10.7: Obesity
The obesity epidemic is the probably most modern public health concern. Body fat is not an inert blob. In fact, adipose tissue (fat storage cells), are metabolically active, pumping out hormones and cytokines (chemical messengers) associated with everything from satiety (that feeling of fullness) to inflammation (Foreman, 2020). Excess stored fat on the body is associated with the leading causes of death, including CVD, stroke, diabetes, several cancers, pancreatic, gallbladder, and kidney diseases, and breathing problems like sleep apnea and asthma. Carrying excess weight throughout life can impede physical activity, and when people do move it causes more stress to joints - which are then more likely to develop osteoarthritis (inflammation and breakdown of cartilage). Although infectious diseases are caused by pathogens, people with excess body fat can often experience more severe illness from infections. Social stigma around obesity can impede career, academic, and social function, and these factors combined with obesity can lead to poor mental health (NIDDK, 2023). Of particular concern is visceral, or central adiposity, which is the fat that accumulates around the internal organs in the abdomen and is more strongly associated with chronic health risks due to its metabolic activity. Central adiposity is a more common weight distribution pattern in men and postmenopausal women, putting them at higher risks for cardio-metabolic diseases like diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease (Juppi et al., 2022).
It would be optimal to estimate body fat accurately with tools like a dual energy X-ray absorptiometry scan (DEXA scan) or even bioelectrical impedance analyzer (BIA), but these are often costly machines. The DEXA requires trained personnel to operate, and results from the BIA can be influenced by other physiological factors (like hydration status), so specific procedures must be followed to ensure accuracy. Therefore, these tools are not typically used to estimate fat mass to body weight ratios, or body fat percentage (BF%), for large populations. Instead, epidemiologists have long used a controversial calculation of weight-to-height ratio instead, called body mass index (BMI). There are several reasons that BMI is considered less accurate than BF%, one of them being that BMI will be higher in those individuals with more muscle mass or bone density, and there may be genetic variance in body density that is not accounted for by BMI. For example, Asian populations tend to have lower rates of obesity as classified by currently accepted cutoffs (see below), and yet have higher rates of central adiposity (fat around the internal organs in the abdomen) and higher levels of obesity-related disease factors at lower BMIs (Li et al., 2023). Even with these complications, BMI is easy to calculate using self-reported weight and height, and so large epidemiological surveys still employ this measurement to indicate health-related weight status for populations.
BMI is calculated using either of the equations below:
BMI = weight (kg) / height (m)² BMI = weight (lbs) / [height (in)]² x 703
Using BMI levels as criterion values for weight status provides the following classifications:
- Underweight = BMI <18.5
- Normal weight = BMI 18.5-24.9
- Overweight = BMI 25-29.9
- Obesity = BMI 30+
- Severe or “morbid” obesity = BMI 40+
Although we have been calling obesity an epidemic for what seems like a long time, it is still a growing problem. According to the CDC, the prevalence of adult obesity was 30.5% in 1999-2000, and had increased to 41.9% in 2017 - March of 2020 (at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic response). Severe obesity increased from 4.7% to 9.2% in the same timeframe. In terms of healthcare, obesity costs over $1,861 excess 2019 dollars per person, and severe obesity over $3000 per year. Obesity also disproportionately impacts people of color, with the highest rates of obesity in Non-Hispanic Black populations (49.9%), and Hispanic (45.6%) populations. Interestingly, those populations who had a high school diploma and some college had the highest rates of obesity (46.4%) compared to those without a high school diploma (40.1%) and those with a college degree or higher (34.2%). As we might expect, obesity rates do increase with age up to the 40-59 year old range, then decline slightly for those over 60 years of age (CDC, 2024c). Some researchers project that the rates of obesity in U.S. adults will reach almost 50% by 2030, and half of that will be severe obesity (Ward et al., 2019).
Obesity is not only a problem in America either. According to the WHO, obesity rates have doubled worldwide since 1990: with nearly 1 in 8 adults, and 8% of children between the ages of 5-19 living with obesity in 2022. In medium and low income countries in particular, obesity co-exists with malnutrition. Food insecurity may include not having enough food to eat or only having access to low quality food sources, often high in sugar and fat, which are associated with the development of obesity. Thus, undernutrition and obesity may both be affecting impoverished areas around the globe (World Health Organization: WHO, 2024a).
In a higher-income country like the U.S., obesity has increased in both low and high socio-economic strata. However, poverty is still considered a driver of obesity, as well as other factors associated with poverty such as stress and “obesogenic” environments. The link between obesity and socio-economic status may be bi-directional. Having obesity may limit economic success via weight stigma in the workplace, while conversely, living in a wealthier neighborhood with plenty of greenspace and opportunities for physical activity, as well as access to high-quality healthy food sources (more supermarkets, fewer convenience stores), is associated with having a lower BMI (Anekwe et al., 2020).


2.6: Grammar- Gender and Number
Gender
Instructor Video: Gender
In Hindi, nouns can be divided into two types of gender, namely पुलिंग “Masculine,” and स्त्रीलिंग “Feminine.” Like English, Hindi has natural gender such as boy and gild, man and woman. Unlike English though, Hindi has grammatical gender. For example: Book, table, etc, are female. Whereas, room, house, door, etc. are male.
There is no certain rules to learn about gender assignment to particular noun in Hindi. Based on common observation, masculine and feminine nouns can be further classified in two subcategories as shown in the following table (1).
| Masculine | Feminine | |
| Marked (Type 1) | Nouns that ends in -आ “ -aa .” | Nouns that ends in -इ/ई “ -i/ii .” |
| Examples |
लड़का
laRakaa
“boy.”
कमरा kamaraa “room.” बच्चा bachchaa “boy child.” दरवाज़ा darawaazaa “door.” |
लड़की
laRakii
“girl”
बच्ची bachchii “girl child.” खिड़की khiRakii “window.” कुर्सी kursii “chair.” |
| Unmarked (Type 2) | Nouns that do not end in -आ “ -aa .” | Nouns that do not end in -इ/ई “ -i/ii. “ |
| Examples |
घर
ghar
“home.”
फल pha l “fruit.” सेब seb “apple.” पुस्तकालय pustakaalay “library.” |
किताब
kitaab
“book.”
मेज़ mez “table.” तस्वीर taswiir “picture.” कमीज़ kamiiz “shirt.” |
Table 1. Sub-categories of Masculine and Feminine Gender
But these rules have multiple exceptions such as:
Nouns ending in -आ “-aa” but feminine.
- माता maataa “mother.”
- लता lataa “leaf,”
- घटा ghaTaa “cloud”
- दवा dawaa “medicine,” etc.
Nouns ending in -इ/ई”-i/ii” but masculine.
- साथी saathii “Friend.”
- हाथी hathii “Elephant.”
- विद्यार्थी vidyaarthii “Student” etc.
Test Yourself
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/ll151/?p=768
Number
Instructor Video: Number
Like English, Hindi has two numbers, namely, singular number, and plural number. To change singular nouns into plurals in Hindi, it is important to know the gender of the nouns and apply the following rules.
- All marked masculine nouns (that end in -आ “-aa.”) change into -ए “-e.”
- Unmarked masculine nouns (that do not end in -आ “-aa.”) do not change their form in plural.
- All marked feminine nouns (that end in -इ/ई “i/ii.”) change into -इयाँ “-iyan.”
- Unmarked feminine nouns (that do not end in -इ/ई “i/ii.”) change into -यें/एं “-yen.”
The following table (2) summarizes these rules and shows examples.
| Masculine | Feminine | |
| Marked (Type 1) | Nouns that ends in -आ “ -aa .” | Nouns that ends in -इ/ई “ -i/ii .” |
| Rule for plural | change -आ “-aa” into -ए “-e” | change -इ/ई “-i/ii” into -इयाँ “-iyan” |
| Examples |
लड़
का
– लड़
के
laRake
“boys.”
