Participants
drug abuse, weight loss
Thirty male trained cyclists (age: 43.7 ± 8.5 years; weight: 79.2 ± 9.6 kg; body fat: 19.2 ± 5.3%) were recruited. Inclusion criteria included: male, 30–60 years old, minimum of 5 years of consistent cycling training (i.e. cycling on average 5+ hours weekly). Exclusion criteria included: taking medication or steroids to enhance physical performance; a weight loss of >5 kg in the previous 3 months; history of drug abuse, smoking 10+ cigarettes a day or consuming more than 14 g of alcohol daily (1.4 standard drinks); orthopedic injury, or surgery within previous 6 months; any other condition judged problematic for participation in the study.Participants were instructed to maintain regular physical activity (i.e. engage in aerobic exercise at or above 75% maximum intensity for 45–60 min/day; 4+ days/week) throughout the study; however, they were instructed to abstain from intense exercise for 72 h prior to each testing session, refrain from exercise 24 h before each testing session, and to arrive rested and hydrated. Participants were instructed to maintain normal dietary patterns but abstain from energy drinks and ergogenic substances throughout the study. Participants were given a diet and activity log to record food intake and exercise during the 72 h prior to the first testing session and were instructed to repeat the diet and activity pattern for the second trial.