Naga people Languages What were the languages of the Naga people? Naga people speak over 89 different languages and dialects, mostly unintelligible with each other. However, there are many similarities Do they have any language in common? Per Grierson's classification system, Naga languages can be grouped into Western, Central and Eastern Naga groups. Who makes the Western Nasa groups? The Western group includes among others Angami, Chokri, Khezha and Rengma.
Who makes the central naga groups?
Who made the central Naga group?
Nagas have more language diversity than any other ethnic group or states in India. Naga people speak over 89 different languages and dialects, mostly unintelligible with each other. However, there are many similarities in between different languages spoken by them. Per Grierson's classification system, Naga languages can be grouped into Western, Central and Eastern Naga groups. The Western group includes among others Angami, Chokri, Khezha and Rengma. The Central Naga group includes Ao, and Lotha ; while Eastern group includes Konyak, Phom, Sangtam, Khiamniungan, Yimchunger and Chang tribes. The Sumi group originating in both central and western parts. In addition, there are Naga-Bodo group illustrated by Mikir language, and Kuki group of languages illustrated by Sopvama (also called Mao Naga) and Luppa languages. These mostly belong to the Tibeto-Burman language group of the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. Shafer came up with his own classification system for languages found in and around Nagaland.  The diversity of languages and traditions of the Nagas results most likely from the multiple cultural absorptions that occurred during their successive migrations. According to legend, before settling in the region, these groups moved over vast zones, and in the process, some clans were absorbed into one or more other tribes. Therefore, until recent times, absorptions were a source of many interclan conflicts.  In 1967, the Nagaland Assembly proclaimed English as the official language of Nagaland and it is the medium for education in Nagaland. Other than English, Nagamese, a creole language form of the Assamese language, is a widely spoken language. Every tribe has its own mother tongue but communicates with other tribes in Nagamese or English. However, English is the predominant spoken and written language in Nagaland. CANNOTANSWER
The Central Naga group includes Ao, and Lotha ;
Nagas are various ethnic groups native to northeastern India and northwestern Myanmar. The groups have similar cultures and traditions, and form the majority of population in the Indian state of Nagaland and Naga Self-Administered Zone of Myanmar; with significant populations in Manipur, and Assam in India; Sagaing Region and Kachin State in Myanmar (Burma).

The Nagas are divided into various Naga ethnic groups whose numbers and population are unclear. They each speak distinct Naga languages often unintelligible to the others.

Etymology
The present day Naga people have been called by many names, like 'Noga' by Assamese 'chingmi' by Manipuri and 'Chin' by Burmese.  However, over time 'Naga' became the commonly accepted nomenclature, and was also used by the British. According to the Burma Gazetteer, the term 'Naga' is of doubtful origin and is used to describe hill tribes that occupy the country between the Chin in the south and Kachin (Singpho) in the Northeast.

Languages

The Naga languages are either classified under the Kuki-Chin-Naga languages or the Sal languages.

Nagas have more language diversity than any other ethnic group or states in India. Naga people speak over 89 different languages and dialects, mostly unintelligible with each other. However, there are many similarities in between different languages spoken by them. 
The diversity of languages and traditions of the Nagas results most likely from the multiple cultural absorptions that occurred during their successive migrations. According to legend, before settling in the region, these groups moved over vast zones, and in the process, some clans were absorbed into one or more other groups. Therefore, until recent times, absorptions were a source of many interclan conflicts.

In 1967, the Nagaland Assembly proclaimed English as the official language of Nagaland and it is the medium for education in Nagaland. Other than English, Nagamese, a creole language form of the Assamese language, is a widely spoken language. Every community has its own mother tongue but communicates with other communities in either Nagamese or English. However, English is the predominant spoken and written language in Nagaland. Hindi is also taught along with English in most schools and most Nagas prefer to used Hindi to communicate with the migrant workers of the state, that primarily comes from Bihar, UP and Madhya Pradesh.

