14.1: The Lorax
In Dr. Seuss’s “The Lorax” there is a quote that seems appropriate to begin my final chapter (Seuss 1971) .
‘Mister,’ he said with a sawdusty sneeze,
‘I am the Lorax, I speak for the trees.
I speak for the trees, for the trees have no tongues.”
Comparative methods have been rushing forward at breakneck speed to “speak for the trees” for more than 20 years now. At the same time, we have gained more information about the shape of the tree of life than any time in the history of the planet. So, what have we learned so far? And what can we learn moving forward? Perhaps most importantly, how can we overcome the perceived and actual limits of comparative approaches, and enable new breakthroughs in our understanding of evolutionary biology?


41.3.28: Chapter 29
Review Questions
1.
a.
Bile, secreted by the liver, aids in digestion by breaking down fats into fatty acids; therefore, the client may need to limit intake of dietary fat.
2.
b.
Gastritis, the irritation and inflammation of the lining of the stomach, can result in bleeding.
3.
b.
Saliva helps moisten food to make it easier to swallow. The salivary glands produce about 2 L of saliva every day to help keep the oral cavity, including the buccal membranes, moist.
4.
c.
A dysfunctional upper esophageal sphincter may allow food or fluid to enter the airway when the client swallows.
5.
a.
Because the small intestine is responsible for absorbing nutrients, the client will need vitamin and mineral supplements.
6.
c.
Lipase is involved in the breakdown of fats and the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. This means the client will have deficient levels of vitamin K, a fat-soluble vitamin.
7.
d.
Intestinal villi are highly vascular and line the entire small intestine to accomplish most of the digestion and absorption processes. Therefore, dysfunctional villi may lead to malabsorption and nutritional deficiencies.
8.
b.
When assessing a client’s gastrointestinal system, the nurse should ask whether the client has had any unintended weight gain or loss. A change in weight may be due to factors affecting the appetite or the ingestion, digestion, or absorption of nutrients.
9.
c.
Cranial nerve VII, the facial nerve, is involved with salivation.
10.
a.
When prostaglandin E
2
is not sufficient to prevent gastritis, medications such as antacids may be needed to reduce or eliminate symptoms.


30.9: Chapter 24
Unfolding Case Study
1. The 7/10 chest pain is the finding of most concern because this is a new symptom and may indicate an acute problem. It is also important to recognize that the patient is experiencing an abnormally fast heart rate with PVCs, which can indicate an underlying cardiac issue. The elevated respiratory rate is also a concern because this may indicate issues with the lungs. The high blood pressure is a concern but not the priority at this time.
2. Based on the recognized cues, it is likely that the patient is experiencing a cardiac issue. Specifically, the patient may be experiencing a myocardial infarction or a continued severe exacerbation of heart failure.
3. The nurse should anticipate performing diagnostic tests to rule out cardiac disorders. These include a 12-lead ECG and blood tests. Eventually the provider may also order a stress test or cardiac catheterization.
4. An elevated troponin level is indicative of myocardial damage or ischemia, often related to a myocardial infarction, or heart attack. The nurse should first alert the treating provider about the elevated troponin if they are unaware. Next, the nurse should monitor the patient closely and prepare to take the patient to the cardiac catheterization laboratory for further investigation and possible intervention.
5. The nurse should explain that the patient will be given medication to help her sleep while dye is injected into their vessels. The dye helps to visualize the vessels that lead to the heart to determine if there are any blockages present. If blockages are present, the provider can perform an intervention such as placing a stent to keep the vessel open. This will help restore blood flow to the heart and keep the heart muscle from being damaged.
6. First and foremost, the patient should not be experiencing chest pain after the procedure. Additionally, the cardiac monitor should show a normal rhythm. Troponin levels should be trending downward and the patient should report less dyspnea.


12.7: Medical Specialists, Diagnostic Testing, and Procedures Related to the Digestive System
Medical Specialists
Gastroenterology
Gastroenterology (găs-trō-ĕn-tĕr-ŎL-ă-jē) is the study of the normal function and diseases of the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, colon and rectum, pancreas, gallbladder, bile ducts, and liver. A physician who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of gastrointestinal disorders is known as a gastroenterologist (găs-trō-ĕn-tĕr-ŎL-ŏ-jĭst).
A colorectal surgeon (kō-lō-REK-tăl SUR-jĕn) is a surgeon who specializes in conditions affecting the large intestine (i.e., colon, rectum, and anus.) A proctologist (prok-TOL-ŏ-jĭst) is a physician who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the rectum.
To learn more about gastroenterology, visit the American College of Gastroenterology web page .
Diagnostic Tests
Barium Enema
A barium enema (BĀR-ē-ŭm EN-ĕ-mă) is a diagnostic procedure involving the use of a contrast material known as barium. Barium is a chalky material that appears white on X-ray and coats the inner wall of the large intestine for visualization. During the procedure, barium is administered into the rectum, along with air (that appears black on X-ray). Fluoroscopy is often used during a barium enema. During fluoroscopy, a continuous X-ray is passed through the large intestine and is transmitted to a monitor so the movement of the barium through the large intestine can be visualized as it is instilled through the rectum. After the procedure, if the barium isn’t completely eliminated from the body, constipation or fecal impaction may occur. [1] See Figure 12.24 [2] for an image of a barium enema showing herniation of the colon. The barium causes the colon to appear white on the left side of the image, and air in the colon causes it to appear black on the right side of the image.
Colonoscopy
A colonoscopy (kŏl-ŏn-OS-kŏ-pē) is a procedure that examines the inside of the large intestine, including the colon, rectum, and anus. A sigmoidoscopy (sig-moy-DOS-kŏ-pē) is a similar procedure but only examines the sigmoid colon. During both procedures, the physician uses an endoscope (EN-dŏ-skōp), a flexible tube with a lighted camera on the end that is inserted into the anus and colon. Along the way, it sends pictures of the inside of the large intestine to a screen. The physician can take biopsies during these procedures and also remove polyps. [3] See Figure 12.25 [4] for an illustration of a colonoscopy.
The American Cancer Society recommends routine colonoscopy screening for colon cancer for individuals of average risk starting at age 45. [5] Colonoscopies are also used to diagnose medical conditions like inflammatory bowel disease or colon cancer.
Colonoscopy prep is very important to the success of the procedure. The health care provider provides detailed instructions to the patient to follow in the days leading up to the procedure. The purpose of these preparations is to make sure the large intestine is as clear as possible for visualization of the tissue. Typically, a low-fiber diet is followed for two or three days, followed by a clear liquid diet on the day before the procedure. The afternoon before the colonoscopy, a strong laxative is taken to purge the bowels. [6]
Upper GI Endoscopy
During an upper GI endoscopy (ŬP-ĕr Jī ĕn-DŎS-kŏ-pē en-DOS-kŏ-pē), also called an esophagogastroduodenoscopy (ē-sof-ă-gō-gas-trō-doo-ŏ-dē-NOS-kŏ-pē) (EGD) , a doctor uses a flexible tube with a camera to see the lining of the upper gastrointestinal tract, including the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum. During upper GI endoscopy, biopsies may be taken by passing an instrument through the endoscope to take small pieces of tissue from the lining of the esophagus. A pathologist examines the tissue under a microscope. [7] See Figure 12.26 [8] for an image of an upper GI endoscopy.
Upper GI Series
An upper gastrointestinal series (ŬP-ĕr GAS-trō-in-TĔS-tĭ-năl SĪR-ēz) is an X-ray examination of the upper gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The esophagus, stomach, and duodenum are made visible on X-ray film by a liquid suspension that may be barium or a water-soluble contrast. If only the pharynx and esophagus are examined with barium, the procedure is called a barium swallow (BĀR-ē-ŭm SWŎL-ō). Fluoroscopy is often used during an upper GI series to allow the radiologist to visualize the movement of the barium through the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum as a person drinks. After the procedure, if barium is not completely eliminated from the body, constipation and fecal impaction can occur. [9] See Figure 12.27 [10] for an image of an upper GI series that shows a hernia and an obstruction. The barium causes the stomach and esophagus to appear white.
Stool-Based Tests
The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommends that adults aged 45 to 75 be screened for colorectal cancer. Several stool-based tests can be used to screen for polyps or colorectal cancer [11] :
- Fecal occult blood test (FĒ-kăl ŏ-KULT blŭd tĕst) (FOBT) or (gFOBT) : Uses a chemical called guaiac to detect blood in the stool. For this test, the patient receives a test kit from their health care provider. At home, they use a small stick or brush to obtain a small amount of stool and place it on a card. The test kit is returned to a lab, where the stool sample is checked for the presence of blood.
- Fecal immunochemical test (FĒ-kăl im-yŭn-Ō-kĕm-ĭ-kăl tĕst): Uses antibodies to detect blood in the stool.
- Stool DNA test (stōōl dē-ĕn-ā tĕst): Combines the fecal immunochemical test with a test that detects altered DNA in the stool. For this test, an entire bowel movement is collected and sent to a lab, where it is checked for altered DNA and the presence of blood.
If a stool test is positive, then a colonoscopy is scheduled for follow-up testing. See Figure 12.28 [12] for an image of a stool specimen container.
Stool Culture
A stool culture (stōōl KUL-chŭr) is a test that detects and identifies bacteria that cause infections of the lower digestive tract. The test distinguishes between the types of bacteria that cause disease (pathogenic) and the types that are normally found in the digestive tract (normal flora). The test helps to determine if pathogenic bacteria are the cause of a person’s gastrointestinal symptoms. [13]
- Johns Hopkins Medicine. (n.d.). Barium enema. www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/treatment-tests-and-therapies/barium-enema ↵
- “Colonic_Herniation_08787.jpg” by Nevit Dilmen ( talk ) is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 ↵
- Cleveland Clinic. (2022, November 30). Colonoscopy . my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diagnostics/4949-colonoscopy ↵
- “Diagram_showing_a_colonoscopy_CRUK_060.svg” by Cancer Research UK. Wikimedia Commons is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 ↵
- American Cancer Society. (2020, November 17). American Cancer Society guideline for colorectal cancer screening. https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/colon-rectal-cancer/detection-diagnosis-staging/acs-recommendations.html ↵
- Cleveland Clinic. (2022, November 30). Colonoscopy . my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diagnostics/4949-colonoscopy ↵
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. (2020, July). Diagnosis of GER & GERD . National Institutes of Health. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/acid-reflux-ger-gerd-adults/diagnosis ↵
- “ 180619235_391dec588d_b.jpg ” by Yuya Tamai is licensed under CC BY 2.0 ↵
- Johns Hopkins Medicine. (n.d.). Upper gastrointestinal series. www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/treatment-tests-and-therapies/upper-gastrointestinal-series ↵
- “ Radiology_0014_Nevit.jpg ” by Nevit Dilmen ( talk ) is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 ↵
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023, February 23). Colorectal cancer screening tests. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. www.cdc.gov/cancer/colorectal/basic_info/screening/tests.htm ↵
- “Stool_specimen_container.jpg” by Whispyhistory is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 ↵
- Testing.com. (2021, November 9). Stool culture. https://www.testing.com/tests/stool-culture ↵


