Effects of a 4-week high-intensity interval training on
pacing during 5-km running trial
R. Silva1, M. Damasceno1, R. Cruz1, M.D. Silva-Cavalcante1,2, A.E. Lima-Silva2,3,
D.J. Bishop4,5 and R. Bertuzzi1
1Grupo de Estudos do Desempenho Aeróbio (GEADE-USP), Departamento de Esportes Escola de Educac¸ão Física e Esportes,
Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil
2Grupo de Pesquisa em Ciência do Esporte, Faculdade de Nutric¸ão, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Pernambuco, Brasil
3Grupo de Pesquisa em Desempenho Humano, Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná, Paraná, Brasil
4Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living, Victoria University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
5School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia
Abstract
This study analyzed the inﬂuence of a 4-week high-intensity interval training on the pacing strategy adopted by runners during
a 5-km running trial. Sixteen male recreational long-distance runners were randomly assigned to a control group (CON, n=8)
or a high-intensity interval training group (HIIT, n=8). The HIIT group performed high-intensity interval-training twice per week,
while the CON group maintained their regular training program. Before and after the training period, the runners performed
an incremental exercise test to exhaustion to measure the onset of blood lactate accumulation, maximal oxygen uptake
(VO2max), and peak treadmill speed (PTS). A submaximal constant-speed test to measure the running economy (RE) and
a 5-km running trial on an outdoor track to establish pacing strategy and performance were also done. During the 5-km running
trial, the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and time to cover the 5-km trial (T5) were registered. After the training period, there
were signiﬁcant improvements in the HIIT group of B7 and 5% for RE (P=0.012) and PTS (P=0.019), respectively. There was
no signiﬁcant difference between the groups for VO2max (P=0.495) or onset of blood lactate accumulation (P=0.101). No
difference was found in the parameters measured during the 5-km trial before the training period between HIIT and CON
(P40.05). These ﬁndings suggest that 4 weeks of HIIT can improve some traditional physiological variables related to
endurance performance (RE and PTS), but it does not alter the perception of effort, pacing strategy, or overall performance
during a 5-km running trial.
Key words: Rating of perceived exertion; Running economy; Peak treadmill speed; Maximal oxygen uptake
Introduction
It has been widely recognized that during recreational
and ofﬁcial athletic events the running intensity is always
self-selected by athletes (1–3). The manner by which runners
self-select their running speed during a given competition
has been deﬁned as pacing strategy (4). Speciﬁcally,
during a 5-km running race, athletes usually adopt a
pacing strategy characterized by a fast start (ﬁrst 400 m),
followed by a period of slower speed during the middle
part (400–4600 m), and a signiﬁcant increase in running
speed during the last part (ﬁnal 400 m) of the race (2).
These variations in running speed seem to occur to
optimize the use of the available energy resources (5).
Based on the linear increase in the rating of perceived
exertion (RPE) during time-trials, some studies have sug-
gested that this triphasic pacing strategy proﬁle (so-called
‘‘U-shaped’’) could reﬂect a centrally-regulated control
system (1,2). It is believed that athletes might consciously
monitor their RPE based on internal (physiological)
signals and change their running speed in order to prevent
a premature exercise termination (6,7).
Previous studies have observed a signiﬁcant relation-
ship between traditional physiological predictors of endur-
ance performance and running pacing strategy (7–9).
