Arapaho Expansion on the plains when was the expansion? began to expand on the plains what expanded? the Arapaho what was special about the expansion? through trade, warfare, and alliances with other plains tribes. who did they trade with? the Arapaho made an alliance with the Cheyenne (
who did they go to war with?
who did Arapaho go to war with?
Once established, the Arapaho began to expand on the plains through trade, warfare, and alliances with other plains tribes. Around 1811, the Arapaho made an alliance with the Cheyenne (Hitesiino' - ''scarred one''). Their strong alliance with the Cheyenne allowed the Arapaho to greatly expand their hunting territory. By 1826, the Lakota, Dakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho pushed the Kiowa (Niiciiheihiinenno'; Kiowa tribe: Niiciiheihiiteen) and invading Comanche to the south. Conflict with the allied Comanche and Kiowa ended in 1840 when the two large tribes made peace with the Arapaho and Southern Cheyenne and became their allies. Chief Little Raven was the most notable Arapaho chief; he helped mediate peace among the nomadic southern plains tribes and would retain his reputation as a peace chief throughout the Indian Wars and reservation period. The alliance with the Comanche and Kiowa made the most southern Arapaho bands powerful enough to enter the Llano Estacado in the Texas Panhandle. One band of Southern Arapaho became so closely allied with the Comanche that they were absorbed into the tribe, adopted the Comanche language, and became a band of Comanche known as the Saria Tuhka (Sata Teichas) or Dog-Eaters band. Along the upper Missouri River, the Arapaho actively traded with the farming villages of the Arikara, Mandan, and Hidatsa, trading meat and hides for corn, squash, and beans. The Arikara referred to the Arapaho as the "Colored Stone Village (People)", possibly because gemstones from the Southwest were among the trade items. The Hidatsa called them E-tah-leh or Ita-Iddi (''Bison-Path People''), referring to their hunting of bison. Conflict with Euro-American traders and explorers was limited at the time. The Arapaho freely entered various trading posts and trade fairs to exchange mostly bison hides and beaver furs for European goods such as firearms. The Arapaho frequently encountered fur traders in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, and the headwaters of the Platte and Arkansas. They became well-known traders on the plains and bordering Rocky Mountains. The name ''Arapaho'' may have been derived from the Pawnee word Tirapihu (or Larapihu), meaning "he buys or trades" or "traders". The Arapaho were a prominent trading group in the Great Plains region. The term may also have come from European-American traders referring to them by their Crow (Apsaalooke alilaau) name of Alappaho', which meant "People with many tattoos". By custom the Arapaho tattooed small circles on their bodies. The name Arapaho became widespread among the white traders. CANNOTANSWER
By 1826, the Lakota, Dakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho pushed the Kiowa (Niiciiheihiinenno'; Kiowa tribe: Niiciiheihiiteen) and invading Comanche to the south.
The Arapaho (; , ) are a Native American people historically living on the plains of Colorado and Wyoming. They were close allies of the Cheyenne tribe and loosely aligned with the Lakota and Dakota.

By the 1850s, Arapaho bands formed two tribes, namely the Northern Arapaho and Southern Arapaho. Since 1878, the Northern Arapaho have lived with the Eastern Shoshone on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming and are federally recognized as the Arapahoe Tribe of the Wind River Reservation. The Southern Arapaho live with the Southern Cheyenne in Oklahoma. Together, their members are enrolled as the federally recognized Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes.

Names
It is uncertain where the word 'Arapaho' came from. Europeans may have derived it from the Pawnee word for "trader", iriiraraapuhu, or it may have been a corruption of a Crow word for "tattoo", alapúuxaache. The Arapaho autonym is  or  ("our people" or "people of our own kind"). They refer to their tribe as  (Arapaho Nation). The Cheyenne called them  or  ("People of the Sky" or "Cloud People"); the Dakota as  ("Blue Cloud Men"), and the Lakota and Assiniboine referred to them as  ("Blue Sky People").

The Caddo ( or  – "pierced nose people") called them , the Wichita () , and the Comanche , all names signifying "dog-eaters". The Pawnee, Ute and other tribes also referred to them with names signifying "dog-eaters".

The Northern Arapaho, who called themselves  or  ("white sage men"), were known as  or  ("red willow men") to the Southern Arapaho, whereas the latter were called by their northern kin  or  ("Southerners"). The Northern Arapaho were also known as  ("blood-soup men").

The Cheyenne adapted the Arapaho terms and referred to the Northern Arapaho as Vanohetan or Vanohetaneo / Váno'étaneo'o ("Sage (Brush) People") and to the Southern Arapaho as Nomsen'nat or Nomsen'eo ("Southerners").

Historic political and dialect Arapaho divisions and bands 

The Arapaho recognize five main divisions among their people, each speaking a different dialect and apparently representing as many originally distinct but cognate tribes. Through much of Arapaho history, each tribal nation maintained a separate ethnic identity, although they occasionally came together and acted as political allies.

Each spoke mutually intelligible dialects, which differed from Arapaho proper. Dialectally, the Haa'ninin, Beesowuunenno', and Hinono'eino were closely related. Arapaho elders claimed that the Hánahawuuena dialect was the most difficult to comprehend of all the dialects.

In his classic ethnographic study, Alfred Kroeber identified these five nations from south to north:

 Nanwacinaha'ana, Nawathi'neha ("Toward the South People") or Nanwuine'nan / Noowo3iineheeno' ("Southern People"). Their now-extinct language dialect – Nawathinehena – was the most divergent from the other Arapaho tribes.
 Hánahawuuena, Hananaxawuune'nan or Aanû'nhawa ("Rock Men" or "Rock People"), occupying territory adjacent to, but further north of the Nanwacinaha'ana, spoke the now-extinct Ha'anahawunena dialect. 
 Hinono'eino or Hinanae'inan ("Arapaho proper") spoke the Arapaho language (Heenetiit). 
 Beesowuunenno', Baasanwuune'nan or Bäsawunena ("Big Lodge People" or "Brush-Hut/Shelter People") resided further north of the Hinono'eino. Their war parties used temporary brush shelters similar to the dome-shaped shade or Sweat lodge of the Great Lakes Algonquian peoples. They are said to have migrated from their former territory near the Lakes more recently than the other Arapaho tribes. (Note: many people say their name means "Great Lakes People" or "Big Water People".) They spoke the now-extinct Besawunena (Beesoowuuyeitiit – "Big Lodge/Great Lakes language") dialect. 
 Haa'ninin, A'aninin or A'ani ("White Clay People" or "Lime People"), the northernmost tribal group; they retained a distinct ethnicity and were known to the French as the historic Gros Ventre. In Blackfoot they were called Atsina (Atsíína – "like a Cree", i.e. "enemy", or Piik-siik-sii-naa – "snakes", i.e. "enemies").  After they separated, the other Arapaho peoples, who considered them inferior, called them Hitúnĕna or Hittiuenina ("Begging Men", "Beggars", or more exactly "Spongers"). They speak the nearly extinct Gros Ventre (Ananin, Ahahnelin) language dialect (called by the Arapaho Hitouuyeitiit – "Begging Men Language"), there is evidence that the southern Haa'ninin tribal group, the Staetan band, together with bands of the later political division of the Northern Arapaho, spoke the Besawunena dialect.

Before their historic geo-political ethnogenesis, each tribal-nation had a principal
headman. The exact date of the ethnic fusion or fission of each social division is not known. The elders say that the Hinono'eino ("Arapaho proper") and Beesowuunenno ("Big Lodge People" or "Brush-Hut/Shelter People") fought over the tribal symbols – the sacred pipe and lance. Both sacred objects traditionally were kept by the Beesowuunenno. The different tribal-nations lived together and the Beesowuunenno have dispersed for at least 150 years among the formerly distinct Arapaho tribal groups.

By the late 18th century, the four divisions south of the Haa'ninin ("White Clay People" or "Lime People") or Gros Ventre (Atsina) consolidated into the Arapaho. Only the Arapaho and Gros Ventre (Atsina) identified as separate tribal-nations.

