Ancient Hawaii Settlement what was the settlement like? The colonists brought along with them clothing, plants (called "canoe plants") and livestock and established settlements along the coasts and larger valleys. Upon their arrival, the settlers grew
where did they arrive?
where did  The colonists arrive in Settlement?
The colonists brought along with them clothing, plants (called "canoe plants") and livestock and established settlements along the coasts and larger valleys. Upon their arrival, the settlers grew kalo (taro), mai`a (banana), niu (coconut), ulu (breadfruit), and raised pua`a (pork), moa (chicken), and `ilio (poi dog), although these meats were eaten less often than fruits, vegetables, and seafood. Popular condiments included pa'akai (salt), ground kukui nut, limu (seaweed), and ko (sugarcane) which was used as both a sweet and a medicine. In addition to the foods they brought, the settlers also acquired `uala (sweet potato), which has yet to be adequately explained, as the plant originates in South America. A few researchers have argued that the presence of the sweet potato in the ancient Hawaiian diet is evidence of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact with the Americas.  The Pacific rat accompanied humans on their journey to Hawai`i. David Burney argues that humans, along with the vertebrate animals they brought with them (pigs, dogs, chickens and rats), caused many native species of birds, plants and large land snails to become extinct in the process of colonization.  Estuaries and streams were adapted into fishponds by early Polynesian settlers, as early as 1500 or more years ago. Packed earth and cut stone were used to create habitat, making ancient Hawaiian aquaculture among the most advanced of the original peoples of the Pacific. A notable example is the Menehune Fishpond dating from at least 1,000 years ago, at Alekoko. At the time of Captain James Cook's arrival, there were at least 360 fishponds producing 2,000,000 pounds (900,000 kg) of fish per year. Over the course of the last millennium, Hawaiians undertook "large-scale canal-fed pond field irrigation" projects for kalo (taro) cultivation.  As soon as they arrived, the new settlers built hale (homes) and heiau (temples). Archaeologists currently believe that the first settlements were on the southern end of the Big Island of Hawai`i and that they quickly extended northwards, along the seacoasts and the easily accessible river valleys. As the population increased, settlements were made further inland. At this time, with the islands being so small, the population was very dense. Before European contact, the population had reached somewhere in the range of 200,000 to 1,000,000 people. After contact with the Europeans, however, the population steeply dropped due to various diseases including smallpox. CANNOTANSWER
Estuaries and streams were adapted into fishponds by early Polynesian settlers, as early as 1500 or more years ago.
Ancient Hawaii is the period of Hawaiian history preceding the unification in 1810 of the Kingdom of Hawaii by Kamehameha the Great. Traditionally researchers estimated the first settlement of the Hawaiian islands as having occurred sporadically between 300 and 800 CE by Polynesian long-distance navigators from the Samoan Islands and the Marquesas Islands, Tuamotus, and the Society Islands (including Tahiti) within what is now French Polynesia. In 2010, a study was published based on radiocarbon dating of more reliable samples which suggests that the islands were settled much later, within a short timeframe, in about 1219 to 1266.

The islands in Eastern Polynesia have been characterized by the continuities among their cultures, and the short migration period would be an explanation of this result. Diversified agroforestry and aquaculture provided sustenance for Native Hawaiian cuisine. Tropical materials were adopted for housing. Elaborate temples (called heiau) were constructed from the lava rocks available.

The rich natural resources supported a relatively dense population, organized by a ruling class and social system with religious leaders. Captain James Cook made the first known European contact with ancient Hawaiians in 1778. He was followed by many other Europeans and Americans.

Voyage to the Hawaiian islands

There have been changing views about initial Polynesian discovery and settlement of Hawai'i. Radiocarbon dating in Hawai'i initially indicated a possible settlement as early as 124 CE. Patrick Vinton Kirch's books on Hawaiian archeology, standard textbooks, date the first Polynesian settlements to about 300 with more recent suggestions by Kirch as late as 600. Other theories suggest dating as late as 700 to 800. 
 
In 2010, researchers announced new findings using revised, high-precision radiocarbon dating based on more reliable samples than were previously used in many dating studies. This new data indicates that the period of eastern and northern Polynesian colonization took place much later, in a shorter time frame of two waves: the "earliest in the Society Islands c. 1025–1120, four centuries later than previously assumed; then after 70–265 y, dispersal continued in one major pulse to all remaining islands c. 1190–1290." According to this research, settlement of the Hawaiian Islands took place c. 1219–1266. This rapid colonization is believed to account for the "remarkable uniformity of East Polynesia culture, biology and language".

