International  Journal  of
Environmental Research
and Public Health
Review
Periodization and Programming for Individual 400 m
Medley Swimmers
Francisco Hermosilla 1,2
, José M. González-Rave 1,*
, José Antonio Del Castillo 3 and David B. Pyne 4


Citation: Hermosilla, F.; González-
Rave, J.M.; Del Castillo, J.A.; Pyne,
D.B. Periodization and Programming
for Individual 400 m Medley
Swimmers. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public
Health 2021, 18, 6474. https://
doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18126474
Academic Editors: Matteo Cortesi,
Sandro Bartolomei, Giorgio Gatta and
Tomohiro Gonjo
Received: 12 May 2021
Accepted: 12 June 2021
Published: 15 June 2021
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1
Sport Training Lab, University of Castilla-La Mancha, 45008 Toledo, Spain; fhermosilla@nebrija.es
2
Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida y la Naturaleza, Universidad Nebrija, 28248 Madrid, Spain
3
Catalonian Swimming Federation and High Performance Center, Alcalde Barnils, Av. 3-5,
Sant Cugat del Vallès, 08174 Barcelona, Spain; kasti71@gmail.com
4
Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, Faculty of Health, University of Canberra,
Bruce, ACT 261, Australia; David.Pyne@canberra.edu.au
*
Correspondence: josemaria.gonzalez@uclm.es; Tel.: +34-666160346
Abstract: Knowledge in the scientiﬁc domain of individual medley (IM) swimming training over
a competitive season is limited. The purpose of this study was to propose a detailed coaching
framework incorporating the key elements of a periodized training regimen for a 400 m IM swimmer.
This framework was based on the available coaching and scientiﬁc literature and the practical
experience and expertise of the collaborating authors. The season has been divided in two or three
macrocycles, further divided in three mesocycles each (six or nine mesocycles in total), in alignment
with the two or three main competitions in each macrocycle. The principal training contents to
develop during the season expressed in blood lactate zones are: aerobic training (~2 mmol·L−1),
lactate threshold pace (~4 mmol·L−1) and VO2max (maximum oxygen uptake) (~6 mmol·L−1).
Strength training should focus on maximum strength, power and speed endurance during the
season. Altitude training camps can be placed strategically within the training season to promote
physiological adaptation and improvements in performance. A well-constructed technical framework
will permit development of training strategies for the 400 m IM swimmer to improve both training
and competitive performance.
Keywords: swimming; individual medley; training; season
1. Introduction
Swimming competitions are performed in four major strokes (front crawl, backstroke,
breaststroke and butterﬂy). The individual medley events (IM) comprise all four swimming
strokes in the following order: butterﬂy, backstroke, breaststroke and freestyle. The two
variants of the IM are the 200 m IM (50 m of each stroke) and the 400 m IM (100 m of each
stroke). It is necessary to train all four strokes underpinning the widespread assertion
in the high performance swimming community that the IM events are the most complex
and challenging on swimming program [1]. Gonjo and Olstad [2] highlight the lack
of knowledge on comprehensive guidelines for the preparation of high-level 400 m IM
swimmers.
In the IM swimming, the energetic and biomechanics differences between the four
strokes yield a variable relative contribution of each stroke to the ﬁnal performance. How-
ever, it is not clear which stroke(s) are more important in the ﬁnal performance in IM events.
In the 400 m IM, breaststroke and freestyle seems to be the most relevant stroke in female
swimmers [3,4]. In contrast, for male swimmers, the backstroke and breaststroke appear
more important [4,5]. When planning training, coaches need to determine then prescribe
the relative proportion of training of each stroke for the 400 m IM event throughout the
season. To achieve the best performance in 400 m IM, coaches must ensure that middle-
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 6474. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18126474
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
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distance front crawl training is a priority given a positive association between that freestyle
and IM swimming [6].
To maximize the IM swimmers’ performance, it is important to establish a detailed
understanding of the training characteristics of both the 200 m and 400 m IM events
for effective planning and monitoring. A coach needs to consider the training volume,
frequency and intensity distribution for maximizing physical capacity and performance.
Periodization can be deﬁned as the macromanagement of the delineated stages of training
process with respect to the time allocated toward various elements [7]. The key aspects that
underpin periodization are: (i) determining relevant dates (e.g., main and minor competi-
tions), (ii) determining the sequence of phases for each training cycle and (iii) managing
load dynamics with the intent of achieving peak or optimal performance at the critical
competitions [8]. There are few studies which have examined the key aspects related to the
best performance in 400 m IM events, including the training organization and periodization.
Therefore, the aim of this narrative review is to examine the evidence on periodization
related to the 400 m IM and identify key elements and best practices for this event. We ad-
dress key aspects, such as bioenergetics necessary to plan the periodization for 400 m IM
and examine traditional periodization following two or three peaks performance, training
methods and ﬁtness phases for each training period in accordance with other narrative
reviews in individual sports [9]. A narrative review provides a historical account of the
development of theory and research on a topic (although the contribution to knowledge
will be relatively minor [10]. Here we address theoretical conceptualizations, training
constructs and relevant scientiﬁc literature, to propose a practical framework for preparing
400 m IM swimmers.
