Hindawi Publishing Corporation
The Scientific World Journal
Volume 2013, Article ID 670217, 5 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/670217
Research Article
Demographic Characteristics of World Class Jamaican Sprinters
Rachael Irving,1 Vilma Charlton,2 Errol Morrison,3 Aldeam Facey,1 and Oral Buchanan1
1 Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of the West Indies, Mona, Kingston 6, Jamaica
2 Institute of Education, University of the West Indies, Kingston 6, Jamaica
3 University of Technology, Kingston 7, Jamaica
Correspondence should be addressed to Rachael Irving; rachael.irving@uwimona.edu.jm
Received 1 September 2013; Accepted 8 October 2013
Academic Editors: C. Y. Guezennec and T. Noakes
Copyright © 2013 Rachael Irving et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
The dominance of Jamaican sprinters in international meets remains largely unexplained. Proposed explanations include
demographics and favorable physiological characteristics. The aim of this study was to analyze the demographic characteristics
of world class Jamaican sprinters. Questionnaires administered to 120 members of the Jamaican national team and 125 controls
elicited information on place of birth, language, ethnicity, and distance and method of travel to school. Athletes were divided into
three groups based on athletic disciplines: sprint (s: 100–400 m; 𝑛 = 80), jump and throw (j/t: jump and throw; 𝑛 = 25) and, middle
distance (md: 800–3000 m; 𝑛 = 15). Frequency differences between groups were assessed using chi-square tests. Regional or county
distribution of sprint differed from that of middle distance (𝑃 < 0.001) but not from that of jump and throw athletes (𝑃 = 0.24)
and that of controls (𝑃 = 0.59). Sprint athletes predominately originated from the Surrey county (s = 46%, j/t = 37%, md = 17, C =
53%), whilst middle distance athletes exhibited excess from the Middlesex county (md = 60%). The language distribution of all
groups showed uniformity with a predominance of English. A higher proportion of middle distance and jump and throw athletes
walked to school (md = 80%, j/t = 52%, s = 10%, and C = 12%) and travelled greater distances to school. In conclusion, Jamaica’s
success in sprinting may be related to environmental and social factors.
1. Introduction
The success of Jamaicans in the sprint events during the
decades of Olympic participation from 1948 to 2012 reached
a crescendo at the Olympic Games in London in 2012.
Jamaicans won 12 sprint medals and had a 1-2 finish in
the men’s 100 m final, an 1-2-3 finish in the men’s 200 m
final, and a gold medal in the women’s 100 m final. Jamaica
has three of the world’s four fastest men at 100 m. Several
studies have tried to explain the success of Jamaicans in
the sprint events. Proposed mechanisms include favorable
physiological characteristics that could be environmentally,
regionally, or genetically determined [1]. Psychological pro-
gramming also helps in molding sprinting talent; there is
a culture of running in Jamaica with young children being
actively involved in sprinting competitions [2]. Studies have
compared the physiological characteristics of “black” and
“white” athletes, reporting that the former have lower levels
of blood and muscle lactate at a given exercise intensity [3]
and a greater ability to tolerate higher fractional utiliza-
tion of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) [4]. Athletes
of African descent have a higher percentage of fast-twitch
muscle fibres, greater activity in the glycolytic, phosphagenic,
and lactate dehydrogenase metabolic pathways, and greater
rate of ventilation [1]. The limitation of extrapolating the
findings of these studies is that these studies have classified
groups based primarily on skin color without accounting for
the fact that there are sometimes more differences within
races than between; also these findings are not exclusive to
athletes [5]. The influence of the compensatory sickle cell
gene on oxygen transport and availability to the tissues is
reported to give black athletes an advantage in sprinting
[1]. It is postulated that the reduced availability coupled
with the reduced myoglobin in the preponderant fast-twitch
muscle fibers which are adapted for rapid energy (ATP)
regeneration, all give a net outcome of muscle anatomi-
cal and biochemical advantages which proffer a superior
performance [1]. Performance-related genes, biomechanics
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and the environment have been implicated in elite sporting
performance [6, 7]; however, no study has been done that
specifically looks at the demographics of Jamaica’s world class
sprinters.
