7.14: Planning
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- Cindy Stephens, Gina Peterson, Sharon Eyrich, & Jennifer Paris
- College of the Canyons via College of the Canyons
As with most endeavors, we are more effective when we plan curriculum ahead of time. This helps us to be prepared and to adjust our ideas to be flexible as the children engage with what we have planned.
Reasons to plan:
- Make sure our plans meet the needs, interests, and abilities of the children
- Make sure we understand the learning and development that will occur
- Make sure we have all the materials we will need
- Make sure we know where in the environment to set up
- Make sure we know how to set up
- Make sure we know how to encourage children to participate
- Make sure we have thought through behavioral issues that might arise and how to handle them
- Make sure we have thought through the interactions that will take place
- Make sure we know how we will encourage the children to clean up
- Make sure we know how we might gather observational notes
- Make sure we have thought through how we might document and share this experience with parents or others.
Pause to Reflect
Do these make sense to you? Are there others?
If we have planned thoroughly and thoughtfully, it allows us to implement our plans and to reflect on them afterward, using that information for future planning.
Often referred to as the Plan - Do (implement) - Review (evaluate) cycle, this type of approach allows us to continuously provide the most effective curriculum to the young children in our care.
Chapter 7 (Learning Environments), will discuss early childhood daily routines in more detail. For now, let us consider that most programs are broken down into segments of the day, beginning with the arrival of the children and ending with their departure. Teachers will plan for all segments of the day, both inside and outside, which might include:
- Arrival and Departure
- Small group time
- Large group time
- Centers
- Child initiated play
- Nutrition (snack, lunch,…)
- Self-help (washing hands, toileting, napping,…)
- Transitions between all segments of the day
- Others as each program dictates
One of the best planning strategies is to use a written format. Sometimes we plan one activity or experience on a single form. Other times we plan for multiple experiences on the same form. New teachers are often encouraged to plan each activity separately at first until they feel comfortable with the process.
Reasons for a written plan:
- Keeps things in order
- Assures everything is thought through and not forgotten
- Can be referred to as needed throughout the process
- Can be shared with others
- Documents planning for record-keeping purposes
- Can be saved to be repeated or modified without having to start from scratch
Pause to Reflect
Do these make sense to you? Are there others?
When planning it can be helpful to know that certain terms are used in a variety of ways by various programs. Because this chapter is written for a diverse group of future early childhood educators, we will use these terms interchangeably so that you are ready for the vocabulary used wherever you may work.
Some of the terms most frequently used to represent the “goings-on” you will plan for are:
- Lesson
- Activity
- Learning Experience
- Curriculum
- Teaching Moment
While they may have slightly different “official” meanings, they overlap in our field and can all be found to begin with a plan based on children’s interests and needs, implemented according to the plan (with modifications as they occur), and reviewed/evaluated afterward through reflection to assess and build upon for the future.
Below are examples of generic planning forms (used later in other ECE courses at College of the Canyons). You will see planning for a specific activity and planning for the entire day. For each there will is a blank version and a sample version. The programs you work in will each have their own unique method and planning forms, but most will include some, if not all, of the information included here.
Blank Example Planning Form for Specific Activity
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CURRICULUM / ACTIVITY IMPLEMENTATION PLAN Title / Description : Resources (Where did you learn about this activity) : Reason(s) for Curriculum Plan (justify by considering developmental milestones, learning domains, observations in your assigned children’s classroom, and your knowledge of child development, milestones, word picture handout & DAP that guided your decision to implement this particular activity) Ages of Children : Number of Children : Location : Segment of Daily Routine : Materials Needed (be specific-quantities, color, book and song titles, etc.) Implementation / Directions (List step-by-step as if the implementation could be replicated without you; include set up and clean up, involving children whenever possible. Step-by-step description of learning activities with specific detail.) Describe step-by-step what the children will be doing. Now describe your role. Your guidance supports a maximum learning environment. Flexibility and supporting the child’s process is vital. Questions to ask yourself: How will you introduce the activity? How will you engage the children? What will you be doing/saying? What is your role during the activity ? What open-ended questions will you be using? Please include a minimum of 3 open-ended questions for your activity. Specific ways this activity will facilitate development : Physical : a) b) Cognitive : a) b) Language : a) b) Social/Emotional : a) b) Creative : a) b) Behavioral Considerations (Plan ahead…what issues might arise/what strategies might help) : a) b) c) Documentation How will you collect and display the development listed above? (documentation board, classroom book, PowerPoint, Prezi, creative ideas, etc.): Webbing Ideas ( List at least 5 activities to extend the learning into other areas; try to include one appropriate use of technology): Modifications to include ALL children (developmental delays, disabilities, cultural and linguistic diversities, etc.): a) b) c) Inclusion of Parents/Families : Other Notes/Considerations : |
Sample Planning Form for Specific Activity
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CURRICULUM / ACTIVITY IMPLEMENTATION PLAN Developed by: Suzie Student Title/Description : Nature Scavenger Hung Resources (Where did you learn about this activity) Mr.Bossman, my mentor teacher implemented this activity with his class. Book Resource: Nature Fun Curriculum Guide , by I.B. Squirrly, Acorn Press, 2019 Reason(s) for Curriculum Plan (justify by considering developmental milestones, learning domains, observations in your assigned children’s classroom, and your knowledge of child development, milestones, word picture handout & DAP that guided your decision to implement this particular activity) As the season is changing, several children have commented on observations they are making in nature (leaves are falling, colors are changing, weather,…). They have been showing a lot of interest in books related to nature. They are also bringing in items they are finding on the ground in their homes or community (pinecones, sticks, leaves…) Ages of Children : 4 Number of Children : 20 (entire class) Location : outside on the yard Segment of Daily Routine : outside time Materials Needed (be specific-quantities, color, book and song titles, etc.) ( NAEYC Standard 1c ) :
Implementation / Directions (List step-by-step as if the implementation could be replicated without you; include set up and clean up, involving children whenever possible. Step-by-step description of learning activities with specific detail.) Describe step-by-step what the children will be doing. Begin by welcoming the group and letting them know how happy we are they have joined us. Invite children to assist in finding some objects. Divide children into small groups and give each group 1 scavenger hunt list. Encourage the children to find the objects on the list. Remind children of the behavioral expectations for the activity. Now describe your role . Your guidance supports a maximum learning environment. Flexibility and supporting the child’s process is vital. Questions to ask yourself: How will you introduce the activity? How will you engage the children? What will you be doing/saying? What is your role during the activity ? What open-ended questions will you be using? Please include a minimum of 3 open-ended questions for your activity. Encourage children to explore colors, shapes, textures, sizes,…. Encourage children to discuss among themselves how items are the same and how they are different and why they fit into a chosen category. As children engage in the activity, write down their statements for future documentation. Use open-ended questions to stimulate discussion and reflect children’s statements and ideas to other children. For clean up encourage each group to but their collections inside for a future art activity. Specific ways this activity will facilitate development: (NAEYC Standard 5a) Physical : a) fine motor as they pick up objects b) gross motor as they bend, reach, walk,… Cognitive : a) classification as they sort by size, texture, color,… b) number as they count their items Language : a) listening (receptive) as they listen to each other b) talking (expressive) as they discuss their items with each other Social/Emotional : a) group skills such as taking turns, waiting, listening to others b) sense of accomplishment as they find items and solve problems that arise Creative : a) flexibility and fluency as they stretch thinking and shift from one idea to another b) using self as a resource as they tap into themselves to find objects and define them Behavioral Considerations (Plan ahead…what issues might arise/what strategies might help) a) not wanting to participate – observation is a form of participation so if they would rather do something else and just watch, that is fine. If we make it fun, enough they will want to join in. b) frustration about not finding item – when setting up, go through the list and make sure that all items are available and visible. If not, place items there. This should accommodate the issue, but it is also all right for children to be frustrated and work through it, so if it happens I would encourage them to breathe, tell me why they are frustrated, and then problem-solve ways to feel better. c) children not sharing or participating as a group – be prepared to help facilitate group interactions and the “give and take” of relationships. All children should have opportunities to lead and to follow . Documentation How will you collect and display the development listed above? (documentation board, classroom book, PowerPoint, Prezi, creative ideas, etc.) Using the pen and paper (and photos if possible), I will write down what children said and did. I will place clipboard with those notes on the parent board, along with the following: Today we went on a Nature Scavenger Hunt on the yard. Several children had been expressing an interest in the changes they are noticing in nature so we built upon this interest. As they explored they developed the following skills: Physical: a) fine motor as they pick up objects b) gross motor as they bend, reach, walk,… Cognitive: a) classification as they sort by size, texture, color,… b) number as they count their items Language: a) listening (receptive) as they listen to each other b) talking (expressive) as they discuss their items with each other Social/Emotional: a) group skills such as taking turns, waiting, listening to others b) sense of accomplishment as they find items and solve problems that may arise Creative: a) flexibility and fluency as they stretch thinking and shift from one idea to another b) using self as a resource as they tap into themselves to find objects and define them Here are some of the things they said and did. Be sure to ask your child about it and expand at home if you have the opportunity! We can’t wait to hear what you come up with! Webbing Ideas (List at least 5 activities to extend the learning into other areas; try to include one appropriate use of technology) ( NAEYC Standard 5a )
