2.1. Experimental Design
SECONDARY
This study was conducted as a randomized, crossover, double-blind, placebo-controlled study in a university setting. The Human Protection Institutional Review Board (IRB2021-1418F) approved this study in accordance with ethical standards for the conduction of human participant research as described in the Declaration of Helsinki. This clinical trial was registered with the International Standard Randomized Control Number registry (ISRCTN61456591). Multivitamin ingestion served as the independent variable. The primary outcome was serum vitamin levels and area under the curve measures. Comprehensive pharmacokinetic analysis variables served as the secondary outcome. We hypothesized that ingesting a liposomal vitamin and mineral multivitamin formulation would promote a more sustained appearance and elimination of vitamins and minerals than a non-liposomal multivitamin.