20.1D: Inflammation
Inflammation is part of the biological response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli.
- Describe the biological mechanisms of inflammation and its role in innate immunity
Key Points
- Acute inflammation occurs due to infection, injury, or irritation, and is an essential part of the healing process to remove pathogens and start the wound-healing process.
- During inflammation, vasodilation occurs, the endothelium becomes more permeable as exudate leaks into the tissues, and neutrophils migrate to the site of inflammation.
- Acute inflammation is initiated by cells already present in all tissues, such as mast cells that recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) with toll-like receptors, but other cells like natural killer (NK) cells can trigger inflammation as well.
- Acute inflammation is characterized by pain, redness, immobility (loss of function), swelling, and heat.
- Neutrophils migrate to inflamed tissues by rolling onto the endothelium with selectins, adhering to it with integrins, and sliding through its gaps with PECAM-1. Then they follow chemokines to the tissues to find pathogens to destroy.
- Repeated bouts of acute inflammation lead to chronic inflammation, a process of constant healing and inflammation-induced damage as the initial problem is never truly healed.
- Allergic reactions are the result of an inappropriate immune response that triggers inflammation.
Key Terms
- extravasion :
- exudate : Protein-rich edema caused by proteins flowing into the tissues during inflammation due to increased vascular permeability and oncotic pressure.
- inflammatory mediator : Any chemical released from cells that stimulates the vasodilation and increased permeability that occur during acute inflammation.
Inflammation is part of the complex biological response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, injury or trauma, and irritants. Inflammation is a protective attempt by the organism to remove injurious stimuli and initiate the healing process. Inflammation is not a synonym for infection, even in cases where inflammation is caused by infection. Rather, it refers to the response of the body to try and fight the infection. While inflammation is an important mechanism of innate immunity, it can harm the body in cases of allergy, autoimmunity, and infections in tissues with poor regenerative capacity such as the heart.
Functions and Components of Inflammatory Response
The main function of inflammation is to trigger an immune response in an area of the body that needs it to fight off pathogens that may cause an infection or to help heal an injury. The main symptoms of acute inflammation are swelling, redness, pain, loss of function, and heat. Three components to the basic acute inflammatory response occur every time: vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, and migration of leukocytes to the affected tissues.
Vasodilation
An inflammatory response can be caused by any of numerous inflammatory mediators released from innate immune system cells. The most common short term mediators are histamine and seratonin from mast cells, but bradykinin, complement proteins, some interleukins, prostaglandins, and TNF-alpha may also trigger inflammation from other types of cells. Circulating mast cells contain toll-like receptors, which can detect pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPS) on the surface of pathogens and release an inflammatory mediator such as histamine in response. Alternatively, mast cells may release inflammatory mediators due to signals from damaged cells (which will release clotting factors) during trauma or injury.
After an inflammatory mediator is released in the bloodstream, a period of transient vasoconstriction, lasting only a few seconds, occurs. Then blood vessels expand to undergo vasodilation from the stimulus of the vasoactive inflammatory mediator, which increases blood flow to the area. This causes slowing and stasis of red blood cells, which can be involved in the clotting response needed to stop bleeding in the case of injury. Vasodilation is the reason for the redness, heat, and pain associated with inflammation.
Increased Vascular Permeability
The next step of acute inflammation is an increase in vascular permeability due to inflammatory mediator activity, which causes the blood vessels to become more permeable. Normally only water and small compounds can exit the bloodstream into the tissues, but during inflammation, large proteins in the bloodstream, such as serum albumins, can leak out and into the tissues. Water follows these proteins due to the force of oncotic pressure that the proteins exert. This is called exudate, a form of edema. As exudate accumulates within the tissues, they become swollen. The exudate may carry antimicrobial proteins and antibodies into the tissues, and stimulates lymphatic drainage.
Leukocyte Migration to the Tissues
The next step of the acute inflammatory response is chemotaxis migration of neutrophils to the affected area. Neutrophils are recruited to the site of inflammation by various cytokines. Other inflammatory mediators, such as TNF-alpha and IL-1, increase the expression of adhesion molecules on vascular endothelial cells. The neutrophils loosely attach to the endothelial cells through use of selectins, a process called rolling . Then integrins firmly attach to the adhesion molecules on the endothelial cells, which is called adhesion. Together, rolling and adhesion are referred to as margination , the accumulation of leukocytes on the endothelium.
The next step is for neutrophils to squeeze through the gaps in the endothelium into the tissues through binding with PECAM-1 expressed on the endothelium, a process called extravasion . Then the neutrophils follow a chemotactic gradient to the site of infection of injury in the tissues, where they will degranulate and phagocytize pathogens. Later, macrophages enter the tissues through a similar process to clean up dead neutrophils and cellular debris.
Outcomes of Acute Inflammation
Inflammation : Toes inflamed by chilblains
When acute inflammation ends (typically by release of anti-inflammatory mediators such as IL-10 or an end to the release of inflammatory mediators) resolution will occur if the problem is alleviated. Resolution involves physiological responses that are part of the healing process, such as wound healing. If the problem is not resolved, acute inflammation could occur again. Repeated bouts of acute inflammation, known as chronic inflammation, leads to a progressive shift in the type of cells present at the site of inflammation and is characterized by simultaneous destruction and healing of the tissue from the inflammatory process. In particular, fibrosis (scarring) and tissue necrosis are common outcomes of chronic inflammation.


14.15: Budget Calculations
- Examine the different budget calculation methods
Before going in-depth on ways to account for and measure Marketing expenses, it should be noted that business owners often look for guidelines on how much to invest for a given campaign. To be true, there is no perfect formula for what a business should spend on marketing and promotion because this is highly subjective and dependent upon a host of variables, not the least of which are the specific strategy, existing consumer awareness and ROI requirements. That said, some outlets do publish guidelines by industry. Generally, these reflect and recommend a percentage spend of revenue be invested in marketing and promotional activities.
However, these can vary from mid single digit to low double-digit investment, depending upon industry, organizational strategy and specific financial resources. Another approach for retail organizations, if appropriate, is to fund marketing as a percent of mark-up minus monthly rent. To simply this, imagine a business that sells $2,000,000 in goods annually.
- The product they sell costs $2.00 for them, but sells for $4.00.
- They sell 500,000 units/ year ($2,000,000/ $4.000).
- Their mark-up is $2.00 ($4.00 – $2.00).
- Recommended marketing & promotion investment might be 8- 12%, dependent upon needs.
- Thus, they would consider investing $80,000 to $120,000 for marketing & promotion BEFORE adjusting for their rent expense (500,000 units x $2.00 mark-up = $1,000,000; $1,000,000 x 8% = $80,000; $1,000,000 x 12% = $120,000).
- IF their monthly rent is $4,000, then their planned investment would be $32,000 on the low-side to $72,000 on the high-side ($4,000 rent x 12 months = $48,000; $80,000 – $48,000 = $32,000 low-side; $120,000 – $48,000 = $72,000 high-side investment.
Just know that these are not “hard and fast” rules for marketing investment. Instead, they inform your decisions, given your own organizational strategies, market opportunities and financial resources.
That said, it is important to understand how to describe promotional objectives and track performance, so that your firm can optimize their plan as appropriate. And, there is a specific language that speaks to advertising goals and measurement. For traditional media, important terms are:
- Rating: the percentage of a market that will likely be exposed to a single, specific ad
- Reach: the likely number of people in the market who will be exposed to the single, specific ad
- Frequency: the number of times the ad will be presented to the target market
- Impressions: the total number of times an individual is exposed to the single, specific ad. A consumer who sees the same ad four (4) times has had (four 4) impressions.
- Response Rate: refers to the number of people who responded to a specific marketing offer, usually expressed as a percentage (total responses/ total distribution). It is common in direct marketing like direct mail and e-mail marketing ·
- Redemption Rate: refers to the number of people who acted on a specific marketing offer, usually expressed as a percentage (total purchases/ total distribution). It is common in direct marketing and couponing
- Gross Rating Point (GRP): measures the breadth of an advertising campaign, multiplying the number of times an ad airs (spots) by the Rating
- Cost per Point (CPP): measures the cost efficiency of the campaign, allowing one to compare between individual ads or over time. CPP is calculated by dividing the Cost of Media by GRPs
You might notice that measures in traditional media focus upon Cost and Scale. That is, what did the media cost to produce and run, relative to the total number of people who saw it, regardless of whether they are part of the specific customer target. New media, because it is more targeted and trackable, provides for more specific measures and resulting activity.
In Multi-Channel Retailing , you may have read about some common terms and measures used in new media. As a reminder, they can be unique to websites, social media and apps. Further, they speak to traffic, engagement, usage and efficiency. For web analytics, important terms are:
-
Traffic
- Hits- a request for a file from a web server
- Visits- a user’s interaction with a website, measured by hits or page views
- Unique Visits
- Return Visits
- Impressions- the number of times an ad loads on a viewer’s screen
-
Engagement
- Page Views
- Click-through Rate (CTR)- the number of visitors who click on a given link / the total number of visitors who were served the link or page or advertisement
- Duration or Time Spent on-site
- Events- clicks, page views, downloads, video plays, etc.
-
Efficiency
- CPM- “Cost per 1,000”; frequently used in display advertising, it’s the cost for 1,000 ad impressions
- Return on Ad Spend- the number of unique people who saw an ad / the total cost of running the campaign
- Conversion Rate- the number of visitors who complete the desired action / the total number of visitors. For example, in Lead Acquisition efforts, a marketer might measure Conversion as = Lead Cards Completed / Total Site Visitors
- Close Rate- the number of Sales / the total number of Leads
For social networks, marketers track Followers or Friends to measure reach. They measure engagement in the context of Likes, Shares, Mentions or Retweets.
Of course, the ultimate goal of all marketing & promotion is to sell the firm’s products and services. And, while measurement in both traditional and new media attempt to understand how well ads and campaigns drive action, it is very difficult (potentially impossible) to establish causality. That is, it is generally easy to see how advertising and promotion stimulate activity within the market—marketers can measure Consumer Awareness, Brand Affinity and Intent to Buy. They can also track how sales of their own products & services trend before, during and after the promotional period.
However, due to the rise of the omni-channel, consumers search and shop across channels very easily, blurring them. This means that they’re exposed to a broad spectrum of marketers’ advertising efforts and messages. Thus, it’s impossible to understand the impact of a single ad. Think of it this way:
- How many of the firm’s marketing messages did the consumer see before making their purchase?
- So, how much “credit” does each, single ad get for the sale?
- Was each ad beneficial, or did some get “tuned out” because the consumer had already decided that the product was right for them?
- Did the Facebook ad have more impact than the television spot? How did banner ads on-line fair relative to influencer posts on Instagram? Were the newspaper ads more meaningful than the in-store displays?
- What would have happened if we cut radio, but increased direct mail activity?
These questions are unanswerable. The necessity of IMC is that it considers the campaign and its channels in their entirety, knowing that attribution of sales to single marketing activity is a near impossibility. Thus, marketers should be more interested in the total impact to sales activity.
To be effective, marketers need to understand the trend of their sales, BEFORE marketing activity. This can establish baseline sales against which to measure and assess changes, once the marketing activity is in-place—incremental sales. More specifically, marketers measure the change to sales during and after the marketing activity (Total Sales – Baseline Sales = Incremental Sales). This isn’t perfect, but incremental sales should reflect what the impact of the marketing activity is upon customer purchases.
With this insight (Base, Incremental and Total Sales) and the cost basis of the campaign, marketers can derive a number of useful measures:
- Cost per Sale = (Total Marketing Spend / Total Units Sold) E.g. $400,000 / 1,200,000 = $.33 per Sale
- Cost per Incremental Sale = Total Marketing Spend / (Total Units Sold – Baseline Sales) E.g. $400,000 / (1,200,000 Total Units – 6,000,000 Baseline) = $.67. (That the Cost per Incremental Sale is greater than the Cost per Sale should make sense because customers who were interested in buying without the marketing activity also got the benefit of the marketing activity. In this sense, the marketing activity was “wasted” on them.)
- Return on Marketing Investment (ROMI) = [(Incremental Revenue x Contribution Margin) – Marketing Spend] / Marketing Spend E.g. Assume Revenue of $4.00 per unit and a contribution margin of 25%; [($2,400,000 x 25%) – $400,000] / $400,000 = $200,000 / $400,000 = 50%. This means that every dollar spent in marketing and promotion returns an extra $.50 to the firm.
Measures like the above can help firms assess the effectiveness of their promotional effectiveness during and after the marketing activity.
Contributors and Attributions
- Budget Calculations. Authored by : Patrick Williams. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