Modifications to include ALL children (developmental delays, disabilities, cultural and linguistic diversities, etc.) ( NAEYC Standard 4b, 4d & 5c ) a) have plastic gloves for children who may not like to sensory experiences of touching objects b) create the list in English as well as the other languages used in the classroom c) have pictures for each listed item for children who cannot yet read or who have a hearing impairment. Inclusion of Parents/Families
Other Notes / Considerations :
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Blank Example Daily Planning Form
| Daily Lesson Plan | |||||||
| Date: | Class: | ||||||
| Segment / Time | Activity with Brief Description | Materials & Considerations | Purpose / Learning / Development | Intentional Interactions & Conversations | Notes / Other | ||
Add additional rows as needed
Sample Daily Planning Form
| Daily Lesson Plan | ||||||
| Date: | Class: | |||||
| Segment / Time | Activity with Brief Description | Materials & Considerations | Purpose / Learning / Development | Intentional Interactions & Conversations | Notes / Other | |
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ARRIVAL 9:00 am |
-Greet parents and children -Health check |
-Familiarity with families |
-Positive start to day -Smooth transition from home to school -Connecting with families -Sense of belonging -Basic health check |
-Get down to children’s level -Watch non-verbal language -Be present -“welcome”, “So glad to see you”, “You look…” |
-Check with teacher to see how parents should be addressed | |
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GREETING CIRCLE 9:10 am |
-Sing good morning song -Discuss activities for the day |
-CD -CD Player – cue up song ahead of time & check it is working -Carpet squares for children to sit on, placed in semi-circle as they arrive -samples or pictures of activities _be sure to know activities ahead of time |
-Listening and speaking skills -Social skills (waiting, learning about peers,…) -Spatial relations (staying on carpet) -Problem solving (making choices) |
-Be sure each child can see -Sit at their level -Give children time to respond -Validate each child’s comments -Notice positive behavior -Encourage children to correct inaccurate words or tunes |
-Discuss behavior strategies with teacher prior -Know activities -Know words to song |
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CENTERS 9:20 -10:15 |
ART: Bingo marker painting SCIENCE: Ooblick |
ART: colored bingo markers, large coffee filters…place on table and encourage children to create SCIENCE: mix cornstarch and water in tub. Encourage children to wash their hands and then join in exploration. Add spoons, small rocks, and food color to mixture as desired. |
-Foster creativity -Sense of self -Curiosity & problem solving -Fine motor skills -Social skills -Spatial relations (on, in, …) |
-Allow children to do their own work -“tell me about”, “you are working really hard on that” -Refer children to other children -“How does that feel?” -“What are some ideas?” “How could you solve that?” “Interesting” |
Keep in mind E’s sensory issues and provide rubber gloves or place materials in baggie if needed. | |
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CLEAN UP 10:15 |
Transition warning and cleaning up classroom |
Transition warning: 5 minutes until clean up time, 2 minutes until clean up time Finish up what you are doing Sing clean up song |
-Self help skills -Fine & gross motor -Cognitive – time, matching, spatial, -Sense of pride -Sense of collaboration & community |
“What will you clean up first” “Do you want to put away this or this” “You do one and then I will do one” “When we are done we can have snack |
-Be sure to watch clock -Speak loudly -Follow through -Discuss strategies with teacher prior |
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SNACK 10:20 |
-Wash hands and sit at table -Fruit Kabobs |
-Place “skewers” (skinny straws) and fruit on table on platters -Encourage children to make kabobs and then eat them |
-Health & nutrition -Fine motor skills -Language skills (listen and discuss) -Cognitive (categorize, label,…) |
-Sit with children -Informally extend discussions on fruit, colors, textures,… |
-Check for allergies | |
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OUTSIDE 10: 40 – 11:30 |
-After snack transition outside -OBSTACLE COURSE -STORY STATION -at end transition inside |
Encourage children to participate if desired (if not, regular yard set up is available): OBSTACLE COURSE: Balls, bean bags, targets, rope balance beam, chalk drawn path, hula hoop STORY STATION: Books spread out on blanket under tree |
- Gross motor skills - Fine motor skills -Eye hand coordination -Balance -Literacy -Social with peers and adults |
-Encourage collaboration -Can you do it together” “Who would you like to do it with” -Sharing – “how will you decide who will have it first?’ -“You tried hard” -“Let’s do it together” -“Are there other ways to do it?’ -“How should we put them away?” |
-Be sure teacher is outside at all times. -Encourage children to use restroom before going out -Have plan for obstacle course but be flexible based on children’s interests -Create cozy area for stories -Clean up transition at 11:30 |
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CIRCLE 11:40 |
-Sit on carpet squares -CLASS BOOK - 3 BEARS RAP -FAREWELL SONG |
-Encourage children to sit on carpet -CLASS BOOK: Adult starts “once upon a time” and then each child adds a sentence. Record on phone or chart paper and then transcribe later and add to book area -3 BEARS RAP – encourage children to participate in song and movements (use CD if needed) -Take 5 calming breaths -FAREWELL SONG (use CD if needed) |
-Literacy skills -Taking turns -Sequencing -Gross and fine motor -Keeping a steady beat -Counting -Transitioning |
-Make sure everyone can see -Speak clearly -Show joy in their sentences -Clarify before writing words down -Notice and appreciate patience -“you are waiting so nicely for your turn” -“it’s hard to wait isn’t it?’ -“Feel your body getting calmer with your breaths”. -“Think of your favorite thing today” (recap) |
-As teacher or other team member to record story -Know words and movements to songs -Record teacher singing farewell song and practice |
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DEPARTURE 12:00 |
-Open door for parents -Share highlights of day -Debrief with teacher |
-Check cubbies |
-Transition from school to home -Connecting with families -Closure |
-Smile and greet parents -Encourage children to share favorite part of day. |
-Be sure to let teacher know of any issues -Reflect on day with team & celebrate! |
Pause to Reflect
Do the example written planning forms make sense to you? What might you add or delete from the blank forms? Why?
What to plan
There are many resource websites and books with ideas to spark your initial planning. The best way to consider what to plan comes from the children. Always take into account WHO you are planning for and WHY you are planning. The rest will follow. In your ECE 104 Introduction to Curriculum for Early Childhood Education course, you will be presented with many considerations regarding what to plan. For now, the following is a general list to follow:
Considerations for planning:
- Consider both the group and individual children; be inclusive of all
- Know their interests
- Know their ability levels
- Focus on what they CAN do; start with where they are
- Understand your resources (time, materials, location,…)
- Understand development of the ages and stages you are planning for
- Plan for the “whole” child
- Know your goals and objectives
- Integrate curriculum and plan for all types of play
- Consider the families, communities and cultures represented
- Include others in the planning process when possible (colleagues, families, children)
- Plan ahead of time how to transition to the next segment of the day
- Jot down quick notes to refer to later when you reflect
- Don’t worry if it doesn’t go exactly as you planned, that’s expected
- Enjoy yourself and the children, remember “this is the fun part”
Pause to Reflect
Do these implementation suggestions make sense to you? What might you add or delete from the suggestions? Why?
Another consideration will be how you will implement the activities you plan. There are several different teaching methods to think about and most teachers will balance various strategies throughout the day:
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-- High Context | | | | | -- Low Context |
Child Directed – child introduces and directs activity Child Demonstrated – child demonstrates while teacher observes Assist – child explores and teacher provides minimal assistance Scaffold – child attempts and teacher provides guided support as needed Co-Construct – child and teacher or child and child work collaboratively Teacher Demonstrated – teacher demonstrates while child observes Teacher Directed – teacher introduces and directs activity |
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): The continuum of child-directed to teacher-directed. [78]
There is also a variety of experiences to consider:
- Structured – planned, organized lesson following steps
- Informal – planned and introduced and then takes shape as children participate
- Naturalistic – emerges organically from the children with no formal plan
Again, teachers balance these types of experiences throughout the day, based on the children they work with, the environment and the activities themselves.
Pause to Reflect
Which teaching strategies do you feel most comfortable with? Why? Can you see times when you might use each of them?


<IP_ADDRESS>: The Lotos-Eaters
The Lotos-Eaters
The Lotos-Eaters License: Public Domain"Courage!" he said, and pointed toward the land,
"This mounting wave will roll us shoreward soon."
In the afternoon they came unto a land
In which it seemed always afternoon.
All round the coast the languid air did swoon,
Breathing like one that hath a weary dream.
Full-faced above the valley stood the moon;
And, like a downward smoke, the slender stream
Along the cliff to fall and pause and fall did seem.
A land of streams! some, like a downward smoke,
Slow-dropping veils of thinnest lawn, did go;
And some thro' wavering lights and shadows broke,
Rolling a slumbrous sheet of foam below.
They saw the gleaming river seaward flow
From the inner land; far off, three mountain-tops,
Three silent pinnacles of aged snow,
Stood sunset-flush'd; and, dew'd with showery drops,
Up-clomb the shadowy pine above the woven copse.
