David Thompson (explorer) Appearance and personality What was Thompson like as a person? He was plainly dressed, quiet, and observant. What else was noticeable about his appearance? His figure was short and compact, Did he have any other distinguishing features? his black hair was worn long all round, and cut square, Are there any other interesting aspects about this article? His complexion was of the gardener's ruddy brown, Did he wear a beard? I don't know. How did he wear his clothes? was plainly dressed, What else was unique about his appearance? by saying he greatly resembled Curran the Irish Orator... What was his most defining feature? he has a very powerful mind,
Did he have any issues with anger?
Did David Thompson have any issues with anger?
In 1820, the English geologist, John Jeremiah Bigsby, attended a dinner party given by The Hon. William McGillivray at his home, Chateau St. Antoine, one of the early estates in Montreal's Golden Square Mile. He describes the party and some of the guests in his entertaining book The Shoe and Canoe, giving an excellent description of David Thompson:  I was well placed at table between one of the Miss McGillivray's and a singular-looking person of about fifty. He was plainly dressed, quiet, and observant. His figure was short and compact, and his black hair was worn long all round, and cut square, as if by one stroke of the shears, just above the eyebrows. His complexion was of the gardener's ruddy brown, while the expression of his deeply-furrowed features was friendly and intelligent, but his cut-short nose gave him an odd look. His speech betrayed the Welshman, although he left his native hills when very young. I might have been spared this description of Mr David Thompson by saying he greatly resembled Curran the Irish Orator...  I afterwards travelled much with him, and have now only to speak of him with great respect, or, I ought to say, with admiration... No living person possesses a tithe of his information respecting the Hudson's Bay countries... Never mind his Bunyan-like face and cropped hair; he has a very powerful mind, and a singular faculty of picture-making. He can create a wilderness and people it with warring savages, or climb the Rocky Mountains with you in a snow-storm, so clearly and palpably, that only shut your eyes and you hear the crack of the rifle, or feel the snow-flakes melt on your cheeks as he talks. CANNOTANSWER
CANNOTANSWER
David Thompson (30 April 1770 – 10 February 1857) was a British-Canadian fur trader, surveyor, and cartographer, known to some native peoples as Koo-Koo-Sint or "the Stargazer". Over Thompson's career, he traveled  across North America, mapping  of North America along the way. For this historic feat, Thompson has been described as the "greatest practical land geographer that the world has produced".

Early life
David Thompson was born in Westminster, Middlesex, to recent Welsh migrants David and Ann Thompson. When Thompson was two, his father died. Due to the financial hardship with his mother without resources, Thompson, 29 April 1777, the day before his seventh birthday, and his older brother were placed in the Grey Coat Hospital, a school for the disadvantaged of Westminster. Thompson graduated to the Grey Coat mathematical school, well known for teaching navigation and surveying. He received an education for the Royal Navy: including mathematics of trigonometry and geometry, practical navigation including using of nautical instruments, finding latitudes and longitudes and making navigational calculations from observing the sun, moon and tides and the drawing of maps and charts, taking land measurements and sketching landscapes. He later built on these to make his career. In 1784, at the age of 14, the Grey Coat treasurer paid the Hudson's Bay Company the sum of five pounds, upon which Thompson became the company's indentured servant for a period of seven years to be trained as a clerk. He set sail on 28 May of that year, and left England for North America.

Hudson's Bay Company (HBC)
On 2 September 1784, Thompson arrived in Churchill (now in Manitoba) and was put to work as a clerk/secretary, copying the personal papers of the governor of Fort Churchill, Samuel Hearne. The next year he was transferred to nearby York Factory, and over the next few years spent time as a secretary at Cumberland House, Saskatchewan, and South Branch House before arriving at Manchester House in 1787. During those years he learned to keep accounts and other records, calculate values of furs (It was noted that he also had several expensive beaver pelts at that time even when a secretary's job would not pay terribly well), track supplies and other duties.

On 23 December 1788, Thompson seriously fractured his tibia, forcing him to spend the next two winters at Cumberland House convalescing. It was during this time that he greatly refined and expanded his mathematical, astronomical, and surveying skills under the tutelage of Hudson's Bay Company surveyor Philip Turnor. It was also during this time that he lost sight in his right eye.

In 1790, with his apprenticeship nearing its end, Thompson requested a set of surveying tools in place of the typical parting gift of fine clothes offered by the company to those completing their indenture. He received both. He entered the employ of the Hudson's Bay Company as a fur trader. In 1792 he completed his first significant survey, mapping a route to Lake Athabasca (where today's Alberta/Saskatchewan border is located). Between February and May 1793, Thompson made 34 observations of the longitude of Cumberland House using lunar distances. The mean of these observations was 102°12′ W, about 2' east of the modern value. The mean error of the 34 observations was about 15' of longitude. Broughton (2009) notes that the precision of the type of sextant used by Thompson was 15" of arc, corresponding to 7.5' of longitude giving an absolute limit to the precision of an individual observation. The error in Thompson's mean was several times less than this. The time he took on these observations, about 3 hours of calculation each, indicates that he understood the power of averages.

In recognition of his map-making and surveying skills, the company promoted Thompson to the surveyor in 1794. He continued working for the Hudson's Bay Company until 23 May 1797 when, frustrated by an order to cease surveying and focus on the fur trade, he left. He walked  in the snow in order to enter the employ of the competition, the North West Company. There he continued to work as a fur trader and surveyor.

North West Company

Thompson's decision to defect to the North West Company (NWC) in 1797 without providing the customary one-year notice was not well received by his former employers. But the North West Company was more supportive of Thompson pursuing his work on  surveying and mapping the interior of what was to become Canada, as they judged it in the company's interest to know the exact locations of their settlements and the distance from each other. In 1797, Thompson was sent south by his employers to survey part of the Canada-US boundary along the water routes from Lake Superior to Lake of the Woods to satisfy unresolved questions of territory arising from the Jay Treaty between Great Britain and the United States after the American Revolutionary War.

