7.5: Interprofessional Communication
The third IPEC competency focuses on interprofessional communication and states, “Communicate with patients, families, communities, and professionals in health and other fields in a responsive and responsible manner that supports a team approach to the promotion and maintenance of health and the prevention and treatment of disease.” [1] See Figure 7.1 [2] for an image of interprofessional communication supporting a team approach. This competency also aligns with The Joint Commission’s National Patient Safety Goal for improving staff communication. [3] See the following box for the components associated with the Interprofessional Communication competency.
Components of IPEC’s Interprofessional Communication Competency [4]
- Choose effective communication tools and techniques, including information systems and communication technologies, to facilitate discussions and interactions that enhance team function.
- Communicate information with patients, families, community members, and health team members in a form that is understandable, avoiding discipline-specific terminology when possible.
- Express one’s knowledge and opinions to team members involved in patient care and population health improvement with confidence, clarity, and respect, working to ensure common understanding of information, treatment, care decisions, and population health programs and policies.
- Listen actively and encourage ideas and opinions of other team members.
- Give timely, sensitive, constructive feedback to others about their performance on the team, responding respectfully as a team member to feedback from others.
- Use respectful language appropriate for a given difficult situation, crucial conversation, or conflict.
- Recognize how one’s uniqueness (experience level, expertise, culture, power, and hierarchy within the health care team) contributes to effective communication, conflict resolution, and positive interprofessional working relationships.
- Communicate the importance of teamwork in patient-centered care and population health programs and policies.
Transmission of information among members of the health care team and facilities is ongoing and critical to quality care. However, information that is delayed, inefficient, or inadequate creates barriers for providing quality of care. Communication barriers continue to exist in health care environments due to interprofessional team members’ lack of experience when interacting with other disciplines. For instance, many novice nurses enter the workforce without experiencing communication with other members of the health care team (e.g., providers, pharmacists, respiratory therapists, social workers, surgical staff, dieticians, physical therapists, etc.). Additionally, health care professionals tend to develop a professional identity based on their educational program with a distinction made between groups. This distinction can cause tension between professional groups due to diverse training and perspectives on providing quality patient care. In addition, a health care organization’s environment may not be conducive to effectively sharing information with multiple staff members across multiple units.
In addition to potential educational, psychological, and organizational barriers to sharing information, there can also be general barriers that impact interprofessional communication and collaboration. See the following box for a list of these general barriers. [5]
General Barriers to Interprofessional Communication and Collaboration [6]
- Personal values and expectations
- Personality differences
- Organizational hierarchy
- Lack of cultural humility
- Generational differences
- Historical interprofessional and intraprofessional rivalries
- Differences in language and medical jargon
- Differences in schedules and professional routines
- Varying levels of preparation, qualifications, and status
- Differences in requirements, regulations, and norms of professional education
- Fears of diluted professional identity
- Differences in accountability and reimbursement models
- Diverse clinical responsibilities
- Increased complexity of patient care
- Emphasis on rapid decision-making
There are several national initiatives that have been developed to overcome barriers to communication among interprofessional team members. These initiatives are summarized in Table 7.5a. [7]
| Action | Description |
|---|---|
| Teach structured interprofessional communication strategies | Structured communication strategies, such as ISBARR, handoff reports, I-PASS reports, and closed-loop communication should be taught to all health professionals. |
| Train interprofessional teams together | Teams that work together should train together. |
| Train teams using simulation | Simulation creates a safe environment to practice communication strategies and increase interdisciplinary understanding. |
| Define cohesive interprofessional teams | Interprofessional health care teams should be defined within organizations as a cohesive whole with common goals and not just a collection of disciplines. |
| Create democratic teams | All members of the health care team should feel valued. Creating democratic teams (instead of establishing hierarchies) encourages open team communication. |
| Support teamwork with protocols and procedures | Protocols and procedures encouraging information sharing across the whole team include checklists, briefings, huddles, and debriefing. Technology and informatics should also be used to promote information sharing among team members. |
| Develop an organizational culture supporting health care teams | Agency leaders must establish a safety culture and emphasize the importance of effective interprofessional collaboration for achieving good patient outcomes. |
Communication Strategies
Several communication strategies have been implemented nationally to ensure information is exchanged among health care team members in a structured, concise, and accurate manner to promote safe patient care. Examples of these initiatives are ISBARR, handoff reports, closed-loop communication, and I-PASS. Documentation that promotes sharing information interprofessionally to promote continuity of care is also essential. These strategies are discussed in the following subsections.
ISBARR
A common format used by health care team members to exchange client information is ISBARR , a mnemonic for the components of I ntroduction, S ituation, B ackground, A ssessment, R equest/Recommendations, and R epeat back. [9] , [10]
- Introduction: Introduce your name, role, and the agency from which you are calling.
- Situation: Provide the client’s name and location, the reason you are calling, recent vital signs, and the status of the client.
- Background: Provide pertinent background information about the client such as admitting medical diagnoses, code status, recent relevant lab or diagnostic results, and allergies.
- Assessment: Share abnormal assessment findings and your evaluation of the current client situation.
- Request/Recommendations: State what you would like the provider to do, such as reassess the client, order a lab/diagnostic test, prescribe/change medication, etc.
- Repeat back: If you are receiving new orders from a provider, repeat them to confirm accuracy. Be sure to document communication with the provider in the client’s chart.
Nursing Considerations
Before using ISBARR to call a provider regarding a changing client condition or concern, it is important for nurses to prepare and gather appropriate information. See the following box for considerations when calling the provider.
Communication Guidelines for Nurses [11]
- Have I assessed this client before I call?
- Have I reviewed the current orders?
- Are there related standing orders or protocols?
- Have I read the most recent provider and nursing progress notes?
- Have I discussed concerns with my charge nurse, if necessary?
-
When ready to call, have the following information on hand:
- Admitting diagnosis and date of admission
- Code status
- Allergies
- Most recent vital signs
- Most recent lab results
- Current meds and IV fluids
- If receiving oxygen therapy, current device and L/min
- Before calling, reflect on what you expect to happen as a result of this call and if you have any recommendations or specific requests.
- Repeat back any new orders to confirm them.
- Immediately after the call, document with whom you spoke, the exact time of the call, and a summary of the information shared and received.
Read an example of an ISBARR report in the following box.
Sample ISBARR Report From a Nurse to a Health Care Provider
I: “Hello Dr. Smith, this is Jane Smith, RN from the Med-Surg unit.”
S: “I am calling to tell you about Ms. White in Room 210, who is experiencing an increase in pain, as well as redness at her incision site. Her recent vital signs were BP 160/95, heart rate 90, respiratory rate 22, O2 sat 96% on room air, and temperature 38 degrees Celsius. She is stable but her pain is worsening.”
B: “Ms. White is a 65-year-old female, admitted yesterday post hip surgical replacement. She has been rating her pain at 3 or 4 out of 10 since surgery with her scheduled medication, but now she is rating the pain as a 7, with no relief from her scheduled medication of Vicodin 5/325 mg administered an hour ago. She is scheduled for physical therapy later this morning and is stating she won’t be able to participate because of the pain this morning.”
A: “I just assessed the surgical site and her dressing was clean, dry, and intact, but there is 4 cm redness surrounding the incision, and it is warm and tender to the touch. There is moderate serosanguinous drainage. Her lungs are clear and her heart rate is regular. She has no allergies. I think she has developed a wound infection.”
R: “I am calling to request an order for a CBC and increased dose of pain medication.”
R: “I am repeating back the order to confirm that you are ordering a STAT CBC and an increase of her Vicodin to 10/325 mg.”
View or print an ISBARR reference card .
Handoff Reports
Handoff reports are defined by The Joint Commission as “a transfer and acceptance of patient care responsibility achieved through effective communication. It is a real-time process of passing patient specific information from one caregiver to another, or from one team of caregivers to another, for the purpose of ensuring the continuity and safety of the patient’s care.” [12] In 2017 The Joint Commission issued a sentinel alert about inadequate handoff communication that has resulted in patient harm such as wrong-site surgeries, delays in treatment, falls, and medication errors. [13]
The Joint Commission encourages the standardization of critical content to be communicated by interprofessional team members during a handoff report both verbally (preferably face to face) and in written form. Critical content to communicate to the receiver in a handoff report includes the following components [14] :
- Sender contact information
- Illness assessment, including severity
- Patient summary, including events leading up to illness or admission, hospital course, ongoing assessment, and plan of care
- To-do action list
- Contingency plans
- Allergy list
- Code status
- Medication list
- Recent laboratory tests
- Recent vital signs
Several strategies for improving handoff communication have been implemented nationally, such as the Bedside Handoff Report Checklist, closed-loop communication, and I-PASS.
Bedside Handoff Report Checklist
See Figure 7.2 [15] for an example of a Bedside Handoff Report Checklist to improve nursing handoff reports by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ). [16] Although a bedside handoff report is similar to an ISBARR report, it contains additional information to ensure continuity of care across nursing shifts.
Print a copy of the AHRQ Bedside Shift Report Checklist . [17]
Closed-Loop Communication
The closed-loop communication strategy is used to ensure that information conveyed by the sender is heard by the receiver and completed. Closed-loop communication is especially important during emergency situations when verbal orders are being provided as treatments are immediately implemented. See Figure 7.3 [18] for an illustration of closed-loop communication.
- The sender initiates the message.
- The receiver accepts the message and repeats back the message to confirm it (i.e., “Cross-Check”).
- The sender confirms the message.
- The receiver notified the sender the task was completed (i.e., “Check-Back”).
See an example of closed-loop communication during an emergent situation in the following box.
Closed-Loop Communication Example
Doctor: “Administer 25 mg Benadryl IV push STAT.”
Nurse: “Give 25 mg Benadryl IV push STAT?”
Doctor: “That’s correct.”
Nurse: “Benadryl 25 mg IV push given at 1125.”
