International  Journal  of
Environmental Research
and Public Health
Article
Inﬂuence of Psychological Factors on the Success of the
Ultra-Trail Runner
David Méndez-Alonso *
, Jose Antonio Prieto-Saborit, Jose Ramón Bahamonde and Estíbaliz Jiménez-Arberás


Citation: Méndez-Alonso, D.;
Prieto-Saborit, J.A.; Bahamonde, J.R.;
Jiménez-Arberás, E. Inﬂuence of
Psychological Factors on the Success
of the Ultra-Trail Runner. Int. J.
Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18,
2704. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ijerph18052704
Academic Editors:
Zbigniew Wa´skiewicz and
Aleksandra ˙Zebrowska
Received: 31 December 2020
Accepted: 3 March 2021
Published: 8 March 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional afﬁl-
iations.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed
under
the
terms
and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Faculty Padre Ossó, University of Oviedo, 33008 Oviedo, Spain; josea@facultadpadreosso.es (J.A.P.-S.);
jramon@facultadpadreosso.es (J.R.B.); estibaliz@facultadpadreosso.es (E.J.-A.)
* Correspondence: davidm@facultadpadreosso.es
Abstract: The aim of this study was to analyze the psychological variables of runners of ultra-trail
mountain races and their association with athletic performance and success. The sample was made
up of 356 mountain runners, 86.7% men and 13.2% women, with a mean age of 42.7 years and
5.7 years of experience. Using pre- and post-race questionnaires, data were collected regarding
mental toughness, resilience, and passion. The performance of each runner in the race was also
recorded. The results showed very high values in the psychological variables analyzed compared
with other sports disciplines. Completion of the race (not withdrawing) and the elite quality of
the runners were presented as the most relevant indicators in the processes of resilience, mental
toughness, and obsessive passion. Differences were noted between the pre- and post-race results,
suggesting that the competition itself is a means of training those psychological factors that are
essential to this sports discipline. It can be concluded that psychological factors are decisive to
athletic performance and race completion in mountain ultra-marathon races.
Keywords: ultra-marathon; trail running; mental toughness; resilience; passion
1. Introduction
At the ﬁnish line of any ultra-marathon race, it is common to hear participants saying
things such as “ . . . the ﬁnal km. the legs just stopped working and only my head got me over
the ﬁnish line,” or “ . . . I was able to ﬁnish this race because I’m psychologically ﬁt.” This study
seeks to take an in-depth look at and analyze the effect of three psychological variables on
running mountain ultra-marathon races, these variables being mental toughness, resilience,
and passion.
The existence of ultra-trail races has increased exponentially in recent years [1,2].
Consequently, interest in researching decisive factors to performance in these types of trials
has become the focus of multiple research groups around the world. Ultra-endurance
races are a multifactorial event that include physiological, neuromuscular, biomechanical,
and psychological factors [3]. Multiple studies have focused on analyzing the physiologi-
cal variables for improving performance in ultra-marathons [4], yet a lack of knowledge
still abounds regarding the psychological factors that are unique to these runners, de-
spite an increase in studies in recent years due to the rising popularity of these types of
races [5,6]. In this sense, multiple mixed methods research projects have approached [7,8]
the combination of physiological determinants (VO2 max, current economy, etc.) and
psychological and motivational factors that have been shown to signiﬁcantly inﬂuence the
athletic performance of runners [4].
The inﬂuence of psychological factors on athletic performance in long-distance races
has always been a widely-discussed topic, though very seldomly analyzed from a perspec-
tive of its impact on athletic performance. Without out a doubt, the variables that inﬂuence
the psychological processes of athletes in highly challenging disciplines are many.
The lack of studies analyzing the psychological factors unique to these types of
races [9] has led various groups to focus their work on analyzing said factors that manifest
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2704. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052704
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2704
2 of 13
during these races [10]. Personality factors [11] with high extroversion traits; emotional
factors with heightened emotional intelligence traits that can be associated with optimal
adaptive psychological traits [12], motivational factors with heightened levels of intrinsic
motivation [13,14], pain tolerance levels [15] and even moods that runners experience
during the race and can noticeably interfere with their results [16].
Long-distance race events are one of the most stressful activities in which a human
being can participate voluntarily [17] due to their intensity, duration, and potentially
adverse weather conditions, in which sources of stress are in constant ﬂux [5], and which
require speciﬁc physical preparation and tremendous physical and psychological effort. It is
also worth mentioning that, in the ﬁeld of ultra-trail races, psychological factors have been
found to play a role in the majority of cases of withdrawal [18]. For a high percentage of
runners, ﬁnishing the race is the main objective increasing the number of runners reaching
the goal [19]. Perceptions of success in these types of races differ according to the runner’s
motivation when running the race [20]. On the one hand, there are elite runners with
clear-cut performance-related motivation whose goals are completely related to achieving
the best classiﬁcation, while on the other hand is a separate yet large group of runners with
a goal focused on completing the race; these latter will present more intrinsic motivation
related to reaching the ﬁnish line [21].
Gucciardi et al. [22] deﬁne mental toughness as “a personal capacity to produce con-
sistently high levels of subjective (e.g., personal goals or strivings) or objective performance
(e.g., sales, race time, GPA) despite everyday challenges and stressors as well as signiﬁcant
adversities” (p. 28). Mental toughness has received considerable attention in sports as a key
factor in goal achievement in the presence of various degrees of pressure, adversity, or ob-
stacles [23]. In ultra-marathon races, mental toughness presents as a factor associated with
athletic performance [24], in the same way that previous research has concluded that mental
tenacity is a key factor to success in various sports disciplines [25–27]. Crust & Clough [28]
showed evidence that the components of mental toughness are higher in individuals who
can endure more extended periods of physical effort; however, subsequent studies have
shown that mental toughness and self-efﬁcacy were not signiﬁcantly associated with ultra-
marathon performance, although athletes require this to be of the necessary standard to
prepare for and compete in elite ultra-marathon events [29]. Likewise, resilience has shown
a positive correlation with sports performance and psychological well-being [30].