By 1798 Thompson had completed a survey of  from Grand Portage, through Lake Winnipeg, to the headwaters of the Assiniboine and Mississippi rivers, as well as two sides of Lake Superior. In 1798, the company sent him to Red Deer Lake (Lac La Biche in present-day Alberta) to establish a trading post. (The English translation of Lac la Biche: Red Deer Lake, was first recorded on the Mackenzie map of 1793.) Thompson spent the next few seasons trading based in Fort George (now in Alberta), and during this time led several expeditions into the Rocky Mountains.

On 10 July 1804, at the annual meeting of the North West Company in Kaministiquia, Thompson was made a full partner of the company. He became a 'wintering partner', who was based in the field rather than Montreal, with two of the 92 NWC's shares worth more than £4,000. He spent the next few seasons based there managing the fur trading operations but still finding time to expand his surveys of the waterways around Lake Superior. At the 1806 company meeting, officers decided to send Thompson back out into the interior. Concern over the American-backed expedition of Lewis and Clark prompted the North West Company to charge Thompson with the task of finding a route to the Pacific to open up the lucrative trading territories of the Pacific Northwest.

Columbia River travels

After the general meeting in 1806, Thompson travelled to Rocky Mountain House and prepared for an expedition to follow the Columbia River to the Pacific. In June 1807 Thompson crossed the Rocky Mountains and spent the summer surveying the Columbia basin; he continued to survey the area over the next few seasons. Thompson mapped and established trading posts in Northwestern Montana, Idaho, Washington, and Western Canada. Trading posts he founded included Kootenae House, Kullyspell House and Saleesh House; the latter two were the first trading posts west of the Rockies in Idaho and Montana, respectively. These posts established by Thompson extended North West Company fur trading territory into the Columbia Basin drainage area. The maps he made of the Columbia River basin east of the Cascade Mountains were of such high quality and detail that they continued to be useful into the 20th-century.

In early 1810, Thompson was returning eastward toward Montreal but, while en route at Rainy Lake, received orders to return to the Rocky Mountains and establish a route to the mouth of the Columbia. The North West Company was responding to the plans of American John Jacob Astor to send a ship around the Americas to establish a fur trading post of the Pacific Fur Company on the Pacific Coast. During his return, Thompson was delayed by an angry group of Peigan natives at Howse Pass. He was ultimately forced to seek a new route across the Rocky Mountains and found one through the Athabasca Pass.

David Thompson was the first European to navigate the full length of the Columbia River. Between Kettle Falls (3 July 1811) and the Junction of the Columbia and Snake Rivers (9 July) he was travelling through country that had never been visited by Europeans, and took time to visit the villages along the way to establish good relations, helped by copious quantities of tobacco. In 1805 Lewis and Clark had descended the Snake River, and then continued down the Columbia. On reaching the junction Thompson erected a pole and a notice claiming the country for Great Britain and stating the intention of the North West Company to build a trading post at the site. This notice was found later that year by Astor company workers looking to establish an inland fur post, contributing to their selection of a more northerly site at Fort Okanogan. The North West Company established its post of Fort Nez Percés near the Snake River confluence several years later. Continuing down the Columbia, Thompson passed over the Celilo Falls, almost losing the canoe on the rocks, and portaged around the rapids of The Dalles and the Cascades Rapids. On 14 July 1811, Thompson reached the partially constructed Fort Astoria at the mouth of the Columbia, arriving two months after the Pacific Fur Company's ship, the Tonquin.

Before returning upriver and across the mountains, Thompson hired Naukane, a Native Hawaiian Takane labourer brought to Fort Astoria by the Pacific Fur Company's ship Tonquin. Naukane, known as Coxe to Thompson, accompanied Thompson across the continent to Lake Superior before journeying on to England.

Thompson wintered at Saleesh House before beginning his final journey back to Montreal in 1812, where the North West Company was based.

In his published journals, Thompson recorded seeing large footprints (“which measured fourteen inches in length by eight inches in breadth”) near what is now Jasper, Alberta, in 1811. It has been suggested that these prints were similar to what has since been called the sasquatch. However, Thompson noted that these tracks showed "a small Nail at the end of each [toe]", and stated that these tracks "very much resembles a large Bear's Track".

The years 1807-1812 are the most carefully scrutinized in his career and his most enduring historical legacy, due to his development of the commercial routes across the Rockies, and his mapping of the lands they traverse.

Appearance and personality

In 1820, the English geologist, John Jeremiah Bigsby, attended a dinner party given by The Hon. William McGillivray at his home, Chateau St. Antoine, one of the early estates in Montreal's Golden Square Mile. He describes the party and some of the guests in his entertaining book The Shoe and Canoe, giving an excellent description of David Thompson:

Marriage and children
On 10 June 1799 at Île-à-la-Crosse, Thompson married Charlotte Small, a thirteen-year-old Métis daughter of Scottish fur trader Patrick Small and a Cree mother. Their marriage was formalised thirteen years later at the Scotch Presbyterian Church in Montreal on 30 October 1812. He and Charlotte had 13 children together; five of them were born before he left the fur trade. The family did not adjust easily to life in Eastern Canada; they lived in Montreal while he was traveling. Two of the children, John (aged 5) and Emma (aged 7), died of round worms, a common parasite. By the time of Thompson's death, the couple had been married 57 years, the longest marriage known in Canada pre-Confederation.

Later life

Upon his arrival back in Montreal, Thompson retired with a generous pension from the North West Company. He settled in nearby Terrebonne and worked on completing his great map, a summary of his lifetime of exploring and surveying the interior of North America. The map covered the wide area stretching from Lake Superior to the Pacific, and was given by Thompson to the North West Company. Thompson's 1814 map, his greatest achievement, was so accurate that 100 years later it was still the basis for many of the maps issued by the Canadian government. It now resides in the Archives of Ontario.

In 1815, Thompson moved his family to Williamstown, Upper Canada, and a few years later was employed to survey the newly established borders with the United States from Lake of the Woods to the Eastern Townships of Quebec, established by Treaty of Ghent after the War of 1812. In 1843 Thompson completed his atlas of the region from Hudson Bay to the Pacific Ocean.

