International  Journal  of
Environmental Research
and Public Health
Article
Functional Laterality of the Lower Limbs
Accompanying Special Exercises in the Context
of Hurdling
Janusz Iskra 1, Ryszard Marcinów 1, Bo˙zena Wojciechowska-Maszkowska 1,*
and
Mitsuo Otsuka 2
1
Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy, Department of Sport University of Technology in Opole,
45-758 Opole, Poland; j.iskra@awf.katowice.pl (J.I.); r.marcinow@po.edu.pl (R.M.)
2
Faculty of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Nojihigashi, Kusatsu 525–8577, Shiga,
Japan; otsuka-a@st.ritsumei.ac.jp
*
Correspondence: b.wojciechowska-maszkowska@po.edu.pl
Received: 10 October 2019; Accepted: 6 November 2019; Published: 7 November 2019


Abstract: Background: The purpose of this study was to investigate the lateralization of the lead leg
during special exercises and the relationship with athletic performance throughout a hurdling session.
Methods: Thirty-eight physical education students participated in the study. A novel three-part
“OSI” test (walking over hurdles arranged in a circle, spiral, and straight line) was performed, and
various hurdle practices (jogging and running) were selected as research tools. The lead leg selected
by the participants was taken into consideration, and the relationship between the chosen lead leg
and athletic performance in the ﬁve tests was established. Results: The lateralization of the lead leg
changed depending on the shape of the running course. The results of further analysis showed (i) no
correlation between the use of the right leg as the lead leg in three tests conducted at a marching
pace, and (ii) a signiﬁcant positive correlation between tests performed at the marching and running
paces. Conclusion: Hurdlers ﬂexibly change the dominant leading leg depending on the shape of the
running course. The results of this research could prove helpful in the training of athletes for hurdling
competitions, especially young runners in 400-m hurdles involving straight and corner tracks.
Keywords: hurdle run; functional asymmetry; hurdle exercises; teaching hurdles
1. Introduction
The human body, considered in relation to the sagittal plane, is two-sided. Asymmetry can be
discussed in terms of morphological and functional aspects. Functional asymmetry is associated with
the dominance of one of the cerebral hemispheres and, as a result, the dominance of one of the upper or
lower limbs. Quantitative diﬀerences, such as the results of performance and jumping tests, are related
to the concept of dynamic asymmetry. The expression of functional asymmetry—the selection and
dominant use of one of the limbs—is called lateralization. We assessed the degree of lateralization by
means of classic human dynamic measurements—for instance, by comparing dynamic characteristics
in regard to the right and left limbs [1,2]. This study applied a mixture of observation methods used in
sport sciences, among other ﬁelds [3,4].
The dominant role of a selected lower limb is often determined by the speciﬁcity of a given
discipline. Such phenomena can be observed in activities such as martial arts, football, and selected
athletic competitions such as jumps or hurdles [5–7]. The analysis of the laterality of the lower limbs in
conditions associated with sports competitions also applies to aspects not directly related to sports,
such as horse racing [8].
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 4355; doi:10.3390/ijerph16224355
www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
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Hurdles are a type of athletic competition in which the cyclical nature of the race is mixed with
acyclicality because the athletes need to clear 10 hurdles. The asymmetric nature of clearing hurdles
involves the problem of whether the hurdler’s right or left leg should initially lead. The “lead leg” is
strictly deﬁned for 100/110-m hurdles (only the left or right leg) but can be alternated in the 400-m
hurdle race. The rules regarding hurdles in 100/110-m races include the requirement to clear 10 hurdles.
Competitors with advanced technical skills try to clear hurdles in a three-step rhythm and consequently
attack every hurdle with the same selected lead leg. The three-step rhythm between hurdles presents a
considerable challenge for less-advanced athletes. Because less-advanced athletes try to maintain a
rhythm involving four steps, they clear obstacles by alternating between the right and left leg [9–11].
