Discussion
appetite suppression, satiety
As rates of overweight and obesity continue to rise throughout the developed world, it is important to understand the mechanisms that regulate eating behaviours. Satiation and satiety are important factors in regulating food intake by suppressing hunger and hence food intake [Our study demonstrates that the consumption of almonds resulted in a smaller C-peptide response and a larger GIP, GLP-1 (timepoint comparisons only), glucagon and PP response compared to consuming an isocaloric carbohydrate-rich snack bar. Similar results have been reported in other studies investigating the effects of consuming nut (walnuts and pistachios) on appetite-regulating hormones [The nutritional profile of nuts, which includes high levels of protein, fibre, and unsaturated fatty acids, has been suggested to contribute to their satiating properties [Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) is a pancreatic hormone with receptors in the β-cells of the pancreas which promote insulin secretion [GLP-1 is secreted in the ileum in response to carbohydrate and fat [Pancreatic polypeptide (PP) is secreted from endocrine cells in the pancreas in response to carbohydrate, protein and fat, with fat being the most potent stimulus and carbohydrate the least potent [Although we observed significant effects of AL on C-peptide, GIP, GLP-1, glucagon and PP responses compared to SB, these responses alone without significant changes in other appetite-regulating hormones (e.g. CCK, PYY and ghrelin) may have been insufficient to trigger a meaningful appetite suppression. Therefore, it is not unexpected to see no differences in self-reported appetite sensations, or subsequent energy intake. However, appetite regulation is complex, and while the effects of the appetite hormones that we measured are well-characterised, there is not a direct correlation between appetite hormones, self-reported appetite ratings and subsequent energy intake within the literature [Although not significant, the AL group consumed 300 kJ less energy in the meal challenge than the SB group, 270 kJ of which came from discretionary foods, which may be a clinically important benefit in weight management. This occurred despite no significant difference in subjective appetite ratings. Ratings of appetite may reflect motivation or drive to eat, but the amount of food eaten may be influenced by factors other than motivation such as habit, expectations or availability [