second- and Third-Century Buildings in Rome
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Kleiner, Diana E. E.
Roman Architecture (HSAR 252) Professor Kleiner discusses the increasing size of Roman architecture in the second and third centuries A.D. as an example of a "bigger is better" philosophy. She begins with an overview of tomb architecture, a genre that, in Rome as in Ostia, embraced the aesthetic of exposed brick as a facing for the exteriors of buildings. Interiors of second-century tombs, Professor Kleiner reveals, encompass two primary groups - those that are decorated with painted stucco and those embellished primarily with architectural elements. After a discussion of the Temple of the Divine Antoninus Pius and Faustina and its post-antique afterlife as the Church of S. Lorenzo in Miranda, Professor Kleiner introduces the Severan dynasty as it ushers in the third century. She focuses first on the Arch of Septimius Severus in the Roman Forum, the earliest surviving triple-bayed arch in Rome. She next presents the so-called Septizodium, a lively baroque-style façade for Domitian's Palace on the Palatine Hill. The lecture concludes with the colossal Baths of Caracalla, which awed the public by their size and by a decorative program that assimilated the emperor Caracalla to the hero Hercules.
 Good morning. From the time of Julius Caesar, we have seen the rulers of Rome brag about building buildings that were bigger than any others in the world. You'll remember Caesar referred to his Temple of Mars in that way, that he was building the largest temple of Mars in the world. And we also saw the same for Domitian, with his palace on the Tain Hill, for Trajan, with his enormous forum, for Hadrian, building the largest dome that had been built up until that time, and as we discussed still, the largest diameter dome in the city of Rome today, and Hadrian's villa at Tivoli, just as a selection of examples. We are going to see today that if bigger was better, biggest is best, and in the case of the Emperor of Cala, an emperor who was a megalomaniac in the tradition of Nero and Domitian, that he built the largest imperial bath structure to date. And we're going to be looking at that bath structure today, and we're going to see it as really a colossal and fascinating building in all kinds of ways. But before I get to that, in fact, we'll end with that bath structure today. Before I get to that, I would like to look with you at architecture in Rome in the second and third centuries AD, and we'll see that architecture is quite varied in terms of whether it's private, it's civic, it's also funerary. I want to begin, though, by just reminding you of what we talked about last time. We looked at the city of Ostia, and we looked at the city of Ostia, the port of Rome, in its entirety. Once again, it's public buildings, it's civic structures, it's commercial enterprises, and we also went, at the very end of the lecture, out to Isola Sacra, where the tombs of those who lived in Ostia were located. And I show you a couple of those again now on the screen, these brick-faced tombs, these tombs that are made of brick-faced concrete at Isola Sacra, that were put up for the professionals, for the traders, the commercial merchants, and so on, that lived in the city of Ostia. They were made of brick-faced concrete construction. They had barrel vaults or groin vaults inside. And you can see also that they were faced with brick, and they were faced with brick, as we discussed, that was exposed. The idea of brick being attractive in its own right, a fabulously beautiful facing that they take advantage of, in the second century AD, and decide not to stucco it over, as you can see so well here, the doorways into those tombs, surrounded by travertine jams and lintels, the inscription in the center, the small slit windows, and then a pediment at the top. We saw it when we looked at funerary architecture in the Age of Augustus, for example, that it was very varied, very varied, tombs in the shape of pyramids, in the shape of circular tombs, tombs that made reference to bakeries, like the Tomb of the Baker Eurusiches. There is still a certain amount of variety in tomb architecture in the second century AD, but they tend to hone in on one type in particular, and that type is the so-called house tomb type, which is exactly what we see here, a tomb that is rectangular in shape, for the most part box-like, and does resemble, very closely, a house, this close relationship that we've talked about so many times this semester between houses of the living and houses of the dead. So we looked at those last time, and where I want to begin today is just to demonstrate to you that these same kinds of house tombs that we see in Austria and Isola Sacra, in the second century AD, we also see in Rome. And in some cases they are commissioned by individuals of comparable social status to those in Austria, but sometimes they are commissioned by the most elite. And I'd like to begin with an example of a similar tomb commissioned by the most elite. This is the so-called Tomb of Ania Regilla in Rome. It was put up on the famous Via Appia, or the Appian Way. It dates to around AD 161. In this case we know who the commissioner was, and I can show you what he looked like as well. You see him here on the right-hand side of the screen. He was a man by the name of Herodes Atticus. I've put his name on the monument list for you. Herodes Atticus. Herodes Atticus was actually a Greek. He was Athenian, the Greek part of the empire. He lived in Athens for the most part, and he commissioned a very famous music hall, an odion which still survives. You can see it over here. It was roofed today, but it was originally one of these roofed music halls, an odion. It is located on the slope of the Acropolis in Athens, the Acropolis that, of course, we know primarily for its great architectural feats of the fifth century B.C. in Greece. This is the Roman building put up by Herodes in the second century, and we see it on the slope of the Acropolis, very well preserved. In modern times its greatest fame is the fact that Yanni performed his live at the Acropolis concert at the odion of Herodes Atticus. And even if you don't like Yanni, it's actually quite an interesting concert to view, and one can view it in video and so on, because it does take such wonderful advantage of this extraordinary ancient structure, as Yanni presents his music. At any rate, at one point Herodes Atticus, who had a lot of connections, not only in Athens but around the Empire, at one point, through those connections, he gets himself appointed a senator in Rome. And in order to take up that position, he needs to leave Athens behind and go spend some time in Rome. And he and his wife, Ania Regilla, set up house in Rome. Ania Regilla, unfortunately, dies in Rome, and he needs to bury her, and he decides to bury her in Rome instead of in Athens. And he builds for her a tomb on the Appian Way, on the Via Appia, in around 161 A.D. That's the date that we believe she died. And we see a view of that tomb here. What we're looking at, and you probably recognize this already, because we've looked at a number of models from this museum of Cass in Rome, the Museo della Civiltà, Romana in Eor in Rome. And I show you two views of this model, of the tomb of Ania Regilla, one that we see from the front and another that we see from, if we're facing the monument, the left side of the tomb. And these are extremely helpful, because they give us a very good sense of what we are dealing with here. It is clear that we are dealing with a tomb type that is not that different from what we saw in Ostia, although this looks more like a temple than it looks like a house. And you can see that right off. It looks exactly like a typical Roman temple. We see that it is on a high podium. It has a deep porch. It has freestanding columns in that porch. It has a single staircase on the front of the structure. It has facade orientation. Then an entrance way into the structure. It also has freestanding columns that support a pediment. So if I were to show you this and not identify it and say to you what kind of a building this is, I'm sure you would have said it was a temple, and you would have been right in the sense that it looks most like a temple. But it is a tomb in the form of a temple, as you can well see here. Looking on the side of the monument, you can also see those same features that I've just described. And while we are looking at this view, because I'm not going to bring it back, I want to point out one detail that will loom large as we look further at this structure. You will see on the left side of the tomb that the architect has created, has kind of scalloped out the side, on either side, creating niches, tall niches on the side, and placed columns into that space, which is a very unusual thing to do. It's not true on the other side of the monument, only on this side of the structure. Why has the architect done that? I think it might have something to do with the sighting, perhaps how you viewed it from the street. Maybe it was skewed in such a way that you would see not only the facade, but also the side, and he wanted to emphasize the columns on that particular side of the structure. But it may also have just had to do with a quirk, a particular interest that the architect or the patron had in doing something different than any other tomb. And I want to return to that point in a moment. But most significant of all is that in terms of the building technique, the use of concrete faced with exposed brick, this is exactly what we saw in Ostia. And you can see that just as in Ostia they have taken that brick as far as it can go, in terms of its aesthetic value by respecting the texture of the brick, playing that texture off, playing different colored bricks, a reddish brick against a more yellowish colored brick, playing those off against one another, and then adding certain very highly decorative details, like a meander pattern that we're going to see in a moment, and decoration around the windows of the tomb, done in stucco. The columns, however, are marble. The columns are marble, and in that sense, again, something somewhat different than what we saw at Ostia. This is a view of the tomb as it looks today. The porch is not well preserved, and I can't show you any of that, but I can show you the rest of the structure, and you can see it quite well in this particular view. And again, you see that it is indeed well preserved. Concrete construction, faced with brick, the brick left exposed, respected and enjoyed in its own right, what I've already described, the playing off of one color of brick against another, this meander pattern done in stucco, the stucco decoration, very elaborate decoration, as we're going to see around the windows. Tall podium, we see that here as well, an extraordinary structure. And what's interesting, I think, to note, at least culturally, and in terms of social status, is the fact that although this structure was put up for one of the most wealthy men in Rome at this particular time, the general aesthetic is very similar to what we saw for professional people in the city of Ostia. That is a concrete tomb in the form of a house or a temple in this case that has as its facing brick, and a respect for that brick in its own right. Here are a couple of details. Once again, a detail of the warehouse, or the Aurea Epigatiana at Ostia, that we looked at, and also a detail of the tomb of Ania Regilla in Rome. And I think you can see here what I mean. Again, the different coloration of brick, the yellowish brick, the reddish brick, played off one against the other, the use of stucco decoration, in this case, for the volutes of the composite capitals. In fact, you'll remember I pointed out what was interesting about these capitals at the warehouse, was that the brick was used to make up the main body of the capital. And this is not one of them, but I also showed you one where you could see the way in which that brick formed the actual acanthus leaves of the capital, and then the volutes added in stucco. We see the same thing at the tomb of Ania Regilla. You can see those, and here I think you can see it well, the brick used to create the lower part of the acanthus leaves, and then stucco added for the curving part, and for some of the additional decoration, the flower and so on, up above. And so we see, and here again, very elaborate decoration around the windows, which we also saw at the warehouse in Ostia. Two more details of the tomb of Ania Regilla. Here you see what I was talking about before, the way the architect has scooped out two areas on the left side of the tomb, and placed the columns inside of those, which is a unique, I don't know of any other example, of this enrollment architecture, and it underscores once again that when it came to tomb architecture that the patron could pretty much do whatever he wanted, as long as the architect could build it. It could be quite idiosyncratic as a form of architecture. And we see not only has he scooped out these niches in which to place the columns, but if you look at those columns very carefully, and at the bases of those columns, you will see that they are not round. They are multi-sided, and the bases are also multi-sided. So doing something very unique in the context of this particular tomb of Ania Regilla. So two main points. One that there is clearly an aesthetic that is used for tomb architecture, concrete faced with brick, that is used in the uppermost levels of Roman society, and then further down in Roman society, not only in Rome, but also in Ostia. But at the same time, individuality, eccentricity is valued in tomb architecture, allowed in tomb architecture in a way that perhaps it isn't in other forms of Roman architecture, and we see it taken to its limit in this particular building. Just a few more details. We see a niche from the tomb of Ania Regilla. We also see here both the meander pattern and this very elaborate decoration around the windows, a frame around the windows, and then a projecting element up above with these great spiral volutes on either side. Very similar to the same sort of thing that was happening at Ostia. I remind you of the niche in the courtyard of the Aurea Epigothiana, the warehouses at Ostia, where you see the same sort of thing. These stucco, pilasters added in stucco, the brickwork creating triangles and lozenges, as you can see here, same idea over here in the tomb of Ania Regilla. And if you look very closely at the pediment that is located above the niche from the tomb in Rome, you see the projecting entablatures. You see where the capitals would have been. There would also have been either probably columns added here on either side of the niche, making it look much more similar to here. But look closely at the pediment. You will see that there is projecting entablature above each column. But then in the center the triangular pediment is cut back. And that playing around with the traditional vocabulary of architecture is something that I've noted is going to be a part of what we call the Baroque trend in Roman architecture. I'm going to devote an entire lecture to the Baroque trend in Roman architecture around the empire, not just in Rome, but mostly in the provinces. And we'll see that same sort of thing, which creates a kind of in-and-out, lively movement to the façade that is part of that approach. The tomb itself again. And just to point out, interestingly enough, a couple of female figures with capitals on the top of their head, or what looked like maybe more like vases on the top of their head, but looking very much like cariotteds, like the cariotteds we saw from the Erechtheon and Athens, 5th century B.C., from the Forum of Augustus, and from Hadrian's Villa around the Serapium. They are not duplicates of those in Athens, like the other two are, but they do seem to make reference to them. They're a bit more casual. When I look at this pair, they always look to me like they're kind of standing at a cocktail party together and conversing with one another, using the usual gestures that Italians are so famous for. We see them doing that sort of thing here. But they do seem to have that same pedigree, going back to the whole idea of the cariotteds. And I only mention it to you. They were found right near this tomb. And so it has been speculated, although it is by no means certain, that they might have belonged to the tomb. They might have been located in front of the tomb, or been some kind of fork, part of some kind of forkort or forkspace to that tomb. It's pure conjecture, but it would be interesting if it were the case, because remember, Herodes Atticus comes from Athens. We see that the tomb is a thoroughly Roman tomb of the 2nd century A.D., but it would be interesting to think that he might have added some touches that might have made some reference for him, and also especially for his wife, the tomb it was, to the Athens of his birth. With regard to tomb interiors in the 2nd century A.D. in Rome, there are two major types. And I want to treat both of those today. One of them is a type that we've seen before, and that is where you stucco over the interior of the tomb. You stucco it over, and then you add