According to Hawaiian mythology, there were other settlers in Hawaii, peoples who were forced back into remote valleys by newer arrivals. They claim that stories about menehune, little people who built heiau and fishponds, prove the existence of ancient peoples who settled the islands before the Hawaiians.

Settlement
Early settlers brought along with them clothing, plants (called "canoe plants") and livestock and established settlements along the coasts and larger valleys. Upon their arrival, the settlers grew  (taro),  (banana),  (coconut),  (breadfruit), and raised  (pork),  (chicken), and  (poi dog), although these meats were eaten less often than fruits, vegetables, and seafood. Popular condiments included  (salt), ground kukui nut,  (seaweed), and  (sugarcane) which was used as both a sweet and a medicine.  In addition to the foods they brought, the settlers also acquired  (sweet potato), which began to be cultivated across Polynesia around the year 1000 or earlier, with the earliest evidence of cultivation in Hawaii around 1300AD. The sweet potato is native to South America. Recently, an analysis of the DNA of 1,245 sweet potato varieties from Asia and the Americas was done, and researchers found a genetic link that proves the root made it to Polynesia from the Andes around 1100. The findings, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, offer more evidence that ancient Polynesians may have interacted with people in South America long before the Europeans set foot on the continent.Article and Maps

The Pacific rat accompanied humans on their journey to Hawaiʻi.  David Burney argues that humans, along with the vertebrate animals they brought with them (pigs, dogs, chickens and rats), caused many native species of birds, plants and large land snails to become extinct in the process of colonization.

Estuaries and streams were adapted into fishponds by early Polynesian settlers, as long ago as 500 CE or earlier. Packed earth and cut stone were used to create habitat, making ancient Hawaiian aquaculture among the most advanced of the original peoples of the Pacific. A notable example is the Menehune Fishpond dating from at least 1,000 years ago, at Alekoko. At the time of Captain James Cook's arrival, there were at least 360 fishponds producing  of fish per year. Over the course of the last millennium, Hawaiians undertook "large-scale canal-fed pond field irrigation" projects for  (taro) cultivation.

The new settlers built  (homes) and  (temples). Archaeologists currently believe that the first settlements were on the southern end of the Big Island of Hawaiʻi and that they quickly extended northwards, along the seacoasts and the easily accessible river valleys. As the population increased, settlements were made further inland.  With the islands being so small, the population was very dense.  Before European contact, the population had reached somewhere in the range of 200,000 to 1,000,000 people.  After contact with the Europeans, however, the population steeply dropped due to various diseases including smallpox.

Village

A traditional town of ancient Hawaii included several structures. Listed in order of importance:

 Heiau, temple to the gods. There were two major types. The agricultural mapele type was dedicated to Lono, and could be built by the nobility, priests, and land division chiefs, and whose ceremonies were open to all. The second type, luakini, were large  war temples, where animal and human sacrifices were made. They were built on high-rising stone terraces and adorned with wood and stone carved idols. A source of great mana or divine power, the luakini could only be entered by alii, the king, important chiefs and nobility, and kahuna who were members of the Kū priesthood.
 Hale alii, the house of the chief. It was used as a residence for the high chief and meeting house of the lesser chiefs. It was always built on a raised stone foundation to represent high social standing. Kāhili, or feather standards, were placed outside to signify royalty. Women and children were banned from entering.
 Hale pahu, the house of the sacred hula instruments. It held the pahu drums. It was treated as a religious space as hula was a religious activity in honor of the goddess Laka.
 Hale papaa, the house of royal storage. It was built to store royal implements including fabrics, prized nets and lines, clubs, spears and other weapons.
 Hale ulana, the house of the weaver. It was the house where craftswomen would gather each day to manufacture the village baskets, fans, mats and other implements from dried pandanus leaves called lauhala.
 Hale mua, the men's eating house. It was considered a sacred place because it was used to carve stone idols of aumakua or ancestral gods. The design was meant for the men to be able to enter and exit quickly.
 Hale aina, the women's eating house. Women ate at their own separate eating house. Men and women could not eat with each other for fear that men were vulnerable while eating to have their mana, or divine spirit, stolen by women.
 Hale waa, the house of the canoe. It was built along the beaches as a shelter for their fishing vessels. Hawaiians also stored koa logs used to craft the canoes.
 Hale lawaia, the house of fishing. It was built along the beaches as a shelter for their fishing nets and lines. Nets and lines were made by a tough rope fashioned from woven coconut husks.  Fish hooks were made of human, pig or dog bone. Implements found in the hale lawaia were some of the most prized possessions of the entire village.
 Hale noho, the living house. It was built as sleeping and living quarters for the Hawaiian family unit.
 Imu, the communal earth oven. Dug in the ground, it was used to cook the entire village's food including puaa or pork. Only men cooked using the imu.

