Introduction
Diabetic retinopathy, centre-involving, visual impairment, microvascular complications, vasopermeability, vision loss, loss of vision, diabetes
LEAKAGE, DIABETIC GASTROPARESIS, DIABETIC RETINOPATHY, DIABETIC MACULAR OEDEMA, LOSS OF VISION, DIABETES
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) and diabetic macular oedema (DME) are microvascular complications causing visual impairment in diabetes. Leakage from retinal capillaries in DME produces the accumulation of extracellular fluid and proteins that alter the structure and function of the macula and may lead to permanent loss of vision if untreated. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) isoforms, including placental growth factor (PlGF), are major vasopermeability factors in DME, and intravitreal agents blocking VEGF and PlGF have become a first-line of treatment for centre-involving DME with vision loss [Vasoinhibin, a fragment of the pituitary hormone prolactin (PRL), inhibits the permeability and growth of blood vessels [Levosulpiride is a well-tolerated, dopamine D2 receptor blocker used as a prokinetic drug to treat diabetic gastroparesis [