Design.
A 2 (encoding: front or profile view) × 3 (procedure: interactive, photo, or video) × 2 (target: present or absent) mixed design was used. Encoding and procedure were varied between subjects, while target was varied within subjects. Each participant learned twelve faces at encoding (front view or profile view) and was tested on twelve lineups, of which, six were target-present and six were target-absent. The outcome variables were identification accuracy and decision confidence.We used ROC analyses because this method has been successfully applied in lineup research (Ethical approval was granted from the Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Ethical Review Committee at the University of Birmingham.