Skip to main content
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Conflict is a disagreement between two or more people based on differences concerning which of the following?
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Beliefs
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Actions
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Opinions
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All of the above
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What do the most common workplace conflicts result from?
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Personal problems between staff members
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Jealousy and mistrust of other staff members
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Problems between employers and employees
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Resource allocations (e.g., differences in department budgets), perceptions, and values
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What is the best way for two individuals to settle a resource allocation-related conflict?
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Limit interactions with the other individual.
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Complain formally in writing to his or her superior.
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Agree to disagree and let someone else come up with the solution.
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Remove personal opinions, be objective, look at the issue, and try and find a solution that works.
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Conflict is inevitable and does not reflect badly on you.
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True
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False
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There is always a winner and a loser in a workplace conflict.
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True
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False
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It is always best to wait until you are calm before discussing a workplace conflict.
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True
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False
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The longer a conflict goes unresolved, the more difficult it becomes to find the source of the problem.
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True
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False
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Being passive or non-assertive is a good strategy when dealing with a conflict.
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True
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False


2.3: Measures of the Location of the Data
The common measures of location are quartiles and percentiles
Quartiles are special percentiles. The first quartile, \(Q_1\), is the same as the \(25^{th}\) percentile, and the third quartile, \(Q_3\), is the same as the \(75^{th}\) percentile. The median, M, is called both the second quartile and the 50th percentile.
To calculate quartiles and percentiles, the data must be ordered from smallest to largest. Quartiles divide ordered data into quarters. Percentiles divide ordered data into hundredths. To score in the \(90^{th}\) percentile of an exam does not mean, necessarily, that you received 90% on a test. It means that 90% of test scores are the same or less than your score and 10% of the test scores are the same or greater than your test score.
Percentiles are useful for comparing values. For this reason, universities and colleges use percentiles extensively. One instance in which colleges and universities use percentiles is when SAT results are used to determine a minimum testing score that will be used as an acceptance factor. For example, suppose Duke accepts SAT scores at or above the \(75^{th}\) percentile. That translates into a score of at least 1220.
Percentiles are mostly used with very large populations. Therefore, if you were to say that 90% of the test scores are less (and not the same or less) than your score, it would be acceptable because removing one particular data value is not significant.
The
median
is a number that measures the "center" of the data. You can think of the median as the "middle value," but it does not actually have to be one of the observed values. It is a number that separates ordered data into halves. Half the values are the same number or smaller than the median, and half the values are the same number or larger. For example, consider the following data.
\(1; 11.5; 6; 7.2; 4; 8; 9; 10; 6.8; 8.3; 2; 2; 10; 1\)
Ordered from smallest to largest:
\(1; 1; 2; 2; 4; 6; 6.8; 7.2; 8; 8.3; 9; 10; 10; 11.5\)
Since there are 14 observations, the median is between the seventh value, 6.8, and the eighth value, 7.2. To find the median, add the two values together and divide by two.
\[\frac{6.8+7.2}{2}=7\nonumber\]
The median is seven. Half of the values are smaller than seven and half of the values are larger than seven.
Quartiles
are numbers that separate the data into quarters. Quartiles may or may not be part of the data. To find the quartiles, first find the median or second quartile. The first quartile, \(Q_1\), is the middle value of the lower half of the data, and the third quartile, \(Q_3\), is the middle value, or median, of the upper half of the data. To get the idea, consider the same data set:
1; 1; 2; 2; 4; 6; 6.8; 7.2; 8; 8.3; 9; 10; 10; 11.5
The median or
second quartile
is seven. The lower half of the data are 1, 1, 2, 2, 4, 6, 6.8. The middle value of the lower half is two.
1; 1; 2; 2; 4; 6; 6.8
The number two, which is part of the data, is the first quartile . One-fourth of the entire sets of values are the same as or less than two and three-fourths of the values are more than two.
The upper half of the data is 7.2, 8, 8.3, 9, 10, 10, 11.5. The middle value of the upper half is nine.
The third quartile , \(Q_3\), is nine. Three-fourths (75%) of the ordered data set are less than nine. One-fourth (25%) of the ordered data set are greater than nine. The third quartile is part of the data set in this example.
The interquartile range is a number that indicates the spread of the middle half or the middle 50% of the data. It is the difference between the third quartile (\(Q_3\)) and the first quartile (\(Q_1\)).
\(IQR = Q_3 – Q_1\)
The \(IQR\) can help to determine potential outliers . A value is suspected to be a potential outlier if it is less than \(\bf{(1.5)(IQR)}\) below the first quartile or more than \(\bf{(1.5)(IQR)}\) above the third quartile . Potential outliers always require further investigation.
potential outlier
A potential outlier is a data point that is significantly different from the other data points. These special data points may be errors or some kind of abnormality or they may be a key to understanding the data.
Example \(\PageIndex{14}\)
For the following 13 real estate prices, calculate the \(IQR\) and determine if any prices are potential outliers. Prices are in dollars.
\(389,950; 230,500; 158,000; 479,000; 639,000; 114,950; 5,500,000; 387,000; 659,000; 529,000; 575,000; 488,800; 1,095,000\)
- Answer
-
Solution 2.14
Order the data from smallest to largest.
\(114,950; 158,000; 230,500; 387,000; 389,950; 479,000; 488,800; 529,000; 575,000; 639,000; 659,000; 1,095,000; 5,500,000\)
\(M = 488,800\)
\(Q_{1}=\frac{230,500+387,000}{2}=308,750\)
\(Q_{3}=\frac{639,000+659,000}{2}=649,000\)
\(IQR = 649,000 – 308,750 = 340,250\)
\((1.5)(IQR) = (1.5)(340,250) = 510,375\)
\(Q_1 – (1.5)(IQR) = 308,750 – 510,375 = –201,625\)
\(Q_3 + (1.5)(IQR) = 649,000 + 510,375 = 1,159,375\)
No house price is less than \(–201,625\). However, \(5,500,000\) is more than \(1,159,375\). Therefore, \(5,500,000\) is a potential outlier .
Example \(\PageIndex{15}\)
For the two data sets in the test scores example , find the following:
- The interquartile range. Compare the two interquartile ranges.
- Any outliers in either set.
- Answer
-
Solution 2.15
The five number summary for the day and night classes is
Minimum \(Q_1\) Median \(Q_3\) Maximum Day 32 56 74.5 82.5 99 Night 25.5 78 81 89 98 Table \(\PageIndex{21}\) a. The \(IQR\) for the day group is \(Q_3 – Q_1 = 82.5 – 56 = 26.5\)
The \(IQR\) for the night group is \(Q_3 – Q_1 = 89 – 78 = 11\)
The interquartile range (the spread or variability) for the day class is larger than the night class \(IQR\). This suggests more variation will be found in the day class’s class test scores.
b. Day class outliers are found using the \(IQR\) times 1.5 rule. So,- \(Q_1 - IQR(1.5) = 56 – 26.5(1.5) = 16.25\)
- \(Q_3 + IQR(1.5) = 82.5 + 26.5(1.5) = 122.25\)
Since the minimum and maximum values for the day class are greater than \(16.25\) and less than \(122.25\), there are no outliers.
Night class outliers are calculated as:
- \(Q_1 – IQR (1.5) = 78 – 11(1.5) = 61.5\)
- \(Q_3 + IQR(1.5) = 89 + 11(1.5) = 105.5\)
For this class, any test score less than \(61.5\) is an outlier. Therefore, the scores of \(45\) and \(25.5\) are outliers. Since no test score is greater than 105.5, there is no upper end outlier.
Example \(\PageIndex{16}\)
Fifty statistics students were asked how much sleep they get per school night (rounded to the nearest hour). The results were:
| Amount of sleep per school night (hours) | Frequency | Relative frequency | Cumulative relative frequency |
|---|---|---|---|
| 4 | 2 | 0.04 | 0.04 |
| 5 | 5 | 0.10 | 0.14 |
| 6 | 7 | 0.14 | 0.28 |
| 7 | 12 | 0.24 | 0.52 |
| 8 | 14 | 0.28 | 0.80 |
| 9 | 7 | 0.14 | 0.94 |
| 10 | 3 | 0.06 | 1.00 |
Find the 28 th percentile . Notice the 0.28 in the "cumulative relative frequency" column. Twenty-eight percent of 50 data values is 14 values. There are 14 values less than the 28 th percentile. They include the two 4s, the five 5s, and the seven 6s. The 28 th percentile is between the last six and the first seven. The 28 th percentile is 6.5.