The charmed sunset linger'd low adown
In the red West; thro' mountain clefts the dale
Was seen far inland, and the yellow down
Border'd with palm, and many a winding vale
And meadow, set with slender galingale;
A land where all things always seem'd the same!
And round about the keel with faces pale,
Dark faces pale against that rosy flame,
The mild-eyed melancholy Lotos-eaters came.
Branches they bore of that enchanted stem,
Laden with flower and fruit, whereof they gave
To each, but whoso did receive of them
And taste, to him the gushing of the wave
Far far away did seem to mourn and rave
On alien shores; and if his fellow spake,
His voice was thin, as voices from the grave;
And deep-asleep he seem'd, yet all awake,
And music in his ears his beating heart did make.
They sat them down upon the yellow sand,
Between the sun and moon upon the shore;
And sweet it was to dream of Fatherland,
Of child, and wife, and slave; but evermore
Most weary seem'd the sea, weary the oar,
Weary the wandering fields of barren foam.
Then some one said, "We will return no more;"
And all at once they sang, "Our island home
Is far beyond the wave; we will no longer roam."
Choric Song IThere is sweet music here that softer falls
Than petals from blown roses on the grass,
Or night-dews on still waters between walls
Of shadowy granite, in a gleaming pass;
Music that gentlier on the spirit lies,
Than tir'd eyelids upon tir'd eyes;
Music that brings sweet sleep down from the blissful skies.
Here are cool mosses deep,
And thro' the moss the ivies creep,
And in the stream the long-leaved flowers weep,
And from the craggy ledge the poppy hangs in sleep.
IIWhy are we weigh'd upon with heaviness,
And utterly consumed with sharp distress,
While all things else have rest from weariness?
All things have rest: why should we toil alone,
We only toil, who are the first of things,
And make perpetual moan,
Still from one sorrow to another thrown;
Nor ever fold our wings,
And cease from wanderings,
Nor steep our brows in slumber's holy balm;
Nor harken what the inner spirit sings,
"There is no joy but calm!"—
Why should we only toil, the roof and crown of things?
IIILo! in the middle of the wood,
The folded leaf is woo'd from out the bud
With winds upon the branch, and there
Grows green and broad, and takes no care,
Sun-steep'd at noon, and in the moon
Nightly dew-fed; and turning yellow
Falls, and floats adown the air.
Lo! sweeten'd with the summer light,
The full-juiced apple, waxing over-mellow,
Drops in a silent autumn night.
All its allotted length of days
The flower ripens in its place,
Ripens and fades, and falls, and hath no toil,
Fast-rooted in the fruitful soil.
IVHateful is the dark-blue sky,
Vaulted o'er the dark-blue sea.
Death is the end of life; ah, why
Should life all labor be?
Let us alone.
Let us alone. What is it that will last?
All things are taken from us, and become
Portions and parcels of the dreadful past.
Let us alone. What pleasure can we have
To war with evil? Is there any peace
In ever climbing up the climbing wave?
All things have rest, and ripen toward the grave
In silence—ripen, fall, and cease:
Give us long rest or death, dark death, or dreamful ease.
VHow sweet it were, hearing the downward stream,
With half-shut eyes ever to seem
Falling asleep in a half-dream!
To dream and dream, like yonder amber light,
Which will not leave the myrrh-bush on the height;
To hear each other's whisper'd speech;
Eating the Lotos day by day,
To watch the crisping ripples on the beach,
And tender curving lines of creamy spray;
To lend our hearts and spirits wholly
To the influence of mild-minded melancholy;
To muse and brood and live again in memory,
With those old faces of our infancy
Heap'd over with a mound of grass,
Two handfuls of white dust, shut in an urn of brass!
VIDear is the memory of our wedded lives,
And dear the last embraces of our wives
And their warm tears; but all hath suffer'd change;
For surely now our household hearths are cold,
Our sons inherit us, our looks are strange,
And we should come like ghosts to trouble joy.
Or else the island princes over-bold
Have eat our substance, and the minstrel sings
Before them of the ten years' war in Troy,
And our great deeds, as half-forgotten things.
Is there confusion in the little isle?
Let what is broken so remain.
The Gods are hard to reconcile;
'Tis hard to settle order once again.
There is confusion worse than death,
Trouble on trouble, pain on pain,
Long labor unto aged breath,
Sore task to hearts worn out by many wars
And eyes grown dim with gazing on the pilot-stars.
VIIBut, propped on beds of amaranth and moly,
How sweet—while warm airs lull us, blowing lowly—
With half-dropped eyelids still,
Beneath a heaven dark and holy,
To watch the long bright river drawing slowly
His waters from the purple hill—
To hear the dewy echoes calling
From cave to cave thro' the thick-twined vine—
To watch the emerald-color'd water falling
Thro' many a woven acanthus-wreath divine!
Only to hear and see the far-off sparkling brine,
Only to hear were sweet, stretch'd out beneath the pine.
VIIIThe Lotos blooms below the barren peak,
The Lotos blows by every winding creek;
All day the wind breathes low with mellower tone;
Thro' every hollow cave and alley lone
Round and round the spicy downs the yellow Lotos-dust is blown.
We have had enough of action, and of motion we,
Roll'd to starboard, roll'd to larboard, when the surge was seething free,
Where the wallowing monster spouted his foam-fountains in the sea.
Let us swear an oath, and keep it with an equal mind,
In the hollow Lotos-land to live and lie reclined
On the hills like Gods together, careless of mankind.
For they lie beside their nectar, and the bolts are hurl'd
Far below them in the valleys, and the clouds are lightly curl'd
Round their golden houses, girdled with the gleaming world;
Where they smile in secret, looking over wasted lands,
Blight and famine, plague and earthquake, roaring deeps and fiery sands,
Clanging fights, and flaming towns, and sinking ships, and praying hands.
But they smile, they find a music centred in a doleful song
Steaming up, a lamentation and an ancient tale of wrong,
Like a tale of little meaning tho' the words are strong;
Chanted from an ill-used race of men that cleave the soil,
Sow the seed, and reap the harvest with enduring toil,
Storing yearly little dues of wheat, and wine and oil;
Till they perish and they suffer—some, 'tis whisper'd— down in hell
Suffer endless anguish, others in Elysian valleys dwell,
Resting weary limbs at last on beds of asphodel.
Surely, surely, slumber is more sweet than toil, the shore
Than labor in the deep mid-ocean, wind and wave and oar;
O, rest ye, brother mariners, we will not wander more.


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Study Questions
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What does the term business process mean?
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What are three examples of business processes ( from a job you have had or an organization you have observed?
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What is the value of documenting a business process?
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What is an ERP system? How does an ERP system enforce best practices for an organization?
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What is one of the criticisms of ERP systems?
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What is business process reengineering? How is it different from incrementally improving a process?
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Why did BPR get a bad name?
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List the guidelines for redesigning a business process.
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What is business process management? What role does it play in allowing a company to differentiate itself?
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What does ISO certification signify?
Exercises
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Think of a business process that you have had to perform in the past. How would you document this process? Would a diagram make more sense than a checklist? Document the process both as a checklist and as a diagram.
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Review the return policies at your favorite retailer and then answer this question: What information systems do you think need to be in place to support their return policy.
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If you were implementing an ERP system, in which cases would you be more inclined to modify the ERP to match your business processes? What are the drawbacks of doing this?
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Which ERP is the best? Do some original research and compare three leading ERP systems to each other. Write a two- to three-page paper that compares their features.
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Research a company that chooses to implement an ERP. Write a report to describe it.
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Research a failed implementation of an ERP. Write a report to describe why.
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Research and write a report on how a company can obtain an ISO quality management certification.


4.8: Health
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- Last updated
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Infants depend on the adults that care for them to promote and protect their health. The following section addresses common physical conditions that can affect infants, the danger of shaking babies, and the importance of immunizations.
Common Physical Conditions and Issues during Infancy
Some physical conditions and issues are very common during infancy. Many are normal, and the infant's caregivers can deal with them if they occur. Mostly, it is a matter of the caregivers learning about what is normal for their infant and getting comfortable with the new routine in the household. New parents and caregivers often have questions about the following:
- Bowel Movements
- Colic
- Diaper Rash
- Spitting Up/Vomiting
- Teething
- Urination
- Jaundice
Bowel Movements
Infants' bowel movements go through many changes in color and consistency, even within the first few days after birth. While the color, consistency, and frequency of stool will vary, hard or dry stools may indicate dehydration and increased frequency of watery stools may indicate diarrhea.
Colic
Many infants are fussy in the evenings, but if the crying does not stop and gets worse throughout the day or night, it may be caused by colic. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, about one-fifth of all infants develop colic, usually starting between 2 and 4 weeks of age. They may cry inconsolably or scream, extend or pull up their legs, and pass gas. Their stomachs may be enlarged. The crying spells can occur anytime, although they often get worse in the early evening.
The colic will likely improve or disappear by the age of 3 or 4 months. There is no definite explanation for why some infants get colic. Health care providers can help ensure there is no medical reason behind the crying.
