Trial Procedures
pain
Potential participants were screened by a research coordinator, and a study clinician confirmed their eligibility. After providing informed consent, participants completed baseline assessments and underwent randomization. Race and ethnicity data (from patients’ self-reports) were included to identify demographic characteristics associated with pain reduction from either intervention. Patients were randomized to acupuncture or massage in a 1:1 ratio on a secure computer system that ensured full allocation concealment and used permuted blocks stratified by baseline opioid use (yes vs no) and by accrual sites. The principal investigator (J.J.M.) and study statisticians (R.E.B. and K.S.P.) were blinded to treatment assignments. Participants completed patient-reported outcomes using Research Electronic Data Capture at weeks 0, 4, 10, 14, 18, 22, and 26.