Study design
’s behaviors, ADHD
Using a permuted-block randomization procedure for computer-based random number generation, mothers were randomly allocated to two groups: those who attended a 13-week PT course (PT group), and those who did not attend the course until after the study ended (non-PT group). In the PT group, mothers were taught and trained on the following contents in four major elements, by two trained clinical psychologists, throughout the 13-week course: 1) psychological/medical knowledge of ADHD and stress management skills, 2) how to observe and appropriately respond to the child’s behaviors and modify parenting skills accordingly, 3) how to provide clear explanation and rules for their children regarding their ADHD symptoms, and 4) effective methods for responding appropriately to the children’s non-adaptive behaviors stemming from their ADHD symptoms (see Supplementary Material Before and after PT (approximately 90 days apart), mothers in both groups participated in the experiments at baseline (Time 1) and post-baseline (Time 2). Participants’ psychological characteristics were measured using psychological questionnaires, and their brain activities during emotion/gender judgement tasks were examined using fMRI. Of the 30 mother–child dyads (17 dyads in the PT group and 13 dyads in the non-PT group), seven (4 dyads in the PT group, and 3 dyads in the non-PT group) did not participate in the post-baseline session (4 dropped out and 3 were excluded from the analysis). Thus, the efficacy analysis included 13 dyads who received PT and 10 dyads who did not (for detail, see Fig. Flow diagram of this study. Abbreviations: Parent training (PT) group, mothers enrolled in the parent training intervention; non-PT group, mothers who were not enrolled in parent training intervention until after the end of the study