Find the median . Look again at the "cumulative relative frequency" column and find 0.52. The median is the 50 th percentile or the second quartile. 50% of 50 is 25. There are 25 values less than the median. They include the two 4s, the five 5s, the seven 6s, and eleven of the 7s. The median or 50 th percentile is between the 25 th , or seven, and 26 th , or seven, values. The median is seven.
Find the third quartile . The third quartile is the same as the \(75^{th}\) percentile. You can "eyeball" this answer. If you look at the "cumulative relative frequency" column, you find 0.52 and 0.80. When you have all the fours, fives, sixes and sevens, you have 52% of the data. When you include all the 8s, you have 80% of the data. The \(bf{75^{th}}\) percentile, then, must be an eight . Another way to look at the problem is to find 75% of 50, which is 37.5, and round up to 38. The third quartile, \(Q_3\), is the 38 th value, which is an eight. You can check this answer by counting the values. (There are 37 values below the third quartile and 12 values above.)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{16}\)
Forty bus drivers were asked how many hours they spend each day running their routes (rounded to the nearest hour). Find the 65 th percentile.
| Amount of time spent on route (hours) | Frequency | Relative frequency | Cumulative relative frequency |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | 12 | 0.30 | 0.30 |
| 3 | 14 | 0.35 | 0.65 |
| 4 | 10 | 0.25 | 0.90 |
| 5 | 4 | 0.10 | 1.00 |
Example \(\PageIndex{17}\)
Using Table \(\PageIndex{22}\):
- Find the \(80^{th}\) percentile.
- Find the \(90^{th}\) percentile.
- Find the first quartile. What is another name for the first quartile?
- Answer
-
Solution 2.17
Using the data from the frequency table, we have:
a. The \(80^{th}\) percentile is between the last eight and the first nine in the table (between the \(40^{th}\) and \(41^{st}\) values). Therefore, we need to take the mean of the \(40^{th}\) an \(41^{st}\) values. The \(80^{th}\) percentile \(=\frac{8+9}{2}=8.5\)
b. The \(90^{th}\) percentile will be the \(45^{th}\) data value (location is \(0.90(50) = 45\)) and the 45th data value is nine.
c. \(Q_1\) is also the 25th percentile. The \(25^{th}\) percentile location calculation: \(P_{25}=0.25(50)=12.5 \approx 13\) the \(13^{th}\) data value. Thus, the \(25^{th}\) percentile is six.
A Formula for Finding the \(k\)th Percentile
If you were to do a little research, you would find several formulas for calculating the \(k^{th}\) percentile. Here is one of them.
\(k =\) the \(k^{th}\) percentile. It may or may not be part of the data.
\(i =\) the index (ranking or position of a data value)
\(n =\) the total number of data points, or observations
- Order the data from smallest to largest.
- Calculate \(i=\frac{k}{100}(n+1)\)
- If i is an integer, then the \(k^{th}\) percentile is the data value in the \(i^{th}\) position in the ordered set of data.
- If i is not an integer, then round i up and round i down to the nearest integers. Average the two data values in these two positions in the ordered data set. This is easier to understand in an example.
Example \(\PageIndex{18}\)
Listed are 29 ages for Academy Award winning best actors
in order from smallest to largest.
\(18; 21; 22; 25; 26; 27; 29; 30; 31; 33; 36; 37; 41; 42; 47; 52; 55; 57; 58; 62; 64; 67; 69; 71; 72; 73; 74; 76; 77\)
- Find the \(70^{th}\) percentile.
- Find the \(83^{rd}\) percentile.
- Answer
-
Solution 2.18
1.
- \(k = 70\)
- \(i\) = the index
- \(n = 29\)
-
2.
- \(k = 83^{rd}\) percentile
- \(i\) = the index
- \(n = 29\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{18}\)
Listed are 29 ages for Academy Award winning best actors in order from smallest to largest.
\(18; 21; 22; 25; 26; 27; 29; 30; 31; 33; 36; 37; 41; 42; 47; 52; 55; 57; 58; 62; 64; 67; 69; 71; 72; 73; 74; 76; 77\)
Calculate the 20
th
percentile and the 55
th
percentile.
A Formula for Finding the Percentile of a Value in a Data Set
- Order the data from smallest to largest.
- \(x\) = the number of data values counting from the bottom of the data list up to but not including the data value for which you want to find the percentile.
- \(y\) = the number of data values equal to the data value for which you want to find the percentile.
- \(n\) = the total number of data.
- Calculate \(\frac{x+0.5 y}{n}(100)\). Then round to the nearest integer.
Example \(\PageIndex{19}\)
Listed are 29 ages for Academy Award winning best actors
in order from smallest to largest.
\(18; 21; 22; 25; 26; 27; 29; 30; 31; 33; 36; 37; 41; 42; 47; 52; 55; 57; 58; 62; 64; 67; 69; 71; 72; 73; 74; 76; 77\)
- Find the percentile for 58.
- Find the percentile for 25.
- Answer
-
Solution 2.19
1. Counting from the bottom of the list, there are 18 data values less than 58. There is one value of 58.
\(x = 18\) and \(y=1 . \frac{x+0.5 y}{n}(100)=\frac{18+0.5(1)}{29}(100)=63.80\). 58 is the \(64^{th}\) percentile.
2. Counting from the bottom of the list, there are three data values less than 25. There is one value of 25.\(x = 3\) and \(y=1 . \frac{x+0.5 y}{n}(100)=\frac{3+0.5(1)}{29}(100)=12.07\). Twenty-five is the \(12^{th}\) percentile.
Interpreting Percentiles, Quartiles, and Median
A percentile indicates the relative standing of a data value when data are sorted into numerical order from smallest to largest. Percentages of data values are less than or equal to the pth percentile. For example, 15% of data values are less than or equal to the 15 th percentile.
- Low percentiles always correspond to lower data values.
- High percentiles always correspond to higher data values.
A percentile may or may not correspond to a value judgment about whether it is "good" or "bad." The interpretation of whether a certain percentile is "good" or "bad" depends on the context of the situation to which the data applies. In some situations, a low percentile would be considered "good;" in other contexts a high percentile might be considered "good". In many situations, there is no value judgment that applies.
Understanding how to interpret percentiles properly is important not only when describing data, but also when calculating probabilities in later chapters of this text.
NOTE
When writing the interpretation of a percentile in the context of the given data, the sentence should contain the following information.
- information about the context of the situation being considered
- the data value (value of the variable) that represents the percentile
- the percent of individuals or items with data values below the percentile
- the percent of individuals or items with data values above the percentile.
Example \(\PageIndex{20}\)
On a timed math test, the first quartile for time it took to finish the exam was 35 minutes. Interpret the first quartile in the context of this situation.
- Answer
-
Solution 2.20
Twenty-five percent of students finished the exam in 35 minutes or less. Seventy-five percent of students finished the exam in 35 minutes or more. A low percentile could be considered good, as finishing more quickly on a timed exam is desirable. (If you take too long, you might not be able to finish.)
Example \(\PageIndex{21}\)
On a 20 question math test, the 70 th percentile for number of correct answers was 16. Interpret the 70 th percentile in the context of this situation.
- Answer
-
Solution 2.21
Seventy percent of students answered 16 or fewer questions correctly. Thirty percent of students answered 16 or more questions correctly. A higher percentile could be considered good, as answering more questions correctly is desirable.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{21}\)
On a 60 point written assignment, the \(80^{th}\) percentile for the number of points earned was 49. Interpret the \(80^{th}\) percentile in the context of this situation.
Example \(\PageIndex{22}\)
At a community college, it was found that the \(30^{th}\) percentile of credit units that students are enrolled for is seven units. Interpret the \(30^{th}\) percentile in the context of this situation.
- Answer
-
Solution 2.22
- Thirty percent of students are enrolled in seven or fewer credit units.
- Seventy percent of students are enrolled in seven or more credit units.
- In this example, there is no "good" or "bad" value judgment associated with a higher or lower percentile. Students attend community college for varied reasons and needs, and their course load varies according to their needs.
Example \(\PageIndex{23}\)
Sharpe Middle School is applying for a grant that will be used to add fitness equipment to the gym. The principal surveyed 15 anonymous students to determine how many minutes a day the students spend exercising. The results from the 15 anonymous students are shown.
0 minutes; 40 minutes; 60 minutes; 30 minutes; 60 minutes
10 minutes; 45 minutes; 30 minutes; 300 minutes; 90 minutes;
30 minutes; 120 minutes; 60 minutes; 0 minutes; 20 minutes
Determine the following five values.
- Min = 0
- \(Q_1 = 20\)
- Med = 40
- \(Q_3 = 60\)
- Max = 300
If you were the principal, would you be justified in purchasing new fitness equipment? Since 75% of the students exercise for 60 minutes or less daily, and since the \(IQR\) is 40 minutes \((60 – 20 = 40)\), we know that half of the students surveyed exercise between 20 minutes and 60 minutes daily. This seems a reasonable amount of time spent exercising, so the principal would be justified in purchasing the new equipment.
However, the principal needs to be careful. The value 300 appears to be a potential outlier.
\(Q_3 + 1.5(IQR) = 60 + (1.5)(40) = 120\).
The value 300 is greater than 120 so it is a potential outlier. If we delete it and calculate the five values, we get the following values:
- Min = 0
- \(Q_1 = 20\)
- \(Q_3 = 60\)
- Max = 120
We still have 75% of the students exercising for 60 minutes or less daily and half of the students exercising between 20 and 60