While living on the Great Plains, the Hinono'eino (all Arapaho bands south of the Haa'ninin) divided historically into two geopolitical social divisions:
 Northern Arapaho or Nank'haanseine'nan ("Sagebrush People"), Nookhose'iinenno ("White Sage People"); are called by the Southern Arapaho Bo'ooceinenno or Baachinena ("red willow men"); the Kiowa know them as Tägyäko ("Sagebrush People"), a translation of their proper name. They keep the sacred tribal articles, and are considered the nucleus or mother tribe of the Arapaho, being indicated in the Plains Indian Sign Language (Bee3sohoet) by the sign for "mother people". They absorbed the historic Hánahawuuena and Beesowuunenno. An estimated 50 persons of Beesowuunenno' lineage are included among the Northern Arapaho, and perhaps a few with the other two main divisions.
 Southern Arapaho, Náwunena or Noowunenno ("Southern People"), are called by the Northern Arapaho Nawathi'neha ("Southerners"); the Kiowa know them as Ähayädal, the (plural) name for the wild plum. The sign for the Southern Arapaho is made by rubbing the index finger against the side of the nose. They absorbed the historic Nanwuine'nan / Noowo3iineheeno ("Southern People") and some Beesowuunenno.

Language 
The Arapaho language is currently spoken in two different dialects, and it is considered to be a member of the Algonquian language family. The number of fluent speakers of Northern Arapaho dwindles at 250, most living on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming, while the number of Southern Arapaho speakers is even more scarce, only a handful of people speak it, all advanced in age.

According to Cowell & Moss's 2008 study of the Arapaho language, the Northern Arapaho have made a great effort to maintain the language through establishing the Language and Culture Commission. By producing audio and visual materials, they have provided ways for younger generations to learn the language. They have matched this effort with a preschool immersion program and is offered all throughout grade school. However, the number of students that take the subject is wavering and those who learn typically only retain a selection of memorized vocabulary. There is widespread interest in keeping the language alive for the Northern Arapaho, and their outlook remains positive in their endeavors to perpetuate the learning of Arapaho in schools and among their children and young people. However, this attitude is often counteracted by the lack of true commitment and willingness to really learn and become fluent, underscored by a misunderstanding of its deep roots and purpose.

For Southern Arapaho, the language is not quite as valued as it is on the Wind River Reservation. Most have lost interest in learning or maintaining it, and until recently, there were little to no efforts to preserve their dialect. There is a small number who have begun online courses conducted via video in an attempt to revitalize a desire to learn it, and popularity has increased over the past few years.

Histories

Early history
 

Around 3,000 years ago, the ancestral Arapaho-speaking people (Heeteinono'eino) lived in the western Great Lakes region along the Red River Valley in what is classified as present-day Manitoba, Canada and Minnesota, United States. There the Arapaho were an agricultural people who grew crops, including maize. Following European colonization in eastern Canada, together with the early Cheyenne people (Hitesiino'''), the Arapaho were forced to migrate westward onto the eastern Great Plains by the Ojibwe. They were numerous and powerful, having obtained guns from their French trading allies.

The ancestors of the Arapaho people entered the Great Plains the western Great Lakes region sometime before 1700. During their early history on the plains, the Arapaho lived on the northern plains from the South Saskatchewan River in Canada south to Montana, Wyoming, and western South Dakota. Before the Arapaho acquired horses, they used domestic dogs as pack animals to pull their travois. The Arapaho acquired horses in the early 1700s from other tribes, which changed their way of life. They became nomadic people, using the horses as pack and riding animals. They could transport greater loads, and travel more easily by horseback to hunt more easily and widely, increasing their success in hunting on the Plains.

Gradually, the Arapaho moved farther south, split into the closely allied Northern and Southern Arapaho, and established a large joint territory spanning land in southern Montana, most of Wyoming, the Nebraska Panhandle, central and eastern Colorado, western Oklahoma, and extreme western Kansas. A large group of Arapaho split from the main tribe and became an independent people, commonly known as the Gros Ventre (as named by the French) or Atsina. The name Gros Ventre, meaning "Big Bellies" in French, was a misinterpretation of sign language between an Indian guide and French explorers. The Gros Ventre spoke an Algonquian language similar to Arapaho after the division; they identified as A'aninin, meaning ″White Clay people″. The Arapaho often viewed the Gros Ventre as inferior and referred to them as Hitúnĕna or Hitouuteen, meaning "beggars". 

Expansion on the plains
Once established, the Arapaho began to expand on the plains through trade, warfare, and alliances with other plains tribes. Around 1811, the Arapaho made an alliance with the Cheyenne (Hítesíínoʼ – 'scarred one'). Their strong alliance with the Cheyenne allowed the Arapaho to greatly expand their hunting territory. By 1826, the Lakota, Dakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho pushed the Kiowa (Niiciiheihiinennoʼ; Kiowa tribe: Niiciiheihiiteen) and invading Comanche to the south. Conflict with the allied Comanche and Kiowa ended in 1840 when the two large tribes made peace with the Arapaho and Southern Cheyenne and became their allies.

Chief Little Raven was the most notable Arapaho chief; he helped mediate peace among the nomadic southern plains tribes and would retain his reputation as a peace chief throughout the Indian Wars and reservation period. The alliance with the Comanche and Kiowa made the most southern Arapaho bands powerful enough to enter the Llano Estacado in the Texas Panhandle. One band of Southern Arapaho became so closely allied with the Comanche that they were absorbed into the tribe, adopted the Comanche language, and became a band of Comanche known as the Saria Tʉhka (Sata Teichas) 'dog-eaters'.

Along the upper Missouri River, the Arapaho actively traded with the farming villages of the Arikara, Mandan, and Hidatsa, trading meat and hides for corn, squash, and beans. The Arikara referred to the Arapaho as the "Colored Stone Village (People)", possibly because gemstones from the Southwest were among the trade items. The Hidatsa called them E-tah-leh or Ita-Iddi ('bison-path people'), referring to their hunting of bison.

Conflict with Euro-American traders and explorers was limited at the time. The Arapaho freely entered various trading posts and trade fairs to exchange mostly bison hides and beaver furs for European goods such as firearms. The Arapaho frequently encountered fur traders in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, and the headwaters of the Platte and Arkansas. They became well-known traders on the plains and bordering Rocky Mountains. The name Arapaho may have been derived from the Pawnee word Tirapihu (or Larapihu), meaning "he buys or trades" or "traders". The Arapaho were a prominent trading group in the Great Plains region. The term may also have come from European-American traders referring to them by their Crow (Apsáalooke aliláau) name of Alappahoʼ, which meant 'people with many tattoos'. By custom the Arapaho tattooed small circles on their bodies. The name Arapaho became widespread among the white traders.

Enemies and warrior culture

A large part of Arapaho society was based around the warrior. Most young men sought this role. After adopting use of the horse, the Arapaho quickly became master horsemen and highly skilled at fighting on horseback. Warriors had larger roles than combat in the society. They were expected to keep peace among the camps, provide food and wealth for their families, and guard the camps from attacks.

Like other plains Indians, including their Cheyenne allies, the Arapaho have a number of distinct military societies. Each of the eight Arapaho military societies had their own unique initiation rites, pre- and post- battle ceremonies and songs, regalia, and style of combat. Unlike their Cheyenne, Lakota, and Dakota allies, the Arapaho military societies were age based. Each age level had its own society for prestigious or promising warriors of the matching age. As the warriors aged, they may graduate to the next society.

Warriors often painted their face and bodies with war paint, as well as their horses, for spiritual empowerment. Each warrior created a unique design for the war paint which they often wore into battle. Feathers from birds, particularly eagle feathers, were also worn in battle as symbols of prestige and for reasons similar to war paint. Before setting out for war, the warriors organized into war parties. War parties were made up of individual warriors and a selected war chief. The title of war chief must be earned through a specific number of acts of bravery in battle known as counting coup. Coups may include stealing horses while undetected, touching a living enemy, or stealing a gun from an enemy's grasp. Arapaho warriors used a variety of weapons, including war-clubs, lances, knives, tomahawks, bows, shotguns, rifles, and pistols. They acquired guns through trade at trading posts or trade fairs, in addition to raiding soldiers or other tribes.