Only a few competitors in the history of the 400-m hurdle competition (at the highest, world-class level)
have been able to complete the race by attacking the hurdles with only a one-sided lead leg [12]. Most
competitors alternate their lead leg during the race, which is often associated with the need to decrease
their pace in subsequent stages of the sprint [13–15]. Hurdling around a curve in 400-m hurdles seems
to be particularly diﬃcult. This challenge is related to the athletes leaning their weight sideways into
the center of the curve to counteract the centrifugal force [16]. When acquiring hurdling skills, training
to clear hurdles using either leg is important [17,18]. Similar to jumping competitions (advancing
using the left or right leg), some people use a speciﬁc lead leg for hurdle clearance in hurdles [2], and
some practice this movement during classes with special exercises that are performed at a marching or
jogging pace. The importance of including such exercises in the teaching process has been conﬁrmed
in scientiﬁc reports [10].
1.1. Objective of the Study
The objective of the present study was to compare the lateralization of the lead leg during special
exercises performed at a marching or jogging pace with that of the lead leg during hurdle clearance at
standard distances for a speciﬁc level of competition at a maximal pace.
1.2. Research Questions
This study aimed to answer three research questions:
1.
Are there diﬀerences between the lateralization of the lead leg selected in three tests that involve
clearing hurdles at a marching pace, taking into account diﬀerent directions of exercise practice?
2.
Are there diﬀerences in terms of the lead-leg lateralization of the subjects among ﬁve tests that
involve clearing hurdles at marching, jogging, and maximal paces?
3.
Are there correlations between the functional asymmetries of the selection of the right or left leg
as the lead leg during hurdle clearance at marching, jogging, and maximal paces?
1.3. Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were proposed:
1.
There are no diﬀerences in the lateralization of the lead leg selected by participants in three tests
involving marches over hurdles.
2.
There are no diﬀerences in the lead leg selected by participants in all forms of hurdle exercises.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
The study involved a group of students with a specialty in motor skill training at the Faculty of
Physical Education and Physiotherapy at the Opole University of Technology (Table 1). The group
comprised 12 women (age: 23.23 ± 2.07 years; body weight: 57.47 ± 3.57 kg; body height: 1.66 ± 3.24 m)
and 26 men (age: 24.24 ± 2.11 years; body weight: 75.81 ± 5.11 kg; body height: 181.79 ± 4.45 m). None
of the participants were professional hurdlers; all were students of physical education. We did not
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divide the group into males and females, as many authors have shown that both males and females
encounter the same problem of choosing a so-called hurdle stride pattern “rhythm” [16,19,20]. The tests
were carried out in an athletic sports hall on a tartan track. The first test started in the late morning
(i.e., from 11:00 a.m.), and subsequent tests were performed on the same day at half-hour intervals.
The subjects voluntarily agreed to participate in the research and were informed of the purpose of the
study. In this group, there were no professional athletes (hurdlers). There were no reasons to exclude
any students from participating in this study. The whole teaching session was typical of physical
education for students.
Table 1. The arrangement of hurdles in the test performed at jogging and running paces.
Test
Distance Between Hurdles (m)
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
Test 4
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
Test 5
F
12 (A)
7.5
M
13 (A)
8.2
(A): approach.
2.2. Study Procedure
In our study, we used an observation method that included a mixed method of analysis [3]. After
observing many hurdling exercises, we counted left and right movements and converted the values
into percentages, which were subjected to statistical analysis.
The laterality of the lead leg was assessed using the ﬁve trials (specialist tests) described below.
2.2.1. “OSI” Test: A Novel Test Developed in this Study
The subjects had to clear hurdles (76 cm for women, 91 cm for men) arranged at uneven intervals
and along various trajectories: in a straight line, along the circumference of a circle, and along S-shaped
curves. The distances between hurdles (from 2.5 to 5.5 m, every 0.5 m) were determined randomly
for each test (Figure 1). The subjects stood on the starting line with their legs in a step position.
The subjects did not receive any advice regarding the starting position or technique for clearing the
hurdles. While the subject performed the tests, the selection of the lead leg (left or right) was recorded
for each hurdle clearance.