6.18.4: Tetrahedral vs. Square Planar Complexes
- Discuss the d-orbital degeneracy of square planar and tetrahedral metal complexes.
Tetrahedral Geometry
Tetrahedral geometry is a bit harder to visualize than square planar geometry. Tetrahedral geometry is analogous to a pyramid, where each of corners of the pyramid corresponds to a ligand, and the central molecule is in the middle of the pyramid. This geometry also has a coordination number of 4 because it has 4 ligands bound to it. Finally, the bond angle between the ligands is 109.5 o . An example of the tetrahedral molecule \(\ce{CH4}\), or methane.
In a tetrahedral complex, \(Δ_t\) is relatively small even with strong-field ligands as there are fewer ligands to bond with. It is rare for the \(Δ_t\) of tetrahedral complexes to exceed the pairing energy. Usually, electrons will move up to the higher energy orbitals rather than pair. Because of this, most tetrahedral complexes are high spin.
Square Planar Complexes
In square planar molecular geometry, a central atom is surrounded by constituent atoms, which form the corners of a square on the same plane. The geometry is prevalent for transition metal complexes with d 8 configuration. This includes Rh(I), Ir(I), Pd(II), Pt(II), and Au(III). Notable examples include the anticancer drugs cisplatin (\(\ce{PtCl2(NH3)2}\)).
A square planar complex also has a coordination number of 4. The structure of the complex differs from tetrahedral because the ligands form a simple square on the x and y axes. Because of this, the crystal field splitting is also different (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Since there are no ligands along the z-axis in a square planar complex, the repulsion of electrons in the \(d_{xz}\), \(d_{yz}\), and the \(d_{z^2}\) orbitals are considerably lower than that of the octahedral complex (the \(d_{z^2}\) orbital is slightly higher in energy to the "doughnut" that lies on the x,y axis). The \(d_{x^2-y^2}\) orbital has the most energy, followed by the \(d_{xy}\) orbital, which is followed by the remaining orbtails (although \(d_{z^2}\) has slightly more energy than the \(d_{xz}\) and \(d_{yz}\) orbital). This pattern of orbital splitting remains constant throughout all geometries. Whichever orbitals come in direct contact with the ligand fields will have higher energies than orbitals that slide past the ligand field and have more of indirect contact with the ligand fields. So when confused about which geometry leads to which splitting, think about the way the ligand fields interact with the electron orbitals of the central atom.
In square planar complexes \(Δ\) will almost always be large (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)), even with a weak-field ligand. Electrons tend to be paired rather than unpaired because paring energy is usually much less than \(Δ\). Therefore, square planar complexes are usually low spin.
The molecule \(\ce{[PdCl4]^{2−}}\) is diamagnetic, which indicates a square planar geometry as all eight d-electrons are paired in the lower-energy orbitals. However, \(\ce{[NiCl4]^{2−}}\) is also d 8 but has two unpaired electrons, indicating a tetrahedral geometry. Why is \(\ce{[PdCl4]^{2−}}\) square planar if \(\ce{Cl^{-}}\) is not a strong-field ligand?
Solution
The geometry of the complex changes going from \(\ce{[NiCl4]^{2−}}\) to \(\ce{[PdCl4]^{2−}}\). Clearly this cannot be due to any change in the ligand since it is the same in both cases. It is the other factor, the metal, that leads to the difference.
Consider the splitting of the d-orbitals in a generic d 8 complex. If it were to adopt a square planar geometry, the electrons will be stabilized (with respect to a tetrahedral complex) as they are placed in orbitals of lower energy. However, this comes at a cost: two of the electrons, which were originally unpaired in the tetrahedral structure, are now paired in the square-planer structure:
We can label these two factors as \(ΔE\) (stabilization derived from occupation of lower-energy orbitals) and \(P\) (spin pairing energy) respectively. One can see that:
- If \(ΔE>P\), then the complex will be square planar
- If \(ΔE<P\), then the complex will be tetrahedral.
This is analogous to deciding whether an octahedral complex adopts a high- or low-spin configuration; where the crystal field splitting parameter \(Δ_o\) \(ΔE\) does above. Unfortunately, unlike \(Δ_o\) in octahedral complexes, there is no simple graphical way to represent \(ΔE\) on the diagram above since multiple orbitals are changed in energy between the two geometries.
Interpreting the origin of metal-dependent stabilization energies can be tricky. However, we know experimentally that \(\ce{Pd^{2+}}\) has a larger splitting of the d-orbitals and hence a larger \(\Delta E\) than \(\ce{Ni^{2+}}\) (moreover \(P\) is also smaller).
Practically all 4d and 5d d 8 \(\ce{ML4}\) complexes adopt a square planar geometry, irrespective if the ligands are strong-field ligand or not. Other examples of such square planar complexes are \(\ce{[PtCl4]^{2−}}\) and \(\ce{[AuCl4]^{-}}\).
Summary
- In tetrahedral molecular geometry, a central atom is located at the center of four substituents, which form the corners of a tetrahedron.
- Tetrahedral geometry is common for complexes where the metal has d 0 or d 10 electron configuration.
- The CFT diagram for tetrahedral complexes has d x 2 −y 2 and d z 2 orbitals equally low in energy because they are between the ligand axis and experience little repulsion.
- In square planar molecular geometry, a central atom is surrounded by constituent atoms, which form the corners of a square on the same plane.
- The square planar geometry is prevalent for transition metal complexes with d 8 configuration.
- The CFT diagram for square planar complexes can be derived from octahedral complexes yet the dx2-y2 level is the most destabilized and is left unfilled.
Contributors and Attributions
- Angad Oberoi (UCD), Justin Nuckles (UCD)
- StackExchange ( orthocresol )


14: Immunohistochemistry
Summary
Immunohistochemistry shows how much and where in a sample cell a particular protein is expressed. This technique is very similar to immunofluorescence microscopy, but detection is through visible color instead of fluorescence.
Also known as:
IHC
Samples needed
Fixed cells or tissue on a slide
Method
Many IHC samples come from a larger piece of tissue. Immediately upon collection, the tissue should be fixed, frequently in formalin. The tissue is embedded in wax, then sectioned , or cut into very, very thin slices, around a few µm thick. The section is mounted on a glass slide. When a researcher is ready to perform IHC, the wax is removed from the sample and antigen retrieval is performed, often by heating. The sample is then blocked, often with milk protein, to discourage any non-specific binding of antibodies, and also any endogenous peroxidase activity is blocked. Next, the sample is incubated in a primary antibody, which specifically binds to the protein of interest. Several different methods can be used at this point, but all result in a colored substance being deposited on the sample only at the locations were the protein of interest is located. Finally, the sample is counterstained with H&E.
Controls
Frequently, in addition to antibodies for the protein of interest, cells are also stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E stain). Hematoxylin stains nuclei purple, and eosin stains cytoplasm and extracellular matrix pink. Almost all histology samples, even those not subjected to IHC, are stained with H&E.
As for IF , often times, other controls for IHC are not shown in a published work. However, if a researcher is using new IHC antibodies for the first time, several controls are useful. A positive control that contains the protein of interest tells the researcher if the antibody works well in IHC and/or if the conditions used for staining are optimal. A control without the primary antibody ensures that the secondary antibody is binding specifically to the primary antibody and not other proteins.
Thumbnail
"Kidney cd10 ihc.jpg" ↗ by Nephron is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 ↗.
Description: Immunohistochemical staining of a non-neoplastic kidney with CD10 (Nephrilysin).
Author
Katherine Mattaini, Tufts University


4.2: Introduction to Writing in College
What you’ll learn to do: explain common college-level writing assignments and effective writing techniques
Effective writing is essential to your success in college. In this section, you’ll learn about common writing assignments and about writing organically. High school writing often emphasizes formulaic structure, such as the five-paragraph theme or the three-point essay. Those structures are appropriate as an introduction to academic writing because they teach writers to make a point and use evidence to support it in an organized way. Those structures are especially useful when responding to standardized tests under time pressure. In college, though, you’ll be writing in a wide variety of disciplines for many different purposes. You’ll need to move beyond formulaic structures and learn how to develop and organize your ideas more organically. So, what’s the difference between formulaic and organic structure? Read on to find out.
Contributors and Attributions
- Introduction to Writing in College. Authored by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Organically Structured Essays. Authored by : Karen Forgette. Provided by : University of Mississippi. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Image of pencils and notebook. Authored by : Karolina Grabowska. Provided by : Pixabay. Located at : pixabay.com/photos/pencils-writing-write-blog-blogger-762555/. License : Other . License Terms : pixabay.com/service/terms/#license