The Arapaho fought with the Pawnee (Hooxeihiinenno – "wolf people"), Omaha (Howohoono), Ho-chunk, Osage (Wosootiinen, Wosoo3iinen or Wosoosiinen), Ponca (same as Omaha: Howohoono), and Kaw (Honoho) east of their territory. North of Arapaho territory they fought with the Crow (Houunenno), Blackfoot Confederacy (Woo'teenixteet or Woo'teenixtee3i – ″people wearing black-feet″), Gros Ventre (Hitouunenno, Gros Ventre tribe: Hitouuteen), Flathead (Kookee'ei3i), Arikara (Koonoonii3i – ″people whose jaws break in pieces″), Iron Confederacy (Nehiyaw-Pwat) (Assiniboine (Nihooneihteenootineihino - "yellow-footed Sioux"), Plains/Woods Cree (Nooku(h)nenno; Plains Cree tribe: Nookuho - "rabbit people"), Saulteaux (Plains Ojibwa) and Nakoda (Stoney)). To the west they fought with eastern Shoshone (Sosoni'ii; Shoshone tribe: Sosoni'iiteen) and the Ute (Wo'(o)teenehi3i - ″cut throats″; Ute tribe: Wo'(o)teennehhiiteen). South of their territory they occasionally fought with the Navajo (Coohoh'oukutoo3i – ″those who tie their hair in back of the head or in bunches″), Apache (Coo3o – "enemy" or Teebe'eisi3i – "they have their hair cut straight, hanging straight down", Ti'iihiinen – "killdeer people" refers especially to Jicarilla Apache) and various Pueblo peoples (Cooh'ookutoo3i – "they tie their hair in a bundle").

The Cheyenne (Hitesiino), Sioux (Nootineihino), Kiowa (Niiciiheihiinenno – ″river people″ or Koh'ówuunénno''' – ″creek people″; Kiowa tribe: Niiciiheihiiteen or Koh'ówuunteen), Plains Apache (3oxooheinen – "pounder people"), and Comanche (Coo3o – sg. and pl., means: "enemy", like Apache) were enemies of the Arapaho initially but became their allies. Together with their allies, the Arapaho also fought with invading US soldiers, miners, and settlers across Arapaho territory and the territory of their allies.

Sand Creek Massacre

 Events Leading to the Sand Creek Massacre 
Several skirmishes had ignited hatred from white settlers that lived in the area, and left Arapaho and Cheyenne tribes in constant fear of being attacked by American troops. For example, on April 12, 1864, a rancher brought troops to attack a group of 15 warriors who had asked for reward from bringing his mules back to him. The warriors acted in self-defense and sent the troops running. Word got back to Colonel John Chivington, and they had told him the Indians shot first. He also heard there were 175 cattle head stolen from the government. Chivington "ordered troops to find and 'chastise' the 'Indians'." Soldiers burned villages and sought out to kill Indians, the violence escalating months before the Sand Creek Massacre.

In an effort to establish peace, John Evans attempted to extend an offer of refuge and protection to "friendly" Indians. However, these efforts were trampled by General Curtis' military expedition against tribes between the Platte and Arkansas Rivers. By this point, both Arapaho and Cheyenne tribes thought that an all out war of extermination was about to rage against them, so they quickly fled, and Curtis and his men never met them.

 Sand Creek Massacre 

In November 1864, the Colorado militia, led by Colonel John Chivington, massacred a small village of Cheyenne and Arapaho in the Sand Creek massacre. According to a historical narrative on the event titled "Chief Left Hand", by Margaret Coel, there were several events that led to the Colorado militia's attack on the village. Governor Evans desired to hold title to the resource-rich Denver-Boulder area. The government trust officials avoided Chief Left Hand, a linguistically gifted Southern Arapaho chief, when executing their treaty that transferred the title of the area away from Indian Trust. The local cavalry was stretched thin by the demands of the Civil War while Indian warriors, acting independently of Chief Left Hand, raided their supply lines. A group of Arapaho and Cheyenne elders with women and children had been denied their traditional wintering grounds in Boulder by the cavalry and were ordered to come to Fort Lyon for food and protection or be considered hostile.

On arrival at Lyon, Chief Left Hand and his followers were accused of violence by Colonel Chivington. Chief Left Hand and his people got the message that only those Indians that reported to Fort Lyon would be considered peaceful and all others would be considered hostile and ordered killed. Confused, Chief Left Hand and his followers turned away and traveled a safe distance away from the fort to camp. A traitor gave Colonel Chivington directions to the camp. He and his battalion stalked and attacked the camp early the next morning. Rather than heroic, Colonel Chivington's efforts were considered a gross embarrassment to the Cavalry since he attacked peaceful elders, women, and children. As a result of his war efforts, instead of receiving the promotion to which he aspired, he was relieved of his duties.

Eugene Ridgely, a Cheyenne–Northern Arapaho artist, is credited with bringing to light the fact that Arapahos were among the victims of the massacre. His children, Gail Ridgely, Benjamin Ridgley, and Eugene "Snowball" Ridgely, were instrumental in having the massacre site designated as a National Historic Site. In 1999, Benjamin and Gail Ridgley organized a group of Northern Arapaho runners to run from Limon, Colorado, to Ethete, Wyoming, in memory of their ancestors who were forced to run for their lives after being attacked and pursued by Colonel Chivington and his battalion. Their efforts will be recognized and remembered by the "Sand Creek Massacre" signs that appear along the roadways from Limon to Casper, Wyoming, and then to Ethete.

 Why the Sand Creek Massacre Occurred 
The violence that ensued was deeply rooted in the Indian-hating by American settlers in the area. Their perception was that "their nascent settlements were indeed surrounded by Indians", and their inexperience in dealing with Indians was what sparked the Sand Creek Massacre.

Indian Wars on the Southern Plains

The events at Sand Creek sparked outrage among the Arapaho and Cheyenne, resulting in three decades of war between them and the United States. Much of the hostilities took place in Colorado, leading to many of the events being referred to as part of the so-called Colorado War. Battles and hostilities elsewhere on the southern plains such as in Kansas and Texas are often included as part of the "Comanche Wars". During the wars, the Arapaho and Cheyenne allies—the Kiowa, Comanche, and Plains Apache—would participate in some battles alongside them. The Lakota from the north came down into northern Colorado to help the Arapaho and Cheyenne there. The Battle of Julesburg resulted from a force of about 1,000 allied Northern Arapaho, Cheyenne (mostly from the Dog Soldiers warrior society), and Lakota from the Brulé and Oglala sub-tribes. The point of the raid was retaliation for the events at the Sand Creek Massacre months earlier. The allied Indian forces attacked settlers and US Army forces around the valley of the South Platte River near Julesburg, Colorado. The battle was a decisive Indian victory, resulting in 14 soldiers and four civilians dead and probably no Indian casualties. A force of around 3,000 Southern Arapaho, Northern Cheyenne, and Lakota attacked soldiers and civilians at a bridge crossing the North Platte River, known as the Battle of Platte Bridge. The battle was another victory for the Indians, with 29 soldiers killed and at least eight Indian casualties. Arapaho, Cheyenne, Comanche, Kiowa, and Plains Apaches seeking peace were offered to sign the Medicine Lodge Treaty in October 1867. The treaty allotted the Southern Arapaho a reservation with the Southern Cheyenne between the Arkansas and Cimarron rivers in Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma). Among those that signed the treaty was Chief Little Raven. Those that did not sign the treaty were called "hostile" and were continually pursued by the US Army and their Indian scouts. The last major battle between the Arapaho and the US on the southern plains was the Battle of Summit Springs in northernmost Colorado. The battle involved a force of around 450 Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Lakota warriors and 244 US soldiers and around 50 Pawnee scouts under Frank North. The most prominent Indian leader at the battle was Tall Bull, a leader of the Dog Soldiers warrior society of the Cheyenne. The battle was a US victory with around 35 warriors killed (including Tall Bull) and a further 17 captured. The soldiers suffered only a single casualty. The death of Tall Bull was a major loss for the Dog Soldiers.