2. Literature Search Methodology
Electronic searches of PubMed/MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, Scopus and Web of Science
were conducted. The search terms used were “individual medley swimming”, “middle
distance swimming training”, “swimming training periodization” and “swimming peri-
odization”. Relevant review articles were also examined to uncover studies which might
have been missed in the primary search. The reference list of selected manuscripts was
also examined for other potentially eligible manuscripts. No limits regarding the year
of publication were employed. Studies were included when (a) they were published in
English language (b); provided training zones, volumes and/or periodization details about
middle distance or IM events and (c) focused on swimming performance in IM events.
Exclusion criteria were: (a) swimmers with a current injury or disability and other aquatic
participants (e.g., water polo, diving, triathletes) and (b) studies focusing on pacing or
performance trends.
The initial database search identiﬁed 714 records that were relevant to the search
keywords. After removal of duplicates and elimination of papers based on title and
abstract screening, 15 manuscripts remained. Finally, four articles were included in this
review [11–14]. The 11 studies that did not match the eligibility criteria based on full-text
screening were discarded for one or more of the following reasons: not detailing training
intensity distributions (n = 6), conducted with master swimmers (n = 2), performance trends
in IM events across the years (n = 1) and pacing in 200 and 400 m IM (n = 1) (Figure 1).
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 6474
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Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 
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Figure 1. Flow chart summary of the study selection process. 
3. Bioenergetics of Individual Medley Events 
The 400 IM has a duration ranging from 4 to 4.30 min and is considered as a middle 
distance swimming event [1]. Middle distance events are supported energetically by a 
combination of phosphate energy; anaerobic glycolysis and aerobic combustion of carbo-
hydrate, fat and protein [15]. Competitive swimmers spend most of their training time 
improving aerobic endurance, defined as the ability to sustain a high percentage of 
VO2max for a long period, through careful and repeated interval-based training. This type 
of training is important for performance in events around 4 min such as the 400 m IM [16]. 
The physiological preparation for a 400 m IM should address the key physiological factors 
of the maximal aerobic power (rate of adenosine triphosphate resynthesis), capacity (total 
amount of adenosine triphosphate resynthesis from available fuels) and VO2max (maxi-
mum oxygen uptake) [1]. The velocity associated with VO2max (vVO2max) is the single 
best predictor of middle-distance swimming performance especially in 400 m events 
[17,18]. From the data provided by 400 m front crawl swimmers [19,20], the estimated 
velocity achieved during 400 m IM is ~100% of vVO2max. At these intensities, the attain-
ment of a VO2 steady state is delayed due to the emergence of a supplementary slowly 
developing component of the VO2 response [21]. The VO2 fast component is stable at in-
tensities between 95, 100 and 105%; however, the kinetics of the VO2 slow component and 
the corresponding metabolic profiles showed variations between this intensities [19]. 
Other important physiological factors include the lactate threshold (LT), the ability 
to sustain a high percentage of VO2max during the competition and the energy cost of 
locomotion [15,18,19,22]. The physiological adaptations should align with the periodiza-
tion of each swimmers’ training and competition calendar. These physiological adapta-
tions are usually prescribed with specific training sets and sessions in the pool and dry-
land training. One common approach in elite-level swimming to enhancing physiological 
and performance adaptations is incorporation of altitude training (either real or simulated 
to induce hypoxia). 
4. Training Monitoring 
External load monitoring is usually assessed by quantifying the weekly training vol-
ume [23]. The training volumes are usually classified into three or five intensities zones 
[14]. The three training zone model is typically established using swimming velocity and 
blood lactate concentrations as follows: z1 ≤ 2 mmol·L–1; z2 2–4 mmol·L–1, and z3 ≥ 4 
mmol·L–1 [13]. However, [24,25] proposed a modification with z1 ≤ 3 mmol·L–1 and z2 be-
tween 3–4 mmol·L–1. In swimming, the most common model adopted in the sports science 
literature comprises five zones: z1 ≤ 2 mmol·L–1, z2 2–4 mmol·L–1, z3 4–6 mmol·L–1, z4 6–
10 mmol·L–1 and z5 < 10 mmol·L–1 [12,13,26]. Training zones can be categorized according 
Figure 1. Flow chart summary of the study selection process.
3. Bioenergetics of Individual Medley Events
The 400 IM has a duration ranging from 4 to 4.30 min and is considered as a mid-
dle distance swimming event [1]. Middle distance events are supported energetically
by a combination of phosphate energy; anaerobic glycolysis and aerobic combustion of
carbohydrate, fat and protein [15]. Competitive swimmers spend most of their training
time improving aerobic endurance, deﬁned as the ability to sustain a high percentage of
VO2max for a long period, through careful and repeated interval-based training. This
type of training is important for performance in events around 4 min such as the 400 m
IM [16]. The physiological preparation for a 400 m IM should address the key physio-
logical factors of the maximal aerobic power (rate of adenosine triphosphate resynthesis),
capacity (total amount of adenosine triphosphate resynthesis from available fuels) and
VO2max (maximum oxygen uptake) [1]. The velocity associated with VO2max (vVO2max)
is the single best predictor of middle-distance swimming performance especially in 400 m
events [17,18]. From the data provided by 400 m front crawl swimmers [19,20], the es-
timated velocity achieved during 400 m IM is ~100% of vVO2max. At these intensities,
the attainment of a VO2 steady state is delayed due to the emergence of a supplementary
slowly developing component of the VO2 response [21]. The VO2 fast component is stable
at intensities between 95, 100 and 105%; however, the kinetics of the VO2 slow component
and the corresponding metabolic proﬁles showed variations between this intensities [19].
