Introduction
aggression, goal-oriented systems, anxiety disorders, Approach-avoidance behaviors
DISORDERS
Approach and avoidance are highly conserved behaviors across both species and time. Stimuli of positive valence are approached, while negative stimuli are avoided via generalized goal-oriented systems sensitive to reward and punishment (Gray Approach-avoidance behaviors are imbalanced in many mental disorders, e.g., excessive avoidance in anxiety disorders or disproportionate approach in pathological aggression and substance use disorders (Carver and Harmon-Jones Although stress comes with a multitude of physiological changes, often two major subsystems of the stress response are investigated with regard to cognitive effects, namely the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS; Ulrich-Lai and Herman To investigate the effects of cortisol, NA, and their interaction on the balance of approach-avoidance conflict behavior, 96 healthy participants received a double-blinded pharmacological intervention to increase their cortisol concentration (20mg hydrocortisone), activity of NA (20mg yohimbine), both, or neither. Afterwards, participants performed the AACT in which they foraged for tokens (approach motivation) under probabilistic threat of virtual predators (avoidance motivation). Importantly, this task included a manipulation of initial threat distance.We hypothesized that, in line with research from other cognitive domains, the combination of both cortisol and NA would mimic previously shown stress effects on approach-avoidance behavior (Vogel and Schwabe 