Vol.:(0123456789)
Sports Medicine (2021) 51:1835–1854 
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-021-01481-2
REVIEW ARTICLE
Crossing the Golden Training Divide: The Science and Practice 
of Training World‑Class 800‑ and 1500‑m Runners
Thomas Haugen1  · Øyvind Sandbakk2 · Eystein Enoksen3 · Stephen Seiler4 · Espen Tønnessen1
Accepted: 23 April 2021 / Published online: 21 May 2021 
© The Author(s) 2021
Abstract
Despite an increasing amount of research devoted to middle-distance training (herein the 800 and 1500 m events), informa-
tion regarding the training methodologies of world-class runners is limited. Therefore, the objective of this review was to 
integrate scientific and best practice literature and outline a novel framework for understanding the training and development 
of elite middle-distance performance. Herein, we describe how well-known training principles and fundamental training 
characteristics are applied by world-leading middle-distance coaches and athletes to meet the physiological and neuromus-
cular demands of 800 and 1500 m. Large diversities in physiological profiles and training emerge among middle-distance 
runners, justifying a categorization into types across a continuum (400–800 m types, 800 m specialists, 800–1500 m types, 
1500 m specialists and 1500–5000 m types). Larger running volumes (120–170 vs. 50–120 km·week−1 during the prepara-
tion period) and higher aerobic/anaerobic training distribution (90/10 vs. 60/40% of the annual running sessions below vs. 
at or above anaerobic threshold) distinguish 1500- and 800-m runners. Lactate tolerance and lactate production training are 
regularly included interval sessions by middle-distance runners, particularly among 800-m athletes. In addition, 800-m run-
ners perform more strength, power and plyometric training than 1500-m runners. Although the literature is biased towards 
men and “long-distance thinking,” this review provides a point of departure for scientists and practitioners to further explore 
and quantify the training and development of elite 800- and 1500-m running performance and serves as a position statement 
for outlining current state-of-the-art middle-distance training recommendations.
Key Points 
This review serves as a position statement for outlining 
state-of-the-art middle-distance training recommenda-
tions.
There are considerable gaps between science and best 
practice regarding how training principles and training 
methods should be applied for elite middle-distance run-
ning performance.
We identify physiological and training distinctions 
between world-class 800- and 1500-m runners.
 * Thomas Haugen 
 
thomas.haugen@kristiania.no
1 
School of Health Sciences, Kristiania University College, 
Sentrum, PB 1190, 0107 Oslo, Norway
2 
Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, 
Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University 
of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
3 
Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School 
of Sport Sciences, 0806 Oslo, Norway
4 
Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Agder, 
PB 422, 4604 Kristiansand, Norway
1836
 
T. Haugen et al.
1  Background
Middle-distance running was a central part of the Olym-
pic program for men already at the first modern Games 
in 1896. Over the last century, quantum leaps in men’s 
performance have been achieved by barrier breaking ath-
letes such as Paavo Nurmi, Gunder Hägg, Rudolf Harbig 
and Roger Bannister. The progression of female middle-
distance running performances was initially slower than 
that observed for men [1], but this was due to social, not 
biological constraints. By the 1928 Olympic Games, 
women competed in 2 of the 13 running events contested 
by men, the 100 and 800 m. Unfortunately, even this small 
progress was halted when the International Olympic Com-
mittee (IOC) received erroneous reports of female athletes 
collapsing after running the 800 m and decided to ban 
women from competing over distances longer than 200 m. 
The middle-distance events were not added to the Olympic 
program for women until 1960, after which the sex-gap in 
middle-distance performance declined gradually until the 
1980s. Since then, male and female sex-specific perfor-
mance differences have stabilized around ~ 10% [2].
Despite an increasing amount of research devoted to 
middle-distance training [e.g., 3–17], it is reasonable to 
argue that the developments in these disciplines have not 
been driven by sport scientists [18]. Publicly available 
“recipe books” and training diaries based upon the practi-
cal experience and intuition of world-leading athletes and 
coaches have become important and popular sources of 
best practice training information and framework devel-
opment for the international middle-distance community 
[19–59] (Table 1). While best practice training in athletic 
sprinting [60] and long-distance running [61–65] has been 
scientifically reported, information regarding the varying 
training components across the annual cycle of world-class 
middle-distance runners is limited. Furthermore, the train-
ing characteristics of 800- and 1500-m runners have not 
yet been systematically compared. Such a comparison is 
warranted because of the marked shift towards a more dis-
tinct emphasis on aerobic energy provision from 800 to 
1500 m as well as the interactions between mechanical 
effectiveness and metabolic efficiency in this transition. 
Therefore, the objective of this review is to integrate sci-
entific and best practice coaching literature to outline a 
novel framework for the training and development of elite 
middle-distance performance. Although the present review 
is anchored in the standard Olympic 800- and 1500-m dis-
tances, the outlined terminology, training zone model and 
training principles are also relevant for other distances and 
sports.
The present review strategy is challenging. Firstly, an 
initial review of the literature reveals that several biases 
are present, including a substantial sex bias (male domi-
nance) as well as “group culture” biases across a hand-
ful of successful training groups. A relative bias towards 
emphasis on training aerobic capacity is particularly pre-
sent for the 800 m, as this discipline seems heavily influ-
enced by “long-distance thinking” in the available research 
literature. Hence, the generalizable training recommenda-
tions outlined in this review might not be optimal for all 
middle-distance athletes. Secondly, a potential source of 
misinterpretation is the lack of a common framework and 
terminology. Moreover, the included coaching literature 
cannot be controlled for possible training prescription-
execution differences as exemplified by Ingham et al. 
[9]. Although these stories rarely gain attention, most 
“famous” coaches have also coached underperforming 
talents. We acknowledge this bias but note that the vast 
majority of the coaches listed in Table 1 have achieved 
success with multiple athletes. Finally, the widespread use 
of doping in international athletics must be acknowledged. 
All these challenges and limitations reflect today’s athlet-
ics, for better and worse, and the outcomes of this review 
must therefore be interpreted with these caveats in mind. 
Sensitive to these limitations, we still contend that inte-
gration of available research evidence and results-proven 
practice provides a valid point of departure for outlining 
state-of-the-art training recommendations and for genera-
tion of new hypotheses to be tested in future research [60, 
66].
2  Physiological and Mechanical 
Determinants of Middle‑Distance Running 
Performance
The 800- and 1500-m running disciplines are where aero-
bic and anaerobic energetics converge [5]. Importantly, 
these classically defined disciplines are also where effec-
tive maximal sprint speed (MSS) mechanics and efficient 
long-distance running energetics collide. While mechanics 
and energetics are not independent in middle-distance run-
ning, we choose to examine these events with what might 
be called scientific bifocals and try to converge them in a 
logical manner.
2.1  The Energetic Side of the Middle‑Distance Coin
During an 800-m run, the relative energy system contribu-
tions from aerobic and anaerobic metabolism are reported 
to be 60–75 and 25–40%, respectively, while correspond-
ing values for 1500 m are 75–85 and 15–25% [6, 7, 13]. The 
range in energy system contribution is greater in the 800 m 
compared to the 1500-m event due to the variability of the 
athletes presenting at 800 m. Overall, these relative aerobic 
1837
Training and development of world-class middle-distance athletes
energy contribution estimates overlap reasonably well with the 
reported type I muscle fiber distribution ranges in middle-dis-
tance runners [13]. Just as has been well established for long-
distance running, maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), fractional 
utilization of VO2max, running economy (RE), velocity at the 
anaerobic threshold (vAT), and velocity at VO2max (vVO2max) 
are all positively correlated with middle-distance perfor-
mance [5, 8, 67]. However, to optimize energy mobilization 
and utilization,  O2 kinetics as well as anaerobic power and 
capacity play decisive roles in middle distance performance. 
As Olympic gold medalist 800-m runner Vebjørn Rodal suc-
cinctly summarized the importance of  O2 kinetics to one of 
the authors (ØS): “It does not matter if I can reach a higher 
VO2max in five minutes when I have to cross the finish line 
in 102 s.” In addition, both energy expenditure capacity and 
economy/efficiency likely deteriorate during middle-distance 
Table 1  Sources of best practice training information
In addition, we have had personal communications with Vebjørn Rodal (Olympic 800-m champion in 1996) and Arturo Casado (European 
1500-m champion in 2010). Novel training data from these athletes are presented in Table 6
WC world championships, EC European championships, WR former or current world-record holder
a Honore Hoedt coached Sifan Hassan during her early career, not when she broke several world records
Athletes [reference]
Personal bests (min)
International merits
Type of source
Alberto Juantorena [38]
800 m 1:43.44 (WR)
Olympic gold 1976
Keynote speech/training log
Clayton Murphy [26]
800 m 1:42.93
Olympic bronze 2016
Interview/presentation
David Rudisha [50, 51]
800 m 1:40.91 (WR)
Olympic gold 2012 and 2016
Web post and training log
Hicham El Guerrouj [45]
1500 m 3:26.00 (WR)
Olympic gold 2004
Lectures
Jim Ryun [29]
800 m 1:44.3—1500 m 3:33.1
Olympic silver 1968
Chronicle and training log
Joaquim Cruz [36]
800 m 1:41.77—1500 m 3:34.63
Olympic gold 1984
Chronicle and training log
John Walker [28]
1500 m 3:32.4—mile 3:49.08 (WR)
Olympic gold 1500 m 1976
Magazine article/interview
Marty Liquori [39]
Mile 3:52.2
Pan American champion 1971
Chronicle and training log
Michael Rimmer [40]
800 m 1:43.89
EC silver 2010
Chronicle and training log
Natalia Rodriguez [43]
1500 m 3:59.51
WC and EC gold 2010–2011
Chronicle
Nick Symmonds [30]
800 m 1:42.95—1500 m 3:34.55
WC silver 2013
Training log
Nick Willis [44]
1500 m 3:29.66—mile 3:49.83
Olympic medals 2008 and 2016
Training log
Peter Elliott [22]
800 m 1:42.97—1500 m 3:32.69
Olympic silver 1988
Chronicle and training log
Said Aouita [24]
1500 m 3:29.46 (WR)—mile 3:46.76
Olympic gold 1984, WC gold 1987
Training log
Silas Kiplagat [49]
1500 m 3:27.64
WC silver 2011
Training log
Taoufik Makloufi [46]
800 m 1:42.61—1500 m 3:28.75
Olympic gold 2012
Interview
Coaches [reference]
Successful middle-distance athletes
Athlete merits
Type of source
Arthur Lydiard [19–21]
Peter Snell (WR), Murray Halberg, Barry Magee
Olympic gold 1960 and 1964
Books
Bill Bowerman [53]
Steve Prefontaine, Jack Hutchins, Sig Ohlemann
He trained 31 Olympic athletes
Book
David Sunderland [52]
Jane Finch, Lynsey Sharp
Indoor WR 1977, EC gold 2012
Book
Gianni Ghidini [37]
Wilfred Bungei, Amel Tuka
Olympic & WC medals since 2001
Presentation
Harry Wilson [34, 57]
Steve Ovett (WR)
Olympic gold 1980, EC gold 1978
Chronicle/training log
Honore Hoedt [41]
Sifan Hassan (WR)a, Brad Som, Amoud Okken
WC & EC medals since 2006
Presentation
Jack Daniels [58]
Coached seven athletes to the U.S. Olympic team Olympic finalists
Book
Jama Aden [31]
Genzebe Dibaba (WR), Abdi Bile, Taoufik 
Makloufi
Olympic & WC medals since 1987
Magazine article/interview
Joe Vigil [33, 56]
Coach for the US Olympic team in 1998
Olympic finalists
Presentations
Kim McDonald [23]
Daniel Komen (WR), Noah Ngeny, Laban Rotich Multiple WC medals in the 1990s
Chronicles/training logs
Lee LaBadie [26]
Clayton Murphy
Olympic bronze 2016
Presentations
Margo Jennings [32]
Maria Mutola, Kelly Holmes
Olympic & WC medals 1993–2004
Chronicle/interview
Nic Bideau [48]
Craig Mottram
WC bronze 2005
Commentary
Peter Coe [54, 59]
Sebastian Coe (WR)
Olympic gold 1980 and 1984
Books
Steve Magness [42]
Assistant coach and scientific advisor for elite 
runners
Olympic & WC medals 2011–2012
E-book and presentation
Tomasz Lewandowski [25]
Marcin Lewandowski
EC gold 2010, WC bronze 2019
Presentation
Vin Lananna [35]
U.S. Olympic team coach
Olympic finalists
Presentations
1838
 
T. Haugen et al.
events, indicating that fatigue-resistance/resilience might 
have a decisive performance-impact. To this point, de Koning 
and colleagues have directly challenged the assumption of a 
stable gross efficiency during short maximal cycling efforts 
within the middle-distance time window [68, 69]. Using a 
sequence of sub-maximal-maximal-sub-maximal trials and 
back-extrapolation, they estimate that metabolic efficiency 
declines enough during 100–240 s duration cycling time tri-
als to result in a ~ 30% underestimation of the anaerobic energy 
contribution to total energy expenditure. Unfortunately, com-
prehensive quantification of running economy (total external 
work performed/total energy expenditure) at speeds above the 
lactate threshold remains elusive [12].
