Neurofeedback training
SESSION
In an attempt to disentangle confounding effects of training-related increases in Fmθ observed in previous research in real NF versus sham control groups, i.e., self-regulation based on contingent feedback, or other mechanisms, we tested two competing hypotheses while holding accurate contingent feedback constant between groups. First, if Fmθ increases are greater in the INC group, it would suggest that the effects of increased activation are due to reinforcement learning of self-regulation afforded by accurate contingent feedback, in support of previous research. Second, if Fmθ increases are greater in the ALT group, it would suggest that the effects of increased activation are not due to due to self-regulation, as ALT participants should exhibit lower Fmθ, especially during down-modulation blocks. Rather, greater increased activation in the ALT group may be associated with greater task demands imposed by having to switch between top-down goal states of up- and down-modulation (i.e., switch-costs). Support for the latter hypothesis would call into question previous research suggesting that Fmθ increases observed in NF training protocols designed to up-modulate Fmθ are unambiguously due to reinforcement learning of self-regulation. Based on the significant Group x Session x Block interaction observed in the present study, we found support for the hypothesis that the effects of increased activation in the ALT versus INC group within and across NF training sessions are not due to reinforcement learning of self-regulation afforded by accurate contingent feedback. According to Womelsdorf, Vinck, Leung, and Everling [We’re not aware of any studies on Fmθ NF which have directly compared up- vs. down-modulation training protocols to each other in the same study in young healthy participants. Our results suggest that Fmθ is involved in the attempted active modulation of brain states when accurate contingent feedback is provided when attempting to alternate increases and decreases within the same session, whether the top-down goal is to increase or decrease it. According to meta-analytic fMRI NF research, Emmert et al. [