additional stucco in relief to form the decoration, and then you paint it. That's one type, and the second type, which might also use that for the vault, but for the walls, the second type is to use instead architectural members, columns, pediments, and the like, to enliven the wall and to create a much more sculptural effect. Both of these types are used in Rome in the 2nd century A.D. in tomb architecture, and I want to show you examples of both of them today. The first, type I, with stucco, painted stucco, we see in the so-called Tomb of the Valerii, the Tomb of the Valerii, which dates to around A.D. 159, and is located on the Via Latina in Rome. We haven't looked at the Via Latina before, but it is one of Rome's main streets that had along it the cemeteries, and there are a fair number of concrete tombs faced with brick that are preserved, very well preserved, on the Via Latina today. And what makes them particularly special is the interiors, are almost pristine. It's quite extraordinary to go into these and see how well they have stood the test of time. The Tomb of the Valerii, you see the lunette and the vault of the interior of that tomb right here. And as you look at the acanthus leaves growing up in the lunette, all done in stucco relief, and the barrel vault with its individual compartments round and square, compartments with floating figures inside, you should certainly be reminded of things we've already seen before. When one looks at the acanthus leaves, one can't help but think back to the delicate leaves of the Arapaphas, the delicate acanthus leaves of the Arapaphas Augustae, which you see on the left-hand side of the screen. And I'm sure you are, as reminded as I am, looking at this vault, by other things that we have seen earlier this semester. What's this over here? The Domus Aurea. It's one of the vaults of the Domus Aurea, third style, done, we believe, by Fabulous himself. And you'll recall very delicate, very light, floral motifs, compartments, in this case rectangular, with floating sea creatures in the center. We see exactly the same sort of thing here, although done in stucco instead of paint, but this was painted originally in antiquity. And we see these floating, these nearyids on the back of sea creatures, floating inside these. And we think the message here, of course, is of the soul of the deceased being carried to the aisles of the blessed by these sea creatures. And we see very much stucco decoration, second century A.D., but very dependent on third style Roman wall painting and third style stucco decoration of earlier dates. The tomb of the Pancratii in Rome, which dates to 169, also on the Via Latina, has similarly well preserved stucco decoration also painted, and I'll show you a color view in a moment for you to get a sense of that coloration. Here you get an idea of the scheme of the wall, very, very, very elaborate. Stuccoed over, stucco, much of the stucco is done in relief, you can see it here. If the stucco decoration of the tomb of the Valeriii made reference to the third style, I think the inspiration here was fourth style Roman wall painting and stucco decoration, because although you continue to see floating mythological figures in these rectangular or triangular compartments, if you look very closely, especially in this zone here, you will also see these architectural cages done in stucco very similar to the architectural cages that we saw at the top of fourth style Roman wall design. So this taking its cue from fourth style Roman wall painting, and I had mentioned to you a couple of times already this term, that in fact most post-Pompean painting and stucco decoration post-79 AD does seem to be inspired by the third style but even more so by the fourth style of Roman wall painting, and we see that very well here with this stucco decorating the lunettes and also the vaulting. Here's a view in color of the interior of the tomb of the Pancratii, where you can see the same sort of scheme that I've already described but with the color, and you can also see that we are dealing here with a groin vaulted interior. And what's interesting is that sometimes the walls have small niches for urns and the so-called archisolia. I've mentioned those two before that were used for the placement of bodies, once inhumation became as popular, indeed even more popular, than cremation. But we also sometimes see the sarcophagi themselves, the freestanding coffins located in these tombs, as we see here. And it's interesting to keep in mind that all of the money and time that was expended on this interior decoration, keep in mind that very few people entered into these tombs. When you looked at a tomb you saw primarily its exterior. Some family members on special occasions might go inside but it was relatively rare. So all of this done, in fact, to give the deceased a pleasant home in perpetuity and to help them on their journey to the Isles of the Blessed. This structure also has sea creatures depicted in it, so travel is clearly also alluded to. And scholars who have worked on this particular monument in particular have noted that they think it has to do with one of these secret mystery religions, in this case the Orphic, the Orphic religion that was practiced in secret initially and then eventually came up above ground. Two more details of the Pancrati-e ceilings in Stucco. These, I think, give you a particularly good sense of the way in which they were built up almost as reliefs in some parts of the scenes. This figure here, for example, some of the rest was painted. We see heraldic leopards over here on either side of a vase. The shell in the niche also done in Stucco and raised in a very natural way, and then the whole painted in a variety of attractive maroons and blues and greens. The most interesting tomb, from my point of view, actually, is a tomb that is located, a Roman tomb of the second century, that is located beneath the Vatican today. And I show you a view, again, of the dome of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, designed by Michelangelo himself, another view over here showing also Michelangelo's dome, but showing below it the so-called Baldochino that was put up by the famous 17th century Italian architect Borromini, Francesco Borromini. The Cathedral of St. Peter's, and any of you who've been there will agree with me on this, is one of the great wonders of the world. There's no question. If you want to talk about bigger, it's better. Or biggest is best. This is a truly colossal building, as any of you have been there, no. But it does give me occasion to mention, as I mentioned a couple of times already this term, that one of the really great things to do when you visit Rome is to climb things. Is to climb, if you're so lucky, to climb the column of Trajan or the pantheon up to the dome, those you have to get special permission to do. But what you don't need special permission to do, and is one of the great climbs in Rome, is to go up St. Peter's. And you can go up St. Peter's either on the outside of the building, to various levels, from which you can see some of the greatest views of Rome, including back over, central Rome, ancient Rome, all the buildings that we've been talking about. You can see the dome of the pantheon from the top of St. Peter's. You can see the Victor Emmanuel monument, tall and proud, from the dome of St. Peter's. But you can also climb up to the dome from the inside, which is another extraordinary experience. You can go almost, not quite, but almost to the apex of Michelangelo's dome, walk around a corridor there, and look down on Bernini's baldochino. So for those of you who are going to Rome anytime soon or in the future, it's a not-to-be-missed experience to climb the Cathedral of St. Peter's on the outside and also on the inside. I bring you to St. Peter's because one can also go down underneath St. Peter's, and that's another very interesting experience, to go down in the depths beneath St. Peter's and get a really great sense of the centuries of civilization that have been piled, one on top of another, from ancient Rome or from the time of Romulus, indeed, all the way up to today. And in order to see the tomb of the Caitaini-e, which is a tomb that I want to turn to now, you do have to go down underneath St. Peter's. You have to. This is something you can't just walk in. You can climb St. Peter's any day of the week. But if you want to go underneath St. Peter's, you have to make special arrangements. You have to get special tickets to do that, and now one can do that online. You can plan that online, and you can get tickets to go to the so-called Vatican Cemetery underneath and they don't have them. They have a small number of hours on a variety of days, so it is something one needs to plan for well in advance. But you can do it. You go to the left of the Baldicchino, you go down, and you go down century upon century. You see primarily the tombs of the popes, the crypts with the tombs of the popes, and I show you Pope Boniface here, just to give you an idea of what some of these look like lying in eternity here on the top of his sarcophagus, or a space-sculptured portrait of him on the top of his sarcophagus. But if you go all the way down, all the way down, and most tourists don't do this, but if you go all the way to the bottom, what you end up with is one of Rome's great tomb streets. And this tomb street was out in the light of day, of course, in antiquity, like all the other tomb streets, but because of the passage of time, because other buildings that were built on top, primarily the Cathedral of St. Peter's, and just the rising ground level over time, it now is subterranean. But when you, it's amazing, you go down, you walk along it, it is like you are walking, I mean, it's a dark street, but nonetheless, I wouldn't want to record in that street. But you go down under, it's a dark street, but it is, you feel like you are walking along a major tomb street in Rome, and indeed you are. And I show you a plan of it here so that you can see it is very much like walking along the tomb street in Isola Sacra. You see at your left and right these concrete brick-faced tombs that look very much like the tomb of Anirigala, or the ones that we saw in Isola Sacra, typical house tombs of the second century A.D. One of the tombs that is located down there has long been thought by scholars and believers to be the tomb of St. Peter. No one has been able to prove this incontrovertibly, but there is some interesting evidence, both pro and con. And it has been thought, and you know Peter's famous statement, you know, upon this rock I shall build this church, namely the Church of St. Peter's. We believe that when Constantine, the last pagan emperor, and we're going to talk about him in the last lecture, this semester, when Constantine built the first Basilica, Christian Basilica on this site, the Basilica that we refer to as Old St. Peter's, that obviously predated New St. Peter's, he, we think he may have built it on that very rock and on that very tomb of St. Peter, and that's what this restored view shows you here. If you walk along, though, and look at these tombs, for the most part they look like typical Roman tombs from the second century, brick-faced concrete construction with interesting decoration inside, and I show you just the most famous mosaic that is located down there, which you see as a figure in a chariot. We think it's a representation of the sun god Saul, or Helios, in the chariot, because you can see the raid crown, but some believe it is a representation of Christ as Helios, and I show it to you only because it is the single most famous mosaic down there, and one of the most famous mosaics in Rome, but also because it heralds what we're going to begin to see happening, especially in the last lecture, and that is this transition from paganism to Christianity in Rome, Constantine being the last pagan, first Christian emperor, and this interesting way in which pagan imagery allides into Christian imagery, both in terms of figural decoration, but also in terms of architecture. Because it's so poorly lighted down there, I can't show you a good picture of the tombs beneath St. Peter's, but I can show you another set of tombs beneath a that are very well lighted and can be photographed better, beneath a columbarium, an underground catacomb, actually an underground burial area that was used by the early Christians in Rome, and you see that it's called, you don't have to worry about, it's called the Church of San Sebastiano, and these tombs are underneath that. But I showed them to you here just to give you a sense of what that tomb street looked like underneath the Vatican, or looks like underneath the Vatican, concrete, brick-faced tombs, looking very similar to those we saw at Isola Sacra, the same travertine door jams, inscriptions, slit windows. And if you look through the entranceway of this one, you will see it's barrel vaulted, and it has a scheme that is very similar to the stucco decoration of the tomb of the Valeriae, with these circles done in raised stucco and with the floating figures in between them. And this is exactly what it looks like beneath the Vatican. I can show you some views of the interiors of some of the Vatican tombs, because those have lights in them, they're better-lighted. You can see them here. We see this interesting combination that we also saw at Isola Sacra, of the smaller niches that are used for urns, and the larger archisolia that are used for the placement of bodies. And then you can see in this view on the right the way in which the tombs are closed off those archisolia by placing marble plaques on them that either have inscriptions or sometimes figural scenes, and then again here a freestanding sarcophagi on these interiors as well. This is an axonometric view from Ward Perkins of the Tomb of the Caetainii. It dates to 160 A.D. in the Vatican Cemetery in Rome. And I think you can see here both the brick-faced concrete structure, the way in which the windows have similar stucco decoration to what we saw on the tomb of Ania Regilla, on the Via Appia in Rome. But most interesting for us is the way in which the interior is treated, because this is my type too. Here we will see some stucco, but you will see here that the walls are enlivened in a different way. They are enlivened through architectonic means, through the use of columns, through the use of niches, through the use of pediments, triangular pediments, but also broken triangular pediments. Here you see a pediment that has been split apart, triangular pediments split apart to show what is inside. This is the same scheme that we saw in second-style Roman wall painting way back when, this whole idea of taking the traditional vocabulary of architecture and dealing with it in a very different way than had been done before, breaking the rules, so to speak. We see that happening here. But the main thing is that we're looking at this designer using architectural members to create the visual interest of the walls of the structure. You can also see in this axonometric view this combination of small niches for cinerary urns and then these larger archisolia for the body. So cremation and enumation still going on hand in hand during the second century AD. This is a spectacular view of the interior of the Tomb of the Caitene E. And here you can really see what I mean. Yes, there is some stucco. If you look at the vaults, you will see that this is, again, a groin vault that has been stuccoed over, and it had the same kind of compartments and painted decoration, relief decoration that we saw in the Tomb of the Pancrati. But you can see that most of the effects have been done through architectural means. If you look carefully, you will see that there is a black and white mosaic on the floor, not so different from what we see in Ostia. There are niches on the walls. These niches used for the cinerary urns, archisolia down here for the bodies. But, and there are stucco decoration in the use of the shells that you can see here. But if you look very carefully at the combination of sort of maroon and cherry red walls, you will see the remains of the architectural members that served to enliven this space. Look up here. You will see that there was a triangular pediment over the central niche. You can see parts of the broken triangular pediments on either side. You can see the remains of capitals, and beneath those would have been the projecting columns that we saw in the axonometric view in Ward Perkins. So this, again, the second type where the walls are strengthened with architectural members, and those architectural members, when intact, would have created a scheme in which you had progression recession, progression recession, all along the wall. This in-and-out scheme that we're going to see becomes the hallmark of what I'm going to term here this semester, the Baroque element in Roman antiquity, in Roman architecture. All of these buildings were being put up during the reign of Hadrian's successor. Hadrian had died in 138 A.D., and he was succeeded by a man by the name of Antoninus Pius, whose portrait you see here on the upper right. Antoninus Pius, again, was, he reigned for a quite long time. He reigned between 138 and 161 A.D. It was a period of extraordinary