Windle [31], based on a review of 270 research articles, conceptualizes resilience as
the process of negotiating, adapting to, or managing signiﬁcant sources of stress through
diverse internal psychosocial resources and contextual aspects that facilitate this capacity
for adaptation and ﬂexibility in such adverse situations.
A deﬁnition of resilience that is commonly used in sports emphasizes “the role of
mental processes and behavior in promoting personal assets and protecting an individual
from the potential effect of negative stressors” [32]. In the ﬁeld of sport, various studies
have highlighted the relationship between resilience, athletic performance [33,34] and
psychological well-being [30]. In addition, resilience also relates to variables such as
stress-recovery levels of athletes during the competition [35]. The study of resilience could
represent an advance in the improvement of training planning and organization as well as
in the athlete’s competitive performance.
As for passion, it represents a dual psychological factor, as it can be associated with
either an obsessive state or a harmonious state. Passion is deﬁned as “a strong inclination
toward an activity that people like, that they ﬁnd important, and in which they invest time
and energy” [36]. Passion is a construct involved in psychological processes that appear
in many ﬁelds of human activity such as physical activity and sports, the arts, leisure, or
interpersonal relations [37–39]. In this sense, Vallerand et al. [39] found that, in the world
of sports, both harmonious and obsessive passion were positive predictors for deliberate
practice, which was simultaneously a positive predictor for objective performance. In
addition, the results distinctly related the two passions to achievement goals and subjective
well-being. Speciﬁcally, harmonious passion was a positive predictor for seeking mastery
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2704
3 of 13
goals while obsessive passion was a positive predictor for mastery from the performance
perspective [38]. Even though the two forms of passion may be an integral part of elite
sports, athletes scoring high on obsessive passion may be at greater risk of developing
burnout than more harmoniously passionate athletes [40]
Consequently, despite the increasing popularity of long-distance races, research into
the psychological processes of ultra-trail runners is still quite scarce. In this sense, it is
not only necessary to study the proﬁle of long-distance runners, but also to analyze the
inﬂuence of the race itself on the variability of psychological factors and their connection
to performance.
Psychological factors do not only present as indicators associated with performance–
understood as a better overall classiﬁcation–, but also with the runner’s ability to ﬁnish the
race. Factors such as the vitality states runners experience [41], self-efﬁcacy, and intent to
ﬁnish the race [42] are associated with the possibility of reaching the ﬁnish line.
In such long-distance races, controlling the emotional shifts that runners experience is
considered important to being able to reach the ﬁnish line [12,43]; signiﬁcant differences
were found in runners for variables such as anger, confusion, or frustration between the
start and end stages of a long-distance race. Similar results were found in cyclists after
multi-day races involving accumulated signiﬁcant loss of sleep [44]. Evidence indicates
emotions associate with performance [45] and that athletes are more likely to try to regulate
an emotion if they believe that doing so will facilitate performance. In the case of mental
toughness, resilience, and passion, no studies have been found in which changes occurred
as a result of the race.
2. Hypothesis and Objectives
The aim of the study was to identify the psychological proﬁle of ultra-trail runners
and the relationship between these factors and athletic success and other variables such
as age and sex. At the same time, we were interested in discovering whether indicators
undergo changes after highly demanding trials such as ultra-trail races.
Based on previous research in the sporting world suggesting the beneﬁts of speciﬁc
psychological factors for athletic performance and their connection with highly demanding
physical activity, the following hypotheses were deﬁned:
As an initial Hypothesis 1 (H1), it was believed that the variables analyzed in the
runners’ psychological proﬁles (mental toughness, resilience, and passion index) would
show higher scores than the sedentary population and athletes of other disciplines different
from ultra-distance and would positively relate to gender, age, the athlete’s level, and their
experience.
Regarding the second Hypothesis 2 (H2), the psychological factors analyzed were
predicted to have a signiﬁcant inﬂuence on performance and success in the race. It was
expected that runners who ﬁnish the race or achieve a better time or rank would display
higher scores in mental toughness and resilience.
Lastly, as a third Hypothesis 3 (H3), it was deemed that there would be signiﬁcant
differences in mental toughness, resilience, and passion in the pre-test and post-test results
due to the set of experiences and the effort made.
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Participants
Some 450 runners registered for the race. The study sample comprises 356 runners
(79.1%) taken from the participants in the Travesera Integral Picos de Europa race, held in
the Picos de Europa National Park in Spain, with an age range of 23 to 68 years and mean
age of 42.73 ± 7.44. The mean number of years of experience running ultra-trail races was
5.7 years, with a minimum of 2 and a maximum of 16. The sample comprises 309 men
(86.79%) and 47 women (13.2%). The mean ITRA performance index (International Trail
Running Association tool for evaluating and comparing the speed of different trail runners
around the world. This index compares the speed of each runner on a scale of 1000 points,
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2704
4 of 13
corresponding to their performance against the world record for that distance) was 620
points with a maximum of 890 and a minimum of 525. The race organization provided the
research group with a list of all the runners and their ITRA score (this has to be included
in the registration form) which was used to assign numbers and start times. The age and
sex percentages are similar to those seen in other international races such as the Ultra-Trail
du Mont-Blanc [46]. The race is considered one of the most demanding ultra-trail races in
the world, categorized with 5 ITRA points with a mountain coefﬁcient of 14 (scale of 1–12),
a distance of 75.9 km, and positive elevation gain of 7180 m. The average time to ﬁnish
was 17 h and 53 min, up to a maximum of 21 h. The organization requires runners to show
accredited prior experience in mountain races. In terms of the event on which the study
is based, the race was classiﬁed as a Spanish Championship for mountain races by the
Spanish Federation for Mountain and Climbing Sports, meaning that the participants were
the most elite representation of the discipline at a national level. A total of 148 runners
ﬁnished the race (41.57%), of which 133 were men (89.86%) and 15 were women (10.13%).
The average time of those who completed the race was 17.11 h with a standard deviation
of 3.15, a minimum of 19.32 and a maximum of 21.