Afterwards, Thompson returned to a life as a land owner, but soon financial misfortune would ruin him. By 1831 he was so deeply in debt he was forced to take up a position as a surveyor for the British American Land Company to provide for his family. His luck continued to worsen and he was forced to move in with his daughter and son-in-law in 1845. He began work on a manuscript chronicling his life exploring the continent, but this project was left unfinished when his sight failed him completely in 1851.

Death and afterward

The land mass mapped by Thompson amounted to  of wilderness (one-fifth of the continent). His contemporary, the great explorer Alexander Mackenzie, remarked that Thompson did more in ten months than he would have thought possible in two years.

Despite these significant achievements, Thompson died in Montreal in near obscurity on 10 February 1857, his accomplishments almost unrecognised. He never finished the book of his 28 years in the fur trade, based on his 77 field notebooks, before he died. In the 1890s geologist J.B. Tyrrell resurrected Thompson's notes and in 1916 published them as David Thompson's Narrative, as part of the General Series of the Champlain Society. Further editions and re-examinations of Thompson's life and works were published in 1962 by Richard Glover, in 1971 by Victor Hopwood, and in 2015 by William Moreau.

Thompson's body was interred in Montreal's Mount Royal Cemetery in an unmarked grave. It was not until 1926 that efforts by J.B. Tyrrell and the Canadian Historical Society resulted in the placing of a tombstone to mark his grave. The next year, Thompson was named a National Historic Person by the federal government, one of the earliest such designations. A federal plaque reflecting that status is located at Jasper National Park, Alberta. Meantime, Thompson's achievements are central reasons for other national historic designations:
 David Thompson on the Columbia River National Historic Event, marked at Castlegar, BC
 Athabasca Pass National Historic Site (NHS), at Jasper National Park
 Boat Encampment NHS, BC
 Howse Pass NHS, Banff National Park, Alberta
 Kootenae House NHS, BC
 Rocky Mountain House NHS, Alberta

In 1957, one hundred years after his death, Canada's post office department honoured him with his image on a postage stamp. The David Thompson Highway in Alberta was named in his honour, along with David Thompson High School situated on the side of the highway near Leslieville, Alberta. There are also two David Thompson Secondary Schools, one in Vancouver, BC, and one in Invermere, BC.

His prowess as a geographer is now well-recognized. He has been called "the greatest land geographer that the world has produced."

There is a monument dedicated to David Thompson (maintained by the state of North Dakota) near the former town site of the ghost town Verendrye, North Dakota, located approximately  north and  west of Karlsruhe, North Dakota. Thompson Falls, Montana, and British Columbia's Thompson River and Thompson Falls on the Blaeberry River are also named after the explorer.

The year 2007 marked the 150th year of Thompson's death and the 200th anniversary of his first crossing of the Rocky Mountains. Commemorative events and exhibits were planned across Canada and the United States from 2007 to 2011 as a celebration of his accomplishments.

In 2007, a commemorative plaque was placed on a wall at the Grey Coat Hospital, the school for the disadvantaged of Westminster David Thompson attended as a boy, by English author and TV presenter Ray Mears.

Thompson was the subject of a 1964 National Film Board of Canada short film David Thompson: The Great Mapmaker , as well as the BBC2 programme Ray Mears' Northern Wilderness (Episode 5), broadcast in November 2009. He's also the subject of 2010 KSPS-TV film Uncharted Territory: David Thompson on the Columbia Plateau.

He is referenced in the 1981 folk song "Northwest Passage" by Stan Rogers.

The national park service, Parks Canada, announced in 2018 that it had named its new research vessel , to be used for underwater archaeology, including sea floor mapping, and for marine science in the Pacific, Atlantic, Arctic Oceans, and the Great Lakes. It will be the main platform for research on the Wrecks of HMS Erebus and HMS Terror National Historic Site.

The David Thompson Astronomical Observatory at Fort William Historical Park was named to commemorate David Thompson and his discoveries.

See also
 Exploration of North America
 Fur trade

Works
 1814: Map of the North-West Territory of the Province of Canada
 1897: New light on the early history of the greater Northwest (edited by Elliott Coues) Volume I; Volume II; Volume III
 1916: David Thompson's narrative of his explorations in western America, 1784–1812 (edited by J.B. Tyrrell)
 1950: David Thompson's journals relating to Montana and adjacent regions, 1808–1812 (edited by M. Catherine White)
 1962: David Thompson's narrative, 1784–1812 (edited by Richard Glover)
 1974: David Thompson's journal of the international boundary survey, 1817–1827: western Lake Erie, August–September 1819 (edited by Clarke E. Leverette)
 1993: Columbia Journals (edited by Barbara Belyea)
 2006: "Moccasin Miles – The Travels of Charlotte Small Thompson 1799–1812 " Contemporary and Historical Maps: Charlotte Small (S. Leanne Playter/Andreas N. Korsos|Publisher: Arcturus Consulting)
 2006/2007: "David Thompson in Alberta 1787–1812"; "David Thompson on the Columbia River 1807–1812"; "The Explorations and Travels of David Thompson 1784–1812"; "Posts and Forts of the North American Fur Trade 1600–1870"  Contemporary and Historical Maps: David Thompson (Andreas N. Korsos|Publisher: Arcturus Consultin
 2010 : Official Documentary of Thompson was released by national geographic, ca.