Test no. 1: March along a circle, "O". The subject started the test at the start/ﬁnish line. At the signal
of the coach, the subject began to march around the circumference of the circle in a counterclockwise
direction. An additional ﬁnal hurdle was placed at the start after the subject began the lap. The radius
of the circle and the distances between hurdles are speciﬁed in Figure 1.
Test no. 2: March along a curved track, "S". The subject started the test at the beginning of the
curve, which curved in a counterclockwise direction. In the second part of the curve, the direction of
the march shifted to clockwise. The radius of the curve and distances between hurdles are shown in
Figure 1.
Test no. 3: March along a straight track, "I". The distances between the hurdles are displayed in
Figure 1. The distance in a maximal hurdle run is standard for students of physical education.
There was a main diﬀerence between hurdle clearance on a straight track and that in a run around
the track. When teaching the 400-m hurdle run, we applied exercises (mainly at a marching pace) on
various movement tracks (circle slalom). For this distance, we used an “anticlockwise” direction for
the run with eight variants (eight tracks with diﬀerent curvatures).
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Figure 1. Hurdle arrangement (a square denotes a hurdle) and the intervals between hurdles for tests 
performed in a circle, on a curve, and on a straight track. 
There was a main difference between hurdle clearance on a straight track and that in a run 
around the track. When teaching the 400-m hurdle run, we applied exercises (mainly at a marching 
pace) on various movement tracks (circle slalom). For this distance, we used an “anticlockwise” 
direction for the run with eight variants (eight tracks with different curvatures).  
2.2.2. Two Tests Involving Hurdle Clearance at Jogging and Sprinting Paces 
Test no. 4: This test involved a light jog covering a distance of 50 m and the clearing of hurdles 
with a height of 76 or 91 cm (for women and men, respectively). The subject started the test at the 
start/finish line (legs in a step position). When the coach provided a signal, the subject began clearing 
the hurdles, attacking them with the leg of their choice. While the subject performed the trial, the 
selection of the lead leg (left or right) was recorded for each hurdle that was cleared. The subject did 
not receive any advice regarding the starting position or technique for clearing the hurdles. The 
distances between the hurdles were set randomly (from 4 to 10 m). The velocity of this exercise (test) 
was determined as “medium run/jog”. The time of the test was 14.98 ± 1.48 s (ranging from 12.54 to 
17.98 s) (Table 1). 
Test no. 5: This test involved sprinting (at maximal velocity) for 60 m and clearing hurdles with 
a height of 76 or 91 cm (for women and men, respectively). The subject started the test at the 
start/finish line (legs in a step position). At the signal of the coach, the subjects began to run, clearing 
the hurdles with the leg of their choice. The subject did not receive any advice regarding the starting 
position or the best manner for clearing the hurdles. While the subject performed the test, the lead 
leg (left or right) was recorded for each hurdle that was cleared. The distances between the hurdles 
were set to 7.50 m for women and 8.20 m for men (in both cases, these distances are equal to 
approximately 4.5 times the average body height of the subjects participating in the study) following 
the study by Iskra and Mynarski [10]. The approach (i.e., the distance from the start to the first 
hurdle) was 12 or 13 m. This run was the final run conducted for students after the hurdle course. In 
the protocol in this test, the time of the run was 10.85 ± 0.94 s (from 9.20 to 12.98 s). 
Figure 1. Hurdle arrangement (a square denotes a hurdle) and the intervals between hurdles for tests
performed in a circle, on a curve, and on a straight track.
2.2.2. Two Tests Involving Hurdle Clearance at Jogging and Sprinting Paces
Test no. 4: This test involved a light jog covering a distance of 50 m and the clearing of hurdles
with a height of 76 or 91 cm (for women and men, respectively). The subject started the test at the
start/finish line (legs in a step position). When the coach provided a signal, the subject began clearing the
hurdles, attacking them with the leg of their choice. While the subject performed the trial, the selection
of the lead leg (left or right) was recorded for each hurdle that was cleared. The subject did not receive
any advice regarding the starting position or technique for clearing the hurdles. The distances between
the hurdles were set randomly (from 4 to 10 m). The velocity of this exercise (test) was determined as
“medium run/jog”. The time of the test was 14.98 ± 1.48 s (ranging from 12.54 to 17.98 s) (Table 1).
