Composite sanitation indicators
septic
We combined the spot-check observations for each individual data collection round to generate composite binary indicators for (1) hygienic latrine access, (2) potty use and (3) sani-scoop/similar tool use. A household was defined as having access to a hygienic latrine if the primary latrine was observed to have a functional water seal, feces were contained within a septic tank/pit and there were no visible feces on the slab or floor of the latrine. We defined a household as having indicators of potty use if a potty was observed to be present, accessible by caregivers and appeared recently used. We classified the potty as accessible if the caregiver could deliver it within 30 s without assistance to field staff standing where the child usually defecates; we chose 30 s as a reasonable estimate for how quickly a regularly used item can be retrieved. We classified the potty as recently used if it was observed to be either currently wet, or dry and clean (i.e., not covered with dust). We defined a household as having indicators of sani-scoop/similar tool use if a sani-scoop or other feces removal tool was observed to be present, accessible by adults and appeared recently used. We classified the tool as accessible if it was located in or near the courtyard and could be retrieved without assistance, and as recently used based on the same visual indicators as for the potties. We did not include reported behaviors in the composite indicators as they may be subject to biased reporting but analyzed them separately as individual outcomes.