कम रा – कम रे kamare “rooms.” ब च्चा – ब च्चे bachche “boy children.” दरवा ज़ा – दरवा ज़े darawaaze “door.s” |
लड़
की
– लड़
कियाँ
laRakyani
“girls”
ब च्ची – ब च्चियाँ bachchiyan “girl children.” खिड़ की – खिड़ कियाँ khiRakiyan “windows.” कु र्सी – कु र्सियाँ kursiyan “chairs.” |
| Unmarked (Type 2) | Nouns that do not end in -आ “ -aa .” | Nouns that do not end in -इ/ई “ -i/ii. “ |
| Rule for plueal | No changes in form | change into -यें/एं “-yen.” |
| Examples |
घर – घर
ghar
“homes.”
फल – फल pha l “fruits.” सेब – सेब seb “apples.” पुस्तकालय – पुस्तकालय pustakaalay “libraries.” |
किता
ब
– किता
बें
kitaaben
“books.”
मे ज़ – मे जें mezen “table.s” तस्वी र – तस्वी रें taswiiren “pictures.” कमी ज़ – कमी ज़ें kamiizen “shirts.” |
Table 2. Summary for rules to change singular to plural nouns based on the sub-categories of Masculine and Feminine Gender.
Test yourself
|
घर-गृहस्थी (House & household) Please learn these vocabulary and change them into plural. |
|||
| Singular Nouns | gender | Meaning | Plural Nouns |
| दीवार | f. | wall | |
| दूध | m. | milk | |
| मकान | m. | house | |
| फ़र्श | f. | floor | |
| कुर्सी | f. | chair | |
| दरवाज़ा | m. | door | |
| खिड़की | f. | window | |
| छत | f. | roof, ceiling | |
| गुसलख़ाना | m. | bathroom | |
| तौलिया | m. | towel | |
| तेल | m. | oil | |
| साबुन | m. | soap | |
| आईना /शीशा | m. | mirror | |
| कंघी | f. | comb | |
| अलमारी | f. | cupboard, wardrobe, shelf | |
| खाट | f. | cot | |
| पलंग | m. | bed | |
| चादर | m. | sheet | |
| रज़ाई | f. | quilt | |
| कंबल | m. | blanket | |
| तकिया | m. | pillow | |
| लैंप | m. | lamp | |
| बल्ब | m. | bulb | |
| घड़ी | f. | watch, clock | |
| चाकू | m. | knife | |
| तस्वीर | f. | picture, photograph | |
| कैलेंडर | calendar | ||
| थैला | m. | bag | |
| मोमबत्ती | f. | candle | |
| इस्तरी | f. | iron | |
| रसोई | f. | kitchen | |
| कटोरा | m. | big bowl | |
| कटोरी | f. | small bowl | |
| थाली | f. | metal plate | |
| बर्तन | m. | utensil | |
| कड़ाही | f. | a frying pan, wok | |
| गिलास | m. | glass | |
| चूल्हा | m. | stove | |
| चाबी | f. | key | |
| ताला | m. | lock | |
| चिमटा | m. | tongs | |
| पतीला | m. | cooking vessel | |
| तवा | m. | skillet | |
| चकला | m. | rolling board | |
| चौकी | f. | rolling board | |
| प्याला | m. | cup | |
| झाडू | f. | broom | |
| परदा | m. | curtain | |
| टोपी | f. | cap | |
| मोज़ा | m. | socks | |
| रूमाल | m. | handkerchief |
Vocabulary 5. Names of Fruits and Vegetables
| फलों के नाम “Names of fruits” | ||
| सेब m. apple | आम m. mango | केला m. banana |
| संतरा m. orange | तरबूज़ m. watermelon | अनन्नास m. pineapple |
| पपीता m. papaya | अनार m. pomegranate | अँगूर m. grapes |
| सब्ज़ियों के नाम “Names of Vegetables” | ||
| आलू m. potato | प्याज m. onion | टमाटर m. tomato |
| पालक m. spinach | मटर m. peas | फूल गोभी f. cauliflower |
| धनिया | पत्ता गोभी f. cabbage | बैंगन m. egg plant |
| शिमला मिर्च f. bell pepper | नींबू m. lemon | खीरा m. cucumber |
Test Yourself
True/False
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/ll151/?p=768
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/ll151/?p=768
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/ll151/?p=768
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/ll151/?p=768
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/ll151/?p=768
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/ll151/?p=768
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/ll151/?p=768
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/ll151/?p=768
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/ll151/?p=768
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/ll151/?p=768
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/ll151/?p=768
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/ll151/?p=768
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/ll151/?p=768
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/ll151/?p=768
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/ll151/?p=768
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/ll151/?p=768
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/ll151/?p=768
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/ll151/?p=768
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/ll151/?p=768
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/ll151/?p=768
Vocabulary Test
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/ll151/?p=768
धन्यवाद!


6.3: Solving Problems with Newton's Laws (Part 2)
Newton’s Laws of Motion and Kinematics
Physics is most interesting and most powerful when applied to general situations that involve more than a narrow set of physical principles. Newton’s laws of motion can also be integrated with other concepts that have been discussed previously in this text to solve problems of motion. For example, forces produce accelerations, a topic of kinematics, and hence the relevance of earlier chapters.
When approaching problems that involve various types of forces, acceleration, velocity, and/or position, listing the givens and the quantities to be calculated will allow you to identify the principles involved. Then, you can refer to the chapters that deal with a particular topic and solve the problem using strategies outlined in the text. The following worked example illustrates how the problem-solving strategy given earlier in this chapter, as well as strategies presented in other chapters, is applied to an integrated concept problem.
A soccer player starts at rest and accelerates forward, reaching a velocity of 8.00 m/s in 2.50 s. (a) What is her average acceleration? (b) What average force does the ground exert forward on the runner so that she achieves this acceleration? The player’s mass is 70.0 kg, and air resistance is negligible.
Strategy
To find the answers to this problem, we use the problem-solving strategy given earlier in this chapter. The solutions to each part of the example illustrate how to apply specific problem-solving steps. In this case, we do not need to use all of the steps. We simply identify the physical principles, and thus the knowns and unknowns; apply Newton’s second law; and check to see whether the answer is reasonable.
Solution
- We are given the initial and final velocities (zero and 8.00 m/s forward); thus, the change in velocity is \(\Delta\)v = 8.00 m/s . We are given the elapsed time, so \(\Delta\)t = 2.50 s. The unknown is acceleration, which can be found from its definition: $$a = \frac{\Delta v}{\Delta t} \ldotp$$Substituting the known values yields $$a = \frac{8.00\; m/s}{2.50\; s} = 3.20\; m/s^{2} \ldotp$$
- Here we are asked to find the average force the ground exerts on the runner to produce this acceleration. (Remember that we are dealing with the force or forces acting on the object of interest.) This is the reaction force to that exerted by the player backward against the ground, by Newton’s third law. Neglecting air resistance, this would be equal in magnitude to the net external force on the player, since this force causes her acceleration. Since we now know the player’s acceleration and are given her mass, we can use Newton’s second law to find the force exerted. That is, $$F_{net} = ma \ldotp$$Substituting the known values of m and a gives $$F_{net} = (70.0\; kg)(3.20\; m/s^{2}) = 224\; N \ldotp$$
This is a reasonable result: The acceleration is attainable for an athlete in good condition. The force is about 50 pounds, a reasonable average force.
Significance
This example illustrates how to apply problem-solving strategies to situations that include topics from different chapters. The first step is to identify the physical principles, the knowns, and the unknowns involved in the problem. The second step is to solve for the unknown, in this case using Newton’s second law. Finally, we check our answer to ensure it is reasonable. These techniques for integrated concept problems will be useful in applications of physics outside of a physics course, such as in your profession, in other science disciplines, and in everyday life.
The soccer player stops after completing the play described above, but now notices that the ball is in position to be stolen. If she now experiences a force of 126 N to attempt to steal the ball, which is 2.00 m away from her, how long will it take her to get to the ball?
A 1.50-kg model helicopter has a velocity of 5.00 \(\hat{j}\) m/s at t = 0. It is accelerated at a constant rate for two seconds (2.00 s) after which it has a velocity of (6.00 \(\hat{i}\) + 12.00 \(\hat{j}\)) m/s. What is the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the helicopter during this time interval?