References

Notes
 
 
 
 
 2006: "Moccasin Miles – The Travels of Charlotte Small Thompson 1799–1812" Contemporary and Historical Maps: Charlotte Small (S. Leanne Playter/Andreas N. Korsos|Publisher: Arcturus Consulting)

Further reading
  Available online through the Washington State Library's Classics in Washington History collection

External links

 David Thompson's Narrative of His Explorations in Western America 1784–1812 Vol's I and II, Champlain Society 1916, PDF (B/W) 25.1 MB
 Complete text of David Thompson's Narrative (Tyrrell edition) Champlain Society digital collection
 Complete text of David Thompson's Narrative (Glover edition) Champlain Society digital collection
 
 Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
 David Thompson: Map Maker, Explorer and Visionary, online exhibit on Archives of Ontario website
 DavidThompson200: bicentennial commemorations of Thompson's explorations
 KSPS Public TV (PBS), , Narrative of David Thompson's life and travels. / Feb 2011
 The Writings of David Thompson edited by William E. Moreau. Three volumes.
 David Thompson Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library 

North West Company
English surveyors
Canadian people of Welsh descent
English cartographers
English explorers
Canadian cartographers
Canadian male canoeists
Canadian explorers
Canadian surveyors
English emigrants to pre-Confederation Canada
Explorers of British Columbia
Explorers of Canada
North West Company people
People from Westminster
People from Montreal
Pre-Confederation Quebec people
Interior of British Columbia
Hudson's Bay Company people
1770 births
1857 deaths
History of the Pacific Northwest
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Explorers of Washington (state)
People educated at Grey Coat Hospital
English explorers of North America
Welsh topographers
Burials at Mount Royal Cemetery
Computer rage refers to negative psychological responses towards a computer due to heightened anger or frustration. Examples of computer rage include cursing or yelling at a computer, slamming or throwing a keyboard or a mouse , and assaulting the computer or monitor with an object or weapon.

Notable cases 
In April 2015, a Colorado man was cited for firing a gun within a residential area when he took his computer into a back alley and shot it eight times with a 9mm pistol. When questioned, he told police that he had become so frustrated with his computer that he had "reached critical mass," and stated that after he had shot his computer, "the angels sung on high." In 2007, a German man threw his computer out the window in the middle of the night, startling his neighbors. German police were sympathetic and did not press charges, stating, "Who hasn't felt like doing that?" In 2006, the staged surveillance video "Bad Day", showing a man assaulting his computer at work, became a viral hit on the Internet, reaching over two million views. Other instances of reported computer rage have ranged from a restaurant owner who threw his laptop into a deep fryer, to an individual who attempted to throw his computer out the window, but forgot that the window was closed.

Prevalence 
In 1999, it was speculated that computer rage had become more common than road rage in traffic, but in a 2015 study, it was found that reported rates of anger when using a computer were lower than reported rates of anger while driving. However, reports of anger while driving or using computers were found to be far more common than anger in other situations.

In a 2013 survey of American adults, 36% of respondents who reported experiencing computer issues, also reported that they had screamed, yelled, cursed, or physically assaulted their computers within the last six months.

In 2009, a survey was conducted with British computer users about their experiences with computers. This survey found that 54% of respondents reported verbally abusing their computers, and 40% reported that they had become physically violent toward their computers. The survey also found that most users experienced computer rage three to four times a month.

Differences in types of computer rage have also been found between different geographical regions. For example, one survey found that individuals from London have been found to be five times more likely to physically assault their computers, while those from Yorkshire and the Humber were found to be more likely to yell at their computers. Differences have also been observed for age groups, as younger adults (18–24 years old) have reported more abusive behaviors in the face of computer frustration when compared to older adults (over 35 years old). Individuals with less computer experience in particular have also been reported to experience increased feelings of anger and helplessness when it comes to computers, but other research has argued that it is the self-efficacy beliefs about computers that are predictive of computer frustration, not the amount of computer experience or use.

In 1999 Professor Robert J. Edelmann, a Chartered Clinical, Forensic and Health Psychologist and a Fellow of the British Psychological Society, was offering a special helpline in the UK for those suffering from technology related anger.

Causes

Computer factors 

Users can experience computer anger and frustration for a number of reasons. American adults surveyed in 2013 reported that almost half (46%) of their computer problems were due to malware or computer viruses, followed by software issues (10%) and not enough memory (8%). In another survey, users reported email, word processors, web browsing, operating system crashes, inability to locate features, and program crashes as frequent initiators of computer frustration. These technical issues, paired with tight timelines, poor work progress, and failure to complete a computer task can create heightened computer anger and frustration. When this anger and frustration exceeds a person's control, it can turn into rage.

Psychological factors 

Research on emotion has shown that anger is often caused by interruptions of plans and expectations, especially through the violation of social norms. This sense of anger can be magnified when the individual does not understand why they are unable to meet their goal or task at hand or why there was a violation of social norms. Psychologists have argued that this is particularly relevant to computer rage, as computer users interact with computers in a similar manner that they interact with other people (for more information, see The Media Equation). Thus, when computers fail to function in the face of incoming deadlines or an important task to accomplish, users can feel betrayed by the computer in the same way they can feel betrayed by other people. Specifically, when users fail to understand why their computer will not work properly, often in the times they need it to the most, it can invoke a sense of hostility as it is interpreted as a breach of social norms or a personal attack. Consistent with this finding, perceived betrayal by the computer can also elicit other negative emotions. One survey of US adults reported that 10% of users who experience computer issues experienced feeling helplessness, and 4% reported feeling victimized. In the same survey, 7% adults ages 18–34 reported that they had cried over their computer problems within the previous six months.

Dangers and potential benefits 
Computer rage can result in damaged property or physical injuries, as well as psychological harm. Some experts have suggested that venting frustrations on the computer may have some benefits, but other experts disagree. For example, yelling at the computer has been suggested as a way to moderate one's anger to avoid the ill effects of anger suppression, but new research has suggested that yelling can negatively affect health in itself. Alternatively, releasing anger on a computer has been viewed as advantageous as it directs this rage at an object as opposed to another person, and can make individuals feel better afterwards.

Prevention and management 
In response to computer issues that invoke frustration, some experts have suggested walking away from the computer for 15 minutes to "cool off". Other methods to prevent computer rage can be backing up computer data often, increasing memory of the computer, and even imagining pleasant images, such as petting an animal. Adopting a goal of improving computer knowledge may also be beneficial, as users are less likely to report computer rage when they view the issue as a challenge and not as a setback. If computer rage cannot be avoided, guidelines on how to rage with minimal consequences, such as wearing safety goggles and taking frustration out on older equipment, can be followed to reduce the likelihood of injury and significant property loss.