Caste system

Ancient Hawaii was a caste society developed from Polynesians. The main classes were:

 Alii. This class consisted of the high and lesser chiefs of the realms. They governed with divine power called mana.
 Kahuna. Priests conducted religious ceremonies, at the heiau and elsewhere. Professionals included master carpenters and boatbuilders, chanters, dancers, genealogists, physicians and healers.
 Makaāinana. Commoners farmed, fished, and exercised the simpler crafts. They labored not only for themselves and their families, but to support the chiefs and kahuna.
 Kauwā. They are believed to have been war captives or the descendants of war captives.  Marriage between higher castes and the kauwā was strictly forbidden. The kauwā worked for the chiefs and males were often used as human sacrifices at the luakini heiau. (Lawbreakers of other castes and defeated political opponents were also sometimes used as human sacrifices.)

Education
Hawaiian youth learned life skills and religion at home, often with grandparents. For "bright" children a system of apprenticeship existed in which very young students would begin learning a craft or profession by assisting an expert, or kahuna. As spiritual powers were perceived by Hawaiians to imbue all of nature, experts in many fields of work were known as kahuna, a term commonly understood to mean priest.  The various types of kahuna passed on knowledge of their profession, be it in "genealogies, or mele, or herb medicine, or canoe building, or land boundaries", etc. by involving and instructing apprentices in their work.  More formal schools existed for the study of hula, and likely for the study of higher levels of sacred knowledge.

The kahuna took the apprentice into his household as a member of the family, although often "the tutor was a relative".  During a religious "graduation" ceremony, "the teacher consecrated the pupil, who thereafter was one with the teacher in psychic relationship as definite and obligatory as blood relationship". Like the children learning from their grandparents, children who were apprentices learned by watching and participating in daily life.  Children were discouraged from asking questions in traditional Hawaiian culture.

Land tenure
In Hawaiian ideology, one does not "own" the land, but merely dwells on it. The belief was that both the land and the gods were immortal. This then informed the belief that land was also godly, and therefore above mortal and ungodly humans, and humans therefore could not own land. The Hawaiians thought that all land belonged to the gods (akua).

The alii were believed to be "managers" of land. That is, they controlled those who worked on the land, the makaāinana. 
	 			
On the death of one chief and the accession of another, lands were re-apportioned—some of the previous "managers" would lose their lands, and others would gain them. Lands were also re-apportioned when one chief defeated another and re-distributed the conquered lands as rewards to his warriors. 	

In practice, commoners had some security against capricious re-possession of their houses and farms. They were usually left in place, to pay tribute and supply labor to a new chief, under the supervision of a new konohiki, or overseer. 	

This system of land tenure is similar to the feudal system prevalent in Europe during the Middle Ages. 	

The ancient Hawaiians had the ahupuaa as their source of water management. Each ahupuaa had a sub-division of land from the mountain to the sea. The Hawaiians used the water from the rain that ran through the mountains as a form of irrigation. Hawaiians also settled around these parts of the land because of the farming that was done.

Religion and the kapu system 

Religion held ancient Hawaiian society together, affecting habits, lifestyles, work methods, social policy and law. The legal system was based on religious kapu, or taboos. There was a correct way to live, to worship, and even to eat.  Examples of kapu included the provision that men and women could not eat together (Aikapu religion). Fishing was limited to specified seasons of the year. The shadow of the alii must not be touched as it was stealing his mana.

The rigidity of the kapu system might have come from a second wave of migrations in 1000–1300 from which different religions and systems were shared between Hawaii and the Society Islands. Hawaii would have been influenced by the Tahitian chiefs, the kapu system would have become stricter, and the social structure would have changed. Human sacrifice would have become a part of their new religious observance, and the alii would have gained more power over the counsel of experts on the islands.

Kapu was derived from traditions and beliefs from Hawaiian worship of gods, demigods and ancestral mana. The forces of nature were personified as the main gods of Kū (God of war), Kāne (god of light and life), Kanaloa (god of death), and Lono (god of peace and growth). Well-known lesser gods include Pele (goddess of fire) and her sister Hiiaka (goddess of dance). In a famous creation story, the demigod Māui fished the islands of Hawaii from the sea after a little mistake he made on a fishing trip. From Haleakalā, Māui ensnared the sun in another story, forcing him to slow down so there were equal periods of darkness and light each day.