peace. He, like Hadrian, was a peace-loving man. He was able to maintain that peace exceedingly in the world, and that peace exceedingly well, and Rome really thrived under his emperorship. He's also interesting because he seems to have had more of a love relationship with his wife than any other Roman emperor that I can think of, a relationship that was so strong that when his wife died, he became emperor, here's his wife, Faustina the Elder, when he became emperor in 138, but she died already in 141. And as I mentioned, he stayed emperor until 161, so he was emperor for twenty more years after her death. He never forgot her. He stayed completely enamored of her. He never remarried. We don't even have any rumors that he had any concubines or anything like that. He seems to have said completely true to her. And what's interesting is that when the two of them died, their successors, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, put up a monument to them. And it's not on your monument. Listen, I'm not holding you responsible for it, but I just want to show it to you because it will illuminate a monument that I am going to show you in a moment. This base, which served as the base for a porphyry column that was located on top, it represents a scene in which you see Antoninus Pius and his wife, Faustina the Elder, being carried to heaven on the back of a male personification. We see Roma in the bottom right, and she is saluting them. She is bearing witness to what is a representation of their joint divinization. The two of them, Faustina the Elder, divinized at her death in 141. Antoninus Pius divinized at his death in 161, and yet we see them being carried to heaven as if their divinizations happened exactly at the same time. This is obviously a fiction. It is a conflation of time. It is a fiction of which the Romans were particularly adept in their sculptural representations. But I show it to you here because it has some bearing on a temple that I now want to talk about. This is the so-called Temple of Antoninus Pius and Faustina the Elder. It is a temple that Antoninus Pius put up in honor of his wife in 141 to her as a diva after she was divinized. But at his own death, twenty years later in 161, his successors, again Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, rededicated it to the two of them, to the divine Antoninus Pius and to the divine Faustina. It is quite well preserved today, and it is important for two main reasons. It is important because it is our best surviving temple that was put up to an emperor and an empress. It wasn't the only one, but it's the best surviving example of that. And it is another example of the way in which antiquities are reused over time, in other contexts, and at later times, and how that reuse sometimes helps to preserve them. What I show you now on the screen is a coin on the upper left representing Faustina the Elder on the obverse of the coin on the left, her portrait, and it refers to her as diva Faustina. So it is a coin that Antoninus Pius struck after her death and after her divinization. And we see on the back the temple that Antoninus Pius originally made in her honor. Over here we see a series of drawings that come from the Lord Perkins textbook that show once again a depiction of that original temple on the coin, and with a legend that says, Eiternitas for eternity, because now she is a diva for eternity. And then a restored view over here of what the temple would have looked like after it was rededicated to Antoninus and Faustina in 161. And then over here the Baroque building that was built into it in the seventeenth century A.D., when it was turned into the Church of San Lorenzo in Miranda. And I put the name San Lorenzo in Miranda on your monument list. If we look at the view of it as it was after it was rededicated to Antoninus Pius and Faustina, we will see a typical Roman temple. All the features that we have described so very often in the course of this semester. The deep porch, the freestanding columns in the very tall podium, the single staircase, the façade, emphasis, we see all of that here. A very conventional Roman temple with sculpture in the pediment and decoration on the eaves of the temple as well. What we see in the bottom left is what happened to this temple in the seventeenth century. Part of it was preserved, maybe more of it was preserved, we're not absolutely sure, but at least part of it was preserved. The walls, the side walls, and also the columns and the front of the, well, the side walls primarily, and the columns, and the lintel over here that has the inscription that dedicates the temple to Antoninus Pius and Faustina. But what you see behind it is the Baroque façade rising up, a Baroque façade that has buttresses, and I'm going to show it to you in actuality in a moment, that has buttresses on the side, that has this wonderful split-arcuated pediment, a split-arcuated pediment that would have been impossible to conceive, I believe, without these architects, Baroque architects of seventeenth century, looking back to the Baroque element in Roman antiquity. The cross is added in the center, of course. But there's one major difference between this building and this building. Does anyone see what that is besides the addition of the Baroque façade? What, a little louder? The podium, exactly. Emily, right? The podium is not there. The podium is not there. The staircase is not there. Why is that, Emily? I don't know if it's because of, like, the land is going... Yes....before it's... Yes. The ground level has risen so that at the time that they decide to turn the Temple of Antoninus Pius and Phalassina into San Lorenzo in Miranda, this is where the ground level is. There's no podium anymore. The podium is completely underground, as are part of the columns. We see only the part of the columns. So they put the door at the bottom, what is the bottom at that particular time. Now let me show you the building today. It's very well preserved. So you see what I mean by the best preserved monument to the best preserved Temple to an emperor and an empress in Rome. Extremely well preserved. You see its location is in the Roman Forum, with the backdrop of the imperial fora behind it, the Forum of Augustus, the Forum of Trajan, in the Roman Forum. So prime real estate for this Temple when Antoninus Pius decides to build it to his wife. We see here the original podium, the original staircase, the original columns, gray granite columns, white marble capitals. We see the original lintel with the inscription still preserved, to divine Antoninus Pius, to divine Faustina. We see the original two-for-walls of the side. We see the lintel on this side that also has a frieze that is preserved from antiquity. And then we see growing up behind it the 17th century Baroque Church with its buttresses and with its broken, arcuated pediment. And if you look very carefully, you will see this was ground level in the 17th century. This is the 17th century door. This is the ancient door down here. I'll show you a couple of views where you can see that even more clearly. Here's another view showing you those gray granite columns, the white capitals, the 17th century door, and then down here the ancient door, which shows you more dramatically than anything else I've been able to show you this semester, this change in ground level. These are the views that I took that show you the same here, the 17th century door. So you have to think of all of this underground in the 17th century, and then only in more modern times was the temple excavated, Temple and Church excavated down to their original level. Here's another view showing you again the 17th century doorway, the earlier doorway, the staircase, a little baby down here, which I was happy to have for scale. It gives you a sense once again of how, and that makes it even more dramatic because I don't know if it's a he or a she, she, she, sitting there, that she makes it even more dramatic to demonstrate to you again, since this is a lecture on bigger is better, that this temple to Antoninus and Faustina was also very, very, also is very, very large in scale. When Antoninus Pius died in 161, he was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. Marcus Aurelius, one of the most famous of the Roman emperors, the great Stoic philosopher, and you see him in a portrait here. You see Lucius Verus on the left-hand side. The two of them were co-emperors between 161 and 169. Lucius Verus died in battle in 169. Marcus Aurelius continued on alone until the year 180 AD, so he too had a very long reign. Marcus spent most of his reign, however, on the front. During the period that he was emperor, the barbarians were literally at the gates. There was concern that they were going to, in fact, overrun the city, completely overrun the empire, completely, and he had to spend most of his reign on the frontiers, and he did, beating back those barbarians. For that reason, there was very little architectural construction, even though he had a very long reign, there was very little architectural construction during the time of Marcus Aurelius, because of the time that he had to spend in war. He was succeeded by his son, Commodus, whose portrait you see down here. Commodus in the line, also in the megalomaniacal line, of Nero, and Domitian, a man who saw himself as a god on earth, who saw himself as the Greek hero Hercules. He called himself Hercules Romanus, and we see him in his most famous and most fabulous, is about one of the best portraits preserved from ancient Rome. It's in the capital line museums today, and you see him masquerading here as Hercules with the lion skin around his head, holding the club, holding the apples of the hisperides, demonstrating that he has completed that last labor just as Hercules had done and is doing to become a god in the manner of Hercules. He used to parade around in Rome openly in this way, and actually struck coins, showing himself as Hercules Romanus, just to give you a sense of how extreme it was. And he was always challenging people to hand-to-hand combat. And in fact, he eventually got his comeuppance, because although he himself also reigned for quite a while between 180 and 192, so he lasted for twelve years, but nonetheless, even his closest advisors eventually turned against him and plotted behind his back and arranged for one of the most famous gladiators of the day, Narcissus, interestingly called Narcissus, to take up Commodus' offer to fight anybody who wanted to fight him in the Colosseum. And of course he thought that being protected him and that he, as well as the leader of Nero, who fixed the Olympic games in his favor, that Commodus would also never lose in a contest like this, because he was by definition emperor, but his advisors turned against him, let Narcissus lose, and Commodus was slain by Narcissus in the Colosseum. But he did, I do want to just mention, and only in passing, Commodus did put up a column to his father, Marcus Aurelius, that is based very closely on the column of Trajan in Rome. I'm not going to go into it with you today because the architectural complex in which it was originally found no longer survives, but I just wanted you to be aware that the column of Trajan was succeeded by the column of Marcus Aurelius. I want to, however, turn for the rest of the lecture to a new dynasty that came to the fore after the end of the so-called Antonine emperors. When Commodus died, there were no more Antonines to succeed him, and Rome once again fell into a civil war, and there were rivals warring with one another for supreme power. And the man who came to the fore was a man by the name of Pertinax, P-E-R-T-I-N-A-X. But he had other rivals, and one of them was the man who eventually really came out on top, and his name was Lucius Septimius Severus. Lucius Septimius Severus was, within that year, between 92 and 93, able to get rid of not only Pertinax but other rivals and become supreme ruler of Rome. And because he, like Vespasian before him, had two sons to succeed him, Caracalla and Gaeta, he was able to set up a new dynasty, the so-called Severan, what we call the Severan S-E-V-E-R-A-N, the Severan Dynasty in Rome. The Severan Dynasty in Rome extremely important because Septimius Severus commissioned some important structures, both public structures and private. He was an interesting emperor because he combined an interest in the two. And then his son, Caracalla, who epitomizes, as I began today, the whole bigger is better or biggest is best philosophy in life and in architecture. I want to show you first just to introduce you to these two patrons this wonderful painted tondo that is preserved from Rome. It was found, excuse me, not in Rome but in Egypt, and is now in a museum in Berlin. But it is important because it is our only surviving painting of an emperor, and not only an emperor but an emperor in his whole family, his wife and his children, the only surviving painting of an emperor today. But there were obviously many of these in antiquity. It's a fascinating painting. We see Septimius Severus with his gray hair and beard and his wonderful jeweled crown. We see his wife, Julia Domna, who by the way, I neglected to mention, but one of the interesting things about Septimius Severus' biography is the fact that he was born not in Rome and not in Spain, as Trajan and Hadrian had been, but rather in North Africa in a place called Leptis Magna, L-E-P-T-I-S, new word, M-A-G-N-A, in Leptis Magna, born in North Africa. He hooked up with a woman from Syria whose name was Julia Domna. She was the daughter of an important priest in Syria called Bacianus. She was famous in Rome for her wigs. She used to wear wigs, and you can see her wearing one of her wigs in this wonderful painted portrait. She also clearly liked jewelry because you can see her with these fabulous triple pearl earrings and a wonderful pearl necklace here also, looking very vibrant in this portrait. And then the two of them with their sons, their elder son Caracalla, over here, and their younger son, or what remains of him, Gata on the left. Gata and Caracalla succeeded their father together as co-rulers, but Caracalla, very jealous of his brother, who was much more popular with the Roman populace than Caracalla himself was, and Caracalla eventually had his brother murdered. And after his brother was murdered he convinced that his Caracalla convinced the Roman Senate to issue a domnatio memoriai, or a damnation, of the memory of Gata, and an attempt was made to eradicate Gata from history by eradicating him from art. And you can see that he was snuffed out. His face was removed on this. But then it was left to stand to show the power that Caracalla had to destroy his brother, as you can see here. This gives you a glimpse into the mind and psyche of Caracalla. I want to show you first, though, two buildings. Before we look at the Bazz of Caracalla, I do want to show you two buildings of Septimius Severus, a public building first, the so-called Arch of Septimius Severus in the Roman Forum, and then an extension to the Palatine Palace. The Arch of Septimius Severus in the Roman Forum dates to A.D. 203, and it commemorates the Parthian victory of Septimius Severus. Severus, I already mentioned to you, came to power in a civil war. So like Augustus, and like Vespasian before him, he needed to gain legitimacy by having an important foreign victory. And he does this by looking east, as Augustus had done before him, looking to Parthia, and does war with Parthia, and in fact has an important victory, and celebrates that important victory in this triumphal arch that is put up in his honor in 203 A.D. In once again the choice is spot of real estate in Rome, the Forum Romanum, the Roman Forum. I show you a Google Earth view over here. We've seen this one before, so you've undoubtedly got this one memorized by now, this Google Earth image of the Roman Forum as it looks today, with the Colosseum up there, with the Via De Fori imperiali, imperial for over here, the Circus Maximus, the Palatine Hill, the Campadolio, Capitalin Hill is redesigned by Michelangelo, the Wedding Cake of Victor Emanuel. Here between the Campadolio and the Colosseum we see, of course, the remains of the ancient Roman Forum, much lower ground level than the modern ground level. You'll recall the location of the Temple of Venus in Roma, just underneath the Colosseum of the Arch of Titus on the Aethelia, and you should remember also that we talked way in the beginning of the term about two arches, two successive arches, built in honor of Augustus, first his Actaean victory, victory in Actaeum, and then his victory over the Parthians, which is over here. And then, if we look very closely, it's a little hard to see when I'm up this close, but we look very closely, we will see the location, I think it's roughly around here, of the Arch of Septimius Severus. You can see it better in this plan of the Roman Forum as it developed between the third and seventh centuries A.D. We see the tabularium at the top, which means we're close to the Capitoline Hill. We see two basilicas that were put up in the Republican period. We see a temple that we did not study that was put up in honor of the Divine Julius Caesar by Augustus. We see the Speaker's Platform, we