Some infants seem to be soothed by being held, rocked, or wrapped snugly in a blanket. Some like a pacifier.
Shaken Baby Syndrome
Here is a PSA from the Center for Disease Control (CDC) The crying. The late-night feedings. The diaper changes. The exhaustion. If you’ve ever been around a baby who won’t stop crying, you know there’s potential to get frustrated. Focus on calming yourself and understand that you may not be able to calm your baby. It’s not your fault or your baby’s.46
It’s normal for healthy babies to cry and some babies cry much more than others. And they cannot always be consoled and caregivers can feel pushed to the limit. When caregivers lose control and shake a baby it can have devastating effects.
Shaken Baby Syndrome (SBS) is a severe form of physical child abuse. SBS may be caused from vigorously shaking an infant by the shoulders, arms, or legs. The “whiplash” effect can cause intracranial (within the brain) or intraocular (within the eyes) bleeding. Often there is no obvious external head trauma. Still, children with SBS may display some outward signs:
- Change in sleeping pattern or inability to be awakened
- Confused, restless, or agitated state
- Convulsions or seizures
- Loss of energy or motivation
- Slurred speech
- Uncontrollable crying
- Inability to be consoled
- Inability to nurse or eat
SBS can result in death, mental retardation or developmental delays, paralysis, severe motor dysfunction, spasticity, blindness, and seizures.
Who’s at Risk? Small children are especially vulnerable to this type of abuse. Their heads are large in comparison to their bodies, and their neck muscles are weak. Children under one year of age are at highest risk, but SBS has been reported in children up to five years of age. Shaking often occurs in response to a baby crying or having a toilet-training accident. The perpetrator tends to be male and is primarily the biological father or the mother’s boyfriend or partner. Caregivers are responsible for about 9%-21% of cases. The explanation typically provided by the caregiver—”I was playing with the baby”—does not begin to account for the severity of trauma. Many times there is also a history of child abuse.
Can It Be Prevented? SBS is completely preventable. However, it is not known whether educational efforts will effectively prevent this type of abuse. Home visitation programs are shown to prevent child abuse in general. Because the child’s father or the mother’s partner often causes SBS, they should be included in home visitation programs. Home visits bring community resources to families in their homes. Health professionals provide information, healthcare, psychological support, and other services that can help people to be more effective parents and care-givers.
The Bottom Line
- Shaking a baby can cause death or permanent brain damage. It can result in life-long disability.
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Healthy strategies for dealing with a crying baby include:
- finding the reason for the crying
- checking for signs of illness or discomfort, such as diaper rash, teething, tight clothing;
- feeding or burping;
- soothing the baby by rubbing its back; gently rocking; offering a pacifier;
- singing or talking;
- taking a walk using a stroller or a drive in a properly-secured car seat;
- or calling the doctor if sickness is suspected
- All babies cry. Caregivers often feel overwhelmed by a crying baby. Calling a friend, relative, or neighbor for support or assistance lets the caregiver take a break from the situation. If immediate support is not available, the caregiver could place the baby in a crib (making sure the baby is safe), close the door, and check on the baby every five minutes.47
Abusive Head Trauma Shaken baby syndrome is part abusive head trauma (AHT), severe form of physical child abuse that results in an injury to the brain of a child. This is important to note because:
- Abusive head trauma is a leading cause of physical child abuse deaths in children under 5 in the United States.
- Abusive head trauma accounts for approximately one third of all child maltreatment deaths.
- The most common trigger for abusive head trauma is inconsolable crying.
- Babies less than one year old are at greatest risk of injury from abusive head trauma.49
Teething
Although newborns usually have no visible teeth, baby teeth begin to appear generally about 6 months after birth. During the first few years, all 20 baby teeth will push through the gums, and most children will have their full set of these teeth in place by age 3.
An infant's front four teeth usually appear first, at about 6 months of age, although some children don't get their first tooth until 12-14 months. As their teeth break through the gums, some infants become fussy, and irritable; lose their appetite; or drool more than usual.
The FDA does not recommend gum-numbing medications with an ingredient called benzocaine because they can cause a potentially fatal condition in young children. Safe forms of relief include a chilled teething ring or gently rubbing the child's gums with a clean finger.
Spitting Up/Vomiting
Spitting up is a common occurrence for young infants and is usually not a sign of a more serious problem. But if an infant is not gaining weight or shows other signs of illness, a health care provider should be consulted.
Urination
Infants urinate as often as every 1 to 3 hours or as infrequently as every 4 to 6 hours. In case of sickness or if the weather is very hot, urine output might drop by half and still be normal. If an infant shows any signs of distress while urinating or if any blood is found in a wet diaper medical care should be sought.
 It is usually caused by irritation of the skin from being in contact with stool and urine. It can get worse during bouts of diarrhea. Diaper rash usually can be prevented by frequent diaper changes.
Jaundice
Jaundice can cause an infant's skin, eyes, and mouth to turn a yellowish color. The yellow color is caused by a buildup of bilirubin, a substance that is produced in the body during the normal process of breaking down old red blood cells and forming new ones.
Normally the liver removes bilirubin from the body. But, for many infants, in the first few days after birth, the liver is not yet working at its full power. As a result, the level of bilirubin in the blood gets too high, causing the infant's color to become slightly yellow—this is jaundice. Although jaundice is common and usually not serious, in some cases, high levels of bilirubin could cause brain injury. All infants with jaundice need to be seen by a health care provider. Many infants need no treatment. Their livers start to catch up quickly and begin to remove bilirubin normally, usually within a few days after birth. For some infants, health care providers prescribe phototherapy—a treatment using a special lamp—to help break down the bilirubin in their bodies.
Protecting Health through Immunization
One way we can protect a child’s health (and those around them) is through immunization. The vaccines (given through injection) may hurt a little...but the diseases they can prevent can hurt a lot more! Immunization shots, or vaccinations, are essential. They protect against things like measles, mumps, rubella, hepatitis B, polio, diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis (whooping cough). Immunizations are important for adults as well as for children. Here’s why.
The immune system helps the human body fight germs by producing substances to combat them. Once it does, the immune system “remembers” the germ and can fight it again. Vaccines contain germs that have been killed or weakened. When given to a healthy person, the vaccine triggers the immune system to respond and thus build immunity.
Before vaccines, people became immune only by actually getting a disease and surviving it.
Vaccines are the best defense we have against serious, preventable, and sometimes deadly contagious diseases. Vaccines are some of the safest medical products available, but like any other medical product, there may be risks. Accurate information about the value of vaccines as well as their possible side effects helps people to make informed decisions about vaccination.
Potential Side Effects
Vaccines, like all medical products, may cause side effects in some people. Most of these side effects are minor, such as redness or swelling at the injection site. Read further to learn about possible side effects from vaccines.
Any vaccine can cause side effects. For the most part these are minor (for example, a sore arm or low-grade fever) and go away within a few days.53 Serious side effects after vaccination, such as severe allergic reaction, are very rare.54
Remember, vaccines are continually monitored for safety, and like any medication, vaccines can cause side effects. However, a decision not to immunize a child also involves risk and could put the child and others who come into contact with him or her at risk of contracting a potentially deadly disease.
How Well Do Vaccines Work?
Vaccines work really well. No medicine is perfect, of course, but most childhood vaccines produce immunity about 90–100% of the time.
What about the argument made by some people that vaccines don’t work that well . . . that diseases would be going away on their own because of better hygiene or sanitation, even if there were no vaccines?
That simply isn’t true. Certainly better hygiene and sanitation can help prevent the spread of disease, but the germs that cause disease will still be around, and as long as they are they will continue to make people sick.
All vaccines must be licensed (approved) by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) before being used in the United States, and a vaccine must go through extensive testing to show that it works and that it is safe before the FDA will approve it. Among these tests are clinical trials, which compare groups of people who get a vaccine with groups of people who get a control. A vaccine is approved only if FDA makes the determination that it is safe and effective for its intended use.
If you look at the history of any vaccine-preventable disease, you will virtually always see that the number of cases of disease starts to drop when a vaccine is licensed. Vaccines are the most effective tool we have to prevent infectious diseases.
Opposition to Vaccines
In 2010, a pertussis (whooping cough) outbreak in California sickened 9,143 people and resulted in 10 infant deaths: the worst outbreak in 63 years (Centers for Disease Control 2011b). Researchers, suspecting that the primary cause of the outbreak was the waning strength of pertussis vaccines in older children, recommended a booster vaccination for 11–12-year-olds and also for pregnant women (Zacharyczuk 2011). Pertussis most serious for babies; one in five needs to be hospitalized, and since they are too young for the vaccine themselves, it is crucial that people around them be immunized (Centers for Disease Control 2011b). Several states, including California, have been requiring the pertussis booster for older children in recent years with the hope of staving off another outbreak.
But what about people who do not want their children to have this vaccine, or any other? That question is at the heart of a debate that has been simmering for years. Vaccines are biological preparations that improve immunity against a certain disease. Vaccines have contributed to the eradication and weakening of numerous infectious diseases, including smallpox, polio, mumps, chicken pox, and meningitis.
