INTRODUCTION
diabetes type 2
INSULIN RESISTANCE, DIABETES TYPE 2
Placebo effects are positive treatment outcomes that cannot be attributed to the pharmacological mechanisms of the treatment but are caused by the psychosocial context (Several possible clinical applications of placebo effects induced by conditioning were proposed (The most convincing evidence for endocrine conditioning comes from studies on conditioning of insulin and glucose responses in animals and healthy humans (Up-to-date, most of the animal research on insulin conditioning has been done in male mice or rats (for the review, see Ref. (The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of conditioning with intranasal insulin on blood glucose, insulin, C-peptide, hunger, and memory in a group of patients with diabetes type 2 and age- and sex-matched healthy controls. In addition, we aimed to explore differences between healthy individuals and patients with diabetes type 2, as their responses to insulin and conditioning might differ because of insulin resistance (