Culture

Art

The Naga people love colour as is evident in the shawls designed and woven by women, and in the headgear that both sexes design. Clothing patterns are traditional to each group, and the cloths are woven by the women. They use beads in variety, profusion and complexity in their jewelry, along with a wide range of materials including glass, shell, stone, teeth or tusk, claws, horns, metal, bone, wood, seeds, hair, and fibre.

According to Dr. Verrier Elwin, these groups made all the goods they used, as was once common in many traditional societies: "they have made their own cloth, their own hats and rain-coats; they have prepared their own medicines, their own cooking-vessels, their own substitutes for crockery.". Craftwork includes the making of baskets, weaving of cloth, wood carving, pottery, metalwork, jewellery-making and bead-work.

Weaving of colorful woolen and cotton shawls is a central activity for women of all Nagas. One of the common features of Naga shawls is that three pieces are woven separately and stitched together. Weaving is an intricate and time consuming work and each shawl takes at least a few days to complete. Designs for shawls and wraparound garments (commonly called mekhala) are different for men and women.  Among many groups the design of the shawl denotes the social status of the wearer. Some of the more known shawls include Tsungkotepsu and Rongsu of the Aos; Sutam, Ethasu, Longpensu of the Lothas; Supong of the Sangtams, Rongkhim and Tsungrem Khim of the Yimkhiungs; and the Angami Lohe shawls with thick embroidered animal motifs.

Naga jewelry is an equally important part of identity, with the entire tribe wearing similar bead jewelry.

The Indian Chamber of Commerce has filed an application seeking registration of traditional Naga shawls made in Nagaland with the Geographical Registry of India for Geographical Indication.

Cuisine

Naga cuisine is characterized by smoked and fermented foods.

Folk song and dances

Folk songs and dances are essential ingredients of the traditional Naga culture. The oral tradition is kept alive through the media of folk tales and songs. Naga folk songs are both romantic and historical, with songs narrating entire stories of famous ancestors and incidents. Seasonal songs describe activities done in a particular agricultural cycle. The early Western missionaries opposed the use of folk songs by Naga Christians as they were perceived to be associated with spirit worship, war, and immorality. As a result, translated versions of Western hymns were introduced, leading to the slow disappearance of indigenous music from the Naga hills.

Folk dances of the Nagas are mostly performed in groups in synchronized fashion, by both men and women, depending on the type of dance. Dances are usually performed at festivals and religious occasions. War dances are performed mostly by men and are athletic and martial in style. All dances are accompanied by songs and war cries by the dancers. Indigenous musical instruments made and used by the people are bamboo mouth organs, cup violins, bamboo flutes, trumpets, drums made of cattle skin, and log drums.

Festivals
The various Naga groups have their own distinct festivals. To promote inter-group interaction, the Government of Nagaland has organized the annual Hornbill Festival since 2000. Another inter-tribe festival is Lui Ngai Ni. The group-specific festivals include:

Naga identity 

The word Naga originated as an exonym. Today, it covers a number of ethnic groups that reside in Nagaland, Manipur, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh states of India, and also in Myanmar.

Before the arrival of the British, the term "Naga" was used by Assamese to refer to certain isolated ethnic groups. The British adopted this term for a number of ethnic groups in the surrounding area, based on loose linguistic and cultural associations. The number of groups classified as "Naga" increased significantly in the 20th century: as of December 2015, 89 groups are classified as Naga by the various sources. This expansion in the "Naga" identity has been due to a number of factors including the quest for upward mobility in the society of Nagaland, and the desire to establish a common purpose of resistance against dominance by other groups.  In this way, the "Naga" identity has not always been fixed.

The Kuki people of Nagaland have been classified as "Naga" in the past, but today are generally considered a non-Naga. The Kuki have had good relations with the Naga in the past, but since the 1990s, conflicts have risen, especially in Manipur.

Nagas in India
Several Naga tribes are listed as scheduled tribes in 6 Indian States: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland

Nagas in Myanmar
Nagas in Myanmar are mostly found in Sagaing Division and Kachin state. The Naga territory in Myanmar is marked by Kabaw valley in the south bordering to the Chin state, the Kachin on the north and the Burmese on the east.