However, many people express concern about potential negative side effects from vaccines. These concerns range from fears about overloading the child’s immune system to controversial reports about devastating side effects of the vaccines.56
Although children continue to get several vaccines up to their second birthday, these vaccines do not overload the immune system. Every day, an infant’s healthy immune system successfully fights off thousands of antigens – the parts of germs that cause their immune system to respond.
This is the case even if your child receives combination vaccines. Combination vaccines take two or more vaccines that could be given individually and put them into one shot. Children get the same protection as they do from individual vaccines given separately—but with fewer shots.57
One misapprehension is that the vaccine itself might cause the disease it is supposed to be immunizing against.58 Vaccines help develop immunity by imitating an infection, but this “imitation” infection does not cause illness. Instead it causes the immune system to develop the same response as it does to a real infection so the body can recognize and fight the vaccine-preventable disease in the future. Sometimes, after getting a vaccine, the imitation infection can cause minor symptoms, such as fever. Such minor symptoms are normal and should be expected as the body builds immunity.59
Another commonly circulated concern is that vaccinations, specifically the MMR vaccine (MMR stands for measles, mumps, and rubella), are linked to autism. The autism connection has been particularly controversial. In 1998, a British physician named Andrew Wakefield published a study in Great Britain’s Lancet magazine that linked the MMR vaccine to autism. The report received a lot of media attention, resulting in British immunization rates decreasing from 91 percent in 1997 to almost 80 percent by 2003, accompanied by a subsequent rise in measles cases (Devlin 2008). A prolonged investigation by the British Medical Journal proved that not only was the link in the study nonexistent, but that Dr. Wakefield had falsified data in order to support his claims (CNN 2011). Dr. Wakefield was discredited and stripped of his license, but the doubt still lingers in many parents’ minds.
In the United States, many parents still believe in the now discredited MMR-autism link and refuse to vaccinate their children. Other parents choose not to vaccinate for various reasons like religious or health beliefs. In one instance, a boy whose parents opted not to vaccinate returned home to the U.S. after a trip abroad; no one yet knew he was infected with measles.
The boy exposed 839 people to the disease and caused 11 additional cases of measles, all in other unvaccinated children, including one infant who had to be hospitalized.
According to a study published in Pediatrics (2010), the outbreak cost the public sector $10,376 per diagnosed case. The study further showed that the intentional non-vaccination of those infected occurred in students from private schools, public charter schools, and public schools in upper-socioeconomic areas (Sugerman et al. 2010).61
The Immunization Schedule
On-time vaccination throughout childhood is essential because it helps provide immunity before children are exposed to potentially life-threatening diseases. Vaccines are tested to ensure that they are safe and effective for children to receive at the recommended ages.62 Fully vaccinated children in the U.S. are protected against sixteen potentially harmful diseases. Vaccine-preventable diseases can be very serious, may require hospitalization, or even be deadly — especially in infants and young children.63
Here is the schedule from the CDC to ensure a child is fully vaccinated:
Safety
There are different risks to infant safety. According to the CDC, nonfatal injury rates varied by age group.
- Nonfatal suffocation rates were highest for those less than 1 year of age.
- Rates for fires or burns, and drowning were highest for children 4 years and younger.
- Children 1 to 4 years of age had the highest rates of nonfatal falls and poisoning.
And the leading causes of injury death also differed by age group.
- For children less than 1 year of age, two–thirds of injury deaths were due to suffocation.
- Drowning was the leading cause of injury or death for those 1 to 4 years of age.66
car seat safety
Motor vehicle injuries are a leading cause of death among children in the United States. But many of these deaths can be prevented.
- In the United States, 723 children ages 12 years and younger died as occupants in motor vehicle crashes during 2016, and more than 128,000 were injured in 2016.
- One CDC study found that, in one year, more than 618,000 children ages 0-12 rode in vehicles without the use of a child safety seat or booster seat or a seat belt at least some of the time.
- Of the children ages 12 years and younger who died in a crash in 2016 (for which restraint use was known), 35% were not buckled up.67
Buckling children in age- and size-appropriate car seats, booster seats, and seat belts reduces the risk of serious and fatal injuries:
- Car seat use reduces the risk of injury in a crash by 71-82% for children when compared to seat belt use alone.
- Booster seat use reduces the risk for serious injury by 45% for children aged 4–8 years when compared with seat belt use alone.
- For older children and adults, seat belt use reduces the risk of death and serious injury by approximately half.68
Contributors and Attributions
46. Coping with Crying 3 PSA by the CDC is in the public domain
47. Shaken Baby Syndrome by the CDC is in the public domain
49. Preventing Abusive Head Trauma in Children by the CDC is in the public domain
53. Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles references Contemporary Health Issues by Judy Baker, Ph.D., licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
54. Making the Vaccine Decision by the CDC is in the public domain
56. Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles references Contemporary Health Issues by Judy Baker, Ph.D., licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
57. Making the Vaccine Decision by the CDC is in the public domain
58. Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles references Contemporary Health Issues by Judy Baker, Ph.D., licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
59. Making the Vaccine Decision by the CDC is in the public domain
61. Disease Prevention and Healthy Lifestyles references Contemporary Health Issues by Judy Baker, Ph.D., licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
62. For Parents: Vaccines for Your Children by the CDC is in the public domain
63. Vaccines for Your Children: Protect Your Child at Every Age by the CDC is in the public domain
66. Protect the Ones You Love: Child Injuries are Preventable by the CDC is in the public domain
67. Child Passenger Safety: Get the Facts by the CDC is in the public domain
68. Child Passenger Safety: Get the Facts by the CDC is in the public domain


3.5: General Adaption Syndrome
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Selye's Concept of General Adaptation Syndrome
Hans Selye (1907-1982) started the modern era of research into something called stress. In 1950, Selye addressed the American Psychological Association convention. He described a theory of stress-induced responses that become the standard model of stress, the one people usually refer to (or criticize) in academic journal articles about stress.
How did Selye discover the stress response?
Selye's discovery of the stress response was an accident. He was doing research on the effect of hormone injections in rats. Initially he thought he detected a harmful effect from the hormones, because many of the rats became sick after receiving the injections. But when Selye used a control group of rats, injected only with a neutral solution containing no hormones, he observed that they became sick, too.
As it turned out, the rats responded more profoundly to the trauma of being injected than they did to the hormones. The experience of being handled and injected led to high levels of sympathetic nervous system arousal and eventually to health problems such as ulcers. (Note that stress was not found to directly cause ulcers by Selye.) Selye coined the term "stressor" to label a stimulus that had this effect.
What is a stressor for rats? For lab assistants?
The immediate response to stress is the release of adrenaline into the blood plasma (the liquid part of the bloodstream). "Mild stressors such as opening a cage door or handling a rat produces an eightfold increase in plasma epinephrine [adrenaline] concentrations" (Axelrod and Reisine, 1984). The sentence is ambiguous; does the rat or the human experience the eightfold increase in adrenaline? In this case, it is the rat which is having its adrenaline (plasma epinephrine) measured. However, many lab assistants probably experience a burst of adrenaline, too, when handling a rat for the first time.
What were the three stages of Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome?
Selye proposed a three-stage pattern of response to stress that he called the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) . He proposed that when the organism first encountered stress, in the form of novelty or threat, it responded with an alarm reaction. This is followed by a recovery or resistance stage during which the organism repairs itself and stores energy. If the stress-causing events continue, exhaustion sets in. This third stage is what became known popularly as burn-out. Classic symptoms of burn-out include loss of drive, emotional flatness, and (in humans) dulling of responsiveness to the needs of others.
Hans Selye’s Study of Stress Response
In 1934, Hans Selye at McGill University discovered a new type of hormone. He gave rats daily injections of ovarian extract and found that the rats had enlarged adrenals and shrunken spleens, thymus, lymph nodes, and intestinal ulcers. “Multiple organs in the body generate this hormone, and thus he announced that it is a nonspecific response of body to noxious agents. (Evan-Martin, 2007)
In 1936, Selye defined these series of symptoms in the experiments with the rats as the General Adaptation Syndrome, which consists of three stages: the alarm stage, the resistance stage, and the exhaustion stage (Evan-Martin, 2007). The alarm stage is similar to the fight-to-flight response, and the body mobilizes resources to react to the incoming noxious agent. The resistance forces will be built up when the noxious challenge is detected as continuing. The exhaustion stage will cause death if the body is unable to overcome the threat.
 The first reaction is shock, starting complaints and feelings of stress, which represent the beginning of the first stage. In the resistance stage, you will try your best to do practice tests, reviewing vocabulary, studying any type of study aids that are available. Finally, you will feel like you are doomed to fail this test and feel desperate, feel constantly anxious, have difficulty falling asleep and waking up in the morning. The exhaustion of this stage will have deleterious effects on your health by depleting your body resources which are crucial for the maintenance of normal functions. Your immune system will be exhausted and function will be impaired. Also, the decomposition which is a functional deterioration of body may happen as the exhaustion stage extends. Selye believed that one becomes sick at that point because stored hormones secrete during the stress response are depleted (Sapolsky, 1998).


