Hiawatha Hiawatha Belt What is the Hiawatha belt? The Hiawatha Belt is made of 6,574 wampum beads - 38 rows by 173 columns and has 892 white and 5,682 purple beads. What does it represent? The purple represents the sky or universe that surrounds us, while the white represents purity and Good Mind (good thoughts, forgiveness and understanding).
How are these made?
How is the wampum beads in the Hiawatha Belt made?
The Hiawatha Belt is made of 6,574 wampum beads - 38 rows by 173 columns and has 892 white and 5,682 purple beads. The purple represents the sky or universe that surrounds us, while the white represents purity and Good Mind (good thoughts, forgiveness and understanding). The belt symbolizes these Five Nations from west to east in their respective territories across New York state: Seneca (keepers of the western door), Cayuga (People of the Swamp), Onondaga (Keepers of the Fire), Oneida (People of the Standing Stone) and Mohawk (keeper of the eastern door)--by open squares of white beads with the central figure signifying a tree or heart. The white open squares are connected by a white band that has no beginning or end, representing all time now and forever. The band, however, does not cross through the center of each nation, meaning that each nation is supported and unified by a common bond and that each is separate in its own identity and domain. The open center also signifies the idea of a fort protected on all sides, but open in the center, symbolizing an open heart and mind within. The tree figure signifies the Onondaga Nation, capital of the League and home to the central council fire. It was on the shores of Onondaga Lake where the message of peace was "planted" and the hatchets were buried. From this tree, four white roots sprouted, carrying the message of unity and peace to the four directions. The Hiawatha Belt has been dated to the mid-18th century. Near its center, it contains a bead made of colonial lead glass. It is believed the design is as old as the league itself, but the present belt is not the original. The Hiawatha Belt forms the basis of the flag of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy, created in the 1980s. It is the central device in the design on the reverse of the U.S. 2010 Native American dollar (also known as the Sacagawea dollar). It is also included in the logo of the Hamilton Nationals, a former Major League Lacrosse team. CANNOTANSWER
The white open squares are connected by a white band that has no beginning or end, representing all time now and forever.
Hiawatha ( , also  :  ), also known as Ayenwathaaa or Aiionwatha, was a precolonial Native American leader and co-founder of the Iroquois Confederacy. He was a leader of the Onondaga people, the Mohawk people, or both. According to some accounts, he was born an Onondaga but adopted into the Mohawks.

Although Hiawatha was a real man, he was mostly known for his legend. In the stories of Hiawatha, we learn that he was born in the Onondaga tribe. His mother was an Onondagan and loved her son. She believed he would be a strong and great hunter. Hiawatha soon became a husband, and became a father to many daughters. His wife and daughters were killed by an opposing enemy (Tadodaho) leaving Hiawatha grief-stricken. Hiawatha is noted for his speaking skills and message of peace. He was a follower of the Great Peacemaker (Dekanawidah), a Huron prophet and spiritual leader who proposed the unification of the Iroquois peoples, who shared common ancestry and similar languages, but he suffered from a severe speech impediment which hindered him from spreading his proposal. Hiawatha was a skilled orator, and he was instrumental in persuading the Senecas, Cayugas, Onondagas, Oneidas, and Mohawks to accept the Great Peacemaker's vision and band together to become the Five Nations of the Iroquois confederacy. The Tuscarora people joined the Confederacy in 1722 to become the Sixth Nation. Little else is known of Hiawatha. The reason and time of his death is unknown. However his legacy is still passed on from generation to generation through oral stories, songs, and books.

The 1855 epic poem The Song of Hiawatha by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow tells the story of a hero of the same name but has little to do with the historical Hiawatha.

The Iroquois Confederacy 
Within the Iroquois Confederacy, which originally included five tribes (Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayugaa, and Seneca), Hiawatha was a leader from the Mohawk tribe. There he was well-known, and highly thought of by all of the tribes. He was a great speaker, and would eventually become the representative for the Great Peacemaker. The Great Peacemaker was a man who hoped to spread peace throughout all of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Territory. Due to the fact that he had a severe speech impediment, the Great Peacemaker needed a spokesperson. Hiawatha was willing to speak on behalf of Dekanawidah because violence had been developing throughout the Iroquois Territory. During these times of chaos, a leader named Tadodaho, who had despised the idea of peace, targeted and killed Hiawatha's wife and daughters. Thereafter, Hiawatha became the Peacemaker's speaker, so he could stop the violence. Dewanawisah and Hiawatha eventually obtained peace throughout the Iroqouis by promising Tadodaho that Onondaga would become the capital of the Grand Council. The Grand Council was the main governing body of the Iroquois. Hiawatha and Dekanawidah created the Great Law of Peace in Wampum belts, to solidify the bond between the original five nations of the Iroquois.