12.S: Static Equilibrium and Elasticity (Summary)
Key Terms
| breaking stress (ultimate stress) | value of stress at the fracture point |
| bulk modulus | elastic modulus for the bulk stress |
| bulk strain (or volume strain) | strain under the bulk stress, given as fractional change in volume |
| bulk stress (or volume stress) | stress caused by compressive forces, in all directions |
| center of gravity | point where the weight vector is attached |
| compressibility | reciprocal of the bulk modulus |
| compressive strain | strain that occurs when forces are contracting an object, causing its shortening |
| compressive stress | stress caused by compressive forces, only in one direction |
| elastic | object that comes back to its original size and shape when the load is no longer present |
| elastic limit | stress value beyond which material no longer behaves elastically and becomes permanently deformed |
| elastic modulus | proportionality constant in linear relation between stress and strain, in SI pascals |
| equilibrium | body is in equilibrium when its linear and angular accelerations are both zero relative to an inertial frame of reference |
| first equilibrium condition | expresses translational equilibrium; all external forces acting on the body balance out and their vector sum is zero |
| gravitational torque | torque on the body caused by its weight; it occurs when the center of gravity of the body is not located on the axis of rotation |
| linearity limit (proportionality limit) | largest stress value beyond which stress is no longer proportional to strain |
| normal pressure | pressure of one atmosphere, serves as a reference level for pressure |
| pascal (Pa) | SI unit of stress, SI unit of pressure |
| plastic behavior | material deforms irreversibly, does not go back to its original shape and size when load is removed and stress vanishes |
| pressure | force pressing in normal direction on a surface per the surface area, the bulk stress in fluids |
| second equilibrium condition | expresses rotational equilibrium; all torques due to external forces acting on the body balance out and their vector sum is zero |
| shear modulus | elastic modulus for shear stress |
| shear strain | strain caused by shear stress |
| shear stress | stress caused by shearing forces |
| static equilibrium | body is in static equilibrium when it is at rest in our selected inertial frame of reference |
| strain | dimensionless quantity that gives the amount of deformation of an object or medium under stress |
| stress | quantity that contains information about the magnitude of force causing deformation, defined as force per unit area |
| stress-strain diagram | graph showing the relationship between stress and strain, characteristic of a material |
| tensile strain | strain under tensile stress, given as fractional change in length, which occurs when forces are stretching an object, causing its elongation |
| tensile stress | stress caused by tensile forces, only in one direction, which occurs when forces are stretching an object, causing its elongation |
| Young’s modulus | elastic modulus for tensile or compressive stress |
Key Equations
| First Equilibrium Condition | $$\sum_{k} \vec{F}_{k} = \vec{0}$$ |
| Second Equilibrium Condition | $$\sum_{k} \vec{\tau}_{k} = \vec{0}$$ |
| Linear relation between stress and strain | $$stress = (elastic\; modulus) \times strain$$ |
| Young’s modulus | $$Y = \frac{tensile\; stress}{tensile\; strain} = \frac{F_{\perp}}{A} \frac{L_{0}}{\Delta L}$$ |
| Bulk modulus | $$B = \frac{bulk\; stress}{bulk\; strain} = - \Delta p \frac{V_{0}}{\Delta V}$$ |
| Shear modulus | $$S = \frac{shear\; stress}{shear\; strain} = \frac{F_{\parallel}}{A} \frac{L_{0}}{\Delta x}$$ |
Summary
12.1 Conditions for Static Equilibrium
- A body is in equilibrium when it remains either in uniform motion (both translational and rotational) or at rest. When a body in a selected inertial frame of reference neither rotates nor moves in translational motion, we say the body is in static equilibrium in this frame of reference.
- Conditions for equilibrium require that the sum of all external forces acting on the body is zero (first condition of equilibrium), and the sum of all external torques from external forces is zero (second condition of equilibrium). These two conditions must be simultaneously satisfied in equilibrium. If one of them is not satisfied, the body is not in equilibrium.
- The free-body diagram for a body is a useful tool that allows us to count correctly all contributions from all external forces and torques acting on the body. Free-body diagrams for the equilibrium of an extended rigid body must indicate a pivot point and lever arms of acting forces with respect to the pivot.
12.2 Examples of Static Equilibrium
- A variety of engineering problems can be solved by applying equilibrium conditions for rigid bodies.
- In applications, identify all forces that act on a rigid body and note their lever arms in rotation about a chosen rotation axis. Construct a free-body diagram for the body. Net external forces and torques can be clearly identified from a correctly constructed free-body diagram. In this way, you can set up the first equilibrium condition for forces and the second equilibrium condition for torques.
- In setting up equilibrium conditions, we are free to adopt any inertial frame of reference and any position of the pivot point. All choices lead to one answer. However, some choices can make the process of finding the solution unduly complicated. We reach the same answer no matter what choices we make. The only way to master this skill is to practice.
12.3 Stress, Strain, and Elastic Modulus
- External forces on an object (or medium) cause its deformation, which is a change in its size and shape. The strength of the forces that cause deformation is expressed by stress, which in SI units is measured in the unit of pressure (pascal). The extent of deformation under stress is expressed by strain, which is dimensionless.
- For a small stress, the relation between stress and strain is linear. The elastic modulus is the proportionality constant in this linear relation.
- Tensile (or compressive) strain is the response of an object or medium to tensile (or compressive) stress. Here, the elastic modulus is called Young’s modulus. Tensile (or compressive) stress causes elongation (or shortening) of the object or medium and is due to an external forces acting along only one direction perpendicular to the cross-section.
- Bulk strain is the response of an object or medium to bulk stress. Here, the elastic modulus is called the bulk modulus. Bulk stress causes a change in the volume of the object or medium and is caused by forces acting on the body from all directions, perpendicular to its surface. Compressibility of an object or medium is the reciprocal of its bulk modulus.
- Shear strain is the deformation of an object or medium under shear stress. The shear modulus is the elastic modulus in this case. Shear stress is caused by forces acting along the object’s two parallel surfaces.
12.4 Elasticity and Plasticity
- An object or material is elastic if it comes back to its original shape and size when the stress vanishes. In elastic deformations with stress values lower than the proportionality limit, stress is proportional to strain. When stress goes beyond the proportionality limit, the deformation is still elastic but nonlinear up to the elasticity limit.
- An object or material has plastic behavior when stress is larger than the elastic limit. In the plastic region, the object or material does not come back to its original size or shape when stress vanishes but acquires a permanent deformation. Plastic behavior ends at the breaking point.
Contributors and Attributions
-
Samuel J. Ling (Truman State University), Jeff Sanny (Loyola Marymount University), and Bill Moebs with many contributing authors. This work is licensed by OpenStax University Physics under a Creative Commons Attribution License (by 4.0) .


1.1.2: Carbon
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What you’ll learn to do: Discuss why it is said that life is carbon-based and the bonding properties of carbon
You’ve probably heard the term carbon-based life thrown about in scientific conversations before. But what exactly does the term mean? Possibly the quickest answer to this question is simply that all living things are reliant on molecules that include carbon. There are no living things on our planet that do not have carbon (however, there are nonliving things made up of carbon as well: e.g, diamonds and, well, carbon itself).
In this outcome we’ll learn about the importance of carbon to every living thing on earth and its unique properties that make it particularly suited for its role in living things.
Learning Objectives
Discuss why it is said that life is carbon-based and the bonding properties of carbon.
Carbon
Living things are carbon-based because carbon plays such a prominent role in the chemistry of living things. This means that carbon atoms, bonded to other carbon atoms or other elements, form the fundamental components of many, if not most, of the molecules found uniquely in living things. Other elements play important roles in biological molecules, but carbon certainly qualifies as the “foundation” element for molecules in living things. It is the bonding properties of carbon atoms that are responsible for its important role.
Carbon Bonding
The four covalent bonding positions of the carbon atom can give rise to a wide diversity of compounds with many functions, accounting for the importance of carbon in living things.
Carbon contains four electrons in its outer shell. Therefore, it can form four covalent bonds with other atoms or molecules. The simplest organic carbon molecule is methane (CH 4 ), in which four hydrogen atoms bind to a carbon atom (Figure 1).
However, structures that are more complex are made using carbon. Any of the hydrogen atoms can be replaced with another carbon atom covalently bonded to the first carbon atom. In this way, long and branching chains of carbon compounds can be made (Figure 2 a ). The carbon atoms may bond with atoms of other elements, such as nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus (Figure 2 b ). The molecules may also form rings, which themselves can link with other rings (Figure 2 c ). This diversity of molecular forms accounts for the diversity of functions of the biological macromolecules and is based to a large degree on the ability of carbon to form multiple bonds with itself and other atoms.
Check Your Understanding
Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the topics covered in the previous section. This short quiz does not count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it an unlimited number of times.
Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to (1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next section.
Contributors and Attributions
- Introduction to Carbon. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Concepts of Biology. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>. License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Download for free at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>- Biology. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>. License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/185cbf87-c72...f21b5eabd@10.8


8.4: Are we moving toward a national curriculum?
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by Ken Gauss
National standards play a critical role in today’s educational community. These standards shape what is taught to students, and more importantly, how teachers teach. National standards have a profound impact not just on the regular education classroom, but also the advanced programs including Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate.
National Standards
In education, there has always been a debate over what to teach our students. In addition, it is important to remember that how something is taught is as valuable as what is being taught. The top programs in today’s American school system are the Advanced Placement program and the International Baccalaureate program. When creating national standards, these programs must be held in high regard. The brightest students along with the best teachers participate in these programs. National standards should be developed that can challenge not only students but teachers as well.
International Baccalaureate
The International Baccalaureate Organization states that educational standards are a key part in the development of sound students and teachers (IBO.org). The IB student completes a rigorous program and is challenged on a daily basis. While the students work their way through the program they are forced to meet objectives. Within the IB program, students reach above and beyond what is typically expected of them. IB students must understand how the learning system is not compiled of separate parts, but is the sum of all parts together. National standards can unify students and objectives together as one.
“The International Baccalaureate Theory of Knowledge program provides students a complete view of education” (High Performance). Students have the chance to examine each area of education. Students begin to realize that while learning is different for each area, the basic methods used are the same. In this way students are pushed to understand how each content area interacts. Within each way of knowing is an intermittent part of the others. Each area in and of itself directly affects the others. Once students understand the standards they achieve a better understanding of their learning experience. These standards which can be transferred directly to the national system enhance the learning experience. In this portion of the program students begin to breakdown the walls that divide learning, and view the educational instrument as a whole. Through this portion of the International Baccalaureate program, students understand that each standard directly affects the others.
Advanced Placement
Advanced Placement program also provides students with an opportunity to challenge themselves at a higher level. In the Advanced Placement program students are given college level work, and upon completion, they are given the chance to receive college credit for their efforts. Since these advanced students are learning on a college level they are exposed to college-level material. Being that national standards must push the envelope in the world of education, it is pivotal for advanced placement to play a role in the creation of these standards. As students study in the AP program, they are constantly forced to look outside the box, and approach problems full circle. This skill proves to be vital in the forming of any type of national standard. If they are allowed to only approach problems from the most obvious viewpoint they are denied the experience of seeing problems through. Also they do not gain the chance to observe these from different angles, and achieve solutions which shy away from the norm. More often than not educational problems can’t be solved with the most obvious solution. By taking the Advanced Placement outlook students see problems in different way, and thus find more complete solutions.
Standards are a vital part of education. In every educational community standards can vary, and students are taught differently. This leads to varying educational levels across the country. In recognizing this problem, it is easily understood that national standards need to be established in order to form a more complete educational plan. With both the International Baccalaureate and Advanced Placement programs, students are challenged to bring out their fullest potential. With this in mind, we can see that national standards should be shaped around these programs. Not all students are capable of performing in advanced programs, but all students should be challenged to their maximum potentials. When standards are made that require students to reach inside themselves, the ultimate result is students that are better than before. These standards create students who not only solve problems, but understand the issues surrounding the problems.
Conclusion
In the creation of national standards, teachers and students must understand that these advanced programs provide an excellent base to build an educational program. Students who are taught within these standards develop as complete packages in the world’s eye. Teachers who teach with these standards not only better students, but better themselves. In teaching on a higher level, teachers inspire students and provide a much needed advancement in the national educational standard. Students pushed to be better themselves ultimately become people who push for a better tomorrow. In establishing a national standard largely influenced by advanced programs there can only be an improvement in education as a whole. With teachers and students constantly pushed to better themselves the entire nation will improve.
Note
"It is better to solve one problems five ways than five problems one way" - George Polya
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
1. IB differs from normal education classes in that
a. IB students only do independent study
b. Students have a customized IB curriculum
c. Students take regular classes, but are expected to do more work
d. There is no difference
2. The IBO states that educational standards are key in
a. Creating a strong school
b. Establishing smart students
c. Development of sound students and teachers
3. Which class provides IB students a full view of education
a. Theory of Knowledge
b. Logic and Ethics
c. IB Psychology
4. In Advanced placement students are given what type of work
a. Honors level work
b. The same work as other students
c. College level work
5. One main goal of the AP programs is to
a. Have students look outside the box
b. Develop complete students
c. Prepare students for the challenges of college
d. All of the above
- Answer
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1.B
2.C
3.A
4.C
5.D
References
Agnes, Michael (1999). Webster’s New World College Dictionary (4th ed.). New York: Macmillan.
Kelley, Linda Molner (2004). Why Induction Matters. Journal of Teacher Education 55 (5), 438-559. Retrieved on February 10, 2007 from Education: A SAGE Full-Text Database
"NH Partnership for High Performance Schools." 2005. The Jordan Institute. 1 Feb. 2007 < http://www.nhphps.org/ >.
"A High Performance School." Oregon DOE. 1 Feb. 2007 < http://www.oregon.gov/ENERGY/CONS/school/highperform.shtml >.
International Baccalaureate Organization www.ibo.org.