Test no. 5: This test involved sprinting (at maximal velocity) for 60 m and clearing hurdles with a
height of 76 or 91 cm (for women and men, respectively). The subject started the test at the start/finish
line (legs in a step position). At the signal of the coach, the subjects began to run, clearing the hurdles
with the leg of their choice. The subject did not receive any advice regarding the starting position or the
best manner for clearing the hurdles. While the subject performed the test, the lead leg (left or right)
was recorded for each hurdle that was cleared. The distances between the hurdles were set to 7.50 m
for women and 8.20 m for men (in both cases, these distances are equal to approximately 4.5 times
the average body height of the subjects participating in the study) following the study by Iskra and
Mynarski [10]. The approach (i.e., the distance from the start to the first hurdle) was 12 or 13 m. This
run was the final run conducted for students after the hurdle course. In the protocol in this test, the
time of the run was 10.85 ± 0.94 s (from 9.20 to 12.98 s).
2.3. Statistical Analysis
The results were analyzed using Statistica 13.1 software (TIBCO Sofware Inc., Tulsa, OK, USA).
The signiﬁcance level was set to p ≤ 0.05. The normality of the distribution was assessed by the
Shapiro–Wilk test. Student’s t-test was used to analyze the diﬀerences in the selection of the left or
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 4355
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right leg in the trials involving hurdle clearance along a curve and along a straight line, whereas
the diﬀerences in the results based on the arrangement of hurdles (circle, curve, and straight line)
were assessed by analysis of variance (ANOVA). The analysis of the dependencies between the leg
selection patterns in the trials performed at a marching pace and those performed at jogging and
running paces were performed using Spearman’s Rank correlation coeﬃcient. The Cohen eﬀect sizes
in all statistical tests were determined using G*Power 3.1 (Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf,
Düsseldorf, Germany). Tests for correlation and regression analyses [21]: d = 0–0.1 was considered as
no eﬀect, 0.2–0.4 as small eﬀect, 0.5–0.7 as intermediate eﬀect and ≥0.8 as large eﬀect. Similarly, partial
η2 eﬀect size: 0.01–0.06 small, 0.06–0.14 medium and ≥0.14 large eﬀect.
3. Results
In this study, we used an observation method that included a mixed method of analysis [3]. After
observing many hurdle exercises, we counted left and right movements and converted the values into
percentages, which were then subjected to statistical analysis.
Table 2 shows the mean results for the lead leg selected by subjects in tests in which they cleared
hurdles at a marching pace. In all tests, the subjects had a greater tendency to use the right leg to clear
the hurdles, with a large diﬀerence between the maximum and minimum results. The analysis of the
results demonstrates that there were even cases in which subjects cleared all the hurdles with the right
leg. Such cases were not recorded for the left leg.
Table 2. Lead-leg functional asymmetry in tests involving hurdle clearance at a marching pace (data in
%) and the results of tests performed in a jog and a run.
Test No.
Type Of Test
Lead Leg
Mean (x)
Stand. Dev. (SD)
Min.
Max.
Skewness
Kurtosis
1
March in a circle
“O”
L
3.11
1.20
0
6
0.28
1.22
R
3.89
1
7
−0.28
2
March around a
bend “S”
L
2.53
1.75
0
6
0.11
−0.44
R
4.47
1
7
−0.11
3
March in a
straight “I”
L
2.63
1.60
0
6
−0.11
−0.24
R
4.37
1
7
0.11
Total OSI
L
8.26
3.64
0
18
0.47
1.47
R
12.74
3
21
−0.47
4
Hurdle jog
L
2.71
1.59
0
6
−0.17
−0.66
R
4.29
1
7
0.17
5
Hurdle run
L
2.47
2.50
0
7
0.81
−0.49
R
4.53
0
7
−0.81
Table 2 contains a summary of the mean results for lead leg selection in the tests in which the
subjects cleared the hurdles at jogging and running paces. Similar to the tests in which the subjects
cleared the hurdles at a marching pace, a preference for the right leg was observed in the tests performed
at jogging and running paces. The results of test nos. 4 and 5 also demonstrate cases in which the
subjects cleared all hurdles with the right leg. Cases in which the subject cleared all hurdles with the
left leg were only observed in test no. 5 (i.e., the test that was closest to the conditions of an actual
competition).