Strategy
We can easily set up a coordinate system in which the x-axis (\(\hat{i}\) direction) is horizontal, and the y-axis (\(\hat{j}\) direction) is vertical. We know that \(\Delta\)t = 2.00s and \(\Delta\)v = (6.00 \(\hat{i}\) + 12.00 \(\hat{j}\) m/s) − (5.00 \(\hat{j}\) m/s). From this, we can calculate the acceleration by the definition; we can then apply Newton’s second law.
Solution
We have
\[a = \frac{\Delta v}{\Delta t} = \frac{(6.00 \hat{i} + 12.00 \hat{j}\; m/s) - (5.00 \hat{j}\; m/s)}{2.00\; s} = 3.00 \hat{i} + 3.50 \hat{j}\; m/s^{2}$$ $$\sum \vec{F} = m \vec{a} = (1.50\; kg)(3.00 \hat{i} + 3.50 \hat{j}\; m/s^{2}) = 4.50 \hat{i} + 5.25 \hat{j}\; N \ldotp\]
The magnitude of the force is now easily found:
\[F = \sqrt{(4.50\; N)^{2} + (5.25\; N)^{2}} = 6.91\; N \ldotp\]
Significance
The original problem was stated in terms of \(\hat{i}\) − \(\hat{j}\) vector components, so we used vector methods. Compare this example with the previous example.
Find the direction of the resultant for the 1.50-kg model helicopter.
Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\)(a) shows a baggage tractor pulling luggage carts from an airplane. The tractor has mass 650.0 kg, while cart A has mass 250.0 kg and cart B has mass 150.0 kg. The driving force acting for a brief period of time accelerates the system from rest and acts for 3.00 s. (a) If this driving force is given by F = (820.0t) N, find the speed after 3.00 seconds. (b) What is the horizontal force acting on the connecting cable between the tractor and cart A at this instant?
Strategy
A free-body diagram shows the driving force of the tractor, which gives the system its acceleration. We only need to consider motion in the horizontal direction. The vertical forces balance each other and it is not necessary to consider them. For part b, we make use of a free-body diagram of the tractor alone to determine the force between it and cart A. This exposes the coupling force \(\vec{T}\), which is our objective.
Solution
- $$\sum F_{x} = m_{system} a_{x}\; and\; \sum F_{x} = 820.0t,$$so $$820.0t = (650.0 + 250.0 + 150.0)a$$ $$a = 0.7809t \ldotp$$Since acceleration is a function of time, we can determine the velocity of the tractor by using a = \(\frac{dv}{dt}\) with the initial condition that v 0 = 0 at t = 0. We integrate from t = 0 to t = 3: $$\begin{split}dv & = adt \\ \int_{0}^{3} dv & = \int_{0}^{3.00} adt = \int_{0}^{3.00} 0.7809tdt \\ v & = 0.3905t^{2} \big]_{0}^{3.00} = 3.51\; m/s \ldotp \end{split}$$
- Refer to the free-body diagram in Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\)(b) $$\begin{split} \sum F_{x} & = m_{tractor} a_{x} \\ 820.0t - T & = m_{tractor} (0.7805)t \\ (820.0)(3.00) - T & = (650.0)(0.7805)(3.00) \\ T & = 938\; N \ldotp \end{split}$$
Significance
Since the force varies with time, we must use calculus to solve this problem. Notice how the total mass of the system was important in solving Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\)(a), whereas only the mass of the truck (since it supplied the force) was of use in Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\)(b).
Recall that v = \(\frac{ds}{dt}\) and a = \(\frac{dv}{dt}\). If acceleration is a function of time, we can use the calculus forms developed in Motion Along a Straight Line , as shown in this example. However, sometimes acceleration is a function of displacement. In this case, we can derive an important result from these calculus relations. Solving for dt in each, we have dt = \(\frac{ds}{v}\) and dt = \(\frac{dv}{a}\). Now, equating these expressions, we have \(\frac{ds}{v}\) = \(\frac{dv}{a}\). We can rearrange this to obtain a ds = v dv.
A 10.0-kg mortar shell is fired vertically upward from the ground, with an initial velocity of 50.0 m/s (see Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\)). Determine the maximum height it will travel if atmospheric resistance is measured as F D = (0.0100 v 2 ) N, where v is the speed at any instant.
Strategy
The known force on the mortar shell can be related to its acceleration using the equations of motion. Kinematics can then be used to relate the mortar shell’s acceleration to its position.
Solution
Initially, y 0 = 0 and v 0 = 50.0 m/s. At the maximum height y = h, v = 0. The free-body diagram shows F D to act downward, because it slows the upward motion of the mortar shell. Thus, we can write
\[\begin{split} \sum F_{y} & = ma_{y} \\ -F_{D} - w & = ma_{y} \\ -0.0100 v^{2} - 98.0 & = 10.0 a \\ a & = -0.00100 v^{2} - 9.80 \ldotp \end{split}\]
The acceleration depends on v and is therefore variable. Since a = f(v), we can relate a to v using the rearrangement described above,
\[a ds = v dv \ldotp\]
We replace ds with dy because we are dealing with the vertical direction,
\[\begin{split} ady & = vdv \\ (−0.00100v^{2} − 9.80)dy & = vdv \ldotp \end{split}\]
We now separate the variables (v’s and dv’s on one side; dy on the other):
\[\begin{split} \int_{0}^{h} dy & = \int_{50.0}^{0} \frac{vdv}{(-0.00100 v^{2} - 9.80)} \\ & = - \int_{50.0}^{0} \frac{vdv}{(-0.00100 v^{2} + 9.80)} \\ & = (-5 \times 10^{3}) \ln(0.00100v^{2} + 9.80) \Big|_{50.0}^{0} \ldotp \end{split}\]
Thus, h = 114 m.
Significance
Notice the need to apply calculus since the force is not constant, which also means that acceleration is not constant. To make matters worse, the force depends on v (not t), and so we must use the trick explained prior to the example. The answer for the height indicates a lower elevation if there were air resistance. We will deal with the effects of air resistance and other drag forces in greater detail in Drag Force and Terminal Speed .
If atmospheric resistance is neglected, find the maximum height for the mortar shell. Is calculus required for this solution?
Explore the forces at work in this simulation when you try to push a filing cabinet. Create an applied force and see the resulting frictional force and total force acting on the cabinet. Charts show the forces, position, velocity, and acceleration vs. time. View a free-body diagram of all the forces (including gravitational and normal forces).


44.2E: Abiotic Factors Influencing Plant Growth
- Identify the abiotic factors that affect plant growth
Abiotic Factors Influencing Plant Growth
Temperature and moisture are important influences on plant production (primary productivity) and the amount of organic matter available as food (net primary productivity). Primary production is the synthesis of organic compounds from atmospheric or aqueous carbon dioxide. It principally occurs through the process of photosynthesis, which uses light as its source of energy, but it also occurs through chemosynthesis, which uses the oxidation or reduction of chemical compounds as its source of energy. Almost all life on earth is directly or indirectly reliant on primary production. The organisms responsible for primary production, known as primary producers or autotrophs, form the base of the food chain. In terrestrial eco-regions, these are mainly plants, while in aquatic eco-regions, they are mainly algae.
Net primary productivity is an estimation of all of the organic matter available as food. It is calculated as the total amount of carbon fixed per year minus the amount that is oxidized during cellular respiration. In terrestrial environments, net primary productivity is estimated by measuring the aboveground biomass per unit area, which is the total mass of living plants, excluding roots. This means that a large percentage of plant biomass which exists underground is not included in this measurement. Net primary productivity is an important variable when considering differences in biomes. Very productive biomes have a high level of aboveground biomass.
Annual biomass production is directly related to the abiotic components of the environment. Environments with the greatest amount of biomass have conditions in which photosynthesis, plant growth, and the resulting net primary productivity are optimized. The climate of these areas is warm and wet. Photosynthesis can proceed at a high rate, enzymes can work most efficiently, and stomata can remain open without the risk of excessive transpiration. Together, these factors lead to the maximal amount of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) moving into the plant, resulting in high biomass production. The aboveground biomass produces several important resources for other living things, including habitat and food. Conversely, dry and cold environments have lower photosynthetic rates and, therefore, less biomass. The animal communities living there will also be affected by the decrease in available food.