While traditional endurance disciplines can be described 
as maximization challenges (i.e., training that enhances 
VO2max or fractional utilization is “always positive” for per-
formance), we propose that the 800-m event in particular 
requires an energy release optimization strategy that respects 
the interactions and trade-offs between anaerobic and aero-
bic metabolism emerging in both training and performance. 
This complexity allows internationally successful middle-
distance runners to present a variety of physiological pro-
files [12–15]. For example, VO2max ranges from ~ 65 to 85 
ml·kg·min−1 in elite men [16, 29, 70, 71]. Similar variation 
is seen among elite women, albeit at ~ 10% lower values [71] 
due to lower hemoglobin concentrations and higher rela-
tive body fat percentage [72]. Consequently, correlations 
between isolated aerobic performance-determining factors 
and performance in homogeneous subsets of middle-dis-
tance runners are modest at best.
We find no evidence to suggest that female and male mid-
dle distance athletes should not be examined as one elite 
population from an energetics point of view. However, the 
800-m event rides an energetic “tipping point;” it sits on a 
portion of the velocity-duration curve where the aerobic and 
anaerobic contributions are particularly duration sensitive. 
Consequently, the additional ~ 15 s required to complete the 
800 m by the best females may nudge this event towards the 
aerobic end of the training spectrum enough that it alters 
the optimal composition of their training compared to male 
counterparts. Lending some support to this possibility, we 
note that inspections of the top 200 all-time lists for the 800 
and 1500 m reveal that 55 women appear on both lists, com-
pared to only 38 men (http:// world athle tics. org). For com-
parison, the 1500–3000 m double is more common among 
the 200 all-time best males and females with 51 men and 78 
women appearing on both lists.
2.2  Mechanical Effectiveness: The Other Side 
of the Middle‑Distance Coin
The role of anaerobic capacity in middle-distance running 
has received considerably less attention in the research 
literature, likely due to limitations in accurately and reli-
ably quantifying anaerobic energetics [73]. Bachero-Mena 
et al. [3] have reported a strong relationship between 800-m 
performance and sprints over 20 m (r = 0.72) and 200 m 
(r = 0.84) in male national and international 800-m run-
ners (1:43–1:58). Peter Coe [54] and Arthur Lydiard [19] 
have argued that world-class 800-m male athletes should be 
able to run 200 m in < 22.5 s prior to major competitions. 
Such sprint performance is determined by a combination of 
anaerobic energy release and the ability to transfer energy 
to speed over this particular distance, and this sprinting 
capacity requirement eliminates at least 99% of males on 
the planet as future world-class 800-m runners before other 
physiological demands are even considered. Power output 
and technique are considered key underlying determinants 
for MSS [74]. Fast male world-class middle-distance runners 
may approach 10 m·s−1 [12, 15], and if we assume a ~ 10% 
sex difference [75], corresponding females are capable of 
sprinting ≥ 9 m·s−1. To achieve such running velocities, 
maximal horizontal power outputs of ~ 21 and ~ 19 W·kg−1 
are required for men and women, respectively [76].
Although the basic principles of MSS are relatively sim-
ple and governed by the laws of motion, the way an athlete 
solves the mechanical constraints and utilizes the degrees of 
freedom within these constraints is far more complex [74]. 
Spatiotemporal variables, segment configuration at touch-
down and lift-off, lower-limb segment velocities imme-
diately prior to touchdown or during ground contact, leg 
stiffness, storage and release of elastic energy, as well as 
front- and back-side mechanics have received much atten-
tion in research literature. However, these mechanical vari-
ables are entangled, and no single variable is associated with 
better MSS [74]. For more information regarding running 
mechanics, we refer to previously published biomechanical 
analyses [e.g., 74, 77, 78].
Overall, middle-distance athletes must be able to reach 
high MSS if they are to reach an international level. How-
ever, high and unfatigued MSS is not useful if a high per-
centage of that velocity cannot be maintained for 100–240 s 
(see Sect. 3). This implies a complex integration of muscular 
power, metabolic efficiency, biomechanical efficiency and 
fatigue resistance at the muscle fiber level, as well as an 
optimal pacing strategy [79, 80].
3  Athlete Profiling
Due to the variety of physiological profiles among 800- and 
1500-m runners, coaches typically categorize middle-dis-
tance runners into distinct “types” [19–21, 41, 47, 54, 58, 
59], and these types bear different labels (e.g., “speed-based” 
vs. “endurance-based”, “fast-typed” vs. “stamina-typed”). 
A simple method for athlete profiling and identification of 
1839
Training and development of world-class middle-distance athletes
individual strengths and weaknesses can be based on per-
formance across a spread of distances below and above the 
main discipline (e.g., using IAAF points or percent time 
behind current world record). For example, 400, 800 and 
1500-m performance can form the basis for analyzing an 
800-m runner, presupposing that the performance level 
across all these distances is representative and reflects actual 
performance [13]. A brief review of the World Athletics 
all-time top lists (https:// www. world athle tics. org/ recor ds/ 
all- time- topli sts) clearly shows that 1500-m runners pos-
sess a broader distance performance range, while a larger 
proportion of world-class 800-m runners appears to be “spe-
cialists”. These observations are in accordance with Dan-
iels [58], who argued that a strong performance relationship 
exists among distances ranging from 1500 m to marathon in 
heterogeneous subsets, while 800 and 1500 m performances 
are considerably less related.
The concept of anaerobic speed reserve (ASR) was origi-
nally introduced by Blondel et al. [81] and further developed 
by Sandford and associates [12–15] to provide a “first layer 
insight” of athlete profiling. ASR is defined as the speed 
zone ranging from vVO2max to MSS. MSS can be accurately 
measured using radar technology or timing gates [82, 83], 
while vVO2max (also known as maximal aerobic speed; 
MAS) traditionally has required laboratory-based proce-
dures. However, a field method has recently been developed 
where a regression equation can be applied for accurate 
prediction of vVO2max from 1500 m time-trial performance 
(“gun-to-tape” or “predicted 1500-m shape”) [14]. Based 
on the speed reserve ratio concept (SRR = MSS/MAS), 
Sandford and associates classified 800-m runners into three 
sub-groups along a continuum as follows: 400–800 m types 
(SRR ≥ 1.58), 800 m specialists (SRR ≤ 1.57 to ≥ 1.47, and 
800–1500 m types (SRR ≤ 1.47 to ≥ 1.36) [15]. Using the 
same approach, we propose that 1500-m runners can be 
categorized as 800–1500 m types, 1500-m specialists and 
1500–5000 m types. However, the validity of this concept 
must be further elaborated in future research. In the fol-
lowing sections of this review, the implications of athlete 
profile for training prescriptions will be explored in more 
detail, with most focus on the distinctions between 800- and 
1500-m runners.
4  Expected Performance Development 
Among Elite Middle‑Distance Runners
Middle-distance performance capacity evolves and devolves 
throughout life via growth, maturation, training and age-
ing [84–87]. The age of peak performance in world-class 
middle-distance runners (mean ± SD) is 25–27 ± 2–3 years 
[87–90]. However, training age must also be considered, as 
early/late specialization may accelerate/delay age of peak 
performance [91]. For example, young African runners have 
a lifestyle that includes running to and from school from a 
very early age [23, 27, 92, 93], supporting the early engage-
ment hypothesis [94]. However, history has also shown that 
late specialization and diversified experience in other sports 
can provide a platform for later elite performance [17, 36, 
38, 39].
For the very best runners, the annual within-athlete per-
formance differences are lower than the typical variation 
and the smallest worthwhile change is ~ 0.5% in middle-
distance running [95]. Mean annual improvement scores for 
the world’s top 100 middle-distance runners in their early 
twenties are in the range of only 0.1–0.2% [87]. On aver-
age, athletes must be at a very high level already in their 
late teens to become world-class as seniors. Haugen and 
co-workers calculated that middle-distance runners within 
the annual world top 100 lists averaged 98–99% of their 
peak performance result at the age of 20 [87]. However, 
athletes reaching the upper portion of this exclusive annual 
list improve their performances more than athletes of lower 
performance standards in the years immediately preced-
ing peak performance age [87]. These differences may be 
explained by differences in training status, responsiveness 
to training, coaching quality, doping, etc. Although there is 
considerable variation among athletes and numerous routes 
to expertise under optimal conditions, a review of the best 
practice literature listed in Table 1 indicates that the majority 
of world-class 800- and 1500-m runners have specialized in 
the middle-distances already as juniors.
5  Training Principles
5.1  Progressive Overload
The process of training adaptation is an interplay between 
loading and recovery, and the principle of progressive 
overload refers to the gradual increase of stress placed 
upon the body during exercise training [96–98]. Indeed, 
the capacity to perform and absorb large training loads is 
seen as both an adaptation over time and a talent. In mid-
dle-distance running, commonly reported external load 
factors include volume, duration and intensity, while psy-
chophysiological internal load factors typically include 
heart rate, blood lactate and session rating of perceived 
exertion. These variables will be examined in more detail 
in Sect. 6. While running distance is the most commonly 
reported loading factor in scientific and best practice 
literature, some authors argue that rating of perceived 
exertion (RPE) or training impulse (TRIMP; min × RPE) 
are more useful for the training decision-making process 
[99, 100]. With emerging and novel wearable technology, 
future training monitoring may put more emphasis on 
1840
 
T. Haugen et al.
biomechanical external load metrics such as tibial shock, 
foot-strike angle, ground contact time and leg stiffness 
to enable a more precise quantification of training stress 
[99].
The principle of progressive overload is envisioned 
to enhance performance over time and reduce the risk 
of injury and overtraining [96–98]. Indeed, a large pro-
portion of injuries are attributed to rapid and excessive 
increases in training load [101, 102]. During the initial 
8–12 weeks of the training year, it is therefore widely 
accepted in the middle-distance community that running 
volume must be increased gradually. In elite athletes, the 
initial training week is performed with ~ 40–60% of peak 
weekly running volume, increasing by ~ 5–15 km each 
week until maximal volume is reached [19–26, 28–32, 
34, 36–46, 52, 54–59]. This increase is mainly achieved 
by increasing training frequency in the initial phase, then 
subsequently extended by lengthening individual training 
sessions. When peak running volume is achieved, the fur-
ther progression in training load among middle-distance 
runners is normally achieved by increasing the amount 
or intensity of intensive training. Long-term progression 
rates depend on training experience and individual pre-
dispositions, but total training volume and peak weekly 
mileage may increase up to ~ 10% per year during the late 
teens in well-trained athletes [17, 42, 55, 56].
A common “periodization” approach observed within 
best practice is that more intensive training sessions are 
introduced and total training volume decreases as the 
competition season approaches [17, 19–21, 23–25, 34, 36, 
40–42, 50–52, 54–56, 58, 59] (see also Sect. 5.4). Within 
this context, running surface and footwear are crucial 
modifiers of training load for middle-distance running. 
It is generally assumed that the harder the surface, the 
higher mechanical load and reactive forces on lower limb 
tissues [19–21, 23, 36, 52, 54–59, 99]. Most elite athletes 
perform low-intensive running sessions with cushioned 
running shoes/trainers on forgiving surfaces (forest trails, 
parkland, dirt road, etc.), while high-intensive running 
and sprinting sessions are performed with spike shoes on 
a rubberized track surface. Because the latter is associated 
with high muscular load, such sessions rarely occur on 
consecutive days among leading coaches and practition-
ers [17, 19–21, 23–25, 31, 34, 36, 40, 41, 50–52, 54–56, 
58–60].
Although altitude training is an integrated part of mod-
ern middle-distance training to increase the stress placed 
upon the body, this topic has received limited attention in 
the best practice coaching literature. We therefore refer 
to previously published reviews for more information 
regarding altitude training [e.g., 103–105].
