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The role of childhood experience in phobia acquisition : whether induced fear beliefs ( i ) persist over time ; ( ii ) create cognitive biases in the processing of fear-relevant information ; and ( iii ) are mediated by dispositional factors . Based on cognitive science and knowledge engineering , intelligent system is a study to develop systems provided with human intelligence . Thus , if black police applicants do n't score as well as whites on cognitive tests , the answer is to race-norm the tests or get rid of them entirely . In his description of the cognitive construct , Kelly rejected the notion that elements of experience could be admitted into consciousness without being construed to some degree : " [ People ] must abstract elements in some degree , else their lives would be hopelessly kaleidoscopic and there would be no possibility of internal organization " ( Kelly , 1955 ) . Arnorld M. Ludwig , who studied extensively the cognitive and psychological abilities which associate with and favour creative achievement , described the creative process thus : " One of the better known conceptualizations regards the initial stage as one of preparation during which the individual consciously but unsuccessfully attempts to solve a seemingly unsolvable problem .