4. Discussion
TNF-α, fatigue, inflammation, hemolysis, intestinal ischemia/reperfusion injury
INFLAMMATION, HEMOLYSIS, INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
The use of bovine colostrum as a dietary supplement did not significantly improve the performance of the tested athletes (The use of enteric capsules containing colostrum on football players resulted in a significant increase in serum IgG levels compared to the placebo group (Induced by intense or prolonged exercise, inflammation is a complex physiological and sometimes even pathophysiological body response. The data published so far suggest that inflammation can play a pivotal role in tissue repair and the elimination of pathogens, but, if left uncontrolled or not addressed in a timely manner, it can be harmful and negatively affect the entire body [The exercise tests performed by the football players in three different periods of the training course (the preparatory period, and the initial and final parts of the competitive period) showed no differences in the level of IL-6 between the group supplemented with colostrum (BC) and the group receiving the placebo (The results of the presented studies indicate a reduction in the inflammatory response in the BC-supplemented group compared to the placebo group. The beneficial effect of the supplementation was visible in the T-2 and T-3 periods, which are characterized by relatively high training loads. In both periods, significantly lower post-exercise TNF-α values were observed in the supplemented group than in the control one. In addition, the longer 6-month supplementation in the athletes caused a quick return from the increased post-exercise level of TNF to baseline values, while, in the placebo group, the TNF-α level remained elevated, even after 3 h of restitution. Studies conducted on animal models with intestinal ischemia/reperfusion injury showed that the supply of colostrum to rats reduced the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α), with no differences between the groups in the level of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10) [The adverse changes observed after physical exercise may be an effect of increasing hemolysis, which may not only intensify free radical processes (Fe ions catalyze the Fenton reaction) but may also increase the inflammatory response [Only several studies have focused on BC supplementation and changes in cortisol and testosterone levels—hormones that indicate anabolic/catabolic balance. The cortisol response to physical effort observed in this study indicates unchanged or slightly decreased levels of cortisol in response to intense exercise in both the supplemented and placebo groups. These results may indicate that, in trained footballers, the test used caused a rather moderate stress reaction that tends to lower cortisol levels. However, the significant increase in cortisol in the T-2 period, compared to both the T-1 and T-3 periods, in the placebo and supplemented groups clearly indicates an increasing stress and fatigue associated with high training loads during the season. Similar results were observed not only in football players but also in football referees [The changes in testosterone levels show that, during the T-1 and T-2 periods, the response pattern is also characteristic of the effect of intense exercise when testosterone increases after an exercise test. A significant increase in testosterone levels is indicated not only after strength exercises [The long-term supplementation of football players with enteric capsules containing BC contributed to similar changes in this parameter in both groups (However, further research is necessary not only for the standardization of supplements containing colostrum in terms of the content of active ingredients but also for determining the optimal dose for physically active people.