Employers of staff who work with computers, often in situations where time is crucial, can take steps to prevent computer rage, such as making sure there is adequate software, and providing employees with anger management strategies. Some computer technician companies have reported that, to reduce computer rage, their technicians are trained on how to work with customers in sensitive psychological states just as much as how to diagnose and fix technical issues.

Designing computer interfaces to display more emotional support when errors occur, or provide therapy strategies, has also been suggested as a way to mitigate computer anger and rage. The application of affective computing has been shown to effectively mitigate negative emotions connected to computer use. One study found that an interface that sought the user's feelings, provided empathy, and validated reported emotional states significantly reduced negative emotions associated with computer frustration for users. Another study found that when error messages contain positive wording ("Great that the computer will soon work again") compared to negative wording ("This is frustrating") or a neutral error message, users exhibited more signs of happiness.

See also 
Rage (emotion)
Air rage
Road rage
Wrap rage
Technostress
The Media Equation
Debugging
Hang (computing)
Digital media use and mental health

References 

Rage (emotion)
Computers
Digital media use and mental health Anger management is a psycho-therapeutic program for anger prevention and control. It has been described as deploying anger successfully. Anger is frequently a result of frustration, or of feeling blocked or thwarted from something the subject feels is important. Anger can also be a defensive response to underlying fear or feelings of vulnerability or powerlessness. Anger management programs consider anger to be a motivation caused by an identifiable reason which can be logically analyzed and addressed.

Overview 

The ideal goal of anger management is to control and regulate anger so that it does not result in problems.  Anger is an active emotion that calls a person feeling it to respond. People get into anger issues because both the instigator and instigated lack interpersonal and social skills to maintain self-control. Research on affect and self-regulation shows that 
it occurs because negative emotional states often impairs impulse control. They can train to respond to their anger as unwanted and unpleasant rather than react to its need. Turning a blind eye or forgiveness is a tool to turn anger off. Getting enough sleep, exercise and good diet are tools which can assist in preventing anger. Professionals who deal with those who have trouble managing anger include occupational therapists, mental health counselors, drug and alcohol counselors, social workers, psychologists and psychiatrists.

History

The negative effects of anger have been observed throughout history. Advice for countering seemingly uncontrollable rage has been offered by ancient philosophers, pious men, and modern psychologists. In de Ira, Seneca the Younger (4 BC – 65 AD) advised for pre-emptively guarding against confrontational situations, perspective taking, and not inciting anger in anger-prone individuals. Other philosophers echoed Seneca with Galen recommending seeking out a mentor for aid in anger reduction. In the Middle Ages, the people would serve as both examples of self-control and mediators of anger-induced disputes. Examples of intercession for the common people from the wrath of local rulers abound in hagiographies. The story of St. Francis of Assisi and the metaphorical Wolf of Gubbio is one famous instance.

In modern times, the concept of controlling anger has translated into anger management programs based on the research of psychologists. Classical psychotherapy based anger management interventions originated in the 1970s. Success in treating anxiety with cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) interventions developed by Meichebaum inspired Novaco to modify the stress inoculation training to be suitable for anger management. Stress and anger are sufficiently similar that such a modification was able to create a successful branch of treatment. Both stress and anger are caused by external stimuli, mediated by internal processing, and expressed in either adaptive or maladaptive forms. Meichebaum, and later Novaco, used each aspect of experiencing the relevant emotion as an opportunity for improvement to the patient's overall well-being.

Potential causes for development of problems

Medical causes
Drug addiction, alcoholism, a mental disability, biochemical changes and PTSD can all lead to a person committing an aggressive act against another person. Not having sufficient skills on how to handle oneself when faced with aggression can lead to very undesirable outcomes. These factors are typically associated with a heightened chance of anger, but there are other, less-known factors that can lead to people acting in a negative way. Prolonged or intense anger and frustration contributes to physical conditions such as headaches, digestive problems, high blood pressure and heart disease. Problems dealing with angry feelings may be linked to psychological disorders such as anxiety or depression. Angry outbursts can be a way of trying to cope with unhappiness or depression.

Migraines: Frequent migraine can be associated with levels of aggression and the need for anger management. A 2013 study examined migraines and its association with anger problems in young children (m = 11.2 years of age).  The patients in the study were split into low migraine attack frequency (AF), intermediate AF, high frequency, and chronic migraine AF. The tendency for a participant to inhibit their anger and not lash out was found more in children with higher AF.  Children that qualified for low migraine AF actually had more anger expression.

Psychological causes
Psychological factors such as stress, abuse, poor social or familial situations, and poverty can be linked to anger problems. Without proper anger management,  individuals may be more prone to violence. They also may have increased stress levels, which can have both mental and physical symptoms if not taken care of sooner rather than later. Thankfully, there are many different methods of treatment that can help an individual control and cope with their anger.

Trauma 
A history of trauma can result in increased anger. Anger is not associated with aggression in all individuals with symptoms of PTSD. Sexual trauma is particularly correlated with anger, as well as childhood trauma since more often than not, they either didn’t know what was going on and/or didn’t have any control over what was going on. It is important to recognize and validate trauma, rather than ignoring it and having their symptoms worsen.

Types of treatment 

Some effective anger management techniques include relaxation techniques, monitored breathing exercises, cognitive restructuring and imagery (e.g. Stosny's Healing imagery Explain oneself emphatically what and why it makes you respond angrily Apply kindness and compassion to self Love oneself Solving the co-morbid problems phases), problem solving,  improving communication strategies and interpersonal skills (DEAR MAN & GIVE). Below are specific types of anger management treatment approaches supported by empirical studies.  Several of the studies examined used self-report, which some psychologists feel could be a limitation for results. People do not want others to think of them as angry individuals, so their answers could be changed to fit how society wants them to behave.

Prevention and Relationship Enhancement Program 

The Prevention and Relationship Enhancement Program (PREP) is a program that was used in a study consisting of Air Force families.  The families were assigned to either a traditional multi-couple group format or a self-directed book version focusing on relationship satisfaction and anger management skills.  There was a significant main effect for time related to both relationship satisfaction (pretest M = 49.8, SD = 17.6; post-test M = 53.8, SD = 17.6, F(1, 76) = 6.91, p < .01), and anger management skills, (pretest M = 32.2, SD = 4.2; post-test M = 34.6, SD = 4.0, F(1, 74) = 31.79, p < .001).