I-PASS
I-PASS is a mnemonic used to provide structured communication among interprofessional team members. I-PASS stands for the following components [19] :
I:
Illness severity
P:
Patient summary
A:
Action list
S:
Situation awareness and contingency plans
S:
Synthesis by receiver (i.e., closed-loop communication)
See a sample I-PASS Handoff in Table 7.5b. [20]
| I | Illness Severity | This is our sickest patient on the unit, and he’s a full code. |
|---|---|---|
| P | Patient Summary | AJ is a 4-year-old boy admitted with hypoxia and respiratory distress secondary to left lower lobe pneumonia. He presented with cough and high fevers for two days before admission, and on the day of admission to the emergency department, he had worsening respiratory distress. In the emergency department, he was found to have a sodium level of 130 mg/dL likely due to volume depletion. He received a fluid bolus, and oxygen administration was started at 2.5 L/min per nasal cannula. He is on ceftriaxone. |
| A | Action List | Assess him at midnight to ensure his vital signs are stable. Check to determine if his blood culture is positive tonight. |
| S | Situations Awareness & Contingency Planning | If his respiratory distress worsens, get another chest radiograph to determine if he is developing an effusion. |
| S | Synthesis by Receiver | Ok, so AJ is a 4-year-old admitted with hypoxia and respiratory distress secondary to a left lower lobe pneumonia receiving ceftriaxone, oxygen, and fluids. I will assess him at midnight to ensure he is stable and check on his blood culture. If his respiratory status worsens, I will repeat a radiograph to look for an effusion. |
Documentation
Accurate, timely, concise, and thorough documentation by interprofessional team members ensures continuity of care for their clients. It is well-known by health care team members that in a court of law the rule of thumb is, “If it wasn’t documented, it wasn’t done.” Any type of documentation in the electronic health record (EHR) is considered a legal document. Abbreviations should be avoided in legal documentation and some abbreviations are prohibited. Please see a list of error prone abbreviations in the box below.
Read the current list of error-prone abbreviations by the Institute of Safe Medication Practices. These abbreviations should never be used when communicating medical information verbally, electronically, and/or in handwritten applications. Abbreviations included on The Joint Commission’s “Do Not Use” list are identified with a double asterisk (**) and must be included on an organization’s “Do Not Use” list.
Nursing staff access the electronic health record (EHR) to help ensure accuracy in medication administration and document the medication administration to help ensure patient safety. Please see Figure 7.4 [22] for an image of a nurse accessing a client’s EHR.
The electronic health record (EHR) contains the following important information:
- History and Physical (H&P): A history and physical (H&P) is a specific type of documentation created by the health care provider when the client is admitted to the facility. An H&P includes important information about the client’s current status, medical history, and the treatment plan in a concise format that is helpful for the nurse to review. Information typically includes the reason for admission, health history, surgical history, allergies, current medications, physical examination findings, medical diagnoses, and the treatment plan.
- Provider orders: This section includes the prescriptions, or medical orders, that the nurse must legally implement or appropriately communicate according to agency policy if not implemented.
- Medication Administration Records (MARs): Medications are charted through electronic medication administration records (MARs). These records interface the medication orders from providers with pharmacists and are also the location where nurses document medications administered.
- Treatment Administration Records (TARs): In many facilities, treatments are documented on a treatment administration record.
- Laboratory results: This section includes results from blood work and other tests performed in the lab.
- Diagnostic test results: This section includes results from diagnostic tests ordered by the provider such as X-rays, ultrasounds, etc.
- Progress notes: This section contains notes created by nurses, providers, and other interprofessional team members regarding client care. It is helpful for the nurse to review daily progress notes by all team members to ensure continuity of care.
- Nursing care plans: Nursing care plans are created by registered nurses (RNs). Documentation of individualized nursing care plans is legally required in long-term care facilities by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) and in hospitals by The Joint Commission. Nursing care plans are individualized to meet the specific and unique needs of each client. They contain expected outcomes and planned interventions to be completed by nurses and other members of the interprofessional team. As part of the nursing process, nurses routinely evaluate the client’s progress toward meeting the expected outcomes and modify the nursing care plan as needed. Read more about nursing care plans in the “ Planning ” section of the “Nursing Process” chapter in Open RN Nursing Fundamentals.
Read the American Nurses Association’s Principles for Nursing Documentation .
- Interprofessional Education Collaborative. IPEC core competencies. https://www.ipecollaborative.org/ipec-core-competencies ↵
- "<PHONE_NUMBER>-huge.jpg " by LightField Studios is used under license from Shutterstock.com ↵
- The Joint Commission. 2021 Hospital national patient safety goals. https://www.jointcommission.org/-/media/tjc/documents/standards/national-patient-safety-goals/2021/simplified-2021-hap-npsg-goals-final-11420.pdf ↵
- Interprofessional Education Collaborative. IPEC core competencies. https://www.ipecollaborative.org/ipec-core-competencies ↵
- O’Daniel, M., & Rosenstein, A. H. (2011). Professional communication and team collaboration. In: Hughes R.G. (Ed.). Patient safety and quality: An evidence-based handbook for nurses. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); Chapter 33. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2637 ↵
- O’Daniel, M., & Rosenstein, A. H. (2011). Professional communication and team collaboration. In: Hughes R.G. (Ed.). Patient safety and quality: An evidence-based handbook for nurses. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); Chapter 33. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2637 ↵
- Weller, J., Boyd, M., & Cumin, D. (2014). Teams, tribes and patient safety: Overcoming barriers to effective teamwork in healthcare. Postgraduate Medical Journal, 90 (1061), 149-154. https://doi.org/10.1136/postgradmedj-2012-131168 ↵
- Weller, J., Boyd, M., & Cumin, D. (2014). Teams, tribes and patient safety: Overcoming barriers to effective teamwork in healthcare. Postgraduate Medical Journal, 90 (1061), 149-154. https://doi.org/10.1136/postgradmedj-2012-131168 ↵
- Institute for Healthcare Improvement (n.d.). ISBAR trip tick. http://www.ihi.org/resources/Pages/Tools/ISBARTripTick.aspx ↵
- Grbach, W., Vincent, L., & Struth, D. (2008). Curriculum developer for simulation education. QSEN Institute. https://qsen.org/reformulating-sbar-to-i-sbar-r / ↵
- Studer Group. (2007). Patient safety toolkit – Practical tactics that improve both patient safety and patient perceptions of care. Studer Group. ↵
- Starmer, A. J., Spector, N. D., Srivastava, R., Allen, A. D., Landrigan, C. P., Sectish, T. C., & I-Pass Study Group. (2012). Transforming pediatric GME. Pediatrics, 129 (2), 201-204. https://www.ipassinstitute.com/hubfs/I-PASS-mnemonic.pdf ↵
- The Joint Commission. (n.d.). Sentinel event alert 58: Inadequate hand-off reports . https://www.jointcommission.org/resources/patient-safety-topics/sentinel-event/sentinel-event-alert-newsletters/sentinel-event-alert-58-inadequate-hand-off-communication/ ↵
- The Joint Commission. (n.d.). Sentinel event alert 58: Inadequate hand-off reports . https://www.jointcommission.org/resources/patient-safety-topics/sentinel-event/sentinel-event-alert-newsletters/sentinel-event-alert-58-inadequate-hand-off-communication/ ↵
- " Strat3_Tool_2_Nurse_Chklst_508.pdf " by AHRQ is licensed under CC0 ↵
- AHRQ. (n.d.). Bedside shift report checklist. https://www.ahrq.gov/sites/default/files/wysiwyg/professionals/systems/hospital/engagingfamilies/strategy3/Strat3_Tool_2_Nurse_Chklst_508.pdf ↵
- AHRQ. (n.d.). Bedside shift report checklist. https://www.ahrq.gov/sites/default/files/wysiwyg/professionals/systems/hospital/engagingfamilies/strategy3/Strat3_Tool_2_Nurse_Chklst_508.pdf ↵
- Image is derivative of "close-loop.png" by unknown and is licensed under CC0. Access for free at https://www.ahrq.gov/teamstepps/instructor/essentials/pocketguide.html ↵
- The Joint Commission. (n.d.). Sentinel event alert 58: Inadequate hand-off reports. https://www.jointcommission.org/resources/patient-safety-topics/sentinel-event/sentinel-event-alert-newsletters/sentinel-event-alert-58-inadequate-hand-off-communication/ ↵
- Starmer, A. J., Spector, N. D., Srivastava, R., Allen, A. D., Landrigan, C. P., Sectish, T. C., & I-Pass Study Group. (2012). Transforming pediatric GME. Pediatrics, 129 (2), 201-204. https://www.ipassinstitute.com/hubfs/I-PASS-mnemonic.pdf ↵
- Starmer, A. J., Spector, N. D., Srivastava, R., Allen, A. D., Landrigan, C. P., Sectish, T. C., & I-Pass Study Group. (2012). Transforming pediatric GME. Pediatrics, 129 (2), 201-204. https://www.ipassinstitute.com/hubfs/I-PASS-mnemonic.pdf ↵
- " Winn_Army_Community_Hospital_Pharmacy_Stays_Online_During_Power_Outage.jpg " by Flickr user MC4 Army is licensed under CC BY 2.0 ↵


1.2: §2. What is Greek and Latin Roots (GRS 250)
In the UVic Calendar, Greek and Roman Studies 250 carries a reasonably clear and straightforward title: “Greek and Latin Roots of English in Science and Social Sciences.” Still, it may be a good idea to summarize what this course attempts to achieve, and what it does not. Although Greek and Roman Studies 250 may vary in emphasis from one instructor to the next, its general aims and objectives can be stated as perennial goals.
The course will examine the systematic principles by which a large portion of English vocabulary has evolved from Latin and (to a lesser degree) from Greek. It will try also to impart some skill in the recognition and proper use of these derived words. Notice the stress on principles: although we shall be continually looking at interesting individual words, our constant aim will be to discover predictable general patterns of historical development, so that we may be able to cope with new and unfamiliar words of any type that we have studied. We shall often approach the problem by a procedure known as “word analysis,” which is roughly comparable to the dissection of an interesting specimen in the biology laboratory.
