Results
cognitive impairment, cognitive deficits
No participants had to be excluded because they were unable to complete the calibration or testing paradigm. Sex differences were clearly visible with male Groupwise mean The data of the 22 patients with suspected cognitive impairment in the screening test were pooled for females and males because of the small total number; in the statistical analysis, we corrected for figure frame area sex differences by using the individual world-based and retinotopic calibration area as covariates. They revealed disturbed patterns of figure shapes with less resemblance to the real-world primary figure (Figs. Figure frame examples of two individual patients: (Groupwise figure frame areas of 24 individual patients, averaged over all five paradigms and intensity-coded (brighter colors = more overlap). Top row (In order to assess potential age influences, we performed a correlation analysis using Spearman’s rho in the subcohort without cognitive deficits (n = 56). Here, no statistically significant age effects were found in neither figure frame area (Spearman’s rho age/retinotopic calibration 0.16 (p 0.24), age/world-based calibration − 0.05 (p 0.72); age/reproduction 0.08 (p 0.58), age/transformation (non-hand-dominant side) 0.11 (p 0.41), age/postrotation (non-hand-dominant side) 0.16 (p 0.23), age/transformation (hand-dominant side) 0.22 (p 0.11), age/postrotation (hand-dominant side) 0.18 (p 0.19)), average diameter (Spearman’s rho age/retinotopic calibration 0.02 (p 0.87), age/world-based calibration 0.10 (p 0.47); age/reproduction 0.02 (p 0.88), age/transformation (non-hand-dominant side) 0.10 (p 0.47), age/postrotation (non-hand-dominant side) 0.16 (p 0.23), age/transformation (hand-dominant side) 0.11 (p 0.44), age/postrotation (hand-dominant side) 0.19 (p 0.15)) nor in the convexity (Spearman’s rho age/retinotopic calibration − 0.06 (p 0.68), age/world-based calibration − 0.04 (p 0.76); age/reproduction − 0.07 (p 0.61), age/transformation (non-hand-dominant side) 0.16 (p 0.25), age/postrotation (non-hand-dominant side) 0.14 (p 0.31), age/transformation (hand-dominant side) 0.07 (p 0.61), age/postrotation (hand-dominant side) 0.23 (p 0.09)).