see the Senate House, which I will show you in a later lecture. And over here we see the location of what was originally the Actaean Arch of Augustus, and then the Parthian Arch of Augustus. And remember that the Parthian Arch of Augustus had a triple opening. And then, if you look at the rest of the plan, you will see the location of the Arch of Septimius Severus over there, diagonally across in dialogue with the Parthian Arch of Augustus. Was this coincidence? Absolutely not. This was clearly very carefully orchestrated by Septimius Severus and his advisors to build his Parthian Arch in dialogue with the Parthian Arch of Augustus. With regard to its form, it also made reference to the Augustan Arch. I show you here the Arch of Septimius Severus as it looks today. It is our first example that we've seen this semester of a Roman arch with a triple-arcuated opening, a large arch-uated opening in the center flanked by two smaller, lower arch-uated entrances. We have not seen that before. First surviving example in Rome. We remember, if we look, think back to the arches we have explored from the time of Augustus on. You'll remember that they are single-bade arches. Augustus' Actaean Arch, the Arch of Titus, and even the second-century arch of Trajan at Benevento. But, as I've already said today, if we look back to the coin, the arch no longer exists, but we look back to a coin depiction of the Parthian Arch of Augustus, it had three openings, a central arch-uated opening, and then two rectangular openings, traviated openings with pediments on either side, flanking it. So this is not the Parthian Arch of Augustus, is not a triple-arcuated arch, but it is a three-opening arch. And I think there is no question that those three openings are being alluded to in the Severin Arch and being transformed into something that was new, which was the idea of the triple-arcuated bay. Or maybe it wasn't so new, because there's an arch, the arch that you see down here, in the south of France, at Orange, and we'll look at this arch when we make our journey to the south of France in an upcoming lecture. We will look at this arch, and it's a triple-bade arch, just like the Arch of Septimius Severus. It's covered with sculpture, just like the Arch of Septimius Severus. So for a while there were scholars who dated this to the time of Septimius Severus, although put up in the provinces. But a recent scholarship, more recent scholarship, has demonstrated scholars have looked at the piles of arms and armor on here and identified it as piles of arms and armor that had to do with battles that took place in the south of France, or what is now the south of France, in the age of Augustus. There's also an inscription referring to a specific historical figure who lived during the late period of Augustus and into the time of Tiberius. So it seems very likely that this is not a Severan arch, but a Tiberian arch. And I show it to you here only because while we usually, and this may be helpful to some of you who are doing papers, topics, or city plans in the provinces, we usually think of ideas flowing from the center to the periphery. But here we seem to have an idea that comes to the fore first in the periphery and then ends up ultimately in the center. Although, of course, there are lots of missing pieces to the ancient puzzle. I mean, there are lots of monuments that have not come down to us. So it is not inconceivable that a triple-bade arch was built in Rome earlier, but we just have no evidence for it. I want to show you the arch itself very quickly because it's mainly a work of sculpture. But just to show you the three bays, victories in the spandrels, down here, inscription at the top. You have to imagine the great bronze quadriga of the emperor at the apex. Decorated bases down here. But most interesting are the panels that we see, four panels that we see, two on either side of the arch. And I show you a detail, a very good detail, of one of them here, although it's weathered. You can see it quite well. You can see that this panel, instead of having full-length figures standing on a single ground line, as we saw, for example, in the Fries of the Arapacas, we see figures on a number of tiers here, small figures on a number of tiers. It should remind you of the scenes on the column of Trajan, the spiral, the spiral frieze with the individual figures telling the story of war, and in this case the Paparthian war of Septimius Severus. But, and so what I think happened here, my theory and there are others who have said the same, is that what happened here is that the designer of this got the idea to take excerpts, in a sense, from the columns of Trajan, or the column of Marques Aurelius, and put them in panel format on this monument. Whether, I don't know whether, you know, you can think to yourselves whether you think this is successful or not, I think it probably was not deemed to be particularly successful, because it is the only arch design of its type. No one picked up afterwards and imitated this particular idea. The base is down below, representing Romans bringing back Parthian prisoners. I want to speak very briefly also about Septimius Severus' extension of the imperial palace on the Palatine Hill. He extended it to the south. He lived there, just like every emperor since demission. He extended it on the southern side, that's the side nearest the forum, and he added a façade to it, a very elaborate façade that does not survive. It doesn't survive because we know it was torn down in 1588 to 1589 by one of the popes, because the pope wanted to use it in his own papal building, wanted to use the building materials in his own papal building. But fortunately, the artist Martin von Heemskirk, the Renaissance artist, and I put his name on the monument list for you, Martin von Heemskirk, drew some of it while it was being dismantled, and you see a piece of it over here in the Martin von Heemskirk drawing. There's also the plan of the structure also preserved on the former orbez, and we can see that marble plan of Rome from the Severin period. We take both of that evidence together, we can reconstruct it quite effectively. We can see that it was a façade that looked very much like a theater, with wings on either side, with apces here, three large apces, and columns inside those apces with other elements that have columns in three tiers, looking very much like a theater stage set, all done in marble. It might have been also a fountain, there might have been a basin down here with a water display, all of this serving as a new façade for Domitian's Palace on the Palatine Hill. It's important because it's another example of this use of progression recession, progression recession across the façade to give an in-and-out undulating movement using the traditional vocabulary of architecture in a way that is striking and in a way that, again, heralds this new Baroque style in Roman architecture. I also mentioned, just as the last point about this monument, that we also, the reason it's called the Septizodium, or the Septizonium, and you see that name on the monument list for you, the reason it's referred to as Septizodium is because it was thought to honor the, or to commemorate the seven planets, which is not surprising in the orbit of Septimius Severus and Julia Domna, because we know that Julia Domna was an avid follower of astrological signs, used to predict what was going to happen in her husband's reign through those signs, and this is likely a nod to her particular astrological interest. In the nine or ten minutes that remain, I want to end today with this extraordinary imperial bath structure that was designed at the behest of the emperor Caracalla. When Septimius Severus died in 211, he was succeeded by Caracalla and by Gaeta. I've already told you what Caracalla did to get rid of Gaeta, and Caracalla became sole emperor in 212 A.D., and remained emperor until his death in 217 A.D., and one of his major commissions was this imperial bath structure. He wanted to ape his father, because we know that Septimius Severus had also built a major public bath in Rome, the termae septimianae. They do not survive. We have very little knowledge of them, so there isn't anything that I can show you or tell you about them, but we know he built it. So like father like son, he wanted to outdo his father, this is like Bush I, Bush II, wanted to outdo his father and to build an even larger bathing establishment, and he does it here in Rome, a bathing establishment called the Baz of Caracalla, or the termae antoninianae. Baz of Caracalla dates to 212 to 216 A.D. Any of you who have seen it will agree with me. This is one, if we had a Trajan's Forum, it was the mother of all forms. This is certainly the mother of all imperial bath structures. This is quite something. Fortunately, much of it survives, mainly the concrete shell, concrete shell of itself. But we can see the outlines here in this Google Earth image, which shows you not only the bathing block, but also part of the precinct that surrounded it, because we shall see, if we look at a plan of the Baz of Caracalla, which you see here in the bottom left, this is a detail of just the bathing block. And if we compare the general plan with the plan of the Baz of Trajan in Rome, we will see that the Baz of Trajan, which were very large in their own day, have been exceeded here in terms of size, but are very much in the same general format. And by that I mean a large bathing block here inside a larger precinct that precinct has around it a host of rooms that were used as lecture halls and seminar rooms, and Greek and Latin libraries, so a great locus of intellectual as well as wellness in the city of Rome in the third century A.D. We see that in the Baz of Caracalla, just as, if we look at the bathing block, just as in the Baz of Trajan, we see that all the main bathing rooms, which were used both for men and women, but probably at different times of day, are aligned with one another. We see the great frigidarium here with the triple groin vault over that, buttressed by rooms with barrel vaults on either side. We see a conventional vertically oriented tepidarium, essentially a rectangle here, leading into the caldarium. So all of these unaxis, frigidarium, tepidarium, caldarium, caldarium, a roundish structure with alcoves, but very large in scale. In fact, you'll be interested to hear that the span of the dome of the caldarium of the Baz of Caracalla was almost as large as the span of the dome of the pantheon in Rome, just to get you, give you a sense of the extraordinary, bigger is better, scale in this particular bath. Over here, a Natatio, located where it usually isn't, but here on axis, with the other rooms, an interesting Natatio with a scalloped side screened by columns, and then otherwise all the rooms symmetrically disposed around it, two palestri, one on either side, matching rooms symmetrically disposed around the central building block. So the same imperial bath structure type that we saw developed under Titus and Trajan, but taken to much larger scale here. This model shows you that the hall here, we are looking back at the walls, which were very plain on three sides, toward the Natatio, toward the vaulting of the frigidarium, and then the dome, as you can see there, of the caldarium. Interesting is the front side of the, or the side where you can see the caldarium projecting over here, which you can see is opened up much more than the other sides, with a series of columns, screened columns, and then columns screening and opening up the caldarium as well on the southern side of the monument. Just a few views to give you a sense of what this structure looks like today. Again, it's mainly piles of concrete faced with brick, but you can see some of the soaring vaults still there. This is a, this is, in fact, this is, even in this view, it's much smaller than it would have been, because so much of the ceilings and the vaults are missing today. But you can get a sense by looking at this family of four standing next to it, the colossal scale of the Bazz of Caracalla in Rome. Here's another view with some tourists as well to also give you a sense. Again, this is very incomplete today, but it still gives you some idea of the colossal magnitude of this particular bath structure. As one walks through it, there's actually very little ornamental decoration still preserved, but there was plenty in antiquity. You can see here and there some fragments of a freeze. This is a restored view of what the frigidarium would have looked like, the most important room in the bath, which would have been triple-growing vaulted, as you can see here, which would have had gray granite columns with white marble capitals, and would have had an incredible sculptural display. And Caracalla liked Domitian before him. Remember Domitian's Aula Regia and those colossal statues of Dionysus and Apollo, with whom Domitian wanted to associate himself, Caracalla, of the same ilk who also wanted to ally himself with great heroes of the past, great gods of the past, and he follows the lead of Comedus, in whose model he looked back again to Nero, Domitian to Comedus. And he likened himself to Hercules, and we have sculpture that is preserved from the frigidarium that represents Hercules, Hercules the famous weary Hercules type. This is now in Naples, in the Archaeological Museum, the statue, but it comes from the frigidarium of the Baths of Caracalla. We're absolutely sure of that. And it depicts the weary Hercules. It is a Roman copy. The artist we know his name, I put his name on the monument list for you, Glycon of Athens. So an Athenian sculptor working in the time of Caracalla makes this copy, but he makes it of a very famous lost Greek original by the Greek sculptor Lysippus, whose name is also on your monument list, a work of art that he originally made in the 330s B.C. So Glycon of Athens copies, Lysippus also makes it a piece, Lysippus also of Greece, the statue at the behest, again, of Caracalla. And the fact that this was a theme or a leitmotif that ran through all the decoration of the frigidarium is underscored by the fact that a composite capital that survives also from the frigidarium shows a figure of that same weary Hercules, interspersed with the acanthus leaves of that capital. So again, a very carefully orchestrated program to try to underscore the relationships between Caracalla and Hercules. Giometric mosaics, not unlike those in Ostia found, and still exist in the Bazaar Caracalla today, black and white with a little addition of color. Here another section that shows you the interest in geometry, as well as floral motifs. This detail that you can also see on the site still today showing the sea scenes that were not the kind of scenes one would expect in a bath, very similar to those at Ostia, but done in a somewhat more of a better way. And then the pièce de résistance, I think, of the mosaics of the Bazaar Caracalla and well preserved today, was a mosaic that you can see as curved to be placed into a room of this shape that depict on the floor all the famous athletes and gladiators of the day, either in full-length statues or in portrait images. And I don't doubt that these would have been recognizable stars, superstars, the Alex Rodriguez of their day, superstars flexing their muscles for the public and hoping to be recognized by everyone who came to this bath. And you can just imagine men and women standing above looking at each other trying to pick out who is depicted here. Here's another view that I took that is in its current location, which is in the Vatican Museums in Rome. That's where one needs to go to see what survives of this wonderful mosaic with the athletes and gladiators of the day. And I show them to you here as well. And if you look at these, you can see that they not only are shown, some are already victors, some are taking part in their sport. But once again, just as in the Alexander mosaic, we see the use of a lot of different colored tesserae. We see cast shadows. This is very well done, wonderful facial configurations done by what must have been the leading mosaicist of the day for the baths of Caracalla. And just in closing today, I thought I would show you one of those heads blown up to poster size, as you can see here, but also put it next to an actual portrait of Caracalla. This is not a course in sculpture, but I wanted to show this to you, especially since it's a portrait that you can see. It's in New York at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a very powerful portrait of a very intense Roman emperor, as you can see on the left. But I think there is some relationship between the way in which the sculptors have depicted Caracalla with his very cubic and abstract faces, short military hairstyle, and the depictions of the athletes and the gladiators. So I think he was not only trying to draw a relationship between himself and Hercules Romanus, but also between himself and some of the greatest athletes and gladiators of the day, to underscore his strength as a leader. It was all for naught ultimately, but nonetheless he achieved it, and I think it also speaks to him as a man with that bigger, is better philosophy. Thank you.
