ORIGINAL RESEARCH
Effects of all-out sprint interval training under hyperoxia
on exercise performance
Michihiro Kon1,2,*
, Kohei Nakagaki2,3,* & Yoshiko Ebi2
1
School of International Liberal Studies, Chukyo University, Nagoya, Japan
2
Department of Sports Sciences, Japan Institute of Sports Sciences, Tokyo, Japan
3
Department of Sports Sciences, Yamanashi Gakuin University, Yamanashi, Japan
Keywords
Accumulated oxygen deﬁcit, hyperoxic
training, lactate curve, trained athletes.
Correspondence
Michihiro Kon, School of International Liberal
Studies, Chukyo University, 101-2
Yagotohonmachi, Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-
8666, Japan.
Tel: +81-52-835-9864
Fax: +81-52-835-7197
E-mail: kon.michihiro@gmail.com
Funding Information
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI
(Grant Numbers 22700644 and 11J09235)
and a grant from research project of Japan
Institute of Sports Sciences.
Received: 3 May 2019; Revised: 20 June
2019; Accepted: 8 July 2019
doi: 10.14814/phy2.14194
Physiol Rep, 2019, 7(14), e14194,
https://doi.org/10.14814/phy2.14194
*These authors contributed equally to this
work.
Abstract
All-out sprint interval training (SIT) is speculated to be an effective and time-
efﬁcient training regimen to improve the performance of aerobic and anaero-
bic exercises. SIT under hypoxia causes greater improvements in anaerobic
exercise performance compared with that under normoxia. The change in
oxygen concentration may affect SIT-induced performance adaptations. In this
study, we aimed to investigate the effects of all-out SIT under hyperoxia on
the performance of aerobic and anaerobic exercises. Eighteen college male ath-
letes were randomly assigned to either the normoxic sprint interval training
(NST, n = 9) or hyperoxic (60% oxygen) sprint interval training (HST,
n = 9) group and performed 3-week SIT (six sessions) consisting of four to
six 30-sec all-out cycling sessions with 4-min passive rest. They performed
maximal graded exercise, submaximal exercise, 90-sec maximal exercise, and
acute SIT tests on a cycle ergometer before and after the 3-week intervention
to evaluate the performance of aerobic and anaerobic exercises. Maximal oxy-
gen uptake signiﬁcantly improved in both groups. However, blood lactate
curve during submaximal exercise test signiﬁcantly improved only in the HST
group. The accumulated oxygen deﬁcit (AOD) during 90-sec maximal exercise
test signiﬁcantly increased only in the NST group. The average values of mean
power outputs over four bouts during the acute SIT test signiﬁcantly
improved only in the NST group. These ﬁndings suggest that all-out SIT
might induce greater improvement in aerobic exercise performance (blood
lactate curve) but impair SIT-induced enhancements in anaerobic exercise
performance (AOD and mean power output).
Introduction
All-out sprint interval training (SIT) has gained attention
as an exercise training regimen that enhances the perfor-
mance of aerobic and anaerobic exercises despite lower
training volume. Burgomaster et al. (2005) demonstrated
that SIT consisting of four to seven 30-sec all-out cycling
with 4-min recovery induces improvements in endurance
time to fatigue during submaximal cycling, maximal oxy-
gen uptake ( _VO2max), and power output during repeated
sprint test. In addition, similar enhancements in 750 kJ
cycling time (Gibala et al. 2006) and _VO2max (Burgomas-
ter et al. 2008; Cocks et al. 2013; Shepherd et al. 2013)
are induced following SIT and traditional endurance
training although total training volume is lower for SIT
versus endurance training. These results suggest that all-
out SIT may be a more time-efﬁcient and effective train-
ing method to improve the performance of aerobic and
anaerobic exercises.
In recent years, all-out SIT under hypoxic condition
has been reported to induce greater improvements in
exercise performance compared with that under normoxic
ª 2019 The Authors. Physiological Reports published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of
The Physiological Society and the American Physiological Society
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
2019 | Vol. 7 | Iss. 14 | e14194
Page 1
Physiological Reports ISSN 2051-817X
condition. Recent studies have shown greater improve-
ment in power output during repeated sprint test follow-
ing
SIT
under
hypoxia
compared
with
that
under
normoxia in male sprinters (Kasai et al. 2017) and female
lacrosse athletes (Kasai et al. 2015). In addition, SIT
under hypoxia leads to greater increases in power output
and
number
of
sprint
sets
until
exhaustion
during
repeated sprint tests in male cyclists (Faiss et al. 2013)
and male and female cross-country skiers (Faiss et al.
2015). However, one study found no additional effect of
hypoxic SIT on the degree of improvement in these per-
formance parameters in endurance-trained male subjects
(Montero and Lundby 2017). Based on these results, all-
out SIT under hypoxia, when compared with that under
normoxia, may be more useful for enhancing anaerobic
exercise performance. Hypoxic exposure increases the
contribution of the anaerobic energy system during all-
out
sprint
exercise
(Ogura
et
al.
2006).