Contributions and Attributions
- OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44857/latest...ol11448/latest . License : CC BY: Attribution
- endemic. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/endemic . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- generalist. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/generalist . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- biogeography. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/biogeography . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- OpenStax College, Biogeography. October 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44857/latest...e_44_02_02.jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
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- chemosynthesis. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chemosynthesis . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
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Key Points
- Primary production, on which almost all of life on earth is dependent, occurs through either photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
- Annual biomass production, used to estimate net primary productivity by plants in an area, is directly influenced by an environment’s abiotic factors, which include temperature and moisture.
- Warm and wet climates have the greatest amount of plant biomass because they offer conditions in which photosynthesis, plant growth, and the resulting net primary productivity are highest.
Key Terms
- biomass : the total mass of all living things within a specific area, habitat, etc.
- eco-region : a region, smaller than an ecozone, that contains a distinct biodiversity of flora and fauna
- chemosynthesis : the production of carbohydrates and other compounds using the oxidation of chemical nutrients as a source of energy rather than sunlight; it is limited to certain bacteria and fungi


17.2: The Planning Process
- Outline the planning and controlling processes.
Planning is a process. Ideally, it is future-oriented, comprehensive, systematic, integrated, and negotiated. 11 It involves an extensive search for alternatives and analyzes relevant information, is systematic in nature, and is commonly participative. 12 The planning model described in this section breaks the managerial function of planning into several steps, as shown in Figure 17.2.1. Following this step-by-step procedure helps ensure that organizational planning meets these requirements.
Step 1: Developing an Awareness of the Present State
According to management scholars Harold Koontz and Cyril O’Donnell, the first step in the planning process is awareness. 13 It is at this step that managers build the foundation on which they will develop their plans. This foundation specifies an organization’s current status, pinpoints its commitments, recognizes its strengths and weaknesses, and sets forth a vision of the future. Because the past is instrumental in determining where an organization expects to go in the future, managers at this point must understand their organization and its history. It has been said—“The further you look back, the further you can see ahead.” 14
Step 2: Establishing Outcome Statements
The second step in the planning process consists of deciding “where the organization is headed or is going to end up.” Ideally, this involves establishing goals. Just as your goal in this course might be to get a certain grade, managers at various levels in an organization’s hierarchy set goals. For example, plans established by a university’s marketing department curriculum committee must fit with and support the plans of the department, which contribute to the goals of the business school, whose plans must, in turn, support the goals of the university. Managers, therefore, develop an elaborate network of organizational plans, such as that shown in Figure 17.2.2, to achieve the overall goals of their organization.
Goal vs. Domain Planning
Outcome statements can be constructed around specific goals or framed in terms of moving in a particular direction toward a viable set of outcomes. In goal planning , people set specific goals and then create action statements. 15 For example, freshman Kristin Rude decides that she wants a bachelor of science degree in biochemistry (the goal). She then constructs a four-year academic plan that will help her achieve this goal. Kristin is engaging in goal planning. She first identifies a goal and then develops a course of action to realize her goal.
Another approach to planning is domain/directional planning, in which managers develop a course of action that moves an organization toward one identified domain (and therefore away from other domains). 16 Within the chosen domain may lie a number of acceptable and specific goals. For example, high-school senior Neil Marquardt decides that he wants to major in a business-related discipline in college. During the next four years, he will select a variety of courses from the business school curriculum yet never select a major. After selecting courses based on availability and interest, he earns a sufficient number of credits within this chosen domain that enables him to graduate with a major in marketing. Neil never engaged in goal planning, but in the end, he will realize one of many acceptable goals within an accepted domain.
The development of the Post-it® product by the 3M Corporation demonstrates how domain planning works. In the research laboratories at 3M, efforts were being made to develop new forms and strengths of cohesive substances. One result was cohesive material with no known value because of its extremely low cohesive level. A 3M division specialist, Arthur L. Fry, frustrated by page markers falling from his hymn book in church, realized that this material, recently developed by Spencer F. Silver, would stick to paper for long periods and could be removed without destroying the paper. Fry experimented with the material as page markers and note pads—out of this came the highly popular and extremely profitable 3M product Scotch Post-it®. Geoff Nicholson, the driving force behind the Post-it® product, comments that rather than get bogged down in the planning process, innovations must be fast-tracked and decisions made whether to continue or move on early during the product development process. 17
Situations in which managers are likely to engage in domain planning include (1) when there is a recognized need for flexibility, (2) when people cannot agree on goals, (3) when an organization’s external environment is unstable and highly uncertain, and (4) when an organization is starting up or is in a transitional period. In addition, domain planning is likely to prevail at upper levels in an organization, where managers are responsible for dealing with the external environment and when task uncertainty is high. Goal planning (formulating goals compatible with the chosen domain) is likely to prevail in the technical core, where there is less uncertainty.
Hybrid Planning
Occasionally, the coupling of domain and goal planning occurs, creating a third approach, called hybrid planning. In this approach, managers begin with more general domain planning and commit to moving in a particular direction. As time passes, learning occurs, uncertainty is reduced, preferences sharpen, and managers are able to make the transition to goal planning as they identify increasingly specific targets in the selected domain. Movement from domain planning to goal planning occurs as knowledge accumulates, preferences for a particular goal emerge, and action statements are created.
Consequences of Goal, Domain, and Hybrid Planning
Setting goals not only affects performance directly, but also encourages managers to plan more extensively. That is, once goals are set, people are more likely to think systematically about how they should proceed to realize the goals. 18 When people have vague goals, as in domain planning, they find it difficult to draw up detailed action plans and are therefore less likely to perform effectively. When studying the topic of motivation, you will learn about goal theory. Research suggests that goal planning results in higher levels of performance than does domain planning alone. 19
Step 3: Premising
In this step of the planning process, managers establish the premises, or assumptions, on which they will build their action statements. The quality and success of any plan depend on the quality of its underlying assumptions. Throughout the planning process, assumptions about future events must be brought to the surface, monitored, and updated. 20
Managers collect information by scanning their organization’s internal and external environments. They use this information to make assumptions about the likelihood of future events. As Kristin considers her four-year pursuit of her biochemistry major, she anticipates that in addition to her savings and funds supplied by her parents, she will need a full-time summer job for two summers in order to cover the cost of her undergraduate education. Thus, she includes finding full-time summer employment between her senior year of high school and her freshman year and between her freshman and sophomore years of college as part of her plan. The other two summers she will devote to an internship and finding postgraduate employment—much to mom and dad’s delight! Effective planning skills can be used throughout your life. The plan you develop to pay for and complete your education is an especially important one.
Step 4: Determining a Course of Action (Action Statements)
In this stage of the planning process, managers decide how to move from their current position toward their goal (or toward their domain). They develop an action statement that details what needs to be done, when, how, and by whom. The course of action determines how an organization will get from its current position to its desired future position. Choosing a course of action involves determining alternatives by drawing on research, experimentation, and experience; evaluating alternatives in light of how well each would help the organization reach its goals or approach its desired domain; and selecting a course of action after identifying and carefully considering the merits of each alternative.
Step 5: Formulating Supportive Plans
The planning process seldom stops with the adoption of a general plan. Managers often need to develop one or more supportive or derivative plans to bolster and explain their basic plan. Suppose an organization decides to switch from a 5-day, 40-hour workweek (5/40) to a 4-day, 40-hour workweek (4/40) in an attempt to reduce employee turnover. This major plan requires the creation of a number of supportive plans. Managers might need to develop personnel policies dealing with payment of daily overtime. New administrative plans will be needed for scheduling meetings, handling phone calls, and dealing with customers and suppliers.