5.2  Specificity
Training adaptations are specific to the stimulus applied, 
encompassing muscle groups and actions involved, speed 
of movement, range of motion and energy systems involved 
[98, 106]. Due to the performance demands underpinning 
middle-distance running performance, various types of 
training aimed to overload the aerobic and/or the anaerobic 
energy system while employing movement patterns specific 
to middle-distance running need to be performed. Based on 
a synthesis of best practice literature [19–59], the specific 
training methods for middle-distance running are described 
in Table 2. We refer to previously published review papers 
regarding physiological adaptations and responses associ-
ated with such training forms [6, 7, 107–109].
Many successful athletes in typical endurance sports sup-
plement their sport-specific training with alternative activity 
forms, so called cross-training [110–113]. Arguments sup-
porting the inclusion of such non-specific training include 
injury prevention, aerobic capacity benefits, strengthening 
“weak links”, and avoidance of training monotony [113, 
114]. Best practice coaching literature within middle-dis-
tance running indicates that cross-training (e.g., cycling, 
swimming, running with floating vest or cross-country ski-
ing) in most cases is employed during injury rehabilitation 
processes. However, it cannot be precluded that this is a 
part of the regular plan in certain training groups. Other 
“less specific” training forms such as strength, power and 
plyometric training are more commonly performed to tar-
get the underlying anaerobic performance components (see 
Sect. 6.4). Although these training forms do not duplicate 
the holistic running movement, they may target specific 
components that limit performance.
5.3  Individualization
The majority of training intervention studies demonstrate 
that considerable variability in adaptation to a given exer-
cise stimulus is the norm [e.g., 115–117]. The principle of 
individualization refers to the notion that training prescrip-
tion must be adapted and optimized according to individual 
predispositions (performance level, training status/age, 
sex, recovery/injury status and physiological and struc-
tural/mechanical profiles) to maximize the effect and avoid 
non-responder outcomes [13, 52, 58, 98, 118]. Total train-
ing load is typically higher in well-trained adult runners of 
higher performance standard compared to their younger, 
less trained and lower-performing counterparts [19–21, 
56, 58]. A review of the best practice literature reveals that 
world-class middle-distance athletes have recorded very 
similar personal best times with substantial differences in 
training programs, and these differences are likely related to 
1841
Training and development of world-class middle-distance athletes
Table 2  Specific training methods for middle-distance running
Training method
Description
Continuous running
Warm up/recovery run/cool down Low-intensive running (typically 3–5 km·h−1 slower than marathon pace, i.e., 
4:00–4:45 and 4:30–5:15 min·km−1 for men and women, however, the last part of the 
warm-up may approach marathon pace or slightly above), predominantly performed 
on soft surface (grass, woodland, forest paths, etc.). Typical duration is 10–30 min
Long run
Low-intensive steady-state running (marathon pace or 1–2 km·h−1 slower, i.e., 3:30–
4:00 and 4:00–4:30 min·km−1 for men and women) performed on forgiving surfaces 
such as forest trails where possible. Typical duration is 60–90 min, but 2-h runs are 
also performed during the preparation period
Anaerobic threshold run
A sustained run at moderate intensity/half-marathon pace (i.e., 2:55–3:15 and 3:10–
3:30 min·km−1 for world-class male and female middle-distance runners). Typical 
duration 15–40 min. The session should not be extremely fatiguing
Fartlek
An unstructured long-distance run in various terrains over 30–60 min. where periods 
of fast running are intermixed with periods of slower running. The pacing variations 
are determined by the athlete’s feelings and rhythms and terrain
Progressive long runs
A commonly used training form used by African runners. The first part of the session 
is identical to an easy long run. After about half the distance, the pace gradually 
quickens. In the final portion, the pace increases to the anaerobic threshold (half-
marathon pace) or slightly past it. Athletes are advised to slow down when the pace 
becomes too strenuous
Interval training
Anaerobic threshold intervals
Intervals of 3–10 min. duration at an intensity around anaerobic threshold (half-
marathon pace) or slightly faster. Typical sessions: 8–12 × 800–1000-m with 1 min. 
recovery between intervals, 4–8 × 1500–2000 m with 1–2 min. recovery between 
intervals, or 2–4 × 10-min. with 2–3 min. recovery between intervals. As a rule of 
thumb, the recovery periods are ~ 1 min. of easy jogging per 5 min of running. Rec-
ommended total time for elite runners is 25–40 min. Such intervals are advantageous 
because they allow the athlete to accumulate more total time than during a continu-
ous anaerobic threshold run
VO2max intervals
Intervals of 2–4 min. duration at 3–10 K pace, with 2–3 min. recovery periods between 
intervals. Typical sessions: 4–7 × 800–1000 m or 2 × (6 × 400 m) with 30–60 s and 
2–3 min. recovery between intervals and sets, respectively. Recommended total time 
for elite runners is ~ 15–20 min
Lactate tolerance training
Intervals typically ranging from 200 to 600 m with 800–1500 m race pace and 1–3 
min. recoveries. Typical sessions: 10–16 × 200 m with 1 min. recovery between 
intervals, or 3 x (4 × 400 m) with 60–90 s and 3–5 min. recoveries between intervals 
and sets, respectively. Total accumulated distance ranges from 1500 to 5000 m in 
elite athletes
Lactate production training
Intervals typically ranging from 150 to 600 m at 200–600 m race pace and full recov-
eries. Typical sessions: 5–7 × 300 m with 3–5 min. recoveries, 3–5 × 400 m with 
7–15 min. recoveries, or 600–500–400–300–200 m with 6–15 min. recoveries. Total 
accumulated distance ranges from 800 to 2500 m in elite athletes
Hill repeats
The main intention is overloading horizontal propulsive muscle groups while reducing 
ballistic loading. Typical incline is 5–10%, and duration vary from ~ 15 s to ~ 4 min. 
depending on intensity, goal (aerobic intervals, lactate production or tolerance train-
ing) and time of season. Typical sessions: 10–15 × 100 m with 60–90 s recoveries, or 
6–8 × 800–1000 m with easy jog back recoveries. Hill repeats are mainly performed 
during the preparation period
Sprints or time trials Time trials
“All-out” efforts or trials aiming at achieving a target time. Distances are normally 
50–80% of the athlete’s normal racing distance. Typically performed prior to (e.g., 
10 days) an important race at the early part of the season
Sprints
5–15 s runs with near-maximal to maximal effort and full recoveries. These can also 
be performed as strides, progressive runs or flying sprints, where the rate of accelera-
tion is reduced to allow more total distance at higher velocities. The main aim of the 
session is to develop or maintain maximal sprinting speed without producing high 
levels of lactate
1842
 
T. Haugen et al.
the varying physiological and profiles that exist within and 
between 800- and 1500-m runners (see Sect. 6).
5.4  Variation and Periodization
The principle of variation refers to the concept that sys-
tematic variation in training is most effective for eliciting 
long-term adaptations [98, 119]. The most commonly inves-
tigated training theory involving planned training variation 
is periodization, an often-misused term that today refers to 
any form of training plan, regardless of structure [119]. Ever 
since Arthur Lydiard introduced his periodization system in 
the late 1950s [19–21], leading practitioners within middle-
distance running typically divide the training year (macro-
cycle) into distinct, ordered phases to peak for important 
competitions [23–26, 28, 31, 32, 34, 36–38, 40, 42, 43, 45, 
52, 54–57, 59]. At least three phases are typically organized 
within a macrocycle: a preparation period, a competition 
period and a transition period. The transition period begins 
immediately after the outdoor competition season, typically 
consisting of 2–4 weeks with rest or recreational training. 
The following preparation period is typically broken up into 
general and specific preparation. Some athletes apply dou-
ble periodization (i.e., two peaking phases), consisting of 
a preparation phase, an indoor season, a new preparation 
phase and finally an outdoor competition season [24, 32, 
43]. However, most world-class middle-distance runners 
apply single periodization. Although they may participate 
in cross-country or indoor competitions during their prepara-
tion phase, such competitions mainly serve as a refreshing 
change from daily training.
The historical development underlying today’s prac-
tices for variation and periodization among world-class 
middle-distance runners is described in Table 3. The train-
ing organization models outlined in the 1950s, 1960s and 
1970s are still valid, as we and others have systematically 
quantified the training of successful endurance athletes in 
a range of sports and reported a “polarized” (i.e., signifi-
cant proportions of both high- and low-intensity training 
and a smaller proportion of threshold training) [122, 123] or 
pyramidal (i.e., most training is at low intensity, with gradu-
ally decreasing proportions of threshold and high-intensity 
training) intensity distribution [124]. Modern endurance 
training practice among elite performers in numerous sports 
[110–112, 125–132] is dominated by frequent sessions and 
high total volumes of low intensity training combined with 
smaller volumes of high intensity training organized as 
2–4 “key workouts” in most training weeks. This training 
organization also holds true for well-trained and world-
leading middle-distance runners [10, 16, 17, 22–59, 133], 
although 800-m runners apply a greater proportion of train-
ing at higher intensities than 1500-m runners (see Sect. 6.3). 
We argue that the ubiquitous nature of this basic intensity 
distribution across sports with very distinct “cultures and 
training histories” suggests some physiologically rooted self-
organizing forces at play related to sustainably balancing 
cellular signaling and systemic stress over time. However, 
the long-term and cross-disciplinary influence of ground-
breaking coaches cannot be discounted.
6  Training Characteristics
6.1  Training Quantification Considerations
While training volume in typical endurance sports can be 
quantified in a straightforward manner using number of 
sessions, hours and kilometers, quantification of training 
intensity is more complicated. In scientific studies of elite 
endurance athletes, 3- or 5-zone intensity scales have been 
developed based on either external work rates (running pace 
or types of training), internal physiological responses (VO2, 
blood lactate and/or heart rate ranges) or how the training 
was perceived [62, 110–112, 125–129]. These previously 
developed scales are not applicable for middle-distance 
runners because (1) parts of their training are performed at 
considerably higher intensities, and (2) middle-distance ath-
letes exhibit physiological training responses different from 
aerobic endurance athletes (e.g., higher blood lactate levels). 
Acknowledged and leading middle-distance practitioners 
have developed alternative training zone models [17, 54, 
56, 58, 59], but no consensus has been established. However, 
describing and comparing training characteristics requires a 
common intensity scale. To identify the training differences 
between 800- and 1500-m runners in more detail, we have 
developed a 5- and 9-zone intensity model (Table 4) based 
on an integration of scientific [17, 62, 110–112, 122–129, 
134] and best practice coaching literature [54, 56, 58, 59].
Standardized intensity scales can be criticized for several 
reasons. Firstly, they fail to account for individual varia-
tion in the relationship among physiological variables (e.g., 
between heart rate and blood lactate concentration) [123]. 
Secondly, the method of training intensity quantification 
can affect the computation of the training intensity distribu-
tion [135]. Thirdly, prescribing exercise intensity based on 
a fixed percentage of maximal physiological anchors (e.g., 
VO2max or maximal heart rate) has little merit for eliciting 
distinct or domain-specific homeostatic perturbations [136]. 
Finally, running pace can be affected by varying wind and 
temperature conditions, the rigors of training, “the myster-
ies” of the body and day-to-day variation in recovery and 
readiness to train. Athletes must therefore cultivate an ability 
to “feel” the proper intensity, as intensity integrates three 
forms of feedback: running pace, physiological responses 
and perception of effort [55]. Intensity scales are imperfect 
tools, but the above-mentioned potential sources of error 
1843
Training and development of world-class middle-distance athletes
Table 3  An historical overview of middle-distance training organization
New paradigms
Key coaches and athletes driving the development
1920s
Use of systematic methodologies targeting middle-distance running
Paavo Nurmi was the pioneer of interval training and introduced the 
“even pace” strategy to running, using a stopwatch to control his speed 
[120]. He also developed systematic all-year-round training programs 
that included both long-distance work and high-intensive running [1], 
bringing middle- and long-distance training to a new and modern level 
with intelligent application of effort
1930s
Introduction of interval concepts and use of heart rate for intensity 
control
German Waldemar Gerschler (coach of e.g. Harbig and Moens) together 
with the physiologist Herbert Reindell refined the interval training 
concept [1]. The intensity in each interval was carefully controlled by 
heart rate and typically higher than competition pace interspersed by 
short breaks
1940s
Introduction of “fartlek” as a training method
Swedish Gösta Holmer (coach of e.g. Hägg and Anderson) developed 
“fartlek” as a training method [1], an unstructured long-distance run 
in various terrains where periods of fast running are intermixed with 
periods of slower running
1950s
Use of high-volume low intensity running as a basis of middle-dis-
tance running
Gradually reduced volume and more competition-specific speed/inten-
sity towards the competition period
New Zealander Arthur Lydiard (coach of e.g. Snell and Halberg) 
broke with contemporary practice by prescribing a large volume of 
low intensity running to his middle-distance athletes, peppered with 
specific high-intensity training, hill bounding and plyometric training 
[19–21]
The emphasis on high-volume aerobic training shifted towards less vol-
ume and more specific anaerobic and race-specific workouts towards 
the competitive season, which remains the foundation for most mod-
ern training programs. This training model bears great resemblance to 
Matveyev’s traditional training periodization [121]
1960s
Systematic micro-periodization of hard and easy workouts
Oregon and USA track and field coach Bill Bowerman popularized the 
hard/easy principle of running; days of hard workouts (e.g., interval 
training) were systematically alternated with easy days of low-inten-
sive running [53]
1970–1980s
Introduction of the multi-pace training concept
Use of 2–3-day clustering of anaerobic sessions
In the 1970s, Frank Horwill, the founder of the British Milers’ Club, 
formulated and innovated the multi-pace training concept [47]. This 
system involves training at four or five different combinations of paces 
and distances in a 10–14-day cycle. The distances are rotated so that 
over-distance, event-specific and under-distance paces are all covered. 
Horwill’s training philosophy deviates from Lydiard’s, both in terms 
of ~ 50% less weekly running volume, as well as larger amounts of 
anaerobic training throughout most of the macrocycle. This system 
has been utilized by several world-leading middle-distance athletes, 
including Sebastian Coe [54, 59], Said Aouita [24], Hicham El Guer-
rouj [45], Maria Mutola and Kelly Holmes [32]
Another characteristic feature that emerged in British middle-distance 
running in the 1970s and 1980s was the 2–3-day clustering of anaero-
bic sessions (high-intensive intervals, strength, power and plyometric 
training), followed by 1–2 low-intensive (aerobic) training days [47, 
54, 57, 59]. This micro-periodization model involves an alternate tax-
ing of the cardiovascular and neuromuscular systems, also described 
as a reduced form of “crash training”. This philosophy has later 
been used by several world-leading middle-distance athletes [14, 37] 
(Table 6)
2000–2010s
Introduction of the polarized and pyramidical intensity distribution 
concepts
Several acknowledged scientists systematically quantified the training 
of successful endurance athletes in a range of sports and reported a 
“polarized” (i.e., significant proportions of both high- and low-inten-
sity training and a smaller proportion of threshold training) [110, 111] 
or pyramidal (i.e., most training is at low intensity, with gradually 
decreasing proportions of threshold and high-intensity training) inten-
sity distribution [112]. Accordingly, this training organization holds 
true for most of today’s world-leading middle-distance runners
1844
 
T. Haugen et al.
seem to be outweighed by the improved communication 
between coach and athlete that a common scale facilitates 
[123]. The intensity scale outlined here (Table 4) can be 
used as a framework for both scientists and practitioners 
involved in middle-distance running. Still, future training 
studies should aim to verify whether different methods to 
prescribe training will affect resulting training execution and 
adaptation.
Studies of endurance athletes have employed several 
methods of intensity distribution quantification. These are 
either anchored around different running paces, standard-
ized blood lactate ranges, “time-in-zone” heart rate analysis 
based on quantification of the training time spent within dif-
ferent heart rate ranges identified from preliminary threshold 
testing, or the “session goal” approach where each training 
session is nominally allocated to an intensity zone based 
on the intensity of the primary part of the workout [62, 
122–124]. Based on the nature and characteristics of avail-
able best practice training information [19–59], the session 
goal approach was used in this review to quantify the inten-
sity distribution for the analyzed running sessions.
6.2  Training Volume
Most world-leading middle-distance runners train about 
500–600 h per year, although some 800-m runners may 
train for less than 400 h [25, 28, 30, 47, 54, 59]. This train-
ing volume is 40–70% of what has been reported for suc-
cessful endurance athletes in cross-country skiing, biathlon, 
cycling, triathlon, swimming and rowing [110, 112, 127, 
128, 137–143]. This difference is likely explained by the 
fact that running is a weight-bearing locomotion modal-
ity where large muscle groups in the lower limbs perform 
plyometric actions to overcome the vertical and horizontal 
ground reaction forces involved [99, 144]. The lower amount 
of training hours in middle-distance runners than the above-
mentioned sports is mainly due to shorter training sessions 
with higher degree of neuromuscular loading, and not lower 
training frequency. Both 800- and 1500-m runners perform 
approximately 500 training sessions per year [25, 28, 30, 
54, 59], similar to other elite endurance athletes [62, 111, 
112, 127, 128]. After the competitive season, the training 
volume is substantially decreased in the transition period 
when mostly alternative activities and easy runs are per-
formed. Thereafter, the training volume increases gradually, 
reaching a maximum in the mid-to-late preparation phase, 
decreasing again as the competition period approaches. The 
30–40% reduction in training hours from late-preparation 
to competition period is in accordance with world-leading 
athletes in endurance sports such as orienteering, cross-
country skiing and biathlon [111, 112, 127, 128]. However, 
while most of this reduction is related to a decrease/removal 
of cross-training in these sports, middle-distance runners 
Table 4  Intensity scale for elite middle-distance runners
BLa typical blood lactate (normative blood lactate concentration values based on red-cell lysed blood), HR typical heart rate, VO2max maximal oxygen consumption, RPE rating of perceived 
exertion, TTF time to fatigue (single effort), AWD typical accumulated work duration, Int. interval, Rec. typical recovery time (active or passive) between repetitions, prog. progressive, lact. 
prod. lactate production, lact. tol lactate tolerance, hill rep. hill repeats, AT anaerobic threshold, TT time trials, LS long-sprint, MD middle-distance, LD long-distance, LIT low-intensity training, 
MIT moderate intensity training, HIT high-intensity training, VHIT very high-intensity training, SST short-sprint training
a Warm-up is typically performed in zone 1–3, although with shorter duration, while cool downs are typically performed in zone 1–2
b Progressive runs are typically performed in zone 1–3
Scale
BLa
HR
VO2max
RPE
TTF
Race pace
AWD
Int. time
Rec
Training methods
9-zone
5-zone
mmol·L−1
% max
%
6–20
min
min·session−1
min
min
9
SST
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
< 0:08
≤ 60 m
< 1
< 0:08
1–3
Accelerations, flying sprints (alactic)
8
SST
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
0:15
60–120 m
1–3
< 0:15
1–3
Progressive runs or maximal sprints
7
VHIT
> 12
n/a
115–140
19–20
1
120–600 m
3–6
0:15–1:30
3–15
Lact. prod. training, TT, LS competitions, hill rep
6
VHIT
> 12
n/a
100–114
19–20
4
800–1500 m
6–15
0:25–1:30
0:30–3
Lact. tol. training, TT, MD competitions
5
HIT
8.0–12.0
> 93
90–99
18–20
15
3000–5000 m
15–25
1–4
1–3
VO2max int., LD competitions, hill rep
4
HIT
4.0–8.0
88–92
85–89
16–18
30
10 000 m
20–35
2–7
1–3
VO2max int., hill rep
3
MIT
2.5–4.0
83–87
80–84
14–16
60
Half-marathon
20–50
3–10
1–2
AT runs, fartlek, AT int., prog.  runsb
2
LIT
1.5–2.5
73–82
70–79
12–14
120
Marathon
20–90
n/a
n/a
Long run
1
LIT
< 1.5
60–72
55–69
9–12
n/a
n/a
20–150a
n/a
n/a
Recovery run, easy long run
1845
Training and development of world-class middle-distance athletes
reduce the amount of low-intensity running and strength/
power/plyometric training.
Table 5 shows weekly training volume across season peri-
ods for world-class middle-distance runners. While 800-m 
runners typically cover 50–120 km·week−1, 1500-m runners 
cover 120–170 km·week−1 during the mid-to-late prepara-
tion period [10, 16, 17, 22–26, 28–32, 34, 36–41, 43–46, 
49–51, 54, 59, 133]. The difference is explained by fewer 
running kilometers for each session for 800-m athletes, as 
the rate of training sessions are equal for both disciplines. 
More specifically, typical “long-run” sessions for 800- and 
1500-m runners are in the range of 5–10 and 13–17 km, 
respectively. Although the best practice coaching literature 
is limited for female athletes, it is reasonable to assume that 
the ~ 11% slower running velocity in women is compensated 
for by less covered distance to ensure the same running 
duration as for the men. In long-distance running, men and 
women seem to apply the same training duration [62–65]. 
Table 5 should therefore be interpreted accordingly.
Warm-ups and cool downs in conjunction with interval 
training and strength/power/plyometric sessions make up a 
large proportion of the total running volume for 800-m run-
ners, while more training sessions for 1500-m athletes are 
centered around long runs at low to moderate intensity. Inter-
estingly, the difference in running volume between 800- and 
1500-m runners is larger than the difference between 1500- 
and long-distance/marathon runners. World-leading 5–10 
km athletes run 120–200 km·week−1 [10, 62–64], while top-
class marathon runners cover 150–250 km·week−1 [62–64]. 
Based on these running volume distinctions, one could argue 
that 1500-m runners in general are more long-distance than 
middle-distance athletes, although high finishing speed is 
required in slow races [80].
Running accounts for more than 90% of training hours in 
1500-m runners, while the remaining training is typically 
spent on strength/power (core stability, circuits or light 
weights), drills, plyometrics and stretching [23, 24, 28, 31, 
39, 43–45, 49, 64]. Fewer training sessions (70–80%) are 
dominated by running in 800-m runners, as they perform a 
greater amount of strength, power and plyometric training 
[26, 30–32, 36–38, 40, 50, 51].
6.3  Intensity Distribution
Previous studies have shown that elite endurance athletes 
seem to converge on a typical intensity distribution in 
which ~ 80% of annual training sessions are dominated by 
low-intensive work (< 2 mmol·L−1 blood lactate) and ~ 20% 
are dominated by training at or above the anaerobic thresh-
old (e.g., interval training) [9, 17, 123, 124]. While this 
intensity distribution for running sessions also seems to 
apply for world-leading 1500-m athletes [23, 24, 28, 31, 39, 
43–45, 49, 64], corresponding 800-m runners seem to follow 
a 70/30- or 60/40-distribution [26, 30–32, 36–38, 40, 50, 
51]. However, although 800-m runners perform intensive 
training sessions more frequently, total effective interval 
time/distance remain relatively short due to the high inten-
sities with long recovery times between intervals. Hence, 
approximately 90% of all running sessions for 800-m ath-
letes is performed at low intensity based on the time-in-zone 
approach, in line with endurance sports [111, 112, 123].
Overall, 1500-m runners perform longer and more fre-
quent training sessions in zone 1 and 2 (based on our 9-zone 
Table 5  Weekly training 
volume for world-class middle-
distance runners across the 
annual cycle
Short-sprint training (SST) is not included in this analysis, as this is rarely the main goal for an entire 
session in middle-distance runners. The numbers are based on scientific [74, 93] and best practice [2–42] 
literature
LIT low-intensity training, MIT moderate intensity training, HIT high-intensity training, VHIT very high-
intensity training
a Supplementary training (strength, power, plyometric training and stretching) included
b 2–4 weekly sessions in total for MIT, HIT and VHIT
Variable
Early prepara-
tion
Mid-to-late prepa-
ration
Pre-competition
Mid-compe-
tition
800 m
1500 m
800 m
1500 m
800 m
1500 m
800 m
1500 m
Weekly training duration (h)a
8–13
9–13
9–15
10–15
9–14
9–14
8–13
8–13
Weekly training sessions (n)a
6–11
8–12
9–12
10–13
8–11
9–12
7–10
8–11
Weekly running volume (km)
40–80
70–120
70–120
120–170
60–100
100–150
50–80
80–140
Weekly running sessions (n)
4–7
8–12
6–10
10–13
6–10
10–12
6–9
10–12
Weekly LIT sessions (n)
3–6
6–9
3–5
8–11
3–5
7–10
2–5
4–8
Weekly MIT sessions (n)b
1–2
1–2
1–2
1–2
0–1
1–2
0–1
1–2
Weekly HIT sessions (n)b
1–3
0–2
1–3
1–3
0–2
1–3
0–2
1–3
Weekly VHIT sessions (n)b
0–1
n/a
1–2
0–2
1–3
0–2
1–3
1–3
1846
 
T. Haugen et al.
scale) than 800-m runners throughout the training year [10, 
16, 17, 22–26, 28–32, 34, 36–41, 43–46, 48–51, 54, 59]. 
Substantial differences are also present for the more inten-
sive training sessions. More specifically, 1500-m runners 
typically follow a pyramidal intensity distribution, while the 
training pattern in 800-m runners is more clearly polarized. 
Both groups perform 2–4 weekly intensive training sessions 
during the preparation phase. These are typically executed 
in zone 3–5 for 1500-m runners, with a trend towards more 
zone-3 training (in the form of progressive long runs, anaer-
obic threshold runs or interval sessions approximately twice 
a week) over the last 3–4 decades. The intensive training 
sessions for 800-m runners during the preparation phase are 
more evenly distributed across zone 3–6.
The differences in the intensive training sessions between 
800- and 1500-m runners become even more pronounced 
when approaching the competition period. During the late-
preparation and early-competition period, 800-m runners 
typically perform 3–4 weekly intensive sessions in zone 
3–7 [26, 30–32, 36–38, 40, 50, 51]. Zone-6 intervals are 
prioritized at the beginning of this period (1–2 weekly ses-
sions), and then replaced with training in zone 7. Indeed, 
lactate tolerance and lactate production training are charac-
teristic features for middle-distance athletes (800-m runners 
in particular), as such training rarely occurs among world-
leading sprinters [60] or long-distance runners [61–65]. In 
contrast, 1500-m runners maintain their zone-3 training with 
1–2 weekly sessions during the late-preparation and early-
competition period [23, 24, 28, 31, 39, 43–45, 48, 49, 64]. 
Moreover, preparation-phase training for 1500-m runners in 
zone 4 and 5 is replaced with 1–2 weekly lactate tolerance 
training sessions (zone 6) in the late-preparation and early-
competition period [23, 24, 28, 31, 39, 43–45, 48, 49].
Middle-distance runners perform short-sprint training 
(SST; zone 8–9) regularly during the annual cycle, but 
800-m runners perform SST to a larger degree than 1500-m 
runners [22–27, 29–32, 34–54, 57–59]. SST is considered 
a supplement rather than the main goal of separate train-
ing sessions and is typically performed during the last 
part of the warm-up or after easy long runs. It is generally 
assumed that sprint training should be performed without 
accumulation of lactic acid [19–21, 52, 54, 57, 59]. Hence, 
the distances are most commonly in the range of 60–120 m 
(zone 8), sometimes even shorter (30–60 m; zone 9), and 
the time/rest between each repetition is sufficient to ensure 
full recovery. The sprints are typically performed as strides, 
progressive runs or flying sprints, where the peak rate of 
acceleration is reduced to minimize lactate accumulation. 
The technical aspect of running is also highlighted during 
SST sessions [37, 41]. A widespread notion among coaches 
is that MSS is inborn and resistant to training adaptation 
[19–21, 52, 54, 57, 59], and SST is therefore performed to 
minimize the downsides of aerobic conditioning on MSS. 
However, studies have shown that well-trained middle-dis-
tance runners can improve MSS [145, 146]. According to 
best practice literature within sprint training, an intensity 
of ≥ 90–95% of MSS is required to effectively stimulate 
adaptation [60].
In summary, world-class 800- and 1500-m runners 
organize their training quite differently, but with no 
apparent sex differences in intensity distribution within 
the disciplines. Table 6 shows case study examples of typ-
ical training weeks across the annual cycle for an Olym-
pic 800-m champion and a European 1500-m champion. 
We argue that the training of these two athletes reveals 
the main distinctions between typical 800- and 1500-m 
specialists.
6.4  Strength, Power and Plyometric Training
A review of the best practice literature reveals that most 
world-class middle-distance runners perform regular 
strength, power and plyometric training as a supplement 
to their specific running conditioning [22–59]. This train-
ing is typically executed as a combination of (1) core 
strength/stability (static or dynamic sit-ups and back exer-
cises), (2) strength training with machines or free weights 
(e.g., half squats, cleans, lunges, step ups, leg press, leg 
curl, leg extension) without causing significant hyper-
trophy, (3) circuit training with body mass resistance, (4) 
medicine ball exercises, and (5) vertical and horizontal 
multi-jumps on grass, inclines, stairs (e.g., bounding, 
skipping, squat jumps, hobbling, springing) or jumping 
over hurdles. Combinations of running and circuit train-
ing exercises have also been applied (e.g., 8–10 exercises 
with 1 K running in between) [36, 53]. In general, the 
supplementary training is poorly described in terms of 
resistance loading, sets and repetitions, and caution must 
therefore be exercised when drawing conclusions. How-
ever, two main features become apparent after reading 
the best practice literature: more supplementary training 
is performed during the preparation (typically 2–4 times 
per week) than competition (0–2 times per week) period, 
with 800-m runners of both sexes performing such train-
ing more frequently than corresponding 1500-m runners. 
Future studies should aim to concretize more detailed 
recommendations for middle-distance runners regarding 
types of exercises, resistance loading, sets and repetitions.
Based on experimental evidence, adding supplemen-
tary training on 2–3 occasions per week in the form 
of strength, power and plyometric training appears to 
improve running economy, time trial performance and 
MSS in middle- and long-distance runners across a broad 
performance range [4, 147–149]. In contrast, a causal 
1847
Training and development of world-class middle-distance athletes
relationship between core stability, athletic performance 
and injury risk has not been established [150].
7  Tapering
While the training components across the annual cycle of 
world-class middle-distance runners are described con-
siderably more in detail in best practice versus research 
literature, tapering represents an area where more infor-
mation can be obtained from scientific studies. Although 
potential differences in tapering strategies between 800- 
and 1500-m runners cannot be identified based on current 
available information, it is reasonable to assume that the 
training volume is lower and the key workouts are shorter 
and more intensive for 800-m runners during this period.
The general scientific guidelines for a likely effective 
taper in endurance-related sports are a 2- to 3-week period 
incorporating 40–60% reduction in training volume fol-
lowing a progressive non-linear format, while training 
intensity and frequency are maintained or only slightly 
reduced [151–155]. However, although individual differ-
ences are clearly present, tapering length increases with 
competition distance, and approximately 1 week seems 
sufficient for middle-distance athletes [33, 56, 156, 157]. 
Spilsbury and associates reported that elite middle-dis-
tance runners perform three interval training sessions 
on average during the last tapering week [157]. Each of 
these interval sessions are typically executed at race pace 
with a total distance of ~ 2 K. This corresponds to ~ 50% 
of the total interval distance in the preceding weeks of the 
tapering period. It should be noted that a sub-group bias 
may have affected the outcomes in this study, as the Brit-
ish middle-distance sample included twice the number of 
1500-m runners (n = 12) than 800-m runners (n = 6).
According to studies of well-trained endurance athletes, 
a realistic performance goal for the final taper should be 
a competition performance improvement of about 2–3%, 
corresponding to 2–4 and 4–6 s in world-leading 800- and 
1500-m runners, and this is due to positive changes in 
the cardiorespiratory, metabolic, hematological, hormo-
nal, neuromuscular and psychological status of the ath-
letes [151–155]. However, based on annual performance 
changes in world-leading middle-distance contestants 
[87], we argue that the performance gains suggested in 
research literature are likely smaller for athletes of higher 
standards.
8  Conclusions
This review integrated scientific and best practice coach-
ing literature regarding the training and development of 
elite middle-distance performance. To this end, we have 
outlined a framework for specific characteristics (e.g., 
training methods, volume and intensity) and identified 
the training differences between 800- and 1500-m runners 
in detail. Overall, the training of 800-m athletes consists 
of considerably lower running volume, a higher propor-
tion of interval training at or above the anerobic threshold 
and more supplementary work in form of strength, power 
and plyometric training compared to 1500-m runners. 
These features seem to reflect the divide in physiological 
demands separating these two middle-distance disciplines. 
Although there are many studies focusing on middle-dis-
tance running, there is a considerable gap between science 
and best practice in how training principles and methods 
are applied, highlighting the need for future investigations 
employing a more holistic approach. For example, training 
differences and assessment of mechanical and physiologi-
cal capacities of elite middle-distance runners through-
out the training year and over several seasons should be 
observed. Such approaches would establish mechanistic 
connections between training content, changes in perfor-
mance and underlying mechanical and physiological deter-
minants. The conclusions drawn in this review may serve 
as a position statement and provide a point of departure for 
forthcoming studies regarding training and development 
of elite middle-distance runners.
1848
 
T. Haugen et al.
Table 6  Case study examples of training weeks for an Olympic 800-m champion and European 1500-m champion across the annual cycle
Day
800-m champion (Vebjørn Rodal)
1500-m champion (Arturo Casado)
Mid-to-late preparation period
Mon
M: 8 km long run (z1–2) + 20 min drills
E: 3–4 km warm-up (z1–2) + stretching + 10 min drills + 5 × 100 m strides 
(z8) + 8 × 1000 m VO2max intervals (z4), rec. 1 min + 1–2 km cool down 
(z1) + 4 × 100 m strides (z8)
M: 14 km long run (z1)
E: 10 km long run (z1)
Tue
M: Rest
E: Warm-up with basketball + stretching + 10 min drills + 5 × 100 m strides 
(z8) + 3 × (3 × 4) vertical & (3 × 5) horizontal jumps + 20 × 20–75 steps 
of running and jumping in stairs with walk down rec. and 6 min set-
break + core exercises 20 min
M: 14 km long run (z1) + Drills + Hurdles technique + 10 × 400 m lactate toler-
ance training (z6), rec. 1 min + 1 km cool down (z1)
E: 10 km long run (z1)
Wed
M: 8 km long run (z1–2) + 5 × 100 m strides (z8) + stretching
E: 4 km warm-up (z1–2) + 10 min drills + 5 × 80 m strides (z8) + 2 × 10 × 
200m lactate tolerance training (z6), rec. 1 min and set-break 6 min + 1–2 
km cool down (z1) + stretching
M: 3 km warm-up (z1) + Strength training + 14 km long run (z1) + 18 × 100 m 
hill repeats (z7/8), rec. easy jog back + 3 km cool down (z1) + plyometrics
E: Rest
Thu
M: 3 km warm-up (z1–2) + plyometrics and strength training without weights 
2 × 10 exercises (20/20 s work/recovery)
E: 4 km warm-up (z1–2) + stretching + 10 min drills + 5 × 100 m strides 
(z8) + 10 × 1 min VO2max intervals (z5), rec. 1 min + 1 km cool down 
(z1) + 4 × 100 m strides (z8)
M: 4 km warm-up (z1) + 10 × 1000 m VO2max intervals (z4), rec. 1:30 min + 3 
km cool down (z1)
E: 10 km long run (z1)
Fri
M: Rest
E: 6 km warm-up (z1–2) + stretching + 10 min drills + 5 × 100 m strides 
(z8) + 3 × 200 m lactate production training (z7) and 3 × 100 m sprint (z8), 
rec. 4 min and set-break 8 min + 1 km (z1)
M: 3 km warm-up (z1) + Strength training + 16 km long run 
(z1/2) + drills + 6 × 100 m strides (z8)
E: Rest
Sat
M: 3 km warm-up (z1–2) + stretching + 10 min drills + 5 × 100 m strides 
(z8) + 90 min. explosive weight training
E: 12 km progressive run (z1–3)
M: 4 km warm-up (z1) + 2 × 6000 m anaerobic threshold intervals (z3), rec. 2 
min + 3 km cool down (z1)
E: Rest
Sun
M: 2 h long run (z1)
E: Rest
M: 12 km long run (z1)
E: Rest
Weekly total of ~ 110 km (75% LIT, 17% HIT, 4% VHIT and 4% SST)
Weekly total of ~ 152 km (81% LIT, 8% MIT, 7% HIT, 3% VHIT and 1% SST)
Mon
M: 6 km warm-up (z1–2) + 20 min. drills
E: 4 km warm-up (z1–2) + 10 min. drills + 5 × 100 m strides (z8) + 2 × 10 × 
200m lactate tolerance training (z6), rec. 1 min and set-break 6 min + 1–2 
km cool down (z1)
M: 14 km long run (z1) + Drills + Hurdles technique + 15 × 200 m lactate toler-
ance training (z6) with 100 m easy jog in between (each 200 m in 29 s on 
average + 1 km cool down (z1)
E: 10 km long run (z1)
Tue
M: 12 km long run (z1)
E: Warm-up with basketball + stretching + 10 min drills + 5 × 100 m strides 
(z8) + 3 × (3 × 4) vertical and (3 × 5) horizontal jumps + 15 × 20–75 steps of 
running and jumping in stairs with walk down rec. and 6 min. set-break + 20 
min. core exercises
M: 3 km warm-up (z1) + Strength training + 5 km (z1) + Fartlek (5, 4, 3, 2, 3 
and 2 min. running in z3 with easy jog z1–2 in between corresponding to half 
the repetition time) + 1 km cool down (z1)
E: 10 km long run (z1)
Pre-competition period
Wed
M: 6 km warm-up (z1–2) + 4 × 100 m strides (z8) + stretching
E: 4 km warm-up (z1–2) + 10 min drills + 6 × 100 m strides (z8) + 4 × 300 m 
and 4 × 100 m lactate production training (z7), rec. 4 min and set-break 8 
min + 1 km cool down (z1) + stretching
M: 14 km long run (z1) + 12 × 100 m hill repeats (z7/8), rec. easy jog back + 3 
km cool down (z1) + plyometrics
E: Rest
1849
Training and development of world-class middle-distance athletes
Table 6  (continued)
Day
800-m champion (Vebjørn Rodal)
1500-m champion (Arturo Casado)
Thu
M: 5 km warm-up (z1) + 20 min drills
E: 4 km warm-up (z1–2) + 10 min drills + 5 × 100 m strides (z8) + 10 × 1 min 
VO2max intervals on treadmill (z5), rec. 1 min + 1–2 km cool down (z1)
M: 6 km warm-up (z1) + drills + 5 × 1200 m VO2max intervals (z5), rec. 3 
min + 1 km cool down (z1)
E: 10 km long run (z1)
Fri
M: Rest
E: 3 km warm-up (z1–2) + stretching + 10 min drills + 5 × 100 m strides 
(z8) + 3 × (150–120–100 m) lactate production training (z7), rec. 3 min and 
set-break 6 min + 1–2 km cool down (z1)
M: 3 km warm-up (z1) + Strength training + 16 km long run (z1) + drills + 3 × 3 
× 60 m sprints (z8), rec. walk back and set-break 3 min
E: Rest
Sat
M: 3 km warm-up (z1–2) + plyometrics and strength training without weights 
2 × 10 exercises (20/20 s work/recovery)
E: 4 km warm-up (z1–2) + 3 × 600 m, 3 × 400 m and 3 × 200 m lactate 
tolerance training (z6), rec. 4 min and set-break 10 min + 1 km cool down 
(z1) + stretching
M: 4 km warm-up (z1) + 8 km AT run (z3) + 4 km cool down (z1)
E: Rest
Sun
M: 15–20 km long run (z1) on road or treadmill
E: Rest
M: 14 km long run (z1)
E: Rest
Weekly total of ~ 100 km (77% LIT, 10% HIT, 10% VHIT and 3% SST)
Weekly total of ~ 147 km (82% LIT, 11% MIT, 4% HIT, 2% VHIT and 1% SST)
Competition period
Mon
M: 5 km warm-up (z1–2) + 4 × 100 m strides (z8) + stretching
E: 3 km warm-up (z1–2) + 10 min drills + 5 × 100 m strides (z8) + 200–400–
600–600–400–200 m lactate tolerance training (z6) rec. 1–3 min + 1 km cool 
down (z1) + stretching
M: 6 km warm-up (z1) + drills + 3 × 4 × 200 m lactate tolerance training (at 25 s 
on average; z6), rec 1 min and set-break 3 min + 1 km cool down (z1)
E: 6 km recovery run (z1)
Tue
M: Rest
E: 6 km warm-up (z1–2) + 10 min drills + 4 × 4 × 4 vertical and 6 × 30 m hori-
zonal jumps, rec. 1 min + 10 × 20–30 jumps in stairs with walk down rec
M: 6 km AT run at 3:10 min. per km (z3) + 6 km fartlek [4 × (1 km in 3 min 
and 500 m in 1:40 min), 18:40 in total (z3)] + 2 km (z1)
E: Rest
Wed
M: 8 km long run (z1–2) + 4 × 100 m strides (z8)
E: 3 km warm-up (z1–2) + 10 min drills + 5 × 100 m strides (z8) + 2 × 5 × 200 
m lactate tolerance/production training (z6–7), rec. 2 min and set-break 10 
min + 1 km cool down (z1)
M: 6 km warm-up (z1) + drills + 4 × 1000 m VO2max intervals (2:30 min. on 
average, z5), rec. 3 min. + 2 km cool down (z1)
E: 6 km recovery run (z1)
Thu
M: Rest
E: 3 km warm-up (z1) + 10 min drills + 5 × 100 m strides (z8) + 5 × 100 m 
near-maximal sprints (z8), 1–2 min rec. + plyometrics and strength training 
without weights 20 min
M: 12 km long run (z1) + Strength training + drills + 6 × 100 m strides (z8)
E: Rest
Fri
M: Rest
E: 3 km warm-up (z1–2) + 10 min drills + 4 × 100 m strides + 2 × 400 m lactate 
production training (z7), rec. 10 min + 1–2 km cool down (z1)
M: 6 km warm-up (z1) + drills + 3 × 4 × 300 m lactate tolerance training, each 
run at 40 s on average (z6), rec. 1 and set-break 3 min + 1 km cool down (z1)
E: 6 km recovery run (z1)
Sat
M: 5 km warm-up + 10 min drills + 4 × 100 m strides (z8)
E: 4 km warm-up (z1–3) + drills, strides and speed work + 800 m competi-
tion + 1–2 km cool down (z1)
M: 15 km long run (z1) + drills + 6 × 100 m strides (z8)
E: Rest
Sun
M: 8 km recovery run (z1)
E: Rest
M: 6 km warm up (z1) + drills + 8 × 150 m lactate production training with 4 kg 
ballast (at 16–17 s on average; z7), rec. 3 min. + 1 km cool down (z1)
E: 6 km recovery run (z1)
Weekly total of ~ 63 km (84% LIT, 10% VHIT and 6% SST)
Weekly total of ~ 106 km (77% LIT, 11% MIT, 4% HIT, 7% VHIT and 1% SST)
1850
 
T. Haugen et al.
Acknowledgements The authors want to thank Vebjørn Rodal, Arturo 
Casado, Arturo Martín-Tagarro, Leif Inge Tjelta and Ørjan Madsen for 
valuable inputs and contributions during the process.
Declarations 
Funding Open access funding provided by Kristiania University Col-
lege. No sources of funding were used to assist in the preparation of 
this article.
Conflict of interest Thomas Haugen, Øyvind Sandbakk, Eystein Enok-
sen, Stephen Seiler, and Espen Tønnessen declare that they have no 
conflicts of interest relevant to the content of this review.
Availability of data and materials All data and materials support the 
published claims and comply with field standards.
Code availability Not applicable.
Author contributions TH, SS, ØS and ET planned the review. TH and 
ET retrieved the relevant literature. All authors (TH, SS, ØS, EE and 
ET) were engaged in drafting and revising the manuscript. All authors 
read and approved the final version of the manuscript.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri-
bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta-
tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long 
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, 
provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes 
were made. The images or other third party material in this article are 
included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated 
otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in 
the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not 
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will 
need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a 
copy of this licence, visit http:// creat iveco mmons. org/ licen ses/ by/4. 0/.
References
 1. Quercetani RL. World history of long distance running: 1880–
2002. Track events: men & women. Prairie Striders Library Col-
lection 2002. 
 2. Thibault V, Guillaume M, Berthelot G, Helou NE, Schaal K, 
Quinquis L, Nassif H, Tafflet M, Escolano S, Hermine O, Tous-
saint JF. Women and men in sport performance: the gender gap 
has not evolved since 1983. J Sports Sci Med. 2010;9:214–23.
 3. Bachero-Mena B, Pareja-Blanco F, Rodríguez-Rosell D, 
Yáñez-García JM, Mora-Custodio R, González-Badillo JJ. 
Relationships between sprint, jumping and strength abilities, 
and 800 m performance in male athletes of national and inter-
national levels. J Hum Kinet. 2017;58:187–95.
 4. Balsalobre-Fernández C, Santos-Concejero J, Grivas GV. 
Effects of strength training on running economy in highly 
trained runners: a systematic review with meta-analysis of 
controlled trials. J Strength Cond Res. 2016;30:2361–8.
 5. Brandon LJ. Physiological factors associated with middle dis-
tance running performance. Sports Med. 1995;19:268–77.
 6. Billat LV. Interval training for performance: a scientific and 
empirical practice. Special recommendations for middle- and 
Zone 1 running was performed at ~ 3:40 min·km−1 for Casado and ~ 3:55 min·km−1 for Rodal. Drills for Rodal consisted of 2–3 × 30 m ankle triplings, high knees, butt kicks, straight-leg bounce 
and other running-specific exercises. Drills for Casado consisted of 2 × 40 m high knees, butt kicks, straight-leg bounce, forward skip, double leg bounce, forward lung and brief sprinting. Hur-
dle technique for Casado consisted of four exercises over 6–8 hurdles with 1–2 steps in between. Strength training for Rodal consisted of explosive full and half squats, step-ups for each leg, 
bench flies, arm-movement simulations and toe lift at 30–70% of one repetition maximum, in addition to running-specific core exercises without weights. Strength training for Casado consisted 
of 3 × (6 × full squat, dead lift, step-ups for each leg, bench press at 50–70% of one repetition maximum, plus other exercises such as hamstring curls, calf raises and core strength. Stairwork 
for Rodal consisted of high-frequency running, one-leg and two-leg jumps. Plyometrics for Casado consisted of 2 × 50 m one-leg bounding for each leg and 2 × 50 m two-leg bounding on grass. 
Vertical plymetrics for Rodal consisted of hurdle jumps, while horizontal plyometrics consisted of one-leg jumps and various steps/”sprunglauf” exercises. The training program for Casado was 
designed by Arturo Martín-Tagarro
M morning session, E evening session, z training zone (see Table 4), AT anaerobic threshold
Table 6  (continued)
1851
Training and development of world-class middle-distance athletes
long-distance running. Part I: aerobic interval training. Sports 
Med. 2001;31:13–31.
 7. Billat LV. Interval training for performance: a scientific and 
empirical practice. Special recommendations for middle- and 
long-distance running. Part II: anaerobic interval training. 
Sports Med. 2001;31:75–90.
 8. Ingham SA, Whyte GP, Pedlar C, Bailey DM, Dunman N, 
Nevill AM. Determinants of 800-m and 1500-m running per-
formance using allometric models. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 
2008;40:345–50.
 9. Ingham SA, Fudge BW, Pringle JS. Training distribution, 
physiological profile, and performance for a male international 
1500-m runner. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2012;7:193–5.
 10. Kenneally M, Casado A, Gomez-Ezeiza J, Santos-Concejero J. 
Training intensity distribution analysis by race pace vs. physi-
ological approach in world-class middle- and long-distance 
runners. Eur J Sport Sci. 2020:1–23 (Online ahead of print). 
 11. Padilla S, Bourdin M, Barthélémy JC, Lacour JR. Physiological 
correlates of middle-distance running performance. A com-
parative study between men and women. Eur J Appl Physiol 
Occup Physiol. 1992;65:561–6.
 12. Sandford GN, Kilding AE, Ross A, Laursen PB. Maximal 
sprint speed and the anaerobic speed reserve domain: the 
untapped tools that differentiate the world’s best male 800 m 
runners. Sports Med. 2019;49:843–52.
 13. Sandford G, Stellingwerff T. Question your categories: the 
misunderstood complexity of middle-distance running profiles 
with implications for research methods and application. Front 
Sports Act Living. 2019;1:28.
 14. Sandford GN, Rogers SA, Sharma AP, Kilding AE, Ross A, 
Laursen PB. Implementing anaerobic speed reserve testing 
in the field: Validation of vVO2max prediction from 1500-m 
race performance in elite middle-distance runners. Int J Sports 
Physiol Perform. 2019;14:1147–50.
 15. Sandford GN, Allen SV, Kilding AE, Ross A, Laursen PB. 
Anaerobic speed reserve: a key component of elite male 800-m 
running. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2019;14:501–8.
 16. Tjelta LI. A longitudinal case study of the training of the 
2012 European 1500 m track champion. Int J Appl Sports Sci. 
2013;25:11–8.
 17. Tjelta LI. Three Norwegian brothers all European 1500 
m champions: what is the secret? Int J Sport Sci Coach. 
2019;14:694–700.
 18. Krüger A. Training theory and why Roger Bannister was the 
first four-minute miler. Sport Hist. 2006;26:305–24.
 19. Lydiard A, Gilmour G. Running to the top. Meyer & Meyer; 
1997.
 20. Lydiard A. Running with Lydiard: greatest running coach of 
all time. 3rd ed. Meyer & Meyer Sport; 2017.
 21. Livingstone K. Healthy intelligent training: the proven principles 
of Arthur Lydiard. Meyer & Meyer Fachverlag und Buchhandel 
GmbH; 2010.
 22. Watman M. Peter Elliott training program. https:// www. runne 
rprog ram. com/ produ ct/ peter- ellio tt- train ing- progr am/. Accessed 
1 Aug 2020.
 23. Kim McDonald training system. https:// www. runne rprog ram. 
com/ produ ct/ kim- mcdon ald- train ing- system/. Accessed 1 Aug 
2020.
 24. Said Aouita training program. https:// www. runne rprog ram. com/ 
produ ct/ said- aouita- train ing- progr am/. Accessed 1 Aug 2020.
 25. Lewandowski T. Marcin Lewandowski 800m training program. 
https:// www. runne rprog ram. com/ produ ct/ marcin- lewan dowski- 
800m- train ing- progr am/. Accessed 1 Aug 2020.
 26. LaBadie L. Clayton Murphy from 1:54 to 1:42 800 m. https:// 
www. runne rprog ram. com/ produ ct/ clayt on- murphy- from- 154- to- 
142- 800m- by- lee- labad ie/. Accessed 1 Aug 2020.
 27. Sandrock M. Running with the legends: training and racing 
insights from 21 great runners. Hum Kinet. 1996. 
 28. John Walker training program. https:// www. runne rprog ram. com/ 
produ ct/ john- walker- train ing- progr am/. Accessed 1 Aug 2020.
 29. Jim Ryun training by Bob Timmons. https:// www. runne rprog 
ram. com/ produ ct/ jim- ryun- train ing- by- bob- timmo ns/. Accessed 
1 Aug 2020.
 30. Nick Symmonds 2012 Olympic training log. https:// www. runne 
rprog ram. com/ produ ct/ nick- symmo nds- 2012- olymp ic- train ing- 
log/. Accessed 1 Aug 2020.
 31. Genzebe Dibaba training by Jama Aden. https:// www. runne rprog 
ram. com/ produ ct/ genze be- dibaba- train ing- jama- aden/. Accessed 
1 Aug 2020.
 32. Margo Jennings training philosophy. https:// www. runne 
rprog ram. com/ produ ct/ margo- jenni ngs- train ing- philo sophy/. 
Accessed 1 Aug 2020.
 33. Joe Vigil training philosophy. https:// www. runne rprog ram. com/ 
produ ct/ joe- vigil- train ing- philo sophy/. Accessed 1 Aug 2020.
 34. Steve Ovett training by Harry Wilson. https:// www. runne rprog 
ram. com/ produ ct/ harry- wilson- train ing- philo sophy/. Accessed 
1 Aug 2020.
 35. Vin Lananna training middle and long distance. https:// www. 
runne rprog ram. com/ produ ct/ vin- lanan na- train ing- middle- long- 
dista nce/. Accessed 1 Aug 2020.
 36. Joaquim Cruz training by Luiz De Oliveira. https:// www. runne 
rprog ram. com/ produ ct/ luiz- de- olive ira- train ing- system- 2/. 
Accessed 1 Aug 2020.
 37. Gianni Ghidini training philosophy. https:// www. runne rprog ram. 
com/ produ ct/ gianni- ghidi ni- train ing- philo sophy/. Accessed 1 
Aug 2020.
 38. Alberto Juantorena Training Log (1971–1976). https:// www. 
runne rprog ram. com/ produ ct/ alber to- juant orena- train ing- log- 
1971- 1972/. Accessed 1 Aug 2020.
 39. Martin Liquori conditioning of elite runners. https:// www. runne 
rprog ram. com/ produ ct/ martin- liquo ri- condi tioni ng- of- elite- 
runne rs/. Accessed 1 Aug 2020.
 40. Michael Rimmer training program. https:// www. runne rprog 
ram. com/ produ ct/ micha el- rimmer- train ing- progr am/. Accessed 
1 Aug 2020.
 41. Sifan Hassan training program. https:// www. runne rprog ram. com/ 
produ ct/ sifan- hassan- train ing- by- honore- hoedt/. Accessed 1 Aug 
2020.
 42. Steve Magness training philosophy. https:// www. runne rprog ram. 
com/ produ ct/ steve- magne ss- train ing- philo sophy/. Accessed 1 
Aug 2020.
 43. Natalia Rodriguez training program. https:// www. runne rprog ram. 
com/ produ ct/ natal ia- rodri guez- train ing- progr am/. Accessed 1 
Aug 2020.
 44. Nick Willis training—the road to Athens. https:// www. runne 
rprog ram. com/ produ ct/ nick- willis- train ing- road- athens/. 
Accessed 1 Aug 2020.
 45. The Moroccan athletics training system – El Guerrouj case. 
https:// www. runne rprog ram. com/ produ ct/ moroc can- athle tics- 
train ing- system- el- guerr ouj- case/. Accessed 1 Aug 2020.
 46. Taoufik Makhloufi training program. https:// www. runne 
rprog ram. com/ produ ct/ taoufi k- makhl oufi- train ing- progr am/. 
Accessed 1 Aug 2020.
 47. Frank Horwill training philosophy. https:// www. runne rprog 
ram. com/ produ ct/ frank- horwi ll- train ing- philo sophy/. Accessed 
1 Aug 2020.
 48. Nic Bideau training philosophy. https:// www. runne rprog ram. 
com/ produ ct/ nic- bideau- train ing- philo sophy/. Accessed 1 Aug 
2020.
1852
 
T. Haugen et al.
 49. Silas Kiplagat training program by Renato Canova. https:// 
www. runne rprog ram. com/ produ ct/ silas- kipla gat- train ing- progr 
am- renato- canova/. Accessed 1 Aug 2020.
 50. David Rudisha training program. https:// www. sweat elite. co/ 
david- rudis ha- train ing- progr am/. Accessed 1 Aug 2020.
 51. Coach Colm and the training of David Rudisha. https:// www. 
runne rstri be. com/ expert- advice/ coach- colm- and- the- train ing- 
of- david- rudis ha/. Accessed 1 Aug 2020.
 52. Sunderland D. High performance middle distance running. The 
Crowood Press Ltd; 2005.
 53. Bowerman B. High performance training for track and field. 
Champaign: Leisure Press; 1991.
 54. Coe P. Winning running: successful 800 m & 1500 m racing 
and training. Crowood Press, 1996.
 55. Davis J. Modern training and physiology for middle and long-
distance runners. Runn Writ. 2013.
 56. Vigil JI. Road to the top: a systematic approach to training 
distance runners. 1st ed. Morning Star Communications; 1995.
 57. Watts D, Wilson H, Horwill F. The complete middle distance 
runner. 4th ed. David & Charles, 1987.
 58. Daniels J. Daniel’s running formula. 3rd ed. Human Kinetics; 
2013.
 59. Martin DE, Coe PN. Better training for distance runners. 2nd 
ed. Human Kinetics Publishers; 1997.
 60. Haugen T, Seiler S, Sandbakk Ø, Tønnessen E. The training 
and development of elite sprint performance: an integration 
of scientific and best practice literature. Sports Med Open. 
2019;5:44.
 61. Casado A, Hanley B, Santos-Concejero J, Ruiz-Pérez LM. 
World-class long-distance running performances are best pre-
dicted by volume of easy runs and deliberate practice of short-
interval and tempo runs. J Strength Cond Res. 2019 (Online 
ahead of print).
 62. Billat VL, Demarle A, Slawinski J, Paiva M, Koralsztein JP. 
Physical and training characteristics of top-class marathon run-
ners. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33:2089–97.
 63. Billat V, Lepretre PM, Heugas AM, Laurence MH, Salim D, 
Koralsztein JP. Training and bioenergetic characteristics in 
elite male and female Kenyan runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 
2003;35:297–304.
 64. Tjelta LI. The training of international level distance runners. Int 
J Sports Sci Coach. 2016;11:122–34.
 65. Stellingwerff T. Case study: Nutrition and training periodization 
in three elite marathon runners. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 
2012;22:392–400.
 66. Haugen T. Key success factors for merging sport science and best 
practice. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2019 (Online ahead of 
print).
 67. Rabadán M, Díaz V, Calderón FJ, Benito PJ, Peinado AB, Maf-
fulli N. Physiological determinants of specialty of elite middle- 
and long-distance runners. J Sports Sci. 2011;29:975–82.
 68. de Koning JJ, Noordhof DA, Uitslag TP, Galiart RE, Dodge 
C, Foster C. An approach to estimating gross efficiency dur-
ing high-intensity exercise. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 
2013;8:682–4.
 69. Noordhof DA, Mulder RC, Malterer KR, Foster C, de Koning 
JJ. The decline in gross efficiency in relation to cycling time-
trial length. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2015;10:64–70.
 70. Boileau RA, Mayhew JL, Riner WF, Lussier L. Physiological 
characteristics of elite middle and long distance runners. Can 
J Appl Sports Sci. 1982;7:167–72.
 71. Arrese AL, Izquierdo DM, Urdiales DM. A review of the maxi-
mal oxygen uptake values necessary for different running per-
formance levels. New Stud Athl. 2005;20:7–20.
 72. Sandbakk Ø, Solli GS, Holmberg HC. Sex differences in 
world-record performance: the influence of sport discipline 
and competition duration. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 
2018;13:2–8.
 73. Haugen T, Paulsen G, Seiler S, Sandbakk Ø. New records in 
human power. Invited review. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 
2018;13:678–86.
 74. Haugen T, McGhie D, Sandbakk Ø, Ettema G. Sprint running: 
from fundamental mechanics to practice—a review. Eur J Appl 
Physiol. 2019;119:1273–87.
 75. Slawinski J, Termoz N, Rabita G, Guilhem G, Dorel S, Morin 
JB, Samozino P. How 100-m event analyses improve our 
understanding of world-class men’s and women’s sprint per-
formance. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2017;27:45–54.
 76. Haugen T, Breitschädel F, Seiler S. Sprint mechanical variables 
in elite athletes: are force-velocity profiles sport specific or 
individual? PLoS ONE. 2019;14:e0215551.
 77. Mero A, Komi PV, Gregor RJ. Biomechanics of sprint running. 
A review. Sports Med. 1992;13:376–92.
 78. Haugen T, Danielsen J, Alnes LO, McGhie D, Sandbakk O, 
Ettema G. On the importance of “front-side mechanics” in ath-
letics sprinting. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2018;13:420–7.
 79. Casado A, Hanley B, Jiménez-Reyes P, Renfree A. Pacing pro-
files and tactical behaviors of elite runners. J Sport Health Sci. 
2020;S2095–2546(20):30077–86.
 80. Bellinger P, Derave W, Lievens E, Kennedy B, Arnold B, Rice 
H, Minahan C. Determinants of last lap speed in paced and 
maximal 1500-m time trials. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2020 (Online 
ahead of print).
 81. Blondel N, Berthoin S, Billat V, Lensel G. Relationship 
between run times to exhaustion at 90, 100, 120, and 140% of 
vVO2max and velocity expressed relatively to critical velocity 
and maximal velocity. Int J Sports Med. 2001;22:27–33.
 82. Haugen T, Buchheit M. Sprint running performance monitor-
ing: methodological and practical considerations. Sports Med. 
2016;46:641–56.
 83. Haugen T, Breitschädel F, Samozino P. Power-force-velocity 
profiling of sprinting athletes: methodological and practical 
considerations when using timing gates. J Strength Cond Res. 
2018;119:465–73.
 84. Malina RM, Bouchard C, Bar-Or O. Growth, maturation and 
physical activity. 2nd ed. Champaign: Human Kinetics; 2004.
 85. Ganse B, Ganse U, Dahl J, Gegens H. Linear decrease in ath-
letic performance during the human life span. Front Physiol. 
2018;9:1100.
 86. Tønnessen E, Svendsen I, Olsen IC, Guttormsen A, Haugen 
T. Performance development in adolescent track and field ath-
letes according to age, sex and sport discipline. PLoS ONE. 
2015;10:e0129014.
 87. Haugen T, Solberg PA, Morán-Navarro R, Breitschädel F, Hop-
kins W, Foster C. Peak age and performance progression in 
world-class track-and-field athletes. Int J Sports Physiol Per-
form. 2018;13:1122–9.
 88. Hollings SC, Hopkins WG, Hume PA. Age at peak performance 
of successful track and field athletes. Int J Sports Sci Coach. 
2014;9:651–62.
 89. Allen SV, Hopkins WG. Age of peak competitive performance of 
elite athletes: a systematic review. Sports Med. 2015;45:1431–41.
 90. Berthelot G, Len S, Hellard P, Tafflet M, Guillaume M, Vollmer 
JC, Gager B, Quinquis L, Marc A, Toussaint JF. Exponential 
growth combined with exponential decline explains lifetime 
performance evolution in individual and human species. Age. 
2012;34:1001–9.
