Background:
These authors contributed equally to this work.These authors also contributed equally to this work.Vaccine Research Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, United States.George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, United States.Weill Cornell Medicine and The Rockefeller University, New York, United States.Department of Immunobiology and Center for Systems and Engineering Immunology, Yale University School of Medicine; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, United States.Both sex and prior exposure to pathogens are known to influence responses to immune challenges, but their combined effects are not well established in humans, particularly in early innate responses critical for shaping subsequent outcomes.