Therefore,
researchers speculate that the increased stimulus to the
anaerobic
energy
system
may
contribute
to
greater
improvements in anaerobic exercise performance (Kasai
et al. 2015). If the alteration in the energy system contri-
butions during SIT due to the change in oxygen concen-
tration affects the SIT-induced performance adaptations,
all-out SIT under hyperoxia may cause greater SIT-in-
duced
improvement
in
aerobic
exercise
performance
because hyperoxia exposure increases the percentage of
energy supplied from the aerobic system during maximal
exercise (Linossier et al. 2000). By contrast, SIT under
hyperoxia
may
impair
SIT-induced
enhancement
in
anaerobic exercise performance because hyperoxia expo-
sure decreases the percentage of energy supplied from the
anaerobic system during maximal exercise (Linossier et al.
2000).
In this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of all-
out SIT under hyperoxia on the performance of aerobic
and anaerobic exercises in trained athletes. We hypothe-
sized that all-out SIT under hyperoxia would lead to
greater enhancement in aerobic exercise performance but
diminishes anaerobic exercise performance.
Materials and Methods
Subjects
Eighteen healthy college male athletes participated in this
study. None of the subjects were smokers or taking any
medications. They belonged to the canoe club at the same
university and performed canoe-speciﬁc training 5 days
per week. The subjects were randomly assigned to either
the normoxic sprint training (NST, n = 9) or the hyper-
oxic sprint training (HST, n = 9) group. The physical
characteristics of the subjects are shown in Table 1. The
subjects were informed of the experimental procedures, as
well as the purpose of the present study. Informed con-
sent was subsequently obtained from all subjects. The
Japan Institute of Sports Sciences Ethics Committee
approved the study design (Approval no. 001).
Training protocol
This study was conducted using a single-blind design.
The subjects performed 3-week all-out SIT on nonconsec-
utive days (every Monday and Thursday or every Tuesday
and Friday, six sessions in total). Before the training, the
subjects in the NST and HST groups wore a face mask
covering the nose and mouth. In the HST group, the sub-
jects received hyperoxic gas (60% oxygen) from the mask
via a hyperoxic generator (TOK-20DX-M; IBS Co., Ltd.,
Osaka, Japan). The subjects in the NST group received
normoxic air from the mask. The HST group was
exposed to hyperoxic condition from 10 min before the
sprint interval exercise session until immediately after the
exercise session. The SIT consisted of repeated 30-s all-
out cycling bouts on a cycle ergometer (Excalibur Sport
925900; Lode BV, Groningen, The Netherlands) at resis-
tance equivalent to 7.5% of their body mass with 4-min
passive rest between bouts. The cycle ergometer was set
to ﬁxed torque mode. The number of cycling bouts per-
formed during each training session increased from four
during week 1, to ﬁve during week 2, and ﬁnally to six
Table 1. Characteristics of the subjects
NST (n = 9)
HST (n = 9)
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Age (year)
20.7  0.9
19  0.4
Height (cm)
172.9  1.8
171.9  1.8
Body mass (kg)
72.8  3.1
72.7  3.2
70.6  1.6
70.8  1.6
Body mass index (kg/m2)
24.3  0.8
24.3  0.9
23.9  0.3
24.0  0.3
Values are presented as means  SE. NST, normoxic sprint training; HST hyperoxic sprint training.
2019 | Vol. 7 | Iss. 14 | e14194
Page 2
ª 2019 The Authors. Physiological Reports published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of
The Physiological Society and the American Physiological Society
Adaptations to Sprint Training in Hyperoxia
M. Kon et al.
during week 3. The subjects were instructed to sprint as
fast as possible against the resistance and were encouraged
verbally.
Maximal graded exercise test
A maximal graded exercise test on the cycle ergometer
was performed to determine _VO2max and maximal work-
load. After a 5-min warm-up at 100 W, the power output
was increased by 15 W every 30 sec until exhaustion. Res-
piratory gas samples were collected in Douglas bags every
30 sec during the test. The highest 30-sec
_VO2 was
regarded as
_VO2max of the test. The subjects were
instructed to maintain a cadence of 90 rpm during the
test. The test was terminated when they could not main-
tain pedal frequency within 5 rpm of the required level
for 5 sec despite vigorous encouragement. The highest
workload maintained for 30 sec was deﬁned as maximal
workload.
Submaximal intermittent incremental
exercise test
A submaximal intermittent incremental exercise test on
the cycle ergometer was performed to determine both the
blood lactate curve and _VO2-power output linear rela-
tionship. The power output for each 6-min stage was cal-
culated as a percentage of the maximal workload (ﬁrst
stage, 20%; second stage, 30%; third stage, 40%; fourth
stage, 50%; and ﬁfth stage, 60%). The subjects were
instructed to maintain a cadence of 90 rpm during the
test. A 2-min rest period between each 6-min stage was
allowed for the sampling of capillary blood. The _VO2 val-
ues for the last 2 min of each 6-min stage were recorded
and used to determine the _VO2-power output linear rela-
tionship for each subject.