The Major Naga ethnic groups in Myanmar are:

   Konyak
   Lainong
   Makury
   Nokko (Khiamniungan) 
   Para
   Somra Tangkhul
   Tangshang
   Anāl Naga

Some other minor Naga groups are Lamkang, Moyon, Koka, Longphuri, Paung Nyuan, etc

The townships which are inhabited by the Nagas are:
 Homalin
 Lahe with Tanbakwe sub-township
 Layshi with Mowailut sub-township and Somra sub-township
 Hkamti
 Nanyun with Pangsau and Dunghi sub-township
 Tamu of Sagaing Division and
 Tanai of Kachin state

Anal and Moyon are mainly found in Tamu township on the south and a few Somra Nagas are also found in and around Tamu bordering to Layshi jurisdiction. Makury, Para and Somra tribes are mainly found in Layshi township. Makury Nagas and a few Somra Nagas are also found in Homalin township. Lahe is highly populated by Konyak, Nokko, Lainong and Makury tribes. Nanyun on the north is the home of Tangshang tribe which comprises more than 54 sub-dialect groups. Homlin township is highly populated by the considered lost tribes (Red Shans). But Kukis, Burmese, Chinese and Indians are also found there. Hkamti township is populated altogether by all the Naga tribes majority and with a number of Burmese, Shans, Chinese and Indians. Tanai in Kachin state of Myanmar is inhabited by the Tangshang Nagas among the Kachin people.

Gallery

See also
History of the Nagas
List of Naga tribes
List of Naga languages
List of Naga people

References

Further reading
Drouyer, A. Isabel, Drouyer René, " THE NAGAS: MEMORIES OF HEADHUNTERS- Indo-Burmese Borderlands vol.1"; White Lotus, 2016, .
 Wettstein, Marion. 2014. Naga Textiles: Design, Technique, Meaning and Effect of a Local Craft Tradition in Northeast India. Arnoldsche, Stuttgart 2014, .
 von Stockhausen, Alban. 2014. Imag(in)ing the Nagas: The Pictorial Ethnography of Hans-Eberhard Kauffmann and Christoph von Fürer-Haimendorf. Arnoldsche, Stuttgart 2014, .
Shongzan, Mayaso, "A Portrait of the Tangkhul Nagas"; Exodus, 2013, .
Stirn, Aglaja & Peter van Ham. The Hidden world of the Naga: Living Traditions in Northeast India. London: Prestel.
Oppitz, Michael, Thomas Kaiser, Alban von Stockhausen & Marion Wettstein. 2008. Naga Identities: Changing Local Cultures in the Northeast of India. Gent: Snoeck Publishers.
Kunz, Richard & Vibha Joshi. 2008. Naga – A Forgotten Mountain Region Rediscovered. Basel: Merian.

 Shimray, Atai, A.S. - "Let freedom ring?: Story of Naga nationalism".

Novels
 Ben Doherty, Nagaland, Wild Dingo Press, Melbourne, 2018, .

External links

 Official site of Nagaland state government
 Photos of Nagas in Burma by Goto Osami
 Photos of Nagas by Pablo Bartholomew
 Article "Textile & Bead Art of Nagaland"
 National Geographic Why These Headhunters Converted to Christianity
 Naga National Council's Official site

 
Sino-Tibetan-speaking people
Ethnic groups in Northeast India
Indigenous peoples of South Asia
Social groups of Assam
Headhunting
Scheduled Tribes of Nagaland
Ethnic groups in South Asia
Ethnic groups divided by international borders
The Naga languages are a geographic and ethnic grouping of languages under the Kuki-Chin-Naga languages, spoken mostly by Naga peoples.

Northern Naga languages do not fall within the group, in spite of being spoken by Naga groups; instead, these form part of the Sal languages within Sino-Tibetan, while Southern Naga languages form a branch within Kuki-Chin languages subfamily.