Lima-Silva et al. (9) reported that runners with a higher
running economy (RE), peak treadmill speed (PTS), and
a faster speed corresponding to onset of blood lactate
accumulation (OBLA) presented a more aggressive
U-shaped speed curve during a 10-km running race com-
pared with their counterparts. In addition, high-performance
athletes ran the ﬁrst 1200 m of a 10-km race at a speed
faster than the average speed of the entire race and
above their PTS, while a low-performance group started
Correspondence: R. Bertuzzi: <bertuzzi@usp.br>
Received January 11, 2017 | Accepted July 10, 2017
Braz J Med Biol Res | doi: 10.1590/1414-431X20176335
Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research (2017) 50(12): e6335, http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1414-431X20176335
ISSN 1414-431X
Research Article
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the race with a less aggressive pacing strategy and
slightly below the OBLA speed (9). These results suggest
that athletes with higher PTS, OBLA, and RE may be able
to improve their performance by increasing mainly their
speed during the ﬁrst part of a running race. According to
the theory suggesting that the exercise intensity is regu-
lated by the central nervous system (CNS), an improve-
ment in these physiological variables could enable athletes
to begin the race with a higher starting speed without
provoking critical changes in homeostasis that otherwise
could lead to premature fatigue.
It is also well recognized that physical training pro-
duces a number of changes in the metabolic function in
different physiological systems (10,11). Speciﬁcally, the
addition of a short-term, high-intensity interval training
(HIIT) program performed for 3 to 6 weeks is able to
promote signiﬁcant improvements in RE, PTS, and OBLA
in trained participants (5,12–16). For instance, Smith et al.
(15) applied a 4-week HIIT program to well-trained runners
and observed a signiﬁcant increase in PTS. In addi-
tion, Smith et al. (16) reported signiﬁcant improvements
in VO2max and RE in a group of well-trained runners
after a 4-week HIIT. Based on these ﬁndings, one could
hypothesize that the inclusion of a HIIT program can
improve physiological variables related to endurance
performance and, therefore, alter pacing strategy. How-
ever, to the best of our knowledge, no previous study has
investigated the effects of a HIIT program on self-selected
pacing during a 5-km running trial.
Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to
analyze the inﬂuence of a 4-week HIIT program on pacing
strategy during a 5-km running trial. Our hypothesis was
that the HIIT program might improve physiological vari-
ables related to running pacing strategy (e.g., in RE, PTS,
and OBLA), resulting in an altered U-shaped speed curve
(i.e., a more intense and faster start).
Material and Methods
Participants
The sample size required was estimated using 5-km
running performance as the main outcome from the equa-
tion n=8e2/d2, as proposed by Hopkins (17), where n, e,
and d denote predicted sample size, coefﬁcient of varia-
tion, and the magnitude of the treatment effect, respec-
tively. The coefﬁcient of variation was assumed to be
1.7% (18). Expecting a 2.8% magnitude of effect for the
treatment (16), the detection of a very conservative 2%
difference as statistically signiﬁcant would require at least
5 participants for each group. However, to allow for any
possible sample dropout, we targeted 8 participants per
group. Thus, sixteen male long-distance runners were
invited to participate in the present study. All participants
were recreational runners from local clubs. The participants
were included if they had participated in 5-km running
races during the last two years, their best performance in
the 5-km running races had been under 25 min, and if they
had not participated in any HIIT program 6 months before
the start of this study. They performed only low-intensity,
continuous aerobic training (50–70% VO2max) before the
beginning of the study and were instructed to maintain
this aerobic training schedule during the experimental period.
The participants’ running training volume was reported as
the mean distance covered per week (19,20), which was
assessed through a training log recorded for two weeks prior
to the beginning of the study and for the last two weeks
before the study completion. The participants were assigned
to the HIIT group (n=8, age 35±6 years, body mass
70.5±4.6 kg, height 172.5±4.1 cm) or a control group
(CON, n=8, age 32±9 years, body mass 70.2±11.3 kg,
height 172.8±9.0 cm). The groups were matched for pre-
training 5-km running overall performance. All of the partici-
pants were medication-free, non-smokers, and were free of
neuromuscular disorders and cardiovascular dysfunctions.
The participants received a verbal explanation about the pos-
sible beneﬁts, risks, and discomfort associated with the study
and signed a written informed consent before enrollment.
The procedures adopted in this study were approved by the
Ethics Committee for Human Studies from the School of
Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo.