Planning, Implementation, and Controlling
After managers have moved through the five steps of the planning process and have drawn up and implemented specific plans, they must monitor and maintain their plans. Through the controlling function (to be discussed in greater detail later in this chapter), managers observe ongoing human behavior and organizational activity, compare it to the outcome and action statements formulated during the planning process, and take corrective action if they observe unexpected and unwanted deviations. Thus, planning and controlling activities are closely interrelated (planning ➨ controlling ➨ planning...). Planning feeds controlling by establishing the standards against which behavior will be evaluated during the controlling process. Monitoring organizational behavior (the control activity) provides managers with input that helps them prepare for the upcoming planning period—it adds meaning to the awareness step of the planning process.
Influenced by total quality management (TQM) and the importance of achieving continuous improvement in the processes used, as well as the goods and services produced, organizations such as IBM-Rochester have linked their planning and controlling activities by adopting the Deming cycle (also known as the Shewhart cycle).
It has been noted on numerous occasions that many organizations that do plan fail to recognize the importance of continuous learning. Their plans are either placed on the shelf and collect dust or are created, implemented, and adhered to without a systematic review and modification process. Frequently, plans are implemented without first measuring where the organization currently stands so that future comparisons and evaluations of the plan’s effectiveness cannot be determined. The Deming cycle, shown in Figure 17.2.4, helps managers assess the effects of planned action by integrating organizational learning into the planning process. The cycle consists of four key stages: (1) Plan—create the plan using the model discussed earlier. (2) Do—implement the plan. (3) Check—monitor the results of the planned course of action; organizational learning about the effectiveness of the plan occurs at this stage. (4) Act—act on what was learned, modify the plan, and return to the first stage in the cycle, and the cycle begins again as the organization strives for continuous learning and improvement.
- What are the five steps in the planning process?
- What is the difference between goal, domain, and hybrid planning?
- How are planning, implementation, and controlling related?


5.5: Static Equilibrium
Pivots and Torque Reference Points
The definition of torque ( Equation 5.4.6 ) includes the position vector \(\overrightarrow r\), which points from a reference point to the point where the force is applied. When we are interested in how the torque is accelerating the object rotationally around a fixed point ("pivot"), it is convenient to choose the reference point to be that fixed point. This is because the forces applied at that fixed point (to keep it fixed) provide zero torque when referenced there, and those forces are generally not known. We explore here the effect of changing the reference point in the particular case when there is no net force , though perhaps there could be a net torque. The net torque around a given reference point is:
\[ \overrightarrow \tau_{net} = \overrightarrow r_1 \times \overrightarrow F_1 + \overrightarrow r_2 \times \overrightarrow F_2 + \dots \]
The reference point is located at the tails of the \(\overrightarrow r_i\) vectors, but suppose we want to change that reference point. We can do this by simply adding the same constant vector \(\overrightarrow r_o\) to every position vector. This has the effect of shifting the reference point from the point of \(\overrightarrow r_o\) to its tail, as shown in the figure below [ Note: The figure shows only two of the many forces applied. ]


22.5: Simulations
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Simulations present or model the essential elements of real or imaginary situations. This is shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\). Computer-based simulations (e.g., flight simulators) allow students to learn by manipulating the model in similar ways to real world situations. Simulations can immediately respond with consequences to learner decisions. However, some consequences may not initially be apparent, depending on when the effect is normally seen (e.g., the effects of changes in interest rates may be seen years later). Students can learn by observing results and relationships (this can be through a discovery-learning strategy) or receiving specific diagnostic feedback, especially when detailed feedback is provided for both right and wrong answers.
Ideally, simulations should approximate real systems as closely as possible. This helps facilitate transferring the knowledge learned to the real world and can make the simulation particularly meaningful to the learners. How closely a simulation must approach reality depends on the complexity of the real situation, how well the skills learned will transfer to the real situation, and the benefits and costs of making the simulation more realistic. Conduct a detailed analysis to determine all of the relevant skills needed and their importance.
Simulations can be used for teaching many skills including:
- Properties of physical objects such as a comet in its orbit
- Rules and strategies such as in war games, making predictions about forest fire behaviour or avalanche potential, or building a city
- Processes such as laws of supply and demand
- Procedures such as diagnosing illnesses
- Situations such as teaching instructors how to deal with student behaviour and attitudes
Simulations are often used when real situation training is:
- Dangerous (e.g., nuclear power plant procedures and police maneuvers)
- Expensive (e.g., landing a space shuttle)
- Unethical (e.g., when it is not appropriate to use humans)
- Not easily repeatable (e.g., avoiding a run on a bank)
- Unavailable (e.g., historical events such as the economics of the Great Depression, how to respond in a robbery, or operating a business)
- Not conducive to learning (e.g., when learning is difficult because the learner must consider too many stimuli at once, such as in the cockpit of a modern airplane)
- Affected by reality such as time (e.g., simulations can provide genetic data about successive generations immediately, where reality could take months or years)
- Inconvenient (e.g., experiencing Arctic survival, undersea, and outer space conditions).
Simulations can be very effective.
- The knowledge gained tends to transfer well to real situations if students can apply their existing knowledge and experience. Active student participation is critical.
- Effectiveness increases if the simulation is logical or comparable to real situations.
- Effectiveness is enhanced if students are aware of the learning outcomes.
- Effectiveness increases if students can gradually build their skills. For example, when first learning how to operate a nuclear power plant, the student should first learn each system independently, then combinations of dependent systems, and then the entire system.
- Effectiveness can stem from students being very motivated to learn. Imagine your motivation if you are involved in a life and death situation, or investing your life savings.
Attaining excellent results requires more explanations of the goals, learning outcomes, and directions than tutorials or drill and practice methods. Some learners, such as young or immature students, will have trouble explaining what has happened in a simulation, or transferring the knowledge to real situations.
Note
Students may not necessarily believe the results of a simulation. As an example, in a simulation, students may end up in a car accident if they chose to drink and drive. However, there is no guarantee that students believe that could happen to them in real life.
Simulations can be very efficient for relatively quick learning. The efficiency increases if:
- the model or simulation closely represents reality.
- learners receive useful feedback with respect to the learner outcomes.
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the model or simulation is aimed at the appropriate learning level.
- Novices may learn best when only some of the variables can be manipulated, and experts when presented with the entire model.
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the level of detail is appropriate.
- If too much detail or too many parts of the system are shown, learning may be hindered since the learner may not be able to mentally process all of the information.
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supplementary material is provided.
- Text summaries and checklists can be very beneficial.
Effective, efficient simulations are usually expensive and time-consuming to create. Cost-justification is particularly important before creating a simulation.


15.2D: Transport of Hormones
Hormones synthesized by the endocrine glands are transported throughout the body by the bloodstream.
- Describe the way in which hormones are transported in the endocrine system
Key Points
- Hormones are typically secreted into systemic circulation. However, some are secreted into portal systems that allow for direct hormone targeting.
- Hormones can exist freely in systemic circulation, but the majority are bound with transport proteins.
- Transport proteins hold hormones inactive in systemic circulation and create a reservoir within the circulation that facilitates an even distribution of hormones throughout the tissue or organ.
Key Terms
- transport protein : A protein that binds with a hormone in systemic circulation that facilitates its efficient transport.
The endocrine system is a system of ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into the circulatory system to be carried long distances to other target organs that regulate key body and organ functions.
Some endocrine glands secrete into a portal system rather than the systemic circulation that allows for the direct targeting of hormones. For example, hormones secreted by the pancreas pass into the hepatic portal vein that transports them directly to the liver.
Once within the circulatory system a small proportion of hormones circulate freely, however the majority are bound with a transport protein.
When bound with a transport protein hormones are typically inactive, and their release is often triggered in regions of low hormone concentration or can be controlled by other factors. Therefore, transport proteins can act as a reservoir within the circulatory system and help insure an even distribution of hormones within an organ or tissue.
