Participants
cognitive impairment, bipolar disorder, psychiatric, MDD, DSM-5
DISORDERS, DISORDERS
The inclusion criteria for the participants included a diagnosis of MDD or bipolar disorder (BP) as per the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)-IV-TR or DSM-5 criteria, age 20 years or older, right-handedness, and psychotropic medication unchanged for at least 1 month prior to enrollment. All patients were screened using the Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) to identify coexisting psychiatric disorders. The exclusion criteria included any serious physical ailments, cognitive impairment affecting decision-making abilities, inability to provide consent, pregnancy, or lactation.