 Good morning.  From the time of Julius Caesar, we have seen the rulers of  Rome brag about building buildings that were bigger than  any others in the world.  You'll remember Caesar referred to his Temple of Mars in that  way, that he was building the largest temple of Mars in the  world.  And we also saw the same for Domitian, with his palace on the  Tain Hill, for Trajan, with his enormous forum,  for Hadrian, building the largest dome that had been built  up until that time, and as we discussed still,  the largest diameter dome in the city of Rome today,  and Hadrian's villa at Tivoli, just as a selection of  examples.  We are going to see today that if bigger was better,  biggest is best, and in the case of the Emperor  of Cala, an emperor who was a megalomaniac in the tradition of  Nero and Domitian, that he built the largest  imperial bath structure to date.  And we're going to be looking at that bath structure today,  and we're going to see it as really a colossal and fascinating  building in all kinds of ways.  But before I get to that, in fact, we'll end with that  bath structure today.  Before I get to that, I would like to look with you at  architecture in Rome in the second and third centuries AD,  and we'll see that architecture is quite varied in terms of  whether it's private, it's civic, it's also funerary.  I want to begin, though, by just reminding you of what we  talked about last time.  We looked at the city of Ostia, and we looked at the city of  Ostia, the port of Rome, in its entirety.  Once again, it's public buildings, it's civic structures,  it's commercial enterprises, and we also went,  at the very end of the lecture, out to Isola Sacra,  where the tombs of those who lived in Ostia were located.  And I show you a couple of those again now on the screen,  these brick-faced tombs, these tombs that are made of  brick-faced concrete at Isola Sacra, that were put up for the  professionals, for the traders,  the commercial merchants, and so on, that lived in the city  of Ostia.  They were made of brick-faced concrete construction.  They had barrel vaults or groin vaults inside.  And you can see also that they were faced with brick,  and they were faced with brick, as we discussed,  that was exposed.  The idea of brick being attractive in its own right,  a fabulously beautiful facing that they take advantage of,  in the second century AD, and decide not to stucco it over,  as you can see so well here, the doorways into those tombs,  surrounded by travertine jams and lintels,  the inscription in the center, the small slit windows,  and then a pediment at the top.  We saw it when we looked at funerary architecture in the  Age of Augustus, for example, that it was very varied,  very varied, tombs in the shape of pyramids,  in the shape of circular tombs, tombs that made reference to  bakeries, like the Tomb of the Baker  Eurusiches.  There is still a certain amount of variety in tomb  architecture in the second century AD,  but they tend to hone in on one type in particular,  and that type is the so-called house tomb type,  which is exactly what we see here, a tomb that is rectangular  in shape, for the most part box-like,  and does resemble, very closely, a house,  this close relationship that we've talked about so many times  this semester between houses of the living and houses of the dead.  So we looked at those last time, and where I want to begin  today is just to demonstrate to you that these same kinds of  house tombs that we see in Austria and Isola Sacra,  in the second century AD, we also see in Rome.  And in some cases they are commissioned by individuals of  comparable social status to those in Austria,  but sometimes they are commissioned by the most elite.  And I'd like to begin with an example of a similar tomb  commissioned by the most elite.  This is the so-called Tomb of Ania Regilla in Rome.  It was put up on the famous Via Appia, or the Appian Way.  It dates to around AD 161.  In this case we know who the commissioner was,  and I can show you what he looked like as well.  You see him here on the right-hand side of the screen.  He was a man by the name of Herodes Atticus.  I've put his name on the monument list for you.  Herodes Atticus.  Herodes Atticus was actually a Greek.  He was Athenian, the Greek part of the empire.  He lived in Athens for the most part,  and he commissioned a very famous music hall,  an odion which still survives.  You can see it over here.  It was roofed today, but it was originally one of  these roofed music halls, an odion.  It is located on the slope of the Acropolis in Athens,  the Acropolis that, of course, we know primarily for  its great architectural feats of the fifth century B.C.  in Greece.  This is the Roman building put up by Herodes in the second  century, and we see it on the slope of the  Acropolis, very well preserved.  In modern times its greatest fame is the fact that Yanni  performed his live at the Acropolis concert at the odion  of Herodes Atticus.  And even if you don't like Yanni, it's actually quite an  interesting concert to view, and one can view it in video and so  on, because it does take such wonderful advantage of this  extraordinary ancient structure, as Yanni presents his music.  At any rate, at one point Herodes Atticus,  who had a lot of connections, not only in Athens but around  the Empire, at one point, through those connections,  he gets himself appointed a senator in Rome.  And in order to take up that position, he needs to leave Athens  behind and go spend some time in Rome.  And he and his wife, Ania Regilla, set up house in  Rome.  Ania Regilla, unfortunately, dies in Rome,  and he needs to bury her, and he decides to bury her in  Rome instead of in Athens.  And he builds for her a tomb on the Appian Way,  on the Via Appia, in around 161 A.D.  That's the date that we believe she died.  And we see a view of that tomb here.  What we're looking at, and you probably recognize this  already, because we've looked at a number of models from this  museum of Cass in Rome, the Museo della Civiltà,  Romana in Eor in Rome.  And I show you two views of this model, of the tomb of Ania  Regilla, one that we see from the front and another that we see  from, if we're facing the monument, the left side of the  tomb.  And these are extremely helpful, because they give us a very  good sense of what we are dealing with here.  It is clear that we are dealing with a tomb type that is not  that different from what we saw in Ostia, although this looks  more like a temple than it looks like a house.  And you can see that right off.  It looks exactly like a typical Roman temple.  We see that it is on a high podium.  It has a deep porch.  It has freestanding columns in that porch.  It has a single staircase on the front of the structure.  It has facade orientation.  Then an entrance way into the structure.  It also has freestanding columns that support a pediment.  So if I were to show you this and not identify it and say to  you what kind of a building this is, I'm sure you would have  said it was a temple, and you would have been right in  the sense that it looks most like a temple.  But it is a tomb in the form of a temple, as you can well see  here.  Looking on the side of the monument, you can also see those  same features that I've just described.  And while we are looking at this view, because I'm not going to  bring it back, I want to point out one detail  that will loom large as we look further at this structure.  You will see on the left side of the tomb that the architect has  created, has kind of scalloped out the side, on either side,  creating niches, tall niches on the side,  and placed columns into that space, which is a very unusual  thing to do.  It's not true on the other side of the monument,  only on this side of the structure.  Why has the architect done that?  I think it might have something to do with the sighting,  perhaps how you viewed it from the street.  Maybe it was skewed in such a way that you would see not only  the facade, but also the side,  and he wanted to emphasize the columns on that particular side  of the structure.  But it may also have just had to do with a quirk,  a particular interest that the architect or the patron had in  doing something different than any other tomb.  And I want to return to that point in a moment.  But most significant of all is that in terms of the building  technique, the use of concrete faced with  exposed brick, this is exactly what we saw in  Ostia.  And you can see that just as in Ostia they have taken that  brick as far as it can go, in terms of its aesthetic value  by respecting the texture of the brick, playing that texture  off, playing different colored bricks,  a reddish brick against a more yellowish colored brick,  playing those off against one another,  and then adding certain very highly decorative details,  like a meander pattern that we're going to see in a moment,  and decoration around the windows of the tomb,  done in stucco.  The columns, however, are marble.  The columns are marble, and in that sense,  again, something somewhat different than what we saw at  Ostia.  This is a view of the tomb as it looks today.  The porch is not well preserved, and I can't show you any of  that, but I can show you the rest of the structure,  and you can see it quite well in this particular view.  And again, you see that it is indeed well preserved.  Concrete construction, faced with brick,  the brick left exposed, respected and enjoyed in its  own right, what I've already described,  the playing off of one color of brick against another,  this meander pattern done in stucco, the stucco decoration,  very elaborate decoration, as we're going to see around the  windows.  Tall podium, we see that here as well,  an extraordinary structure.  And what's interesting, I think, to note,  at least culturally, and in terms of social status,  is the fact that although this structure was put up for one of  the most wealthy men in Rome at this particular time,  the general aesthetic is very similar to what we saw for  professional people in the city of Ostia.  That is a concrete tomb in the form of a house or a temple in  this case that has as its facing brick,  and a respect for that brick in its own right.  Here are a couple of details.  Once again, a detail of the warehouse,  or the Aurea Epigatiana at Ostia, that we looked at,  and also a detail of the tomb of Ania Regilla in Rome.  And I think you can see here what I mean.  Again, the different coloration of brick, the yellowish brick,  the reddish brick, played off one against the other,  the use of stucco decoration, in this case,  for the volutes of the composite capitals.  In fact, you'll remember I pointed out what was interesting  about these capitals at the warehouse,  was that the brick was used to make up the main body of the  capital.  And this is not one of them, but I also showed you one where  you could see the way in which that brick formed the actual  acanthus leaves of the capital, and then the volutes added in  stucco.  We see the same thing at the tomb of Ania Regilla.  You can see those, and here I think you can see it  well, the brick used to create the lower part of the acanthus  leaves, and then stucco added for the curving part,  and for some of the additional decoration, the flower and so on,  up above.  And so we see, and here again, very elaborate decoration  around the windows, which we also saw at the warehouse in  Ostia.  Two more details of the tomb of Ania Regilla.  Here you see what I was talking about before,  the way the architect has scooped out two areas on the left  side of the tomb, and placed the columns inside of  those, which is a unique, I don't know of any other  example, of this enrollment architecture,  and it underscores once again that when it came to tomb  architecture that the patron could pretty much do whatever he  wanted, as long as the architect could build it.  It could be quite idiosyncratic as a form of architecture.  And we see not only has he scooped out these niches in which to  place the columns, but if you look at those columns  very carefully, and at the bases of those columns,  you will see that they are not round.  They are multi-sided, and the bases are also multi-sided.  So doing something very unique in the context of this particular  tomb of Ania Regilla.  So two main points.  One that there is clearly an aesthetic that is used for tomb  architecture, concrete faced with brick,  that is used in the uppermost levels of Roman society,  and then further down in Roman society, not only in Rome,  but also in Ostia.  But at the same time, individuality,  eccentricity is valued in tomb architecture,  allowed in tomb architecture in a way that perhaps it isn't in  other forms of Roman architecture, and we see it taken to its  limit in this particular building.  Just a few more details.  We see a niche from the tomb of Ania Regilla.  We also see here both the meander pattern and this very  elaborate decoration around the windows, a frame around the  windows, and then a projecting element up above with these  great spiral volutes on either side.  Very similar to the same sort of thing that was happening at  Ostia.  I remind you of the niche in the courtyard of the Aurea  Epigothiana, the warehouses at Ostia,  where you see the same sort of thing.  These stucco, pilasters added in stucco,  the brickwork creating triangles and lozenges,  as you can see here, same idea over here in the  tomb of Ania Regilla.  And if you look very closely at the pediment that is located  above the niche from the tomb in Rome,  you see the projecting entablatures.  You see where the capitals would have been.  There would also have been either probably columns added here  on either side of the niche, making it look much more  similar to here.  But look closely at the pediment.  You will see that there is projecting entablature above each  column.  But then in the center the triangular pediment is cut back.  And that playing around with the traditional vocabulary of  architecture is something that I've noted is going to be a part  of what we call the Baroque trend in Roman architecture.  I'm going to devote an entire lecture to the Baroque trend in  Roman architecture around the empire, not just in Rome,  but mostly in the provinces.  And we'll see that same sort of thing, which creates a kind of  in-and-out, lively movement to the façade that is part of that  approach.  The tomb itself again.  And just to point out, interestingly enough,  a couple of female figures with capitals on the top of their  head, or what looked like maybe more like vases on the top of  their head, but looking very much like  cariotteds, like the cariotteds we saw from the Erechtheon and  Athens, 5th century B.C., from the Forum of Augustus,  and from Hadrian's Villa around the Serapium.  They are not duplicates of those in Athens,  like the other two are, but they do seem to make reference  to them.  They're a bit more casual.  When I look at this pair, they always look to me like  they're kind of standing at a cocktail party together and  conversing with one another, using the usual gestures that  Italians are so famous for.  We see them doing that sort of thing here.  But they do seem to have that same pedigree,  going back to the whole idea of the cariotteds.  And I only mention it to you.  They were found right near this tomb.  And so it has been speculated, although it is by no means  certain, that they might have belonged to the tomb.  They might have been located in front of the tomb,  or been some kind of fork, part of some kind of forkort or  forkspace to that tomb.  It's pure conjecture, but it would be interesting if it  were the case, because remember,  Herodes Atticus comes from Athens.  We see that the tomb is a thoroughly Roman tomb of the  2nd century A.D., but it would be interesting to think that  he might have added some touches that might have made some  reference for him, and also especially for his wife,  the tomb it was, to the Athens of his birth.  With regard to tomb interiors in the 2nd century A.D.  in Rome, there are two major types.  And I want to treat both of those today.  One of them is a type that we've seen before,  and that is where you stucco over the interior of the tomb.  You stucco it over, and then you add additional  stucco in relief to form the decoration,  and then you paint it.  That's one type, and the second type,  which might also use that for the vault,  but for the walls, the second type is to use instead  architectural members, columns, pediments,  and the like, to enliven the wall and to create a much more  sculptural effect.  Both of these types are used in Rome in the 2nd century A.D.  in tomb architecture, and I want to show you examples  of both of them today.  The first, type I, with stucco,  painted stucco, we see in the so-called Tomb of  the Valerii, the Tomb of the Valerii,  which dates to around A.D.  159, and is located on the Via Latina in Rome.  We haven't looked at the Via Latina before,  but it is one of Rome's main streets that had along it  the cemeteries, and there are a fair number of  concrete tombs faced with brick that are preserved,  very well preserved, on the Via Latina today.  And what makes them particularly special is the  interiors, are almost pristine.  