His study takes into account the position of Muslim "modernists" like Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, Sayyid Ahmad Khan, and Muhammad Iqbal, all of whom  emphasized the adaptability of Islam to the demands and challenges of modernity.
His study considers the stance of Muslim "progressives" such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, Sayyid Ahmad Khan, and Muhammad Iqbal, all of whom stressed the flexibility of Islam to meet the needs and challenges of modernity.