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30.1: The Plant Body - Plant Tissues and Organ Systems
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Plants are made up of meristematic and permanent tissues and are supported by shoot and root organ systems.
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30.2: Stems - Functions of Stems
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A stem connects the roots to the leaves, provides support, stores food, and holds the leaves, flowers, and buds.
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30.3: Stems - Stem Anatomy
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The stem’s anatomy consists of three tissue systems that work together to support, protect, and aid in nourishing the plant.
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30.4: Stems - Primary and Secondary Growth in Stems
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Plants undergo primary growth to increase length and secondary growth to increase thickness.
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30.5: Stems - Stem Modifications
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Stem modifications, either aboveground, underground, or aerial, enable plants to survive in particular habitats and environments.
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30.6: Roots - Types of Root Systems and Zones of Growth
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The root tip has three main zones: a zone of cell division, a zone of elongation, and a zone of maturation.
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30.7: Roots - Root Modifications
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Plants have a wide variety of roots for functions as diverse as structural support, food storage, and parasitism.
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30.8: Leaves - Leaf Structure and Arrangment
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Most leaves have similar essential structures, but differ in venation patterns and leaf arrangement (or phyllotaxy).
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30.9: Leaves - Types of Leaf Forms
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Leaves may be categorized as simple or compound, depending on how their blade (or lamina) is divided.
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30.10: Leaves - Leaf Structure, Function, and Adaptation
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Leaves have many structures that prevent water loss, transport compounds, aid in gas exchange, and protect the plant as a whole.
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30.11: Plant Development - Meristems
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Plant meristematic tissues are cells that divide in order to give rise to various organs of the plant and keep the plant growing.
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30.12: Plant Development - Genetic Control of Flowers
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A variety of genes control flower development, which involves sexual maturation and growth of reproductive organs as shown by the ABC model.
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30.13: Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants - Water and Solute Potential
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Water potential is the measure of potential energy in water and drives the movement of water through plants.
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30.14: Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants - Pressure, Gravity, and Matric Potential
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Water potential is affected by factors such as pressure, gravity, and matric potentials.
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30.15: Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants - Movement of Water and Minerals in the Xylem
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Transpiration aids in the movement of water and minerals in the xylem, but it must be controlled in order to prevent water loss.
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30.16: Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants - Transportation of Photosynthates in the Phloem
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Translocation moves photosynthates via the phloem from sources to sinks.
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30.17: Plant Sensory Systems and Responses - Plant Responses to Light
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Plants respond to light stimuli by growing, differentiating, tracking the time of day and seasons, and moving toward or away from the light.
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30.18: Plant Sensory Systems and Responses - The Phytochrome System and Red Light Response
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Plants use a phytochrome system to sense the level, intensity, duration, and color of environmental light to adjust their physiology.
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30.19: Plant Sensory Systems and Responses - Blue Light Response
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The protein-based receptors, phototropins and cryptochromes, sense blue light to alter plant physiology accordingly.
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30.20: Plant Sensory Systems and Responses - Plant Responses to Gravity
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Plant shoots grow away from gravity, toward sunlight, while plant roots grow into the soil in the direction of gravity.
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30.21: Plant Sensory Systems and Responses - Auxins, Cytokinins, and Gibberellins
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All physiological aspects of plants are affected by plant hormones (chemical messengers), including auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins.
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30.22: Plant Sensory Systems and Responses - Abscisic Acid, Ethylene, and Nontraditional Hormones
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All physiological aspects of plants are affected by plant hormones, including abscisic acid, ethylene, and nontraditional hormones.
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30.23: Plant Sensory Systems and Responses - Plant Responses to Wind and Touch
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Plants respond to wind and touch by changing their direction of growth, movement, and shape.
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30.24: Plant Defense Mechanisms - Against Herbivores
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Plants defend against herbivores with mechanical wounding, barriers, secondary metabolites, and attraction of parasitoids.
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30.25: Plant Defense Mechanisms - Against Pathogens
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Plants defend against pathogens with barriers, secondary metabolites, and antimicrobial compounds.


11.6: Lifelong Learner
After graduating, passing the NCLEX-RN, and obtaining your first nursing position, your learning as a nurse has just begun. The first year of your nursing career is a continual process of transitional stages and experiential learning and is the beginning of lifelong learning as a nurse. Lifelong learning can be achieved through a variety of methods, such as obtaining additional nursing degrees, acquiring certifications, joining professional organizations, attending conferences and workshops, and staying up-to-date on current evidence-based practices by reading nursing literature and other research.
Advanced Nursing Degrees
After obtaining an RN license, there are many opportunities to advance your education through accredited schools of nursing. Many health care organizations encourage nurses to obtain higher degrees and provide tuition reimbursement for a BSN and other advanced degrees.
Baccalaureate Degree in Nursing
Many hospitals hire nurses with an Associate’s Degree in Nursing (ADN) on a condition they complete their Baccalaureate Degree in Nursing (BSN) within a specific time frame.
Master’s Degree in Nursing
A Master’s of Science in Nursing Degree (MSN) requires additional credits and years of schooling beyond the BSN. There are a variety of degree options, including, but not limited to, Nurse Educator, Advanced Practice Nurse (APRN), Informatics, Leadership, and Clinical Educators.
Doctoral Degrees in Nursing
Doctoral nursing degrees include the Doctor of Philosophy in Nursing (PhD) and the Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP). PhD-prepared nurses complete doctoral work that is focused on research. They often teach in a university setting and/or conduct research. DNP-prepared nurses complete doctoral work that is focused on clinical nursing practice. They typically have work roles in advanced nursing practice, clinical leadership, or academic settings.
Advanced Practice Nurses
Advanced Practice Nurses (APRN) are defined by the NCSBN as an RN who has a graduate degree and advanced knowledge. There are four categories of Advanced Practice Nurses: certified nurse-midwife (CNM), clinical nurse specialist (CNS), certified nurse practitioner (CNP), and certified registered nurse anesthetist (CRNA). APRNs can diagnose illnesses and prescribe treatments and medications. Additional information about advanced nursing degrees and roles is provided in the box below. [1]
Nurse Practitioners: Nurse practitioners (NPs) work in a variety of settings and complete physical examinations, diagnose and treat common acute illness, manage chronic illnesses, order laboratory and diagnostic tests, prescribe medications and other therapies, provide health teaching and supportive counseling with an emphasis on prevention of illness and health maintenance, and refer patients to other health professionals and specialists as needed. In many states, NPs can function independently and manage their own clinics, whereas in other states physician supervision is required. NP certifications include, but are not limited to, Family Practice, Adult-Gerontology Primary Care, Adult-Gerontology Acute Care, and Psychiatric/Mental Health.
To read more about NP certification, visit Nursing World’s Our Certifications web page.
Clinical Nurse Specialists: Clinical Nurse Specialists (CNS) practice in a variety of health care environments and participate in mentoring other nurses, case management, research, designing and conducting quality improvement programs, and serving as educators and consultants. Specialty areas include, but are not limited to, Adult/Gerontology, Pediatrics, and Neonatal.
To read more about CNS certification, visit NACNS’s What is a CNS? web page.
Certified Registered Nurse Anesthetists: Certified Registered Nurse Anesthetists (CRNAs) administer anesthesia and related care before, during, and after surgical, therapeutic, diagnostic, and obstetrical procedures, as well as provide airway management during medical emergencies. CRNAs deliver more than 65 percent of all anesthetics to patients in the United States. Practice settings include operating rooms, dental offices, and outpatient surgical centers.
To read more about CRNA certification, visit NBCRNA’s website.
Certified Nurse Midwives: Certified Nurse Midwives (CNM) provide gynecological exams, family planning advice, prenatal care, management of low-risk labor and delivery, and neonatal care. Practice settings include hospitals, birthing centers, community clinics, and patient homes.
To read more about CNM certification, visit AMCB Midwife’s website.
Specialty Certifications
Acquiring nursing specialty certification is a way to demonstrate expertise. National certifications have various requirements but most require continuing education credits and successful completion of a national examination. After successfully obtaining a specialty certification, additional credentials are displayed after “RN” in a nurse’s signature. See Table 11.6 for a list of common specialty certifications and their associated credentials.
| Certification | Credentials |
|---|---|
| Critical Care Nursing | CCRN |
| Certified Nurse Educator | CNE |
| Oncology Certified Nurse | ONC |
| Stroke Certified Registered Nurse | SCRN |
| Trauma Certified Registered Nurse | TCRN |
| Surgical Nurse | CORN |
| Nursing Professional Development | NPD-BC |
Read more about specialty ANCC nursing certifications .
Professional Organizations
Joining a local, state or national nursing organization is a way to connect with other RNs and promote continued professional growth. The largest national organization is the American Nurses Association (ANA). The ANA provides RN members with the following benefits:
- Advance your career with free development resources and webinars.
- Stay current with the most up-to-date nursing news.
- Save money with big discounts on continuing education (CE), certification, publications, and more.
- Network and connect with Registered Nurses (RN) for support and advice.
- Make your voice heard with opportunities to tell policymakers what you think.
- Receive state nurse association member benefits.
In addition to the ANA, each state has their own state nursing association.
Read more about joining the American Nurses Association and your state Nursing Association on the ANA website.
Attending Conferences and Workshops
Regularly attending nursing conferences and workshops is an excellent way to maintain current, evidence-based knowledge and continue to provide safe, quality nursing care. Many opportunities exist for these types of experiences provided by local health care agencies, state nursing associations, or national conferences. Joining local, state, and national nursing organizations is the best way to be aware of upcoming conferences and workshops. See Figure 11.7 [2] for an illustration of a lifelong learner and leader.
Nursing Journals
There are many nursing journals that you can access electronically or have delivered to your home to read regularly.
Read more about staying current on evidence-based practices in the “ Quality and Evidence-Based Practice ” chapter.
- Institute of Medicine. (2011). The future of nursing: Leading change, advancing health. National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/12956 ↵
- " EFP_2015_speaker_II.jpg " by Adrian Soldati is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 ↵