Wampum belt 

Hiawatha belts are a type of Wampum belt that symbolize peace between the five tribes of the Iroquois. They depict the tribes in a certain order. The five tribes are in an order from left to right. The Seneca are furthest to the left, representing them being the Keepers of the Western Door. Next is the Cayuga Tribe, and in the center of the belt, depicted with a different symbol, is the Onondaga Tribe, also known as the Keepers of the Central Fire. Next is the Oneida Tribe. Finally, shown farthest to the right is the Mohawk Tribe, depicted as the Keepers of the Eastern Door. The white line connecting all of the symbols for each tribe together represents the unity of the Iroquois. It also represents the gathering from the Great Law of Peace and the Iroquois Confederacy as a whole.

The wampum belt consists of black or purple-like and white beads that are made up of shells. Found in the Northeast of America, there are quahog clam shells that are often time used for the black and sometimes the white beads of these belts. Most often the Iroquois used various types of whelk spiral shells for the white beads.

These were very important in the story of Hiawatha. Hiawatha was very full of grief because his daughters were murdered in the fight. The Great Peacemaker gifted Hiawatha with the whelk shells and told him to put them on his eyes and ears and throat. These shells were a sign of healing and purity. Hiawatha used these shells to create unity. The Wampum beads are the most significant part of the story of Hiawatha. The Iroquois Nation believes that the Peacemaker was the one who gifted them the first wampum belt, which later was titled the Hiawatha belt.

The Song of Hiawatha 

Written by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the 1855 epic poem The Song of Hiawatha tells of the adventures of Hiawatha and his heroic deeds. This poem however has little to do with the actual Hiawatha. Henry Longfellow most likely took the name of Hiawatha and nothing more. This poem talks about a legendary heroic Iroquois man starting from his birth and ending on his ascension to the clouds. It talks of many battles, losses, and moral lessons. Henry Longfellow along with another writer Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, hoped to combine stories of Native Americans and create a sense of pride and remembrance for the Native Americans during the 1820s and later.

In the legend of the real Hiawatha, the five tribes had been fighting for years until he united all except one tribe, the Onondaga tribe. This tribe was ruled by the man who had killed his family, Tadodaho. Tadodaho was full of hate and violence. Jigonhsasee was a member of the Iroquois and was also believed to be the first clan mother. She helped the two men in their pursuit for peace in all tribes. Due to her influence, Tadodaho was transformed and gave up war for peace. The legend ends with Tadodaho becoming the leader of the Iroqouis Confederacy.

Hiawatha's people 
The Iroquois, also known as the Haudenosaunee, had conflict within their communities. Different tribes waged wars on each other, and many people died. Once the Great Peacemaker showed up, he promised "transcommunality." This basically meant that he promised peace and compromise between all people, regardless of character. He addressed his intentions at the communal longhouse, to show people what he was all about for the community. The Iroquois people were for peace, and they eventually overrode their quarrels to strive for, and obtain, peace. 

The Iroquois were organized as clans, each led by a clan member. The clans extend through and follow mothers' descent, so children are sorted into clans through their mothers' heritage and backgrounds. These clans are named after animals. Before the separation due to European colonization, these clans, including all members of the family—aunts, uncles, cousins, and grandparents—all lived under a single roof in a longhouse. Even couples who married had the husband move into the wife's family's longhouse. 

Hiawatha also partook of games in that all the other members of his tribes played. The main sports they played were the original version of lacrosse, and the lesser known snowsnake. Snowsnake involved throwing spear-headed sticks (snowsnakes) along a track of packed snow. The team who could throw the spears the farthest would be the winners. 

The Haudenosaunee were also very in tune with nature. Their calendars were based on the lunar cycle, and throughout the year, they balanced their diets so they would be in the best condition to meet the demands of each season. They wasted nothing from the animals they hunted. The Iroquois had three main crops on which they survived: corn, beans, and squash. The Three Sisters (as they referred to these crops) contained all the nutrients required in their diets. 

The politics within the Iroquois community and leadership were not overly complicated. The main law or constitution of the tribe was the Great Law of Peace, which maintained understanding and peace in the community for a long time.