One approach to assessing identity development was proposed by James Marcia. In his approach, adolescents are asking questions regarding their exploration of and commitment to issues related to occupation, politics, religion, and sexual behavior. Studies assessing how teens pass through Marcia’s stages show that although most teens eventually succeed in developing a stable identity, the path to it is not always easy and there are many routes that can be taken. Some teens may simply adopt the beliefs of their parents or the first role that is offered to them, perhaps at the expense of searching for other more promising possibilities (foreclosure status). Other teens may spend years trying on different possible identities (moratorium status) before finally choosing one. 6
Marcia identified four identity statuses that represent the four possible combinations of the dimension of commitment and exploration. 7
Table \(\PageIndex{1}\): Identity Status
Identity Status
Description 8
Identity-Diffusion
status is a status that characterizes those who have neither explored the options, nor made a commitment to an identity.
The individual does not have firm commitments regarding the issues in question and is not making progress toward them. Those who persist in this identity may drift aimlessly with little connection to those around them or have little sense of purpose in life.
Identity-Foreclosure status
is the status for those who have made a commitment to an identity without having explored the options.
The individual has not engaged in any identity experimentation and has established an identity based on the choices or values of others. Some parents may make these decisions for their children and do not grant the teen the opportunity to make choices. In other instances, teens may strongly identify with parents and others in their life and wish to follow in their footsteps.
Identity-Moratorium status
is a status that describes those who are exploring in an attempt to establish an identity but have yet to have made any commitment.
The individual is exploring various choices but has not yet made a clear commitment to any of them. This can be an anxious and emotionally tense time period as the adolescent experiments with different roles and explores various beliefs. Nothing is certain and there are many questions, but few answers.
Identity-Achievement status
refers to the status for those who, after exploration, have made a commitment.
The individual has attained a coherent and committed identity based on personal decisions. This is a long process and is not often achieved by the end of adolescence
The least mature status, and one common in many children, is identity diffusion. During high school and the college years, teens and young adults move from identity diffusion and foreclosure toward moratorium and achievement. The biggest gains in the development of identity are in college, as college students are exposed to a greater variety of career choices, lifestyles, and beliefs. This is likely to spur on questions regarding identity. A great deal of the identity work we do in adolescence and young adulthood is about values and goals, as we strive to articulate a personal vision or dream for what we hope to accomplish in the future (McAdams, 2013). 9
To help them work through the process of developing an identity, teenagers may try out different identities in different social situations. They may maintain one identity at home and a different type of persona when they are with their peers. Eventually, most teenagers do integrate the different possibilities into a single self-concept and a comfortable sense of identity (identity-achievement status). For teenagers, the peer group provides valuable information about the self-concept. For instance, in response to the question “What were you like as a teenager? (e.g., cool, nerdy, awkward?),” posed on the website Answerbag, one teenager replied in this way:
I’m still a teenager now, but from 8th -9th grade I didn’t really know what I wanted at all. I was smart, so I hung out with the nerdy kids. I still do; my friends mean the world to me. But in the middle of 8th grade I started hanging out with which you may call the “cool” kids...and I also hung out with some stoners, just for variety. I pierced various parts of my body and kept my grades up. Now, I’m just trying to find who I am. I’m even doing my sophomore year in China so I can get a better view of what I want. (Answerbag, 2007). What were you like as a teenager? (e.g., cool, nerdy, awkward?). (Quoted from dojokills on
http://www.answerbag.com/q_view/171753
)
A big part of what the adolescent is learning is
social identity
, the part of the self-concept that is derived from one’s group memberships. Adolescents define their social identities according to how they are similar to and different from others, finding meaning in the sports, religious, school, gender, and ethnic categories they belong to. 10


1.2.1: Affinity for Spontaneous Chemical Reaction
A given closed system is prepared using ethyl ethanoate(aq) in an alkaline solution. The composition of the system changes spontaneously as a consequence of chemical reaction. The latter is described by the following chemical equation.
\[\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{COOC}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5}(\mathrm{aq})+\mathrm{OH}^{-}(\mathrm{aq}) \rightarrow \mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{COO}^{-}(\mathrm{aq})+\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{OH}(\mathrm{aq}) \nonumber \]
At each stage, the extent of chemical reaction is represented by the symbol \(\xi\). The composition of the system varies with time as the reaction proceeds. At any given instant we characterise the rate of chemical reaction by \(\mathrm{d} \xi / \mathrm{dt}\). We also ask ‘why did chemical reaction proceed in this direction?’ The answer is − the chemical reaction is driven in that direction by the affinity for spontaneous change, symbol \(\mathrm{A}\) [1-3]. The affinity \(\mathrm{A}\) for spontaneous chemical reaction is defined by the second law of thermodynamics which states that,
\[\mathrm{T} \, \mathrm{dS}=\mathrm{q}+\mathrm{A} \, \mathrm{d} \xi \nonumber \]
\[\text { where } A \, d \xi \geq 0 \nonumber \]


17.9: Gonadal and Placental Hormones
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Identify the most important hormones produced by the testes and ovaries
- Name the hormones produced by the placenta and state their functions
This section briefly discusses the hormonal role of the gonads—the testes and ovaries—which produce the sex cells (sperm and ova) and secrete the gonadal hormones. The roles of the gonadotropins released from the anterior pituitary (FSH and LH) were discussed earlier.
The primary hormone produced by the testes is testosterone , a steroid hormone important in the development of the testicular reproductive system, the maturation of sperm cells, and the development of secondary sex characteristics such as a deepened voice, body hair, and increased muscle mass. Interestingly, testosterone is also produced in the ovaries, but at a much reduced level. In addition, the testes produce the peptide hormone inhibin , which inhibits the secretion of FSH from the anterior pituitary gland. FSH stimulates spermatogenesis.
The primary hormones produced by the ovaries are estrogens , which include estradiol, estriol, and estrone. Estrogens play an important role in a larger number of physiological processes, including the development of the ovarian reproductive system, regulation of the menstrual cycle, the development of secondary sex characteristics such as increased adipose tissue and the development of breast tissue, and the maintenance of pregnancy. Another significant ovarian hormone is progesterone , which contributes to regulation of the menstrual cycle and is important in preparing the body for pregnancy as well as maintaining pregnancy. In addition, the granulosa cells of the ovarian follicles produce inhibin, which inhibits the secretion of FSH.During the initial stages of pregnancy, an organ called the placenta develops within the uterus. The placenta supplies oxygen and nutrients to the fetus, excretes waste products, and produces and secretes estrogens and progesterone. The placenta produces human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) as well. The hCG hormone promotes progesterone synthesis and reduces the mother’s immune function to protect the fetus from immune rejection. It also secretes human placental lactogen (hPL), which plays a role in preparing the breasts for lactation, and relaxin, which is thought to help soften and widen the pubic symphysis in preparation for childbirth. The hormones controlling reproduction are summarized in Table \(\PageIndex{1}\).
| Gonad | Associated hormones | Chemical class | Effect |
|---|---|---|---|
| Testes | Testosterone | Steroid | Stimulates development of secondary sex characteristics and sperm production |
| Testes | Inhibin | Protein | Inhibits FSH release from pituitary |
| Ovaries | Estrogens and progesterone | Steroid | Stimulate development of secondary sex characteristics and prepare the body for childbirth |
| Placenta | Human chorionic gonadotropin | Protein | Promotes progesterone synthesis during pregnancy and inhibits immune response against fetus |
Everyday Connection
Anabolic Steroids
The endocrine system can be exploited for illegal or unethical purposes. A prominent example of this is the use of steroid drugs by professional athletes.
Commonly used for performance enhancement, anabolic steroids are synthetic versions of the sex hormone, testosterone. By boosting natural levels of this hormone, athletes experience increased muscle mass. Synthetic versions of human growth hormone are also used to build muscle mass.
The use of performance-enhancing drugs is banned by all major collegiate and professional sports organizations in the United States because they impart an unfair advantage to athletes who take them. In addition, the drugs can cause significant and dangerous side effects. For example, anabolic steroid use can increase cholesterol levels, raise blood pressure, and damage the liver. Altered testosterone levels (both too low or too high) have been implicated in causing structural damage to the heart, and increasing the risk for cardiac arrhythmias, heart attacks, congestive heart failure, and sudden death. Paradoxically, steroids can have effects, including shriveled testicles and enlarged breast tissue. In females, their use can cause effects such as an enlarged clitoris and growth of facial hair. In all people, their use can promote increased aggression (commonly known as “roid-rage”), depression, sleep disturbances, severe acne, and infertility.


16.1: Introduction to Taxes What Taxes Do
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What Taxes Do
On a general level, tax collections provide a revenue source to support the outlays or primary activities of a government.
learning objectives
- Explain the role of taxation with respect to consumer and firm behavior
Taxes are the primary source of revenue for most governments. They are simply defined as a charge or fee on income or commerce. Taxes are most readily understood from the perspective of income taxes or sales tax, although there are many other types of taxes levied on both individuals and firms.
Necessarily, taxes raise the price of purchasing the good or resource for firms and consumers. As a result, the quantity demanded and supplied reacts according to the supply and demand curves.