The endocrine system : The major endocrine glands for men and women (male left, female on the right): 1. Pineal gland 2. Pituitary gland 3. Thyroid gland 4. Thymus 5. Adrenal gland 6. Pancreas 7. Ovary 8. Testis
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- CK-12 Foundation |. Provided by : CK-12. Located at : http://www.ck12.org/concept/Hormones...cept/Hormones/ . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
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- Human Physiology/The endocrine system. Provided by : Wikibooks. Located at : en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_endocrine_system%23Hormones_and_Types . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
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1.1.6: Activity of Solvents- Classic Analysis
Thermodynamics underpins a classic topic in physical chemistry concerning the depression of freezing point, \(\Delta \mathrm{T}_{\mathrm{f}}\) of a liquid by added solute [1,2]. We note the superscript ‘id’ in equation (a) relating the activity of a solvent in an ideal solution, molality \(\mathrm{m}_{j}\).
\[\ln \left(\mathrm{a}_{1}\right)^{\mathrm{id}}=-\mathrm{M}_{1} \, \mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}}=-\mathrm{M}_{1} \, \mathrm{n}_{\mathrm{j}} / \mathrm{n}_{1}^{0} \, \mathrm{M}_{1}=-\mathrm{n}_{\mathrm{j}} / \mathrm{n}_{1}^{0} \nonumber \]
If the properties of a given aqueous solution are determined to a significant extent by solute-solute interactions, a determined molar mass for a given solute will be in error. Otherwise an observed depression is not a function of solute-solute interactions. Glasstone [2] comments that the ratio \(\Delta \mathrm{T}_{\mathrm{f}} / \mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}}\) decreases with increasing concentration of solute, emphasising that a simple analysis is only valid for dilute solutions. Nevertheless the general idea is that the depression for a given mj is not a function of the hydration of a solute. Barrow [3] noted that the ratio \(\Delta \mathrm{T}_{\mathrm{f}} / \mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}}\) for mannitol(aq) in very dilute solutions [4] is effectively constant. A similar opinion is advanced by Adam [5] who nevertheless comments on the importance of the condition ’dilute solution’ in a determination of the molar mass of a given solute.
In summary, classic physical chemistry emphasises the importance of the superscript ‘id’ in equation (a). For very dilute solutions in a given solvent \(\ln \left(a_{1}\right)\) is linear function of \(\mathrm{m}_{j}\), leading to description of such properties as ‘depression of freezing point ‘ and ‘elevation of boiling point ’ under the heading ‘colligative properties. Only the molality of solute mj is important; solute-solute interactions and hydration characteristics of solutes apparently play no part in determining these colligative properties.
The key to these statements is provided by the Gibbs-Duhem equation. For a solution prepared using 1 kg of water(\(\lambda\)) and \(\mathrm{m}_{j}\) moles of a simple solute \(j\), the Gibbs energy is given by equation (b).
\[\mathrm{G}(\mathrm{aq})=\left(1 / \mathrm{M}_{1}\right) \, \mu_{1}(\mathrm{aq})+\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}} \, \mu_{\mathrm{j}}(\mathrm{aq}) \nonumber \]
Then, \(\mathrm{G}(\mathrm{aq})=\left(1 / \mathrm{M}_{1}\right) \,\left[\mu_{1}^{*}(\lambda)-\phi \, \mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \mathrm{M}_{1} \, \mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}}\right]\)
\[+\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}} \,\left[\mu_{\mathrm{j}}^{0}\left(\mathrm{aq} ; \mathrm{id} ; \mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}}=1\right)+\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}} \, \gamma_{\mathrm{j}} / \mathrm{m}^{0}\right)\right] \text { (c) } \nonumber \]
According to the Gibbs - Duhem Equation, the chemical potentials of solvent and solute are linked. At fixed \(\mathrm{T}\) and \(p\),
\[\mathrm{n}_{1} \, \mathrm{d} \mu_{1}(\mathrm{aq})+\mathrm{n}_{\mathrm{j}} \, \mathrm{d} \mu_{\mathrm{j}}(\mathrm{aq})=0 \nonumber \]
Or, \(\left(1 / \mathrm{M}_{1}\right) \, \mathrm{d}\left[\mu_{1}^{*}(\lambda)-\phi \, \mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \mathrm{M}_{1} \, \mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}}\right]\)
\[+\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}} \, \mathrm{d}\left[\mu_{\mathrm{j}}^{0}\left(\mathrm{aq} ; \mathrm{id} ; \mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}}=1\right)+\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}} \, \gamma_{\mathrm{j}} / \mathrm{m}^{0}\right)\right]=0 \nonumber \]
\[\text { Or, } \quad-\mathrm{d}\left(\phi \, \mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}}\right)+\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}} \, \mathrm{d} \ln \left(\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}} \, \gamma_{\mathrm{j}} / \mathrm{m}^{0}\right)=0 \nonumber \]
\[\text { Or, } \quad-\mathrm{d}\left(\phi \, \mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}}\right)+\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}} \, \mathrm{d} \ln \left(\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}} \, \gamma_{\mathrm{j}} / \mathrm{m}^{0}\right)=0 \nonumber \]
\[\text { Hence, } \quad(\phi-1) \, \frac{\mathrm{dm}_{\mathrm{j}}}{\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}}}+\mathrm{d} \phi=\mathrm{d} \ln \left(\gamma_{\mathrm{j}}\right) \nonumber \]
The latter equation forms the basis of the oft-quoted statement that if the thermodynamic properties of a solute are ideal then so are the properties of the solvent. Similarly if the thermodynamic properties of the solute are ideal then so are the properties of the solvent.
\[\text { From equation }(h), \phi=1+\frac{1}{m_{j}} \, \int_{0}^{m(j)} m_{j} \, d \ln \left(\gamma_{j}\right) \nonumber \]
The importance of equation (i) emerges from the idea that \(\gamma_{j}\) describes the impact of solute-solute interactions on the properties of a given solution. If we can formulate an equation for \(\ln \left(\gamma_{j}\right)\) in terms of the properties of the solution, we obtain \(\phi\) from equation (i). If the properties of a real solution containing a neutral solute are not ideal, both \(\gamma_{j}\) and \(\phi\) are linked functions of the solute molality. Pitzer [6] suggests equations (j) and (k) for \(\ln \left(\gamma_{j}\right)\) and \(\phi\) in terms of solute molalities using two parameters, \(\lambda\) and \(\mu\).
\[\ln \left(\gamma_{\mathrm{j}}\right)=2 \, \lambda \, \mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}}+3 \, \mu \,\left(\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}}\right)^{2} \nonumber \]
\[\phi-1=\lambda \, \mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}}+2 \, \mu \,\left(\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}}\right)^{2} \nonumber \]
For example in the case of mannitol(aq) and butan-1-ol(aq), Pitzer [6] suggests the following equations for \(\ln \left(\gamma_{j}\right)\).
\[\text { For mannitol(aq) } \quad \ln \left(\gamma_{\mathrm{j}}\right)=-0.040 \, \mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}} \nonumber \]
\[\text { For butan-1-ol(aq) } \ln \left(\gamma_{\mathrm{j}}\right)=-0.38 \, \mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}}+0.51 \,\left(\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}}\right)^{2} \nonumber \]
Guggenheim[7] using the mole fraction scale suggests equation (n) where \(\mathrm{A}\) and \(\mathrm{B}\) are characteristic of the solute.
\[1-\phi=A \, x_{j}+B \,\left(x_{j}\right)^{2} \nonumber \]
Prigogine and Defay [1] comment that the non-ideal properties of solutions can be understood in terms of the different molecular sizes of solute and solvent. A similar comment is made by Robinson and Stokes [8] who use a parameter describing the ratio of molar volumes of solute and solvent. The extent to which the properties of a solution differ from ideal can often be traced to a variety of causes including solvation, molecular size and shape.
Footnotes
[1] I. Prigogine and R. Defay, Chemical Thermodynamics, trans. D. H. Everett, Longmans Green , London 1953.
[2] S. Glasstone, Physical Chemistry, McMillan, London, 2nd. edn., 1948,page 645.
[3] G. M. Barrow, Physical Chemistry, McGraw-Hill, New York, 4th edn.,1979, page 298.
[4] L. H. Adams, J. Am. Chem. Soc.,1915,37,481.
[5] Neil Kensington Adam, Physical Chemistry, Oxford,1956, page 284.
[6] K. S. Pitzer, Thermodynamics , McGraw-Hill, New York, 3rd. edn., 1995.
[7] E. A. Guggenheim, Thermodynamics, North-Holland Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 1950, pages 252-3
[8] R. A. Robinson and R. H. Stokes, Electrolyte Solutions, Butterworths, London 2nd edn. Revised, 1965.