The Hawaiian mystical worldview allows for different gods and spirits to imbue any aspect of the natural world. From this mystical perspective, in addition to his presence in lightning and rainbows, the god of light and life, Kāne, can be present in rain and clouds and a peaceful breeze (typically the "home" of Lono).

Although all food and drink had religious significance to the ancient Hawaiians, special cultural emphasis was placed on awa (kava) due to its narcotic properties.  This root-based beverage, a psychoactive and a relaxant, was used to consecrate meals and commemorate ceremonies.  It is often referred to in Hawaiian chant.  Different varieties of the root were used by different castes, and the brew served as an "introduction to mysticism".

Chiefs

The four biggest islands, the island of Hawaiʻi, Maui, Kauaʻi and Oʻahu were generally ruled by their own aliʻi nui (supreme ruler) with lower ranking subordinate chiefs called aliʻi ʻaimoku, ruling individual districts with land agents called konohiki.

All these dynasties were interrelated and regarded all the Hawaiian people (and possibly all humans) as descendants of legendary parents, Wākea (symbolizing the air) and his wife Papa (symbolizing the earth). Up to the late eighteenth century, the island of Hawaiʻi had been ruled by one line descended from Umi-a-Liloa. At the death of Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku, a lower ranking chief, Alapainui, overthrew the two sons of the former ruler who were next in line as the island's aliʻi nui.

Assuming five to ten generations per century, the Alii ʻAimoku dynasties were around three to six centuries old at 1800 CE. The Tahitian settlement of the Hawaiian islands is believed to have taken place in the thirteenth century. The alii and other social castes were presumably established during this period.

Complex economy
The ancient Hawaiian economy became complex over time.  People began to specialize in specific skills.  Generations of families became committed to certain careers: roof thatchers, house builders, stone grinders, bird catchers who would make the feather cloaks of the alii, canoe builders.  Soon, entire islands began to specialize in certain skilled trades.  Oahu became the chief kapa (tapa bark cloth) manufacturer.  Maui became the chief canoe manufacturer.  The island of Hawaii exchanged bales of dried fish.

First recorded European contact
European contact with the Hawaiian islands marked the beginning of the end of the ancient Hawaii period. In 1778, British Captain James Cook landed first on Kauai, then sailed southwards to observe and explore the other islands in the chain.

When he first arrived at Kealakekua Bay in 1779, some of the natives believed Cook was their god Lono.  Cook's mast and sails coincidentally resembled the emblem (a mast and sheet of white kapa) that symbolized Lono in their religious rituals; the ships arrived during the Makahiki season dedicated to Lono.

Captain Cook was eventually killed during a violent confrontation and left behind on the beach by his retreating sailors. The British demanded that his body be returned, but the Hawaiians had already performed funerary rituals of their tradition.

Within a few decades Kamehameha I used European warfare tactics and some firearms and cannons to unite the islands into the Kingdom of Hawaii.

See also
 Māori culture
 Mary Kawena Pukui, scholar of ancient Hawaiian culture
 Polynesian culture
 List of monarchs (Aliʻi ʻAimoku) of Hawaii
 List of monarchs (Aliʻi ʻAimoku) of Kauai
 List of monarchs (Aliʻi ʻAimoku) of Oahu
 List of monarchs (Aliʻi ʻAimoku) of Maui
 List of monarchs (Aliʻi ʻAimoku) of Molokaʻi

Notes

References

Primary sources

Secondary sources

External links 
 
 
 
 

 
Ancient peoples
Polynesian culture

ja:ハワイの歴史#先史時代
Cahervagliar  is a ringfort (rath) and National Monument (#233) located in County Cork, Ireland.

Location

Cahervagliar is located 5.3 km km (3.3 mi) south-southeast of Kilmichael.

History and description
Cahervagliar is a bivallate ringfort,  in diameter with a lintelled stone entrance to the east. The name means "stone ringfort of sons of Lóegaire"; it was the fortress of the Cenél Lóegairi, kings in central Ireland. However, they did not build the fort, as they did not arrive until after 1172.

Ringforts of this type were mostly built c. AD 550–900. Internally people were housed in wooden huts. Local lore claims that Brian Boru was once held hostage here.

References

Archaeological sites in County Cork
National Monuments in County Cork The Amazing Race Norge is a Norwegian adventure reality game show based on the international Amazing Race franchise. Following the premise of other versions of the format, the show follows teams of two as they race around the world. Each season is split into legs, with teams tasked to deduce clues, navigate themselves in foreign areas, interact with locals, perform physical and mental challenges, and travel by air, boat, car, taxi, and other modes of transport. Teams are progressively eliminated at the end of most legs for being the last to arrive at designated Pit Stops. The first team to arrive at the Finish Line wins a grand prize: a cash prize of  and a new Subaru Forester for each team member.

