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You're confined to a single lane as you drive along a narrow , winding road . In effect , they capture the degree of similarity ( or disparity ) among products within a brand and across different brands in the same category . Hence , the probability that a consumer purchases a certain brand on a given trip to the supermarket is simply the probability that a consumer buys a product from a particular category multiplied by the conditional probability that a certain brand is chosen when a purchase is made . Articles in Scripta Mathematica introduced Sharp to mathematical art and to so-called Op ( for " optical " ) art , particularly the work of illustrator and sculptor Rutherford Boyd ( 1882-1951 ) . These factors generally correspond to everyday situations : mistimed traffic signals , a blocked lane , the narrowing of a freeway to fewer lanes , a busy exit or entry ramp , a truck slowly grinding its way up a hill . Simply by manipulating air pressure and muscle tension in its vocal organ , or syrinx , a canary can generate an amazingly varied repertoire of trills , warbles , and other melodic syllables . Computer simulations also suggest that at moderate traffic volumes when vehicle flow should be relatively stable , a single car moving at randomly fluctuating speeds within a steady stream of traffic along a single lane can by itself create waves of congestion that propagate down the road behind it . " When you open the watchcase , you see a tiny replica of the major components that make up this ancient megalithic monument and astronomical observatory . The equation for brand choice probabilities incorporates such factors as perceived utility and loyalty , along with brand width measures . They also introduced parameters they described as " brand width measures , " which quantify the attraction of a particular brand to a consumer on a visit to the supermarket and take into account whether a certain brand of an item corresponding to a node is available for sale .