Other important physiological factors include the lactate threshold (LT), the ability
to sustain a high percentage of VO2max during the competition and the energy cost of
locomotion [15,18,19,22]. The physiological adaptations should align with the periodization
of each swimmers’ training and competition calendar. These physiological adaptations
are usually prescribed with speciﬁc training sets and sessions in the pool and dryland
training. One common approach in elite-level swimming to enhancing physiological and
performance adaptations is incorporation of altitude training (either real or simulated to
induce hypoxia).
4. Training Monitoring
External load monitoring is usually assessed by quantifying the weekly training
volume [23]. The training volumes are usually classiﬁed into three or ﬁve intensities
zones [14]. The three training zone model is typically established using swimming velocity
and blood lactate concentrations as follows: z1 ≤ 2 mmol·L−1; z2 2–4 mmol·L−1, and z3
≥ 4 mmol·L−1 [13]. However, [24,25] proposed a modiﬁcation with z1 ≤ 3 mmol·L−1
and z2 between 3–4 mmol·L−1. In swimming, the most common model adopted in the
sports science literature comprises ﬁve zones: z1 ≤ 2 mmol·L−1, z2 2–4 mmol·L−1, z3
4–6 mmol·L−1, z4 6–10 mmol·L−1 and z5 < 10 mmol·L−1 [12,13,26]. Training zones can
be categorized according to the response in blood lactate concentration: Z1; Aerobic low
intensity (A1), z2; Aerobic maintenance (A2), z3; lactate threshold (LT), z4; VO2max and
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 6474
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intensity above VO2max as 200 m race pace and z5 maximal swimming speed [26]. These
training zones need to be established and then checked periodically during a training
season
Monitoring of heart rate also has been used during training sessions to indicate
training intensities [27] but is subject to substantial biological and measurement error.
Nevertheless, blood lactate measurements are considered more useful in determining
the training intensity because they facilitate better monitoring of the effect of training
workloads on the muscle [23]. Thus, blood lactate is a good indicator of the muscles’
capacity for an athletic performance which allows coaches to identify the type and extent of
physiological disturbance and the degree of adaptation that has taken place over time [23].
An increase in blood lactate for the same training stimulus may, for example, point to in-
creased anaerobic metabolism, and therefore, higher levels of lactate at slower speeds may
be indicative of impending overtraining [28]. Nevertheless, the values of blood lactate are
associated with a high between-swimmer variability in swimming techniques, with a range
from <2 to >5 mmol·L−1 at lactate threshold intensity. Front crawl (3.3 mmol·L−1) and
breaststroke (2.9 mmol·L−1) present lower levels of blood lactate at the lactate threshold
intensity than butterﬂy (4.9 mmol·L−1) and backstroke (3.9 mmol·L−1) [29]. It is recom-
mended to schedule a blood lactate assessment test using a prescribed testing protocol
every few weeks [23].
The Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) is another commonly used method for assess-
ing the internal training load [30–33]. Studies have showed moderate to large correlations
between the heart rate and blood lactate concentrations [34,35]. Although, RPE is a valid
method for assessing the training stress in high-intensity exercises [36,37], it is important
to acknowledge that personal perceptions of physical efforts is a very complex interaction
of many factors [38]. Therefore, some investigators recommend to complement the RPE
with an objective assessment of internal training load such as blood lactate and/or heart
rate monitoring [39,40].
5. Training Periodization
Periodization is a process that serves as the macromanagement of the training program
in the context of the annual plan [7,41]. Various periodized models such as the reverse
linear [24,25,42], or block periodization [43], have been established, but the most common
periodized model in swimming is the so-called traditional periodization [14]. Over the
recent decades, many periodization approaches have evolved including traditional, blocks,
and reverse linear periodization, each offering a differing rationale and template for
sub-division of the program into sequential elements [14]. Some authors afﬁrm that the
traditional model of periodization can take different forms (i.e., reverse) [44]. Reverse
linear periodization has been used in combination with a polarized intensity distribution
for improving sprint events. However, the small number of relevant studies did not report
any differences with the traditional model in 50 m performance, or a modest improvement
of 1% in 100 m performance [24,25]. Polarized training is not recommended for middle
distance swimmers; 400 m IM swimmers should beneﬁt from speciﬁc periods of training
that employ a threshold-oriented training intensity distribution [13].