3.2. Instruments
The tool used to gather the data was a survey that included questionnaires that
requested sociodemographic and sport-related data (years of experience participating in
long-distance mountain races), as well as various scales to assess exercise dependence,
mental toughness, motivation, passion, and resilience. All the questionnaires were sent out
in Spanish and 96% of the received responses were from Spanish speakers.
Mental toughness was evaluated using the 7-item Mental Toughness Inventory [25],
in which participants respond using a Likert scale where 1 = False, 100% of the time, to
7 = True, 100% of the time.
The Spanish version of the 14-item Resilience Scale (RS-14) validated by Sánchez-
Teruel and Robles-Bello (2014) [47] was used, derived from the original version [48] based
on the 25-item Resilience Scale (RS-25) [49]. The former is a 14-item scale presented in
a positive manner and with a Likert-style 7-point response format. The scale measures
the degree of individual resilience, considered a positive personality trait that enables
individuals to adapt to adverse situations. The RS-14 measures two factors: Factor I:
Personal Competence (11 items, self-conﬁdence, independence, decisiveness, inventiveness,
and perseverance); Factor II: Self-acceptance and of life (3 items, adaptability, balance,
ﬂexibility, and perspective of a stable life).
The passion questionnaire created by Chamarro, Penelo, Fornieles, Oberst, Vallerand,
and Fernández-Castro (2015) [50] was used to evaluate passion and comprises three sub-
scales: Harmonious Passion, Obsessive Passion, and Passion Criteria, each of which has
six items. The participants responded on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly
disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree).
3.3. Procedure
Firstly, permission was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the research team’s
university, and authorization was later requested from the race directors to administer
the survey. The questionnaire was sent online using Google Forms the week prior to the
race and the day after the competition, with the responses collected during the week after
the race to ensure that there were no other competitions that could potentially falsify the
post-race data. The responses were provided individually by each of the runners.
The survey was sent in one single block with the various scales separated and includ-
ing instructions on how to ﬁll in the questionnaire. Said instructions indicated that the
responder should try to avoid any possible distractions and not stop part way through the
survey; an estimated time for completing the survey was included (15 min). The responses
that took more than 25 min to complete were not considered (8 runners). The participants
gave their informed consent and ﬁlled in the questionnaires in an individual and voluntary
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2704
5 of 13
manner during the weeks prior and subsequent to the race. Once the data were collected,
the runners’ race times were added as well as their overall classiﬁcation and whether they
completed the course or not.
As none of the missing values exceeded 5% in any of the variables, this data did not
inﬂuence the results obtained [47].
3.4. Data Analysis
The study design was descriptive, comparative, correlational and cross-sectional.
Descriptive analyses were conducted with means, typical deviation, frequencies, and
percentages to determine prevalence and create the sample description.
After performing the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test of normality and the Levene’s test for
homogeneity of variance, it should be noted that the results obtained in both test show that
the variables have a normal distribution and the variances are homogeneous, which allows
us to carry out parametric statistics.
For the ﬁrst hypothesis, descriptive statistics for each variable were used (means,
typical deviation), as well performed using mean comparison contrast statistics (Student’s
t-test) to make the comparison by gender. The analysis of differences between those who
ﬁnish the test and those who drop outwas performed using mean comparison contrast
statistics (Student’s t-test). To establish associations between psychological variables
(resilience, mental toughess and passion) and rank, and race time, correlational analyses
were carried out using the Pearson correlation coefﬁcient.
For the second hypothesis, to analyze the incidence of psychological variables in the
ﬁnal result of the career, the sample was splited into quartiles according to the completion
time in hours. First, a unidirectional Anova was used, observing if there are differences
in the psychological variables between these groups of performance standards. Second,
comparison contrast statistics (Student’s t-test) to make the comparison by quartiles.
For the third hypothesis, ﬁnally the comparison between the pre and post results were
analyzed with comparison contrast statistics (Student’s t-test).
The program SPSS, version 25.0 (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA), was used to conduct the
statistical analyses. For the purposes of data interpretation and analysis, the conﬁdence
level was 0.05 (p ≤ 0.05).
An attempt was made to reduce the effect of the type I error by assuming p ≤ 0.01 in
the correlations. The perspective followed was frequentist versus Bayesian. An effort was
made to avoid the so-called inverse probability fallacy in which 1-p is the probability that
the alternative hypothesis is true [48].
4. Results
Table 1 present the results of the psychological proﬁle of the ultra-trail runner in terms
of mental toughness, resilience, and level of passion, as well as the existing correlations
between the different variables. The runner presents high levels of mental toughness,
resilience, and harmonious passion and low levels of obsessive passion. Signiﬁcant cor-
relations are observed between various psychological factors such as resilience, mental
strength, and harmonious passion. In turn, a signiﬁcant inverse correlation is found be-
tween resilience levels and obsessive passion. The results obtained are independent from
the gender of the runner, except for those related to the harmonious passion, where women
present signiﬁcantly higher results than men (Table 2).
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2704
6 of 13
Table 1. Means, standard deviations and correlations among psychological variables.
M (SD)
Mental
Toughness
Resilience
Harmonious
Passion
Obsessive
Passion
α Crombach
Mental Toughness
6.84 (0.93)
1
0.87
Resilience
6.23 (0.65)
0.186 **
1
0.90
Harmonious Passion
6.31(0.83)
0.128 *
0.127 *
1
0.88
Obsessive Passion
2.93 (1.16)
−0.061
−0.177 *
0.106 *
1
0.84
* p < 0.05 (bilateral), ** p < 0.01 (bilateral).
Table 2. Comparison of the results of the psychological variables according to gender.
t
gl
Sig. (Bilateral)
Mental Toughness
−0.23
354
0.81
Resilience
−0.28
354
0.77
Harmonious Passion
−4.13
354
0.01
Obsessive Passion
−0.71
354
0.47
The runner’s age and experience level appear as inﬂuential elements in some of the
psychological factors evaluated (Table 3). We can state that the levels of mental toughness
and resilience increase with age and with years of experience in ultra-trail races. The
elite quality of the runner, identiﬁed using their performance level based on ITRA points,
positively correlates with various psychological factors, such that better runners display
superior results in mental toughness, resilience, and obsessive passion.
