Participant recruitment and enrollment
Eligible pregnant women were identified at antenatal clinics and enrolled over a 23-month period (April 2018 to February 2020) in cooperation with local ministries of health (MoH) and health systems personnel. Eight hundred pregnant women who used traditional biomass stoves for cooking were enrolled from each country (aged 18 to 34 years, 9 to 19 weeks gestation confirmed by ultrasound) (