Experimental design
Before and after the training intervention, the runners
were required to visit the laboratory on three separate
occasions, at least 72 h apart, over a 2-week period. During
the ﬁrst session, anthropometric measurements and a 5-km
running trial on an outdoor track to establish pacing strategy
were performed. The 5-km running trial was repeated 48 h
after the ﬁrst training session. The runners were familiar with
long-distance running since they regularly competed in 5-km
running events. During the second session, an incremental
exercise test to exhaustion on a treadmill was conducted to
determine the OBLA and VO2max. During the third session,
the participants performed a submaximal constant-speed
test on a treadmill to measure the RE. During the pre-training
period, only the HIIT group performed a constant-speed run-
ning test at the speed corresponding to VO2max (vVO2max)
to determine time to exhaustion at this speed (TLim), which
was used for individualizing the HIIT program (13). All tests
were performed at the same period of day, and the ﬁrst and
second sessions were established randomly. All the parti-
cipants were instructed to refrain from any exhaustive or
unusual exercise 48 h before the test and to refrain from
taking nutritional supplements during the training period.
During training period, the HIIT program was added to the
regular training schedule of HIIT group, while the participants
of the CON group were instructed to maintain their regular
training.
Maximal incremental treadmill test
Participants performed a maximal incremental test
on a motor-driven treadmill (model TK35, Ceﬁse, Brazil).
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High-intensity interval training and pacing
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After a 3-min warm-up at 8 km/h, the speed was increased
by 1 km/h every three minutes until exhaustion. The tread-
mill was set at a gradient of 1% to simulate physiological
demand during outdoor running (21). Each stage was
separated by a 30-s rest in which blood samples (25 mL)
were collected from the ear lobe to determine blood lactate
accumulation. The participants received strong verbal
encouragement to ensure the attainment of maximal
effort. Gas exchange was measured breath-by-breath
using a gas analyzer (Cortex Metalyzer 3B, Cortex
Biophysik, Germany) and subsequently averaged over
30-s intervals throughout the test. Before each test, the
gas analyzer was calibrated according to the recommen-
dations of the manufacturer. The VO2max was determined
as the highest 20-s value reached during the last stage
of the incremental test (13). The vVO2max was deﬁned
as the speed at which VO2max was achieved. The OBLA
was deﬁned as the running speed associated with 3.5 mmol/L
of lactate concentration (22). PTS was established as the
highest speed obtained in the last stage maintained for at
least 3 min.
Running economy
The RE was determined on a motor-driven treadmill
(model TK35, Ceﬁse). Participants performed a standard-
ized warm-up, consisting of 5 min of running at 8 km/h
followed by a 5-min passive recovery. Thereafter, they
performed a constant-speed running test at 12 km/h for
10 min in order to measure the RE. During the entire test
the oxygen uptake was obtained breath-by-breath. RE
was deﬁned by averaging the oxygen uptake values
during the last 30 s.
Time to exhaustion at the speed corresponding to
VO2max
The participants in the HIIT group performed the same
warm-up routine adopted during the RE test. The vVO2max
was immediately adjusted after the warm-up and the
participants ran until they could no longer maintain the
required speed. The test began with the participant’s feet
on the moving belt and hands on the handrail. The TLim
was measured using a manual stopwatch and deﬁned as
the moment that the participant released the handrail
(about 2 s) until he grasped it again (i.e., exhaustion). The
participants received strong verbal encouragement to
continue as long as possible.
5-km running trial
Participants individually performed a 5-km running
trial on an outdoor 400-m track. They were instructed to
maintain regular water consumption within the six hours
prior to testing and water was provided ad libitum during
the entire event. The runners performed a 10-min, warm-
up consisting of a free-paced run, followed by 5 min of
light stretching. The RPE was reported by participants
every 1000 m using the Borg 15-point scale (23). Copies
of this scale were reduced to 10 by 5 cm and laminated, and
afﬁxed to the wrist of the dominant arm of the individuals.