Table 3. Correlations among psychological variables and years of experience/age/International Trail
Running Association (ITRA) score.
Years of Experience
Age
ITRA Score
Mental Toughness
0.30 **
0.33 **
0.50 **
Resilience
0.14 **
0.11 *
0.26 **
Harmonious Passion
−0.070
−0.188 **
−0.070
Obsessive Passion
0.22 **
* p < 0.05 (bilateral). ** p < 0.01 (bilateral).
Experience in these types of races manifests as an essential factor in the runner’s
chances of completing the race. In Table 4, we can see the signiﬁcant differences found
between runners who ﬁnished the race and those who dropped out throughout the course
according to their years of experience in ultra-marathon races.
Table 4. Comparison of results in relation to ﬁnishers and withdrawals among years of experience in
ultra-trail races.
N
M(SD)
t
gl
Sig.
Years of experience in
Ultra-Trail Race
Finishers
148
6.10 (2.25)
Withdrawals
208
3.69 (2.22)
10.01
354
0.001 *
* p < 0.001.
In relation to Hypothesis 2, the results show how psychological factors play an impor-
tant role in the runner’s possibility of success, both in terms of ﬁnishing the race and the
time taken to complete the race, or what is considered the overall classiﬁcation. “Finishers”
present signiﬁcantly higher psychological factors than those who withdraw in the middle of
the race (Table 5). Signiﬁcant differences can be observed in the factors of mental toughness,
resilience, and harmonious passion, while those who withdrew from the race displayed
higher results for obsessive passion.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2704
7 of 13
Table 5. Comparison of psychological variables in relation to ﬁnishers and withdrawals.
N
t
Sig.
Mental Toughness
Finishers
148
Withdrawals
208
4.25
0.01
Resilience
Finishers
148
Withdrawals
208
3.42
0.01
Obsessive Passion
Finishers
148
Withdrawals
208
−4.39
0.70
Harmonious Passion
Finishers
148
Withdrawals
208
−0.41
0.01
Psychological factors are also associated with the time taken to complete the race
and, therefore, the ﬁnal classiﬁcation obtained. The results show signiﬁcant correlations
(p ≤ 0.01) among psychological factors (mental toughness, resilience, and obsessive pas-
sion) and race time.
Upon establishing the comparison between quartiles according to overall classiﬁcation
time, the ANOVA results display (Table 6) the signiﬁcant differences between the groups
in the mental toughness, resilience, obsessive passion, and harmonious passion variables.
Upon establishing the comparison between quartiles (Table 7), differences can be observed
between the ﬁrst group and the second and third groups and, likewise, between the fourth
group and the second and third groups in mental toughness and resilience. This indicates
to us that mental toughness and resilience are factors that, on the one hand, impact the
ability to achieve a good classiﬁcation and, on the other hand, present as factors that are
essential to completing the race in the last group.
Table 6. ANOVA comparative analysis by quartiles as a function of race time.
Sum of Squares
gl
Quadratic Mean
F
Sig.
Mental Toughness
15,219
1
15,219
18,121
0.01
Resilience
4934
1
4934
11,745
0.01
Harmonious Passion
12,666
1
12,666
19,285
0.01
Obsessive Passion
0.226
1
0.226
0.168
0.682
Table 7. Descriptive statistics and comparison of psychological variables and time race quartiles
(expressed in hours).
Time Race
Quartiles
Mental
Toughness
Harmonious
Passion
Obsessive
Passion
Resilience
M (SD)
M (SD)
M (SD)
M (SD)
10.32–15.01
6.58 (1.32)
5.47 (0.96) *
3.15 (1.09)
6.26 (0.39)
15.02–17.56
5.6 (0.96) *
5.15 (1.21) *
2.78 (1.44)
5.60 (0.81) *
17.57–19.10
5.74 (1.13) *
5.88 (0.80)
2.49 (0.92) *
6.04 (0.55) *
19.11–21.00
6.37 (1.08)
5.92 (0.85)
2.39 (1.22) *
6.18 (0.44)
* p < 0.01. Statistically signiﬁcant comparison for mental toughness: ﬁrst and fourth quartiles with second and
third quartiles. Statistically signiﬁcant comparison for harmonious passion: third quartile with ﬁrst and second
quartiles; fourth quartile with ﬁrst and second quartiles. Statistically signiﬁcant comparison for obsessive passion:
ﬁrst quartile with third and fourth quartiles. Statistically signiﬁcant comparison for resilience: ﬁrst quartile with
second and third quartiles; fourth quartile with second quartile.
The results obtained in the comparisons between groups with the harmonious passion
and obsessive passion variables reﬂect how obsessive passion is highly present in runners
whose aim is to ﬁnish the race in one of the top positions, while harmonious passion
strongly prevails in the groups whose goal is to complete the race.
In relation to working Hypothesis 3, Table 8 displays the results of the post-race
questionnaire, showing the comparison of the pre- and post-race results with signiﬁcant
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2704
8 of 13
differences in distinct mental psychological factors between the week prior to the race and
the week after.
Table 8. Comparation of pre-/post-race.
Moment
M
SD
t
Sig.
Mental
Toughness
Pre test
5.62
1.04456
Post test
6.21
0.57666
2.35
0.01
Resilience
Pre test
5.8614
0.65773
Post test
6.36
0.65683
2.82
0.01
Harmonious
Passion
Pre test
5.7344
0.86276
Post test
6.0336
0.70145
3.09
0.01
Obsesive
Passion
Pre test
2.9332
1.17083
Post test
2.9327
1.13836
−0.41
0.99
5. Discussion
The aim of the study was to identify the psychological proﬁle of ultra-trail runners
and the relationship between these factors and athletic success and other variables such
as age, sex, or experience. The study also aimed to ﬁnd out if completing the race would
lead to changes in the post-test results. The principal study ﬁndings veriﬁed the ﬁrst
two hypotheses proposed, highlighting mental toughness and resilience as predictive
psychological factors for the success of ultra-trail runners. These results open new doors to
preparation strategies for these types of races where runners tend to focus all their effort
on physiological aspects. Nevertheless, psychological preparation takes on a decisive role
in the achievement of performance-related goals.