Angami-Pochuri

The Angami-Pochuri languages:
Angami:
Angami
Chokri (Chakri, Chakhesang) 
Kheza (Chakhesang) 
Mao (Sopvoma)
Poula (Poumai) 

Pochuri:
Pochuri
Ntenyi (Northern Rengma)
Rengma
Sumi (Sema)

Central Naga(Ao)

The Central Naga languages:
Ao language
Chungli Ao
Mongsen Ao
Changki
Dordar (Yacham)
Longla
Lotha (Lhota)
Sangtam ('Thukumi')
Kizare
Pirr (Northern Sangtam)
Phelongre
Thukumi (Central Sangtam)
Photsimi
Purr (Southern Sangtam)
Yimchingric
Yimchungrü ('Yachumi')
Tikhir
Chirr
Phanungru
Langa
Para
Makuric
Makury
Long Phuri

Koki is a "Naga" language spoken in and around Leshi Township, Myanmar that could possibly classify as Tangkhulic languages or Ao languages.

Tangkhul-Maring

The Tangkhul-Maring languages:
Tangkhulic
Tangkhul 
Somra 
Akyaung Ari
Kachai
Huishu
Tusom
Maringic
Khoibu
Maring

Western Naga(Zemeic)

The Western Naga(Zemeic) languages:
Zeme proper
Mzieme (Northern Zeme)
Liangmai
Rongmei
Inpui (Puiron)
Khoirao (Thangal)
Maram

See also
Northern Naga languages
Zakhring language  
Nagamese Creole

References

Naga people
Kuki-Chin–Naga languages The Forum for Naga Reconciliation was formed in 2008 after the Naga Peace Convention organised by the Naga Shisha Hoho in Dimapur. At the start, it had 14 members. Wati Aier is the founding-convenor for the association. It has emerged as a major force in the Indo-Naga peace process outside the negotiation room between the Indian state and Naga nationalist groups.

Foundation 
On 24 February 2008, the Forum for Naga Reconciliation (FNR) was formed in principle. It was one of the outcomes of the three-day Naga Peace Convention in Dimapur organised by Shisha Hoho, a Christian prayer group. Few had responded to the call and the convention was scantily attended. FNR was formally inaugurated at Kohima on 25 March 2008 with the support of 39 Naga organisations along with the Nagaland Baptist Church Council and Council of Naga Baptist Churches. It also had the support from members of Society of friends and American Baptist Churches USA. The forum sought to reconcile various Naga armed groups on the basis of the historical and political rights of the Nagas. Though some of its members are Christians associated with church institutions, it is not a church organisation. 

It then had the support of several Naga organisations such as the Naga Hoho, Eastern Naga People's Organisation, Eastern Naga Students Federation, Eastern Naga Students Association, GBs and DBs Federation Nagaland, Naga Women's Union, Manipur, United Naga Council Manipur, All Naga Students Association Manipur, Naga Mothers' Association, Naga Students' Federation, Naga People's Movement For Human Rights, office bearers of the Naga Shisha Hoho, and speakers of the Naga Peace Convention.

Indo-Naga Peace efforts 
FNR was formed at the peak of violence between various factions of the Naga armed groups, suspicious, distrust, and divisive political rhetoric. It has facilitated various agreements between the Naga armed groups. At various points, independent observers, government bureaucrats, as well as the Indian security establishment have admitted that inter-factional killings among the Naga nationalist groups have reduced due to FNR's efforts. 

In January 2019, FNR called for re-imagining of the Naga peace process keeping people and their aspirations at its core. Therefore, it appealed for a multi-dimensional approach with active participation of all stakeholders. FNR believed that this will strengthen "the process and open up possibilities for transparency, accountability, credibility, and integrity, making it viable and responsive." It asserted that the present deadlock in the peace process stems from lack of reconciliation essential for historical and political transformation.