The self-directed book version did not show as positive of results. Improving a couple's anger management skills can be a vital step in ensuring there are no violent outbreaks throughout the relationship.

Cognitive behavioral therapy 

The use of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is frequent in anger management treatment.  By trying to get a patient to open up about their emotions and feelings and being driven to accomplish a specific task (in this case controlling anger), a person is cognitively motivated to use positive skills towards their behavior.

Studies show using a mix of CBT as well as other therapies on the participants/clients increased the effective usage of the anger management techniques and that they also felt more in control of their own anger. Personal changes like these can lead to less aggression and fewer violent acts. The use of play therapy with this is also found efficient in tackling anger issues among children.

Positive mentalization and personal development 

This is a style that is commonly used in elementary schools for students expressing anger outbursts.  Researchers who have looked into the reason for young student anger have found that one common reason could be the inability to adjust socially.  Students that were selected for this study received a daily one-hour session throughout one week of school.  The researchers of the mentalization program educated children through group therapy in positive psychology and tried to do activities that put the child in a happy mood while interacting.  At the end of the week, research showed that there was a negative correlation between anger and social adjustment.  This process lowered the overall anger levels of the students involved in social adjustment deficits.

Use of personal development (PD) led to higher views of themselves and more positive self-esteem.  Aggression has been shown to be a result of poor self-worth as well as thinking that those around us do not care or support us, so this PD is vital in helping change a person's self-perception.

Anger journaling 

Understanding one's own emotions can be a crucial piece of learning how to deal with anger.  Children who wrote down their negative emotions in an "anger diary" actually ended up improving their emotional understanding, which in turn led to less aggression.  When it comes to dealing with their emotions, children show the ability to learn best by seeing direct examples of instances that led to certain levels of anger. By seeing the reasons why they got angry, they can in the future try to avoid those actions or be prepared for the feeling they experience if they do find themselves doing something that typically results in them being angry.

There is not sufficient evidence of this needing to be implemented in elementary schools, but this activity is a common tool used in therapies, so it could lead to children writing down their negative feelings and anger and help them to re-evaluate their position and take personal time to cool down instead of lashing out and doing aggressive actions in person.

Other evidence-based approaches 

Anger management interventions are based in cognitive behavioral techniques and follow in a three-step process. First, the client learns to identify situations that can potentially trigger the feeling of anger. A situation that elicits anger is often referred to as an anger cue. If a potential trigger can be avoided, the individual can not only avoid unwanted outbursts, but also avoid internal conflict. Often anger occurs through automatic thought and irrational beliefs, these pose a problem for treatment because the patient may respond too quickly to change the thought or behavior. Wright, Day, & Howells referred to this phenomenon as the "hijacking of the cognitive system by the emotional system".   Second, relaxation techniques are taught as appropriate responses to the identified situations. Common techniques include regulating breathing and physically removing themselves from the situation. Finally, role-play is used to practice the application of the learned techniques for future encounters with anger-inducing situations in the individual's life. The end result of repetition is an automatic response of learned beneficial techniques. Modifications of each general step result in distinctive programs. Additionally, different fields of psychology will change aspects of the above three-step process, which is primarily based in cognitive-behavioral therapy. Group, family, and relaxation only therapies each contribute to the wider range of available anger management programs.

Relaxation therapy can reduce cognition and motivations to act out, and through relaxation, clients gain coping skills to better manage their anger. This therapy addresses various aspects of anger such as physiological, cognitive, behavioral, and social. These aspects combined are what make relaxation an effective treatment for anger. Mindfulness attempts to teach clients acceptance of bodily sensations and emotions. Mindfulness originated in Eastern spiritual traditions that are practiced through meditation. A two-prong component of mindfulness includes: self-regulation and orientation toward the present moment. The center of this therapy technique is experiencing the present moment in a non-judgmental manner that is reflective of meditation. In practice, clients observe breathing, sitting and walking during meditations. The goal is for clients to understand that his or her thoughts of anger are merely thoughts rather than reality. Mindfulness is also a technique used in the relaxation approach because the technique halts physiological arousal. An example of this is Meditation on the Soles of the Feet (SoF) which has been shown to help persons with mild intellectual disability decrease aggressive behavior by mindfully focusing on the soles of their feet.

Rational emotive behavior therapy explains anger through the client's beliefs and emotion, rather than the event itself. The concept involves clients interpreting events in a rational manner in order to avoid irrational thoughts that lead to anger. Delayed reaction technique is when clients attempt to uncover what is making them angry before acting out on their anger. This allows them to have time to change what is making them angry and increase time before their response; this encourages thought on a more rational level. In addition, clients are also encouraged to avoid demands in an anti-oppressive order to avoid anger. An example of a demand placed on a client may be that, "I have to have this done by my standards". Research is starting to show that the better individuals understand what anger management is and how it can help them personally and in relationships, aggressive actions are less likely to occur.

Anger treatments' success rates can be difficult to estimate because excessive, severe anger is not a recognized disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. This manual is used as a reference for mental health professionals. Some research does exist on comparing various treatments for anger, but they also describe methodological difficulties in making accurate comparisons. The best practice for anger treatment is to use multiple techniques rather than a single technique. The relaxation approach had the highest success rate as a standalone treatment. The effectiveness of the CBT-based anger management therapies has been evaluated by a number of meta-analyses. In a 1998 meta-analysis with 50 studies and 1640 individuals, measures of anger and aggression were used to compare the effects of the anger management intervention with no treatment. A significant effect for anger management was found with a 67% chance of improvement for individuals having received the anger management as compared to the individuals without the therapy. In addition, a 2009 meta-analysis compared psychological treatments for anger across 96 studies. After an average of 8 sessions, a significant improvement in anger reduction resulted. Overall, the completion of an anger management program is likely to result in long-lasting positive changes in behavior. Successful interventions can result in not only a reduction of the outward display of aggression, but also a decrease in the internal level of anger.

