Indirect metabolic performance
The participants were instructed to refrain from intense physical activities, eating, and drinking, except for water, from 22:00 until breakfast in the morning. In addition, they were requested to eat 200 g of steamed rice (energy, 312 kcal; protein, 5.0 g; fat, 0.6 g; and carbohydrate, 74.2 g) without caffeine and alcohol 1 h before visiting the laboratory. After sitting for 30 min, the oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production levels of the participants were measured in the supine position using a breath-by-breath respiromonitor system (AE-310 s; Minato Medical Sciences Co., Ltd., Osaka, Japan) for 15 min. Respiratory quotient and substrate use (carbohydrate and fat oxidation) were calculated from the levels of oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production, as described previously [