Introduction
hyperactivity, Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, impulsivity, ADHD, neurodevelopmental disorder, neurodevelopmental disorders
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most common early-onset neurodevelopmental disorder in the pediatric population, affecting 7.2% of school-age children globally. It is characterized by deficits in the cognitive functioning pattern, with hyperactivity, impulsivity, and attention problems that are developmentally inappropriate and significantly impairing symptoms [Recently, a growing interest has been directed to the bidirectional pathway between the gut and brain—the gut–brain axis (GBA). Alterations and imbalances in the gut microbiota may play a role in developing and progressing neurodevelopmental disorders like ADHD. [Furthermore, several reports showed an association between ADHD and low levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which is essential for neuronal development, suggesting that BDNF contributes to its pathophysiology [Probiotics are bacteria that benefit the host body [