Legacy 

Hiawatha, an 1872-1874 sculpture by Augustus Saint-Gaudens.
Hiawatha Council, former name of the Longhouse Council, BSA in Onondaga County (succeeded by Hiawatha-Seaway Council after merger with Seaway Valley Council)
Hiawatha Boulevard is a street in Syracuse, New York, in Onondaga County.
Hiawatha Road is a street in Toronto, Ontario.
Hiawatha Lake, in Onondaga Park in Syracuse, New York
The Song of Hiawatha, Op. 30, is a trilogy of cantatas written by Samuel Coleridge-Taylor between 1898 and 1900, based on Longfellow's poem. The first part, "Hiawatha's Wedding Feast", was particularly famous for many years and made the composer's name known throughout the world.
The town of Lake Hiawatha, New Jersey, its lake, its fire department, and several of its parks are named to honor the chief.
"Hiawatha's Lullaby" is a 1933 song by vocalist Al Bowlly and bandleader Ray Noble, recorded in London. Its lyrics reference a body of water. However, there are multiple lakes named for Hiawatha, so the specific geographical reference is unknown.
The 1937 Disney cartoon Little Hiawatha was loosely inspired by the 1855 Longfellow poem and tells the simple story of a kindergarten-age Hiawatha first hunting, then befriending animals. Numerous later Disney comics were spun off from this film; into the 2010s, hundreds of stories were based around this fictionalized child-Hiawatha and his village.
 In the 1941 Merrie Melodies cartoon Hiawatha's Rabbit Hunt, Bugs Bunny recites The Song of Hiawatha as he encounters a cartoon version of Hiawatha.
In 1950, plans for a film about the historical Hiawatha by Monogram Pictures were scrapped. The reason given was that Hiawatha's peacemaker role could be seen as communist propaganda.
A film was released in 1997 based on the 1855 Longfellow poem. It was a joint production between the U.S. and Canada, filmed in Ontario, Canada.
The  Hiawatha bike trail in northern Idaho and Montana is over a former railroad right-of-way on old bridges and through old tunnels.
A  tall,  fiberglass statue of Hiawatha was built in 1964 and stands in Ironwood, Michigan. It is billed as the "World's Tallest and Largest Indian".
Hiawatha National Forest is a  national forest in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan.
Amtrak, a railroad serving the continental United States and parts of Canada, has a train called "Hiawatha Service," which runs several times daily between Chicago, Illinois and Milwaukee, Wisconsin. It was named for a series of trains formerly operated by the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad.
The Metro Blue Line in Hennepin County, Minnesota was formerly known as the Hiawatha Line. The line runs largely along its namesake Hiawatha Avenue in Minneapolis.
Laurie Anderson used parts of the poem's third section at the beginning and end of the final piece of her Strange Angels album from 1989.
The Island of Hiawatha is the former name of the Toronto Islands.
Hiawatha is a town in northeast Kansas. It is the county seat of Brown county.
Hiawatha is a town in Iowa adjacent to Cedar Rapids.
Hiawatha Elementary School in Essex Jct. VT.
Hiawatha Elementary School in Minneapolis MN.
Hiawatha Elementary School in Okemos, MI.
Hiawatha Park, Chicago Park District park, northwest City of Chicago
Hiawatha Beach neighborhood was established in 1926. These homes surround Buck Lake and line the Huron River in Hamburg Township, MI.
The species name of the chasmataspidid Hoplitaspis hiawathai honors Hiawatha.
The USS Hiawatha is the name of several ships of the United States Navy.

See also
 List of peace activists

References

Further reading
 Bonvillain, Nancy (2005). Hiawatha: founder of the Iroquois Confederacy.  
 Hale, Horatio (1881). Hiawatha and the Iroquois confederation: a study in anthropology.
 Hatzan, A. Leon (1925). The true story of Hiawatha, and history of the Six Nations Indians.
Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe (1856). The Myth of Hiawatha, and Other Oral Legends, Mythologic and Allegoric, of the North American Indians.
 Laing, Mary E. (1920). The hero of the longhouse.
 Saraydarian, Torkom and Joann L Alesch (1984). Hiawatha and the great peace.    
 Siles, William H. (1986). Studies in local history: tall tales, folklore and legend of upstate New York.

Juvenile audience
 Bonvillain, Nancy (1992). Hiawatha: founder of the Iroquois Confederacy.  
 Fradin, Dennis B. (1992). Hiawatha: messenger of peace.  
 McClard, Megan, George Ypsilantis and Frank Riccio (1989). Hiawatha and the Iroquois league.    
 Malkus, Alida (1963). There really was a Hiawatha.
 St. John, Natalie and Mildred Mellor Bateson (1928). Romans of the West: untold but true story of Hiawatha.
 Taylor, C. J. (2004). Peace walker: the legend of Hiawatha and Tekanawita.

External links
Historica's Heritage Minute Peacemaker, a mini-docudrama about the co founders of the Iroquois Confederacy.
Chapter V, The Iroquois Confederacy
 History of the Mohawk Valley: Dekanawida and Hiawatha, Schenectady Digital History Archive
Google Books overview of Ancient Society
 The Great Peacemaker Deganawidah and his follower Hiawatha, theater play by Living Wisdom School

Iroquois mythology
Iroquois people
Legendary American people
Native American leaders
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown
1525 births
1595 deaths
Wafering is the process by which a silicon crystal (boule) is made into wafers. This process is usually carried out by a multi-wire saw which cuts multiple wafers from the same crystal at the same time. These wafers are then polished to the desired degree of flatness and thickness.