It's quite extraordinary to go into these and see how well they  have stood the test of time.  The Tomb of the Valerii, you see the lunette and the vault  of the interior of that tomb right here.  And as you look at the acanthus leaves growing up in the  lunette, all done in stucco relief,  and the barrel vault with its individual compartments round  and square, compartments with floating figures inside,  you should certainly be reminded of things we've already seen  before.  When one looks at the acanthus leaves, one can't help but think  back to the delicate leaves of the Arapaphas,  the delicate acanthus leaves of the Arapaphas Augustae,  which you see on the left-hand side of the screen.  And I'm sure you are, as reminded as I am,  looking at this vault, by other things that we have  seen earlier this semester.  What's this over here?  The Domus Aurea.  It's one of the vaults of the Domus Aurea,  third style, done, we believe,  by Fabulous himself.  And you'll recall very delicate, very light,  floral motifs, compartments, in this case rectangular,  with floating sea creatures in the center.  We see exactly the same sort of thing here,  although done in stucco instead of paint,  but this was painted originally in antiquity.  And we see these floating, these nearyids on the back of  sea creatures, floating inside these.  And we think the message here, of course,  is of the soul of the deceased being carried to the aisles of  the blessed by these sea creatures.  And we see very much stucco decoration,  second century A.D., but very dependent on third style  Roman wall painting and third style stucco decoration of  earlier dates.  The tomb of the Pancratii in Rome, which dates to 169,  also on the Via Latina, has similarly well preserved  stucco decoration also painted, and I'll show you a color  view in a moment for you to get a sense of that coloration.  Here you get an idea of the scheme of the wall,  very, very, very elaborate.  Stuccoed over, stucco, much of the stucco is done in  relief, you can see it here.  If the stucco decoration of the tomb of the Valeriii made  reference to the third style, I think the inspiration here was  fourth style Roman wall painting and stucco decoration,  because although you continue to see floating mythological  figures in these rectangular or triangular compartments,  if you look very closely, especially in this zone here,  you will also see these architectural cages done in stucco  very similar to the architectural cages that we saw at the  top of fourth style Roman wall design.  So this taking its cue from fourth style Roman wall painting,  and I had mentioned to you a couple of times already this  term, that in fact most post-Pompean painting and stucco  decoration post-79 AD does seem to be inspired by the third  style but even more so by the fourth style of Roman wall  painting, and we see that very well here with this stucco  decorating the lunettes and also the vaulting.  Here's a view in color of the interior of the tomb of the  Pancratii, where you can see the same sort of scheme that I've  already described but with the color,  and you can also see that we are dealing here with a groin  vaulted interior.  And what's interesting is that sometimes the walls have small  niches for urns and the so-called archisolia.  I've mentioned those two before that were used for the  placement of bodies, once inhumation became as  popular, indeed even more popular, than cremation.  But we also sometimes see the sarcophagi themselves,  the freestanding coffins located in these tombs,  as we see here.  And it's interesting to keep in mind that all of the money and  time that was expended on this interior decoration,  keep in mind that very few people entered into these tombs.  When you looked at a tomb you saw primarily its exterior.  Some family members on special occasions might go inside but it  was relatively rare.  So all of this done, in fact, to give the deceased a  pleasant home in perpetuity and to help them on their journey to  the Isles of the Blessed.  This structure also has sea creatures depicted in it,  so travel is clearly also alluded to.  And scholars who have worked on this particular monument in  particular have noted that they think it has to do with one of  these secret mystery religions, in this case the Orphic,  the Orphic religion that was practiced in secret initially  and then eventually came up above ground.  Two more details of the Pancrati-e ceilings in Stucco.  These, I think, give you a particularly good sense of the  way in which they were built up almost as reliefs in some parts  of the scenes.  This figure here, for example, some of the rest was  painted.  We see heraldic leopards over here on either side of a vase.  The shell in the niche also done in Stucco and raised in a very  natural way, and then the whole painted in a  variety of attractive maroons and blues and greens.  The most interesting tomb, from my point of view,  actually, is a tomb that is located, a Roman tomb of the  second century, that is located beneath the  Vatican today.  And I show you a view, again, of the dome of St.  Peter's Cathedral in Rome, designed by Michelangelo himself,  another view over here showing also Michelangelo's dome,  but showing below it the so-called Baldochino that was  put up by the famous 17th century Italian architect  Borromini, Francesco Borromini.  The Cathedral of St. Peter's, and any of you who've been there  will agree with me on this, is one of the great wonders of the  world.  There's no question.  If you want to talk about bigger, it's better.  Or biggest is best.  This is a truly colossal building, as any of you have been  there, no.  But it does give me occasion to mention, as I mentioned a couple  of times already this term, that one of the really great  things to do when you visit Rome is to climb things.  Is to climb, if you're so lucky, to climb the column of  Trajan or the pantheon up to the dome, those you have to get  special permission to do.  But what you don't need special permission to do,  and is one of the great climbs in Rome, is to go up St.  Peter's.  And you can go up St. Peter's either on the outside of the  building, to various levels, from which you can see some of  the greatest views of Rome, including back over,  central Rome, ancient Rome, all the buildings that we've  been talking about.  You can see the dome of the pantheon from the top of St.  Peter's.  You can see the Victor Emmanuel monument, tall and proud,  from the dome of St. Peter's.  But you can also climb up to the dome from the inside,  which is another extraordinary experience.  You can go almost, not quite, but almost to the apex of  Michelangelo's dome, walk around a corridor there,  and look down on Bernini's baldochino.  So for those of you who are going to Rome anytime soon or in  the future, it's a not-to-be-missed experience to  climb the Cathedral of St. Peter's on the outside and also on  the inside.  I bring you to St. Peter's because one can also go down  underneath St. Peter's, and that's another very  interesting experience, to go down in the depths beneath  St. Peter's and get a really great sense of the centuries of  civilization that have been piled, one on top of another,  from ancient Rome or from the time of Romulus,  indeed, all the way up to today.  And in order to see the tomb of the Caitaini-e,  which is a tomb that I want to turn to now,  you do have to go down underneath St. Peter's.  You have to.  This is something you can't just walk in.  You can climb St. Peter's any day of the week.  But if you want to go underneath St. Peter's,  you have to make special arrangements.  You have to get special tickets to do that,  and now one can do that online.  You can plan that online, and you can get tickets to go  to the so-called Vatican Cemetery underneath and they don't  have them.  They have a small number of hours on a variety of days,  so it is something one needs to plan for well in advance.  But you can do it.  You go to the left of the Baldicchino, you go down,  and you go down century upon century.  You see primarily the tombs of the popes,  the crypts with the tombs of the popes,  and I show you Pope Boniface here, just to give you an idea  of what some of these look like lying in eternity here on the  top of his sarcophagus, or a space-sculptured portrait  of him on the top of his sarcophagus.  But if you go all the way down, all the way down,  and most tourists don't do this, but if you go all the way to  the bottom, what you end up with is one of Rome's  great tomb streets.  And this tomb street was out in the light of day,  of course, in antiquity, like all the other tomb  streets, but because of the passage of time,  because other buildings that were built on top,  primarily the Cathedral of St. Peter's,  and just the rising ground level over time,  it now is subterranean.  But when you, it's amazing, you go down,  you walk along it, it is like you are walking,  I mean, it's a dark street, but nonetheless,  I wouldn't want to record in that street.  But you go down under, it's a dark street,  but it is, you feel like you are walking along a major tomb  street in Rome, and indeed you are.  And I show you a plan of it here so that you can see it is very  much like walking along the tomb street in Isola Sacra.  You see at your left and right these concrete brick-faced  tombs that look very much like the tomb of Anirigala,  or the ones that we saw in Isola Sacra,  typical house tombs of the second century A.D.  One of the tombs that is located down there has long been  thought by scholars and believers to be the tomb of St. Peter.  No one has been able to prove this incontrovertibly,  but there is some interesting evidence,  both pro and con.  And it has been thought, and you know Peter's famous  statement, you know, upon this rock I shall build this  church, namely the Church of St. Peter's.  We believe that when Constantine, the last pagan emperor,  and we're going to talk about him in the last lecture,  this semester, when Constantine built the first  Basilica, Christian Basilica on this site,  the Basilica that we refer to as Old St. Peter's,  that obviously predated New St. Peter's,  he, we think he may have built it on that very rock and on that  very tomb of St. Peter, and that's what this restored  view shows you here.  If you walk along, though, and look at these tombs,  for the most part they look like typical Roman tombs from the  second century, brick-faced concrete  construction with interesting decoration inside,  and I show you just the most famous mosaic that is located  down there, which you see as a figure in a  chariot. We think it's a representation of  the sun god Saul, or Helios, in the chariot,  because you can see the raid crown, but some believe it is a  representation of Christ as Helios, and I show it to you only  because it is the single most famous mosaic down there,  and one of the most famous mosaics in Rome,  but also because it heralds what we're going to begin to see  happening, especially in the last lecture,  and that is this transition from paganism to Christianity in  Rome, Constantine being the last pagan,  first Christian emperor, and this interesting way in which  pagan imagery allides into Christian imagery,  both in terms of figural decoration, but also in terms of  architecture. Because it's so poorly lighted  down there, I can't show you a good picture of the tombs  beneath St. Peter's, but I can show you another set  of tombs beneath a that are very well lighted and can be  photographed better, beneath a columbarium,  an underground catacomb, actually an underground burial  area that was used by the early Christians in Rome,  and you see that it's called, you don't have to worry about,  it's called the Church of San Sebastiano,  and these tombs are underneath that.  But I showed them to you here just to give you a sense of what  that tomb street looked like underneath the Vatican,  or looks like underneath the Vatican,  concrete, brick-faced tombs, looking very similar to those  we saw at Isola Sacra, the same travertine door jams,  inscriptions, slit windows.  And if you look through the entranceway of this one,  you will see it's barrel vaulted, and it has a scheme that is  very similar to the stucco decoration of the tomb of the  Valeriae, with these circles done in raised stucco and with  the floating figures in between them.  And this is exactly what it looks like beneath the Vatican.  I can show you some views of the interiors of some of the  Vatican tombs, because those have lights in them,  they're better-lighted.  You can see them here.  We see this interesting combination that we also saw at Isola  Sacra, of the smaller niches that are used for urns,  and the larger archisolia that are used for the placement of  bodies.  And then you can see in this view on the right the way in  which the tombs are closed off those archisolia by placing  marble plaques on them that either have inscriptions or  sometimes figural scenes, and then again here a freestanding  sarcophagi on these interiors as well.  This is an axonometric view from Ward Perkins of the Tomb of  the Caetainii.  It dates to 160 A.D. in the Vatican Cemetery in Rome.  And I think you can see here both the brick-faced concrete  structure, the way in which the windows have similar stucco  decoration to what we saw on the tomb of Ania Regilla,  on the Via Appia in Rome.  But most interesting for us is the way in which the interior is  treated, because this is my type too.  Here we will see some stucco, but you will see here that the  walls are enlivened in a different way.  They are enlivened through architectonic means,  through the use of columns, through the use of niches,  through the use of pediments, triangular pediments,  but also broken triangular pediments.  Here you see a pediment that has been split apart,  triangular pediments split apart to show what is inside.  This is the same scheme that we saw in second-style Roman wall  painting way back when, this whole idea of taking the  traditional vocabulary of architecture and dealing with it  in a very different way than had been done before,  breaking the rules, so to speak.  We see that happening here.  But the main thing is that we're looking at this designer using  architectural members to create the visual interest of the walls  of the structure.  You can also see in this axonometric view this combination  of small niches for cinerary urns and then these larger  archisolia for the body.  So cremation and enumation still going on hand in hand during  the second century AD.  This is a spectacular view of the interior of the Tomb of the  Caitene E.  And here you can really see what I mean.  Yes, there is some stucco.  If you look at the vaults, you will see that this is,  again, a groin vault that has been stuccoed over,  and it had the same kind of compartments and painted  decoration, relief decoration that we saw in the Tomb of the  Pancrati.  But you can see that most of the effects have been done through  architectural means.  If you look carefully, you will see that there is a black  and white mosaic on the floor, not so different from what we  see in Ostia.  There are niches on the walls.  These niches used for the cinerary urns, archisolia down  here for the bodies.  But, and there are stucco decoration in the use of the  shells that you can see here.  But if you look very carefully at the combination of sort of  maroon and cherry red walls, you will see the remains of the  architectural members that served to enliven this space.  Look up here.  You will see that there was a triangular pediment over the  central niche.  You can see parts of the broken triangular pediments on either  side.  You can see the remains of capitals, and beneath those  would have been the projecting columns that we saw in the  axonometric view in Ward Perkins.  So this, again, the second type where the walls are  strengthened with architectural members, and those  architectural members, when intact,  would have created a scheme in which you had progression  recession, progression recession,  all along the wall.  This in-and-out scheme that we're going to see becomes the  hallmark of what I'm going to term here this semester,  the Baroque element in Roman antiquity,  in Roman architecture.  All of these buildings were being put up during the reign of  Hadrian's successor.  Hadrian had died in 138 A.D., and he was succeeded by a man by  the name of Antoninus Pius, whose portrait you see here on  the upper right.  Antoninus Pius, again, was, he reigned for a quite long  time.  He reigned between 138 and 161 A.D.  It was a period of extraordinary peace.  He, like Hadrian, was a peace-loving man.  He was able to maintain that peace exceedingly in the  world, and that peace exceedingly well,  and Rome really thrived under his emperorship.  He's also interesting because he seems to have had more of a  love relationship with his wife than any other Roman emperor  that I can think of, a relationship that was so  strong that when his wife died, he became emperor,  here's his wife, Faustina the Elder,  when he became emperor in 138, but she died already in 141.  And as I mentioned, he stayed emperor until 161,  so he was emperor for twenty more years after her death.  He never forgot her.  He stayed completely enamored of her.  