The course assumes no previous knowledge of Latin and Greek, and does not involve the grammatical study of these languages—except for a few basic features of noun and verb formation that will help us to understand the Latin and Greek legacy in English. (If you have already had some encounter with Latin and/or Greek, you are welcome in the course; but you may find the early chapters rather obvious and elementary.) When we turn to consider the Greek material, all students will be asked to learn the Greek alphabet. This skill is not absolutely essential for a general knowledge of Greek roots in English, and it is often not required in courses that deal only with medical and technical terminology. Knowing the alphabet, however, will help you understand a number of otherwise puzzling features of spelling and usage; moreover, it is a challenge that students always find interesting and appealing. (There have been cries of alarm on those occasions when we have asked, in year-end opinion surveys, whether the Greek alphabet requirement should be dropped.)
Although there will be some attention paid to the historical interaction of Latin and Greek with English, Greek and Roman Studies 250 is definitely not a systematic history of the English language. Excellent courses on that topic are taught, from differing vantage points, by the Departments of English and Linguistics. It will be our concern to examine only those elements within English that have been directly or indirectly affected by the two classical languages.
In order to provide the broadest possible service to students, the course will emphasize standard English vocabulary in current use. The more exotic technical vocabulary of science and medicine can be extremely interesting, but it will be explored in only summary fashion. Nevertheless, Greek and Roman Studies 250 should be of considerable value, say, to a would-be botanist or medical doctor, if only by providing the foundation for further specialized enquiry.
Reflecting the design of Greek and Roman Studies 250 , this book is divided into two parallel segments, one on Latin and one on Greek. Each is intended to be completed in about six weeks.


2.1: The System, Surroundings, and Boundary
Chemists are interested in systems containing matter—that which has mass and occupies physical space. Classical thermodynamics looks at macroscopic aspects of matter. It deals with the properties of aggregates of vast numbers of microscopic particles (molecules, atoms, and ions). The macroscopic viewpoint, in fact, treats matter as a continuous material medium rather than as the collection of discrete microscopic particles we know are actually present. Although this e-book is an exposition of classical thermodynamics, at times it will point out connections between macroscopic properties and molecular structure and behavior.
A thermodynamic system is any three-dimensional region of physical space on which we wish to focus our attention. Usually we consider only one system at a time and call it simply “the system.” The rest of the physical universe constitutes the surroundings of the system.
The boundary is the closed three-dimensional surface that encloses the system and separates it from the surroundings. The boundary may (and usually does) coincide with real physical surfaces: the interface between two phases, the inner or outer surface of the wall of a flask or other vessel, and so on. Alternatively, part or all of the boundary may be an imagined intangible surface in space, unrelated to any physical structure. The size and shape of the system, as defined by its boundary, may change in time. In short, our choice of the three-dimensional region that constitutes the system is arbitrary—but it is essential that we know exactly what this choice is.
We usually think of the system as a part of the physical universe that we are able to influence only indirectly through its interaction with the surroundings, and the surroundings as the part of the universe that we are able to directly manipulate with various physical devices under our control. That is, we (the experimenters) are part of the surroundings, not the system.
For some purposes we may wish to treat the system as being divided into subsystems , or to treat the combination of two or more systems as a supersystem .
If over the course of time matter is transferred in either direction across the boundary, the system is open ; otherwise it is closed . If the system is open, matter may pass through a stationary boundary, or the boundary may move through matter that is fixed in space.
If the boundary allows heat transfer between the system and surroundings, the boundary is diathermal . An adiabatic (Greek: impassable ) boundary, on the other hand, is a boundary that does not allow heat transfer. We can, in principle, ensure that the boundary is adiabatic by surrounding the system with an adiabatic wall—one with perfect thermal insulation and a perfect radiation shield.
An isolated system is one that exchanges no matter, heat, or work with the surroundings, so that the mass and total energy of the system remain constant over time. (The energy in this definition of an isolated system is measured in a local reference frame, as will be explained in Sec. 2.6.2.) A closed system with an adiabatic boundary, constrained to do no work and to have no work done on it, is an isolated system.
The constraints required to prevent work usually involve forces between the system and surroundings. In that sense a system may interact with the surroundings even though it is isolated. For instance, a gas contained within rigid, thermally-insulated walls is an isolated system; the gas exerts a force on each wall, and the wall exerts an equal and opposite force on the gas. An isolated system may also experience a constant external field, such as a gravitational field.
The term body usually implies a system, or part of a system, whose mass and chemical composition are constant over time.
2.1.1 Extensive and intensive properties
A quantitative property of a system describes some macroscopic feature that, although it may vary with time, has a particular value at any given instant of time.
Table 2.1 lists the symbols of some of the properties discussed in this chapter and the SI units in which they may be expressed. A much more complete table is found in Appendix C.
Most of the properties studied by thermodynamics may be classified as either extensive or intensive. We can distinguish these two types of properties by the following considerations.
If we imagine the system to be divided by an imaginary surface into two parts, any property of the system that is the sum of the property for the two parts is an extensive property . That is, an additive property is extensive. Examples are mass, volume, amount, energy, and the surface area of a solid.
Sometimes a more restricted definition of an extensive property is used: The property must be not only additive, but also proportional to the mass or the amount when intensive properties remain constant. According to this definition, mass, volume, amount, and energy are extensive, but surface area is not.
If we imagine a homogeneous region of space to be divided into two or more parts of arbitrary size, any property that has the same value in each part and the whole is an intensive property ; for example density, concentration, pressure (in a fluid), and temperature. The value of an intensive property is the same everywhere in a homogeneous region, but may vary from point to point in a heterogeneous region—it is a local property.
Since classical thermodynamics treats matter as a continuous medium, whereas matter actually contains discrete microscopic particles, the value of an intensive property at a point is a statistical average of the behavior of many particles. For instance, the density of a gas at one point in space is the average mass of a small volume element at that point, large enough to contain many molecules, divided by the volume of that element.
Some properties are defined as the ratio of two extensive quantities. If both extensive quantities refer to a homogeneous region of the system or to a small volume element, the ratio is an intensive property. For example concentration, defined as the ratio \(\tx{amount}/\tx{volume}\), is intensive. A mathematical derivative of one such extensive quantity with respect to another is also intensive.
A special case is an extensive quantity divided by the mass, giving an intensive specific quantity ; for example \begin{equation} \tx{Specific volume} = \frac{V}{m} = \frac{1}{\rho} \tag{2.1.1} \end{equation} If the symbol for the extensive quantity is a capital letter, it is customary to use the corresponding lower-case letter as the symbol for the specific quantity. Thus the symbol for specific volume is \(v\).
Another special case encountered frequently in this e-book is an extensive property for a pure, homogeneous substance divided by the amount \(n\). The resulting intensive property is called, in general, a molar quantity or molar property. To symbolize a molar quantity, this e-book follows the recommendation of the IUPAC: The symbol of the extensive quantity is followed by subscript m, and optionally the identity of the substance is indicated either by a subscript or a formula in parentheses. Examples are \begin{equation} \tx{Molar volume} = \frac{V}{n} = V\m \tag{2.1.2} \end{equation} \begin{equation} \tx{Molar volume of substance }i = \frac{V}{n_i} = V\mi \tag{2.1.3} \end{equation} \begin{equation} \tx{Molar volume of H\(_2\)O } = V\m\tx{(H\(_2\)O)} \tag{2.1.4} \end{equation}
In the past, especially in the United States, molar quantities were commonly denoted with an overbar (e.g., \(\overline{V}_i\)).


5.8: Urinary System Learning Activities
Interactive Learning Activity: Label the anatomy of the urinary system using this drag and drop activity.
Query \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Interactive Learning Activity: Study urinary system medical terms discussed in this chapter using these flashcards.
Query \(\PageIndex{2}\)
Interactive Learning Activity: Test your knowledge of the urinary system by completing this activity.
Query \(\PageIndex{3}\)
Interactive Learning Activity: Using the sample documentation provided, drag the terms on the right to their appropriate spaces within the documentation.
Query \(\PageIndex{4}\)
Interactive Learning Activity: Using the sample documentation provided, drag the terms on the right to their appropriate spaces within the documentation.
Query \(\PageIndex{5}\)
Interactive Learning Activity: Practice identifying and defining word parts for terms discussed in this chapter:
Query \(\PageIndex{6}\)
You can also print this as a Chapter 5 Practice Worksheet and check your answers with this Answer Key PDF .


2.6.7: Stuck in the Middle
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- Jamie Hammond and Western Technical College
- LibreTexts
Learning Objectives
- Describe the problem of being stuck in the middle of different generic strategies.
- Understand why trying to please everyone often creates problems when crafting a business-level strategy.
Table 5.11 Stuck in the Middle
A firm is said to be stuck in the middle if it does not offer features that are unique enough to convince customers to buy its offerings and its prices are too high to effectively compete on based on price. Firms that are stuck in the middle generally perform poorly because they lack a clear market or competitive pricing. Several examples of such firms are illustrated below.
| Arby’s signature roast beef sandwiches are neither cheaper than other fast food nor are they standouts in taste. Perhaps not surprisingly, parent company Wendy’s has been trying to sell Arby’s. | Electronics retailer Circuit City found itself squeezed by the superior service offer by rival Best Buy and the cheaper prices charged on electronics by Walmart and Target. The firm went bankrupt in 2009 after sixty years in business. |
|
Sears and their famous catalog once dominated U.S. retailing, but the failure to cultivate customers among newer generations and prices that are higher than those of rivals have severely wounded the company. |
Kmart’s “Blue Light Specials” that alert shoppers to a deeply discounted item reflect the firm’s long-running effort to be a cost leader. But emerging on the losing end of a price war with Walmart sent the firm into bankruptcy. Although Kmart escaped bankruptcy, it may be a matter of time until the lights go out permanently for Kmart. |
Stuck in the Middle: Neither Inexpensive nor Differentiated
Some firms fail to effectively pursue one of the generic strategies. A firm is said to be stuck in the middle if it does not offer features that are unique enough to convince customers to buy its offerings, and its prices are too high to compete effectively based on price (Table 5.11). Arby’s appears to be a good example. Arby’s signature roast beef sandwiches are neither cheaper than other fast-food sandwiches nor standouts in taste. Firms that are stuck in the middle generally perform poorly because they lack a clear market or competitive pricing. Perhaps not surprisingly, parent company Wendy’s has been trying to sell Arby’s despite having recently acquired the company in 2008. Stockholders apparently agreed with the plan to cut Arby’s loose—the price of Wendy’s stock rose 7 percent the day the plan was announced (McWilliams, 2011).