Most people will have to give at least one eulogy in their lifetime. Around 85% of those studied, performed individual rituals and at least 50% engaged in collective rituals following the death of a loved one. Whether it is a funeral, a remembrance ceremony, or a wake, most ceremonies include a speech. Because of that, it is helpful to have an understanding of how to build a meaningful eulogy. The word eulogy means, “good words” and it is designed to celebrate the life of someone who has passed.
According to Pastor John Meade, “Eulogies are not about death, they are about the things that live on. They give people a chance to remember, celebrate, and connect. Eulogies give mourners a way to reflect on someone they cared for in a way that helps them and others process the loss.” Block and Davies suggest that funeral rituals help the living adapt to the death. Some eulogies speak words against death and others celebrate life. Davies believes the best words are those that confront death with hope.
“relinquish their custody of the deceased.” Eulogies are for the living.
Structure Your Eulogy
There are many ways to structure a eulogy.  The structure will be determined by what you want to accomplish. Most eulogies include an introduction and at least one story.
An introduction is where you tell who you are and your relationship with the person. Oftentimes, you will invite the listeners in to remember with you in some way.
Grandma was my best friend. Many of you know her as Mamie, those of you who are close, know her as Babe. Whatever name you called her, you know, she would answer that call with a smile and a cookie.
There are four major structures common in eulogies.
-
Attributes:
Tell who you are to the person and what attributes you remember about them.
-
Theme:
Pick a theme and apply that to many parts of their life.
-
Story:
Tell a story and how that story impacted you.
-
Biography:
Tell a series of small stories within the timeline. Don’t just tell the facts, tell small stories from different parts of their life.
1. Attributes
I. Opening
A. Opening phrase
B. Who you are.
C. Who the person was to you.
II. First attribute of the person
A. A story that highlights the attribute of that person
B. Details
III. Second attribute of the person
A. A story that highlights the attribute of that person
B. Details
IV. Third attribute of the person
A. A story that highlights the attribute of that person
B. Details
V. What the person would want to be remembered for
or what you would want to say to the person if they were here
VI. Closing thoughts
2. Theme
Think of a theme that defines the person:
Grandma was always cooking, and she was the homemade bread that she baked. There were many ingredients in her life…. Tell families stories in terms of the things grandma cooked for them or tell of each person as an “ingredient” in her life.
Grandpa’s life was one big fishing trip: He hooked grandma (tell the story of their meeting), I “caught” more than fish I caught lessons on…
Hannah’s life was wrapped up in her horses. Tell several stories of her with horses and how that showed the important people and events in her life.
Tribute to Grandpa by Logan Dodd used the theme of flying for the eulogy to his grandpa who was a pilot.
While most people dream of being able to soar through the sky,
it was a reality to my grandfather,
Leonard Wilhelm
.
From the time that my mother was a little girl,
my grandpa was building and
flying,
his own
aircraft.
As you all can imagine,
when I was a little boy
I was in heaven every time I went to his house and was able to watch him work on his
airplanes.
But it wasn’t until after he was gone that I realized that my pilot’s lesson didn’t just start at the age of fourteen.
In fact, he was giving me
pilot’s lessons
when he would drive down the street in his airplane.
He was giving me
pilot’s lessons
when he would let me hang out with him and his flying buddies.
He was giving me
pilot’s lessons
when I would go to his house every day after school.
My grandpa was determined that I would become a
pilot of an airplane,
yes.
But he was also determined that I would become the
pilot of my own life.
There is a chapter on Metaphor, Similie and Theme
More Examples of Theme
Let me show you an example of how others have used themes in their eulogies. In each case, I pulled only excerpts from the speech, and I left them in a manuscript format so you can see how they wrote the speech in manuscript form (/// means pause).
Read an excerpt of this eulogy about her father using the theme of navigation.
Sample Theme 1: Navigation Theme
Navigating the Way
Hanna Arambel, University of Arkansas Student
Dad and I were two of a kind.
My family drove to California every year
and when I was younger,
I would pretend to read the
map
while he drove,
but soon enough, ///
I was his
co-pilot
over the 4000 mile trip.
Eventually, I was old enough to
drive
on the trip,
but he never needed the
map.
Dad could always navigate the way.
…
But every now and then…
Dad got a little over-ambitious when he was teaching me…
my mom always laughs at the time
we were out to eat at our favorite restaurant one evening
and my mother returned to the table
to see my father and I quibbling furiously.
“What now?” was all she could manage to say.
Before I had a chance to speak,
my father informed her,
“Betty, I just want to teach her this little thing
because it’s very important.
Everyone needs to know how to do long division.”
Needless to say, I was only 7 years old and had just started subtraction
Oh, to be the daughter of an engineer.
But still,
he was always navigating the way.
…
In elementary plays, I was the kid who stuck out
with the most elaborate costume ……….and over-done acting…
because dad and I practiced …….. for endless……. hours.
While it embarrassed me then,
I realized later
how many special memories it made
and how much it made me even more like him.
Dad could always navigate the way.
…
One of my favorite memories
from Dad and me
is when we were looking
at the stars one night on the back porch.
He pointed out the brightest star in the sky
and said that he always thought of me
as his brightest star.
And even though my dad is away from us now,
I can always look up and find the brightest star.
And that’s always where he’ll be.
Navigating the way
Sample Theme 2: Boating
Tribute to Papa D
Grant McQueen, University of Arkansas Student
It was in that old green boat
the first time I ever caught a fish.
You were right there // behind me
With your hand on my head
It was in that old green boat
I was playing with the fishing net //
I dropped it over the edge
And it sank // into the green depths below
It was in that old green boat
we sat in the dark with flashlights
Waiting for a fish to bite the lines we had tied to milk jugs
The cold metal
of that boat // will always and forever be the warmest place on earth to me.
Waking up at 4 am with you and my dad to put the rods in the truck
Mama D making us bologna sandwiches to eat on the water
You // buying me a biscuit at the bait shop
Me // falling asleep on your lap
The dull roar
of the boat motor carrying us to your magic fishing spot
The cold water// the mist in the air
like nature’s reflection of you with your cold beer and cigarette smoke.
You never liked
to talk much on those trips
You were afraid // our voices might wake the fish
Or so you told me
But the smile you gave //
when I would scream that I had a
fish
on //
spoke to me // more than words could have.
You see
// you may have taught me to catch
fish
But you also taught me to
catch
the special moments in life // and unlike
fish
, to not ever release them.

3. Story
Notice how Larissa Heatley tells a story about how her grandpa played a game that she made up. In our mind’s eye, we can see her playing with her grand-daddy.
More on how to build a story in a speech.
Include the Audience
Write the eulogy for the whole audience. Yes, you are sharing your memories and yes, you had a special relationship with the person, but the audience should feel included. Using words like “we” and “us” and phrases like “we all remember” invite the audience into your speech.
|
Use Colorful Language in a Eulogy
You can elevate your eulogy emotionally and structurally by using colorful language. What I mean by colorful (or figurative) language, is using a theme, metaphor, simile, alliteration, parallel construction, and antithesis. I have a couple of chapters on these for you to look over and I will review the general ideas here as well.
More resources on using metaphor and theme
More resources on using colorful language
|
Using Colorful Language
|
|
Theme
|
Repeating one idea throughout the speech, usually tied to the metaphor.
|
|
Metaphor
|
Comparing things
|
|
Simile
|
Comparing things using like or as
|
|
Alliteration
|
Repeating the same letter or sound
|
|
Parallel Construction
|
Repeating the same sentence
|
|
Antithesis
|
The pairing of opposite in parallel structure
|
Parallel Construction
The great thing about parallel construction is it allows the speaker to tell a lot of little stories in a short amount of time. Watch as Oren Katz tells a series of memorable events with his friend.
Watch the video (It is cued to the moment he begins his parallel)
Sometimes its the smallest things
that take up the most room in our hearts.
I’m gonna miss
the way Adam shouted at me when we were the only two people in the room.

I’m gonna miss
him making fun of me for liking things like poetry and exercise.
