Formulas
The comparison of composition between the MFDM, SF, and DSF formulas is shown in Standard non-diabetes formula (SF, commercial formula 1, Fresubin 2 kcal Fibre, Fresenius Kabi, Bad Homburg, Germany): usual serving size = 200 ml, serving size in Study 2 = 114.7 ml diluted to 300 mlDiabetes-specific formula (DSF, commercial formula 2, Glucerna SR Triple Care, Abbott Laboratories, Chicago, Illinois, United States): usual serving size = 230 ml, serving size in Study 2 = 287.5 ml diluted to 300 mlRice-based diabetes-specific formula, powder (MFDM): usual serving size = 55g diluted to 250 ml, serving size in Study 2 = 47.7 g diluted to 300 mlThe amount of carbohydrates of 25g was chosen to allow serving sizes to be reasonable and not too large for a single meal. We chose to administer the formulas orally instead of through a feeding tube since both methods would likely induce similar physiological responses and oral administration was more comfortable for the study participants.