 91. Larsen HB, Sheel AW. The Kenyan runners. Scand J Med Sci 
Sports. 2015;25:110–8.
 92. Noble TJ, Chapman RF. Elite African marathoners specialize 
earlier than elite non-African marathoners. Int J Sports Physiol 
Perform. 2017;10:1–19.
1853
Training and development of world-class middle-distance athletes
 93. Scott RA, Georgiades E, Wilson RH, Goodwin WH, Wolde B, 
Pitsiladis YP. Demographic characteristics of elite Ethiopian 
endurance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003;35:1727–32.
 94. Ford PR, Ward P, Hodges NJ, Williams AM. The role of delib-
erate practice and play in career progression in sport: the early 
engagement hypothesis. High Abil Stud. 2009;20:65–75.
 95. Hopkins WG. Competitive performance of elite track and field 
athletes. Variability and smallest worthwhile enhancements. 
Sportscience. 2005;9:17–20.
 96. Harre D. Trainingslehre: einführung in die allgemeine Trainings-
methodik. Berlin: Sportverlag; 1973.
 97. Yakovlev NN. Sportbiochemie. Sportmedizinische Schriftenreihe 
Nr. 14. Barth, Leipzig; 1977.
 98. Kraemer WJ, Adams K, Cafarelli E, Dudley GA, Dooly C, Fei-
genbaum MS, et al. American College of Sports Medicine posi-
tion stand. Progression models in resistance training for healthy 
adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2002;34:364–80.
 99. Paquette MR, Napier C, Willy RW, Stellingwerff T. Moving 
beyond weekly “distance”: optimizing quantification of training 
load in runners. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2020;50:564–9.
 100. Renfree A. Performance data: less is more? Sport Exerc Sci. 
2000;66:20–1.
 101. Bertelsen ML, Hulme A, Petersen J, Brund RK, Sørensen H, 
Finch CF, Parner ET, Nielsen RO. A framework for the eti-
ology of running-related injuries. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 
2017;27:1170–80.
 102. Videbaek S, Bueno AM, Nielsen RO, Rasmussen S. Incidence of 
running-related injuries per 1000 h of running in different types 
of runners: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med. 
2015;45:1017–26.
 103. Mujika I, Sharma AP, Stellingwerff T. Contemporary periodiza-
tion of altitude training for elite endurance athletes: a narrative 
review. Sports Med. 2019;49:1651–69.
 104. Flaherty G, O’Connor R, Johnston N. Altitude training for elite 
endurance athletes: a review for the travel medicine practitioner. 
Travel Med Infect Dis. 2016;14:200–11.
 105. Fudge BW, Pringle JS, Maxwell NS, Turner G, Ingham SA, Jones 
AM. Altitude training for elite endurance performance: a 2012 
update. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2012;11:148–54.
 106. Sale D, MacDougall D. Specificity in strength training: a review 
for the coach and athlete. Can J Appl Sport Sci. 1981;6:87–92.
 107. Buchheit M, Laursen PB. High-intensity interval training, 
solutions to the programming puzzle. Part I: cardiopulmonary 
emphasis. Sports Med. 2013;43:313–38.
 108. Buchheit M, Laursen PB. High-intensity interval training, solu-
tions to the programming puzzle. Part II: Anaerobic energy, 
neuromuscular load and practical applications. Sports Med. 
2013;43:927–54.
 109. Barnes KR, Kilding AE. Strategies to improve running economy. 
Sports Med. 2015;45:37–56.
 110. Fiskerstrand A, Seiler KS. Training and performance character-
istics among Norwegian international rowers 1970–2001. Scand 
J Med Sci Sports. 2004;14:303–10.
 111. Tønnessen E, Svendsen I, Rønnestad B, Hisdal J, Haugen T, 
Seiler S. The annual training periodization of 8 World Champi-
ons in orienteering. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2015;10:29–38.
 112. Tønnessen E, Sylta Ø, Haugen T, Hem E, Svendsen I, Seiler 
S. The road to gold: training and peaking characteristics in the 
year prior to a gold medal endurance performance. PLoS ONE. 
2014;9:e101796.
 113. Loy SF, Hoffmann JJ, Holland GJ. Benefits and practical use of 
cross-training in sports. Sports Med. 1995;19:1–8.
 114. Foster C. Monitoring training in athletes with reference to over-
training syndrome. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1998;30:1164–8.
 115. Gaskill SE, Serfass RC, Bacharach DW, Kelly JM. Responses 
to training in cross-country skiers. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 
1999;31:1211–7.
 116. Vollaard NB, Constantin-Teodosiu D, Fredriksson K, Rooyackers 
O, Jansson E, Greenhaff PL, et al. Systematic analysis of adap-
tations in aerobic capacity and submaximal energy metabolism 
provides a unique insight into determinants of human aerobic 
performance. J Appl Physiol. 2009;106:1479–86.
 117. Sylta Ø, Tønnessen E, Hammarstrøm D, Danielsen J, Skovereng 
K, Ravn T, et al. The effect of different high-intensity periodiza-
tion models on endurance adaptations. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 
2016;48:2165–74.
 118. Bellinger P, Desbrow B, Derave W, Lievens E, Irwin C, Saba-
pathy S, Kennedy B, Craven J, Pennell E, Rice H, Minahan 
C. Muscle fiber typology is associated with the incidence of 
overreaching in response to overload training. J Appl Physiol. 
2020;129:823–36.
 119. Kiely J. Periodization paradigms in the 21st century: evidence-led 
or tradition-driven? Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2012;7:242–50.
 120. Herzog W. Running slow or running fast; that is the question: 
the merits of high-intensity interval training. J Sport Health Sci. 
2017;6(1):48.
 121. Matveyev LP. Periodisierung des sportlichen Trainings. 2nd ed. 
Berlin: Bartels & Wernitz; 1975.
 122. Seiler S, Tønnessen E. Intervals, thresholds, and long slow dis-
tance: the role of intensity and duration in endurance training. 
Sportscience. 2009;13:32–53.
 123. Seiler S. What is best practice for training intensity and duration 
distribution in endurance athletes? Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 
2010;5:276–91.
 124. Stöggl TL, Sperlich B. The training intensity distribution 
among well-trained and elite endurance athletes. Front Physiol. 
2015;6:295.
 125. Hellard P, Avalos-Fernandes M, Lefort G, Pla R, Mujika I, 
Toussaint JF, Pyne DB. Elite swimmers’ training patterns in 
the 25 weeks prior to their season’s best performances: insights 
into periodization from a 20-years cohort. Front Physiol. 
2019;10:363.
 126. Mujika I, Chatard JC, Busso T, Geyssant A, Barale F, Lacoste 
L. Effects of training on performance in competitive swimming. 
Can J Appl Physiol. 1995;20:395–406.
 127. Solli GS, Tønnessen E, Sandbakk Ø. The training characteristics 
of the world’s most successful female cross-country skier. Front 
Physiol. 2017;8:1069.
 128. Sandbakk Ø, Holmberg HC. Physiological capacity and train-
ing routines of elite cross-country skiers: approaching the 
upper limits of human endurance. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 
2017;12:1003–11.
 129. Orie J, Hofman N, de Koning JJ, Foster C. Thirty-eight years 
of training distribution in Olympic speed skaters. Int J Sports 
Physiol Perform. 2014;9:93–9.
 130. Seiler KS, Kjerland GØ. Quantifying training intensity distribu-
tion in elite endurance athletes: is there evidence for an “optimal” 
distribution? Scand J Med Sci Sport. 2006;16:49–56.
 131. Gullich A, Seiler S, Emrich E. Training methods and intensity 
distribution of young world class rowers. Int J Sports Physiol 
Perform. 2009;4:448–60.
 132. Gullich A, Seiler S. Lactate profile changes in relation to train-
ing characteristics in elite cyclists. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 
2010;5:316–27.
 133. Kenneally M, Casado A, Santos-Concejero J. The effect of perio-
dization and training intensity distribution on middle- and long-
distance running performance: a systematic review. Int J Sports 
Physiol Perform. 2018;13:1114–21.
1854
 
T. Haugen et al.
 134. Borg GA. Psychophysical bases of perceived exertion. Med Sci 
Sports Exerc. 1982;14:377–81.
 135. Bellinger P, Arnold B, Minahan C. Quantifying the training-
intensity distribution in middle-distance runners: the influence of 
different methods of training-intensity quantification. Int J Sports 
Physiol Perform. 2019 (Online ahead of print).
 136. Jamnick NA, Pettitt RW, Granata C, Pyne DB, Bishop DJ. An 
examination and critique of current methods to determine exer-
cise intensity. Sports Med. 2020;50:1729–56.
 137. Schumacher OY, Mueller P. The 4000-m team pursuit cycling 
world record: theoretical and practical aspects. Med Sci Sports 
Exerc. 2002;34:1029–36.
 138. Zapico AG, Calderon FJ, Benito PJ, Gonzalez CB, Parisi A, 
Pigozzi F, Di Salvo V. Evolution of physiological and haemato-
logical parameters with training load in elite male road cyclists: 
a longitudinal study. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2007;47:191–6.
 139. Gao J. A study on pre-game training characteristics of Chinese 
elite swimmers. J Beijing Sport Univ. 2008;31:832–4.
 140. Siewierski M. Volume and structure of training loads of top 
swimmers in direct starting preparation phase for main competi-
tion. Pol J Sport Tour. 2010;17:227–32.
 141. Guellich A, Seiler S, Emrich E. Training methods and intensity 
distribution of young world-class rowers. Int J Sports Physiol 
Perform. 2009;4:448–60.
 142. Neal CM, Hunter AM, Galloway SD. A 6-month analysis of 
training intensity distribution and physiological adaptation in 
Ironman triathletes. J Sports Sci. 2009;29:1515–23.
 143. Mujika I. Olympic preparation of a world-class female triathlete. 
Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2014;9:727–31.
 144. Sandbakk Ø, Haugen T, Ettema G. The influence of exercise 
modality on training load management. Int J Sports Physiol Per-
form. 2021 (in press).
 145. Maćkała K, Jozwiak Ł, Stodółka J. Effects of explosive type 
strength training on selected physical and technical performance 
characteristics in middle distance running—a case report. Polish 
J Sport Tour. 2015;21:228–33.
 146. Bachero-Mena B, Pareja-Blanco F, González-Badillo JJ. 
Enhanced strength and sprint levels, and changes in blood 
parameters during a complete athletics season in 800 m high-
level athletes. Front Physiol. 2017;8:637.
 147. Rønnestad BR, Mujika I. Optimizing strength training for run-
ning and cycling endurance performance: a review. Scand J Med 
Sci Sports. 2014;24:603–12.
 148. Blagrove RC, Howatson G, Hayes PR. Effects of strength train-
ing on the physiological determinants of middle- and long-dis-
tance running performance: a systematic review. Sports Med. 
2018;48:1117–49.
 149. Berryman N, Mujika I, Arvisais D, Roubeix M, Binet C, Bosquet 
L. Strength training for middle- and long-distance performance: 
a meta-analysis. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2018;13:57–63.
 150. Haugen T, Haugvad L, Røstad V. Effects of core-stability training 
on performance and injuries in competitive athletes. Sportsci-
ence. 2016;20:1–7.
 151. Mujika I, Padilla S. Scientific bases for precompetition tapering 
strategies. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003;35:1182–7.
 152. Pyne DB, Mujika I, Reilly T. Peaking for optimal perfor-
mance: research limitations and future directions. J Sports Sci. 
2009;27:195–202.
 153. Mujika I. The influence of training characteristics and tapering 
on the adaptation in highly trained individuals: a review. Int J 
Sports Med. 1998;19:439–46.
 154. Mujika I. Intense training: the key to optimal performance before 
and during the taper. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2010;20:24–31.
 155. Bosquet L, Montpetit J, Arvisais D, Mujika I. Effects of taper-
ing on performance: a meta-analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 
2007;39:1358–65.
 156. Mujika I, Goya A, Ruiz E, Grijalba A, Santisteban J, Padilla 
S. Physiological and performance responses to a 6-day taper in 
middle-distance runners: influence of training frequency. Int J 
Sports Med. 2002;23:367–73.
 157. Spilsbury KL, Fudge BW, Ingham SA, Faulkner SH, Nimmo 
MA. Tapering strategies in elite British endurance runners. Eur 
J Sport Sci. 2015;15:367–73.

Crossing the Golden Training Divide: The Science and Practice of Training World-Class 800- and 1500-m Runners.
Haugen, Thomas,Sandbakk, Øyvind,Enoksen, Eystein,Seiler, Stephen,Tønnessen, Espen