The ﬁrst hypothesis predicted high scores in the psychological factors studied. The
descriptive analyses supported this prediction and displayed very high values in the
dimensions of mental toughness and resilience in comparison with other sports disciplines
and sedentary individuals [49,50], without ﬁnding differences relative to the runner’s
sex. In this sense, the results coincide with those obtained by [51] and previously by [52].
The only differences in relation to sex where those found in the harmonious passion
component, in which women scored higher than men, which could suggest a greater
inclination towards the pursuit of mastery goals as compared to men and a greater focus
on performance [20,27].
Years of experience and age also presented strong correlations with mental toughness
and resilience. These ﬁndings are in line with prior research, though in different sports
disciplines [53,54]. It is possible that the uncertain environment in these types of races
results in each of the competitions representing a training session in and of itself. In this
sense, a higher number of races would represent more mental training. Likewise, obsessive
passion in the runner correlated with the exercise addiction inventory according to that
proposed by [55] and interpretable based on the large number of training hours that the
discipline requires. Similar results were reported by [56], who found that endurance sports
present the highest risk of developing exercise addiction.
The present study also found positive correlations between mental toughness and the
athlete’s level, meaning more elite runners scored higher on the MT scale, similar to the
results found by [22,26,57,58] in various sports disciplines. Nevertheless, other studies did
not ﬁnd differences in the MT scale according to the athlete’s level [27,28]. It is possible
that the type of sport makes a difference in this sense. The elite quality of the runner
based on their ITRA score, as well as their experience, positively correlates with obsessive
passion and addiction to practicing sports in line with that analyzed by [59] wherein
obsessive passion can affect well-being and athlete performance over the long-term due to
the associated strict exercise behavior.
The second hypothesis was also conﬁrmed. Unlike the results obtained in ultra-
marathon runners [29], mental toughness and resilience were revealed to be decisive
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2704
9 of 13
factors for success in long-distance mountain races. The mental toughness and resilience
factors manifested as decisive elements in achieving a better time and therefore higher
classiﬁcation given that the runners in the ﬁrst quartile, elite, show signiﬁcantly superior
values than the runners in quartiles two and three. This also comes to light in the group in
the last quartile (amateur runners whose only aspiration is to reach the ﬁnish line before
the maximum time limit) in order to ﬁnish the race. Both factors present as essential
elements for completing the race as differences are found between those who withdraw
and those who ﬁnish. Brace et al. [29] did not ﬁnd any relationship between mental
toughness and performance in a 100-mile ultra-marathon race; however, in their study
the runners had higher mental toughness than other sports. The authors suggest that
the standard ultra-marathon runner must have heightened mental toughness but, once
that threshold is reached, it is likely that other factors are more inﬂuential in determining
elite ultra-marathon performance. Nevertheless, there are notable differences between
ultra-marathon races on asphalt and those held in the mountains that could explain the
discrepancies found in both studies. Height, elevation, and dirt trails hinder ultra-trail
runners from maintaining a continuous or controlled pace, meaning it is much harder to
know what pace could be maintained in the race. Self-sufﬁciency is another decisive factor
in mountain races as compared with asphalt races, which are equipped with aid stations.
In the mountain, the athletes themselves are required to plan out and carry their provisions,
thereby entailing self-regulation as well as extra weight to be carried. Lastly, the solitary
nature of the mountain is an additional component, unlike asphalt races where practically
the entire race is completed among other runners and with pacemakers to set the pace; in
the mountains it is common to run alone for long stretches of time. This accumulation of
factors caused by the environment (mountain), provokes a level of uncertainty in ultra-trail
runners that prevents adequate prior preparation based solely on physiological aspects
and physical preparation.
The highly demanding and rigorous nature of preparing for mountain races often
leads runners to consider that simply completing the race is a success in and of itself. In
this sense, this can be seen in the signiﬁcant differences between those who complete the
race and those who withdraw before ﬁnishing, as well as the signiﬁcant inverse correlation
between the times of the best ﬁnishers. Previous studies did not ﬁnd differences in the
physiological or ﬁtness level between runners who reach the ﬁnish line and those who
withdraw [60], however, the ﬁndings of this study are in line with other works [41] where
differences are observed between those who ﬁnish and those who withdraw in terms
psychological factors and how the runners approach the race. Race “ﬁnishers” score
signiﬁcantly higher for harmonious passion, which may be associated with higher levels of
positive feelings after a successful race. On the other hand, those who withdraw from the
race present signiﬁcantly higher levels for obsessive passion in connection to perceptions
of burnout. These results are in line with the work carried out by [61]. In the same vein,
the higher results in the obsessive passion component displayed by runners who withdrew
from the race can be interpreted as being at a higher risk of developing burnout than
the more harmoniously passionate athletes [40]. Therefore, the study results suggest that
psychological factors decisively condition athletic success, this being understood not only
through the prism of overall time and classiﬁcation, but also the mere fact of completing
the race.
Consequently, the ﬁndings conﬁrming the second hypothesis bring to light the rele-
vance that psychological factors such as mental toughness and resilience have on athletic
success and performance in long-distance mountain races in a similar way as those obtained
in other studies with athletes in similar disciplines [6,30].
