The hypothesis is sometimes also applied to humans as apex predators that produce top-down effects on lower trophic levels. However, it fails to recognize bottom-up effects that anthropogenic land transformations can have on landscapes on which primary producers, prey species, and mesopredators dwell. Possible bottom-up effects on an ecosystem can be from bioclimatic impacts on ecosystem productivity and from anthropogenic habitat alterations.
A theory is sometimes applied to humans as the pinnacle predators that exert top-down influences on lower trophic levels. Nevertheless, it overlooks the bottom-up effects that human-induced environmental changes can have on landscapes where primary producers, prey species, and mesopredators reside. Potential bottom-up effects on an ecosystem can stem from climatic impacts on productivity and from alterations to habitats caused by humans.