Powder River Expedition

After the Sand Creek Massacre and a number of other skirmishes, the Northern Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Lakota moved many of their bands to the remote Powder River country in Wyoming and southern Montana. Along the way, they participated in the Battle of Mud Springs, a minor incident in the Nebraska Panhandle involving a force of between 500 and 1,000 Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Lakota warriors and 230 US soldiers. The battle resulted in the capture of some army horses and a herd of several hundred cattle with a single US casualty. An attempt was made by the army to recapture their stolen livestock and attack the Indians, which resulted in the Battle of Rush Creek. The battle was inconclusive, resulting in only one Indian casualty and three US soldiers dead (with a further eight wounded). Lt. Col. William O. Collins, commander of the army forces, stated that pursuing the Indian forces any further through the dry Sand Hills area would be "injudicious and useless". Once in the area of the Powder River, the Arapaho noticed an increase in travelers moving along the established Bozeman trail, which led to the Montana goldfields. Settlers and miners traveling on the Bozeman Trail through the Powder River country were viewed as threats by the Indians as they were numerous and were often violent towards encountered Indians and competed for food along the trail.

Hostilities in the Powder River area led Major General Grenville M. Dodge to order the Powder River Expedition as a punitive campaign against the Arapaho, Lakota, and Cheyenne. The expedition was inconclusive with neither side gaining a definitive victory. The allied Indian forces mostly evaded the soldiers except for raids on their supplies which left most soldiers desperately under-equipped. The most significant battle was the Battle of the Tongue River where Brigadier General Patrick Edward Connor ordered Frank North and his Pawnee Scouts to find a camp of Arapaho Indians under the leadership of Chief Black Bear. Once located, Connor sent in 200 soldiers with two howitzers and 40 Omaha and Winnebago and 30 Pawnee scouts, and marched toward the village that night. Indian warriors acting as scouts for the US Army came from the Pawnee, Omaha, and Winnebago tribes who were traditional enemies of the Arapaho and their Cheyenne and Lakota allies. With mountain man Jim Bridger leading the forces, they charged the camp. Most of the Arapaho warriors were gone on a raid against the Crow, and the battle was a US victory resulting in 63 Arapaho dead, mostly women and children. The few warriors present at the camp put up a strong defense and covered the women and children as most escaped beyond the reach of the soldiers and Indian scouts. After the battle, the soldiers burned and looted the abandoned tipis. Connor singled out four Winnebago, including chief Little Priest, plus North and 15 Pawnee for bravery. The Pawnee made off with 500 horses from the camp's herd as payback for previous raids by the Arapaho. The Arapaho were not intimidated by the attack and launched a counterattack resulting in the Sawyers Fight where Arapaho warriors attacked a group of surveyors, resulting in three dead and no Arapaho losses.

Red Cloud's War

Red Cloud's War was a war fought between soldiers of the United States and the allied Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Northern Arapaho from 1866 to 1868. The war was named after the prominent Oglala Lakota chief Red Cloud who led many followers into battle with the invading soldiers. The war was a response to the large number of miners and settlers passing through the Bozeman Trail, which was the fastest and easiest trail from Fort Laramie to the Montana goldfields. The Bozeman Trail passed right through the Powder River Country which was near the center of Arapaho, Cheyenne, Lakota, and Dakota territory in Wyoming and southern Montana. The large number of miners and settlers competed directly with the Indians for resources such as food along the trail.

The most significant battle during Red Cloud's War was the Fetterman Fight, also known as Battle of The Hundred in the Hand to the Indian forces fought on December 21, 1866. The Battle involved Capt. William J. Fetterman who led a force of 79 soldiers and two civilians after a group of 10 Indian decoys planning on luring Fetterman's forces into an ambush. The 10 decoys consisted of two Arapaho, two Cheyenne, and six Lakota. Fetterman was well known for his boastful nature and his inexperience fighting Indian warriors and despite orders to not pursue the decoys did so anyway. Jim Bridger, famous Mountain Man and guide to the soldiers stationed at Fort Laramie, commented on how the soldiers "don't know anything about fighting Indians". After about a half-mile pursuit, the decoys signaled the hidden warriors to ambush Fetterman and his forces. Warriors from both sides of the trail charged Fetterman and forced them into nearby rocks where the battle soon became hand-to-hand combat, giving the Indians the upper hand due to their skill in fighting with handheld weapons such as tomahawks and war clubs. The Indian forces killed all of Fetterman's infantry, as well as the following cavalry, with a total of 81 killed. The battle was the greatest military defeat by the US on the Great Plains until the Battle of the Little Bighorn 10 years later. Red Cloud's War ended in a victory for the Arapaho, Cheyenne, Lakota, and Dakota. The Treaty of Fort Laramie guaranteed legal control of the Powder River country to the Indians.

Great Sioux War of 1876–77

The Great Sioux War of 1876–77, also known as the Black Hills War or Great Cheyenne War, was a major conflict that was fought between the Lakota Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho alliance and the US Army. The war was started after miners and settlers traveled into the Black Hills area and found gold, resulting in increased numbers of non-Indians illegally entering designated Indian lands. A large part of Cheyenne and Arapaho territory and most of Sioux territory known as the Great Sioux Reservation was guaranteed legally to the tribes by the Treaty of Fort Laramie after they defeated the US during Red Cloud's War in 1868. The Black Hills in particular are viewed as sacred to the Lakota and Dakota peoples, and the presence of settlers illegally occupying the area caused great unrest within the tribes. Instead of evicting the settlers the US Army broke the treaty and invaded Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho territory in order to protect American settlers and put the allied tribes on smaller reservations or wipe them out.

After Red Cloud's War many Northern Arapaho moved to the Red Cloud Agency in Dakota Territory and lived among the Lakota as well as many Cheyenne. Among the most influential and respected Arapaho chiefs living on the Agency was Chief Black Coal (Northern Arapaho) who gained prominence as a warrior and leader against white settlers in the Powder River country. Other important Arapaho chiefs living in the area included Medicine Man, Chief Black Bear, Sorrel Horse, Little Shield, Sharp Nose, Little Wolf, Plenty Bear, and Friday. The Arapaho chief Friday was well regarded for his intelligence and served as an interpreter between the tribe and the Americans. Black Coal guaranteed to the Americans that he and his people would remain peaceful during the tense times when the settlers were illegally entering Indian land in hopes of securing recognized territory of their own in Wyoming. Many of the warriors and families that disagreed with Black Coal's ideals drifted southward to join up with the southern division of Arapahos. Many Arapaho, particularly those in Chief Medicine Man's band did not wish to reside among the Sioux "for fear of mixing themselves up with other tribes". Their peaceful stance and willingness to help American soldiers strained once strong relations between them and the Lakota and Cheyenne which took an aggressive stance and fled the reservation. Attitudes towards the Arapaho from the "hostile" Lakota and Cheyenne were similar to the attitudes they had towards members of their own tribes which took similar peaceful stances and remained as "reservation Indians". Despite their unwillingness to take up the war path the Arapaho were unwilling to cede their territory, particularly the Black Hills area which they have a strong spiritual attachment to similar to the Lakota.

 
During this time of great unrest, the tribe found itself deteriorating in leadership with many chiefs holding little sway among their bands. In order to regain strength as leaders and further negotiations for land in Wyoming, many chiefs and their warriors enlisted as army scouts for the United States and campaigned against their allies. Chief Sharp Nose, who was considered as influential and equal to Black Coal, was noted as "the inspiration of the battlefield  ... He handled men with rare judgment and coolness, and was as modest as he was brave". Despite their overall stance as allies for the Americans, a handful of Arapaho warriors fought against the United States in key battles during the war.

Like in previous wars, the US recruited Indian warriors from tribes that were enemies with the Arapaho–Cheyenne–Lakota–Dakota alliance to act as Indian scouts, most notably from the Crow, Arikara, and Shoshone. Unlike previous conflicts involving the Lakota–Dakota–Cheyenne–Arapaho alliance and the United States the Great Sioux War ended in a victory for the United States. The bison herds which were the center of life for the Indians were considerably smaller due to government supported whole-scale slaughter in order to prevent collisions with railroads, conflict with ranch cattle, and to force nomadic plains Indians to adopt reservation life living off government handouts. Decreased resources and starvation was the major reason for the surrendering of individual Indian bands and the end of the Great Sioux War.

