2.3. Experimental Procedures
postprandial blood glucose
SECONDARY
In both studies, after a 1-week run-in period, measurements for the acute ingestion test were obtained after the participants consumed one of the three test beverages. The day before the measurements, the participants were instructed to consume pre-packaged meals and to go to bed before midnight without consuming any food or beverages other than water after 9:00 p.m. In Study 1, the total energy content of the pre-packaged meals the day before the test was 2412 kcal/day, 14 E% from protein, 25 E% from fat, 61 E% from carbohydrates; 25 E% for breakfast, 24 E% for lunch, 21 E% for snacking, and 30 E% for dinner. In Study 2, the total energy content of the pre-packaged meals the day before the test was 2166 kcal/day, 14 E% from protein, 25 E% from fat, 61 E% from carbohydrates; 34 E% for breakfast, 32 E% for lunch, and 34 E% for dinner. The height, weight, body fat (body fat scale by bioelectrical impedance analysis, model TF-780 in Study 1 and model DC-320 in Study 2, Tanita Corp., Tokyo, Japan), waist circumference, and blood pressure (digital blood pressure monitor, model HEM-1000, Omron, Kyoto, Japan in Study 1 and model TM-2571, A&D Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan in Study 2) were measured for each participant. The participants consumed a high-fat and high-carbohydrate cookie meal which consisted of 12 test-specific cookies (meal test S, Saraya Co., Ltd., Osaka, Japan) over a 15-min period, and then the subjects consumed the test beverage over a 10-min period. The cookie meal contained flour, butter, maltose, chicken eggs, and baking powder and had an energy content of 592 kcal (6 E% from protein, 43 E% from fat, and 50 E% from carbohydrates). Venous blood samples were obtained during fasting (0 h) and at 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, and 4 h after cookie meal consumption in Study 1 and during fasting (0 h) and at 0.5, 1, 1.5, 1.75, 2, 3, and 4 h after cookie meal consumption in Study 2. The primary outcome measurement was postprandial GLP-1 concentration, and the key secondary outcomes were postprandial blood glucose, insulin, and GIP concentrations. 