Lastly, one of the aspects that most stood out in the present study are the signiﬁcant
differences found in the different variables between the pre- and post-race. These results
conﬁrm the third hypothesis presented. It is possible that the actual running of such
a rigorous and demanding race is the reason behind the changes found in the levels
of mental toughness, resilience, and addiction to physical exercise. In this sense, the
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2704
10 of 13
results would conﬁrm the hypothesis regarding the importance of the race itself as part
of the training regimen. There is no doubt that the race itself acts as a functional element
and training session for the psychological factors analyzed in a manner similar to that
found in factors such as emotional control, mood, anger, or tension in races with similar
characteristics [12,44]. Overcoming the effects of sleep deprivation [62], dealing with
the pain of neuromuscular damage that occurs after so many hours of effort [63], and
experiencing the mood shifts that occur over the course of the race [16] can be key factors
in the increase in mental toughness and resilience found. The increases in harmonious
passion can be easily understood due to the feelings and sensations felt by runners who
complete these types of races and the experience as a whole which many runners consider
to be a major life experience [64].
The post-race changes to the levels of the psychological factors can be interpreted
from the perspective of the potential these races present as an element of training those
same traits.
Limitations and Strengths
The main study limitations were, on the one hand, using the results from a single
ultra-trail race. Despite being one of the most prestigious national races and having the
best national and international runners in attendance, studies that analyze a larger number
of races are preferential. On the other hand, this research was focused exclusively on psy-
chological aspects. Bearing in mind the multifactorial evidence of this sport, future research
should analyze both physiological and psychological variables within the same study.
On the contrary, one of the strengths was the access to a majority of elite-level athletes
in such a prestigious race. It is also worth mentioning that, in general, post-race question-
naires tend to notably downplay the participation of the sample; however, in this study,
the sample did not display the same feeling.
6. Conclusions
Based on the results obtained in this study, we can conclude that athletes who par-
ticipate in ultra-trail races present very speciﬁc psychological traits that enable them to
adapt to the extremely tough conditions of the races. However, despite the fact that mental
toughness, resilience, addiction, and passion form part of the standard runner model, age,
experience, and the elite quality of the athlete accentuate this condition even more.
Mental strength and resilience are decisive factors in athletic success and performance
in ultra-trail races. In this sense, athletic success should be considered in terms of both
overall classiﬁcation and race completion, the latter being the goal for a large part of
the participants.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.M.-A.; methodology, J.A.P.-S.; software, D.M.-A.; val-
idation, J.A.P.-S. and J.R.B.; formal analysis, E.J.-A.; investigation, D.M.-A.; resources, D.M.-A.;
data curation, J.A.P.-S.; writing—original draft preparation, D.M.-A.; writing—review and editing,
D.M.-A.; visualization, E.J.-A.; supervision, J.R.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration
of Helsinki, and the protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of Principado de Asturias
(CEImPA 2020.454).
Informed Consent Statement: All subjects gave their informed consent for inclusion before they
participated in the study.
Conﬂicts of Interest: The authors declare no conﬂict of interest.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2704
11 of 13
References
1.
Hoffman, M.D.; Ong, J.C.; Wang, G. Historical analysis of participation in 161 KM ultramarathons in North America. Int. J. Hist.
Sport 2010, 27, 1877–1891. [CrossRef]
2.
Peter, L.; Rüst, C.A.; Knechtle, B.; Rosemann, T.; Lepers, R. Sex differences in 24-hour ultra-marathon performance-A retrospective
data analysis from 1977 to 2012. Clinics 2014, 69, 38–46. [CrossRef]
3.
Garbisu-Hualde, A.; Santos-Concejero, J. What are the limiting factors during an ultra-marathon? A systematic review of the
scientiﬁc literature. J. Hum. Kinet. 2020, 72, 129–139. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4.
Baumann, C.W.; Wetter, T.J. Aerobic and anaerobic changes in collegiate male runners across a cross-county season. Int. J. Exerc.
Sci. 2010, 3, 225–232.
5.
Buman, M.P.; Omli, J.W.; Giacobbi, P.R., Jr.; Brewer, B.W. Experiences and coping responses of “hitting the wall” for recreational
marathon runners. J. Appl. Sport Psychol. 2008, 20, 282–300. [CrossRef]
6.
Roebuck, G.S.; Urquhart, D.M.; Che, X.; Knox, L.; Fitzgerald, P.B.; Cicuttini, F.M.; Lee, S.; Segrave, R.; FitzGibbon, B.M.
Psychological characteristics associated with ultra-marathon running: An exploratory self-report and psychophysiological study.
Aust. J. Psychol. 2020, 72, 235–247. [CrossRef]
7.
Nikolaidis, P.T.; Knechtle, B.; Quartiroli, A. Editorial: Who runs? Psychological, physiological and pathophysiological aspects of
recreational endurance athletes. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11. [CrossRef]
8.
Hauw, D.; Rochat, N.; Gesbert, V.; Astolﬁ, T.; Philippe, R.A.; Mariani, B. Putting together ﬁrst- and third-person approaches for
sport activity analysis: The case of ultra-trail runners’ performance analysis. Adv. Intell. Syst. Comput. 2017, 496, 49–58. [CrossRef]
9.
Buck, K.; Spittler, J.; Reed, A.; Khodaee, M. Psychological attributes of ultramarathoners. Wilderness Environ. Med. 2018, 29, 66–71.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
10.
McCormick, A.; Meijen, C.; Marcora, S. Psychological determinants of whole-body endurance performance. Sports Med. 2015, 45,
997–1015. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
11.
Hughes, S.; Case, H.S.; Stuempﬂe, K.; Evans, D. Personality proﬁles of iditasport ultra-marathon participants. J. Appl. Sport
Psychol. 2003, 15, 256–261. [CrossRef]
12.
Lane, A.M.; Wilson, M. Emotions and trait emotional intelligence among ultra-endurance runners. J. Sci. Med. Sport 2011, 14,
358–362. [CrossRef]
13.
Ruiz-Juan, F.; Sancho, A.Z. Análisis de la motivación en corredores de maratón españoles. Rev. Latinoam. Psicol. 2014,
46, 1–11. [CrossRef]
14.
Knechtle, B. Ultramarathon runners: Nature or nurture? Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2012, 7, 310–312. [CrossRef]
15.