Training periodization involves the coordination of physical training, psychological
capacities training and skill acquisition, providing a comprehensive framework for optimal
preparation [45]. Periodization of training leads to a progressive enhancement in the critical
physiological and biomechanical factors required for swimming competitions [46]. On this
basis, a well-planned and effective periodized approach to training should be established,
monitored and reﬁned for swimmers to achieve ﬁtness and peak performance at the major
competition for the season [47,48]. In the same way, detailed monitoring of performance
and training during the season should be a fundamental aspect to maximize training
effectiveness and avoid excessive volume, intensity and/or training load which can cause
physiological disturbances (e.g., glycogen depletion, neuromuscular fatigue, decrements in
red cell volume and hemoglobin), injuries or illness [49].
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The traditional pyramidal model is most commonly used for swimmers characterized
by a sequential reduction in training volume moving from zone 1, to zones 2 and 3,
respectively. The majority (80%) of the volume is conducted in z1 and the remaining 20% in
z2 and z3 [50]. Issurin [51] conceptualized macrocycles as a training period which involved
a preparatory and competitive period, usually taking several months. A mesocycle is a
medium size training cycle consisting of a number of microcycles which usually involved
several weeks, while a microcycle is a small size training cycle consisting of a number of
days, frequently one week.
The season can been divided into three macrocycles [52], although the majority of
studies reported one or two macrocycles including a comprehensive evaluation conducted
on 127 elite swimmers and 20 competitive seasons [12]. This option seems to be the most
common used by coaches [53]. Our recommendation is to employ two or three macrocycles
divided into three mesocycles each (six or nine mesocycles in total), aligning with three
main competitions in each macrocycle to establish an annual plan. In many countries,
these competitions comprise in order: short course international championships, national
championships and main international competition for the calendar. The emergence of the
International Swimming League (ISL) in recent years may require more ﬂexible planning
and periodization.
5.1. Altitude Training
Altitude training camps during a season can be useful in developing aerobic en-
durance in world-class endurance athletes [54]. Altitude training elicits an increases in
erythropoietic response [55] and hemoglobin mass [56,57]. However, there are also hypoxia-
induced non-hematological changes, such as mitochondrial gene expression and enhanced
muscle buffering capacity [58,59]. Altitude training can account for ~18–25% of annual
training volume in some world-class athletes [60] and is typically performed at altitudes
of ~1800–2300 m above sea level or higher [54,60,61]. The duration of an altitude training
camp depends on many factors; however, between three to four weeks is suggested for mid-
dle distance swimmers [59]. Endurance athletes can undertake altitude training to promote
speciﬁc training goals of the macrocycle [62]. For example, the early-season training camp
when training intensity is typically lower can focus on higher training volumes at low-to-
moderate intensities and capitalize on the hematological effects of the hypoxic stimulus [62].
Subsequent training camps should progress to a focus on lactate threshold, aerobic power
and VO2max training later in the macrocycle. However, a period of low-intensity training
during the ﬁrst few days of altitude acclimatization is recommended [63].
Altitude training camps are generally placed before the main competitions. Six to
nine weeks prior to the main competition is typical time to undertake altitude training [59].
Nevertheless, other training camps could be carry out in the middle of the macrocycles
to emphasize aerobic training contents [59]. One key aspect that coaches and swimmers
must consider is the timing of return from altitude prior to competition. The timing of a
peak performance following altitude training is likely to be inﬂuenced by a combination
of altitude acclimatization and de-acclimatization responses, but more importantly are
the periodization of and responses to training and tapering conducted at and after alti-
tude [59]. Previous studies reported periods of between three and ﬁve weeks (usually three
weeks) [64,65] between altitude training camps and the main competition. This period
seems to be optimal timing of post-altitude performance peaking, but individualizing
training will be important for optimizing the time to compete after an altitude camp [65].
5.2. Preparatory and Main Competitions through the Season
In most individual sports, competitive athletes plan to optimize their performance at
the main competition no more than two or three times per year [66]. A retrospective study
divided the training season in two macrocycles, the ﬁrst leading to the national selection
trials and the second macrocycle leading to the major international competition) [12]. Each
macrocycle should include at least two preparatory (minor) competitions before a major
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 6474
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competition. Swimmers performance in the main competitions should faster given the
effects of the tapering phase [67] and extra motivation at the main competitions [66]. After a
2-week taper period, swimmers can show an improvement of ~3% in the main competition
in comparison with the preparatory competitions carried out three to six weeks before [68].
A common strategy adopted by IM coaches in minor competitions is to have swimmers
compete in one or more form stroke events (e.g., butterﬂy, backstroke or breaststroke) to
complement the speciﬁc IM events. At the major competitions, IM swimmers typically
concentrate on their main event (200 m or 400 m IM), but selection of events will depend
on qualiﬁcations, team selections and coach/swimmer preferences.