The participants were instructed to ﬁnish the race as quickly
as possible, as in a competitive event. Verbal encourage-
ment was provided during the entire event. However,
runners were not advised of their lap splits. Time to cover
the 5-km (T5) and heart rate (HRT5) were registered by
a GPS every 400 m (GPS Forerunners 410, USA). The
pattern of data collecting for RPE (at 1000 m intervals),
T5, and HRT5 (both at 400 m intervals) was according with
a previous study carried out by Lima-Silva et al. (9). All
tests were performed at the same time of the day and the
mean values of the ambient temperature and air relative
humidity were 19±4°C and 59±5%, respectively.
Training program
The HIIT group performed a high-intensity interval training
program twice weekly (separated by 48 h) for 4 weeks in
addition to their normal endurance training. The athletes were
instructed to perform their regular endurance training on
different days to those of the HIIT sessions. In order to equal
the training load between the training regimes, there was
a reduction of B10% of the total endurance training volume
(i.e., km/week) in the HIIT group. A standardized warm-up
consisting of a 5-min run at 9 km/h followed by light lower-limb
stretching exercises was performed before each training
session. Because TLim is assumed to be a useful tool for
intermittent training prescription (13), in the present study
athletes completed ﬁve intervals at the vVO2max for a
duration equal to 50% of the TLim, interspersed with an active
recovery at 60% of the speed corresponding to vVO2max for
a duration equal to the time of effort (i.e., 1:1 work:recovery
ratio). The running speed during the HIIT was monitored by a
GPS (GPS Forerunners 305). The training sessions were
individually supervised to control the training loads. Over this
4-week training period, the CON group was instructed to
maintain their previous endurance training routine.
Statistical analysis
Data normality was conﬁrmed using the Shapiro-Wilk
test. Two-way analysis of variance (group  time) was
used to compare the physiological and performance
variables. In order to mitigate the impact of inter-individual
data variability, physiological variables are also reported
as percentage of change from pre-training period (i.e.,
Post-Pre). Comparison between groups for percent of
changes (%) after the experimental period was performed
using unpaired t-test. Signiﬁcance was accepted at
Po0.05. All statistical analyses were performed using
the software package Statistica 8 (StataSoft Inc., USA).
Results
Training
All of the participants in the HIIT group completed over
85% of the scheduled training sessions. The mean value
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of TLim used for prescription of HIIT was 265±67 s.
No statistical difference was observed in the endurance
training volume (reported as the mean weekly covered
distance) between before (HIIT: 28.7±2.3 km/week, CON:
30.2±1.3 km/week) and after (HIIT: 29.3±9.8 km/week,
CON: 32.1±2.3 km/week) the completion of the study
(P40.05), indicating that training load was equal between
training regimes.
Physiological variables
Figure 1 shows the relative changes in the physio-
logical parameters measured during the maximal incre-
mental and constant-speed running. After the experimental
period, the HIIT program produced signiﬁcant improve-
ments in RE (P=0.012) and PTS (P=0.019) when
compared with the CON group. There was no signiﬁcant
difference between the groups for VO2max (P=0.495) and
OBLA (P=0.101). Table 1 presents the absolute values of
the physiological parameters measured during the maxi-
mal incremental and constant-speed running. There were
no main effects for time (P40.05), group (P40.05), or
interaction (P40.05) for all measured variables.
5-km running trial
Table 2 presents the main variables measured during
the 5-km running trial. All parameters measured during
the 5-km trial before the training period were the same
between HIIT and CON groups (P40.05). There were no
signiﬁcant main effects for time, group, nor interaction
effects for T5, HRT5, and RPET5 (P40.05). Figure 2
shows the pacing strategy and RPE during the time trial
before and after training. No signiﬁcant main effect was
observed for either variable (P40.05).