He never remarried.  We don't even have any rumors that he had any concubines or  anything like that.  He seems to have said completely true to her.  And what's interesting is that when the two of them died,  their successors, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus,  put up a monument to them.  And it's not on your monument.  Listen, I'm not holding you responsible for it,  but I just want to show it to you because it will illuminate a  monument that I am going to show you in a moment.  This base, which served as the base for a porphyry column that  was located on top, it represents a scene in which  you see Antoninus Pius and his wife, Faustina the Elder,  being carried to heaven on the back of a male personification.  We see Roma in the bottom right, and she is saluting them.  She is bearing witness to what is a representation of their  joint divinization.  The two of them, Faustina the Elder,  divinized at her death in 141.  Antoninus Pius divinized at his death in 161,  and yet we see them being carried to heaven as if their  divinizations happened exactly at the same time.  This is obviously a fiction.  It is a conflation of time.  It is a fiction of which the Romans were particularly adept in  their sculptural representations.  But I show it to you here because it has some bearing on a  temple that I now want to talk about.  This is the so-called Temple of Antoninus Pius and Faustina the  Elder.  It is a temple that Antoninus Pius put up in honor of his wife  in 141 to her as a diva after she was divinized.  But at his own death, twenty years later in 161,  his successors, again Marcus Aurelius and  Lucius Verus, rededicated it to the two of them,  to the divine Antoninus Pius and to the divine Faustina.  It is quite well preserved today, and it is important for two  main reasons.  It is important because it is our best surviving temple that  was put up to an emperor and an empress.  It wasn't the only one, but it's the best surviving  example of that.  And it is another example of the way in which antiquities are  reused over time, in other contexts,  and at later times, and how that reuse sometimes  helps to preserve them.  What I show you now on the screen is a coin on the upper left  representing Faustina the Elder on the obverse of the coin on the  left, her portrait, and it refers to her as diva  Faustina.  So it is a coin that Antoninus Pius struck after her death and  after her divinization.  And we see on the back the temple that Antoninus Pius originally  made in her honor.  Over here we see a series of drawings that come from the  Lord Perkins textbook that show once again a depiction of that  original temple on the coin, and with a legend that says,  Eiternitas for eternity, because now she is a diva for  eternity.  And then a restored view over here of what the temple would  have looked like after it was rededicated to Antoninus and  Faustina in 161.  And then over here the Baroque building that was built into it  in the seventeenth century A.D., when it was turned into the  Church of San Lorenzo in Miranda.  And I put the name San Lorenzo in Miranda on your monument  list.  If we look at the view of it as it was after it was rededicated  to Antoninus Pius and Faustina, we will see a typical Roman  temple.  All the features that we have described so very often in the  course of this semester.  The deep porch, the freestanding columns in the  very tall podium, the single staircase,  the façade, emphasis, we see all of that here.  A very conventional Roman temple with sculpture in the  pediment and decoration on the eaves of the temple as well.  What we see in the bottom left is what happened to this temple  in the seventeenth century.  Part of it was preserved, maybe more of it was preserved,  we're not absolutely sure, but at least part of it was  preserved.  The walls, the side walls, and also the columns and the  front of the, well, the side walls primarily,  and the columns, and the lintel over here that has the  inscription that dedicates the temple to Antoninus Pius and  Faustina.  But what you see behind it is the Baroque façade rising up,  a Baroque façade that has buttresses, and I'm going to show  it to you in actuality in a moment, that has buttresses on  the side, that has this wonderful split-arcuated  pediment, a split-arcuated pediment that would have been  impossible to conceive, I believe, without these  architects, Baroque architects of seventeenth century,  looking back to the Baroque element in Roman antiquity.  The cross is added in the center, of course.  But there's one major difference between this building and  this building.  Does anyone see what that is besides the addition of the  Baroque façade?  What, a little louder?  The podium, exactly.  Emily, right?  The podium is not there.  The podium is not there.  The staircase is not there.  Why is that, Emily?  I don't know if it's because of, like, the land is going...  Yes. ...before it's...  Yes.  The ground level has risen so that at the time that they  decide to turn the Temple of Antoninus Pius and Phalassina  into San Lorenzo in Miranda, this is where the ground level  is.  There's no podium anymore.  The podium is completely underground, as are part of the  columns.  We see only the part of the columns.  So they put the door at the bottom, what is the bottom at  that particular time.  Now let me show you the building today.  It's very well preserved.  So you see what I mean by the best preserved monument to the  best preserved Temple to an emperor and an empress in Rome.  Extremely well preserved.  You see its location is in the Roman Forum, with the backdrop  of the imperial fora behind it, the Forum of Augustus,  the Forum of Trajan, in the Roman Forum.  So prime real estate for this Temple when Antoninus Pius  decides to build it to his wife.  We see here the original podium, the original staircase,  the original columns, gray granite columns,  white marble capitals.  We see the original lintel with the inscription still preserved,  to divine Antoninus Pius, to divine Faustina.  We see the original two-for-walls of the side.  We see the lintel on this side that also has a frieze that is  preserved from antiquity.  And then we see growing up behind it the 17th century Baroque  Church with its buttresses and with its broken,  arcuated pediment.  And if you look very carefully, you will see this was ground  level in the 17th century.  This is the 17th century door.  This is the ancient door down here.  I'll show you a couple of views where you can see that even  more clearly.  Here's another view showing you those gray granite columns,  the white capitals, the 17th century door,  and then down here the ancient door,  which shows you more dramatically than anything else I've  been able to show you this semester, this change in ground  level.  These are the views that I took that show you the same here,  the 17th century door.  So you have to think of all of this underground in the 17th  century, and then only in more modern times was the temple  excavated, Temple and Church excavated down to their original  level.  Here's another view showing you again the 17th century doorway,  the earlier doorway, the staircase,  a little baby down here, which I was happy to have for  scale.  It gives you a sense once again of how, and that makes it even  more dramatic because I don't know if it's a he or a she,  she, she, sitting there, that she makes it even more  dramatic to demonstrate to you again, since this is a lecture  on bigger is better, that this temple to Antoninus  and Faustina was also very, very, also is very,  very large in scale.  When Antoninus Pius died in 161, he was succeeded by Marcus  Aurelius and Lucius Verus.  Marcus Aurelius, one of the most famous of the Roman  emperors, the great Stoic philosopher,  and you see him in a portrait here.  You see Lucius Verus on the left-hand side.  The two of them were co-emperors between 161 and 169.  Lucius Verus died in battle in 169.  Marcus Aurelius continued on alone until the year 180 AD,  so he too had a very long reign.  Marcus spent most of his reign, however, on the front.  During the period that he was emperor, the barbarians were  literally at the gates.  There was concern that they were going to, in fact,  overrun the city, completely overrun the empire,  completely, and he had to spend most of his reign on the  frontiers, and he did, beating back those barbarians.  For that reason, there was very little  architectural construction, even though he had a very long  reign, there was very little architectural construction  during the time of Marcus Aurelius, because of the time that  he had to spend in war.  He was succeeded by his son, Commodus, whose portrait you see  down here.  Commodus in the line, also in the megalomaniacal line,  of Nero, and Domitian, a man who saw himself as a god on  earth, who saw himself as the Greek hero  Hercules.  He called himself Hercules Romanus, and we see him in his  most famous and most fabulous, is about one of the best  portraits preserved from ancient Rome.  It's in the capital line museums today, and you see him  masquerading here as Hercules with the lion skin around his  head, holding the club, holding the apples of the  hisperides, demonstrating that he has  completed that last labor just as Hercules had done and is  doing to become a god in the manner of Hercules.  He used to parade around in Rome openly in this way,  and actually struck coins, showing himself as Hercules  Romanus, just to give you a sense of how  extreme it was.  And he was always challenging people to hand-to-hand combat.  And in fact, he eventually got his comeuppance,  because although he himself also reigned for quite a while  between 180 and 192, so he lasted for twelve years,  but nonetheless, even his closest advisors  eventually turned against him and plotted behind his back and  arranged for one of the most famous gladiators of the day,  Narcissus, interestingly called Narcissus,  to take up Commodus' offer to fight anybody who wanted to fight  him in the Colosseum.  And of course he thought that being protected him and that he,  as well as the leader of Nero, who fixed the Olympic games in  his favor, that Commodus would also never lose in a contest like  this, because he was by definition emperor,  but his advisors turned against him, let Narcissus lose,  and Commodus was slain by Narcissus in the Colosseum.  But he did, I do want to just mention,  and only in passing, Commodus did put up a column  to his father, Marcus Aurelius, that is based very closely on  the column of Trajan in Rome.  I'm not going to go into it with you today because the  architectural complex in which it was originally found no longer  survives, but I just wanted you to be  aware that the column of Trajan was succeeded by the column of  Marcus Aurelius.  I want to, however, turn for the rest of the lecture to a new  dynasty that came to the fore after the end of the so-called  Antonine emperors.  When Commodus died, there were no more Antonines to  succeed him, and Rome once again fell into a civil war,  and there were rivals warring with one another for supreme power.  And the man who came to the fore was a man by the name of  Pertinax, P-E-R-T-I-N-A-X.  But he had other rivals, and one of them was the man who  eventually really came out on top, and his name was Lucius  Septimius Severus.  Lucius Septimius Severus was, within that year,  between 92 and 93, able to get rid of not only  Pertinax but other rivals and become supreme ruler of Rome.  And because he, like Vespasian before him,  had two sons to succeed him, Caracalla and Gaeta,  he was able to set up a new dynasty, the so-called Severan,  what we call the Severan S-E-V-E-R-A-N,  the Severan Dynasty in Rome.  The Severan Dynasty in Rome extremely important because  Septimius Severus commissioned some important structures,  both public structures and private.  He was an interesting emperor because he combined an interest  in the two.  And then his son, Caracalla, who epitomizes,  as I began today, the whole bigger is better or  biggest is best philosophy in life and in architecture.  I want to show you first just to introduce you to these two  patrons this wonderful painted tondo that is preserved from  Rome.  It was found, excuse me, not in Rome but in Egypt,  and is now in a museum in Berlin.  But it is important because it is our only surviving painting of  an emperor, and not only an emperor but an emperor in his  whole family, his wife and his children,  the only surviving painting of an emperor today.  But there were obviously many of these in antiquity.  It's a fascinating painting.  We see Septimius Severus with his gray hair and beard and his  wonderful jeweled crown.  We see his wife, Julia Domna, who by the way,  I neglected to mention, but one of the interesting things  about Septimius Severus' biography is the fact that he was  born not in Rome and not in Spain, as Trajan and Hadrian had  been, but rather in North Africa in a place called Leptis  Magna, L-E-P-T-I-S, new word, M-A-G-N-A,  in Leptis Magna, born in North Africa.  He hooked up with a woman from Syria whose name was Julia  Domna.  She was the daughter of an important priest in Syria called  Bacianus.  She was famous in Rome for her wigs.  She used to wear wigs, and you can see her wearing one of her  wigs in this wonderful painted portrait.  She also clearly liked jewelry because you can see her with  these fabulous triple pearl earrings and a wonderful pearl  necklace here also, looking very vibrant in this  portrait.  And then the two of them with their sons,  their elder son Caracalla, over here,  and their younger son, or what remains of him,  Gata on the left.  Gata and Caracalla succeeded their father together as co-rulers,  but Caracalla, very jealous of his brother,  who was much more popular with the Roman populace than Caracalla  himself was, and Caracalla eventually had his  brother murdered.  And after his brother was murdered he convinced that his  Caracalla convinced the Roman Senate to issue a domnatio  memoriai, or a damnation, of the memory of Gata,  and an attempt was made to eradicate Gata from history by  eradicating him from art.  And you can see that he was snuffed out.  His face was removed on this.  But then it was left to stand to show the power that Caracalla  had to destroy his brother, as you can see here.  This gives you a glimpse into the mind and psyche of Caracalla.  I want to show you first, though, two buildings.  Before we look at the Bazz of Caracalla,  I do want to show you two buildings of Septimius Severus,  a public building first, the so-called Arch of Septimius  Severus in the Roman Forum, and then an extension to the  Palatine Palace.  The Arch of Septimius Severus in the Roman Forum dates to A.D.  203, and it commemorates the Parthian victory of Septimius  Severus.  Severus, I already mentioned to you, came to power in a civil  war.  So like Augustus, and like Vespasian before him,  he needed to gain legitimacy by having an important foreign  victory.  And he does this by looking east, as Augustus had done before  him, looking to Parthia, and does war with Parthia,  and in fact has an important victory, and celebrates that  important victory in this triumphal arch that is put up in  his honor in 203 A.D.  In once again the choice is spot of real estate in Rome,  the Forum Romanum, the Roman Forum.  I show you a Google Earth view over here.  We've seen this one before, so you've undoubtedly got this  one memorized by now, this Google Earth image of the Roman  Forum as it looks today, with the Colosseum up there,  with the Via De Fori imperiali, imperial for over here,  the Circus Maximus, the Palatine Hill,  the Campadolio, Capitalin Hill is redesigned by  Michelangelo, the Wedding Cake of Victor  Emanuel.  Here between the Campadolio and the Colosseum we see,  of course, the remains of the ancient Roman Forum,  much lower ground level than the modern ground level.  You'll recall the location of the Temple of Venus in Roma,  just underneath the Colosseum of the Arch of Titus on the  Aethelia, and you should remember also that we talked way in the  beginning of the term about two arches, two successive arches,  built in honor of Augustus, first his Actaean victory,  victory in Actaeum, and then his victory over the  Parthians, which is over here.  And then, if we look very closely, it's a little hard to  see when I'm up this close, but we look very closely,  we will see the location, I think it's roughly around here,  of the Arch of Septimius Severus.  You can see it better in this plan of the Roman Forum as it  developed between the third and seventh centuries A.D.  We see the tabularium at the top, which means we're close to  the Capitoline Hill.  We see two basilicas that were put up in the Republican  period.  We see a temple that we did not study that was put up in honor  of the Divine Julius Caesar by Augustus.  We see the Speaker's Platform, we see the Senate House,  which I will show you in a later lecture.  And over here we see the location of what was originally  the Actaean Arch of Augustus, and then the Parthian Arch of  Augustus.  And remember that the Parthian Arch of Augustus had a triple  opening.  