Doing Everything Means Doing Nothing Well
Michael Porter has noted that strategy is as much about executives deciding what a firm is not going to do as it is about deciding what the firm is going to do (Porter, 1996). In other words, a firm’s business-level strategy should not involve trying to serve the varied needs of different segment of customers in an industry. No firm could possibly pull this off.
This illustration from 1887 captures the lesson of Aesop’s fable “The Miller, His Son, and Their Ass”—a lesson that executives need to follow.
Wikimedia Commons – public domain.
The fable “The Miller, His Son, and Their Ass” told by the ancient Greek storyteller Aesop helps illustrate this idea.  They soon encountered a group of girls who mocked them for walking instead of riding. The father then told his son to ride the animal. Not long after, father and son overheard a man claim that young people had no respect for the elderly. On hearing this opinion, the father told the boy to dismount the animal and he began to ride. They progressed a short distance farther and met a company of women and children. Several of the women suggested that it was both ridiculous and lazy for the father to ride while the young son was forced to walk alone; once again the two changed positions. Another bystander suggested that they could not believe that the man was the owner of the beast, judging from the way it was weighted down. In fact, it would make more sense for the man and his son to carry the ass. On hearing this, the father and his son tied the animal’s legs together and carried it on a pole. As they crossed a bridge near town, the townspeople began to gather and laugh at the unorthodox sight. The noise and the chaos frightened the beast, leading it to thrash around until it tumbled into the river.
Getting Outmaneuvered by Competitors
In many cases, firms become stuck in the middle not because executives fail to arrive at a well-defined strategy but because firms are simply outmaneuvered by their rivals. After six decades as an electronics retailer, Circuit City went out of business in 2009. The firm had simply lost its appeal to customers. Rival electronics retailer Best Buy offered comparable prices to Circuit City’s prices, but the former offered much better customer service. Meanwhile, the service offered by discount retailers such as Walmart and Target on electronics were no better that Circuit City’s, but their prices were better.
The results were predictable—customers who made electronics purchases based on the service they received went to Best Buy, and value-driven buyers patronized Walmart and Target. Circuit City’s demise was probably inevitable because it lacked a competitive advantage within the electronics business. Although Target was on the winning end of this battle, Target executives need to worry that their firm could become stuck in the middle between Walmart’s better prices on one side and the trendiness of specialty shops on the other.
IBM’s personal computer business offers another example. IBM tried to position its personal computers via a differentiation strategy. In particular, IBM’s personal computers were offered at high prices, and the firm promised to offer excellent service to customers in return. Unfortunately for IBM, rivals such as Dell were able to provide equal levels of service while selling computers at lower prices. Nothing made IBM’s computers stand out from the crowd, and the firm eventually exited the business.
At its peak in the mid-2000s, Movie Gallery operated approximately 4,700 video rental stores. By 2010, the firm was dead. This rapid demise can be traced to the firm becoming outmaneuvered by Netflix. When Netflix began offering inexpensive DVD rentals through the mail, customers defected in droves from Movie Gallery and other video rental stores such as Blockbuster. Netflix customers were delighted by the firm’s low prices, vast selection, and the convenience of not having to visit a store to select and return videos. Movie Gallery was stuck in the middle—its prices were higher than those of Netflix, and Netflix’s service was superior. Once individuals lacked a compelling reason to be Movie Gallery customers, the firm’s fate was sealed.
Netflix and Redbox have left video rental stores such as Movie Gallery and Blockbuster stuck in the middle. Blockbuster filed for bankruptcy in late 2010.
Wikimedia Commons – CC BY-SA 3.0.
Key Takeaway
- When executing a business-level strategy, a firm must not become stuck in the middle between viable generic business-level strategies by neither offering unique features nor competitive pricing.
Exercises
- What is an example of a firm that you would consider to be “stuck in the middle”? What would your advice be to the executives in charge of this firm?
- Research a company that has gone bankrupt or otherwise stopped operations in the past decade because their strategy was “stuck in the middle” of otherwise viable generic business-level strategies. Could its demise have been prevented?
References
McWilliams, J. 2011, January 21. Wendy’s/Arby’s to try to sell Arby’s. Atlantic Journal-Constitution . Retrieved from www.ajc.com/business/wendys-arbys-to- try-810320.html.
Porter, M. E. 1996. What is strategy? Harvard Business Review , reprint 96608.
Short, J. C., & Ketchen, D. J. 2005. Using classic literature to teach timeless truths: An illustration using Aesop’s fables to teach strategic management. Journal of Management Education , 29 (6), 816–832.


4.6: Blood-borne Pathogen Standard
Blood-borne pathogens are infectious microorganisms in blood and body fluids that can cause disease. These pathogens include, but are not limited to, hepatitis B (HBV), hepatitis C (HCV), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Workers in many health-related occupations, including nursing assistants and other health care personnel, are at risk for exposure to blood-borne pathogens.
Needlesticks and other sharps-related injuries may expose workers to blood-borne pathogens. As a nursing assistant, your highest risk for blood-borne exposure is during shaving and any related disposal of the razor. Typically, residents use electric razors that have low risk of causing any open cuts, but you should always wear gloves when shaving a resident. Any disposable razor or objects that can cause a break in the skin, such as broken glass or needles, should be disposed of in a sharps container. [1] See Figure 4.15 [2] for an image of a sharps container.
Health care employers must follow OSHA’s guidelines for handling blood called the “Blood-borne Pathogens Standard.” If you handle a spill of blood or body fluids, you should wear a face shield, gown, and gloves. You should receive training during your orientation at an agency on how to properly handle a blood spill and the PPE and cleaning solutions available. See Figure 4.16 [3] for an image of a typical blood spill kit.
If you do experience an exposure to a patient’s blood or body fluids, follow agency policy and wash/flush the area and notify the nurse supervisor. Part of OSHA’s “Blood-borne Pathogens Standard” is to complete a postexposure assessment to determine if additional medical treatment is required. It is extremely important that this assessment occurs immediately after your exposure. The standard also requires your employer to offer the vaccine series for hepatitis B and hepatitis C at no cost to you if you have not previously received them.
To read more information on OSHA’s Blood-borne Pathogens Standard, visit OSHA’s FactSheet PDF .
- Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.). Bloodborne pathogens and needlestick prevention. United States Department of Labor. https://www.osha.gov/bloodborne-pathogens ↵
- " Sharps Container " by Landon Cerny is licensed under CC BY 4.0 ↵
- " Blood Spill Kit " by Landon Cerny is licensed under CC BY 4.0 ↵


21.2: Architecture of the Baroque Period
Italian Architecture in the Baroque Period
The highly theatrical Baroque architectural style dominated Italy in the 1600s.
Define the characteristics and examples of Roman Baroque architecture
Key Points
- Baroque architecture was linked to the Counter- Reformation , celebrating the wealth of the Catholic church. It was characterized by new explorations of form , light and shadow, and dramatic intensity .
- Bernini was the master of Baroque architecture in Rome ; St. Peter’s Square was one of his greatest achievements.
- Carlo Fontana became Rome’s leading Baroque architect following Bernini’s death in 1680.
- Other influential Baroque architects in Italy included Carol Maderno, Pietro la Cortano, and Francesco Borromini.
Key Terms
- Counter-Reformation : The period of Catholic revival beginning with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) and ending at the close of the Thirty Years’ War (1648); sometimes considered a response to the Protestant Reformation.
- Baroque : A period in western art from c. 1600 to the middle of the 18th century, characterized by drama, rich color, and dramatic contrast between light and shadow.
The Baroque Period in Italy
The Baroque period of architecture began in the late 16th century in Rome, Italy. It took the Roman vocabulary of Renaissance architecture and used it in a new rhetorical and theatrical fashion, often to express the triumph of the Catholic Church and the absolutist state. It was characterized by new explorations of form, light and shadow, and dramatic intensity.
Whereas the Renaissance drew on the wealth and power of the Italian courts and was a blend of secular and religious forces, the Baroque was, initially at least, directly linked to the Counter-Reformation, a movement within the Catholic Church to reform itself in response to the Protestant Reformation . Baroque architecture and its embellishments were on one hand more accessible to the emotions and on the other hand, a visible statement of the wealth and power of the Catholic Church.
Architectural Accomplishments
A number of ecclesiastical buildings of the Baroque period in Rome had plans based on the Italian paradigm of the basilica with a crossed dome and nave , but the treatment of the architecture was very different than what had been carried out previously. One of the first Roman structures to break with the previous conventions of the Mannerist style was the church of Santa Susanna, designed by Carlo Maderno. The dynamic rhythm of columns and pilasters , central massing, and the protrusion and condensed central decoration add complexity to the structure. There is an incipient playfulness with the rules of classic design, but it still maintains a level of rigor.
Pietro de Cortona
The same concerns with plasticity, massing, dramatic effects, and shadow and light are evident in the architectural work of Pietro da Cortona, illustrated by his design of Santi Luca e Martina (of which construction began in 1635) with what was probably the first curved Baroque church façade in Rome. These concerns are even more evident in his reworking of Santa Maria della Pace (1656–8). The façade of the building, with its chiaroscuro half-domed portico and concave side wings, closely resembles a theatrical stage set and projects forward so that it substantially fills the tiny trapezoidal piazza .
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
Other Roman ensembles of the Baroque and late Baroque period are likewise suffused with theatricality and, as urban theatres, provide points of focus within the surrounding cityscape. Probably the most well-known example of such an approach is Saint Peter’s Square, which has been praised as a masterstroke of Baroque theatre. The piazza, designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, is formed principally by two colonnades of free-standing columns centered on an Egyptian obelisk . Bernini’s own favorite design was his oval church of Sant’Andrea al Quirinale, decorated with polychome marbles and an ornate gold dome. His secular architecture included the Palazzo Barberini (based on plans by Maderno) and the Palazzo Chigi-Odescalchi (1664), both in Rome.
Francesco Borromini
Bernini’s rival, the architect Francesco Borromini, produced designs that deviated dramatically from the regular compositions of the ancient world and Renaissance. His building plans were based on complex geometric figures, his architectural forms were unusual and inventive, and he employed multi-layered symbolism in his architectural designs. His iconic masterpiece is the diminutive church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, distinguished by a complicated plan arrangement that is partly oval and partly a cross, giving it complex convex-concave wall rhythms.