Tax Authority
In the United States, Congress has the power to tax as stated in The United States Constitution, Article 1, Section 8, Clause 1: “The Congress shall have the Power to lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts, and Excises to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defense and general Welfare of the United States.” This power was reinforced in the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution: “The Congress shall have the power to lay and collect taxes on income, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.”
It is important to note that Congress has delegated to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) the responsibility of administering the tax laws, known as the Internal Revenue Code (the Code). Congress enacts these tax laws, and the IRS enforces them. Individual states also have the power to tax as do smaller government entities such as towns, cities, counties, and municipalities.
Purpose of Taxation
On a general level, tax collections provide a revenue source to support the outlays or primary activities of a government including but not limited to public buildings, military, national parks, and public welfare in the form of transfer payments. Taxes allow the government to perform and provide services that would not evolve naturally through a free market mechanism, for example, public parks. However, governments also use taxes to establish income equity and modify consumption decisions.
Income and Outlays (IRS Publication 2105; Rev 3-2011) : Tax revenue is used by the government to support services and activities available to all residents.
Sources of Tax Revenue: Income Taxation
Governments use different kinds of taxes and vary the tax rates. This is done to distribute the tax burden among individuals or classes of the population involved in taxable activities, such as business, or to redistribute resources between individuals or classes in the population. This type of taxation is referred to as progressive taxation because the tax liability increases in proportion to income.
Sources of Tax Revenue: Sales Taxes
Sales taxes are borne by the consumer when s/he purchases certain goods. It is an ad valorem tax: the charged value is based on the value of what is being sold. This is in contrast to an excise tax, where the charged value is based on the number of items being sold.
Sales tax is a form of regressive taxation; the liability is based on the percentage of income consumed, which is higher for low income earners. As a result, individuals earning a relatively lower income will pay a higher proportion of income in the form of sales tax, defining the regressive nature of the tax. Though a general revenue source, sales taxes are also used to modify behavior. For example taxes on cigarettes are meant to dissuade purchase due to the inherent health implications of smoking.
How Taxes Impact Efficiency: Deadweight Losses
In economics, deadweight loss is a loss of economic efficiency that can occur when equilibrium for a good or service is not Pareto optimal.
learning objectives
- Discuss how taxes create deadweight loss
Deadweight Loss
In economics, a deadweight loss (also known as excess burden or allocative inefficiency) is a loss of economic efficiency that can occur when equilibrium for a good or service is not Pareto optimal (resource allocation where it is impossible to make any one individual better off without making at least one individual worse off). Causes of deadweight loss can include actions that prevent the market from achieving an equilibrium clearing condition (where supply and demand are equal) and include taxes or subsidies and binding price ceilings or floors (including minimum wages). Deadweight loss can generally be referenced as a loss of surplus to either the consumer, producer, or both.
Harberger’s Triangle, Taxes, and Deadweight Loss
Harberger’s triangle, generally attributed to Arnold Harberger, refers to the deadweight loss (as measured on a supply and demand graph) associated with government intervention in a perfect market. This can happen through price floors, caps, taxes, tariffs, or quotas. In the case of a tax on the supplier of a good, the supply curve will shift inward in proportion to the tax and resulting in a non-market clearing level of supply. As a result, the price of the good increases and the quantity available decreases.
Taxation and Deadweight Loss : Taxation can be evaluated as a non-market cost. In this case imposition of taxes reduces supply, resulting in the creation of deadweight loss (triangle bounded by the demand curve and the vertical line representing the after-tax quantity supplied), similar to a binding constraint.
Harberger’s Triangle : Deadweight loss, represented by Harberger’s triangle, is the yellow triangle. It represents lost efficiency.
The area represented by the Harberger’s triangle results from the intersection of the supply and demand curves above market equilibrium resulting in a reduction in consumer surplus and producer surplus relative to their value before the imposition of the tax. The loss of the surplus, not recouped by tax revenues, is deadweight loss.
Some economists have argued that these triangles do not have a huge impact on the economy, whereas others maintain that they can seriously affect long term economic trends by pivoting the trend downwards, causing a magnification of losses in the long run.
Key Points
- Taxes allow the government to perform and provide services that would not evolve naturally through a free market mechanism, for example, public parks.
- Taxes are the primary source of revenue for most governments.
- Governments also use taxes to establish income equity and modify consumption decisions.
- Causes of deadweight loss can include actions that prevent the market from achieving an equilibrium clearing condition and include taxes.
- Deadweight loss can generally be referenced as a loss of surplus to either the consumer, producer, or both.
- Harberger’s triangle refers to the deadweight loss associated with government intervention in a perfect market.
Key Terms
- sales tax : A local or state tax imposed as a percentage of the selling price of goods or services payable by the customer. The tax is not recognized as the seller’s earnings; the seller only collects the tax and transmits the same to local or state authorities.
- progressive tax : A tax by which the rate increases as the taxable base amount increases.
- regressive tax : A tax imposed in such a manner that the rate decreases as the amount subject to taxation increases.
- income tax : A tax levied on earned and unearned income, net of allowed deductions.
- Pareto optimal : Describing a situation in which the profit of one party cannot be increased without reducing the profit of another.
- deadweight loss : A loss of economic efficiency that can occur when an equilibrium is not Pareto optimal.
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- Provided by : Internal Revenue Service. Located at : http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/p2105.pdf . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Tax. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax%23P...es_and_effects . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- progressive tax. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/progressive%20tax . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- regressive tax. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/regressive%20tax . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- sales tax. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sales_tax . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- income tax. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/income_tax . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Provided by : Internal Revenue Service. Located at : http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/p2105.pdf . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Pareto optimal. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Pareto_optimal . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Deadweight loss. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadweight_loss . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
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- deadweight loss. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/deadweight%20loss . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Provided by : Internal Revenue Service. Located at : http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/p2105.pdf . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright


12.3: Whole Genome Methods and Industrial Applications
- Explain the uses of genome-wide comparative analyses
- Summarize the advantages of genetically engineered pharmaceutical products
Advances in molecular biology have led to the creation of entirely new fields of science. Among these are fields that study aspects of whole genomes, collectively referred to as whole-genome methods. In this section, we’ll provide a brief overview of the whole-genome fields of genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics.
Genomics, Transcriptomics, and Proteomics
The study and comparison of entire genomes, including the complete set of genes and their nucleotide sequence and organization, is called genomics. This field has great potential for future medical advances through the study of the human genome as well as the genomes of infectious organisms. Analysis of microbial genomes has contributed to the development of new antibiotics, diagnostic tools, vaccines, medical treatments, and environmental cleanup techniques.
The field of transcriptomics is the science of the entire collection of mRNA molecules produced by cells. Scientists compare gene expression patterns between infected and uninfected host cells, gaining important information about the cellular responses to infectious disease. Additionally, transcriptomics can be used to monitor the gene expression of virulence factors in microorganisms, aiding scientists in better understanding pathogenic processes from this viewpoint.
When genomics and transcriptomics are applied to entire microbial communities, we use the terms metagenomics and metatranscriptomics, respectively. Metagenomics and metatranscriptomics allow researchers to study genes and gene expression from a collection of multiple species, many of which may not be easily cultured or cultured at all in the laboratory. A DNA microarray (discussed in the previous section) can be used in metagenomics studies.
Another up-and-coming clinical application of genomics and transcriptomics is pharmacogenomics, also called toxicogenomics, which involves evaluating the effectiveness and safety of drugs on the basis of information from an individual’s genomic sequence. Genomic responses to drugs can be studied using experimental animals (such as laboratory rats or mice) or live cells in the laboratory before embarking on studies with humans. Changes in gene expression in the presence of a drug can sometimes be an early indicator of the potential for toxic effects. Personal genome sequence information may someday be used to prescribe medications that will be most effective and least toxic on the basis of the individual patient’s genotype.
The study of proteomics is an extension of genomics that allows scientists to study the entire complement of proteins in an organism, called the proteome. Even though all cells of a multicellular organism have the same set of genes, cells in various tissues produce different sets of proteins. Thus, the genome is constant, but the proteome varies and is dynamic within an organism. Proteomics may be used to study which proteins are expressed under various conditions within a single cell type or to compare protein expression patterns between different organisms.
The most prominent disease being studied with proteomic approaches is cancer, but this area of study is also being applied to infectious diseases. Research is currently underway to examine the feasibility of using proteomic approaches to diagnose various types of hepatitis, tuberculosis, and HIV infection, which are rather difficult to diagnose using currently available techniques. 1
A recent and developing proteomic analysis relies on identifying proteins called biomarkers, whose expression is affected by the disease process. Biomarkers are currently being used to detect various forms of cancer as well as infections caused by pathogens such as Yersinia pestis and Vaccinia virus . 2
Other “-omic” sciences related to genomics and proteomics include metabolomics, glycomics, and lipidomics, which focus on the complete set of small-molecule metabolites, sugars, and lipids, respectively, found within a cell. Through these various global approaches, scientists continue to collect, compile, and analyze large amounts of genetic information. This emerging field of bioinformatics can be used, among many other applications, for clues to treating diseases and understanding the workings of cells.