5.3. Training Intensity Distribution
Training load variables such as volume, frequency and intensity distribution play
an important role in maximizing physical capacity and performance [69]. Annual vol-
ume of kilometers for a middle-distance swimmer (400 m freestyle) ranged from 2055 to
2600 km [58]. Increasing the training volume is not be the only way of enhancing perfor-
mance and more objective and speciﬁc training sets are required to improve the quality of
the swimming training process [18]. Weekly volume and training intensity distribution are
used as a reference for determining a swimmers’ training load and prescribing training sets
and sessions. Middle distance swimmers show ranges of training volumes between 39,000
and 42,000 m depending on the type of macrocycles used [12]. However, some training
plans showed mean training volumes as high as 58,000 m [11]—peak volumes as high
as 70,000–80,000 m—have been reported anecdotally for some international IM and dis-
tance swimmers. On this basis, both training volume and intensity distribution should be
evaluated together for IM swimmers. A retrospective study showed that middle distance
swimmers follow a threshold model in which ~40–44% of the training was performed at
an intensity of < 2 mmol·L−1 (z1), and 44–46% at 2 to ≤ 4 mmol·L−1 (z2) and 9–14% at
>4 mmol·L−1 (z3) [12]. Threshold-oriented intensity distribution (z1 66%, z2 25%, z3 9%)
can improve crucial training contents for 400 m IM swimmers at the velocity at 4 mmol·L−1
and VO2max [13]. In summary, 400 m IM swimmers should beneﬁt from speciﬁc periods
of training that employ a threshold-oriented intensity distribution. Coaches should also
consider that swimmers who train with a threshold intensity distribution might experience
additional fatigue induced by the cumulative impacts of threshold and high-intensity
training [13]
5.4. Macrocycle Distribution
Training cycles should be prescribed according to the principles of individualization
and progression [12]. Two or three distinctive peaks of high total load are suggested
in the overall training programs of elite swimmers across the year depending on the
number of major competitions scheduled for a particular season. Application of suitable
wave-like cycles in units such as a two or three week mesocycle is used to promote
physiological adaptations and skill acquisition. Swimmers can engage in mono-, bi- or
tri-cycled periodized programs depending on the sequencing of important competitions
within that year. An annual periodization composed of two to three macrocycles would be
appropriate for Olympic and World Championship seasons [14]. For example, three waves
of macrocycles could be planned as follows: the ﬁrst cycle is conducted from September to
December, second from December to April and third from April to August. A two waves
macrocycle timeline could be planned as follows: the ﬁrst cycle from September to April
and the second from April to August.
The main aim of the ﬁrst macrocycle is to develop the general physical ﬁtness and
foundation work for speciﬁc qualities oriented to the event. The goal of second and third
macrocycles is to develop the speciﬁc and competitive physiological qualities (VO2max,
race pace) required for the event, building from general to sport-speciﬁc qualities required
culminating in the taper at the end of the season. In the two-wave macrocycle, the objectives
and training contents of the ﬁrst and second macrocycles are included in a single macrocycle
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 6474
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with the same duration as the ﬁrst and second cycles in the three wave cycle. Moreover,
the second macrocycle of the two-wave cycle has the same duration, training contents and
objectives that the third cycle in the three-wave cycle.
5.4.1. First Macrocycle
The beginning of a season in this macrocycle requires development of aerobic en-
durance up to the lactate threshold, given it is a priority objective on the endurance
training for 400 m IM swimmers [53]. The sessions could be performed in short course
and long course training depending on the characteristics of the swimmers and the sets
planned by coaches. Strength and conditioning (dry-land) training should focus on strength-
hypertrophy, maximal strength and strength-metabolic conditioning (e.g., circuit training)
with a duration ranging from 50–80 min [70]. Circuit training includes a cardiovascular
element in combination with dry-land resistance training using light loads (40–60% one
repetition maximum (1 RM)) and brief rest intervals with circuits performed a number of
times per session. This work yields metabolic adaptations including an athlete’s buffering
capacity [70,71]. Core training sessions can be used to develop stability and postural
control of the body position while swimming. Stabilizing muscles can form the basis for
generating more strength through the limbs [72]. The competition in this cycle is scheduled
in December such as an international short course (for three peaks of performance), but
in two peaks of performance, the ﬁrst cycle is scheduled in April (national selection trial
(Figure 2)).
 
The main aim of the first macrocycle is to develop the general physical fitness and 
foundation work for specific qualities oriented to the event. The goal of second and third 
macrocycles is to develop the specific and competitive physiological qualities (VO2max, 
race pace) required for the event, building from general to sport-specific qualities required 
culminating in the taper at the end of the season. In the two-wave macrocycle, the objec-
tives and training contents of the first and second macrocycles are included in a single 
macrocycle with the same duration as the first and second cycles in the three wave cycle. 
Moreover, the second macrocycle of the two-wave cycle has the same duration, training 
contents and objectives that the third cycle in the three-wave cycle. 