The most significant battle of the war was the Battle of The Little Bighorn on June 25–26, 1876. The battle was fought between warriors from the Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho (as well as individual Dakota warrior) and the 7th Cavalry Regiment of the US Army. The battle was fought along the Little Bighorn River in eastern Montana. The soldiers attempted to ambush the large camp of Indians along the river bottom despite the warnings from the Crow Scouts who knew that Custer severely underestimated the number of warriors in the camp. The US Seventh Cavalry, including the Custer Battalion, a force of 700 men led by George Armstrong Custer, suffered a severe defeat. Five of the Seventh Cavalry's companies were annihilated. The total US casualty count, including scouts, was 268 dead including Custer and 55 injured. Only five Arapaho were present at the battle and their presence was by chance. The Arapaho present were four Northern Arapaho warriors named Yellow Eagle, Yellow Fly, Left Hand, and Water Man. The fifth Arapaho was a Southern Arapaho named Well-Knowing One (Sage) but also known as Green Grass. The five Arapaho set out as a war party from near Fort Robinson to raid the Shoshone, but by chance came across a small party of young Sioux warriors. The Sioux thought that the Arapaho were United States Army Indian Scouts and invited them back to their camp along the Little Bighorn River, where they were captured and had their guns taken from them. The Lakota and Dakota threatened to kill the Arapaho, but the Cheyenne chief Two Moons recognized the men as Arapaho and ordered their release. The next day was the battle and, despite being viewed with suspicion, the five Arapaho actively fought in the battle. Water Man wore a large eagle feather headdress, a white shirt, beaded leggings, a breech cloth, and painted his face red and yellow during the battle. Water Man claimed killing one soldier while charging up the steep river banks, but did not take his scalp because most Arapaho refused to take a scalp from someone with short hair. Water Man claimed to have watched Custer die.

The Arapaho warrior Left Hand accidentally killed a Lakota warrior that he mistook for an Arikara scout, and despite further anger from the Lakota left the battle alive along with the other four Arapaho. After the battle, the five Arapahos quietly slipped away and headed back to the Fort Robinson area.

Culture

Creation myth
The creation myth of the Arapaho people shows a connection with the Algonquian people. Both cultures have an "earth-diver creation myth". The Arapaho myth begins with a being called Flat Pipe who exists alone upon the water. The Great Spirit suggests to Flat Pipe that he create creatures to build a world. He first conceives of ducks and other water birds who dive beneath the surface of the water but are not able to find land. With guidance from the Great Spirit, Flat Pipe creates a turtle who can live on both land or in the water. The Turtle dives and returns, spitting out a piece of land that grows into the earth. Flat Pipe then goes about creating men, women, and animals to populate the earth. The turtle is common to many "earth-diver" creation myths.

This myth is an example of "creation by thought". Flat Pipe creates the creatures by thinking of them.

Gender and division of labor

Traditionally, men are responsible for hunting. After horses were introduced, buffalo became the main food source—the meat, organs, and the blood all being consumed. Blood was drunk or made into pudding. Women (and haxu'xan (Two Spirits)) are traditionally in charge of food preparation and dressing hides to make clothing and bedding, saddles, and housing materials.The Arapaho Project: Clothes

The Arapaho have historically had social and spiritual roles for those who are known in contemporary Native cultures as Two Spirit or third gender.Sabine Lang, Men as Women, Women as Men , 2010) Anthropologist Alfred Kroeber wrote about male-bodied individuals who lived as women, the haxu'xan, who he says were believed to have "the natural desire to become women, and as they grew up gradually became women" (and could marry men); he further stated that the Arapaho believed that the haxu'xans gender was a supernatural gift from birds or other animals, that they had miraculous powers, and they were also noted for their inventiveness, such as making the first intoxicant from rainwater.

Clothing
On the Plains, women (and haxu'xan) historically wore moccasins, leggings, and ankle-length buckskin-fringed dresses, ornamented with porcupine quills, paint, elk teeth, and beads. Men have also worn moccasins, leggings, buckskin breechclothes (drawn between the legs, tied around the waist), and sometimes shirts; warriors have often worn necklaces. Many of these items are still part of contemporary dress for both casual and formal wear, or as regalia.

Economic development

In July 2005, Northern Arapahos won a contentious court battle with the State of Wyoming to get into the gambling or casino industry. The 10th Circuit Court ruled that the State of Wyoming was acting in bad faith when it would not negotiate with the Arapahos for gaming. The Northern Arapaho Tribe opened the first casinos in Wyoming. Presently, the Arapaho Tribe owns and operates high-stakes, Class III gaming at the Wind River Casino, the Little Wind Casino, and the 789 Smoke Shop and Casino. In 2012, The Wind River Hotel, which is attached to the Wind River Casino, features a cultural room called the Northern Arapaho Experience. They are regulated by a Gaming Commission composed of three tribal members.

Meanwhile, the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes operate four casinos in Oklahoma: the Lucky Star Casino in Clinton, the  Lucky Star Casino in Watonga, the Feather Warrior Casino in Canton, and the newest casino which opened in 2018, the Lucky Star Casino in Hammon.

Notable Arapahos
 Margaret Behan (born 1948), Arapaho-Cheyenne spiritual elder
 Sherman Coolidge (Runs-on-Top) (1862–1932), Episcopal minister and educator in the Wind River community who was a founding member of the Society of American Indians.
 Mirac Creepingbear (1947–1990), Arapaho–Kiowa painter
 Viola Hatch (1930-2019), Arapaho activist
 Juanita L. Learned (1930-1996), first woman chair of the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes of Oklahoma
 Chief Little Raven (c. 1810–1889), negotiated peace between the Southern Arapaho and Cheyenne and the Comanche, Kiowa, and Plains Apache. He secured rights to the Cheyenne–Arapaho Reservation in Indian Territory.
 Chief Niwot (c. 1825–1864), led a band in Northern Colorado and died from wounds sustained during the Sand Creek Massacre.
 Pretty Nose (c. 1851–after 1952) was a war chief who participated in the Battle of the Little Bighorn
 Carl Sweezy (1881–1953), early professional Native American easel artist

See also
 Arapaho language
 Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes
 Wind River Indian Reservation

Notes

References
 Fowler, Loretta. Arapahoe Politics, 1851-1978: Symbols in Crises of Authority. University of Nebraska Press, 1982. . 
 McDermott, John D. Circle of Fire: The Indian War of 1865. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2000.
 Pritzker, Barry M. A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. .
 Waldman, Carl. Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes. New York: Checkmark Books, 2006. .

Further reading

External links

 The Northern Arapaho Tribe
 The Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes of Oklahoma
 Arapaho Language Sample
 Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture - Arapaho, Southern
 Arapaho Charter High School
 Arapaho artwork, in the collection of the National Museum of the American Indian
 Info Please: Arapaho
 The Arapaho language: Documentation and Revitalization
 The Arapaho Project

 
Algonquian peoples
Eastern Plains
Comanche campaign
Great Sioux War of 1876
Native American tribes in Oklahoma
Native American tribes in Wyoming
Plains tribes
Native American tribes in Colorado
Native American tribes in Nebraska
The Go-Backs are a tribe of elves in the comic series Elfquest. They named themselves from their goal to return to the Palace of the High Ones.
They are hunters (probably gatherers, too) and, above all, warriors. Most of them care neither for the past nor for the future. They are the only known tribe that scorns magic - especially healing magic, since knowing that a healer is around makes warriors 'soft'.
Their most notable tradition is dancing for their death.    

In the series Kahvi it is revealed that the Go-Backs were originally a splinter group of the Wolfriders, who had lost their wolf blood "because of Willowgreen's trickery." What exactly that looked like, or how exactly the Go-Backs became stag-riders and searchers for the palace, are yet untold stories. (A prose story about the healer Willowgreen and her "trickery" was to appear in the book "Hunter's Dawn" in the mid-1990s, but that volume was repeatedly delayed, then canceled.)

When the Go-Backs tried to return to the Palace, they were stopped by the Ice Trolls, who assumed that once the elves were reinstalled in the Palace they would enslave the trolls as their ancestors had. War ensued between the two groups and was underway when the Go-Backs rescued the Wolfriders and forged an alliance with them.