Carlo Fontana
Following the death of Bernini in 1680, Carlo Fontana emerged as the most influential architect working in Rome during the Baroque period. His early style is exemplified by the slightly concave façade of San Marcello al Corso. Fontana’s academic approach, though lacking the dazzling inventiveness of his Roman predecessors, exerted substantial influence on Baroque architecture both through his prolific writings and through the number of architects he trained, who would disseminate the Baroque idioms throughout 18th-century Europe.
Spanish Architecture in the Baroque Period
A particular strand of Baroque architecture evolved in Spain and its provinces and former colonies in the late 17th century.
Identify characteristics of Spanish Baroque architecture, its most famous examples, and how it differs from the art of Northern Europe in the 17th century
Key Points
- In contrast to the art of Northern Europe, the Spanish art of the Baroque period appealed to the emotions rather than seeking to please the intellect.
- The Churriguera family, which specialized in designing altars and retables, revolted against the sobriety of the previous Herrerian classicism and promoted an intricate, exaggerated, almost capricious style of surface decoration known as the Churrigueresque.
- Between 1720 and 1760, the Churrigueresque column , or estipite, in the shape of an inverted cone or obelisk was established as a central element of ornamental decoration.
- Some of the most notable examples of Spanish architecture from the Baroque period include the façades of the University of Valladolid (1719) and the western façade of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela (1750).
Key Terms
- Herrerian : A style of architecture developed in Spain during the last third of the 16th century under the reign of Philip II (1556–1598) and continued in force in the 17th century, transformed then by the Baroque current of the time.
- Moorish : Of or pertaining to a style of Spanish architecture from the time of the Moors, characterized by the horseshoe arch and ornate, geometric decoration.
- Baroque : A period in western art from c. 1600 to the middle of the 18th century, characterized by drama, rich color, and dramatic contrast between light and shadow.
- Obelisk : A tall, square, tapered stone monolith topped with a pyramidal point, frequently used as a monument.
The Development of Baroque in Spain
Spanish Baroque is a strand of Baroque architecture that evolved in Spain and its provinces and former colonies, notably Spanish America and Belgium, in the late 17th century. As Italian Baroque influences spread across the Pyrenees Mountains, they gradually superseded in popularity the restrained classical approach of Juan de Herrera, which had been in vogue since the late 16th century.
For example, by 1667, the facades of Granada Cathedral (by Alonso Cano) and Jaén Cathedral (by Eufrasio López de Rojas) suggest the artists’ fluency in interpreting traditional motifs of Spanish cathedral architecture in the Baroque aesthetic idiom . In Madrid, a vernacular Baroque with its roots in Herrerian and in traditional brick construction was developed in the Plaza Mayor and in the Royal Palace of El Buen Retiro, which was destroyed during the French invasion by Napoleon’s troops. Its gardens still remain as El Retiro park. This sober brick Baroque of the 17th century is still well represented in the streets of the capital in palaces and squares.
Comparisons to Northern Europe
In contrast to the art of Northern Europe, the Spanish art of the period appealed to the emotions rather than seeking to please the intellect. The Churriguera family, which specialized in designing altars and retables, revolted against the sobriety of the Herrerian classicism and promoted an intricate, exaggerated, almost capricious style of surface decoration known as the Churrigueresque. Within half a century, they transformed Salamanca into an exemplary Churrigueresque city. Between 1680 and 1720, the Churriguera popularized Guarini’s blend of Solomonic columns and composite order, known as the “supreme order. ” Between 1720 and 1760, the Churrigueresque column, or estipite, in the shape of an inverted cone or obelisk was established as a central element of ornamental decoration.
Notable Examples
Examples of the most eye-catching creations of Spanish Baroque are the energetic façades of the University of Valladolid (Diego Tome and Fray Pedro de la Visitación, 1719) and the western façade (or Fachada del Obradoiro) of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela (Fernando de Casas y Novoa, 1750). In these examples, as in many others, the Churrigueresque design involves a play of tectonic and decorative elements with little relation to structure and function. The focus of the florid ornamentation is an elaborately sculptured surround to a main doorway. If one removed the intricate maze of broken pediments , undulating cornices , stucco shells, inverted tapers, and garlands from the rather plain wall it is set against, the building’s form would not be affected in the slightest.
At the same time, Churrigueresque baroque offered some of the most impressive combinations of space and light. Buildings like Granada Charterhouse (by Francisco Hurtado Izquierdo), considered to be the highest example of Churrigueresque styles applied to interior spaces, or the Transparente of the Cathedral of Toledo (by Narciso Tomé) integrate sculpture and architecture to achieve notable light and dramatic effects.
The Royal Palace of Madrid and the interventions of Paseo del Prado (Salón del Prado and Alcalá Doorgate, also in the same city), deserve special mention. They were constructed in a sober Baroque international style, often mistaken for neoclassical, by the kings Philip V and Charles III. The Royal Palaces of La Granja de San Ildefonso in Segovia and Aranjuez in Madrid are good examples of Baroque integration of architecture and gardening. They have a noticeable French influence (La Granja was known as the Spanish Versailles) but contain local spatial conceptions that in some ways display the heritage of the Moorish occupation.
In Flanders , which was the richest imperial province of 17th century Spain, florid decorative detailing was more tightly knit to the structure, thus precluding concerns of superfluity. A remarkable convergence of Spanish, French, and Dutch Baroque aesthetics may be seen in the Abbey of Averbode (1667). Another characteristic example is the Church of St. Michel at Louvain (1650–70), with its exuberant two-story façade, clusters of half-columns, and the complex aggregation of French-inspired sculptural detailing.
English Architecture in the Baroque Period
English architecture during the 17th century can be characterized by its use of Palladian, Jacobean, and English Baroque styles.
Define the architecture of 17th century England
Key Points
- Inigo Jones is known for introducing Palladian architecture to England, a highly symmetrical style based on the principles of formal Classical temple architecture of the ancient Greeks and Romans.
- Popular during the early 17th century, the Jacobean style can be classified by its adoption of decadent and detailed Renaissance motifs such as columns and pilasters , round arch arcades , and flat roofs with openwork parapets , as seen in Hatfield House.
- The architect Sir Christopher Wren was responsible for the genesis of the English Baroque style; after the Great Fire of London in 1666, he rebuilt many of the city’s churches, such as St. Paul’s Cathedral .
- English Baroque architecture can be characterized by heavy structures adorned with elaborate decoration; compared to the contemporary Baroque of the European continent, however, it tends to be relatively plain, with more Classical subtleties.
Key Terms
- arcade : A row of arches.
- parapet : Part of a perimeter that extends above the roof.
- pilaster : A rectangular column that projects partially from the wall to which it is attached; it gives the appearance of a support but is only for decoration.
English Architecture in the 17th Century
The architecture in England during the 17th century saw a continuation of the use of Classical forms , which eventually gave way to a uniform style, derived chiefly from Italy and exemplified predominantly in the work of Inigo Jones. Jacobean architecture was prominent in the first quarter of the 17th century, and English Baroque architecture, a distinctly English take on the Italian Baroque style, became prevalent during the later part of the 17th century following the Great Fire of London.
Development of English Baroque
Inigo Jones and Palladian Architecture
Palladian architecture is highly symmetrical and based on the principles of formal Classical temple architecture of the ancient Greeks and Romans. It was a style seen during the 17th century in England and became truly prominent in the 18th century. Inigo Jones, one of the first significant English architects, is known for introducing the Italian Renaissance style to England. He is responsible for the Queen’s House at Greenwich (1635) and the Banqueting House in the Palace of Whitehall (1622), which he designed based on the work of Palladio, an influential Italian Classical-style architect; its ceiling was painted by Peter Paul Rubens.
Jacobean Architecture
The second phase of Renaissance architecture in England is termed the Jacobean style. This style was popular during the first quarter of the 17th century during the reign of King James I. Chronologically following the Elizabethan style, the Jacobean style can be classified by its adoption of decadent and detailed Renaissance motifs such as columns and pilasters, round arch arcades, and flat roofs with openwork parapets. These classical motifs were, however, not strictly applied (as they were by Inigo Jones) but used rather freely and synthesized with elements of Elizabethan style architecture. Architectural examples of the style include Hatfield House, Knole House, and Holland House by John Thorpe.
English Baroque
The later 17th century saw Baroque architecture come to prominence in a style that is termed English Baroque. It was the architect Christopher Wren, one of the most acclaimed English architects in history, who was responsible for the genesis of the English Baroque style. When the Great Fire of London in 1666 forced much of the city to be rebuilt, Wren was hired to replace many of the churches. His most ambitious construction, St. Paul’s Cathedral, was a magnificent piece of architecture and is the only English cathedral in the Classical tradition.
Characteristics
Popular from 1666 to about 1715, English Baroque architecture is characterized by heavy structures adorned with elaborate decoration; compared to the contemporary Baroque of the European continent, however, it tends to be relatively plain, with more Classical subtleties. Baroque country houses, such as Chatsworth House by William Talman and Castle Howard by Vanbrugh and Hawksmoor, began to appear in the 1690s. The most significant architects after Wren were Sir John Vanbrugh and Nicholas Hawksmoor, who built Castle Howard (1699) and Blenheim Palace (1705).
French Architecture in the Baroque Period: Versailles
The Palace of Versailles was built during King Louis XIV’s reign and contains 700 rooms, extensive gardens, and lavish decoration.
Identify the most impressive features of Versailles and those artistically responsible
Key Points
- The Palace of Versailles was executed in the French Baroque style , characterized by its large curved forms , twisted columns , high domes , and complicated shapes.
- The architect for the palace was Louis Le Vau, the interior decorator was Charles Le Brun, and the landscape designer was Andre Le Notre.
- Interior design from this period is known as Louis XIV style. Originated by Le Brun, it is characterized by richly woven red and gold fabrics or brocades , heavy gilded plaster molding , large sculpted side boards, and heavy marbling.
- The gardens at Versailles cover nearly 2,000 acres of land and were executed in the French formal garden style, or jardin a la francaise .