Table 3 presents a comparative analysis of the mean results of the tests performed at a marching
pace. The analysis shows statistically signiﬁcant diﬀerences between the selection of the left and right
leg as the lead leg in trials involving hurdle clearance around a curve and along a straight line. In these
tests, the subjects more frequently used their right leg as the lead leg. In the test in which participants
performed the hurdling test in a circle at a marching pace, the diﬀerence was not statistically signiﬁcant.
The mean totals in all three trials performed by subjects at a marching pace revealed statistically
signiﬁcant diﬀerences in the choice of lead leg. The majority of the subjects cleared the hurdles with
the right leg more frequently than they used the left leg. Such diﬀerences were not observed in the
hurdling test performed in a circle at a marching pace.
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Table 3. Student’s t-test results for the selection of the right and left lead legs during tests at a marching
pace and at jogging and running paces (data in %).
Test No.
Type Of Test
Left Leg, L
Right Leg, R
Stand. Dev. (SD)
t
p
d
1
March in a circle “O”
44.36
55.64
17.19
−2.02
0.051
0.57
2
March around a bend “S”
36.09
63.91
25.02
−3.42
0.002 *
2.97
3
March in a straight line “I”
37.59
62.41
22.87
−3.34
0.002 *
7.67
Total OSI
39.35
60.65
17.35
−3.78
0.000 *
6.14
4
Hurdle jog
38.75
61.28
22.75
−3.06
0.004 *
0.99
5
Hurdle run
35.34
64.66
35.73
−2.52
0.016 *
0.96
* p ≤ 0.05; d: Cohen eﬀect size.
A comparative analysis of the mean results of the test performed at the jogging and running paces
(Table 3) demonstrated that the diﬀerences in the selection of the left or right leg were statistically
signiﬁcant. Similar to the tests performed at a marching pace, in the trials at the jogging and running
paces, the subjects more frequently selected the right leg as the lead leg.
The selection of the right leg was preferred in four of the ﬁve cases. However, an additional
question remained: In attempts to clear hurdles at a marching pace, does the arrangement of the
hurdles (circle, curve, or straight line) aﬀect the mean frequency at which the right leg is selected? The
ANOVA did not reveal such diﬀerences (Table 4). The mean results were rescored on the basis of the
attempts to clear hurdles with the right leg (i.e., for various arrangements of the hurdles), and these
results proved to be similar and were not signiﬁcantly diﬀerent. This collection of data proves that the
trajectory of the track aﬀected the selection of the limb used for hurdle clearance.
Table 4. Diﬀerences in the results of the tests involving hurdle clearance using the right leg for various
hurdle arrangements (data in %).
Hurdle
Arrangement
Layout “O”
Layout “S”
Layout “I”
ANOVA
F
p
partial η2
Lead leg R
(x/SD)
55.64
(±17.18)
63.91
(±25.02)
62.41
(±22.87)
1.53
0.22 (NS)
0.05
NS: lack of statistical signiﬁcance; partial η2-eﬀect size.
Table 5 contains the statistical analysis results for the relation between the lead leg selection in
the tests performed at a marching pace (test nos. 1, 2, and 3) and the lead leg selection in the tests
performed at jogging and sprinting paces (test nos. 4 and 5). Interestingly, the results did not show a
correlation based on the hurdle arrangement in the test performed at a marching pace. The results of
all trials that were performed at a marching pace were only correlated with the ﬁnal result of other tests
performed at a marching pace. The results of the remaining tests were not signiﬁcantly correlated with
each other. The results of the lead leg selection in the tests performed on curved tracks (circle, spiral)
did not correlate with the results of the hurdle clearance tests performed at jogging and sprinting
paces, whereas the result of the lead leg selection in the straight line test was signiﬁcantly correlated
with the result of the lead leg selection in the tests performed at a jogging pace (0.64 for p ≤ 0.05).