After the Palace is won, the Go-Backs stay near it, but not for long. When trolls captured Ekuar, Rayek blamed the Go-Backs, and banished them by creating a gorge which prevented them from crossing into the mountains. Kahvi became separated from the rest of her tribe, and goes to look for the palace Rayek spirited away, to take revenge. She stays with the Wolfriders for some years.

When she finally returns to the Go-Backs, Zey is their new chief.  She suggests raiding the Sun Village with a small party to steal the Little Palace. After this is a failure, Zey carries all-out war to Sorrow's End. Kahvi realizes that war is not a way to regain honor. She kills Zey, and leads the Go-Backs back to the Frozen Mountains, even without the Little Palace.
In the following, the Go-Backs return to their ways (minus the Palace-searching). Kahvi stays chief, but often leaves the tribe to her second-in-command Mardu, once to Blue Mountain trying to get a new trophy instead of the Palace for the tribe, discovering her own past, and once trying to find Cutter to bear his child.

There are several thousand years completely unmapped, but the most recent bits revealed seem like Kahvi one day just did not come back from one of her expeditions, and the Go-Backs split, some staying in the Frozen Mountains, others settling the New Land - Teir's people. The Go-Backs who stayed in the Frozen Mountains joined the other elves in the Palace after its second restoration; many of them joined Venka in her search for Kahvi.

Characters

Kahvi

Daughter of Willowgreen and (publicly) Two-Spear (though her mother Recognized his close friend and cousin Greywolf), mother of daughters Vaya and Venka, and recently proven to be the mother of Teir, and possibly many more children. Lovemate of Rayek, Cutter, Tyldak, and Vok. Kahvi is bold and outspoken, a fierce warrior, though occasionally careless in battle. Kahvi is (barely) capable of love, though she rarely displays it openly, and is not above manipulating those who care about her. Nevertheless, she is a chieftain beloved by her people. She also has a disdain for magic, like many of her tribe. Left for dead after challenging her father for chief, she was revived long after, being preserved in a magic pool inside the caves where Two-Spear's tribe lived. The pool possibly had a hand in cleansing her of her wolf blood and awakening her magic potential. 

When she awoke, she had no memories of her life prior, and so was trained by Sharf, the leader of the Go-Backs, to be the next chief.  After inheriting the chief's braids upon Sharf's death, she led the Go-Backs for many years, though most of the time she would travel alone and allow others to lead.  She gave birth to and raised two daughters, Vaya (who was killed during the Troll/Elf war for the palace) and Venka (fathered by her one-time lovemate, Rayek).  During the Wolfriders' long sleep, she traveled with her lovemate Tyldak and was later joined by Tyldak's son, Windkin. During an attack by humans, Tyldak was mortally wounded and bled to death in Khavi's arms.  Afterwards, she persuaded Windkin to sire a child on her, to have a small, living part of Tyldak.  However, when she gave birth to her son, Teir, she immediately abandoned him to tribemates to raise, as she had really wanted a daughter. Years later, tired of her long life, she allowed herself to be hunted, and killed by, the human Lehrigen, allowing him to take her braids as a trophy he carried with him the rest of his life. She had long brown hair with double braids on each side (chief's braids) and green eyes.

Arri
A female elf with light brown hair. When Chot reported the failed attempt to steal the Little Palace, she remembered the Tunnel of Golden Light from Rayek's stories, making it possible that the Go-Backs attacked Sorrow's End

Chot
A good friend of Zey. He went with Kahvi to steal the Little Palace, but betrayed her. In the war for the Little Palace he was gravely wounded, and sealed in a Preserver's cocoon until a healer could help. Later he stayed with the Sun Folk. He was made to go with Dart's party to the Forevergreen. Over times he made friends with Jethel, and when Jethel did not join the other elves in the palace, Chot decided to look for him instead of joining the others.
Appears in Going Back, the main body of New Blood and in Fire Eye.

Jirda
A female elf with brown hair and brown eyes. She was young when Kahvi returned with Tyldak to the Go-Backs after the Palace was lost, and shot at them. Despite that, she is rather timid for a Go-Back. Appeared in Going Back.

Mardu
She became Kahvi's second-in-command after the war in Sorrow's End. It seems like she was the one actually taking care of the tribe, while their chief went to more or less crazy expeditions. She was at first the only one Kahvi trusted with the secret that the Go-Backs used to be Wolfriders.
In Going Back she is depicted with light brown hair and brown eyes, but on a center-spread, she has red hair.
Appears in Going Back and Kahvi.

Trof
He has a magic talent: telekinesis. Unfortunately, he does not have it entirely under control: When the Go-Backs were celebrating the capture of the Egg, he made it float out of the den, enabling Tyldak to steal it. However, the same talent helped get it back.
Appears in Kahvi

Vok
Lovemate of Kahvi. He is a kind of bard to the Go-Backs; he is often seen playing a flute, and also in charge of "writing" songs about great deeds. Possible father of Vaya.
Appears in the original series and in Kahvi.

Zey
Zey became chief of the Go-Backs after they lost the Palace to Rayek. After Kahvi said she could bring back a piece of the Palace, he was afraid she would take over the tribe again, and more or less told his friend Chot to make sure she would not come back. After Chot reports Kahvi's death, he leads the Go-Backs to a brutal raid of Sorrow's end. Kahvi killed him, ending the fight for the Little Palace.

He has dark red hair and light brown eyes. He is possibly the child of Mardu.
Appears in Going Back and New Blood.

Others
Vaya - Kahvi's first daughter and a lovemate of Pike, a Wolfrider. She was killed by trolls during the first war, sacrificing herself to save Pike, her mother, and the others. Two-Edge dressed her body in special metal armor he constructed for the elves, showing the Go-Back/Wolfrider war party how to use the armor.
Cheider - appears in Going Back and Kahvi
Jekko - one of the Go-Backs who attacked Sorrow's End. He was killed by Dart.Appears in New Blood #12
Klagg - He challenged Kahvi after she returned without success from her search for Cutter.Appears in Kahvi
Roff - A relatively plump elf. Kahvi scolds him when she returned after the Palace was lost for eating troll meat (something the Go-Backs had given up after winning the Palace)Appears in Going Back
Shurka - He is killed by a snow bear, leading to a hunt at the beginning of Kahvi
Venka - While Kahvi's daughter, she has been raised among Wolfriders, and seems to consider herself more one of them. She believes her destiny will be intertwined with the fate of the Go-Backs, however.
Tyldak is actually a Glider, but while living with the Wolfriders, he became lovemate of Kahvi. After that he stayed with her, and so (at least sometimes) with the Go-Backs.
Urda- A female elf with silver hair and blue eyes, She was Kahvi's original second in command. She was left in charge of the tribe when Kahvi left with Venka, but was captured by a party of trolls and taken underground. She was presumably killed, as nothing has been seen or heard of her since. Appears in Siege at Blue Mountain and in Kings of the Broken Wheel.
Krim- A female elf in the original series that ended up joining the Wolfriders alongside Skot. She wanted to see the forests the Wolfriders spoke of, and ended up staying. She is lifemated to both Pike and Skot, lovemated with Shenshen, and bears a son called Sust. She has short blonde hair and blue eyes.
Skot- A male elf with long dark brown hair and brown eyes, lifemate of Pike and Krim,  lovemate of Shenshen. He went with Krim to see the Wolfrider's forests, but ended up saying. He is the presumed father of Sust, and the evidence is strongly in that favor, as Sust seems unable to make wolf-friend. Skot dies during the Shards War, burned alive while fighting the Peace Hounds. He was not considered very intelligent, but loved children and his own bravado.
Yun- the daughter of Wolfrider Skywise and an unnamed Go-Back, raised among the Go-Backs, Yun later joined Ember's tribe.
Elfquest To Light a Candle is the 2004 second fantasy novel of Mercedes Lackey and James Mallory's Obsidian Trilogy.