In the past, conventional circular saws were used during the 1950s and 1960s, followed by inner diameter saws in the 1970s and 1980s. These saws had diamond particles embedded into their blades to cut silicon. Multi-wire saws were introduced during the early 2000s. The motivation behind this evolution was to reduce material losses from the saw's kerf, and to improve wafer's surface quality, flatness, and bow.

See also
 Wafer (electronics)
 Monocrystalline silicon

External links
 How Silicon Chips Are Made - How Silicon Chips Are Made article on TechRadar
 Wafering - By SolarWorld USA
 Silicon Wafer Fabrication Process - By the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Brigham Young University

Semiconductor device fabrication
Semiconductor growth
Crystals Process tracing methods in psychology are defined as observations which are made before the participant has come to a decision. These observations are used to present us with information regarding the psychological processes occurring within a participant, while they are weighing their choices. More specifically, process tracing methods examine participant's information acquisition process, how much information or content they've acquired, for how long this process occurred etc. Process tracing methods can also test the subtleties of decision making, since how the information is presented can change decisions, which can shed more light in what influences decisions and how people process information. Most of these methods are considered to be particularly unobtrusive, since the processes that they study are generally natural (i.e. eye gazing), and do not interfere with the decision process. Process-tracing in psychology can comprise of various methods, namely observational, experimental, physiological, or neuroscientific.

There are two criteria that process tracing methods which study psychological processes should fit. Primarily, there has to be some measurable cognitive changes during the process, and secondarily, the data being collected must test the hypothesis made.

Methods
What differentiates process tracing methods from other methods that study decision making, is that they usually aim to study the processes which are occurring before or during the time a decision is made. For example, the measurement of reaction time cannot be considered a process-tracing method, since although they study the amount of time it takes for a participant to make a decision, they do not shed light on the cognitive processes underlying it.

There are many different ways underlying cognitive decision making can be studied, but there are three main methods in which process-tracing techniques are divided. Movement-based measures provide data on information research patterns. Subject reports measures observe decision strategies usually through having the participants verbalize their thought processes. Peripheral psychophysiological measures quantify arousal and cognitive effort.

Method 1 - Movement-based methods 
Movement-based methods are used for tracing information acquisition. Some specific ones are eye tracking (Eyegaze), mouse tracing (Mouselab), or other active information search methods. These methods avoid participant self report and various other process interruptions. Furthermore, they are less expensive, and have a wider outreach than other methods, which makes them highly attractive to study various cognitive processes.

The methods, however, can have differences between each other. For example, it has been reported that computerized tools such as mouse tracing take longer to assess information than do methods such as eye gaze. There is further research to be done regarding the complete consequences of the difference between these methods.

Method 2 - Subject reports 
Methods for tracing information integration are used after the participant has presumably formed a perception of the information presented to her. These methods aim to study how the information is integrated after it has been introduced, and how that integration leads to a choice. A popular model to study information integration is verbalized thoughts. Unlike movement-based methods, verbal methods are more direct, they aim to measure the internal process and not the behavior of the participant.

Method 3 - Peripheral psychophysiological processes 
Psychophysiological processes focus primarily on studying how different brain regions are activated during decision making. The techniques of this method include electrodermal activity, pupil dilation, or fMRI. Such methods are now being used to shed light in organizational neuroscience, specifically decision making

Advantages
Before process-tracing, the study of cognitive processes relied on participants reporting experienced difficulties during or after the experiment, which would potentially result in the participant justifying their process, participant anticipating the questions and therefore providing a biased description, and participant having difficulties recalling process and therefore misreporting it. As mentioned above, current process-tracing methods allow us to infer cognitive processes without interrupting natural cognitive procedures. Methods such as measuring heart rate have shed light in choices related to risk aversion. Methods such as fMRI and EEG shed light on the neural circuits involved in decision making and how they interact with each other. Methods such as TMS allow research to observe behavioral change by intervening in neural circuits. Additionally, computational neuroscience is developing in a way that allows us to replicate these mechanisms and further analyze them through data.

Limitations
There are a few limitations that come with process-tracing methods, primarily because some methods are more intrusive then others, and with intrusive methods one should be cautious with the results they produce. Distortion risks could be presented when using methods such as cameras or microphones for observation, or when presenting information to participants in different ways. We can also not discount the potential risks of these experiments happening in unnatural environments, especially when involving such methods as fMRI scans

As mentioned above, different process tracing methods require different levels of effort in order to analyze data. It is still a question whether the usage of different process tracing methods changes the decision-making process, and therefore provides us with different results. It is also a question how each process tracing method could potentially change the results, and how can we control for this interruption in validity?. For example, Russo (1977) changed supermarket shopper's choices by pushing them towards purchasing products with lower unit prices.

References 

Behavioral concepts
Experimental psychology