- Notable features of the palace include the Hall of Mirrors and the Grande Canal.
Key Terms
- parterre : A garden with paths between flowerbeds.
- brocade : A thick, heavy fabric into which raised patterns have been woven.
- molding : A plane or curved narrow surface, either sunk or projecting, used for decoration by means of the lights and shades upon its surface and to conceal joints, especially between unlike materials.
Overview: Versailles
The Palace of Versailles is an opulent palace built by Louis XIV that contains 700 rooms, extensive gardens, and lavish decoration. Initially a small hunting lodge built by his father, Louis XIV transformed Versailles with four intensive building campaigns over his reign. The formal aesthetic of the palace was meant to glorify France and show the power and greatness of the self-proclaimed Sun King, Louis XIV. The architect for the palace was Louis Le Vau, the interior decorator was Charles Le Brun, and the landscape designer was Andre Le Notre. These three artists had worked together previously on the private Chateau Vaux le Vicomte for the king’s minister of finance before he was imprisoned. In 1682, Versailles was transformed into the official residence of the king, and such notable features of the palace as the Hall of Mirrors and the Grande Canal were built.
The Art and Artists of Versailles
The Architecture: Louis Le Vau
The Palace of Versailles was executed in the French Baroque style by architect Louis Le Vau, a French Classical architect who worked for King Louis XIV. French Baroque architectural style is characterized by its large curved forms, twisted columns, high domes, and complicated shapes. In comparison to the Baroque architecture of the rest of Europe, it is commonly thought to be more restrained and characterized by its mixture of lavish details on symmetrical and orderly buildings.
The Interior Design: Charles Le Brun
Charles Le Brun was the interior decorator for the Palace of Versailles, as well as first painter to the king. Louis XIV declared Le Brun the “greatest painter of all time,” and Le Brun worked on such notable features of the palace as the Halls of War and Peace, the Ambassadors’ Staircase, and the Great Hall of Mirrors. Interior design from this period is known as Louis XIV style, originated by Le Brun, and was characterized by richly woven red and gold fabrics or brocades, heavy gilded plaster molding, large sculpted side boards, and heavy marbling.
The Hall of Mirrors is the central gallery of the Palace of Versailles and is one of the most famous rooms in the world. The main feature of this room is a series of 17 mirrored arches that reflect 17 arcaded windows overlooking the gardens. Each arch contains 21 mirrors. The arches are fixed between marble pilasters upon which bronze symbols of France are embedded.
The Gardens: Andre Le Notre
The landscape design at the Palace of Versailles is one of the most extravagant in history. Headed by Andre Le Notre, the gardens at Versailles cover nearly 2,000 acres of land and were executed in the French formal garden style, or jardin a la francaise . This style is characterized by its meticulously manicured lawns, parterres of flowers, numerous fountains, and sculptures.
A common feature of sculpture and decoration at Versailles is the use of classical mythology as allegory . The Bassin de Latone was designed by Le Notre and sculpted by Gaspard and Balthazar Marsy between 1668–1670. This fountain depicts scenes from Ovid’s Metamorphoses, chosen as allegories to revolts during the king’s reign. The Bassin d’Apollon is another fountain that depicts the sun god driving his chariot to light the sky. The Grotte de Thetys is a freestanding structure with an interior decorated in elaborate shell-work to represent the myth of Apollo.
The Grande Canal is a notable feature of the gardens, with an impressive length of 1,500 x 62 meters. King Louis XIV ordered the construction of “little Venice ” on the Grand Canal, which housed yachts, gondolas, and gondoliers received from Venice. It also served a functional purpose by gathering the water that drained from the fountains and redistributing it to the gardens by horse-powered pump.
The Grande Commande is a series of 24 statues that were commissioned by Louis XIV to decorate the gardens. The statues illustrate the classic quaternities (sets of 4) at the time of the Four Humors, the Four Parts of the Day, the Four Parts of the World, The Four Forms of Poetry, the Four Elements, and the Four Seasons. Four additional sculptures depict abductions from classical mythology.
- Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


4.7: EEO Best Practices
- Discuss EEO compliance best practices
As part of its E-Race (Eradicating Racism & Colorism from Employment) Initiative, the EEOC has identified a number of best practices that are applicable broadly, including the following: [1]
Training, Enforcement, and Accountability
Ensure that management—specifically HR managers—and all employees know EEO laws. Implement a strong EEO policy with executive level support. Hold leaders accountable. Also: If using an outside agency for recruitment, make sure agency employees know and adhere to relevant laws; both an agency and hiring organization is liable for violations.
Promote an Inclusive Culture
It’s not just enough to talk about diversity and inclusion—it takes work to foster a professional environment with respect for individual differences. Make sure that differences are welcomed. Being the “only” of anything can get tiring, so make sure you’re not putting further pressure on people by surrounding them in a culture that encourages conformity. A great way to promote an inclusive culture is to make sure your leadership is diverse and to listen to the voices of minorities.
Develop Communication
Fostering open communication and developing an alternative dispute-resolution (ADR) program may reduce the chance that a miscommunication escalates into a legally actionable EEO claim. If you’re not providing a path for employees to have issues resolved, they’ll look elsewhere. Additionally, it’s essential to protect employees from retaliation. If people think reporting an issue will only make the situation worse, they won’t bring it up, which will cause the issue to fester and lead to something worse than it once was.
Evaluate Practices
Monitor compensation and evaluation practices for patterns of potential discrimination and ensure that performance appraisals are based on job performance and accurate across evaluators and roles.
Audit Selection Criteria
Ensure that selection criteria do not disproportionately exclude protected groups unless the criteria are valid predictors of successful job performance and meet the employer’s business needs. Additionally, make sure that employment decisions are based on objective criteria rather than stereotypes or unconscious bias.
Make HR Decisions with EEO in Mind
Implement practices that diversify the candidate pool and leadership pipeline. Provide training and mentoring to help employees thrive. All employees should have equal access to workplace networks.
Now that you’ve learned EEO compliance best practices, let’s check your instincts and take a look at a few HR situations.
Enforce an Anti-Harassment Policy
Establish, communicate and enforce a strong anti-harassment policy. You should conduct periodic training for all employees and enforce the policy. The policy should include:
- A clear explanation of prohibited conduct, including examples
- Clear assurance that employees who make complaints or provide information related to complaints will be protected against retaliation
- A clearly described complaint process that provides multiple, accessible avenues of complaint
- Assurance that the employer will protect the confidentiality of harassment complaints to the extent possible
- A complaint process that provides a prompt, thorough, and impartial investigation
- Assurance that the employer will take immediate and appropriate corrective action when it determines that harassment has occurred
- " Best Practices for Employers and Human Resources/EEO Professionals ." U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Accessed September 14, 2019. ↵
Contributors and Attributions
- Making HR Decisions. Authored by : Barbara Egel. Provided by : Lumen Learning. Located at : https://lumenlearning.h5p.com/content/1290838147939445498 . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Untitled. Authored by : LinkedIn Sales Navigator. Provided by : Unsplash. Located at : https://unsplash.com/photos/EI50ZDA-l8Y . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved . License Terms : Unsplash License


3.2: Lab Activities
A list of words is provided below that you are expected to identify, learn, and label on the models provided. Note that not all models will have some of the organs/structures, so be sure to find them on an alternate model. You must use all the words provided. Using the colored tape provided, write the number that corresponds to the organ/structure and place them on your model. When complete, notify your TA so they may check your work.
For each additional station, directions will be provided for the activity.
Station One: Spinal Cord
Label the models of this station with the # that corresponds to the appropriate structure of the spinal cord and its protective structures using the colored tape. When you have finished, have your TA check your labeling. Before leaving the station, remove all of the labels you have placed on the model.
Note: For the following structures, be able to differentiate left and right halves when applicable.
|
#1 vertebral column |
#4 dura mater |
#7 subarachnoid space |
#10 denticulate ligaments |
#13 filum terminale |
|
#2 spinal meninges |
#5 subdural space |
#8 cerebrospinal fluid |
#11 spinal cord |
#14 cauda equina |
|
#3 epidural space |
#6 arachnoid mater |
#9 pia mater |
#12 conus medullaris |
|
Spinal Cord
|
#15 anterior median fissure |
#19 posterior white columns |
#23 anterior white commissure |
#27 thoracic innervation segment |
#31 lumbar enlargement |
|
#16 posterior median sulcus |
#20 anterior gray horns |
#24 posterior gray commissure |
#28 lumbar innervation segment |
|
|
#17 anterior white columns |
#21 lateral gray horns |
#25 central canal |
#29 sacral innervation segment |
|
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#18 lateral white columns |
#22 posterior gray horns |
#26 cervical innervation segment |
#30 cervical enlargement |
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Station Two: Spinal Nerves and Cervical Plexus
Label the models of this station with the number that corresponds to the appropriate structure of the peripheral nervous system using the colored tape. When you are finished, ask your TA to check your labeling. Before leaving the station, remove all the labels you have placed on the model.
Note: For the following structures, be able to differentiate between left and right halves when applicable.
 Also note any interesting characteristics you find, for example, which is the longest nerve? Make use of your textbook and atlas during this time.
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#32 lesser occipital nerve |
#34 transverse cervical nerve |
#36 superior root of Ansa cervicalis nerve |
#38 phrenic nerve |
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#33 great auricular nerve |
#35 supraclavicular |
#37 inferior root of Ansa cervicalis nerve |
#39 segmental branches |
Station Three: Brachial Plexus
Label the models of this station with the number that corresponds to the appropriate structure of the peripheral nervous system using the colored tape. When you are finished, ask your TA to check your labeling. Before leaving the station, remove all the labels you have placed on the model.
Note: When labeling the nerves that exit the brachial plexus, focus on their location, the connections between the nerves of the plexus and what they innervate. Also note any interesting characteristics you find, for example, which is the longest nerve? Make use of your textbook and atlas during this time.
