Discussion
aggressiveness, impulsivity
The PIERA particular strength of this study is the multi-method and multi-rater assessment of multiple SR sub-facets (e.g., delay of gratification, HRV, impulsivity, emotion regulation). Adoption of this multi-faceted battery facilitates complex data analyses on developmental trajectories of SR, other skills, or the interplay between SR sub-facets. Furthermore, the specific contribution of individual SR sub-facets to a broad range of adolescence-specific outcomes can be examined. This multifaceted assessment allows for not only examining developmental trajectories of SR and their influencing factors, but also the influence of SR on specific aspects (e.g., aggressiveness, delinquency) and their specific vs. generic relevance (i.e., whether the level and/or profile of SR sub-facets is predictive for different mental health problems). Consequently, implications for the development of theory-based and evidence-based, possibly outcome-specific SR interventions can be derived.Some limitations also deserve attention: The PIERTo sum up, there has been an increased interest to address questions on the development and effects of SR in a developmental framework covering an age range from middle childhood to adolescence. Prospective data over a longer time span are essential to foster our understanding of the emergence and role of self-regulation for a positive youth development. The PIER