7: The Central Limit Theorem
In this chapter, you will study means and the central limit theorem , which is one of the most powerful and useful ideas in all of statistics. There are two alternative forms of the theorem, and both alternatives are concerned with drawing finite samples size n from a population with a known mean, \(\mu\), and a known standard deviation, \(\sigma\). The first alternative says that if we collect samples of size \(n\) with a "large enough \(n\)," calculate each sample's mean, and create a histogram of those means, then the resulting histogram will tend to have an approximate normal bell shape. The second alternative says that if we again collect samples of size \(n\) that are "large enough," calculate the sum of each sample and create a histogram, then the resulting histogram will again tend to have a normal bell-shape.
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- 7.1: Prelude to the Central Limit Theorem
- The central limit theorem states that, given certain conditions, the arithmetic mean of a sufficiently large number of iterates of independent random variables, each with a well-defined expected value and well-defined variance, will be approximately normally distributed.
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- 7.2: The Central Limit Theorem for Sample Means (Averages)
- In a population whose distribution may be known or unknown, if the size (n) of samples is sufficiently large, the distribution of the sample means will be approximately normal. The mean of the sample means will equal the population mean. The standard deviation of the distribution of the sample means, called the standard error of the mean, is equal to the population standard deviation divided by the square root of the sample size (n).
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- 7.3: The Central Limit Theorem for Sums
- The central limit theorem tells us that for a population with any distribution, the distribution of the sums for the sample means approaches a normal distribution as the sample size increases. In other words, if the sample size is large enough, the distribution of the sums can be approximated by a normal distribution even if the original population is not normally distributed.
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- 7.4: Using the Central Limit Theorem
- The central limit theorem can be used to illustrate the law of large numbers. The law of large numbers states that the larger the sample size you take from a population, the closer the sample mean <x> gets to μ . The central limit theorem illustrates the law of large numbers.
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- 7.E: The Central Limit Theorem (Exercises)
- These are homework exercises to accompany the Textmap created for "Introductory Statistics" by OpenStax. Complementary General Chemistry question banks can be found for other Textmaps and can be accessed here. In addition to these publicly available questions, access to private problems bank for use in exams and homework is available to faculty only on an individual basis; please contact Delmar Larsen for an account with access permission.
Barbara Illowsky and Susan Dean (De Anza College) with many other contributing authors. Content produced by
OpenStax College
is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license. Download for free at
<EMAIL_ADDRESS>.


8.5: Summary
Summary
In this chapter, we have reviewed the many different categories of individuals who make up the people component of information systems.
The world of information technology is changing so fast that new roles are being created all the time, and roles that existed for decades are being phased out.
That said , this chapter should have given you a good idea of the importance of the people component of information systems.
Study Questions
- Describe the role of a systems analyst.
- What are some of the different roles for a computer engineer?
- What are the duties of a computer operator?
- What does the CIO do?
- Describe the job of a project manager.
- Explain the point of having two different career paths in information systems.
- What are the advantages and disadvantages of centralizing the IT function?
- What impact has information technology had on the way companies are organized?
- What are the five types of information-systems users?
- Why would an organization outsource?
Exercises
- Which IT job would you like to have? Do some original research and write a two-page paper describing the duties of the job you are interested in.
- Spend a few minutes on Dice or Monster to find IT jobs in your area. What IT jobs are currently available? Write up a two-page paper describing three jobs, their starting salary (if listed), and the skills and education needed for the job.
- How is the IT function organized in your school or place of employment? Create an organization chart showing how the IT organization fits into your overall organization. Comment on how centralized or decentralized the IT function is.
- What type of IT user are you? Take a look at the five types of technology adopters and then write a one-page summary of where you think you fit in this model.
- Rogers, E. M. (1962). Diffusion of innovations. New York: Free Press ↵


2.3: Lesson 2.3: Schedules and Scheduling
Some people just seem to be born organized. The remaining 95% of the population* need help, especially when it come to organizing time!
It used to be that physical organizers, called schedulers or day-timers, came in pocket- or purse- sized folders, books, or multipurpose binder creations with cleverly designed nooks and crannies for everything from pens and pencils, to cell phones, to daily, weekly, and yearly schedules, address and phone number lists, and other handy components. Now, cell phones and other electronic gadgets advertise apps for such things, though some people still prefer hard copies.
For students, early in your school career such a management tool was not really necessary. Other people handed you a schedule, defined your routines, and that was that. Not so for college students, where changing term requirements and time demands that differ from class to class can present a variety of management challenges. Of course, add other life factors such as children, work, and/or caring for aging parents and, well, many people not only want, but NEED a strategy to stay organized.
But before we get into some specific management tools, complete the exercise, below, designed to help you determine what your best times of the day to accomplish academic activities are. Some people describe themselves as night people, others as morning people. Others, with busy lives, might say “I’m a 24/7 person!” But the more we know about ourselves in this regard, the more we will be able to adjust our schedule to be more effective.
Read the list below of academic tasks meant to be completed outside of class . Beneath that list are time slots during an eighteen-hour day. If you are not restricted by work schedules or other obligations, from what you know about your best times of the day to accomplish certain things, when would you tend to be at your peak performance for each activity? (Later on, you will complete a schedule for all of your current school, work, meals, relaxation time, and home life obligations). Think about this matching exercise as a wish list.
Insert the numbers of as many of the activities listed on top that apply to your schedule this term in the appropriate time slots on the bottom. Not all may apply to your course of study. You may also be inclined to split the same activity into more than one time of day. Some activities may extend to two or more hours. When you are finished, complete the reflection activity below.
ACADEMIC TASKS
- Memorizing
- Organizing notes and materials
- Copying or typing notes
- Writing essays
- Creative writing (stories, poetry, etc.)
- Problem solving such as in math classes
- Lab tasks (science, geology, horticulture, culinary, etc.)
- Reading textbooks
- Taking notes from textbooks or lectures
- Physical activity (sports, workouts)
- Planning a presentation: debate, speech, etc.
- Sculpting, drawing
- Taking pictures for a photography class
- Practicing music
- Rehearsing for dance classes/performances
- Rehearsing for drama classes/performance
- Rehearsing for a group presentation of another kind
- Studying alone
- Studying in a group
- Completing computer-related tasks and assignments
TIME SLOTS
5:00-6:00 a.m.______________________________________
6:00-7:00 a.m.______________________________________
7:00-8:00 a.m.______________________________________
8:00-9:00 a.m.______________________________________
9:00-10:00 a.m._____________________________________
10:00-11:00 a.m.____________________________________
11:00-12:00 a.m.____________________________________
12:00-1:00 p.m._____________________________________
1:00-2:00 p.m.______________________________________
2:00-3:00 p.m.______________________________________
3:00-4:00 p.m.______________________________________
4:00-5:00 p.m.______________________________________
5:00-6:00 p.m.______________________________________
6:00-7:00 p.m.______________________________________
7:00-8:00 p.m.______________________________________
8:00-9:00 p.m.______________________________________
9:00-10:00 p.m._____________________________________
10:00-11:00 p.m.____________________________________
REFLECTION
Again, considering this a wish list of what you know to be the best times of day/night for you to be at your most alert for the types of tasks noted, write about three ways you might be able to change or incorporate your survey results into your current schedule, or next term’s schedule. Write approximately 100-150 words, or about half a page, double-spaced.
A few things to think about as you reflect:
- What kind of changes in your current class and study schedule might be more effective for you this term?
- How might keeping in mind that most instructors advise scheduling anywhere from one to three hours outside of classwork for every hour in class influence any changes in your current schedule or your thoughts about future schedules?
UNIT 2, EXERCISE 3.2
Before you fill out your “real life” schedule, you know, the one that includes all of the other things you do and are responsible for, read the article How to Plan Your Time so that You Can Get Your Homework Done by Dan Hodges (study tip # 14, scroll down to page 36). Add 5 recommendations from his article to your reflection in Exercise 3.1 that you think might help you manage your time more efficiently.
UNIT 2, EXERCISE 3.3
Based on your responses to exercises 3.1 and 3.2, fill out a reasonable schedule for you for one week, all seven days. Incorporate what you learned about yourself in the previous exercises, that is, your best time of day for studying certain subjects, and how you might alter your current schedule to insert a few of the recommendations.
Instructions:
- Download the seven-day-schedule
- Print a couple of copies of the template just in case.
- Fill out a schedule that includes all of the classes, study times, and outside of school activities and obligations you have to accomplish in one week.
- Color code each activity for easier reference. For example, blue for class times , green for study blocks , red for work , purple for relaxation time (“buffer time,” as it is also known), brown for home life activities.
- NOTE: for some people, a work schedule can change from week to week. Just choose the most typical week for you this term.
- When you are finished, write a short, 5-7 sentence reflection on how you believe your altered schedule can improve your time management skills. You might already have a pretty good schedule, but most students find at least a few changes they can make.