In December 2020, FNR further appealed for "honest discussion, truth speaking, healing, forgiveness, and reconciliation" to be embedded in the peace process. Analysing the Indian state agenda of creating divisions amongst the Nagas during the Indo-Naga peace talks, it stated[The] trauma and wounds are still raw and sensitive, provoking the worst out of each other. It, therefore, is not surprising that the Indian state and its agencies with guile and statecraft have actively steered the statehood narrative intensifying division and simultaneously normalising complacency and conformity among the Naga populace. But to what end? A divided Naga house is in nobody’s long-term interest.

Covenant of Reconciliation 
On 21 August 2008, representatives from various Naga political groups, tribal organisations, and the church and civil society organisations adopted the 10-point Covenant of Common Hope at the third Naga Peace Summit at Chiang Mai, Thailand. This served as foundation for the Covenant of Reconciliation (CoR). FNR was instrumental in facilitating both these covenants between various Naga organisations and groups.

Signed on 13 June 2009, by Isak Chishi Swu, S. S. Khaplang, and S Singnya. The signatories committed before God to offer themselves to Naga Reconciliation and Forgiveness based on the Historical and Political Rights of the Nagas. They resolved to work together in the spirit of love, nonviolence, peace and respect to resolve outstanding issues among themselves. The Covenant of Reconciliation was instrumental in the cessation of armed confrontation and bloodshed among the Naga Political Groups. It is important to note the Christian context of "covenant" and "reconciliation" used in the process. Part of the covenant reads,Having been deeply convicted by God’s call in Christ, and the voice of the Naga people, we hereby solemnly commit before God to offer ourselves to Naga Reconciliation and Forgiveness based on the Historical and Political Rights of the Nagas. We resolve to continue to work together in this spirit of love, non-violence, peace and respect to resolve outstanding issues amongst us.The covenant was reaffirmed on 18 September 2010. Ever since, FNR has been marking 13 June as a day to renew the covenant.

Ninth Anniversary 
In 2018, the ninth anniversary of the covenant was held at the Dimapur Ao Baptist Arogo in Duncan Basti, Dimapur. Various members from the Naga insurgent groups attended and affirmed their commitment. Thinuoselie Keyho of the Naga National Council reminded the group that not very long ago the Indian Army thought that the Naga movement cold be destroyed in a few weeks or months. On the other hand, the Naga leaders at times questioned how long they could fight the Indian state. They believed that they could do so only for three months. However, Keyho pointed out that even 63 years hence the Indo-Naga conflict goes on. Keyho pointed out that the FNR has still not managed to bring together all Naga nationalist group, inviting them to still push further. Representing the Isac-Muivah faction of the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN), V. Makritsu renewed the organisation's vow, "We reiterate our stand that together we have started, together we shall finish it. NSCN shall never back out from its commitment to it... now is the time of the Nagas [sic] to reassemble under one political roof." C. Singson from the Unification faction of NSCN said, "Leaving aside all the difference as a person, as political leaders with contrasting ideology and principles, we will learn to accept each other through reconciliation and love for the nation (Naga-Land)." Singson commended FNR for bringing a spiritual reawakening to the Naga movement and restoring the "lost consciousness of the people." Though no representative from the Khaplang faction of the NSCN were present, they sent a statement informing their commitment to the covenant. 

At the same meeting, two persons who had suffered through the ensuing violence also spoke of their loss, grief, and forgiveness. One of them, Khetoli spoke of her life after her husband was shot dead a decade ago when he was on his way from Dimapur to Zunheboto. She was left with small children to look after. She shared that she had forgiven those who had killed her husband and requested others to forgive people in their lives who had done wrong to them. Visasier Kevichüsa, whose father and uncle were killed similarly within a span of four years, spoke of his life as a child thereafter. The killings shaped, influenced, and changed his family. Through his experience, he learnt that to forgive meant everything and it was the way of Christ who he follows. Today, Kevichüsa is a Baptist pastor.

Tenth Anniversary 
On 13 June 2019, FNR marked ten years since the signing of the covenant with an appeal that churches in all Naga areas ring their bells and chimes at noon for 60 seconds.

References 

Nagaland
Naga nationalism
Naga people