Medication 
As anger is a psychological concern, treating with medication is a secondary line of approach. However, if there is a medical reason for an anger response certain psychotropic medications are prescribed by doctors to complement the psychotherapy intervention. Medications include Antidepressants, Anti-psychotics, Anti-seizure and Beta blockers. These drugs specifically do not target anger directly, but they have a calming outcome that can support control of rage and negative feeling.

Antidepressants may have a particular role when anger is a manifestation of depression. Anger attacks are found in 40% of those with major depressive disorder with 64–71% of cases responding to an SSRI such as fluoxetine.

Valerian roots and saffron threads are herbal supplements that supposedly help in lowering stress and promotes calm feelings. Passionflower and chamomile are generally consumed in tea for supporting mood by reducing anxiety.

Affected populations

Adults
One motivation for seeking anger management can be career-related. As both a preventative and corrective tool, anger management is available to help individuals cope with potentially anger-inducing aspects of their jobs. One such situation applies to caretakers of individuals with mental illness. The daily stress combined with slow or no progress with the people under their care can create a high level of frustration. Skills training for caretakers of relatives with dementia has been developed to help cope with these feelings of frustration in a positive manner.

Anger management is also beneficial in law enforcement. The role of police officers is to protect civilians, however, conflicts between the police and the general public can develop. The goal of anger management would be to reduce such occurrences like police brutality from negatively impacting the relationship between law enforcement and citizens. Anger management programs tailored towards this goal could orient themselves towards these means by focusing on conflict resolution and including specific law enforcement scenarios in the training. This need was noticed by Novaco, who originally designed an intervention for anger management based on cognitive behavioral therapy, resulting in a specialized skills training program for law enforcement.

Couples also in the brink of dissolution of their marriage need to understand what to do about intimate partner violence, and the more knowledgeable the individuals are on how to manage their anger, the better prepared they are when confronted with a problem with another person.

Children and adolescents
The ability for young children to understand their emotions and how to react in certain situations can greatly increase their chance of expressing themselves in an appropriate manner.  A 2010 study from the Journal of Applied School Psychology looked at four 4th grade boys who took part in different activities with the school psychologist, ranging from how to deal with emotions to practicing anger reduction strategies. They found a positive correlation between partaking in these meetings and less anger expressing in a multitude of locations (school, home, etc.).

Anger management programs with a cognitive-behavioral basis have been modified for children and adolescents. There are three common types of CBT aimed at the youth. First, life skills development (communication, empathy, assertiveness, etc.) uses modeling to teach appropriate reactions to anger. Second, effective education focuses on identifying the feelings of anger and relaxation. Finally, problem solving conveys a view of cause and effect for situations as an alternative to anger. A wide range of methods can be used to convey these three components, with both age and severity being important factors. For younger children, involvement can be increased by presenting anger management in more of a fun format with educational games and activities being available. For adolescents, group therapy can be an effective form given the resemblance to the individual's natural social environment. The severity of expressed anger issues often relates to the intensity of the subsequent anger management program. A few violent outbursts in a classroom setting could result in several sessions with the school's counselor. However, more severe juvenile delinquency could result in court-mandated anger management sessions in a juvenile correctional facility.

The effectiveness of anger management has been studied in children and adolescents for the purpose of evaluating existing programs and designing more effective programs. In a meta-analyses of 40 studies, an overall effect size of 0.67 was found for CBT anger management treatment, suggesting anger management as a legitimate approach to problematic levels of anger. Skills development (0.79) and problem solving (0.67) both had a higher impact than affective education (0.36). This was believed to be due to behavioral aspects being more easily conveyed than cognitive for children. The true value from early interventions aimed at youths comes from the preventative aspect. Curbing negative behaviors early in life could lead to a more positive outlook as an adult.

Individuals with intellectual disabilities

Individuals with intellectual disabilities can struggle with managing anger. When faced with aggression from individuals with an intellectual disability, caretakers often employ a combination of four different strategies. Depending on both the setting and individual, the following strategies for aggression minimization present in different ways.

 Reactive strategies – Aim to minimize impact of overtly aggressive behavior by using established protocols. Ex. Enforced isolation after the start of a violent outburst.
 Ecological interventions – Attempt to reduce aggression level by changing an aspect of the environment for a more calming effect. Ex. Reducing ambient noise to lower irritation.
 Contingency management – Focuses on modifying behavior through a combination of reinforcement and punishment. Ex. Using a token economy to enforce rules concerning behavior.
 Positive programming – Teaches positive reaction skills as an alternative to aggression. Ex. Anger management with a CBT background.

The need for anger management is also evident in situations where individuals with intellectual disabilities are prescribed psychotropic medication as the result of aggressive or self-injurious behavior. The medication's role as a chemical restraint does not help modify the underlying cause of aggression. Sedation is best used as an emergency measure with skills training as a long-term solution to decreasing the overall rate of violent incidents. In a meta-analysis reviewing 80 studies, behavioral-based interventions were found to be generally effective in modifying behavior. Additionally, cognitive behavioral therapy as administered by lay therapists was found to be effective, which supports the feasibility of such anger management programs.

This is a group that a majority of the population might not associate with having AM problems, but research shows over half of the population of Americans with intellectual disabilities displays violent and aggressive actions somewhat regularly.  People with a learning disability tend to express anger and aggression to even those who help them on a daily basis.  Adults with intellectual disabilities are at high risk of acting aggressive and being sent to clinics due to their actions.

The "theory of the mind" approach states that people with anger management problems tend to be unsteady mentally and are not able to internalize any blame for their actions. One of the main reasons for anger outbursts is externalizing blame and having a quick impulse to lash out.  These individuals need to have a better understanding of what their actions mean and that they should understand that blaming themselves for problems can sometimes be the right thing to do.

Violent criminals 

One study found that offenders who were currently in high-security hospitals that went through a self-report 20 class training program actually had very positive results.  Results of the self-report showed a decrease in aggression and a lack of responding when angry.  There were two issues to keep in mind though; a hospital setting and a setting in which the researchers did not want to provoke much anger due to the instability of the patients.