The results of the selection of the lead leg in the “OSI” test correlated with the lead leg selection results
in the test performed at a jogging pace (0.58 for p ≤ 0.05) and did not aﬀect the selection of the lead
leg in the test performed at a sprinting pace (0.47 for p ≤ 0.05). A signiﬁcant level of dependence was
also observed between the selection of the lead leg during the hurdle clearance in the tests performed
at jogging and sprinting paces (0.58 for p ≤ 0.05). Thus, signiﬁcant dependencies can be established
for exercises performed at similar speeds (march–jog and jog–run). Signiﬁcant speed diﬀerences
(march–run) resulted in the subjects varying the manner in which they cleared the hurdles.
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Table 5. Spearman’s Rank correlation of the trial results for hurdle clearance with the right leg at
marching, jogging, and running paces.
Test
March “O”
March “S”
March “I”
Total “OSI”
Jog
Run
March “O”
March “S”
0.18
March “I”
0.26
0.46 *
Total “OSI”
0.50 *
0.80 *
0.81 *
Jog
0.11
0.45
0.64 *
0.58 *
Run
0.30
0.33 *
0.44 *
0.47 *
0.58 *
* p ≤ 0.05.
4. Discussion
The problem of lateralization in physical education and sports is important in various activities.
Analyses of the functional dominance of the limbs, especially the lower limbs, have shown four types of
laterality: lateralization combined with right leg dominance (type I) and left limb dominance (type II),
right-footedness, and left-footedness [22]. The dominance of a particular leg can be assessed in various
ways, from questionnaires to speciﬁc physical tests [23]. The term “speciﬁc” in this study also applies
to hurdles.
In this study, we did not account for the potential inﬂuence of motor preparation on the choice of
lead leg and, more broadly, the choice of stride pattern. This problem has been addressed in many
previous studies [24]. Speed, endurance, and strength are known to be connected to the strategy used
in the 400-m hurdle run, but this is a separate problem for another study.
Hurdle competitions include two athletic events—the 100/110 m and the 400 m—that diﬀer in
terms of the specialized eﬀort required (focused on speed and speed-endurance, respectively). Analysis
of the results of all tests demonstrated that the subjects more frequently used the right leg to clear the
hurdles in the test performed at a running pace (x = 4.53 m/s), whereas the selection of the right leg as
the lead leg was least common in the hurdle test performed in a circle at a marching pace (x = 3.89 m/s).
Similarly, the preference of the right leg as the lead leg is common in the 100/110-m hurdle race, with
over 60% of competitors participating in the most prestigious athletic events preferring to use their
right leg as their lead leg [16].
The analysis of the results showed that the subjects participating in the test cleared hurdles using
the right leg as the lead leg more frequently during trials performed on straight track sections. However,
this ﬁnding diﬀers from the results of the hurdle test performed in a circle. The direction of the running
movement followed the direction of the race in athletic competition conditions (i.e., counterclockwise).
This may indicate that some of the subjects who normally used their right leg as their lead leg in the
other tests on a circular track decided to select the left leg for the test involving a counterclockwise
run. This observation supports the results reported in earlier studies [16,19], which demonstrated
that subjects ﬁnd it easier to clear hurdles with the inner left leg (as the body adapts to counteract
the centrifugal force) during hurdle clearance on a curve. In fact, Starosta and K˛edziora [25] found
that the 400-m hurdle race speciﬁcally causes the lead leg to change, regardless of the leg that is
normally preferred.