5.4.1. First Macrocycle 
The beginning of a season in this macrocycle requires development of aerobic endur-
ance up to the lactate threshold, given it is a priority objective on the endurance training 
for 400 m IM swimmers [53]. The sessions could be performed in short course and long 
course training depending on the characteristics of the swimmers and the sets planned by 
coaches. Strength and conditioning (dry-land) training should focus on strength-hyper-
trophy, maximal strength and strength-metabolic conditioning (e.g., circuit training) with 
a duration ranging from 50–80 min [70]. Circuit training includes a cardiovascular element 
in combination with dry-land resistance training using light loads (40–60% one repetition 
maximum (1 RM)) and brief rest intervals with circuits performed a number of times per 
session. This work yields metabolic adaptations including an athlete’s buffering capacity 
[70,71]. Core training sessions can be used to develop stability and postural control of the 
body position while swimming. Stabilizing muscles can form the basis for generating 
more strength through the limbs [72]. The competition in this cycle is scheduled in De-
cember such as an international short course (for three peaks of performance), but in two 
peaks of performance, the first cycle is scheduled in April (national selection trial (Figure 
2)). 
 
Figure 2. Example of macrocycle and mesocycle distribution. Note: %TTL: Total training load per-
centage; GP: General Phase; SP: Specific Phase; CP: Competitive Phase. 
 
 
Figure 2. Example of macrocycle and mesocycle distribution. Note: %TTL: Total training load
percentage; GP: General Phase; SP: Speciﬁc Phase; CP: Competitive Phase.
5.4.2. Second Macrocycle
As a general rule, national championships doubling as selection trials are the main
competition in this cycle. In the majority of countries, this competition is the qualifying
event for the next international competition. The second macrocycle should be character-
ized by high training volume and high amount of training at z2 (2–4 mmol·L−1) and z4
(6–10 mmol·L−1) [12]. The objective of these sessions is to improve the aerobic endurance,
up to the level of the lactate threshold pace and VO2max. In addition, sessions aimed
at lactate tolerance and speed could be prescribed as a continuation of the workloads
performed in the ﬁrst macrocycle. The strength and conditioning training should focus on
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 6474
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maximal strength, power and speed endurance with resistance exercise. Circuit training
is recommended performed in sessions ranging from 30–90 min. During this cycle, the
swimmers must continue with the core training sessions for improving their stability. In ad-
dition, progressively, the strength training could be transformed from strength-metabolic
conditioning to muscle endurance with exercises that simulate the time frame of the event,
using light and moderate weights in every exercise (30–50% 1 RM).
5.4.3. Third Macrocycle
The third macrocycle would be the last cycle in the season, featuring the main com-
petition of this cycle which is also the main competition of the season for international
swimmers. Clearly, the Olympic Games or the World Championship is the main major
competition for achieving the peak performance. The previous competitions should focus
on increasing the technical and physical exigency leading to peak performance at the end
of the cycle. It is crucial in this cycle to emphasize the technical aspects, especially during
the early stages of this cycle, including basic training contents (as aerobic endurance),
progressing to speciﬁc contents later (as VO2max) and, ﬁnally, the competitive contents
(as race pace). Thus, training in the third macrocycle should be characterized by high
amount of training at z2 and z4. Strength and conditioning training is similar to the second
macrocycle with a focus on maximal strength, power and speed endurance with resistance
exercise. These attributes can be maintained by circuit training to improve aerobic ﬁtness;
however, this type of training should be reduced when the main competition approaches.
5.5. Mesocycle Distribution
Each cycle is divided in preparatory, competitive and transition following the Matveyev’s
proposal [73]. Bompa and Haff [74] reported the preparatory phase has 2 subphases: gen-
eral phase (GP) and speciﬁc phase (SP). The competitive phase (CP) is when the athletes
need to peak for a competition. For example, the mesocycle distribution in each macrocycle
could keep the following distribution. Three waves macrocycles timeline could be planned
as follows, the ﬁrst cycle: GP: 6 weeks, SP: 10 weeks and CP: 2 weeks; second: GP: 4 weeks,
SP: 7 weeks and CP: 3 weeks; and ﬁnally the third cycle: GP: 3 weeks, SP: 10 weeks and CP:
3 weeks. Moreover, a two waves macrocycle timeline could be planned as follows, ﬁrst
cycle: GP: 12 weeks, SP: 17 weeks and CP: 3 weeks; second: GP: 3 weeks, SP: 10 weeks and
CP: 3 weeks.
5.5.1. General Phase
The main objective of the general phase is to induce physiological, psychological,
and technical adaptations that serve as the foundation for competitive performances [75].
The development of aerobic or oxidative endurance should be the main objective in this
phase (see Table 1). Lactate threshold and VO2max sets could be included in the last few
weeks of these mesocycle. Front crawl would be the recommended stroke to perform this
type of session because of the large volume required in aerobic sets. However, coaches
should consider conducting mixed sets with other strokes. To improve the aerobic en-
durance, swimmers should train at hart rate 40 to 30 beats below maximum. The suggested
pace is half of personal best 200 m time plus 10 to 15 sec. The repeat distances to use when
training in this category are 200 to 1500 m [76]. Moreover, lactate threshold and VO2max
training could be placed in the ﬁnal weeks of the general mesocycle as introductory sets
for the subsequent mesocycle. It would be recommended that a training volume between
55–65 km per week during this phase is appropriate for most 400 m IM swimmers. Dry-
land training during the general mesocycle is focused on the strength and hypertrophy
development. During the ﬁrst cycle, strength and hypertrophy development are the main
objectives, whereas in the second and third cycles coaches should ensure an appropriated
maximal strength development.