On October 2011 a Norwegian version of the show was announced by TV 2. Applications were open from 11 October 2011 to 31 October 2011. Filming took place in January 2012. Ex-football player Freddy dos Santos is the presenter of The Amazing Race Norge. The first season premiered on 11 April 2012.

It is produced by Rubicon TV in association with ABC Studios.

The Race
The Amazing Race Norge is a reality television competition between teams of two in a race around the world. Each season is divided into a number of legs wherein teams travel and complete various tasks to obtain clues to help them progress to a Pit Stop where teams are given a chance to rest and recover before starting the next leg. The first team to arrive at a Pit Stop is often awarded a prize, while the last team is normally eliminated (except in non-elimination legs, where the last team to arrive may be penalised in the following leg). The final leg is run by the last three remaining teams, and the first to arrive at the final destination wins the prize.

Teams

Each team is composed of two individuals who have some type of relationship to each other. 42 people have participated so far.

Route Markers
 
Route Markers are yellow and white flags; yellow and green flags; and yellow and red colours that mark the places where teams must go in order to complete tasks, or may be used to line a course that the teams must follow.

Clues

Clues are found throughout the legs in sealed envelopes, normally inside clue boxes. They give teams the information they need and tasks they need to do in order for them to progress.

 Veiviser (Route Info): A general clue that may include a task to be completed by the team before they can receive their next clue.
 Veivalg (Detour): A choice of two tasks. Teams are free to choose either task or swap tasks if they find one option too difficult.
 Veisperring (Roadblock): A task only one team member can complete. Teams must choose which member will complete the task based on a brief clue about the task before fully revealing the details of the task.
 Snarvei (Fast Forward): A task that only one team may complete, allowing that team to skip all remaining tasks and head directly for the next Pit Stop. Teams may only claim one Fast Forward during the season. Though prominently featured on the website's pictures and glossaries, no Fast Forward has ever appeared on the show.

Obstacles 

During the race, teams may face the following which may potentially slow them down:
 U-Sving (U-Turn): It is located after a Detour where a team can force another trailing team to return and complete the other option of the Detour they did not select. 
 Veikryss (Intersection): It is where two teams compete to receive their next clue. The team who wins the challenge will get their next clue while the losing team must then wait for another team to arrive to redo the challenge. The cycle repeats until the last team left will have to, again, repeat the challenge.

Legs
At the beginning of each leg, teams receive an allowance of cash to cover expenses during the legs (except for the purchase of airline tickets, which are paid-for by provided credit cards).

Teams then have to follow clues and Route Markers that will lead them to the various destinations and tasks they will face. Modes of travel between these destinations include commercial and chartered airplanes, boats, trains, taxis, buses, and rented vehicles provided by the show, or the teams may simply travel by foot. Each leg ends with a Pit Stop (Pitstop) where teams are able to rest and where teams that arrive last are progressively eliminated from the race until only three teams remain. In some legs, the first teams to arrive at the Pit Stop win prizes, usually from the show's sponsors.

 Fripass (The Express Pass) was awarded to the winners of the third leg of season 1 that can be used to skip any one task of the team's choosing up until the 8th leg. If a team gets eliminated without using their Express Pass, the winner of the last leg gets the Express Pass.

Non-elimination Legs
Each season has a number of predetermined non-elimination legs, in which the last team to arrive at the Pit Stop is not eliminated and is allowed to continue.

 Handikap (Handicap): A task that a team that comes last in a non-elimination leg has to complete. Teams handicapped are penalised by either having a certain task made harder for them in the next leg or by being penalised.

Rules and penalties
Most of the rules and penalties are adopted directly from the American edition; but in some of cases, this version has been seen to have a unique set of additional rules.

Seasons
The show first aired in 2012 with the first season premiere airing  on 11 April 2012 and ending 30 May 2012.

Countries and locales visited
As of the second season, The Amazing Race Norge has visited 13 countries and 5 continents.

Europe

Africa

South America

Asia

Oceania

Notes

 Includes 2 Finish Lines.
 Only the Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau (1).

Awards and nominations
The show was nominated for the Norwegian TV Gullruten awards for best competitive reality show in 2013.

References

External links
  
 

Norge
2012 Norwegian television series debuts
2010s Norwegian television series
Norwegian reality television series
Norwegian television series based on American television series
Television shows set in Africa
Television shows set in Asia
Television shows set in Europe
Television shows set in Oceania
Television shows set in South America