In test no. 5 (hurdle clearance at the maximal running pace), the distance between hurdles was set
to approximately 4.5 times the mean body height, which is the distance used for beginners. At such
distances, novice athletes should (in conditions similar to competition conditions) be able to clear
hurdles in a three-step rhythm without attacking each hurdle with the same leg [11,26,27]. However,
among the 38 subjects in the study, only 21 cleared all hurdles with the same leg (i.e., taking an odd
number of steps between hurdles), and the other subjects changed their lead leg for the task of hurdle
clearance. These results could be attributable to issues that extend beyond lateralization. As has been
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repeatedly stated, the selection of the lead leg in hurdles can also be determined by the level of motor
skills (including speed, glycolytic endurance, and leg strength) [28].
The shorter-distance race is performed on only a straight track, as opposed to longer tracks
that include straight sections, curves, and arched parts; this diﬀerence leads to variation in technical
skills between hurdlers [19,29]. Analysis of the correlation for the marching-pace tests conﬁrms this
conclusion. The results of the marching-pace test performed on a straight track correlated with the
results of the test involving jogging and running along a straight track, but such a correlation could not
be established between the lead leg selection with hurdles arranged on a straight track and that with
hurdles arranged around curves (with diﬀerent hurdle arrangements and moving either clockwise or
counterclockwise), as shown in Table 5. The alternating selection of the lead leg due to the arrangement
of hurdles has often been attributed to fatigue related to anaerobic exercise [28,30]. The results of
this study suggest an association with the direction/track followed during a hurdle test. Hurdling
exercises performed at a marching pace demonstrate that the technical exercise of hurdlers plays a
signiﬁcant role [19,20,29]. Research has shown that this approach to the development of technical
skills is closely related to hurdle performance (both in the form of jogging and running). Therefore,
performing hurdle exercises at a marching pace can have a considerable impact on the progression of
an athlete’s hurdling technique.
In this study, we used an observation method that included a mixed method of analysis [3]. After
observing many hurdle exercises, we counted left and right movements and converted the values into
percentages, which were then subjected to statistical analysis.
High clearance at high (jogging) and maximal velocity (hurdle sprinting and running) was more
diﬃcult than special hurdle exercises at a marching pace. This diﬃculty is likely the reason that
students chose the right leg to “jump” over hurdles. They considered (contrary to standard teaching
for all hurdlers–from beginners to professional) this decision to be not only eﬀective but also safe.
In previous studies, we did not ﬁnd relationships between right (dominant) handedness and lead
leg preference in a hurdle run [31].
The research was limited by a group of physical education students who did not specialize in
professional hurdling, so our results cannot be generalized to professional athletes.
5. Conclusions
The hypotheses in this study were conﬁrmed only partially.
1.
From all tests involving hurdle clearance (marching, jogging, and running), the study demonstrates
the dominance of the right leg. Therefore, the left leg can be considered the dominant take-oﬀ leg.
2.
The lack of a correlation between the leg selection at the marching pace and that at the running
pace demonstrates that the speciﬁc approach followed during hurdle clearance depends on the
proﬁle of the track.
3.
The results of tests involving hurdle clearance at various speeds (marching, jogging, and running)
demonstrate a correlation only between tests conducted at similar speeds (march–jog and jog–run).
Such similarities between tests were not observed when hurdling clearance was performed at
considerably diﬀerent speeds (march–run).
4.
The results of this research could prove helpful in the teaching hurdling running to young athletes,
especially over longer distances, taking into account races following a curve (i.e., after a distance
of 150–300 m in hurdling races).
Author Contributions: Conceptualization: J.I.; data curation: R.M.; formal analysis: R.M.; funding acquisition:
B.W.-M.; investigation: J.I.; methodology: J.I. and M.O.; supervision: M.O.; writing—original draft: B.W.-M.;
writing—review & editing: J.I. and B.W.-M.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conﬂicts of Interest: Authors declare that there are no conﬂicts of interest.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 4355
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© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Functional Laterality of the Lower Limbs Accompanying Special Exercises in the Context of Hurdling.
Iskra, Janusz,Marcinów, Ryszard,Wojciechowska-Maszkowska, Bożena,Otsuka, Mitsuo