I’m gonna miss
us taking walks to the Sydney Opera house together
and sometimes falling asleep when we couldn’t keep up, we kept hanging out when we couldn’t keep our eyes open any longer
I’m gonna miss
us talking about nothing for hours.
I’m gonna miss
us being able to say a single word to each other and bursting out laughing knowing what the other was thinking,
it was never appropriate.
I’m gonna miss
meals together.
I’m gonna miss
his voice.
I’m gonna miss
his laugh.
I’m gonna miss
him always being there for me,
no matter what.
Most of all,
I’m just gonna miss
one of my best friends.
Navigating the Way
As soon as I could walk…
I took up Dad’s competitive nature.
Mom would
find us arguing over rules.
Mom would
find us fighting about a card game.
Mom would
find us making bets about the oddest things.
We were always competing.
Hanna Arambel, University of Arkansas Student
Tribute to Papa D
Because it was in that old green boat
that I learned how to catch fish with you
And I learned how the simplest of things
Can hold on to you like a barbed hook
Because it was in that old green boat
where I learned that sometimes
The coldest places
Can form the warmest memories
Because it was in that old green boat
where I learned what love is
And what kind of person
I want to be.
Grant McQueen, University of Arkansas Student
Eulogy to Grandpa
The independence that made him who he was has caused me to be who I am.
He taught me
that I don’t always have to be the same as the crowd.
He taught me
that no matter what my passion is, I should follow it.
He taught me
that you can’t wait for opportunities to fall into your lap,
you have to go get them.
Logan Dodd, University of Arkansas Student
Antithesis
The independence that made him who he was has caused me to be who I am.
Eulogy to Grandpa, Logan Dodd, University of Arkansas Student
A woman whose spirit was always soaring
Even when her feet were firmly planted on the ground
Eulogy for Grandmother who was a pilot, Kayla Cross, University of Arkansas Student
I realize that it was never about your flower garden
It was always about tending to things of the heart
Tribute to Grandma, Tasha Smith, University of Arkansas Student
But let us not wallow in our pity, because that is the last thing Bill Baker would want us to do. Let us instead celebrate the life of a great man finally achieving that eternal bliss that he spent his life working towards.
Eulogy to Grandpa who gave me this necktie, Dan Howry, University of Arkansas Student
Sometimes it is the smallest things
that take up the most room in our hearts.
Eulogy, Adam Levine
Alliteration
And his time showed me how life should be lived
F
earlessly.
F
requently.
F
reely.
Simile
My grandpa Jack is like the wind. We can’t see him, but we can feel him.
He is always with us.
Eulogy to Grandpa Jack, Lily, University of Arkansas Student
I would tell him that I miss him like the windmill missed the wind.
He was a man of defiance
A man….of truth
And he came
And he went
Like the wind
Eulogy to Grandpa, Logan Dodd, University of Arkansas Student
Metaphor
Watch as Billy Crystal uses the metaphor of a star to eulogize Robin Williams
For almost 40 years he was the brightest star in a comedy galaxy. But while some of the brightest of our celestial bodies are actually extinct now, their energy long since cooled.
But miraculously, since because they float in the heavens so far away from us now, their beautiful light will continue to shine on us forever.  Billy Crystal’s Eulogy to Robin Williams
What If I Cry?
It is OK to cry when you are giving a eulogy. In fact, people expect it. If tears come to your eyes, don’t apologize, just pause, breathe, and continue.
Research on funerals shows that people respect those who speak with authenticity and they admire those who are willing to share their knowledge of the deceased even when that person falters.
It was hard in that funeral. I think that there was a huge sense of it being too soon for the deceased to part from us and a real sadness that here was someone who was so lovely and it was hard and painful, especially when his son spoke. I think that was when most of us felt really upset, it was mostly because he was so utterly brave and strong in saying what he was saying. We could all sense that he was in tremendous pain. I was full of admiration of his strength of character in being able to say what he did. I can’t remember the poem that he read or the verses. It was beautiful though. The elder brother got up to support his younger brother and that was also lovely to see.
If, however, you are not ready emotionally to speak about the loved one, it is best not to offer to speak at a real funeral or in an in-class eulogy speech.
The most admirable thing that I have seen at funerals is people who are brave enough to stand in front of their friends and family and speak. Speaking in public is something that most of us do not have much experience of and it can be very intimidating. Add to that the grief that you are feeling at a funeral, which makes it even harder to stand up and speak. I can offer nothing but praise to the people that are prepared to do this small but beautiful last act of kindness to the memory of a deceased friend or relative.
What do you, the audience member do if the speaker cries. Tears can make us feel empathy, they can make us feel sad, they can make us feel awkward. If someone is giving a eulogy and they cry, don’t look away. Show your support with a reassuring glance and a light smile if it feels right. Think of eye contact as a warm hug that helps them get through the moment.
(Quote from a research study on funerals)
|
In a research study about eulogies and funerals, researchers Bailey and Walter noted that the things mourners reported were the most important was accuracy, authenticity, and performance.
-
Accuracy:
It is not your goal to tell everyone’s view of the deceased, but rather to tell your view in a way that honors the memory of that person for everyone.
-
Authenticity:
An authentic eulogy is preferred to a professional one.
-
Performance:
People admire you for being brave enough to stand up in a time of grief and speak out and do not expect a perfect performance.
Your eulogy will be as unique as the person you are celebrating. What an awesome opportunity you have to speak about someone you care about. Eulogies can be hard, but they are important to help everyone celebrate the life of someone that mattered to them.
Key Takeaways
Remember This!
-
Spend a lot of time brainstorming, reflecting, researching, and talking to others before you begin to write.
-
Write in a manuscript format.
-
Use inclusive language
-
Tells stories when possible.
-
Try incorporating colorful language: Simile, metaphor, antithesis, alliteration, parallel construction.
-
Consider using a theme that fits the person or the situation.
Bonus Feature
Real Answers to Tough Questions
-
What if they died in a tragic way? What if it was a suicide? What if it was after a long illness?
It is important to remember a eulogy is about the life they lived not the way they died. Most people who are at the funeral know how they died so why mention it? Instead, spend your time sharing memories.
You may choose to talk about how they fought hard at the end or how they kept a positive attitude at the end. Just don’t let the end of their life be the only focus of their life.
-
What if they had an unremarkable life?
I once helped write a eulogy of someone who never held a job, had no close family ties, had no hobbies except to sit and watch TV ten hours a day. After talking to four family members, the best thing they say about him was that he took out the trash without being asked. Most people write their own eulogies, and some people don’t write very much. Don’t apologize for their life or for your brevity, just tell the stories you have to tell. Tell about the dent in the sofa cushion and the funny sound he made when something funny came on TV.
References
Arabel, H. Navigating the way. University of Arkansas Advanced Public Speaking.
Bailey, T. & Walter, T.
(2016)
Funerals against death,
Mortality,
21(2),
149-166,
DOI:
10.1080/13576275.2015.1071344
Romanoff, B.D.
(1998). Rituals and the grieving process.
Death Studies,
22(
8),
697-711,
DOI:
10.1080/074811898201227
Castle,
J.
, &
Phillips,
W. L.
(
2003
).
Grief rituals: Aspects that facilitate adjustment to bereavement
.
Journal of Loss and Trauma
,
8
(1),
41
–
71
. doi:
10.1080/15325020305876
Cross, K. Eulogy for Grandmother who was a pilot. University of Arkansas Advanced Public Speaking.
Crystal, B. (2014). Billy Crystal’s Emmy Awards 2014 Tribute to Robin Williams. [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jUHV703ZRys
Standard YouTube License.
Davies, D. J.
(2017). Cremation. The Routledge Companion to Death and Dying.
Dodd, L. Eulogy to Grandpa. University of Arkansas Advanced Public Speaking.
Fripp, P.( 2012). Accepting an award with class,” Toastmasters International.
http://www.toastmasters.org/Members/SpotlightArticles/AcceptAwardClass.aspx
.
Giblin, P. & Hug, A.
(2006).
The psychology of funeral rituals,
Liturgy,
2
1(1),
11-19,
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