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Table 1. Aerobic development and mixed-endurance training sessions and hypertrophy-maximum strength development
training set in the general mesocycle (ﬁnal part) of the ﬁrst cycle.
Swimming Training
Objective
Set
Volume (m)
Training
Intensity
Training
Zone
Stroke
Notes
Aerobic
development
and mixed-
endurance
training
1
2400
3 × (8 × 100)/
1:20–1:30–1:40
min
A2, LT, VO2max
Z2, Z3, Z4
FC
Performed as training testing,
speed control, HR, stroke,
frequency and [La-]
2
3600
36 × 100/
1:20–1:30–1:40
min
Sequence: 3 ×
100 A2 < 2 × 100
LT < 1 × 100
VO2max
Z2, Z3, Z4
FC
3 intensities simultaneously
with the [La-] of the previous
intensity in the next one
Strength Training
Objective
Cycle
Sets
Exercise
Repetitions
Intensity
Hypertrophy and
maximal strength
development
2
4
Short pull Hammer
8
65 < 75%RM
Row Hammer
6
80 < 85%RM
Pull over
8
70%RM
3
Pulls-Up (Eccentric)
3
Body weight
Pulls-UP (Supine grip)
3
6
Squat
8
85%RM
Hamstrings
8
75%RM
Note: Heart rate (HR); Blood lactate ([La-]); Front Crawl (FC); Aerobic maintenance (A2); LT: lactate threshold (LT); Maximum oxygen
uptake (VO2max); Repetition maximum (RM); Zone 1 (Z2); Zone 2 (Z2); Zone 3 (Z3); Zone 4 (Z4); Zone 5 (Z5). The recommendations made
in this table are based on both scientiﬁc and empirical data.
5.5.2. Speciﬁc Phase
As the swimmers progresses to the speciﬁc phase of training, it is important maintain
the level of physical development established during the preparatory phase. The aerobic
endurance training needs to be maintained through this phase. However, the training
should be focus on the lactate threshold and VO2max development (see Table 2). In the
case of the lactate threshold development, swimmers should train at heart rate from 30 to
20 beats below the maximum in repetitions of 50 to 400 m at seven to ten second plus the
half of personal best time in 200 m. For 400 m IM swimmers, it is recommended 3000 to
4500 m sets [53]. Finally, VO2max sets should be performed in sets of 300 to 500 m with 50
to 150 m repetitions. The suggested pace for VO2max training is half of personal best 200 m
time plus four to seven seconds [76]. Moreover, during the middle and the last part of this
period, the race pace training should be included. Race pace training can be carry out as
broken swims (a training repeat with more than one break) and splits (a training repeat
with one break) [53]. The speciﬁc sets should be performed in a mix of strokes, not only
in one stroke, and depending on the week, the training volume should oscillate between
65–90 km per week. During the training ﬁrst cycle, the dryland training should be focus on
maximal strength development; nevertheless, during the second and third training cycles,
power and speed endurance development are the main objectives of the dryland training.
Maximum strength training could involve exercises as Hamstrings (training machine),
Leg press, Dumbbell Row, Chin ups, Lunges Back, Squat, Row Hammer, Bench Press and
Triceps overhead (pulley) with one or two sets with an intensity between 70–90% 1 RM
and four-six repetitions.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 6474
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Table 2. Aerobic and lactate threshold set in the speciﬁc mesocycle of the second cycle of the season.
Objective
Cycle
Set
Total
Volume
(m)
Training
Intensity
Training
Zone
Stroke
Notes
Aerobic
development
and high
intensity
(lactate
threshold)
training along
with aerobic
endurance
training
1
1
3600
1 × (300 m/3:45 min)
A1
Z1
FC
Intensity
progression in
each distance
1 × (400 m/5 min) +
1 × (500 m/6:30 min)
A2, LT
Z2-Z3
2
4000
1 × (400 m/5:15 min)
+ 8 × 50/50 s
A2, LT
Z2-Z3
BT
2 × (200 m) +
4 × 100/1:30 min)
A2, LT
Z2-Z3
BS
1 × (400 m/5 min) +
4 × (100 m/1:10 min)
A2, LT
Z2-Z3
FC
3
1000
4 × (25 m/1:30 min)
Max
Z5
UUS
4 × (50 m/2 min) +
1 × (100/2 min)
400 Race pace
Z4
FC
4 × (150 m/2 min)
A2 (last at LT)
Z2, Z3
FC
Note: Underwater undulatory swimming (UUS); Breaststroke (BK); Front crawl (FC); Butterﬂy (BT); Backstroke (BS); Aerobic low intensity
(A1); Aerobic maintenance (A2); LT: lactate threshold (LT); Zone 1 (Z2); Zone 2 (Z2); Zone 3 (Z3); Zone 4 (Z4); Zone 5 (Z5). The
recommendations made in this table are based on both scientiﬁc and empirical data.