In one meta-analysis study composed of studies completed from 1979 to 2010, school-aged children who were identified as having aggressive personalities were given several different anger management classes.  Overall, results showed slightly positive results for children receiving the classes (less aggression).  The courses aimed at reducing negative emotions in the children and trying to help them with self-control.  While no overarching conclusions could be made, researchers state that children going through anger management courses are more prepared to combat their anger internally and less likely to act out.

Substance abusers 

There is no statistical information that shows people who substance abuse also have high rates of aggressive actions.  However, researchers believe this is a group of people that should be studied due to their questionable decision-making and typically unstable mental health. Substance abusers could benefit from anger management to prevent potential aggression.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) individuals 

This group can benefit from extended CBT dealing with anger management issues.  One study dealing with n= 86 war veterans found that during the 12 sessions of training, anger traits slightly dropped as well as small reductions in expressing anger. Research also indicates that their antisocial personality traits upon return can put them behind in society, so finding the right anger management courses is of vital importance.  There were not significant enough findings from this study to definitely recommend veterans with PTSD to use CBT anger management courses.

People with traumatic brain injuries 

People with a traumatic brain injury (TBI) can display impulsive, aggressive and dangerous actions.  A study in the Brain Injury showed that one way to prevent such actions is a community-based treatment of people with TBI.  Results indicated that the need to lash out diminished after the 12-week program, and a series of post-treatment testing showed a decline in self-reported frequency of angry actions. Other specific results included: significant decreases in the frequency of experiencing angry feelings and the frequency of outward expression of anger as well as significant increases in the frequency of controlling feelings of anger.

Associated people

Seneca 

One of the first people to study anger and the control of anger was the Roman philosopher Seneca.  He studied anger during his lifetime, c. 4 BC – AD 65, and from his experiences and observations he formulated ways to control anger.  This could be considered an early form of anger management. Seneca noted the importance of how to avoid becoming angry, how to quit being angry, and how to deal with anger in other people.
Before him, Athenodorus Cananites (74 BC – 7 AD) counseled Octavian to recite the alphabet before acting in anger.

Another theorist who came after Seneca was Galen, a Roman era philosopher, who built on the work of Seneca to formulate new ideas in the area of anger management.  Galen stresses the importance of a mentor to help deal with excess anger.

Peter Stearns 

Sir Peter Stearns played an important part in researching the differences in anger between genders. Stearns concluded that there are similarities between male and females experience of anger. June Crawford came up with an opposing idea about how the two genders deal with anger. Her research concluded that men and women deal with anger by different means.

Raymond Novaco 
Works from Raymond Novaco in the 1970s have contributed to many of the recent ideas on the management of anger. These ideas have led to the implementation of different anger management programs. Novaco stressed the importance of looking at the situations that led up to the anger in order to have control over the anger. He stated that anger is an emotional response to situations, and that anger occurs in three modalities, either cognitive, somaticaffective or behavioral.  After discovering the anger, there should be discussion and self-examination in order to relieve the anger. This process was thought to help the client identify the situations that lead to anger and deal with the anger depending on the step that the anger is occurring in. The client is able to use different relaxation skills to reduce their anger before it advances.

Benefits
The benefits of undergoing anger management brings around the successful reduction in anger and violent outbursts. Personal relationships that have been previously strained by a high level of aggression may undergo improvement. Professionally, workplace relationships have a similar outcome that are beneficial to an individual's career and personal sense of satisfaction. Legally, continued attendance to anger management programs, mandated or not, can be seen as a sign of good faith. For incarcerated individuals, an earlier parole time can be the result of good behavior learned from anger management classes. From an emotional standpoint, reducing the internal level of anger results in a decrease in stress and an increase in overall happiness as a result.

From a medical standpoint, physical illnesses also improve from positive emotional and behavioral changes. Anger management style and overall level of anger has been associated with both acute and chronic pain sensitivity. Blood pressure is another physiological aspect effected by anger, with increased levels of anger being correlated with higher blood pressure. The implications of an effect on blood pressure for overall health is made evident by the link between high blood pressure and the increased risk of cardiovascular disease. An increase in the immune system's efficacy has also been observed as a result of the increased level of relaxation. Successful anger management could also lead to an overall longer life span due to the decrease in reckless behavior and violent altercations.

Impediments
There are a number of factors that can lower the probability of a successful anger management intervention. One such obstacle is the level of the individual's motivation. Overall low readiness is an impediment to the effectiveness of anger management due to the lower attendance rates and negative effect on the therapeutic alliance. Involuntary assignment to an anger management program, for example court mandated sessions, will result in a lower average motivation level than voluntary admission. In one study with incarcerated inmates, there was a correlation found between individual readiness and improvement.

Additionally, given the component of anger as a social construct, difficulty with communication between cultures can serve as another impediment. What is deemed an appropriate expression of anger is culturally dependent. Therefore, a mismatch between client and therapist could result in a misunderstanding as to the end goal of the program. For example, a client could only wish to decrease physical violence, while the therapist aims to decrease both verbal and physical outbursts. Gender-dependent expectations of anger expression can contribute as well to societal standards. The same violent outburst for a man and woman is subject to different interpretations due to anger being seen as more permissible in males.

The cost of taking anger management could also be a significant obstacle if the person does not have health insurance.  The time required for anger management depends on the program. Weekly one-hour sessions with eight to 12 sessions per program are common, but a single intensive all-day session variety exists as well. The monetary cost can amount to $90–$120 per session for general therapy, or much higher fees for specialized coaching. The availability of anger management programs locally can be problematic for more isolated areas, creating an additional cost for travel. However, online options can follow the same structure as an in-person intervention with similar outcomes.

Religion
An Islamic hadith-i-sherif states, "Whoever is overtaken by anger (ghadab) should sit down if he is standing up.  If anger continues, he should lie down on one of his sides!"

See also

References

External links
 American Psychological Association – Anger
 Canadian Mental Health Association (CMHA) Tips
 Psychological Self Help
 Anger Management Villanova University, Pennsylvania
 Anger Management Techniques

Psychotherapies
Mindfulness (psychology)