Study design
Callus
An in vitro study was designed to test our hypotheses. The sample size was determined based on the results of Stünkel et al. [In Group 1, model surgeries were carried out using pilot-guided sCAIS followed by step drills. In Group 2, implant placement was performed with a pilot-guided protocol followed by straight drills. In Group 3, fully guided sCAIS was performed to place implants. The brand, diameter, and length of the implants used were the same in all three study groups and at all sites (4.2 mm diameter, 10 mm length, article number: CP 1042 − 100, Callus Pro, Callus Implant Solutions GmbH, Nuremberg, Germany).To minimize participant bias, different examiners were tasked with performing individual assignments. The clinician assigned to surgical planning (A.M.) did not take part in the surgical interventions and data acquisition. The clinician performing the model surgery (M.K.) was not involved in the evaluation of the accuracy of implant placement (A.T.). The examiner carrying out the measurements of the outcome variables (A.T.) was blinded to the surgical modality used during the model surgeries.