Freund, W.; Weber, F.; Billich, C.; Birklein, F.; Breimhorst, M.; Schuetz, U.H. Ultra-marathon runners are different: Investigations
into pain tolerance and personality traits of participants of the transeurope footrace 2009. Pain Pract. 2013, 13, 524–532.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
16.
Tharion, W.J.; Strowman, S.R.; Rauch, T.M. Proﬁle and changes in moods of ultramarathoners. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 1988, 10,
229–235. [CrossRef]
17.
Eich, T.S.; Metcalfe, J. Effects of the stress of marathon running on implicit and explicit memory. Psychon. Bull. Rev. 2009, 16,
475–479. [CrossRef]
18.
Philippe, R.A.; Rochat, N.; Vauthier, M.; Hauw, D. The story of withdrawals during an ultra-trail running race: A qualitative
investigation of runners’ courses of experience. Sport Psychol. 2016, 30, 361–375. [CrossRef]
19.
Knechtle, B.; Valeri, F.; Zingg, M.A.; Rosemann, T.; Rüst, C.A. What is the age for the fastest ultra-marathon performance in
time-limited races from 6 h to 10 days? AGE 2014, 36, 9715. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
20.
Wa´skiewicz, Z.; Nikolaidis, P.T.; Gerasimuk, D.; Borysiuk, Z.; Rosemann, T.; Knechtle, B. What motivates successful
marathon runners? The role of sex, age, education, and training experience in polish runners. Front. Psychol. 2019, 10, 1671.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
21.
Krouse, R.Z.; Ransdell, L.B.; Lucas, S.M.; Pritchard, E.M. Motivation, goal orientation, coaching, and training habits of women
ultrarunners. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2011, 25, 2835–2842. [CrossRef]
22.
Gucciardi, D.F.; Hanton, S.; Gordon, S.; Mallett, C.J.; Temby, P. The concept of mental toughness: Tests of dimensionality,
nomological network, and traitness. J. Pers. 2015, 83, 26–44. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
23.
Thom, C.B.; Guay, F.; Trottier, C. Mental toughness in sport: The goal-expectancy-self-control (Ges) Model. J. Appl. Sport Psychol.
2020, 1–17. [CrossRef]
24.
Christensen, D.A.; Brewer, B.W.; Hutchinson, J.C. Psychological predictors of performance in a 161 KM ultramarathon run. Int. J.
Sport Psychol. 2018, 49, 74–90.
25.
Chen, M.A.; Cheesman, D.J. Mental Toughness of Mixed Martial Arts Athletes at Different Levels of Competition. 2013. Available
online: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.2466/29.30.PMS.116.3.905-917 (accessed on 28 December 2020).
26.
Wieser, R.; Thiel, H. A survey of “mental hardiness” and “mental toughness” in professional male football players. Chiropr. Man.
Ther. 2014, 22, 17. [CrossRef]
27.
Cowden, R.G.; Meyer-Weitz, A.; Asante, K.O. Mental Toughness in Competitive Tennis: Relationships with Resilience and Stress.
Front. Psychol. 2016, 7, 320. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
28.
Crust, L.; Clough, P.J. Relationship between mental toughness and physical endurance. Percept. Mot. Ski. 2005, 100, 192–194.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2704
12 of 13
29.
Brace, A.W.; George, K.; Lovell, G.P. Mental toughness and self-efﬁcacy of elite ultra-marathon runners. PLoS ONE 2020, 15,
e0241284. [CrossRef]
30.
Hosseini, S.A.; Besharat, M.A. Relation of resilience whit sport achievement and mental health in a sample of athletes. Procedia
Soc. Behav. Sci. 2010, 5, 633–638. [CrossRef]
31.
Windle, G. What is resilience? A review and concept analysis. Rev. Clin. Gerontol. 2011, 21, 152–169. [CrossRef]
32.
Fletcher, D.; Sarkar, M. A grounded theory of psychological resilience in Olympic champions. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 2012, 13,
669–678. [CrossRef]
33.
Gould, D.; Dieffenbach, K.; Moffett, A. Psychological characteristics and their development in olympic champions. J. Appl. Sport
Psychol. 2002, 14, 172–204. [CrossRef]
34.
Galli, N.; Vealey, R.S. “bouncing back” from adversity: Athletes’ experiences of resilience. Sport Psychol. 2008, 22, 316–335. [CrossRef]
35.
Secades, X.G.; Molinero, O.; Barquín, R.R.; Salguero, A.; la Vega, R.D.; Márquez, S. La resiliencia en el deporte: Fun-damentos
teóricos, instrumentos de evaluación y revisión de la literatura. Cuad. Psicol. Deporte 2014, 14, 83–92. [CrossRef]
36.
Vallerand, R.J.; Blanchard, C.; Mageau, G.A.; Koestner, R.; Ratelle, C.; Léonard, M.; Gagné, M.; Marsolais, J. Les passions de l’âme:
On obsessive and harmonious passion. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 2003, 85, 756. [CrossRef]
37.
Curran, T.; Hill, A.P.; Appleton, P.R.; Vallerand, R.J.; Standage, M. The psychology of passion: A meta-analytical review of a
decade of research on intrapersonal outcomes. Motiv. Emot. 2015, 39, 631–655. [CrossRef]
38.
Vallerand, R.J.; Verner-Filion, J. Theory and research in passion for sport and exercise.
In Handbook of Sport Psychology;
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2020; pp. 206–229. [CrossRef]
39.
Vallerand, R.J.; Mageau, G.A.; Elliot, A.J.; Dumais, A.; Demers, M.-A.; Rousseau, F. Passion and performance attainment in sport.
Psychol. Sport Exerc. 2008, 9, 373–392. [CrossRef]
40.
Gustafsson, H.; Hassmén, P.; Hassmén, N. Are athletes burning out with passion? Eur. J. Sport Sci. 2011, 11, 387–395. [CrossRef]
41.
Rochat, N.; Hauw, D.; Philippe, R.A.; Von Roten, F.C.; Seifert, L. Comparison of vitality states of ﬁnishers and withdrawers in trail
running: An enactive and phenomenological perspective. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0173667. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
42.
