Conclusion
In conclusion, all 3 TC exercise programs yielded comparable positive outcomes on BMD in the femoral neck and greater trochanter. Nevertheless, 24TCC, the long-term (≥ 8 weeks) TC exercise intervention, exhibited superior improvements in BMD at L2-L4 lumbar vertebrae when compared to the other programs. Furthermore, 24TCC was more effective than TCSB in enhancing BMD at Ward's triangle in 8 weeks. Lastly, the short-term (≤ 4 weeks) TC exercise intervention, TCKFF, was found to be more efficacious than TCSB in augmenting BMD at the femoral neck region. This study presents proof supporting the efficiency of TC exercise in enhancing BMD and inhibiting OP in individuals of middle-aged and elderly who are at a higher risk.