Discussion
The main objective of the present study was to investi-
gate the effects of the addition of a 4-week HIIT program
on the pacing strategy adopted by long-distance runners
during a 5-km running trial. The main ﬁndings were that
the HIIT program improved physiological variables related
to endurance performance (i.e., RE and PTS), but these
changes were not accompanied by modiﬁcations in pacing
strategy or overall performance.
Previous ﬁndings have showed that a similar HIIT
protocol was able to improve some physiological variables
related to endurance performance (13). Although there
was no signiﬁcant difference between the groups for
the absolute values of the physiological variables after the
training period, our ﬁndings revealed that the addition of
4-week HIIT program produced signiﬁcant improvements
in percentage of change in PTS and RE, corresponding to
a mean improvement of 5.6 and 4.1%, respectively. These
data are in agreement with several studies that have
reported similar improvements of B4.4% in the vVO2max
(13,15) and B5% in the RE (13,14,16) after a 4-week HIIT
program. Speciﬁcally, it has been proposed that PTS is
inﬂuenced not only by maximal aerobic power, but also by
Table 1. Parameters related to endurance performance before and after the 4-week high-intensity
interval training period.
HIIT (n=8)
CON (n=8)
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
.VO2max (mL  kg-1  min-1)
54.5±8.1
57.1±6.4
56.6±7.3
56.9±7.6
PTS (km/h)
16.5±1.8
17.2±1.8
17.9±1.0
17.7±1.6
OBLA (km/h)
14.1±2.3
15.0±2.4
15.1±2.2
15.3±1.8
RE (mL  kg-1  min-1)
43.1±3.5
40.7±4.3
40.9±4.7
41.2±4.4
Data are reported as means±SD. HIIT: high-intensity interval training group; CON: control group;
.VO2max: maximal oxygen uptake; PTS: peak treadmill speed; OBLA: running speed correspond-
ing to onset of blood lactate accumulation; RE: running economy.
Figure 1. Percentage of changes of the physiological variables
after the training period. Data are reported as means±SD. HIIT:
high-intensity interval training group; CON: control group; VO2max:
maximal oxygen uptake; PTS: peak treadmill speed; OBLA:
running speed associated with onset of blood lactate accumula-
tion; RE: running economy measured at 12 km/h. *Po0.05
(unpaired t-test).
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High-intensity interval training and pacing
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RE (24,25). An improvement in RE after the HIIT program
could lead to a lower energy cost during submaximal
running bouts, which might allow the athletes to achieve
higher speeds at the end of the maximal incremental
treadmill test. Therefore, it seems that the main beneﬁcial
effects of the HIIT program are mediated by a reduction in
the energetic cost of running. Taken together, these ﬁnd-
ings reinforce the suggestion that a HIIT program per-
formed during 4 weeks is an effective short-term strategy
to alter some physiological variables related to endurance
performance.
In the present study, we have provided the ﬁrst data
analyzing the effectiveness of a HIIT program on the
pacing strategy adopted by endurance runners during
a long-distance event. It was found that although the
percentage of changes of the PTS and RE were improved
after the HIIT program, the pacing strategy was main-
tained after the experimental intervention. Previous studies
have proposed that pacing strategy can be controlled by a
centrally-regulated system that monitors the RPE in order
to minimize physiological strain and to prevent a pre-
mature exercise termination (26,27). It has been proposed
that the CNS interprets afferent feedback from physio-
logical systems in order to adjust the work performed by
skeletal muscles and avoid premature fatigue (28). Thus,
the RPE is the integration of alterations in physiological
systems used during dynamic exercise and is considered
a primary regulator of pacing strategy (27). This has led
some researchers to hypothesize that interventions (i.e.,
physical training and dietary manipulation) that change
Table 2. Running performance, heart rate, and rate of perceived exertion during a 5-km running
trial pre- and post-training.
HIIT
CON
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
T5 (s)
1196±173
1168±135
1149±153
1165±164
HRT5 (bpm)
178±4
176±5
174±8
172±9
RPET5 (score)
17±1
17±2
17±1
16±1
Data are reported as means±SD. HIIT: high-intensity interval training group; CON: control group;
T5: time to cover; HRT5: mean heart rate at T5; RPET5: mean rate of perceived exertion during the
5-km running trial.