5.5.3. Competitive Phase
Among the main tasks of the competitive phase is perfection of all training factors,
which enables the athlete to compete successfully in the main competition or champi-
onships targeted by the annual training plan [75]. A primary goal of the competitive and
tapering mesocycles is to remove fatigue to stimulate a supercompensation of performance.
During the competitive mesocycle, the most important training content is race pace training
(see Table 3) and dryland training where the focus on is power (explosiveness) development
(see Table 4). The tapering phase prior to international championships can include minor
or major competitions, moderate volume including more low intensity training [49,77].
The training volume is progressively decreased for performing a progressive sloped taper
phase, with the aim of achieving the best performance in the main competition. An optimal
taper duration appears to be between 8–21 days involving a decrease in training load of
~40–60% [75]. Mujika and Padilla [49] recommended a training load reduction between
60–90% and maintaining the training intensity to avoid detraining, provided reductions in
the other training variables allow (i.e., fewer training sessions per week or volume) for sufﬁ-
cient recovery to optimize performance. The progressive reduction on the training volume
begins around 60 km per week and ﬁnishes around 20–30 km per week. The remarkable
decrease in volume took place in the second and third macrocycles of the season [77].
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 6474
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Table 3. Race pace through mixed-endurance training set in the beginning of the competitive mesocycle of the second cycle.
Objective
Cycle
Set
Volume
(m)
Training
Intensity
Training
Zones
Stroke
Notes
Race pace
through mixed-
endurance
sessions
3
1
2200
2 × (8 × 50 m/1 min) +
1 × 400 m/5:30 min
400 m race
pace + A2
Z4-Z2
FC
Combination 400 m
speed, focusing on
frequency/speed
competitive and A2
1000
4 × (1 × 50 m/1:15
min) + 1 × 200/3 min
200 m race
pace + A2/LT
Z4-Z2-
Z3
FC
Intensity increase
looking for a [La-]
accumulation
800
4 × (150 m/2:15 min +
50 m/1 min)
LT + Max
speed
Z3-Z5
FC
The aim is to increase
the intensity,
focusing of AT and
50 m maximal speed
2
800
8 × (50 m/50 s) +
2 × (200/2:30 min)
200 m race
pace + A2
Z4-Z2
FC
The aim is to focus
on frequency/
competitive 400 m
speed
1000
10 × (100 m/
2–2:15 min)
400 m race
pace
Z4
1 × BT,
2 × BS,
3 × BK,
4 × FC
The aim is to
simulate the
competition as much
as possible
400
8 × (50 m/1 min)
Max speed
Z5
FC
The aim is to
simulate the last part
of the competition
800
4 × (200 m/2:30 min)
A2
Z2
FC
The aim is to remove
the lactate at AT
intensity
Note: Blood lactate ([La-]); Breaststroke (BK); Front crawl (FC); Butterﬂy (BT); Backstroke (BS); Aerobic low intensity (A1); Aerobic
maintenance (A2); LT: lactate threshold (LT); Maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max); Zone 1 (Z2); Zone 2 (Z2); Zone 3 (Z3); Zone 4 (Z4);
Zone 5 (Z5). The recommendations made in this table are based on both scientiﬁc and empirical data.
Table 4. Power training set in the beginning of the competitive mesocycle of the second cycle.
Objective
Cycle
Sets
Exercise
Repetitions
Intensity
Power
development
2
3×
Push-ups (additional weight)
4
105–110% BW
Bench Press
Max
60% RM-0.9 m/s
5×
Chin-ups (Eccentric)
4
Body weight
Row Hammer
Max
60% RM-0.9 m/s
3×
Isometric Squat
20”
Body weight
Squat
Max
60% RM-0.9 m/s
Note: Body weight (BW); Repetition maximum (RM); Meters per second (m/s). The recommendations made in this table are based on both
scientiﬁc and empirical data.
6. Conclusions
Knowledge of the preparation and periodization of IM training over a season is limited
in both the coaching and sports science literature. Progressive development of the critical
energetic and biomechanics variables involves the design, implementation and evaluation
of an effective IM training plan. The training program we detailed here was organized with
a traditional periodization paradigm using two or three macrocycles for the season (with
two to three main competitions) incorporating a series of altitude camps. It is incumbent
upon the coach to adjust the programming based on individual responses and swimmers’
characteristics to optimize the training process for each swimmer. Future investigations
into IM training should determine the long-term effects of individual elite swimmers.
It would also be informative to investigate the effects of different periodization models and
training loads distribution on the performance in 400 IM using observation analyses of
elite swimmers and controlled studies with high-level emerging swimmers.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 6474
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Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.M.G.-R., F.H. and J.A.D.C.; database search, F.H. and
J.A.D.C.; writing—original draft preparation, J.M.G.-R. and F.H; writing—review and editing, J.M.G.-
R., F.H. and D.B.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conﬂicts of Interest: The authors declare no conﬂict of interest.
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Periodization and Programming for Individual 400 m Medley Swimmers.
Hermosilla, Francisco,González-Rave, José M,Del Castillo, José Antonio,Pyne, David B