Plot summary

Vestakia, Kellen, Jermayan, and Shalkan return safely to elven lands. Kellen is still very weak from his dealing with the key stone. Before they arrive, Idalia decides she now wants to be with Jermayan because of a war that will eventually start with the Demons and because elf knights will live as long as she will with a war. Vestakia is scared that the elves will hate and try to kill her, but Jermayan promises that he will not let that happen. When they arrive, all the elves demand that Vestakia be removed, but Jermayan, Shalkan and Kellen threaten to leave if she is banned. Idalia uses wild magic and a potion to discover who she is and also heals Kellen. Shalkan tells Kellen not to look at his hands. Kellen has not seen his hands since he touched the key stone. Jermayan has already tried to heal them when Kellen was sleeping and had told him never to take the bandages off. Kellen looks anyway and sees that his hands are completely raw, with bones showing in some places.

Idalia, Andoreniel, and the other members of the elf council pay the price to cure Kellen hands in return for what he has done for them. They all go home and get ready for a grand feast for Kellen, Jermayan, Vestakia. Before the feast begins, Idalia confronts Jermayan and tell him she loves him and wants to be with him for the rest of their lives. Jermayan wants to get married, but Idalia is not sure about that. When elves marry they get linked in a special way. Idalia fears that the link will tell Jermayan what she turned into to stop the rain. The feast begins and Kellen notices how beautiful Vestakia is. Even as a demon, the elves managed to make her demonic features less prominent. Idalia takes Vestakia away suddenly. Kellen then remembers he must be chaste and celibate for a year and a day or Shalkan will castrate him, as part of their previous deal. The next day Kellen and Idalia go to the war chamber and start making plans. The elves decided to take all elven children in the Seven Cities to the Elven stronghold. Kellen thinks they should do more, but the elves take their time at everything, including war. Kellen now goes to the House of Sword and Stone, to gain skill in knighthood.

Idalia and Jermayan spend time together. Now when she does wild magic she does not ask for a price. She also realizes that the price of controlling the weather was her death. She thinks that there are two reasons why she does not have to pay the price. The first being that she will die soon due to the price, the second being that the price was a test, and she has already passed. Meanwhile, back in Armethalieh, Cilarnen Volpiril is a top student high mage. His father is on the council with Lycaelon Tavadon. His father is the mage who recommended changing city limits to the very walls of the city instead of hundreds of miles outward. Cilarnen finds his sister having a party in the yard and sees the lady Amintia, who he falls in love with. Cilarnen asks his father permission to talk to her, but he refuses, saying it will take away from his studies. The elves move prince Sandalon and the other children to the elf fortress of the Crowed Horns escorted by ten elves and unicorns. Ice trolls and other creatures take them. Only one unicorn survives while all the children are kidnapped. The unicorn returns to Sentarshadeen alive and warns them. Kellen, impatient, tells the elves he's going to rescue Sandalon.

Kellen, Idalia, Jermayan, Vestakia, Shalkan, and six elven knights, whom Kellen befriended while learning to become a knight, leave to go look for the prince. Back in Armethalieh, Cilarnen and his friends are making a magical item to help the shortage of food in Armethalieh due to the recent boundary change resulting in despondent farm-towns surrounding the city. Anigerel pretends to be their friend, but then gives them away to Lycaelon Tardavon, who has been waiting to get Cilaren's father kicked off the council of mages. Cilaren blames his father for giving him ideas, and other children of council members follow suit. Lycaelon adopts Anigerel as he says he has no son after what Kellen did. Anigerel helps Lycaelon get back their lands and cut off all contact with elves and other folk because they will try to warn them of the Endarkened.

As they are discussing this an elf from Sentarshadeen comes to tell them of the Endarkened. They do not give him a chance to speak and say if he does not leave they will kill him. They then banish Cilarnen and do the same thing to him as they did to Kellen—send the Outlaw Hunt after him. Once he is outside he meets the elf, who says he will help him escape. Kellen, Idalia, Jermayan, Vestakia, Shalkan and the knights find the place where the children are hidden. Idalia has a cloak that makes people invisible and hides sound and smell and decides to go in and help them. The things that kidnapped them are half-elf half-goblin, made by the Endarkened, which is why they could get into elven lands and help get others in elven lands. She gets all the children out including Sandalon. However Sandalon's nurse Lairamo and Idalia cannot fit under the cloak. Lairamo takes the cloak grudgingly, leaving Idalia, and goes ahead. Idalia tries to be quiet but gets caught and falls off a cliff.

Kellen decides he, Jermayan, and Shalkan will wait while Vestakia and the knights lead the children back to Sentarshadeen. Jermayan wants to run in but Kellen tells him to wait. Idalia, barely awake, sends a bat with wild magic to get help. It reaches one of the last dragons Ancaladar, who is happy that he has never found a bond with a wild mage or elf, because when a wild mage bonds with a dragon the person gets inhuman magical power. However, if the mage or elf dies then the dragon dies, which is why he is one of the last dragons. He has been in hiding because the Endarkened want him to join them. He decides since he is a creature of light he must help the wild mage at least, perhaps to the point of bonding. He finds Kellen and the two fight off the elf-goblin hybrids and save Idalia. When he heals her, the wild magic does not ask for a price, which is curious.

They all get out and Ancaladar asks if he can go back to Sentarshadden with them. They agree to let him. They meet up with Vestakia and the others. Back in Armethalieh, the elf, Hyandur, helps Cilarnen escape and get outside the lands. On the way they see one of Cilarnen friends  dead by the Outlaw Hunt. Cilarnen is in shock, first for what the city has done and second for travelling with an elf. Hyandur and Cilarnen reach Merryville, where Cilarnen is even more upset that he has to stay around centaurs. Hyandur leaves the next morning, abandoning Cilarnen in Merryville to go back to the elves. Cilarnen now has to work and live with the centaurs and is not happy about it. The group safely makes it back to Sentarshadeen. After they arrive Ancaladar wants to bond with Jermayan, making him the first elf mage in thousands of years. Jermayan at first want to decline, but then accepts.

The elves decide to get their army and allies to attack the shadow elves. Kellen is upset with this. He thinks the demons are using the shadow elves as a distraction because if they really wanted the children they could have caught them after the heroes rescued them. The elves say that they can't leave this threat in their land. The elves decide to try moving the children to their fortress of crowed horns again. This time Kellen goes with them, while Jermayan and Ancaladar fly them. They reach the fortress safely. Kellen thinks it is great, but it has a weakness the elves do not think of: underground. He notifies master Tyrvin, who is the leader of the fortress. They go back to Sentrashadeen and they must all go to the city of Ondoladeshiron to meet with the rest of the elven troupes and get ready to fight the shadow elves. Kellen rides with the unicorn knights and finds friends with them.

While Kellen is there he meets Atroist, another wild mage who lives in the wild lands near where the demons are. Kellen wants him and the other wild mages of the wild lands (there are more wild mages there than any other place because that is where they are needed most) to come help. Atroist does not want to leave the people because the demons would easily kill them. So Kellen comes up with a plan. He wants the elves to allow safe passage for the wild folk through their lands since the folk can go into the wild woods where they will be safe. Atroist agrees and says if the people are safe, all the wild mages will come and fight for them. They have to get permission first and petition the council. The council responds that they will debate it. While Kellen is there he meets the leader of the army, General Redhelwar. While the council debates, the elves go to war against the shadow elves. They go to their first shadow elf village, the place where they held the children. The elf army easily kills them with Vestakia's help. The elves at first are hesitant to kill them, because they are part elf. Kellen still thinks this is a distraction by the demons.

Back in Stonehearth, Cilarnen is adapting to his new life. He likes the people he lives with; Gardner and his daughter Sarlin. He still tells himself these are only centaurs, and someday he will return to  Armethalieh, though deep down he loves them and has become friends with them. One day an elf messenger comes and asks the centaur warriors to come to the elven lands and begin preparations for war as soon as possible. They accept, but no one tells Cilarnen why they are going to war. Before they go two wild mages arrive, a human male named Wirance and the first ever Centaur Wildmage named Kardus. Since centaurs can't use magic, Kardus' gift is knowledge. If he wants to know something he can have it answered, but there is a price like regular wild magic. Cilarnen leaves early because he is scared of the wild mages and thinks that they are evil. As he leaves he meets a man who thinks he is Kellen. The man turns into a demon and tries to attack Cilarnen. Cilarnen brings his magic up and blocks the attack. He is shocked that he still has his magic. The demon flies off and heads to the town to attack civilians. Wirance can't stop it and the centaur warriors can't hurt it. Cilarnen returns to see half of the village dead and uses his High Magic to fight and kill the demon. The wild mages are in shock and can't believe simple High Magic defeated it while their Wild magic did nothing. As they mourn the lost ones including Gardner, the wild mages want him to come with them and to tell Kellen about what he did. He agrees and while he leaves, Sarlin kisses him and tells him to come back.