Figure 2. Running pacing strategy (panels A and B) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE; panels C and D) during a 5-km running trial,
pre- and post-training. Data are reported as means±SD. HIIT: high-intensity interval training group; CON: control group.
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these physiological variables could inﬂuence the RPE,
resulting in an altered pacing strategy (28). However, the
data of the present study revealed that the HIIT program
improved the RE and PTS (Figure 1), but without changes
in RPE (Figure 2). These ﬁndings suggest that improve-
ments in physiological variables would produce only a
small reduction in metabolic disturbance during exercise
of self-paced intensity. This could result in a similar afferent
feedback from physiological systems when compared
with pre-training. Thus, the interpretation of the afferent
feedback during running was not altered after the HIIT
program, as revealed by RPE, and athletes adopted a
similar pacing strategy to that used before the training
period. These ﬁndings are in agreement with a previous
suggestion that athletes adjust their pacing strategy by
comparing actual and expected RPE during the course of
a race for a given distance (29).
The improvement of only B2.5% in 5-km running
performance detected in the present study is in agreement
with others that reported small enhancement in over-
all running performance after a 4-week HIIT program
(13,15,16). For instance, Smith et al. (15) found a 2.7%
improvement on 3000-m running performance after a HIIT
program, while both VO2max and vVO2max showed a
signiﬁcant increase (B4.9%). Smith et al. (16) veriﬁed that
a similar HIIT program was able to promote improvements
of around 6.0% in VO2max, 5.2% in vVO2max, and a non-
signiﬁcant improvement in 5-km running performance.
In addition, Billat et al. (13) found non-signiﬁcant changes
in 3000-m running performance after a 4-week HIIT program.
Taken together, these ﬁndings suggest that the improve-
ments in physiological variables (i.e., 3–6%) produced by
a short-term HIIT program were not translated to improved
endurance performance. The reasons for this stable
running endurance performance after HIIT programs are
not clear, but it is possible that moderate improvements on
physiological variables are not enough to reduce afferent
feedback from physiological systems when compared
with pre-training. This could explain the non-signiﬁcant
change in perception of effort found in the present study,
producing only a small improvement in overall running
performance.
It is important to acknowledge some of the limita-
tions of the present study. First, our participants were
recreational long-distance runners who had only low-
intensity continuous aerobic training experience. Thus,
caution should be taken in extrapolating these ﬁndings to
highly-trained athletes who frequently perform HIIT train-
ing sessions. Second, the athletes individually performed
the 5-km running trial, while during ofﬁcial competitive
running races, they compete in a head-to-head manner.
Previous ﬁndings have suggested that the presence of
other competitors would alter the pacing strategy, induc-
ing to a more aggressive and faster start and improving
overall performance (2). This could limit the extrapolation
of the ﬁndings of the current study to a more realistic
scenario of endurance competition. Thus, future studies
are encouraged to verify the impact of the HIIT on running
pacing strategy determined in a head-to-head manner.
In conclusion, the results of the present study showed
that the addition of 4 weeks of HIIT produced relevant
gains on the PTS and RE, but without changes in RPE,
pacing strategy, and overall performance. These ﬁndings
suggest that improved aerobic power and lower energy
cost during submaximal running were not sufﬁcient to alter
the perceived effort behavior during a 5-km running trial,
resulting in a similar pacing strategy to that used before
the training period.
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Braz J Med Biol Res | doi: 10.1590/1414-431X20176335
High-intensity interval training and pacing
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Effects of a 4-week high-intensity interval training on pacing during 5-km running trial.
Silva, R,Damasceno, M,Cruz, R,Silva-Cavalcante, M D,Lima-Silva, A E,Bishop, D J,Bertuzzi, R