Corrion, K.; Morales, V.; Bergamaschi, A.; Massiera, B.; Morin, J.-B.; D’Arripe-Longueville, F. Psychosocial factors as predictors of
dropout in ultra-trailers. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0206498. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
43.
Pedlar, C.R.; Lane, A.M.; Lloyd, J.C.; Dawson, J.; Emegbo, S.; Whyte, G.P.; Stanley, N. Sleep proﬁles and mood states during an
expedition to the south pole. Wilderness Environ. Med. 2007, 18, 127–132. [CrossRef]
44.
Lahart, I.M.; Lane, A.M.; Hulton, A.; Williams, K.; Godfrey, R.; Pedlar, C.; Wilson, M.G.; Whyte, G.P. Challenges in maintaining
emotion regulation in a sleep and energy deprived state induced by the 4800km ultra-endurance bicycle race; The race across
america (RAAM). J. Sports Sci. Med. 2013, 12, 481–488.
45.
Beedie, C.J.; Terry, P.C.; Lane, A.M. The proﬁle of mood states and athletic performance: Two meta-analyses. J. Appl. Sport Psychol.
2000, 12, 49–68. [CrossRef]
46.
Varesco, G.; Sabater-Pastor, F.; Millet, G.Y.; Rozand, V. Age-related performance at the Ultra-Trail du Mont-Blanc®. Mov. Sport Sci.
Sci. Mot. 2019, 13–19. [CrossRef]
47.
Sánchez-Teruel, D. Escala de resiliencia 14 ítems (Rs-14): Propiedades psicométricas de la versión en Español. Rev. Iberoam.
Diagnóstico Evaluación Avaliação Psicológica 2015, 40, 103–113.
48.
Hubbard, R.; Parsa, R.A.; Luthy, M.R. The spread of statistical signiﬁcance testing in psychology. Theory Psychol. 1997,
7, 545–554. [CrossRef]
49.
Cuberos, R.C.; Castro-Sanchez, M.; Espejo-Garcés, T.; Ortega, F.Z. Estudio de la resiliencia en función de la modalidad deportiva:
Fútbol, balonmano y esquí (Research on resilience depending on the type of sport: Football, handball and ski) Research of
resilience depending on the type of sport: Football, handball and ski). Retos 2015, 157–161. [CrossRef]
50.
Galli, N.; Gonzalez, S.P. Psychological resilience in sport: A review of the literature and implications for research and practice. Int.
J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 2015, 13, 243–257. [CrossRef]
51.
Analysis of the Resilience Scale in Mountain Runners. Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340620780_
Analysis_of_the_resilience_scale_in_mountain_runners (accessed on 28 December 2020).
52.
Lundman, B.; Strandberg, G.; Eisemann, M.; Gustafson, Y.; Brulin, C. Psychometric properties of the swedish version of the
resilience scale. Scand. J. Caring Sci. 2007, 21, 229–237. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
53.
Marshall, T.; Roberts, J.; Pack, S.; Basevitch, I.; Rossato, C.; Suckling, C.; Dawkins, T.; Roberts, M. The effect of long term physical
training on the development of mental toughness in recreationally active participants. J. Multidiscip. Res. 2017, 9, 29–43.
54.
Scharneck, L. The Mediating Effect of Self-Determined Motivation in Student-Athlete Perceptions of Coaching Behaviors and Its
Effect on Grit and Mental Toughness. Master’s Thesis, Illinois State University, Chicago, IL, USA, 2017.
55.
Nogueira López, A.; Molinero, O.; Salguero, A.; Márquez, S. Exercise Addiction in Practitioners of Endurance Sports: A Literature
Review. Front. Psychol. 2018, 9. [CrossRef]
56.
di lodovico, L.; Poulnais, S.; Gorwood, P. Which Sports Are More at Risk of Physical Exercise Addiction: A Systematic Review.
Addict. Behav. 2018. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
57.
Sheard, M. Hardiness commitment, gender, and age differentiate university academic performance. Br. J. Educ. Psychol. 2009, 79,
189–204. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
58.
Weissensteiner, J.R.; Abernethy, B.; Farrow, D.; Gross, J. Distinguishing psychological characteristics of expert cricket batsmen. J.
Sci. Med. Sport 2012, 15, 74–79. [CrossRef]
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2704
13 of 13
59.
Schiphof-Godart, L.; Hettinga, F.J. Passion and pacing in endurance performance. Front. Physiol. 2017, 8, 83. [CrossRef]
60.
Moncelon, L.; Millet, G.; Poletti, L.; Féasson, L.; Edouard, P. Facteurs prédictifs d’abandon chez les coureurs à la limite des
barrières horaires en Ultra-Trail: Application à l’UTMB® et à la TDS® 2019. J. Traumatol. Sport 2020. [CrossRef]
61.
Verner-Filion, J.; Schellenberg, B.J.I.; Rapaport, M.; Bélanger, J.J.; Vallerand, R.J. “The thrill of victory and the agony of defea”:
Passion and emotional reactions to success and failure among recreational golfers. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 2018, 40, 280–283.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
62.
Hurdiel, R.; Pezé, T.; Daugherty, J.; Girard, J.; Poussel, M.; Poletti, L.; Basset, P.; Theunynck, D. Combined effects of sleep
deprivation and strenuous exercise on cognitive performances during The North Face® Ultra Trail du Mont Blanc® (UTMB&reg).
J. Sports Sci. 2015, 33, 670–674. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
63.
Alterations of Neuromuscular Function after the World’s Most Challenging Mountain Ultra-Marathon. Available online:
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0065596 (accessed on 2 February 2021).
64.
Holt, N.L.; Lee, H.; Kim, Y.; Klein, K. Exploring experiences of running an ultramarathon. Sport Psychol. 2014, 28, 22–35. [CrossRef]

Influence of Psychological Factors on the Success of the Ultra-Trail Runner.
Méndez-Alonso, David,Prieto-Saborit, Jose Antonio,Bahamonde, Jose Ramón,Jiménez-Arberás, Estíbaliz