Demon Queen Savilla is very angry, wondering why a demon attacked a worthless center village without her approval, and how he died and what killed him. Kardus and Wirance take Cilarnen to elven lands so he can tell Kellen about this. Kellen is promoted for his success in the first battle and now has people at his command, but gives up Shalkan. Vestakia rides Ancaladar and finds the next shadow elf village. Near the elf city of Ysterialpoerin is a bigger cave system that has two entrances. It is the oldest elf city and the most closest on how elves used to live before the war with the demons. While the army travels to attack them, Kellen once again shows how amazing his Knight-Mage skills are. Once they get to Ysterialpoerin some shadow elves and Wargs kill the scouts and come and attack the army. Kellen realizes that they mean to go around the army and burn Ysterialpoerin, so he takes his men to go and stop them before they destroy the city and finds that the shadow elves have a new fire that can not stop burning by any means.

When Kellen gets back and meets with Redhelwar, all the commanders have a meeting on what to do. Redhelwar divides the army into thirds, one to protect Ysterialperin and two for each cave entrance. Kellen wants him and Idalia to scout ahead under Idalia's invisibility cloak and draw a map to locate the shadow elf villages. One of the commanders, Belepheriel, gets in an argument with Kellen because Kellen is doing things differently than how elves in the past have done them. Kellen gets so angry he challenges him to a duel but Belepheriel declines and walks out. Redhelwar does not want Kellen and Idalia to go because he does not want to risk them. Kellen decides to go any way. While he sneaks off, Shalkan, the unicorn knights, and the elves under his command all catch him and want to help. They go get Idalia and help him get out of the camp. Kellen and Idalia go inside the caves and find booby traps that would kill hundreds of elves. Once Kellen gets to the end several Goblins come out of hiding and attack. After the fight, Kellen finds Idalia is missing. While searching for her, Kellen realizes that if large groups of people head into the shadow elf village the whole cave would collapse, killing more than half of the army. Kellen finds Idalia heading in the opposite way in a trance finding a Duergar, who draws any one in except Knight-Mages. Some crystal spiders stop Idalia from going to it while Kellen quickly kills it. The Crystal Spiders tell Idalia that all the shadow elves have left and there are traps everywhere, but so are the goblins and Duergars. The crystal spiders hate the shadow elves because they hunt their kind. The crystal spiders ask Idalia if they could wait one day before the army comes in. Idalia agrees and goes to inspect Kellen and notices that a goblin has poisoned him. She quickly heals him.

When they get out they find the elf army ready to go in, but Shalkan said he would kill any one that goes in. Kellen tells Redhelwar about the crystal spiders, traps, and how the shadow elves are gone. Redhelwar is happy Kellen saved him from this mistake, even knowing he disobeyed orders. The other cavern they are now going in has to be emptied out, but instead of risking getting caught in traps they try to lure the shadow elves out. They have do have army in thirds. One is at Ysterialpoerin, one is outside the cave and one is hiding atop of cave to trap the shadow elves. One wild mage sacrifices his life to get the shadow elves to come out. The shadow elf army comes and attacks the elf army. Jermayan closes one cave to keep them out and the top army traps them. However, there are Death Wings and wargs with them, along with more warriors than the elves thought. When some shadow elves slip past the elven army, Kellen quickly goes after them.

All the shadow elves are dead but for the ones that slipped past the army. Now the army goes in the caves to kill the women and children shadow elves while the unicorn knights defend Ysterialpoerin. While they are in the caves they find only the children. The rest of the shadow elves have a secret exit were the women fled with the males to Ysterialpoerin. When they get there they kill many unicorns and their knights including the leader Petariel while his unicorn Gesade is very badly injured. The shadow elves start to set the city on fire. Jermayan and Ancaldar get Kellen and race towards the city to stop the fire. While Kellen finds Shalkan, he tells him he has to heal Gesade because he is the only virgin wild mage around. Kellen cures her but finds she has no eyes. He blames himself but Shalkan says it was the shadow elf and he could do nothing about it.

Meanwhile, Cilarnen has reached elven lands and is battling the harsh winter. The elves tell Kellen that Cilarnen is coming. Kellen is then so upset that his Armethalieh life is coming back he can barely think straight, and is drawn to tears because he hates and loves the city, as he hates and loves his father. Kellen then realize that the price for healing Gesade is to forgive Cilarnen. He has nothing personal against Cilarnen, he just hates the mages. When Cilarnen and Kellen first meet, Cilarnen tells him everything that happened to him. Kellen shows him around camp. Cilarnen meets Redhelwar there and tells him everything. Idalia, Jermayan, and Redhelwar find the news terrible because if the demons take control of the city they would have unlimited power to draw on. Redhelwar asks the wild mages to see inside the city.

All the wild mages get together and make a mirror that will link up to see inside. They ask for two thirds of the army to help with the price because it is powerful. In Armethalieh, Anigerel is making new wards to help protect the city. Kellen and Cilarnen will watch over how the wild mages do the spell. They see Anigerel, everything he did, and how he is a spy for the demons.

Queen Savilla senses they are tampering with her servant and tries to go through the mirror to kill Idalia. But Cilarnen makes a magic shield along with Jermayan and Kellen. With Shalkan giving Kellen power and Ancaladar giving Jeryman and Cilarenne power, they save her life. When it's over Savilla is close to death when Prince Zyperis walks in. The whole army can barely move with tiredness, with Kellen, Jermayan, Cilarnen, Shalkan, and Andcladar all passed out. They however know that Anigerel is the spy and they know what the plan is. The demons do not want to fight in this war yet. They want Armethalieh to go to war with the elves and their allies. The demons will kill the winner.

Main characters
Kellen Tavadon: the trilogy's main protagonist, he is the first Knight-Mage in a thousand years

Idalia Tavadon: Kellen's sister, a powerful wild mage and Jermayan's lover

Jermayan: Elven knight who is Kellen's friend and Idalia's lover, he becomes the first Elven Mage in thousands of years after bonding with Ancaladar.

Vestakia: Demon/Human cross with a human soul but a demonic appearance, she is a friend of Kellen, and can sense demons and demonic taint. Her demonic parentage gives her yellow slit pupil eyes, horns, and hooves.

Shalkan: A unicorn who befriended Kellen and rescued him from the Outlaw Hunt; as a condition of this rescue, Kellen has sworn a vow of chastity and celibacy for a year and a day

Cilarnen Volpiril: Only son of a powerful mage family in Armethalieh, he is tricked into a treasonous conspiracy and banished from Armethalieh

Ancaladar: Dragon that bonds with Jermayan

Minor characters

Andoreniel: King of the Elves

Sandalon: Prince of the Elves (child)

Ashaniel: Queen of the Elves

 Lycaelon Tardavon: Arch-Mage of Armethalieh

Anigrel: Lycaelon's secretary and secret slave of the Endarkened Queen

Queen Savilla: Queen of demons/Endarkened main antagonist

Prince Zyperis: Prince of the Endarkened, Savilla's son and lover

Redhelwar: General of the Elven army

Belepheriel: One of Redhelwar's komentai (commanders), who clashes with Kellen

Adaerion: Another komentai and Kellen's direct superior

Kardus: The Centaur Wildmage who befriends and assists Cilarnen in finding Kellen

 Wirance: Another Wildmage who travels with Cilarnen and Kardus

Literary significance & criticism
"Lackey and Mallory combine their talents for storytelling and world-crafting into a panoramic effort. Filled with magic, dragons, elves, and other mythical creatures, this belongs in most fantasy collections." - Library Journal

Awards and nominations
New York Times Bestseller
Best science fiction, fantasy, or horror, VOYA

2004 American novels
American fantasy novels
Tor Books books