And then, if you look at the rest of the plan,  you will see the location of the Arch of Septimius Severus over  there, diagonally across in dialogue with the Parthian Arch  of Augustus.  Was this coincidence?  Absolutely not.  This was clearly very carefully orchestrated by Septimius  Severus and his advisors to build his Parthian Arch in  dialogue with the Parthian Arch of Augustus.  With regard to its form, it also made reference to the  Augustan Arch.  I show you here the Arch of Septimius Severus as it looks  today.  It is our first example that we've seen this semester of a  Roman arch with a triple-arcuated opening,  a large arch-uated opening in the center flanked by two  smaller, lower arch-uated entrances.  We have not seen that before.  First surviving example in Rome.  We remember, if we look, think back to the arches we have  explored from the time of Augustus on.  You'll remember that they are single-bade arches.  Augustus' Actaean Arch, the Arch of Titus,  and even the second-century arch of Trajan at Benevento.  But, as I've already said today, if we look back to the coin,  the arch no longer exists, but we look back to a coin  depiction of the Parthian Arch of Augustus,  it had three openings, a central arch-uated opening,  and then two rectangular openings,  traviated openings with pediments on either side,  flanking it.  So this is not the Parthian Arch of Augustus,  is not a triple-arcuated arch, but it is a three-opening arch.  And I think there is no question that those three openings  are being alluded to in the Severin Arch and being transformed  into something that was new, which was the idea of the  triple-arcuated bay.  Or maybe it wasn't so new, because there's an arch,  the arch that you see down here, in the south of France,  at Orange, and we'll look at this arch when we make our journey  to the south of France in an upcoming lecture.  We will look at this arch, and it's a triple-bade arch,  just like the Arch of Septimius Severus.  It's covered with sculpture, just like the Arch of Septimius  Severus.  So for a while there were scholars who dated this to the time  of Septimius Severus, although put up in the provinces.  But a recent scholarship, more recent scholarship,  has demonstrated scholars have looked at the piles of arms and  armor on here and identified it as piles of arms and armor that  had to do with battles that took place in the south of France,  or what is now the south of France, in the age of Augustus.  There's also an inscription referring to a specific historical  figure who lived during the late period of Augustus and into the  time of Tiberius.  So it seems very likely that this is not a Severan arch,  but a Tiberian arch.  And I show it to you here only because while we usually,  and this may be helpful to some of you who are doing papers,  topics, or city plans in the provinces,  we usually think of ideas flowing from the center to the  periphery.  But here we seem to have an idea that comes to the fore first  in the periphery and then ends up ultimately in the center.  Although, of course, there are lots of missing pieces to  the ancient puzzle.  I mean, there are lots of monuments that have not come down  to us.  So it is not inconceivable that a triple-bade arch was built in  Rome earlier, but we just have no evidence for it.  I want to show you the arch itself very quickly because it's  mainly a work of sculpture.  But just to show you the three bays, victories in the spandrels,  down here, inscription at the top.  You have to imagine the great bronze quadriga of the emperor at  the apex.  Decorated bases down here.  But most interesting are the panels that we see,  four panels that we see, two on either side of the arch.  And I show you a detail, a very good detail,  of one of them here, although it's weathered.  You can see it quite well.  You can see that this panel, instead of having full-length  figures standing on a single ground line,  as we saw, for example, in the Fries of the Arapacas,  we see figures on a number of tiers here,  small figures on a number of tiers.  It should remind you of the scenes on the column of Trajan,  the spiral, the spiral frieze with the individual figures  telling the story of war, and in this case the Paparthian  war of Septimius Severus.  But, and so what I think happened here,  my theory and there are others who have said the same,  is that what happened here is that the designer of this got  the idea to take excerpts, in a sense,  from the columns of Trajan, or the column of Marques  Aurelius, and put them in panel format on this monument.  Whether, I don't know whether, you know,  you can think to yourselves whether you think this is  successful or not, I think it probably was not  deemed to be particularly successful,  because it is the only arch design of its type.  No one picked up afterwards and imitated this particular idea.  The base is down below, representing Romans bringing  back Parthian prisoners.  I want to speak very briefly also about Septimius Severus'  extension of the imperial palace on the Palatine Hill.  He extended it to the south.  He lived there, just like every emperor since  demission.  He extended it on the southern side, that's the side nearest  the forum, and he added a façade to it,  a very elaborate façade that does not survive.  It doesn't survive because we know it was torn down in 1588  to 1589 by one of the popes, because the pope wanted to use  it in his own papal building, wanted to use the building  materials in his own papal building.  But fortunately, the artist Martin von Heemskirk,  the Renaissance artist, and I put his name on the  monument list for you, Martin von Heemskirk,  drew some of it while it was being dismantled,  and you see a piece of it over here in the Martin von Heemskirk  drawing.  There's also the plan of the structure also preserved on the  former orbez, and we can see that marble  plan of Rome from the Severin period.  We take both of that evidence together, we can reconstruct it  quite effectively.  We can see that it was a façade that looked very much like a  theater, with wings on either side, with apces here,  three large apces, and columns inside those apces  with other elements that have columns in three tiers,  looking very much like a theater stage set,  all done in marble.  It might have been also a fountain, there might have been a  basin down here with a water display, all of this serving as a  new façade for Domitian's Palace on the Palatine Hill.  It's important because it's another example of this use of  progression recession, progression recession across  the façade to give an in-and-out undulating movement using  the traditional vocabulary of architecture in a way that is  striking and in a way that, again, heralds this new Baroque  style in Roman architecture.  I also mentioned, just as the last point about this  monument, that we also, the reason it's called the  Septizodium, or the Septizonium, and you see that name on the  monument list for you, the reason it's referred to as  Septizodium is because it was thought to honor the,  or to commemorate the seven planets, which is not surprising  in the orbit of Septimius Severus and Julia Domna,  because we know that Julia Domna was an avid follower of  astrological signs, used to predict what was going  to happen in her husband's reign through those signs,  and this is likely a nod to her particular astrological  interest.  In the nine or ten minutes that remain, I want to end today  with this extraordinary imperial bath structure that was  designed at the behest of the emperor Caracalla.  When Septimius Severus died in 211, he was succeeded by  Caracalla and by Gaeta.  I've already told you what Caracalla did to get rid of Gaeta,  and Caracalla became sole emperor in 212 A.D.,  and remained emperor until his death in 217 A.D.,  and one of his major commissions was this imperial bath  structure.  He wanted to ape his father, because we know that Septimius  Severus had also built a major public bath in Rome,  the termae septimianae.  They do not survive.  We have very little knowledge of them, so there isn't anything  that I can show you or tell you about them,  but we know he built it.  So like father like son, he wanted to outdo his father,  this is like Bush I, Bush II, wanted to outdo his father  and to build an even larger bathing establishment,  and he does it here in Rome, a bathing establishment called  the Baz of Caracalla, or the termae antoninianae.  Baz of Caracalla dates to 212 to 216 A.D.  Any of you who have seen it will agree with me.  This is one, if we had a Trajan's Forum,  it was the mother of all forms.  This is certainly the mother of all imperial bath structures.  This is quite something.  Fortunately, much of it survives, mainly the concrete  shell, concrete shell of itself.  But we can see the outlines here in this Google Earth image,  which shows you not only the bathing block,  but also part of the precinct that surrounded it,  because we shall see, if we look at a plan of the  Baz of Caracalla, which you see here in the bottom  left, this is a detail of just the bathing block.  And if we compare the general plan with the plan of the Baz of  Trajan in Rome, we will see that the Baz of  Trajan, which were very large in their own day,  have been exceeded here in terms of size,  but are very much in the same general format.  And by that I mean a large bathing block here inside a larger  precinct that precinct has around it a host of rooms that  were used as lecture halls and seminar rooms,  and Greek and Latin libraries, so a great locus of  intellectual as well as wellness in the city of Rome in the  third century A.D.  We see that in the Baz of Caracalla, just as,  if we look at the bathing block, just as in the Baz of Trajan,  we see that all the main bathing rooms, which were used both  for men and women, but probably at different times of day,  are aligned with one another.  We see the great frigidarium here with the triple groin vault  over that, buttressed by rooms with barrel vaults on either  side.  We see a conventional vertically oriented  tepidarium, essentially a rectangle here,  leading into the caldarium.  So all of these unaxis, frigidarium, tepidarium,  caldarium, caldarium, a roundish structure with alcoves,  but very large in scale.  In fact, you'll be interested to hear that the span of the dome  of the caldarium of the Baz of Caracalla was almost as large as  the span of the dome of the pantheon in Rome,  just to get you, give you a sense of the extraordinary,  bigger is better, scale in this particular bath.  Over here, a Natatio, located where it usually isn't,  but here on axis, with the other rooms,  an interesting Natatio with a scalloped side screened by  columns, and then otherwise all the rooms  symmetrically disposed around it, two palestri,  one on either side, matching rooms symmetrically  disposed around the central building block.  So the same imperial bath structure type that we saw  developed under Titus and Trajan, but taken to much larger  scale here.  This model shows you that the hall here,  we are looking back at the walls, which were very plain on  three sides, toward the Natatio,  toward the vaulting of the frigidarium,  and then the dome, as you can see there,  of the caldarium.  Interesting is the front side of the,  or the side where you can see the caldarium projecting over  here, which you can see is opened up much more than the  other sides, with a series of columns,  screened columns, and then columns screening and  opening up the caldarium as well on the southern side of the  monument.  Just a few views to give you a sense of what this structure  looks like today.  Again, it's mainly piles of concrete faced with brick,  but you can see some of the soaring vaults still there.  This is a, this is, in fact, this is,  even in this view, it's much smaller than it would  have been, because so much of the ceilings and the  vaults are missing today.  But you can get a sense by looking at this family of four  standing next to it, the colossal scale of the  Bazz of Caracalla in Rome.  Here's another view with some tourists as well to also give you  a sense.  Again, this is very incomplete today,  but it still gives you some idea of the colossal magnitude of  this particular bath structure.  As one walks through it, there's actually very little  ornamental decoration still preserved,  but there was plenty in antiquity.  You can see here and there some fragments of a freeze.  This is a restored view of what the frigidarium would have  looked like, the most important room in the  bath, which would have been triple-growing vaulted,  as you can see here, which would have had gray  granite columns with white marble capitals,  and would have had an incredible sculptural display.  And Caracalla liked Domitian before him.  Remember Domitian's Aula Regia and those colossal statues of  Dionysus and Apollo, with whom Domitian wanted to  associate himself, Caracalla, of the same ilk who also  wanted to ally himself with great heroes of the past,  great gods of the past, and he follows the lead of  Comedus, in whose model he looked back again to  Nero, Domitian to Comedus.  And he likened himself to Hercules, and we have sculpture  that is preserved from the frigidarium that represents  Hercules, Hercules the famous weary Hercules type.  This is now in Naples, in the Archaeological Museum,  the statue, but it comes from the frigidarium of the  Baths of Caracalla.  We're absolutely sure of that.  And it depicts the weary Hercules.  It is a Roman copy.  The artist we know his name, I put his name on the monument  list for you, Glycon of Athens.  So an Athenian sculptor working in the time of Caracalla makes  this copy, but he makes it of a very famous lost Greek  original by the Greek sculptor Lysippus,  whose name is also on your monument list,  a work of art that he originally made in the 330s B.C.  So Glycon of Athens copies, Lysippus also makes it a  piece, Lysippus also of Greece, the statue at the behest,  again, of Caracalla.  And the fact that this was a theme or a leitmotif that ran  through all the decoration of the frigidarium is underscored by  the fact that a composite capital that survives also from the  frigidarium shows a figure of that same weary Hercules,  interspersed with the acanthus leaves of that capital.  So again, a very carefully orchestrated program to try to  underscore the relationships between Caracalla and Hercules.  Giometric mosaics, not unlike those in Ostia found,  and still exist in the Bazaar Caracalla today,  black and white with a little addition of color.  Here another section that shows you the interest in geometry,  as well as floral motifs.  This detail that you can also see on the site still today  showing the sea scenes that were not the kind of scenes one  would expect in a bath, very similar to those at Ostia,  but done in a somewhat more of a better way.  And then the pièce de résistance, I think,  of the mosaics of the Bazaar Caracalla and well preserved  today, was a mosaic that you can see as  curved to be placed into a room of this shape that depict on the  floor all the famous athletes and gladiators of the day,  either in full-length statues or in portrait images.  And I don't doubt that these would have been recognizable  stars, superstars, the Alex Rodriguez of their day,  superstars flexing their muscles for the public and hoping to be  recognized by everyone who came to this bath.  And you can just imagine men and women standing above looking  at each other trying to pick out who is depicted here.  Here's another view that I took that is in its current location,  which is in the Vatican Museums in Rome.  That's where one needs to go to see what survives of this  wonderful mosaic with the athletes and gladiators of the day.  And I show them to you here as well.  And if you look at these, you can see that they not only  are shown, some are already victors,  some are taking part in their sport.  But once again, just as in the Alexander mosaic,  we see the use of a lot of different colored tesserae.  We see cast shadows.  This is very well done, wonderful facial configurations  done by what must have been the leading mosaicist of the day  for the baths of Caracalla.  And just in closing today, I thought I would show you one  of those heads blown up to poster size, as you can see here,  but also put it next to an actual portrait of Caracalla.  This is not a course in sculpture, but I wanted to show this  to you, especially since it's a portrait that you can see.  It's in New York at the Metropolitan Museum of Art,  a very powerful portrait of a very intense Roman emperor,  as you can see on the left.  But I think there is some relationship between the way in  which the sculptors have depicted Caracalla with his very  cubic and abstract faces, short military hairstyle,  and the depictions of the athletes and the gladiators.  So I think he was not only trying to draw a relationship  between himself and Hercules Romanus,  but also between himself and some of the greatest athletes  and gladiators of the day, to underscore his strength as a  leader.  It was all for naught ultimately, but nonetheless he  achieved it, and I think it also speaks to him as a man with  that bigger, is better philosophy.  Thank you.
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