Additionally, researchers can use reverse genetics, a technique related to classic mutational analysis, to determine the function of specific genes. Classic methods of studying gene function involved searching for the genes responsible for a given phenotype. Reverse genetics uses the opposite approach, starting with a specific DNA sequence and attempting to determine what phenotype it produces. Alternatively, scientists can attach known genes (called reporter genes) that encode easily observable characteristics to genes of interest, and the location of expression of such genes of interest can be easily monitored. This gives the researcher important information about what the gene product might be doing or where it is located in the organism. Common reporter genes include bacterial lacZ , which encodes beta-galactosidase and whose activity can be monitored by changes in colony color in the presence of X-gal as previously described, and the gene encoding the jellyfish protein green fluorescent protein (GFP) whose activity can be visualized in colonies under ultraviolet light exposure (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)).
- How is genomics different from traditional genetics?
- If you wanted to study how two different cells in the body respond to an infection, what –omics field would you apply?
- What are the biomarkers uncovered in proteomics used for?
Because Kayla’s symptoms were persistent and serious enough to interfere with daily activities, Kayla’s physician decided to order some laboratory tests. The physician collected samples of Kayla’s blood, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and synovial fluid (from one of her swollen knees) and requested PCR analysis on all three samples. The PCR tests on the CSF and synovial fluid came back positive for the presence of Borrelia burgdorferi , the bacterium that causes Lyme disease.
Kayla’s physician immediately prescribed a full course of the antibiotic doxycycline. Fortunately, Kayla recovered fully within a few weeks and did not suffer from the long-term symptoms of post-treatment Lyme disease syndrome (PTLDS), which affects 10–20% of Lyme disease patients. To prevent future infections, Kayla’s physician advised her to use insect repellant and wear protective clothing during her outdoor adventures. These measures can limit exposure to Lyme-bearing ticks, which are common in many regions of the United States during the warmer months of the year. Kayla was also advised to make a habit of examining herself for ticks after returning from outdoor activities, as prompt removal of a tick greatly reduces the chances of infection.
Lyme disease is often difficult to diagnose. B. burgdorferi is not easily cultured in the laboratory, and the initial symptoms can be very mild and resemble those of many other diseases. But left untreated, the symptoms can become quite severe and debilitating. In addition to two antibody tests, which were inconclusive in Kayla’s case, and the PCR test, a Southern blot could be used with B. burgdorferi -specific DNA probes to identify DNA from the pathogen. Sequencing of surface protein genes of Borrelia species is also being used to identify strains within the species that may be more readily transmitted to humans or cause more severe disease.
Recombinant DNA Technology and Pharmaceutical Production
Genetic engineering has provided a way to create new pharmaceutical products called recombinant DNA pharmaceuticals. Such products include antibiotic drugs, vaccines, and hormones used to treat various diseases. Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) lists examples of recombinant DNA products and their uses.
For example, the naturally occurring antibiotic synthesis pathways of various Streptomyces spp., long known for their antibiotic production capabilities, can be modified to improve yields or to create new antibiotics through the introduction of genes encoding additional enzymes. More than 200 new antibiotics have been generated through the targeted inactivation of genes and the novel combination of antibiotic synthesis genes in antibiotic-producing Streptomyces hosts. 3
Genetic engineering is also used to manufacture subunit vaccines, which are safer than other vaccines because they contain only a single antigenic molecule and lack any part of the genome of the pathogen (see Vaccines ). For example, a vaccine for hepatitis B is created by inserting a gene encoding a hepatitis B surface protein into a yeast; the yeast then produces this protein, which the human immune system recognizes as an antigen. The hepatitis B antigen is purified from yeast cultures and administered to patients as a vaccine. Even though the vaccine does not contain the hepatitis B virus, the presence of the antigenic protein stimulates the immune system to produce antibodies that will protect the patient against the virus in the event of exposure. 4 5
Genetic engineering has also been important in the production of other therapeutic proteins, such as insulin, interferons, and human growth hormone, to treat a variety of human medical conditions. For example, at one time, it was possible to treat diabetes only by giving patients pig insulin, which caused allergic reactions due to small differences between the proteins expressed in human and pig insulin. However, since 1978, recombinant DNA technology has been used to produce large-scale quantities of human insulin using E. coli in a relatively inexpensive process that yields a more consistently effective pharmaceutical product. Scientists have also genetically engineered E. coli capable of producing human growth hormone (HGH), which is used to treat growth disorders in children and certain other disorders in adults. The HGH gene was cloned from a cDNA library and inserted into E. coli cells by cloning it into a bacterial vector. Eventually, genetic engineering will be used to produce DNA vaccines and various gene therapies, as well as customized medicines for fighting cancer and other diseases.
| Recombinant DNA Product | Application |
|---|---|
| Atrial natriuretic peptide | Treatment of heart disease (e.g., congestive heart failure), kidney disease, high blood pressure |
| DNase | Treatment of viscous lung secretions in cystic fibrosis |
| Erythropoietin | Treatment of severe anemia with kidney damage |
| Factor VIII | Treatment of hemophilia |
| Hepatitis B vaccine | Prevention of hepatitis B infection |
| Human growth hormone | Treatment of growth hormone deficiency, Turner’s syndrome, burns |
| Human insulin | Treatment of diabetes |
| Interferons | Treatment of multiple sclerosis, various cancers (e.g., melanoma), viral infections (e.g., Hepatitis B and C) |
| Tetracenomycins | Used as antibiotics |
| Tissue plasminogen activator | Treatment of pulmonary embolism in ischemic stroke, myocardial infarction |
- What bacterium has been genetically engineered to produce human insulin for the treatment of diabetes?
- Explain how microorganisms can be engineered to produce vaccines.
RNA Interference Technology
In Structure and Function of RNA , we described the function of mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA. In addition to these types of RNA, cells also produce several types of small noncoding RNA molecules that are involved in the regulation of gene expression. These include antisense RNA molecules, which are complementary to regions of specific mRNA molecules found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotic cells. Non-coding RNA molecules play a major role in RNA interference (RNAi), a natural regulatory mechanism by which mRNA molecules are prevented from guiding the synthesis of proteins. RNA interference of specific genes results from the base pairing of short, single-stranded antisense RNA molecules to regions within complementary mRNA molecules, preventing protein synthesis. Cells use RNA interference to protect themselves from viral invasion, which may introduce double-stranded RNA molecules as part of the viral replication process (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)).
Researchers are currently developing techniques to mimic the natural process of RNA interference as a way to treat viral infections in eukaryotic cells. RNA interference technology involves using small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) or microRNAs (miRNAs) (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). siRNAs are completely complementary to the mRNA transcript of a specific gene of interest while miRNAs are mostly complementary. These double-stranded RNAs are bound to DICER, an endonuclease that cleaves the RNA into short molecules (approximately 20 nucleotides long). The RNAs are then bound to RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), a ribonucleoprotein. The siRNA-RISC complex binds to mRNA and cleaves it. For miRNA, only one of the two strands binds to RISC. The miRNA-RISC complex then binds to mRNA, inhibiting translation. If the miRNA is completely complementary to the target gene, then the mRNA can be cleaved. Taken together, these mechanisms are known as gene silencing.
Key Concepts and Summary
- The science of genomics allows researchers to study organisms on a holistic level and has many applications of medical relevance.
- Transcriptomics and proteomics allow researchers to compare gene expression patterns between different cells and shows great promise in better understanding global responses to various conditions.
- The various –omics technologies complement each other and together provide a more complete picture of an organism’s or microbial community’s ( metagenomics ) state.
- The analysis required for large data sets produced through genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics has led to the emergence of bioinformatics .
- Reporter genes encoding easily observable characteristics are commonly used to track gene expression patterns of genes of unknown function.
- The use of recombinant DNA technology has revolutionized the pharmaceutical industry, allowing for the rapid production of high-quality recombinant DNA pharmaceuticals used to treat a wide variety of human conditions.
- RNA interference technology has great promise as a method of treating viral infections by silencing the expression of specific genes.
Footnotes
- 1 E.O. List, D.E. Berryman, B. Bower, L. Sackmann-Sala, E. Gosney, J. Ding, S. Okada, and J.J. Kopchick. “The Use of Proteomics to Study Infectious Diseases.” Infectious Disorders-Drug Targets (Formerly Current Drug Targets-Infectious Disorders ) 8 no. 1 (2008): 31–45.
- 2 Mohan Natesan, and Robert G. Ulrich. “Protein Microarrays and Biomarkers of Infectious Disease.” International Journal of Molecular Sciences 11 no. 12 (2010): 5165–5183.
- 3 Jose-Luis Adrio and Arnold L. Demain. “Recombinant Organisms for Production of Industrial Products.” Bioengineered Bugs 1 no. 2 (2010): 116–131.
- 4 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. “Types of Vaccines.” 2013. www.vaccines.gov/more_info/types/#subunit. Accessed May 27, 2016.
- 5 The Internet Drug List. Recombivax . 2015. http://www.rxlist.com/recombivax-drug.htm . Accessed May 27, 2016.