Jamaica was selected as the model for the present study
as the country’s athletes have an unparalleled record of
success at the international level dating as far back as 1952
when the men of the 4 × 400 meters relay team set a
world record at the Olympics in Helsinski. Jamaica has a
population of approximately 2.7 million people distributed in
3 counties consisting of 14 parishes. The country is English
speaking. Jamaica was colonized by the English in 1634 and
until 1962 it was under direct British rule. The country’s
population according to a United Nations report [8] consists
of predominate blacks whose ancestors originated from West
and West-Central Africa [9].
To our knowledge, no study has attempted to trace the
ethnic or environmental background of world class Jamaican
sprinters and by demographics determine the possibility
that they might share a common ethnic or environmental
origin. The aim of this study therefore was to determine
the demographic characteristics of world class Jamaican
sprinters. The findings were then compared with those of
the general (nonathletic) Jamaican population to determine
whether the sprinters differ in demographics from the ordi-
nary population.
2. Methods
The study was approved by the University Hospital of the
West Indies, Kingston, Jamaica Ethics Committee. Written
informed consents were obtained from the 245 participants.
The experimental procedures were in accordance with the
policy statement of the American College of Sports Medicine.
Participants comprised 120 elite athletes, many of whom
were world and Olympic record holders, and 125 control
participants. All the athletes had represented Jamaica at inter-
national games. The control participants, 125 students from
the G.C. Foster College and the University of the West Indies,
Mona, were intended to be representative of the general
Jamaican population (C: Controls, 𝑛 = 125). This group
does not actively participate in sports at the professional or
amateur level. The athletes were divided into three groups
based on athletic disciplines: sprint (s: 100–400 m, 𝑛 = 80),
jump and throw (j/t: jump and throw, 𝑛 = 25), and middle
distance (md: 800–3000 m, 𝑛 = 15). Athletes in the sprints
were truly elite athletes, regularly dominating in international
sprint events; many were current or former world, Olympic,
and Commonwealth record holders. Although Jamaica is not
usually successful internationally in middle distance events
(800–3000 m), these athletes were included in the study
to investigate the possibility of disproportionate number of
athletes originating from a particular geographical region
being the result of an abundant prominence of athletics in that
region. The questionnaires used were written in English and
modeled off those used in two similar demographic studies
done on world class athletes from Kenya and Ethiopia [10, 11].
Questions were simple and were explained to those who
Key
Counties
Cornwall (Hanover, St. Elizabeth, Saint James, and Westmore land) 
Middlesex (Clarendon, Manchester, St. Ann, St. Catherine, and St. 
Mary)
Surrey (Kingston, Portland, St. Andrew, and St. Thomas)
Boundaries
0
Miles
Parishes
Counties
20
Figure 1: Parishes of Jamaica divided in the three counties: Corn-
wall, Middlesex and Surrey.
could not easily understand. The questions were designed to
obtain the following information.
Place of Birth. This was classified according to the 14 parishes
(Figure 1) and three counties of Jamaica [12]. The intention
was to identify particular regions with a disproportionate
high number of athletes in response to reports that the
majority of Jamaica’s most successful sprinters are from
the county of Cornwall and in particular the parish of
Trelawny.
Spoken Language and That of Parents and Grandparents.
This serves to provide information on ethnicity. A common
language is often indicative of common origin, and a related
language or a language of the same family indicates a
common origin dating further back in time [13]. At present
only two languages are used by most Jamaicans: English and
Patois (Creole-English).
Mode (Walk, Run, and Transport) and Distance Travelled to
School (2 Km, 2–5 Km, 5–10 Km, 10–15 Km, and >15 Km). This
was used to access the link between distance travelled to
school and running success.
3. Data Analysis
Contingency chi-squares using IBM SPSS Statistics 20 were
performed using the Yates, correction factor in all occasions
to identify frequency differences between groups given the
low subject numbers in each field (place of birth, languages,
ethnicity, mode, and distance travelled to school).
Individual chi-squares were then performed to identify
between which groups the differences lay (place of birth:
df = 12, language: df = 1, ethnicity: df = 4, distance travell
to school: df = 4 and method of travelled to school: df =
2). Statistical significance was defined as 𝑃 ≤ 0.05. The 14
parishes were collapsed into the three counties of Jamaica to
allow for statistical analysis using contingency chi-squares.
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100
90
80
70
60
50
(%)
40
30
20
10
0
C
j/t
md
s
Groups
Cornwall
Middlesex
Surrey
Figure 2: Place of birth of athletes and controls. County distribution
of controls did not differ from the sprint and jump and throw
athletes (𝑃 = 0.59 and 0.23) but differed from middle distance
athletes (𝑃 < 0.0001). The county distribution of middle distance
athletes differed significantly from that of sprint athletes (𝑃 < 0.001).
4. Results
4.1. Place of Birth. County or regional distribution of sprint
(s) and jump and throw athletes (j/t) did not differ from
that of the controls (𝜒2 = 3.4, 𝑃 = 0.59 and 𝜒2 = 7.5
and 𝑃 = 0.23, resp.) but county distribution of controls
differed significantly from that of middle distance athletes
(𝜒2 = 40 and 𝑃 < 0.0001). The county distribution of sprint
and middle distance athletes differed significantly (𝜒2 = 30,
𝑃 < 0.0001). County distribution of jump and throw athletes
did not differ significantly from that of sprint athletes (𝜒2 =
6.1, 𝑃 = 0.24). Most of the sprint athletes were from the
county of Surrey (46% versus 37% from Middlesex and 17%
from Cornwall). The controls were mainly from Surrey (53%).
There was a marked overrepresentation of middle distance
athletes in the county of Middlesex (60% versus 40% from
Cornwall and 0% from Surrey, see Figure 2). Only 12% of the
control participants were from Cornwall. Jump and throw
athletes were distributed across the three counties (Surrey:
30%, Middlesex: 40%, and Cornwall: 30%).
4.2. Language. The language spoken did not differ signifi-
cantly (𝑃 > 0.05) amongst any of the groups (C versus s, C
versus j/t, C versus md, s versus j/t, s versus md, and j/t versus
md).
4.3. Mode of Travel to School. The mode of travelling to school
did not differ between the controls and sprint athletes but
differed slightly between the controls and jump and throw
athletes (𝜒2 = 0.4, 𝑃 = 0.8 and 𝜒2 = 10.4, 𝑃 < 0.05,
resp.); however, there was a significant difference between
the controls and middle distance athletes (𝜒2 = 29.6, 𝑃 <
0.001). A significant difference was seen between the sprint
Table 1: Mode of travel by groups.
Groups
Mode of travel to school
Walk
Bicycle
Transport
(bus, car)
Jump and throw
10 (40%)
2 (8%)
13 (52%)
Middle distance
12 (80%)
3 (20%)
0
Sprint
12 (10%)
0
108 (90%)
Control
15 (12%)
0
110 (88%)
The mode of travel to school did not differ between the controls and sprint
athletes but differs slightly between the controls and jump and throw athletes
(𝜒2 = 0.4, 𝑃 = 0.8 and 𝜒2 = 10.4 and 𝑃 < 0.05, resp.).
There was a significant difference between the controls and middle distance
athletes (𝜒2 = 29.6, 𝑃 = 0.001).
There was also a significant difference between the sprint and middle distance
athletes (𝜒2 = 32.1 and 𝑃 = 0.0001) and between the jump and throw and
middle distance athletes (𝜒2 = 22.1, 𝑃 = 0.001).
and middle distance athletes (𝜒2 = 32.1, 𝑃 < 0.0001) and
between the jump and throw and middle distance athletes
(𝜒2 = 22.1, 𝑃 < 0.001, see Table 1).
4.4. Distance Travelled to School. The distance travelled to
school did not differ between the controls and sprint athletes
(𝜒2 = 5.2, 𝑃 = 0.058) but differed between the controls
and the jump and throw athletes (𝜒2 = 13.1, 𝑃 > 0.001).
Seventy percent of the controls Travelled 2 kilometers or
less to school (see Figure 3). Fifty five percent of the sprint
athletes and 20% of the jump and throw athletes travelled ≤
2 kilometres to school. The control and the middle distance
athletes differed significantly in the distance travelled to
school (𝜒2 = 23.4, 𝑃 < 0.001). Forty percent (40%) of the
middle distance athletes travelled between 10–15 km to school
and approximately 26.7% travelled >15 km to school. All the
athletic groups differed significantly in the distance travelled
to school (s versus j/t: 𝜒2 = 14.1, 𝑃 < 0.01; s versus md,
𝜒2 = 20.1, 𝑃 < 0.001; j/t versus md: 𝜒2 = 15.2, 𝑃 < 0.001).
5. Discussion
The study showed that Jamaican sprinters are of similar
environmental and ethnic background as ordinary Jamaicans
or controls. The sprint athletes were distributed across the
island with 46% from Surrey, 37% from Middlesex, and
17% from Cornwall. The controls originated from across
the island with 53% originating from the Surrey county.
There were no differences between the sprint athletes and
the controls in the distance and the mode they travelled to
school. Most use a private automobile or the public bus. No
population stratification was identified between controls and
sprint athletes, as seen in the areas where both groups reside.
The jump and throw athletes showed a slight dominance
in the county of Middlesex (40%); however, they were
equally represented in Cornwall and Surrey (30% and 30%).
There was a significant difference in the distance travelled
to school between the sprint and jump and throw athletes
(𝜒2 = 14.1, 𝑃 < 0.001). Approximately 60% of the jump
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24%
4%
72%
Control
<2 km
2–5 km
5–10 km
10–15 km
>15 km
(a)
15%
55%
30%
Sprint
<2 km
2–5 km
5–10 km
10–15 km
>15 km
(b)
Jump and throw
20%
20%
60%
<2 km
2–5 km
5–10 km
10–15 km
>15 km
(c)
40%
27%
26%
7%
Middle distance
<2 km
2–5 km
5–10 km
10–15 km
>15 km
(d)
Figure 3: Distances travelled to school. Charts showing percentage of participants and distances traveled to school daily. The jump and throw
and middle distance athletes differed significantly from the sprint athletes and controls.
and throw athletes travelled 5–10 kilometres to school and
approximately 55% of the sprint athletes travelled ≤2 km to
school. There was a slight difference between the jump and
throw athletes and the controls in the mode travelling to
school (𝑃 < 0.05).
The middle distance runners seemed to be of a distinct
environment or county background. Most of the middle
distance runners were from the county of Middlesex (60%)
which consists of the parishes of Clarendon, Manchester, St.
Ann, St. Catherine, and St. Mary. Many of these parishes
are deep rural with unreliable means of travel. Roads are
often dirty and distances between schools are much greater
than those in the county of Surrey which is more developed
in terms of modern amenities. Another 40% of the middle
distance athletes originated from Cornwall which has more
mountainous parishes than Middlesex. Middlesex however
forms part of the Blue Mountain range with highest point
at about 2,250 meters [14]. No middle distance athletes
originated from the urban Surrey but 53% of controls were
from Surrey. Surrey also forms part of the Blue Mountain
range but the controls and sprinters tend to originate from the
valleys in the Surrey county. Environment and not ethnicity
seemed to be the factor that differentiated the middle distance
runners from the sprinters as both groups mainly spoke Cre-
ole English and English. A common language is suggestive of
same origin and a related language may also indicate a com-
mon origin, but one that is older [13]. The middle distance
runners were over represented in Middlesex and Cornwall
which consist of mountainous areas. High altitude may be
benefital in distance running [7]. This finding supports the
theory that the success of the Kenyans in distance running in
some way may be linked to the proximity of the Rift Valley as
many of Kenyans distance runners are from the high altitude,
Rift Valley region. Jamaican middle distance runners seemed
to be a special set from the mountainous areas. The middle
distance runners travelled longer distance to school (93%
travelled > 5 km to school versus 60% of the jump and throw
athletes and 15% of the sprint athletes) and were more likely
and jump and throw athletes to travel to school via bicycle
or walking than the sprinters. The significant differences
between controls and middle distance athletes in regards
to place of birth, distance travelled to school, and mode of
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5
travel suggested some link between place of birth and middle
distance athletic ability. The finding that the middle distance
athletes seem to be clustered in the deep rural parishes or
counties of Jamaica may support the hypothesis of a link
between mountain and endurance. The athletes from clusters
in the deep rural parishes showed more African haplotypes
than the general population [2]. When this study is compared
to the findings that Kenyans who walked or run to school
had VO2 max values that are 30% higher than those who did
not walk or run [10] there is an implication that childhood
endurance activity might be a determinant of middle distance
athletic selection.
6. Conclusion
The results showed that world class Jamaican sprinters have
the same demographic profile as the general population. The
middle distance athletes seem to have a distinct demographic
profile for all variables except language.
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Demographic characteristics of world class Jamaican sprinters.
Irving, Rachael,Charlton, Vilma,Morrison, Errol,Facey, Aldeam,Buchanan, Oral