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#1 dorsal scapular nerve |
#5 musculocutaneous nerve |
#9 lower subscapular nerve |
#13 medial pectoral nerve |
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#2 long thoracic nerve |
#6 lateral pectoral nerve |
#10 axillary nerve |
#14 medial cutaneous nerve of arm |
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#3 nerve to subclavius |
#7 upper subscapular nerve |
#11 median nerve |
#15 medial cutaneous nerve of forearm |
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#4 suprascapular nerve |
#8 thoracodorsal nerve |
#12 radial nerve |
#16 ulnar nerve |
Station 4: Histology
Sketch the slides available for today’s lab and specify the magnitude at which you are observing/ sketching. Be sure to identify and label your sketch with the corresponding structures listed beneath each slide.
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Spinal cord
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Sympathetic ganglion
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Station Five: Lumbar Plexus
Label the models of this station with the number that corresponds to the appropriate structure of the peripheral nervous system using the colored tape. When you are finished, ask your TA to check your labeling. Before leaving the station, remove all the labels you have placed on the model.
Note: When labeling the nerves that exit the lumbar plexus, focus on their location, the connections between the nerves of the plexus and what they innervate. Also note any interesting characteristics you find, for example, which is the longest nerve? Make use of your textbook and atlas during this time.
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#1 iliohypogastric nerve |
#3 genitofemoral nerve |
#5 femoral nerve |
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#2 ilioinguinal nerve |
#4 lateral cutaneous nerve of thigh |
#6 obturator nerve |
Station Six: Sacral Plexus
Label the models of this station with the number that corresponds to the appropriate structure of the peripheral nervous system using the colored tape. When you are finished, ask your TA to check your labeling. Before leaving the station, remove all the labels you have placed on the model.
Note: When labeling the nerves that exit the sacral plexus, focus on their location, the connections between the nerves of the plexus and what they innervate. Also note any interesting characteristics you find, for example, which is the longest nerve? Make use of your textbook and atlas during this time.
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#1 superior gluteal nerve |
#4 nerve to quadratus |
#7 posterior cutaneous nerve of thigh |
#10 tibial median plantar nerve |
#13 deep common fibular nerve |
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#2 inferior gluteal nerve |
#5 nerve to obturator internus and superior gemellus |
#8 pudenal nerve |
#11 tibial lateral plantar nerve |
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#3 nerve to piriformis |
#6 perforating cutaneous nerve |
#9 sciatic nerve |
#12 superficial common fibular nerve |
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5.11: Modernism in Latin America (Late 1800s-mid 1900s)
Introduction
The European academies played a significant role in shaping the style of artists in Latin America from the early 1800s to the mid-1900s. Many artists attended and received their formal education from academies in Paris, Madrid, and London. Modernismo, the Hispanic name for Modernism, was originally a term used to refer to literary works. At the turn of the twentieth century, the term also became synonymous with the art of this period. The art of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries saw close connections associated with modernist styles and tendencies in Europe. However, when the Latin American artists studied abroad and returned to Latin America, they shaped and contributed to an art conveying a Latin American identity.
Art can be a motivator of social change, and it became a goal of artists in modern Latin America. The early twentieth century was a period of political and social turmoil throughout Latin America. The Mexican Revolution, which began in 1910, overthrew the dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz. After ten years of fighting the Mexican Revolution, some artists believed the Revolution did not accomplish enough or solve the problems of poor Indigenous populations. Additionally, the region's artists started concentrating on the effect of social changes impacted by political ideologies such as Marxism, Socialism, and Communism.
In Mexico, the art academy, and its conservative nature, became the subject of criticism amid a growing tide of pessimism and resentment. As a result of political and artistic changes, Mexican artists began to assert populist imagery and content by drawing inspiration from the satirical illustrations of José Guadalupe Posada. In 1921, Alvaro Obregon became President of Mexico and directed his minister of education, Jose Vasconcelos, to develop a Mexican mural program to capture a national consciousness. The murals, painted most often on public buildings, were art for the people. Posada addressed contemporary social issues in his work, and these issues became the primary subject matter of the Mexican muralists.
Printmaking
Graphic arts became an important medium of expression among illustrators and lithographers in both Europe and Latin America. The Latin American graphic arts served as satirical observations of daily life, with illustrations addressing social and political issues. The Latin American graphic arts were most utilized and effective in regions that experienced the most pain because of the continued democratic reforms of the late 19 th and early 20 th centuries.
José Guadalupe Posada
Considered the father of the graphic arts movement in Mexico, José Guadalupe Posada (1852–1913) was one of Mexico's most famed print artists. During this tumultuous era, Posada was influenced by the social injustices in Mexico from the dictator Porfirio Diaz and the initial years of the Mexican Revolution. Often, his graphic images criticized the inequality and social injustice during Porfirio's rule. Combining his Calavera prints with political messages, Posada conveyed that once we are dead, everybody is the same - just bones. Many of his visual social and political commentaries got him in trouble during his life, including fleeing printing shops and serving jail time. Posada is most well-known for working in Mexico City with Antonio Vanegas Arroyo, who owned a print shop. Arroyo's shop was located near the Art Academy of San Carlos, and artists like the great muralists José Clemente Orozco and Diego Rivera claimed they watched him work and were also influenced by Posada's goal of creating art for the people.
Posada used printmaking to ridicule the privileged and wealthy. As seen in La Calavera Oaxaqueña (5.11.1), his prints were used as a social and politically sarcastic commentary on the political leaders who were indifferent to the Indigenous poor. He recognized the importance of art that would be available to the average or less fortunate population, so he created illustrations for the newspaper broadsides, like tabloids today. The prints were genuine "art for the people," as they would be made available to all.
Although Posada worked with many subjects, he is popularly known for his Calaveras (5.11.), or skeleton imagery. The image of the grand electric skeleton (5.11.2) was part of the newsprint. The large skeleton appears to be hypnotizing the group of skulls sitting on the ground as the skeletons in the electric streetcar appear to be watching. The newspaper article wrote about the transition from animal-powered streetcar to the new electrical, a technology to help propel the country into the 20 th century.
La Calavera Catrina (5.11.3) portrays a skeleton in an elegant hat. La Catrina has become the symbol for the Mexican Día de Muertos.
Diego Rivera paid homage to Posada by placing Posada's famous Catrina figure in the mural titled Dream of a Sunday Afternoon in Alameda Park (5.11.4), which he originally completed for the Coronado Hotel in Mexico City. The character La Catrina became popular through the image on Rivera's mural. Rivera used Posada's print image and gave Catrina a body and elegant clothing as she stood in the middle of his mural. Today, the traditional form of La Calavera Catrina is found in multiple types of artworks.
Photography
Latin American Modern Photography
Manuel Álvarez Bravo
Manuel Álvarez Bravo (1902-2002) was the first significant photographer and leader in Latin American photography. Although he took classes at an art academy, Bravo taught himself photography. His work focused on ordinary images, rejecting the picturesque while defining Mexican heritage. Several unseen and unpublished photographs were found in Bravo's archives and assembled in a new show of 168 black and white images. Most of the photographs were printed in silver on gelatin, while some had to be digitally printed. Many of the people seen in the images are unidentified. The photograph of the young woman (5.11.5) reflects Bravo's interest in the peasant population and the roots of the local Mexican people. She sits with her eyes closed, a minute of quiet. Bravo did not pose people in the traditional formal style.
Martin Chambi
Martin Chambi (1891-1973) was born in an Andean village in Peru. His education was limited as he worked in the mines at an early age. Chambi first saw a real photo when a photographer from England came to take photographs at the mine. Only a teenager, he saved his money to travel to the city and learn photography. Chambi was successful and became part of the Peruvian artistic community. However, he continued to focus on the Indigenous culture and Peru's identity. In 1936, Chambi went to Chile and photographed people throughout the region. It is unknown why he wanted to make the trip; however, he left a legacy of his journey and a set of photographs stored until recently. The huaso (cowboy) (5.11.6) is standing outside, dressed in typical clothing. The huaso was considered an excellent horseman who lived on a hacienda or large estate. The man is wearing a chamanto (reversible poncho) made of wool and sometimes silk accents with a chupall a (flat-top straw hat) on his head.
Impressionism
Impressionism significantly changed the process of painting, influencing artists around the world. The main passion the Impressionistic artists all shared was light and color, how the light made colors intense or changed the hue.
Joaquín Clausell
Impressionism, a French artistic movement, investigated how light and color affected the reality of the observer. Impressionists accomplished this through multiple methods and techniques, including thick impastos and heavy brushstrokes, to successfully interpret the world they observed around them. Impressionist artists in Latin America included Mexico's Joaquín Clausell (1866-1935) and Venezuela's Emilio Boggio (1857-1929). Their heavy and loose brushwork typified the nature of the visual sensations of light. They displayed vibrant colors to portray their subject matter – like how the Impressionists of Paris were working. The themes explored by Latin American artists coincide with their French counterparts, and they worked in plein aire. Painting outdoors was a break from academic traditions. These influences of outdoor painting in Plein aire, loose brushwork, and vibrant colors are visible in Clausell's Landscape with Forest and River (5.11.7). He painted the image after visiting Claude Monet's studio, influencing his use of blue and green as the light shines on the river.
Emilio Boggio
The works of Venezuelan artist Emilio Boggio have similar stylistic qualities as Clausell. Influenced by his time in Paris in the 1860s, he chose subject matter reflecting the working conditions of the early twentieth century. As seen in Boggio's painting titled End of the Day (5.11.8), he painted a scene reflecting the title of the painting, suggesting the potential of the evening's leisure activities. Leisure activities were common subjects in Paris during the height of the Impressionist movement. Boggio's loose brushstrokes and use of paint also reflected the methods employed by the European Impressionists.
Pedro Figari
The Uruguayan artist, Pedro Figari (1861-1938), worked early in his life as a lawyer and, at the age of 60, turned his attention to painting and subsequently moved to Europe. His modernist approach was unusual. Stylistically, Figari's work intersected Impressionism and Post-Impressionism; however, he didn't include modern scenes of life, trains, locomotives, or café scenes, which European artists often painted. Instead, Figari painted scenes of his childhood in Montevideo, Uruguay. His personal experience of local customs, especially the African drum-based dance Candombe, performed in Uruguay, is displayed regularly in his paintings. The liveliness and enjoyment of the dance are visible in his painting, Dancing People: Candomb (5.11.9).