90-sec maximal exercise test
The subjects performed a 90-sec maximal exercise test on
the cycle ergometer as described previously (Gastin and
Lawson 1994). Before the trial, subjects were given a 5-
min warm-up at 100 W and then a 3-min rest. The resis-
tance was reduced from 9.5 to 7.5% of their body weight
at 30 sec and further reduced to 5.5% of their body
weight at 60 sec. For an all-out effort, the subjects were
instructed
and
strongly
encouraged
to
maintain
the
cadence as high as possible throughout the test. The esti-
mated oxygen demand for the 90-sec maximal exercise
test was then calculated by extrapolation from the _VO2-
power output linear relationship. The accumulated oxy-
gen
deﬁcit
(AOD)
was
calculated
as
the
difference
between the estimated oxygen demand of exercise and the
accumulated oxygen uptake (AOU). Average power out-
put, estimated oxygen demand and oxygen uptake were
calculated over 30-sec intervals.
Sprint interval exercise test
The subjects performed an all-out sprint interval exercise
test under normoxic conditions, comprising four 30-sec
maximal cycling bouts with 4-min passive rest between
bouts using the cycle ergometer. The resistance was equiv-
alent to 7.5% of their body weight. The peak and mean
power output values of each bout were measured and
recorded.
Cardiorespiratory measurements
_VO2 and _VCO2 were determined using the Douglas bag
method. The O2 and CO2 fractions in the expired gas
were measured with a calibrated gas analyzer (Aeromoni-
tor AE310s; Minato Medical Science, Osaka, Japan). The
expired gas volume was determined using a dry gas meter
(Oval GAL-55; Oval Corp., Tokyo, Japan).
Blood sampling and analysis
Blood sampling was performed before (pre) and after
(post) the 3-week intervention. In the morning (between
08:00 and 09:00), all subjects visited the laboratory after
overnight fasting and rested for 30 min before the blood
collection. The subjects were conﬁrmed to ensure a 48-h
period without any exercise activity prior to the blood
collection. Subsequently, blood samples were collected
from
each
subject’s
forearm.
Serum
samples
were
obtained by centrifugation (3000 rpm for 15 min) and
stored at 80°C until analysis. Serum derivatives of
reactive oxygen metabolites (d-ROMs), which are mark-
ers to evaluate hydroperoxide levels (oxidative stress),
and serum biological antioxidant potential (BAP), which
indicates antioxidant capacity, were measured using a
FREE Carrio Duo (Wismerll Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan).
The BAP/d-ROMs ratio was also measured to evaluate
serum oxidant-antioxidant balance (Sone et al. 2019).
Blood lactate concentration was determined using a Bio-
sen S-Line (EKF-diagnostic GmbH, Barleben, Germany)
from 20 µL of ﬁngertip capillary blood sample. Oxyhe-
moglobin saturation (SpO2) was measured using a fore-
head pulse oximeter (Masimo Rad-57; Masimo Corp.,
CA).
Nutritional and physical activity controls
During the experimental period, the subjects were ordered
to continue their normal diet and physical activity. They
ª 2019 The Authors. Physiological Reports published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of
The Physiological Society and the American Physiological Society
2019 | Vol. 7 | Iss. 14 | e14194
Page 3
M. Kon et al.
Adaptations to Sprint Training in Hyperoxia
were also instructed not to perform any exercise for 48 h
before the exercise performance tests.
Statistical analysis
Results are presented as means with standard errors (SE).
All data were analyzed using a two-way ANOVA with
repeated measures. When signiﬁcant differences existed, a
post hoc analysis test (Fisher’s least signiﬁcant difference)
was performed. The percent changes between the groups
were compared using unpaired t tests. The level of statis-
tical signiﬁcance was set at P < 0.05.
Results
Body composition
Before the 3-week training period, no signiﬁcant differ-
ence was found in the physical characteristics between the
NST and HST groups (Table 1). Body mass (main effect,
P = 0.57) and body mass index (main effect, P = 0.56)
did not change after the training period in either group.
Oxyhemoglobin saturation
Figure 1 shows a typical example of changes in SpO2 dur-
ing six repeated bouts of sprint exercise under normoxia
and hyperoxia obtained from the same subject. The SpO2
during SIT under normoxia changed between 98% and
92%. By contrast, no change (almost 100%) in SpO2 was
observed during SIT under hyperoxia.
Training power output
Figure 2 shows the average values of mean power outputs
over four, ﬁve, or six bouts throughout the 3-week
training period. No signiﬁcant differences were found in
the power outputs throughout the 3-week training period
between the NST and HST groups (main effect, P = 0.31).
_VO2maxand maximal workload during
maximal graded exercise test
_VO2max signiﬁcantly improved in both the NST and
HST groups (main effect, P < 0.05; Fig. 3). However, no
signiﬁcant difference was found in the degree of improve-
ment in _VO2max between the NST (3.0  2.1%) and
HST (6.0  1.8%) groups (main effect, P = 0.83). Maxi-
mal workload during progressive exercise test to deter-
mine
_VO2max also signiﬁcantly increased in both the
NST and HST groups (P < 0.05; Fig. 3), with no differ-
ence between the two groups (main effect, P = 0.97).
Respiratory gas and blood lactate during
submaximal exercise test
Table 2 shows changes in _VO2, _VCO2, and respiratory
exchange ratio (RER) during submaximal intermittent
incremental exercise test. The _VO2, _VCO2, and RER pro-
gressively increased during the submaximal intermittent
incremental test in the NST and HST groups (main effect,
P < 0.05). Signiﬁcant differences were not observed in
_VO2 (NST, main effect, P = 0.79; HST, main effect,
P = 0.56) and _VCO2 (NST, main effect, P = 0.87; HST,
main effect, P = 0.71) between before (pre) and after
(post) training in normoxia and hyperoxia. By contrast,
the RER at the ﬁrst stage in the NST group signiﬁcantly
increased after the training (P < 0.05, effect size = 0.78).
Figure 4 shows blood lactate data during the submaxi-
mal intermittent incremental cycling test. Blood lactate
also progressively increased in the NST and HST groups
(main effect, P < 0.05). However, blood lactate levels at
84
88
92
96
100
0 
5 
10 
15 
20 
25 
Normoxia 
Hyperoxia 
SpO2 (%)
Time (min)
1st    2nd     3rd    4th     5th    6th  
Figure 1. Typical example of changes in SpO2 during six repeated
bouts of sprint exercise under normoxia and hyperoxia obtained
from the same subject.
0
200
400
600
800
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
NST 
HST 
Training power output (W)
Training times
Figure 2. Training power outputs throughout the 3-week all-out
sprint interval training. NST, normoxic sprint interval training
(n = 9); HST, hyperoxic sprint interval training (n = 9). Values are
presented as means  SE.
2019 | Vol. 7 | Iss. 14 | e14194
Page 4
ª 2019 The Authors. Physiological Reports published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of
The Physiological Society and the American Physiological Society
Adaptations to Sprint Training in Hyperoxia
M. Kon et al.
the 4th (P < 0.05, effect size = 0.80) and 5th (P < 0.05,
effect size = 0.86) stages after the training were signiﬁ-
cantly lower than those before the training in the HST
group, but no signiﬁcant differences were found in the
NST group (P = 0.51).
Power outputs, AOU, AOD, and %AOD
during 90-s maximal exercise test
Table 3 shows power outputs, AOU, AOD, and %AOD
data during 90-sec maximal exercise test. Peak and mean
power outputs signiﬁcantly increased in both the groups
(main effect, P < 0.05). Although no signiﬁcant differences
were found in the degree of improvements in peak and
mean power outputs between the NST and HST groups,
percent changes in the peak and mean power outputs in
the NST group (peak power output; 10.9  3.5%, mean
power output; 6.3  1.7%) tended to be higher than those
in the HST group (peak power output; 3.5  2.3%, mean
power output; 2.2  1.0%) (P < 0.10). AOU signiﬁcantly
increased in both the NST and HST groups after the train-
ing (main effect, P < 0.05). However, AOD (P < 0.05,
effect size = 0.85) and %AOD (P < 0.05, effect size = 0.61)
signiﬁcantly increased only in the NST group after the
training. In addition, the NST group showed signiﬁcantly
greater percentage increases in AOD (P < 0.05, effect
size = 1.07) and %AOD (P < 0.05, effect size = 0.92) than
the HST group (Fig. 5).
40 
45 
50 
55 
60 
NST 
HST 
Pre 
Post 
VO2max (ml/kg/min)
*
*
4.0  
4.5  
5.0  
5.5  
6.0  
NST 
HST 
Pre 
Post 
Maximal workload (W/kg)
*
*
.
Figure 3. Maximal oxygen uptake ( _VO2max) and workload before (pre) and after (post) 3 weeks of all-out sprint interval training. NST,
normoxic sprint interval training (n = 9); HST, hyperoxic sprint interval training (n = 9). Values are presented as means  SE. *P < 0.05 versus
pre.
Table 2. Changes in _VO2, _VCO2, and RER during submaximal intermittent incremental exercise test
NST (n = 9)
HST (n = 9)
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
_VO2 (mL/kg/min)
1st
19.2  0.4
19.4  0.3
1st
19.4  0.4
19.1  0.5
2nd
23.9  0.6
23.7  0.4
2nd
24.3  0.5
23.8  0.6
3rd
29.2  0.8
29.1  0.5
3rd
29.4  0.7
28.8  0.9
4th
34.6  0.9
34.3  0.6
4th
35.0  0.9
34.2  1.1
5th
40.7  1.2
39.9  0.7
5th
41.0  1.0
40.0  1.2
_VCO2 (mL/kg/min)
1st
17.2  0.4
17.9  0.4
1st
17.3  0.6
17.4  0.5
2nd
21.5  0.5
22.0  0.5
2nd
22.3  0.6
22.3  0.5
3rd
27.1  0.8
27.2  0.5
3rd
27.8  0.8
27.4  0.9
4th
33.0  0.8
32.8  0.7
4th
34.3  1.2
33.4  1.2
5th
40.4  1.3
40.0  0.9
5th
41.6  1.4
40.6  1.2
RER
1st
0.89  0.01
0.93  0.02*
1st
0.89  0.02
0.91  0.01
2nd
0.90  0.01
0.93  0.02
2nd
0.92  0.01
0.94  0.01
3rd
0.93  0.01
0.94  0.01
3rd
0.94  0.01
0.95  0.01
4th
0.96  0.01
0.96  0.01
4th
0.98  0.01
0.98  0.01
5th
0.99  0.01
1.00  0.01
5th
1.01  0.01
1.01  0.01
Values are presented as means  SE. NST, normoxic sprint training; HST hyperoxic sprint training.
*P < 0.05 versus Pre.
ª 2019 The Authors. Physiological Reports published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of
The Physiological Society and the American Physiological Society
2019 | Vol. 7 | Iss. 14 | e14194
Page 5
M. Kon et al.
Adaptations to Sprint Training in Hyperoxia
Power outputs during acute sprint interval
exercise test
Table 4 shows peak and mean power output data during
acute sprint interval test. In the NST and HST groups,
the peak and mean power outputs gradually decreased
before (pre) and after (post) the training period (main
effect, P < 0.05). The average values of peak power out-
puts over four bouts signiﬁcantly increased after the
training in both the NST and HST groups (main effect,
0.0  
1.0  
2.0  
3.0  
4.0  
5.0  
6.0  
7.0  
1st 
2nd 
3rd 
4th 
5th 
Pre 
Post 
0.0  
1.0  
2.0  
3.0  
4.0  
5.0  
6.0  
7.0  
1st 
2nd 
3rd 
4th 
5th 
Pre 
Post 
Blood lactate (mmol/L)
Blood lactate (mmol/L)
NST
HST
* 
* 
(stage)
(stage)
Figure 4. Blood lactate curve during submaximal intermittent incremental cycling test before (pre) and after (post) 3 weeks of all-out sprint
interval training. NST, normoxic sprint interval training (n = 9); HST, hyperoxic sprint interval training (n = 9). Values are presented as
means  SE. *P < 0.05 versus pre.
Table 3. Changes in peak and mean power outputs, AOU, AOD, and %AOD during 90-sec maximal exercise test
NST (n = 9)
HST (n = 9)
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Peak power (W/kg)
20.5  0.7
22.7  1.1*
20.3  0.6
21.0  0.7*
Mean power (W/kg)
6.9  0.1
7.3  0.2*
7.0  0.1
7.2  0.1*
AOU (mL/kg)
65.0  1.2
66.2  1.2*
68.1  1.5
69.7  1.3*
AOD (mLO2eq/kg)
55.4  1.7
61.0  2.4*
55.6  1.2
56.3  1.9
%AOD
46.0  0.8
47.9  1.2*
45.0  0.9
44.6  1.2
Values are presented as means  SE. AOU, accumulated oxygen uptake; AOD, accumulated oxygen deﬁcit; NST, normoxic sprint training;
HST hyperoxic sprint training.
*P < 0.05 versus Pre.
0 
3 
6 
9 
12 
15 
NST 
HST 
Percent changes of AOD (%)
*
Percent changes of %AOD (%)
*
–4 
–2 
0 
2 
4 
6 
8 
NST 
HST 
Figure 5. Percent changes in AOD and %AOD during 90-sec maximal cycling test before (pre) and after (post) 3 weeks of all-out sprint
interval training. NST, normoxic sprint interval training (n = 9); HST, hyperoxic sprint interval training (n = 9). Values are presented as
means  SE. *P < 0.05 between the NST and HST.
2019 | Vol. 7 | Iss. 14 | e14194
Page 6
ª 2019 The Authors. Physiological Reports published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of
The Physiological Society and the American Physiological Society
Adaptations to Sprint Training in Hyperoxia
M. Kon et al.
P < 0.05). By contrast, the average values of mean power
outputs over four bouts signiﬁcantly increased after the
training
only
in
the
NST
group
(P < 0.05,
effect
size = 0.84). In addition, the NST group showed a signiﬁ-
cantly greater percentage increase in the average values of
mean power output over four bouts than the HST group
(P < 0.05, effect size = 1.12; Fig. 6).
Serum d-ROM, BAP, and BAP/d-ROMs ratio
Figure 7 shows serum d-ROMs, BAP, and BAP/d-ROMs
data before (pre) and after (post) 3-week SIT. Serum d-
ROMs did not change in either the NST or HST groups.
By contrast, serum BAP signiﬁcantly decreased after the
training in both groups (main effect, P < 0.05). However,
the BAP/d-ROMs ratio did not change in either the NST
or HST groups.
Discussion
This study investigated the effects of all-out SIT under
hyperoxia on the performance of aerobic and anaerobic
exercises. The blood lactate curve during the submaximal
intermittent incremental cycling test, which represents
enhancement in aerobic endurance capacity (Faude et al.
2009), improved only in the HST group. By contrast,
hyperoxia exposure impaired the SIT-induced enhance-
ments in the AOD and %AOD during 90-s maximal exer-
cise test. Moreover, the SIT-induced increase in average
mean power output during sprint interval exercise test
was also diminished by hyperoxia exposure (Table 4).
These present results suggest that all-out SIT under
hyperoxia may bring about greater improvement in aero-
bic exercise performance (blood lactate curve) but impair
SIT-induced enhancements in anaerobic exercise perfor-
mance (AOD, %AOD, and mean power output).
In the present study, the blood lactate curve during
submaximal cycling improved after the training period
only in the HST group, but no difference was found in
the degree of improvement in _VO2max between the NST
and HST groups. Perry et al. (2005) demonstrated that
hyperoxic (60% oxygen) interval training (10 repeats of
4 min cycling at 90% heart rate max with 2 min recovery,
3 days/week for 6 weeks) leads to greater enhancement in
cycling performance time to exhaustion at 90% _VO2max
without greater improvement in _VO2max when compared
with normoxic interval training. These present and previ-
ous results suggest that hyperoxic interval training may
induce
greater
improvement
in
aerobic
exercise
Table 4. Changes in peak and mean power during acute sprint interval exercise test
NST (n = 9)
HST (n = 9)
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Peak power (W/kg)
Bout 1
20.0  0.6
21.8  0.8
19.4  0.7
20.0  0.5
Bout 2
18.3  0.5#
19.9  0.6#
18.0  0.5#
19.2  0.6#
Bout 3
16.5  0.4#
17.9  1.0#
15.6  0.7#
17.1  0.6#
Bout 4
14.7  0.5#
15.9  1.2#
14.0  0.7#
15.3  0.9#
Average
17.4  0.4
18.9  0.8*
16.7  0.6
17.9  0.6*
Mean power (W/kg)
Bout 1
9.8  0.2
10.3  0.3
9.9  0.1
9.9  0.1
Bout 2
8.8  0.2#
9.3  0.2#
8.9  0.1#
9.0  0.1#
Bout 3
7.9  0.2#
8.4  0.2#
7.8  0.1#
8.1  0.1#
Bout 4
7.3  0.3#
8.0  0.3#
7.5  0.2#
7.6  0.2#
Average
8.4  0.2
9.0  0.2*
8.5  0.1
8.7  0.1
Values are presented as means  SE. NST, normoxic sprint training; HST hyperoxic sprint training.
#P < 0.05 versus Bout 1.
*P < 0.05 versus Pre.
0 
2 
4 
6 
8 
NST 
HST 
*
Percent changes of mean power 
 (%)
Figure 6. Percent changes in average mean power outputs during
acute sprint interval exercise test before (pre) and after (post)
3 weeks of all-out sprint interval training. NST, normoxic sprint
interval training (n = 9); HST, hyperoxic sprint interval training
(n = 9). Values are presented as means  SE. *P < 0.05 between
the NST and HST.
ª 2019 The Authors. Physiological Reports published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of
The Physiological Society and the American Physiological Society
2019 | Vol. 7 | Iss. 14 | e14194
Page 7
M. Kon et al.
Adaptations to Sprint Training in Hyperoxia
performance without greater enhancement of _VO2max.
However, the underlying mechanism of improving aero-
bic exercise performance (blood lactate curve) by SIT
under hyperoxia was not elucidated in this study. The
improvement in the lactate curve may be related to the
enhancement of the mitochondrial oxidative capacity of
working muscle by exercise training. Perry et al. (2007)
demonstrated that hyperoxic (60% oxygen) interval train-
ing (10 repeats of 4 min cycling at 90% _VO2max with
2 min recovery, 3 days/week for 6 weeks) does not affect
the degree of improvement in mitochondrial oxidative
capacity
of
working
muscles
when
compared
with
normoxic interval training. However, their research used
submaximal interval training model, and an investigation
of an all-out SIT model has not been conducted so far.
Thus, future research could investigate the effect of all-
out SIT under hyperoxia on skeletal muscle mitochon-
drial oxidative capacity.
All-out SIT under hyperoxia impaired the improve-
ments in anaerobic exercise performance, such as AOD,
%AOD, and mean power output during cycling exercise
tests, in this study. In a previous study, hyperoxia expo-
sure decreases energy supply from the anaerobic system
during maximal cycling exercise (Linossier et al. 2000).
Therefore,
in
this
study,
hyperoxia
exposure
might
decrease energy supply from the anaerobic system during
SIT. The decreased anaerobic energy release due to hyper-
oxia might induce impairment in SIT-induced improve-
ments in anaerobic exercise performance in this study.
Additionally, the all-out SIT-induced enhancements in
anaerobic exercise performance may be related to the
increase in adenosine triphosphate production via the gly-
colytic system. Short-term all-out SIT increases glycogen
content in muscles (Burgomaster et al. 2005; Gibala et al.
2006). The increased glycogen content in muscles may be
induced by increases in muscle content and translocation
to plasma membrane of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4),
which facilitates glucose uptake in the skeletal muscles.
Hyperoxia exposure decreases GLUT4 content and/or
translocation in the skeletal muscles (Bandali et al. 2003).
Conversely, short-term all-out SIT increases GLUT4 con-
tent in the skeletal muscles (Burgomaster et al. 2007).
Thus, hyperoxia exposure may diminish the SIT-induced
increase in GLUT4 and glycogen contents in skeletal mus-
cle, which may lead to impaired SIT-induced enhance-
ments of anaerobic exercise performance in the HST
group. Future studies are needed to clarify the effects of
all-out SIT under hyperoxia on the GLUT4 and glycogen
contents in skeletal muscles.
A previous study reported that 3-week all-out SIT (four
to six 30-sec all-out cycling with 4-min recovery, 3 days/
week) attenuates oxidative stress in healthy humans (Bog-
danis et al. 2013). In addition, 3-week endurance exercise
training (30-min moderate-intensity cycling, 5 days/week)
under hyperbaric hyperoxia does not increase systemic
oxidative stress in young male soccer players (Burgos
et al. 2016). However, to date, no study has investigated
the effect of SIT under normobaric hyperoxia on oxida-
tive stress in healthy humans. In this study, no signiﬁcant
difference was observed in oxidative stress (d-ROMs) and
oxidant-antioxidant
balance
(BAP/d-ROMs)
between
before and after SIT. To the best of our knowledge, this
study is the ﬁrst to determine that exercise training under
normobaric hyperoxia does not affect oxidative stress in
healthy humans.
0 
50 
100 
150 
200 
250 
300 
350 
NST 
HST 
Pre 
Post 
d-ROMs (U.CARR.) 
0 
500 
1000 
1500 
2000 
2500 
NST 
HST 
Pre 
Post 
BAP (µmol/L) 
0 
2 
4 
6 
8 
10 
NST 
HST 
Pre 
Post 
BAP/d-ROMs ratio 
*
*
Figure 7. Serum derivatives of reactive oxygen metabolites (d-
ROMs), biological antioxidant potential (BAP), and BAP/d-ROMs
ratio before (pre) and after (post) 3 weeks of all-out sprint interval
training. NST, normoxic sprint interval training (n = 9); HST,
hyperoxic sprint interval training (n = 9). Values are presented as
means  SE. *P < 0.05 versus pre.
2019 | Vol. 7 | Iss. 14 | e14194
Page 8
ª 2019 The Authors. Physiological Reports published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of
The Physiological Society and the American Physiological Society
Adaptations to Sprint Training in Hyperoxia
M. Kon et al.
This study has a several limitations. First, the present
study did not use a crossover design and had a small
sample size. Future studies with a crossover design and
larger sample size are necessary to conﬁrm our ﬁndings.
Second, this study could not elucidate the factors that
induced the performance adaptations to hyperoxic all-out
SIT because we could not investigate skeletal muscle
adaptations by all-out SIT under hyperoxia. Therefore,
detailed studies using human skeletal muscles are war-
ranted in future research. Finally, the present study did
not assess nutritional status, but we instructed the sub-
jects to continue their normal diet. Thus, future studies
including assessment of nutritional status are needed.
Conclusions
All-out
SIT
under
hyperoxia
might
induce
greater
improvement in aerobic exercise performance (blood lac-
tate curve), but impairs SIT-induced enhancements in
anaerobic exercise performance (AOD, %AOD, and mean
power output).
Acknowledgments
We thank the clinical laboratory technicians at the Japan
Institute of Sports Sciences for their help in conducting
the clinical portion of this study. We also thank Kosuke
Taniguchi for his help with the analyses of oxidative stress
and antioxidant capacity.
Conﬂict of Interest
None declared.
References
Bandali, K. S., M. P. Belanger, and C. Wittnich. 2003. Does
hyperoxia affect glucose regulation and transport in the
newborn? J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 126:1730–1735.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5223(03)01044-4.
Bogdanis, G. C., P. Stavrinou, A. Philippou, A.
Chatzinikolaou, D. Draganidis, G. Ermidis, et al. 2013.
Short-term high-intensity interval exercise training
attenuates oxidative stress responses and improves
antioxidant status in healthy humans. Food Chem. Toxicol.
61:171–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2013.05.046.
Burgomaster, K. A., S. C. Hughes, G. J. Heigenhauser, S. N.
Bradwell, and M. J. Gibala. 2005. Six sessions of sprint
interval training increases muscle oxidative potential and
cycle endurance capacity in humans. J. Appl. Physiol.
98:1985–1990. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.01095.
2004.
Burgomaster, K. A., N. M. Cermak, S. M. Phillips, C. R.
Benton, A. Bonen, and M. J. Gibala. 2007. Divergent
response of metabolite transport proteins in human skeletal
muscle after sprint interval training and detraining. Am. J.
Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 292:R1970–R1976.
https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00503.2006.
Burgomaster, K. A., K. R. Howarth, S. M. Phillips, M.
Rakobowchuk, M. J. Macdonald, S. L. McGee, et al. 2008.
Similar metabolic adaptations during exercise after low
volume sprint interval and traditional endurance training in
humans. J. Physiol. 586:151–160. https://doi.org/10.1113/
jphysiol.2007.142109.
Burgos, C., C. Henrıquez-Olguın, D. C. Andrade, R. Ramırez-
Campillo, O. F. Araneda, A. White, et al. 2016. Effects of
exercise training under hyperbaric oxygen on oxidative
stress markers and endurance performance in young soccer
players: a pilot study. J. Nutr. Metab. 2016:5647407.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/5647407.
Cocks, M., C. S. Shaw, S. O. Shepherd, J. P. Fisher, A.
Ranasinghe, T. A. Barker, et al. 2013. Sprint interval and
endurance training are equally effective in increasing muscle
microvascular density and eNOS content in sedentary males.
J. Physiol. 591:641–656. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.
2012.239566.
Faiss, R., B. Leger, J. M. Vesin, P. E. Fournier, Y. Eggel, O.
Deriaz, et al. 2013. Signiﬁcant molecular and systemic
adaptations after repeated sprint training in hypoxia. PLoS
ONE 8:e56522. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0056522.
Faiss, R., S. Willis, D. P. Born, B. Sperlich, J. M. Vesin, H. C.
Holmberg, et al. 2015. Repeated double-poling sprint
training in hypoxia by competitive cross-country skiers.
Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 47:809–817. https://doi.org/10.1249/
MSS.0000000000000464.
Faude, O., R. R€oßler, and A. Junge. 2009. Lactate threshold
concepts: how valid are they? Sports Med. 39:469–490.
https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200939060-00003.
Gastin, P. B., and D. L. Lawson. 1994. Inﬂuence of training
status on maximal accumulated oxygen deﬁcit during all-
out cycle exercise. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol.
69:321–330. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00392038.
Gibala, M. J., J. P. Little, M. van Essen, G. P. Wilkin, K. A.
Burgomaster, A. Safdar, et al. 2006. Short-term sprint
interval versus traditional endurance training: similar initial
adaptations in human skeletal muscle and exercise
performance. J. Physiol. 575(Pt 3):901–911. https://doi.org/
10.1113/jphysiol.2006.112094.
Kasai, N., S. Mizuno, S. Ishimoto, E. Sakamoto, M. Maruta,
and K. Goto. 2015. Effect of training in hypoxia on repeated
sprint performance in female athletes. Springerplus 4:310.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-015-1041-4.
Kasai, N., C. Kojima, D. Sumi, H. Takahashi, K. Goto, and Y.
Suzuki. 2017. Impact of 5 days of sprint training in hypoxia
on performance and muscle energy substances. Int. J. Sports
Med. 38:983–991. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0043-117413.
Linossier, M. T., D. Dormois, L. Arsac, C. Denis, J. P. Gay, A.
Geyssant, et al. 2000. Effect of hyperoxia on aerobic and
ª 2019 The Authors. Physiological Reports published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of
The Physiological Society and the American Physiological Society
2019 | Vol. 7 | Iss. 14 | e14194
Page 9
M. Kon et al.
Adaptations to Sprint Training in Hyperoxia
anaerobic performances and muscle metabolism during
maximal cycling exercise. Acta Physiol. Scand. 168:403–411.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-201x.2000.00648.x.
Montero, D., and C. Lundby. 2017. No improved performance
with repeated-sprint training in hypoxia versus normoxia: a
double-blind and crossover study. Int. J. Sports Physiol.
Perform. 12:161–167. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2015-
0691.
Ogura, Y., S. Katamoto, J. Uchimaru, K. Takahashi, and H.
Naito. 2006. Effects of low and high levels of moderate
hypoxia on anaerobic energy release during supramaximal
cycle exercise. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 98:41–47. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s00421-006-0283-9.
Perry, C. G., J. Reid, W. Perry, and B. A. Wilson. 2005. Effects
of hyperoxic training on performance and cardiorespiratory
response to exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 37:1175–1179.
https://doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000169610.33318.54.
Perry, C. G., J. L. Talanian, G. J. Heigenhauser, and L. L.
Spriet. 2007. The effects of training in hyperoxia vs.
normoxia on skeletal muscle enzyme activities and exercise
performance. J. Appl. Physiol. 102:1022–1027. https://doi.
org/10.1152/japplphysiol.01215.2006.
Shepherd, S. O., M. Cocks, K. D. Tipton, A. M. Ranasinghe,
T. A. Barker, J. G. Burniston, et al. 2013. Sprint interval and
traditional endurance training increase net intramuscular
triglyceride breakdown and expression of perilipin 2 and 5.
J. Physiol. 591:657–675. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.
2012.240952.
Sone, R., K. Matsuba, R. Tahara, N. Eda, K. Kosaki, S. Jesmin,
et al. 2019. Assessment of salivary nitric oxide levels in elite
university athletes in Japan: ﬁndings from a cross sectional
study design. J Clin Med Res 11:114–120. https://doi.org/10.
14740/jocmr3670.
2019 | Vol. 7 | Iss. 14 | e14194
Page 10
ª 2019 The Authors. Physiological Reports published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of
The Physiological Society and the American Physiological Society
Adaptations to Sprint Training in Hyperoxia
M. Kon et al.

Effects of all-out sprint interval training under hyperoxia on exercise performance.
Kon, Michihiro,Nakagaki, Kohei,Ebi, Yoshiko