Surrealism and Constructive Universalism
Surrealist work was tense and sexual based on hidden psychological forces in the subconscious. The rational mind was suppressed, and imagination locked in by societal controls. They didn't look for art in real everyday life; instead, they used the impulses of the primitive unconscious mind.
Rufino Tamayo
Maria Izquierdo, and Izquierdo’s one-time lover, Rufino Tamayo (1899-1991) created art like their Surrealist European contemporaries. Surrealism, a European art movement that began in the 1920s, believed in the irrational, the emotional, the personal, and the subconscious. Hombre con un Gran Sombrero (5.11.10) is an example of Tamayo’s bold, blocky image. The almost disassembled man is lying on the bench, his red hat perched sideways. Looking closely, the viewer can also find other objects in the painting.
Maria Izquierdo
Maria Izquierdo (1902-1955), an artist who created esoteric paintings, often focusing on women and their concerns, was enrolled at the art school where Diego Rivera worked. She had a relationship with Rivera, which got her kicked out of school and later forced him to resign. Her work often incorporated themes of loss, consequences, traditional Mexican values, and feminism – although she also rejected being called a feminist. The esoteric quality of her work placed her in the Surrealist category, though she also rejected that identification. The cover of an art book portrays her image, The Racket (5.11.11). Various objects are placed in distinctive ways and viewable from different levels resembling Surrealism. The darkness out the open window and past the tunnel brings the quality of a hallway. As seen in her other works, she brings the feeling of the experience found a long journey to freedom; in the open air, out the window.
The high point of her life was when her dream of painting a government-sponsored public mural in Mexico was realized, only to be canceled. Izquierdo was rejected because her mentor, Diego Rivera, interfered. Along with David Alfaro Siqueiros, Rivera claimed she was not experienced enough to complete the project. Undoubtedly, her focus on the concerns of the female also played a part. The project was canceled, leading to a period of suffering for the artist. Izquierdo was a professional artist recognized internationally and was the first female Mexican artist to exhibit her work in the United States. Today she is often overlooked and overshadowed by her contemporary, Frida Kahlo.
Anita Malfatti
Anita Malfatti (1889–1964), a South American Brazilian female artist, painted in many European abstract modern art movements popular in the early 20 th century while studying in Europe. Sometimes she was inspired by Cubism's flattened and twisted effects, and other times incorporated strong, vibrant, and non-naturalistic use of a color like the Fauves. In The Fool (5.11.12), Malfatti created imagery generally upsetting the conservative Brazilian public. Although she earned a one-person exhibition in Sao Paulo, an important event for a woman to have her show, she was rejected by academic art. A lack of a clear Brazilian identity in her works made her exhibition all that more controversial.
In Tropical (5.11.13), Malfatti painted a classic Brazilian theme like the Post-Impressionists. The young woman appears mixed race with dark eyes and hair, holding Brazilian fruit in her basket. If Anita Malfatti is considered the instigator of modernism in Brazil, then Tarsila do Amaral as the propellent!
Tarsila do Amaral
Tarsila do Amaral (1886-1973) also studied different movements in Europe. However, she was not as direct in her interpretation of Cubism. Amaral chose abstracted tropical landscapes and portraiture upon her return to Brazil in 1924 after studying in Paris. She blended the techniques of modern European masters, highly abstracted yet very personal representation of the people and land of her native country. In her work, Central Railroad of Brazil (5.11.14), Amaral used the Cubist forms to document the modern progress of Brazil along with the bright colors other modernists used.
In the image, Postcard (5.11.15), Amaral displayed her desire to return to working with the bright colors of crayons to depict the city of her homeland. She remembered using crayons as a child and was asked to reject them in art school; however, the vivid colors influenced her oil paint colors.
Amaral's painting Abaporu (5.11.16) was one of her new styles to transform European methods into distinctly Brazilian. The background is simple in its form, a small ground hill for the earth, a few green cacti, and the pale blue sky lit by the yellow sun. The figure, however, is very distorted. The person is nude, ageless, and sexless. The immense foot and hand anchor the bottom of the painting as the figure grows smaller when moving upward.
Joaquin Torres-Garcia
Another important South American modern artist during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century was the Uruguayan painter-sculptor Joaquin Torres-Garcia (1874-1949). After studying and earning a name in Europe during the 1920s, Torres-Garcia became artistically and historically the most prolific artist in the Latin American region during the early twentieth century and worked in numerous modern styles. His works in the Constructivist style included references to his life in South America. In the piece, Constructive Painting (5.11.17), he had symbols of the cross, the church, and the sun – all familiar symbols in Latin America. In 1942, he eventually developed his style named Constructive Universalism. The style was based heavily on cultural identity with abstract symbols and forms chosen from pre-Colombian cultures.
Cândido Portinari
Cândido Portinari (1903-1962) is one of Brazil's most influential painters who painted thousands of images, from small sketches to murals. Portinari grew up on a coffee plantation and understood the depth and colors of the blue sky or the dark earth. Part of his artistic training was in Europe, and he returned to Brazil determined to illustrate authentic Brazilian culture. He painted rural and poor, immigration and refugees, labor and wealth, documenting Brazilian history using different modernist methods. Portinari created a preparatory drawing for the Discovery of the Land (5.11.18) he would paint as a mural in the Library of Congress. Portinari depicted the first time a European found land across the ocean. However, the image represented no one specific person, and it might be Cabral who was Portuguese and landed in Brazil or Columbus, who landed in the islands.
The government of Brazil donated two murals to the United Nations and were installed in their headquarters. Portinari was selected as the artist and painted War depicting human suffering and the madness of war. In the mural, Peace (5.11.19) used simple forms, the mural bathed in light to demonstrate understanding and brotherhood.
José Sabogal
José Sabogal (1888-1956) was from Peru and became a leader in multiple methods and movements of Peruvian art. He traveled extensively in Europe and attended the School of Fine Art in Buenos Aires. Although he was a Spanish descendant, he encouraged pre-Columbian cultures and indigenism. In 1922, he went to Mexico to meet the muralists Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco, and David Siqueiros and promote Peruvian art. His success in Mexico inspired him and the growth of artists in Peru. The focus was on indigenism, bringing forward the legitimacy of Indigenous cultures and rejecting dominant society's unnatural controls. El Recluta (5.11.20) is an example by Sabogal to focus on the local culture. The man in the painting looks confident, and aware of his position. His robust features are accented and defined as Peruvian.
Oswaldo Guayasamin
The works of Oswaldo Guayasamin (1919-1999) are very distinctive, almost like caricatures. His figures had extended features, deep shadows, odd lines on the skin, and usually with powerful emotions. His work was based on the Indigenous people in South America and the struggles of the regions. As a native of Ecuador, he was quite aware of the suffering of people in the region. Senora de Cos (5.11.21) demonstrates Guayasamin as an Ecuadorian Expressionist. Her eyes are oversized, and her neck elongated, the neck tendons overly visible.
Guayasamin and Paco de Lucia (5.11.22) were friends, de Lucia a well-known guitar player. When Guayasamin started the painting, he used broad black strokes to outline his characteristic exaggerated form. The portrait's dark eyes seem to be looking at the artist, his brows together as though observing the painter.
Diego Rivera
Diego Rivera (1886-1957) is generally known today as the great Mexican Muralist of the 20 th century. He received great acclaim as a great artist at the Academy of San Carlos in his early years, earning a scholarship to travel in Europe. He spent more than a decade traveling around Europe, living in Spain, France, and Italy. Rivera's time in Paris brought him in contact with modern European artists, including Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque. In Italy, he studied the Proto-Renaissance artist Giotto.
Although not explicitly considered or classified as a Cubist, Rivera became a member of the Cubist circle in Paris. One of the great cubist paintings he completed while abroad in Europe is Zapatista Landscape (5.11.23). Zapatista refers to Emiliano Zapata, the celebrated leader of peasant guerilla forces and the Mexican revolution. In the painting, Zapata has a sombrero, gun, and serape in front of the mountains around the Valley of Mexico. This painting demonstrated Rivera's deep connection to his home country when he was living in Europe. Although the Mexican Revolution influenced his later mural work, Rivera was in Europe during the ten years of fighting in Mexico. Zapatista Landscape is one example of many, where Rivera incorporated Mexican symbols.
Rivera explored other popular modern European art movements while encompassing symbols of Mexico. Stylistically, The Café Terrace (5.11.24) displays the influence of Pointillism with the large dots of color and objects on a Parisian café table. The cigar box in the upper right-hand corner references Mexico. The partial letters spell "BENITO JUA," referring to Benito Juarez, the first Mexican president of Indigenous origin. Rivera's Mexico birthplace substantially impacted him and certainly influenced his future political and revolutionary fervor even at this early date.
Although Rivera is well known for his murals, he continued painting on small canvases. His concern for the Mexican worker is seen in his many paintings glorifying lily flower sellers. The painting The Flower Vendor (Girl with Lilies) (5.11.25) is a mix of Cubist volumes, abstract shapes, and flattened forms, all influenced by European stylistics. Additionally, simplification can be seen in the generalized faces or hairstyles of the women. Thematically, he celebrated everyday Mexican people and culture, a repetitive theme.


13.22: Outcome- Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) Definition
What you’ll learn to do: explain integrated marketing communication (IMC) and its connection to the organization’s marketing strategy
Promotion is a powerful part of the marketing mix because it determines what and how you communicate with target audiences. In today’s world, promotion often has a fancy name: integrated marketing communication (IMC). Why the fancy name?
The number and variety of marketing communication tools have proliferated with the expansion of media, Internet, social, and mobile technologies. Marketers face the multipronged challenge of deciding which messages to communicate, which communication tools to use, and how to make the strongest impact with target segments.
Integrated marketing communication encourages marketers to think about communication in a coordinated way. They ask: How can we orchestrate all the different means of reaching a target segment in order to maximize our impact?
The specific things you’ll learn in this section include:
- Define integrated marketing communication (IMC)
- Explain how IMC strengthens the impact of marketing communication tools
- List the primary marketing communication methods marketers use as part of their IMC strategy
- Explain how marketers use IMC in their campaigns in order to execute marketing strategy
Learning Activities
- Reading: Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) Definition
- Reading: Marketing Campaigns and IMC
- Self Check: Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) Definition
Contributors and Attributions
- Outcome: Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) Definition. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution