13.5: Factors Affecting Communications and the Roles of Managers
- Understand how power, status, purpose, and interpersonal skills affect communications in organizations.
The Roles Managers Play
Mintzberg’s seminal study of managers and their jobs found most of them clustered around three core management roles (Mintzberg, 1973).
Interpersonal Roles
Managers are required to interact with many people during a workweek. They host receptions; take clients and customers to dinner; meet with business prospects and partners; conduct hiring and performance interviews; and form alliances, friendships, and personal relationships with many others. Numerous studies have shown that such relationships are the richest source of information for managers because of their immediate and personal nature (Mintzberg, 1973).
Three manager roles arise directly from formal authority and involve basic interpersonal relationships. First is the figurehead role. As the head of an organizational unit, every manager must perform ceremonial duties. In Mintzberg’s study, chief executives spent 12% of their contact time on ceremonial duties; 17% of their incoming mail dealt with acknowledgments and requests related to their status. One example is a company president who requested free merchandise for a handicapped schoolchild. 7
Managers are also responsible for the work of the people in their unit, and their actions are directly related to their role as a leader. The influence of managers is most clearly seen, according to Mintzberg, in the leader role. Formal authority vests them with great potential power.
Does the leader’s role matter? Ask the employees of Chrysler Corporation (now Fiat Chrysler). When Sergio Marchionne, who passed away in 2018, took over the company in the wake of the financial crisis, the once-great auto manufacturer was in bankruptcy, teetering on the verge of extinction. He formed new relationships with the United Auto Workers, reorganized the company's senior management, and—perhaps most importantly—convinced the U.S. federal government to guarantee a series of bank loans that would make the company solvent again. The loan guarantees, the union response, and the reaction of the marketplace, especially for the Jeep brand, were largely due to Marchionne’s leadership style and charisma. More recent examples include the return of Starbucks founder Howard Schultz to reenergize and steer his company and Amazon CEO Jeff Bezos and his ability to innovate during an economic downturn (McGregor, 2008).
Popular management literature has had little to say about the liaison role until recently. This role, in which managers establish and maintain contacts outside the vertical chain of command, becomes especially important given the finding of virtually every study of managerial work that managers spend as much time with peers and other people outside of their units as they do with their own subordinates.  In Rosemary Stewart’s (1967) study, 160 British middle and top managers spent 47% of their time with peers, 41% with people inside their unit, and only 12% with superiors. Guest’s (1956) study of U.S. manufacturing supervisors revealed similar findings.
Informational Roles
Managers are required to gather, collate, analyze, store, and disseminate many kinds of information. In doing so, they become information resource centers, often storing huge amounts of information in their own heads, moving quickly from the role of gatherer to the role of disseminator in minutes. Although many business organizations install large, expensive management information systems to perform many of those functions, nothing can match the speed and intuitive power of a well-trained manager’s brain for information processing. Not surprisingly, most managers prefer it that way.
As monitors, managers are constantly scanning the environment for information, talking with liaison contacts and subordinates, and receiving unsolicited information because of their network of personal contacts. Much of this information arrives verbally, often as gossip, hearsay, and speculation (Mintzberg, 1990).
In the disseminator role, managers pass privileged information directly to subordinates, who might otherwise have no access to it. Managers must decide not only who should receive such information, but how much of it, how often, and in what form. Increasingly, managers are being asked to decide whether subordinates, peers, customers, business partners, and others should have direct access to information 24 hours a day without contacting the manager directly (Mintzberg, 1990).
In the spokesperson role, managers send information to people outside their organizations: an executive makes a speech to lobby for an organizational cause, or a supervisor suggests a product modification to a supplier. Managers are increasingly being asked to deal with representatives of the news media, providing factual and opinion-based responses that will be printed or broadcast to vast, unseen audiences, often directly or with little editing. The risks in such circumstances are enormous, but so too are the potential rewards for brand recognition, public image, and organizational visibility (Mintzberg, 1990).
Decisional Roles
Ultimately, managers are responsible for making decisions on behalf of the organization and the stakeholders with an interest in it. Such decisions are often made in circumstances of high ambiguity and with inadequate information. The other two managerial roles—interpersonal and informational—will often assist a manager in making difficult decisions in which outcomes are unclear and interests are often conflicting.
In the role of entrepreneur, managers seek to improve their businesses, adapt to changing market conditions, and react to opportunities as they present themselves. Managers who take a longer-term view of their responsibilities are among the first to realize that they will need to reinvent themselves, their product and service lines, their marketing strategies, and their ways of doing business as older methods become obsolete and competitors gain advantage.
While the entrepreneur role describes managers who initiate change, the disturbance or crisis handler role depicts managers who must involuntarily react to conditions. Crises can arise because bad managers let circumstances deteriorate or spin out of control, but just as often, good managers find themselves in the midst of a crisis that they could not have anticipated but must react to just the same (Mintzberg, 2007).
The third decisional role of resource allocator involves managers making decisions about who gets what, how much, when, and why. Resources, including funding, equipment, human labor, office or production space, and even the boss’s time, are all limited, and demand inevitably outstrips supply. Managers must make sensible decisions about such matters while still retaining, motivating, and developing the best of their employees.
The final decisional role is that of negotiator. Managers spend considerable time in negotiations: over budget allocations, labor and collective bargaining agreements, and other formal dispute resolutions. During a week, managers will often make dozens of decisions resulting from brief but important negotiations between and among employees, customers and clients, suppliers, and others with whom managers must deal (Mintzberg, 1990).
- What are the major roles that managers play in communicating with employees?
- Why are negotiations often brought into communications by managers?


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14.9: Thinking about the material
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Reflect and research
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Look up a video of the Tacoma Narrows bridge failing, and explain what happened.
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Why do airlines ask you to turn off your electronic devices during take-off?
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Is it true that there is no sound in space?
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What type of wave was first observed in 2015?
To try at home
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Confirm that the reflected pulse from a rope on a string is inverted when the end of the rope is fixed.
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Think of different ways you could create a standing wave at home and try one of them out. How many harmonics can you create? How can you modify your set-up to create more harmonics?
To try in the lab
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Propose an experiment to verify the relation
\(v=\lambda f\)
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Propose an experiment which uses diffraction to measure small distances.
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Propose an experiment to determine the chemical composition of the sun using a CD.
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Design a device which acts as a echolocator and test its effectiveness in different scenarios.
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Propose an experiment to observe triboluminescent x-rays produced by ripping scotch tape off of a surface.
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Investigate and model refraction.
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Investigate and model the doppler effect.
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Investigate and model how standing waves behave on a stretched string, tube, or 2D medium.
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Investigate and model audible beats.
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Investigate and model double-slit interference.


5.3: Pre-Classical Theory
[1] The theological stage used supernatural or otherworldly powers to explain behaviors, the metaphysical used rational and logical arguments, and the scientific used positivism and scientific inquiry. During the middle ages, spiritual explanations assumed human beings broke laws or did not conform to conventional norms of society because he or she possessed by demons, the devil, or he or she was a wizard or witch. These explanations assumed God-given “natural law”; thus, crime was equivalent to sin. Governments had the moral authority to punish criminals/sinners and the state was acting on behalf of God. As a result, the accused person could “prove” their innocence by a trial by battle (only the victor is innocent) or trial by ordeal (innocent party would be unharmed while the guilty party would feel pain). As you can imagine, punishments and justice were arbitrary and severe, especially when feudal lords, with God’s permission, determined guilt. A person’s rank, status, and or wealth determined their punishment, rather than the merits of the case at hand.
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Comte, A. (1877). System of positive polity (4th vol.). New York: Burt Franklin.
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6.4.3: Catalytic Applications of Organometallic Compounds- Alkene Metathesis
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Learning Objectives
In this lecture you will learn the following
- The alkene metathesis reactions and their different variants.
- The application of metal carbenes in alkene metathesis reactions.
- The functional group tolerance, air and moisture sensitivity and high efficiency as important catalyst attributes for the alkene metathesis reactions.
The application of organometallic chemistry in homogenous catalysis is progressively increasing with the fast pace of discovery of new catalysts in the area. The benefits of organometallic catalysis have now percolated to all facets of the chemical world that span from the confines of the industry to the day-to-day small scale use in organic synthesis in academic laboratories. Quite a few of these applications of organometallic complexes in homogeneous catalysis have made a permanent imprint on the ever going developmental process that is constantly transforming our day-to-day life. An example of such a success story is of alkene metathesis, which is described in this chapter.
Alkene metathesis
Alkene metathesis reactions are gaining wide popularity in synthesizing unsaturated olefinic compounds as well as the unsaturated polymeric counterparts. Central to this catalysis is a metal carbene intermediate that reacts with olefins to give different olefinic compounds or even the unsaturated olefinic polymers depending upon the reaction conditions of the metathesis reaction. Metathesis is an unusual transformation in which a C=C is broken and also formed during catalysis to generate new unsaturated olefins.
\[\ce{RCH=CHR + R'CH=CHR' <=> 2RCH=CHR'} \nonumber \]
Though a large variety of metal−carbene catalysts have been developed for the metathesis reaction, only a few have been found to be functional group tolerant. Thus a critical step in broadening the utility of metathesis reaction has been in developing catalysts that are functional group tolerant. In this regard, the early-transition metal based carbene catalysts like that of the Ti based ones are highly oxophilic and hence are intolerant to the functional groups. On the other hand, the more electron-rich Mo and W based catalysts are of intermediate character. Finally, the late-transition metal based Ru catalysts are found to be exceptionally tolerant toward functional groups but all the while exhibiting high reactivity toward olefinic bonds. In this context notable are the Grubb’s Ru catalyst, which is easy to handle, and the Schrock’s Mo catalyst, which display high activity.
The metathesis reaction as such stands for a family of related reactions all of which involve a “cutting and stitching” of olefinic bonds leading to different unsaturated products. When two different olefin substrates are used, the reaction is called the “cross metathesis” owing to the fact that the olefinic ends are exchanged.
\[\ce{RCH=CHR + R'CH=CHR' <=> 2RCH=CHR'} \nonumber \]
The metathesis reactions can even extend further to the conjugated dienes that can undergo Ring Closing Metathesis (RCM) in systems where the ring strain is not too high in the final product. The reverse of Ring Closing Metathesis (RCM) is called the Ring Opening Metathesis (ROM), and which is usually favored in the presence of large excess of C 2 H 4 .
The variants of metathesis often used in producing polymers are, ( i ) the Acyclic Diene Metathesis (ADMET) and ( ii ) the Ring Opening Metathesis Polymerization (ROMP), in which the relief of ring-strain of cycloalkenes drives the polymerization reaction forward. Both of these reactions, produce long chain polymers in a living fashion and as a result of which these reactions are useful for producing block copolymers −(AAABBBB) n −.
Though several possibilities have been debated for the mechanism of the metathesis reaction, the one proceeding via a metalacyclobutane intermediate has gained credence.
Several important industrial applications have emerged out of the metathesis reaction like that of the commercial synthesis of the housefly pheromone.
\[\ce{Me(CH2)7CH=CH2 + Me(CH2)12CH=CH2 -> Me(CH2)7CH=C(CH2)12Me [housefly \: pheromone] + C2H4 + \: other \: products} \nonumber \]
Similarly, the polycyclopentadiene polymer, which is formed from the Ring Opening Metathesis Polymerization (ROMP) of dicyclopentadiene substrate, is used for bullet proof related applications because of its exceptional strength owing to its cross-linked nature.
Summary
Alkene metathesis represents a distinct class of related chemical reactions that involve the “cutting and stitching” of olefinic bonds to give unsaturated organic products. Depending upon the nature of the product formed, different type of alkene metathesis reactions exist like the alkene metathesis, cross-metathesis, Ring Closing Metathesis (RCM), Ring Opening Metathesis (ROM), Acyclic Diene Metathesis (ADMET), and the Ring Opening Metathesis Polymerization (ROMP). A commonality that runs through all of these different varieties of the metathesis reaction is its mechanism that involves a catalytically active metal−carbene species. The mechanism is said to be proceed via a 4−membered metalacyclobutane intermediate. The alkene metathesis has found important applications in organic synthesis as well as in the chemical industry.


7.3: Collision resolution
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If two keys hash to the same index, the corresponding records cannot be stored in the same location. So, if it's already occupied, we must find another location to store the new record, and do it so that we can find it when we look it up later on.
To give an idea of the importance of a good collision resolution strategy, consider the following result, derived using the birthday paradox. Even if we assume that our hash function outputs random indices uniformly distributed over the array, and even for an array with 1 million entries, there is a 95% chance of at least one collision occurring before it contains 2500 records.
There are a number of collision resolution techniques, but the most popular are chaining and open addressing .
Chaining
In the simplest chained hash table technique, each slot in the array references a linked list of inserted records that collide to the same slot. Insertion requires finding the correct slot, and appending to either end of the list in that slot; deletion requires searching the list and removal.
Chained hash tables have advantages over open addressed hash tables in that the removal operation is simple and resizing the table can be postponed for a much longer time because performance degrades more gracefully even when every slot is used. Indeed, many chaining hash tables may not require resizing at all since performance degradation is linear as the table fills. For example, a chaining hash table containing twice its recommended capacity of data would only be about twice as slow on average as the same table at its recommended capacity.
Chained hash tables inherit the disadvantages of linked lists. When storing small records, the overhead of the linked list can be significant. An additional disadvantage is that traversing a linked list has poor cache performance.
Alternative data structures can be used for chains instead of linked lists. By using a self-balancing tree, for example, the theoretical worst-case time of a hash table can be brought down to O(log n ) rather than O( n ). However, since each list is intended to be short, this approach is usually inefficient unless the hash table is designed to run at full capacity or there are unusually high collision rates, as might occur in input designed to cause collisions. Dynamic arrays can also be used to decrease space overhead and improve cache performance when records are small.
Some chaining implementations use an optimization where the first record of each chain is stored in the table. Although this can increase performance, it is generally not recommended: chaining tables with reasonable load factors contain a large proportion of empty slots, and the larger slot size causes them to waste large amounts of space.
Open addressing
Open addressing hash tables can store the records directly within the array. A hash collision is resolved by probing , or searching through alternate locations in the array (the probe sequence ) until either the target record is found, or an unused array slot is found, which indicates that there is no such key in the table. Well known probe sequences include:
linear probing
in which the interval between probes is fixed—often at 1,
quadratic probing
in which the interval between probes increases linearly (hence, the indices are described by a quadratic function), and
double hashing
in which the interval between probes is fixed for each record but is computed by another hash function.
The main tradeoffs between these methods are that linear probing has the best cache performance but is most sensitive to clustering, while double hashing has poor cache performance but exhibits virtually no clustering; quadratic hashing falls in-between in both areas. Double hashing can also require more computation than other forms of probing. Some open addressing methods, such as last-come-first-served hashing and cuckoo hashing move existing keys around in the array to make room for the new key. This gives better maximum search times than the methods based on probing.
A critical influence on performance of an open addressing hash table is the load factor ; that is, the proportion of the slots in the array that are used. As the load factor increases towards 100%, the number of probes that may be required to find or insert a given key rises dramatically. Once the table becomes full, probing algorithms may even fail to terminate. Even with good hash functions, load factors are normally limited to 80%. A poor hash function can exhibit poor performance even at very low load factors by generating significant clustering. What causes hash functions to cluster is not well understood, and it is easy to unintentionally write a hash function which causes severe clustering.
Example pseudocode
The following pseudocode is an implementation of an open addressing hash table with linear probing and single-slot stepping, a common approach that is effective if the hash function is good. Each of the lookup , set and remove functions use a common internal function findSlot to locate the array slot that either does or should contain a given key.
record pair { key, value } var pair array slot[0..numSlots-1] function findSlot(key) i := hash(key) modulus numSlots loop if slot[i] is not occupied or slot[i].key = key return i i := (i + 1) modulus numSlots function lookup(key) i := findSlot(key) if slot[i] is occupied // key is in table return slot[i].value else // key is not in table return not found function set(key, value) i := findSlot(key) if slot[i].key = key // (Key already in table. Update value.) slot[i].value := value else // (Insert key and value in un-occupied slot.) // (But first, make sure insert won't overload the table) if the table is almost full rebuild the table larger (note 1) i := findSlot(key) slot[i].key := key slot[i].value := value
Another example showing open addressing technique. Presented function is converting each part(4) of an Internet protocol address, where NOT is bitwise NOT, XOR is bitwise XOR, OR is bitwise OR, AND is bitwise AND and << and >> are shift-left and shift-right:
// key_1,key_2,key_3,key_4 are following 3-digit numbers - parts of ip address xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx function ip(key parts) j := 1 do key := (key_2 << 2) key := (key + (key_3 << 7)) key := key + (j OR key_4 >> 2) * (key_4) * (j + key_1) XOR j key := key AND _prime_ // _prime_ is a prime number j := (j+1) while collision return key
Note 1
Rebuilding the table requires allocating a larger array and recursively using the set operation to insert all the elements of the old array into the new larger array. It is common to increase the array size exponentially, for example by doubling the old array size.
function remove(key) i := findSlot(key) if slot[i] is unoccupied return // key is not in the table j := i loop j := (j+1) modulus numSlots if slot[j] is unoccupied exit loop k := hash(slot[j].key) modulus numSlots if (j > i and (k <= i or k > j)) or (j < i and (k <= i and k > j)) (note 2) slot[i] := slot[j] i := j mark slot[i] as unoccupied
Note 2
For all records in a cluster, there must be no vacant slots between their natural hash position and their current position (else lookups will terminate before finding the record). At this point in the pseudocode, i is a vacant slot that might be invalidating this property for subsequent records in the cluster. j is such as subsequent record. k is the raw hash where the record at j would naturally land in the hash table if there were no collisions. This test is asking if the record at j is invalidly positioned with respect to the required properties of a cluster now that i is vacant.
Another technique for removal is simply to mark the slot as deleted. However this eventually requires rebuilding the table simply to remove deleted records. The methods above provide O(1) updating and removal of existing records, with occasional rebuilding if the high water mark of the table size grows.
The O(1) remove method above is only possible in linearly probed hash tables with single-slot stepping. In the case where many records are to be deleted in one operation, marking the slots for deletion and later rebuilding may be more efficient.
Open addressing versus chaining
Chained hash tables have the following benefits over open addressing:
- They are simple to implement effectively and only require basic data structures.
- From the point of view of writing suitable hash functions, chained hash tables are insensitive to clustering, only requiring minimization of collisions. Open addressing depends upon better hash functions to avoid clustering. This is particularly important if novice programmers can add their own hash functions, but even experienced programmers can be caught out by unexpected clustering effects.
- They degrade in performance more gracefully. Although chains grow longer as the table fills, a chained hash table cannot "fill up" and does not exhibit the sudden increases in lookup times that occur in a near-full table with open addressing. ( see right )
- If the hash table stores large records, about 5 or more words per record, chaining uses less memory than open addressing.
- If the hash table is sparse (that is, it has a big array with many free array slots), chaining uses less memory than open addressing even for small records of 2 to 4 words per record due to its external storage.
For small record sizes (a few words or less) the benefits of in-place open addressing compared to chaining are:
- They can be more space-efficient than chaining since they don't need to store any pointers or allocate any additional space outside the hash table. Simple linked lists require a word of overhead per element.
- Insertions avoid the time overhead of memory allocation, and can even be implemented in the absence of a memory allocator.
- Because it uses internal storage, open addressing avoids the extra indirection required for chaining's external storage. It also has better locality of reference, particularly with linear probing. With small record sizes, these factors can yield better performance than chaining, particularly for lookups.
- They can be easier to serialize, because they don't use pointers.
On the other hand, normal open addressing is a poor choice for large elements, since these elements fill entire cache lines (negating the cache advantage), and a large amount of space is wasted on large empty table slots. If the open addressing table only stores references to elements (external storage), it uses space comparable to chaining even for large records but loses its speed advantage.
Generally speaking, open addressing is better used for hash tables with small records that can be stored within the table (internal storage) and fit in a cache line. They are particularly suitable for elements of one word or less. In cases where the tables are expected to have high load factors, the records are large, or the data is variable-sized, chained hash tables often perform as well or better.
Ultimately, used sensibly any kind of hash table algorithm is usually fast enough ; and the percentage of a calculation spent in hash table code is low. Memory usage is rarely considered excessive. Therefore, in most cases the differences between these algorithms is marginal, and other considerations typically come into play.
Coalesced hashing
A hybrid of chaining and open addressing, coalesced hashing links together chains of nodes within the table itself. Like open addressing, it achieves space usage and (somewhat diminished) cache advantages over chaining. Like chaining, it does not exhibit clustering effects; in fact, the table can be efficiently filled to a high density. Unlike chaining, it cannot have more elements than table slots.
Perfect hashing
If all of the keys that will be used are known ahead of time, and there are no more keys that can fit the hash table, perfect hashing can be used to create a perfect hash table, in which there will be no collisions. If minimal perfect hashing is used, every location in the hash table can be used as well.
Perfect hashing gives a hash table where the time to make a lookup is constant in the worst case. This is in contrast to chaining and open addressing methods, where the time for lookup is low on average, but may be arbitrarily large. There exist methods for maintaining a perfect hash function under insertions of keys, known as dynamic perfect hashing. A simpler alternative, that also gives worst case constant lookup time, is cuckoo hashing.
Probabilistic hashing
Perhaps the simplest solution to a collision is to replace the value that is already in the slot with the new value, or slightly less commonly, drop the record that is to be inserted. In later searches, this may result in a search not finding a record which has been inserted. This technique is particularly useful for implementing caching.
An even more space-efficient solution which is similar to this is use a bit array (an array of one-bit fields) for our table. Initially all bits are set to zero, and when we insert a key, we set the corresponding bit to one. False negatives cannot occur, but false positives can, since if the search finds a 1 bit, it will claim that the value was found, even if it was just another value that hashed into the same array slot by coincidence. In reality, such a hash table is merely a specific type of Bloom filter.


3.10: References
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16.10.1: Review Questions
Review Questions
How do we know the age of the Sun?
2.
Explain how we know that the Sun’s energy is not supplied either by chemical burning, as in fires here on Earth, or by gravitational contraction (shrinking).
3.
What is the ultimate source of energy that makes the Sun shine?
4.
What are the formulas for the three steps in the proton-proton chain?
5.
How is a neutrino different from a neutron? List all the ways you can think of.
6.
Describe in your own words what is meant by the statement that the Sun is in hydrostatic equilibrium.
7.
Two astronomy students travel to South Dakota. One stands on Earth’s surface and enjoys some sunshine. At the same time, the other descends into a gold mine where neutrinos are detected, arriving in time to detect the creation of a new radioactive argon nucleus. Although the photon at the surface and the neutrinos in the mine arrive at the same time, they have had very different histories. Describe the differences.
8.
What do measurements of the number of neutrinos emitted by the Sun tell us about conditions deep in the solar interior?
9.
Do neutrinos have mass? Describe how the answer to this question has changed over time and why.
10.
Neutrinos produced in the core of the Sun carry energy to its exterior. Is the mechanism for this energy transport conduction, convection, or radiation?
11.
What conditions are required before proton-proton chain fusion can start in the Sun?
12.
Describe the two main ways that energy travels through the Sun.


9.7: Gravity Waves
gravitational energy moving at light speed
Gravity waves from collapsing matter
A cork floating all alone on the Pacific Ocean may not reveal the passage of a wave. But when a second cork is floating near it, then the passing of the wave is revealed by the fluctuating separation between the two corks. So too for the separation of the two mirrors. There is, however, this great difference. The cork-to-cork distance reveals a momentary change in the two-dimensional geometry of the surface of the ocean.
How to detect gravity waves
The mirror-to-mirror distance reveals a momentary change in the three-dimensional geometry of space itself.
Three kinds of astronomical objects exist comparable in mass to Sun but very much smaller. Two of these have been observed; the third seems an inevitable result of Einstein’s theory.
A white dwarf star is a star of about one solar mass, with radius about 5000 kilometers. (The radius of Earth is 6371 kilometers.) This gives the white dwarf a density of approximately \(10^{9}\) kilograms/meter \({ }^{3}\) lor one metric ton per cubic centimeter). As of 1990 , approximately 1500 white dwarfs have been identified.
White dwarfs were observed and studied astronomically long before they were understood theoretically. Today we have come to recognize that a white dwarf is a star that quietly used up its fuel and settled gently into this compact state. The electrons and nuclei that make up the body of a white dwarf are not separated into atoms. Instead, the electrons form a gas in which the nuclei swim. The pressure of this "cold" electron gas keeps the white dwarf from collapsing further.
S. Chandrasekhar calculated in 1930 that no white dwarf can be more massive than approximately \(1.4\) solar masses ("Chandrasekhar limit’) without collapsing under its own gravitational attraction. His analysis assumed the mix of electrons and nuclei to be unaltered under compression by a load so heavy, an assumption that had to be modified in later years. Today we recognize that enormous compressions squeeze electrons into combining with protons to make neutrons. At compressions near the Chandrasekhar limit, the electron gas transforms into a neutron gas, the interior of the star becomes a giant nucleus, and the whole nature of the compact object changes to that of a neutron star.
A neutron star has roughly the same density as an atomic nucleus, of the order of \(10^{17}\) kilograms/meter \(^{3}\) , or one Earth mass per cube of edge length 400 meters. The radius of a neutron star is approximately 10 kilometers. mirror-to-mirror distance reveals a momentary change in the three-dimensional geometry of space itself.
How often is a neutron star formed? Towards answering this still open question we have one important lead: In our own galaxy we see one supernova explosion on average about every 300 years [most recent supernova in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a satellite structure near our galaxy, on February 23, \(1987 ;\) one seen by Kepler, October 13,1604 ; one seen by Tycho Brahe November 6, 1572 ; earlier ones: 1181 A.D.; July 4, 1054 A.D.; 1006 A.D. (the brightest); 185 A.D.; and two possibles in 386 A.D. and 393 A.D.]. In such an event a star teetering on the edge of instability finally collapses. The Niagara Falls of infalling mass in some cases go too far and overcompress the inner region of the star. That region thereupon acts like a spring, or explosive charge, and drives off the outer portions of the star. This explains the spectacular luminosity that is such a prominent feature of a supernova. The core that remains becomes a neutron star in some events, it is believed, in others a black hole.
Neutron stars were predicted in 1934 but not observed until 1968. Many neutron stars spin rapidly - with a period as short as a few milliseconds. A neutron star typically has an immense magnetic field. When that field is aligned at an angle relative to the axis of spin of the star las in Earth, for example), it sweeps around like a giant whisk brush through the plasma in the space around the star. The periodic shock to the electrons of the plasma from the periodic arrival of this field excites those electrons to radiate periodic pulses of radio waves and visible light _ both observed on Earth. Because of this behavior, such neutron stars are called pulsars. As of 1990 , nearly 500 pulsars have been identified.
 Even light cannot escape from a black hole, whence its name. No one who accepts general relativity has found any way to escape the prediction that black holes must exist in our galaxy. Strong evidence for the existence of black holes has been found, but it is not yet convincing to all astrophysicists.   There is no theoretical upper limit to its mass.
The idea of extracting energy from ocean waves is old. After all, the ability of a water wave to change a distance lets itself be translated into the ability to do work. The same reasoning applies to a gravity wave. Because it can change distance, it can do work. It carries energy. Energy once resident as mass in the interior of a star has radiated out to us and to all the universe.
Of all the workings of the grip of gravity, none is more fascinating or opens up for exploration a wider realm of ideas than a gravity wave . None pushes to a higher pitch the art of detecting a small effect, and none gives more promise of providing an unsurpassable window on cataclysmic events deep inside troubled stars. Nevertheless, no other great prediction of Einstein’s geometric theory of gravity stands today so far from triumphant exploitation. As of this writing, not one of the nine ingenious waves detectors built to this day has proved sensitive enough to secure any generally agreed detection of an arriving gravity wave.
Does any truly simple line of reasoning assure us that gravity will inescapably carry energy away from two masses that undergo rapid change in relative position? Yes is the conclusion of a little story that savors of mythology. The Atlas of our day, zooming through space in free float, insists as much as ever on maintaining physical fitness. He pumps iron, not by raising iron against the pull of Earth’s gravity, but by throwing apart two identical great iron spheres, Alpha and Beta. He floats between those minor moons and plays catch with them. Each time they fall together under the influence of their mutual gravity, he catches them, absorbs their energy of infall in his springlike muscles, and flings them apart so that they always travel the same distance before returning. It’s an enchanting game, but Atlas finds that it’s a losing game. When the masses fly back together, they never yield up to him as much energy as he must supply to throw them apart again. Why not?
Gravity waves result from time delay
Say the central point in two words: time delay. Like any force that makes itself felt through the emptiness of space, the force of gravity cannot propagate faster than the speed of light. This limitation imposes a delay on the attraction between the two iron spheres. Alpha, on each little stretch of its outbound path, feels a pull that originated from Beta when the two were a tiny bit closer than they are now. The actual force that’s slowing Alpha is therefore a tiny bit bigger than we would judge from thinking of them as stationary at their momentary separation. On its return trip inbound along the same little stretch of path, Alpha experiences a helping pull that originated from Beta when the two had a separation slightly greater than its present value. The actual force that’s speeding Alpha inward is therefore a tiny bit less than we would judge from thinking of them as stationary at their momentary separation. In each stretch of their outbound trip, the two masses have to do more work against the pull of gravity than they get back - in the form of work done on them by gravity - on the same stretch of path inbound. A calculable amount of energy disappears from the local scene on each out-in cycle of Atlas’s exercise. Yet the total energy must somehow be conserved. Therefore the very gravity that steals energy from Atlas and his iron, or from any two masses that rapidly change their relative position, must somehow all the time be transporting the stolen energy to the far-away. That inescapable theft of energy is in its quality, its directional distribution, and its magnitude none other than what Einstein had treated long before under the head of gravity radiation and what we now call gravity waves.
Gravity waves steal energy from orbiting neutron stars
Atlas couldn’t "see" those gravity waves. Neither have we today yet succeeded in detecting directly the gravity waves we feel sure must be radiating from sources dotted here and there in the galaxy and in the universe. However, we have an exciting indirect confirmation that gravity waves exist - not through their action on any receptor, but through the energy they carry away from a whirling pair of neutron stars. That particular "binary pulsar" first revealed itself to Joseph H. Taylor, Jr., and Russell A Hulse by periodic pulses of radio waves picked up on the huge disklike antenna at Arecibo in Puerto Rico. As one of these neutron stars spins on its axis, its magnetic field spins with it, giving timing comparable in accuracy to the best atomic clock ever built (Box 9-2). Thanks to this happy circumstance, Taylor and his colleagues have been able to follow the ever-shortening separation of the two stars and the ever-higher speed they attain as they slowly spiral in toward an ultimate catastrophe some 400 million years from now. The timing of the orbits gives us a measure of energy lost as the stars spiral in. No reasonable way has ever been found to account for the thus observed loss of energy except gravitational radiation. As of September 1989, 14 years after first observation, this loss of energy agrees with the rate predicted by theory to better than one percent (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)).
Gravity waves and pulses of gravity radiation are sweeping over us all the time from sources of many kinds out in space. Detecting them, however, we are no better than the primitive jungle dweller unable to detect and even totally unaware of the radio waves that carry past her every minute of the day music, words, and messages. However, experimentalists are working out ingenious technology and building detector instrumentation of ever-growing sensitivity (Figures \(\PageIndex{2}\) and \(\PageIndex{3}\)). Few among them have any doubt of their ability to detect pulses of gravity radiation from one or another star catastrophe by sometime in the first decade of the twenty-first century.
Astronomy uses signals of many kinds-light, radio waves, and X-rays among them - to reveal the secrets of the stars. Of all signals from a star, none comes out from deeper in the interior than a gravity wave.  -


1.9: Workplace Sanitation
Maintaining a clean work environment is critical in preventing foodborne illness. Bacteria can grow on unsanitary surfaces and then contaminate food. Just because a work surface looks clean does not mean that it is sanitary. Always ensure that you clean and sanitize a work area before starting to prepare food.
Cleaning Procedures and Schedules
Cleaning with soap and other detergents is just one step of the cleaning procedure. It is also necessary to sanitize. Cleaning will remove any dirt or grease, but will not necessarily kill any bacteria or other pathogens.  Leading sanitizers used in the food service industry are chlorine solutions (bleach), quaternary solutions (quats), and iodine. Use these materials according to the manufacturer’s instructions that accompany the product and that are found on the material safety data sheet (MSDS) using the appropriate personal protective equipment.
A sanitation plan is important in any food service preparation area. It ensures that all surfaces are cleaned on a regular basis and reduces the risks of transferring bacteria or other pathogens from an unclean surface to clean equipment such as cutting boards or tools. A sanitation plan has two components:
- A list of cleaning and sanitizing agents or supplies with instructions on their safe use and storage
- A cleaning schedule, outlining how each item needs to be cleaned, who is responsible, and how frequently it happens
Figure 5 shows a sample daily and weekly cleaning schedule for a restaurant.
Figure 5. Sample Cleaning Schedule
| Item | Frequency | Method | Responsibility | Supervisor initial |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Upright mixer |
|
|
Pastry cooks | ________ |
| Meat slicer |
|
|
Garde manger | ________ |
| Item | Frequency | Method | Responsibility | Supervisor initial |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dry storage | Monday after dinner service |
|
Grill cook | ________ |
| Reach-in freezer | Tuesday after dinner dervice |
|
Garde manger | ________ |
Dishwashing Procedures
Effective dishwashing ensures that all equipment is sanitary and ready for use when required. Using soiled or dirty china is not only dangerous, but it will tell customers that the operator as little or no regard for customer safety. Table 2.5 shows the proper procedures for both manual and automatic dishwashing.
Before washing, scrape dishes and pre-soak any items with hard to remove residue. Then follow the procedure in Table 5, depending on whether you are using a high- or low-temperature dishwasher or you are washing dishes manually.
| Step | Manual | High-temperature dishwasher | Low-temperature dishwasher or glass washer |
|---|---|---|---|
| Wash | Use a commercial detergent and 45°C (113°F) water. | Wash cycle must reach at least 60°C (140°F). | Wash cycle must reach at least 60°C (140°F). |
| Rinse | Rinse in clean hot water. | Hot rinse cycle. | Warm or cold rinse cycle with sanitizer. |
| Sanitize | Sanitize for 2 minutes with an approved sanitizing solution (50 ppm chlorine or 12.5 ppm iodine). | Rinse cycle must reach at least 82°C (180°F) for at least 10 seconds. | Final rinse must have concentration of 50 ppm chlorine or 12.5 ppm iodine. |
| Dry |
Drain boards should be sanitized and sloped for drainage.
Never towel dry. |
Drain boards should be sanitized and sloped for drainage
Never towel dry. |
Drain boards should be sanitized and sloped for drainage
Never towel dry. |
Routine Equipment Maintenance
Most kitchen equipment is intended to be disassembled for cleaning. Refer to the manufacturer’s instructions and training provided by your employer or instructor on how to do this safely. Some equipment is intended to be cleaned in place. This should be identified in your sanitation plan and cleaning schedule.
All equipment must be routinely cleaned and inspected. Older equipment may have nooks and crannies where dirt and bacteria can hide, which can be difficult to clean effectively. Proper cleaning procedures must be established and followed at all times with regular review to ensure that procedures are working. If equipment is replaced or cleaning materials change, the process may have to be adjusted. If you notice any safety concerns with the equipment while cleaning it, such as a frayed cord, missing guard or loose parts, let your supervisor know immediately.
Importance of Personal Hygiene
It is imperative for safe food-handling outcomes for all workers to be familiar with standard sanitation and hygiene practices. Figure 6 shows the cycles of transmission of micro-organisms. One of the basic principles is to break the cycle by avoiding cross-contamination, which can be achieved by ensuring personal hygiene practices are followed.
Proper personal hygiene is critical in any food service premise. Personal hygiene includes:
- Showering and bathing regularly
- Keeping hair clean hair and covered or tied back
- Keeping clean clothing and footwear that is used only at work
- Handwashing regularly
- Using clean utensils for tasting food
- Using separate cloths for cleaning and wiping plates
Handwashing
Proper and regular handwashing is a critical part of any food safety system. You must always wash your hands after:
- Sneezing, coughing, or touching your mouth or nose
- Using the bathroom
- Smoking or using toothpicks
- Handling raw foods
- Cleaning and wiping tables, food preparation surfaces, or equipment
- Handling soiled objects, garbage, or money
The steps for proper handwashing are as follows:
- Wet hands with warm water.
- Apply liquid soap and lather for at least 20 to 30 seconds.
- Scrub backs of hands, wrists, all fingers, and under nails.
- Rinse under running water, pointing down toward the drain.
- Dry with a paper towel.
- Turn off taps and open bathroom door using the paper towel.


21.0: Introduction
The integumentary system is an essential component to every healthcare encounter. The condition of an individual’s skin, hair, and nails provides important information about their physical and emotional health. The structures of the integumentary system play significant functions in the body and reflect dysfunctions from other body systems. For example, someone with inadequate perfusion may have a cyanotic, or blue, appearance to their skin. Thus, when a nurse notes this abnormal skin appearance, appropriate interventions can be identified and implemented to promote optimal outcomes. Therefore, nurses must be competent in the anatomy and physiology of the integumentary system to adequately develop a plan of care, identify potential risks, and implement appropriate nursing interventions. The nurse must also have knowledge of factors affecting skin integrity , wounds, and wound management.


21.3: Sculpture of the Baroque Period
Italian Sculpture in the Baroque Period
Baroque sculpture dominated Italy in the 1600s and was characterized by sculpture in the round.
Indicate the attributes of Baroque sculpture in 17th century Italy
Key Points
- Baroque sculpture attempted to capture dynamic movement of human figures, spiraling around an empty central vortex or reaching outwards into the surrounding space .
- Baroque sculpture was meant to be viewed from all angles and displayed centrally, rather than against a wall.
- Gian Lorenzo Bernini was the most important Italian sculptor during the Baroque Period, both in Rome and throughout Europe.
- Bernini’s sculpture of French ruler Louis XIV set the standard for royal portraiture for a century.
Key Terms
- relief : A type of artwork in which shapes or figures protrude from a flat background.
- relief sculpture : A type of sculpture that gives the impression that the sculpted material has been raised above the background plane.
Overview: Baroque Sculpture
Baroque sculpture is associated with the Baroque cultural movement in 17th century Europe. In Baroque sculpture, groups of figures assumed new importance, and there was a dynamic movement and energy of human forms—they spiraled around an empty central vortex or reached outwards into the surrounding space. Baroque sculpture often had multiple ideal viewing angles and reflected a general continuation of the Renaissance’s move away from relief to sculpture created in the round . They were typically designed to be placed in the middle of a large space; for example, elaborate fountains such as Bernini’s Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi (Rome, 1651) or those in the Gardens of Versailles were a Baroque specialty.
A great deal of Baroque sculpture added extra-sculptural elements; for example, concealed lighting, water fountains, or fused sculpture and architecture that created a transformative experience for the viewer . Artists saw themselves as working in the classical tradition and admired Hellenistic and later Roman sculpture.
The Work of Bernini
Gian Lorenzo Bernini was the dominating figure of the age. Bernini’s sculptural output was immense and varied. The Ecstasy of St. Theresa in the Cornaro Chapel, Santa Maria della Vittoria , and the now-hidden Constantine at the base of the Scala Regia (which he designed) were among his best known works. Bernini was also given the commission for the Tomb of Pope Urban VIII in St Peters.
In 1665, at the height of his fame, Bernini traveled to Paris for several months in response to repeated requests for his works by King Louis XIV. His international popularity was such that the streets were lined with admiring crowds during his walks in the city. Here, Bernini presented some designs for the east front of the Louvre, which were ultimately rejected. He soon lost favor at the French court as he praised the art and architecture of Italy over that of France. The sole work remaining from his time in Paris is a bust of Louis XIV, which set the standard for royal portraiture for a century.
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- Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Gian_Lorenzo_Bernini%23Rise_to_master_sculptor. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Baroque sculpture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque_sculpture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Gian_Lorenzo_Bernini%23Rise_to_master_sculptor. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- relief. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/relief. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Boundless. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com//art-history/definition/relief-sculpture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


7.2: Validity
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Validity , often called construct validity, refers to the extent to which a measure adequately represents the underlying construct that it is supposed to measure. For instance, is a measure of compassion really measuring compassion, and not measuring a different construct such as empathy? Validity can be assessed using theoretical or empirical approaches, and should ideally be measured using both approaches. Theoretical assessment of validity focuses on how well the idea of a theoretical construct is translated into or represented in an operational measure. This type of validity is called translational validity (or representational validity), and consists of two subtypes: face and content validity. Translational validity is typically assessed using a panel of expert judges, who rate each item (indicator) on how well they fit the conceptual definition of that construct, and a qualitative technique called Q-sort.
Empirical assessment of validity examines how well a given measure relates to one or more external criterion, based on empirical observations. This type of validity is called criterion-related validity , which includes four sub-types: convergent, discriminant, concurrent, and predictive validity. While translation validity examines whether a measure is a good reflection of its underlying construct, criterion-related validity examines whether a given measure behaves the way it should, given the theory of that construct. This assessment is based on quantitative analysis of observed data using statistical techniques such as correlational analysis, factor analysis, and so forth. The distinction between theoretical and empirical assessment of validity is illustrated in Figure 7.2. However, both approaches are needed to adequately ensure the validity of measures in social science research.
Note that the different types of validity discussed here refer to the validity of the measurement procedures , which is distinct from the validity of hypotheses testing procedures , such as internal validity (causality), external validity (generalizability), or statistical conclusion validity. The latter types of validity are discussed in a later chapter.
Face validity . Face validity refers to whether an indicator seems to be a reasonable measure of its underlying construct “on its face”. For instance, the frequency of one’s attendance at religious services seems to make sense as an indication of a person’s religiosity without a lot of explanation. Hence this indicator has face validity. However, if we were to suggest how many books were checked out of an office library as a measure of employee morale, then such a measure would probably lack face validity because it does not seem to make much sense. Interestingly, some of the popular measures used in organizational research appears to lack face validity. For instance, absorptive capacity of an organization (how much new knowledge can it assimilate for improving organizational processes) has often been measured as research and development intensity (i.e., R&D expenses divided by gross revenues)! If your research includes constructs that are highly abstract or constructs that are hard to conceptually separate from each other (e.g., compassion and empathy), it may be worthwhile to consider using a panel of experts to evaluate the face validity of your construct measures.
Content validity . Content validity is an assessment of how well a set of scale items matches with the relevant content domain of the construct that it is trying to measure. For instance, if you want to measure the construct “satisfaction with restaurant service,” and you define the content domain of restaurant service as including the quality of food, courtesy of wait staff, duration of wait, and the overall ambience of the restaurant (i.e., whether it is noisy, smoky, etc.), then for adequate content validity, this construct should be measured using indicators that examine the extent to which a restaurant patron is satisfied with the quality of food, courtesy of wait staff, the length of wait, and the restaurant’s ambience. Of course, this approach requires a detailed description of the entire content domain of a construct, which may be difficult for complex constructs such as self-esteem or intelligence. Hence, it may not be always possible to adequately assess content validity. As with face validity, an expert panel of judges may be employed to examine content validity of constructs.
Convergent validity refers to the closeness with which a measure relates to (or converges on) the construct that it is purported to measure, and discriminant validity refers to the degree to which a measure does not measure (or discriminates from) other constructs that it is not supposed to measure. Usually, convergent validity and discriminant validity are assessed jointly for a set of related constructs. For instance, if you expect that an organization’s knowledge is related to its performance, how can you assure that your measure of organizational knowledge is indeed measuring organizational knowledge (for convergent validity) and not organizational performance (for discriminant validity)? Convergent validity can be established by comparing the observed values of one indicator of one construct with that of other indicators of the same construct and demonstrating similarity (or high correlation) between values of these indicators. Discriminant validity is established by demonstrating that indicators of one construct are dissimilar from (i.e., have low correlation with) other constructs. In the above example, if we have a three-item measure of organizational knowledge and three more items for organizational performance, based on observed sample data, we can compute bivariate correlations between each pair of knowledge and performance items. If this correlation matrix shows high correlations within items of the organizational knowledge and organizational performance constructs, but low correlations between items of these constructs, then we have simultaneously demonstrated convergent and discriminant validity (see Table 7.1).
Table 7.1. Bivariate correlational analysis for convergent and discriminant validity
An alternative and more common statistical method used to demonstrate convergent and discriminant validity is exploratory factor analysis . This is a data reduction technique which aggregates a given set of items to a smaller set of factors based on the bivariate correlation structure discussed above using a statistical technique called principal components analysis. These factors should ideally correspond to the underling theoretical constructs that we are trying to measure. The general norm for factor extraction is that each extracted factor should have an eigenvalue greater than 1.0. The extracted factors can then be rotated using orthogonal or oblique rotation techniques, depending on whether the underlying constructs are expected to be relatively uncorrelated or correlated, to generate factor weights that can be used to aggregate the individual items of each construct into a composite measure. For adequate convergent validity, it is expected that items belonging to a common construct should exhibit factor loadings of 0.60 or higher on a single factor (called same-factor loadings), while for discriminant validity, these items should have factor loadings of 0.30 or less on all other factors (cross-factor loadings), as shown in rotated factor matrix example in Table 7.2. A more sophisticated technique for evaluating convergent and discriminant validity is the multi-trait multi-method (MTMM) approach. This technique requires measuring each construct (trait) using two or more different methods (e.g., survey and personal observation, or perhaps survey of two different respondent groups such as teachers and parents for evaluating academic quality). This is an onerous and relatively less popular approach, and is therefore not discussed here.
Criterion-related validity can also be assessed based on whether a given measure relate well with a current or future criterion, which are respectively called concurrent and predictive validity. Predictive validity is the degree to which a measure successfully predicts a future outcome that it is theoretically expected to predict. For instance, can standardized test scores (e.g., Scholastic Aptitude Test scores) correctly predict the academic success in college (e.g., as measured by college grade point average)? Assessing such validity requires creation of a “nomological network” showing how constructs are theoretically related to each other. Concurrent validity examines how well one measure relates to other concrete criterion that is presumed to occur simultaneously. For instance, do students’ scores in a calculus class correlate well with their scores in a linear algebra class? These scores should be related concurrently because they are both tests of mathematics. Unlike convergent and discriminant validity, concurrent and predictive validity is frequently ignored in empirical social science research.
Table 7.2. Exploratory factor analysis for convergent and discriminant validity


15.9: XV Glossary
Around the Clock (ATC) order: An order that reflects that medication should be administered at regular time intervals, such as every six hours, to maintain consistent levels of the drug in the patient’s bloodstream
Dysphagia: Difficulty swallowing.
eMAR: Electronic medication administration record contained in a patient’s electronic chart.
Enteral medications: Medications that are administered directly into the gastrointestinal tract orally, rectally, or through a tube such as a nasogastric (NG) tube, nasointestinal (NI) tube, or percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) tube.
Incident report: A report submitted per agency policy used to document the events surrounding a medication error.
MAR: Medication administration record contained in a patient’s chart.
One-time order: A prescription for a medication to be administered only once. An example of a one-time order is a prescription for an IV dose of antibiotics to be administered immediately prior to surgery.
Prescriptions: Orders, interventions, remedies, or treatments ordered or directed by an authorized primary health care provider.
PRN (as needed) order: A prescription for medication to be administered when it is requested by, or as needed by, the patient. PRN orders are usually administered based on patient symptoms such as pain medications. An example of a PRN order is a prescription for pain medication, such as “Acetaminophen 500 mg PO every 4-6 hours as needed for pain.”
Routine order: A written prescription that is followed until another order cancels it. An example of a routine order is a prescription for daily medication such as “Lisinopril 10 mg PO daily.”
Safety culture: A culture established in health care agencies to empower staff to speak up about risks to patients and to report errors and near misses, all of which drive improvement in patient care and reduce the incident of patient harm.
Standing order: Standing orders are standard prescriptions for nurses to implement for patients in clearly defined circumstances without the need to notify a provider. They may also be referred to as an “order set” or a “protocol.” An example of a standing order/protocol is a standard prescription for all patients coming into an urgent care reporting chest pain to immediately receive four chewable aspirin, the placement of an IV, and an electrocardiogram (ECG).
STAT order: A one-time prescription that is administered without delay. An example of a STAT order is the prescription for a dose of Benadryl to be administered to a patient having an allergic reaction.
Titration order: An order in which the medication dose is either progressively increased or decreased by the nurse in response to the patient’s status.


15.2: Reading- The Relationship between Product and Promotion
Product and promotion in global marketing can work together effectively with proper market research and communication techniques.
KEY Points
- The “Four P’s” of marketing—product, price, placement, and promotion—are all affected as a company moves through the different phases to become and maintain dominance as a global company.
- It is the job of global marketers to create and place product advertisements in settings where local consumers will be most receptive to receiving and acting on those messages.
- Promotion is one crucial component of the global marketing mix that enables a global company to send the same message worldwide using relevant, engaging, and cost-effective techniques.
Term
- Integrated marketing communications : An approach to brand communications where the different modes work together to create a seamless experience for the customer and are presented with a similar tone and style that reinforce the brand’s core message.
The Relationship Between Product and Promotion
With the rapidly emerging force of globalization, the distinction between marketing within an organization’s home country and marketing within external markets is disappearing very quickly. With this in mind, organizations are modifying their marketing strategies to meet the challenges of the global marketplace in addition to sustaining their competitiveness within home markets. These changes also have prompted brands to customize their global marketing mix for different markets, based on local languages, needs, wants, and values.
Product for Chinese Market
The Marketing Mix in Global Marketing
The “Four P’s” of marketing—product, price, placement, and promotion—are all affected as a company moves through the different phases to become and maintain dominance as a global company. Promotion becomes particularly important for positioning the company in such a way that a single product can be tweaked instead of revamped for different markets. Coca-Cola is one strong example of global marketing. The drink brand uses two formulas (one with sugar and one with corn syrup) for all markets. The product packaging in every country incorporates Coca-Cola’s contour bottle design and signature ribbon in some shape or form. However, the bottle can also include the country’s native language and appear in identical sizes as other beverage bottles or cans in that country’s market.
Promotion and Product
Before launching promotional programs, global companies must first define their target markets and determine the products that will resonate most with those consumers and businesses. In addition to pinpointing which price point and distribution channels would best serve those country markets, global marketers must decide how to introduce their products. Promotional tactics for global audiences can range from television commercials to social media marketing on Facebook, YouTube, Twitter and other channels. It is the job of global marketers to create and place product advertisements and/or other promotional information in settings where local consumers will be most receptive to receiving and acting on those messages.
After product research, development, and creation, promotion is generally the largest line item in a global company’s marketing budget. Integrated marketing communications can significantly increase efficiency and reduce promotional costs. Moreover, promotion is one crucial component of the mix that enables a global company to send the same message worldwide using relevant, engaging, and cost-effective techniques.
While global promotion enables global brands to engage in uniform marketing practices and promote a consistent brand and image, marketers also face the challenge of responding to differences in consumer response to marketing mix elements. Promotional and product marketing challenges also come into play when dealing with differences in brand and product development and fending off local or global competition.
GLOSSARY
Advertisement
A commercial solicitation designed to sell some commodity or service.
Brand
A name, symbol, logo, or other item used to distinguish a product, service, or its provider. The reputation of an organization, a product, or a person among some segment of the population.
Budget
An itemized summary of intended expenditure; usually coupled with expected revenue. The amount of money or resources earmarked for a particular institution, activity, or time-frame. An itemized summary of intended expenditure, usually coupled with expected revenue.
Channel
The method a sender uses to send a message to a receiver. The most common channels humans use are audtiory and visual. A distribution channel.
Communication
The concept or state of exchanging information between entities. an instance of information transfer; a conversation or discourse the concept or state of exchanging data or information between entities.
Consumer
Someone who acquires goods or services for direct use or ownership rather than for resale or use in production and manufacturing. The consumer is the one who pays to consume the goods and services produced. As such, consumers play a vital role in the economic system of a nation. In the absence of their effective demand, the producers would lack a key motivation to produce, which is to sell to consumers.
Development
Development is the application of research findings to a plan or design for the production of new or substantially improved materials, devices, products, processes, systems, or services, before the start of commercial production or use. Human resource development consists of training, organization, and career development efforts to improve individual, group, and organizational effectiveness. The process of developing; growth, directed change. The complete process of bringing a new product to market. The process of soliciting and gathering voluntary contributions of money or other resources by requesting donations from individuals, businesses, charitable foundations, or governmental agencies.
Distribution channels
Distribution of products takes place by means of channels. Channels are sets of interdependent organizations (intermediaries) involved in making the product available for consumption.
Global marketing
Global marketing is marketing on a worldwide scale, reconciling or taking commercial advantage of global operational differences, similarities and opportunities in order to meet global objectives.
Globalization
The process of international integration arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas, and other aspects of culture. The process of international integrating arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas, and other aspects of culture. The process of international integration arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas, and other aspects of culture; advances in transportation and telecommunications infrastructure, including the rise of the Internet, are major factors that precipitate interdependence of economic and cultural activities. A common term for processes of international integration arising from increasing human connectivity and the interchange of worldviews, products, ideas, and other aspects of culture. A common term for processes of international integration arising from increasing human connectivity and interchange of worldviews, products, ideas, and other cultural phenomena. In particular, advances in transportation and telecommunications infrastructure, including the rise of the Internet, represent major driving factors in globalization and precipitate the further interdependence of economic and cultural activities. The process of international integration arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas, and other aspects of culture.
Image
An attitude or lifestyle advertisers attempt to link to a product.
Integrated
Composed and coordinated to form a whole.
Market
A group of potential customers for one’s product. One of the many varieties of systems, institutions, procedures, social relations and infrastructures whereby parties engage in exchange.
Market Research
The systematic collection and evaluation of data regarding customers’ preferences for actual and potential products and services.
Marketing
The process of communicating the value of a product or service to customers. Marketing is the process of communicating the value of a product or service to customers. The promotion, distribution and selling of a product or service; includes market research and advertising.
Marketing mix
A business tool used in marketing products. The marketing mix is often crucial when determining a product or brand’s unique selling point and is often synonymous with the four Ps: price, product, promotion, and place. The marketing mix is often crucial when determining a product or brand’s unique selling point (the unique quality that differentiates a product from its competitors), and is often synonymous with the four Ps: price, product, promotion, and place.
Marketing strategy
A process that can allow an organization to concentrate its resources on the optimal opportunities with the goals of increasing sales and achieving a sustainable competitive advantage.
Media
The journalists and other professionals who comprise the mass communication industry. Means and institutions for publishing and broadcasting information. General term for different types of materials. In communications, media (singular medium) are the storage and transmission channels or tools used to store and deliver information or data. It is often referred to as synonymous with mass media or news media, but may refer to a single medium used to communicate any data for any purpose. The mass media are all those media technologies that are intended to reach a large audience by mass communication. In communications, media (singular medium) are the storage and transmission channels or tools used to store and deliver information or data.
Placement
The process of making a product or service accessible for use or consumption by a consumer or business user, using direct means, or using indirect means with intermediaries.
Positioning
The act of positioning; placement. Positioning involves ascertaining how a product or a company is or should be perceived in the minds of consumers. Positioning is the underpinning of messages created to promote a product or company in order to generate positive perceptions in the minds of consumers.
Price
The price is the amount a customer pays for the product. The quantity of payment or compensation given by one party to another in return for goods or services. The cost required to gain possession of something.
Price point
The price of an item, especially seen as one of a number of pricing options. Price points are prices at which demand for a given product is supposed to stay relatively high.
Product
Any tangible or intangible good or service that is a result of a process and that is intended for delivery to a customer or end user. Anything, either tangible or intangible, offered by the firm as a solution to the needs and wants of the consumer; something that is profitable or potentially profitable; goods or a service that meets the requirements of the various governing offices or society.
Promotion
Promotion represents all of the methods of communication that a marketer may use to provide information to different parties about the product. Promotion comprises elements such as: advertising, public relations, personal selling and sales promotion. dissemination of information about a product, product line, brand, or company. The advancement of an employee’s rank or position in an organizational hierarchy system.
Social media
Social media refers to interaction among people in which they create, share, and/or exchange information and ideas in virtual communities and networks. Interactive forms of media that allow users to interact with and publish to each other, generally by means of the Internet.
Strategy
A plan of action intended to accomplish a specific goal.
Tactics
The achievement of objectives through strategy.
Target
A person (or group of people) that a person or organization is trying to employ or to have as a customer, audience etc.
Target market
A group of people whose needs and preferences match the product range of a company and to whom those products are marketed. A target market is a group of customers that the business has decided to aim its marketing efforts and ultimately its merchandise toward.
Value
The degree of importance given to something. A customer’s perception of relative price (the cost to own and use) and performance (quality).
- Boundless Business. Authored by : Boundless. Provided by : Boundless. Located at : https://www.boundless.com/business/ . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Image of Tena Product line for China. Authored by : SCA Svenska Cellulosa Aktiebolaget. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/hygienematters/6045016241/in/photolist-fH4o3u-aDvjc5-azCFGv-ayUJ8j-ayUqqU-ayUpSh-ayRHpH-ayUeoU-ayRkqv-ayRkjc-ayTWHo-ayRgAT-ayTVxw-ayTUmJ-ayQYnR-avCZ1n-adbqMD-adbqMT-adbqN2-adbhHX-adbhJa-adbhHB-9YyKC5-9YyKC1-9YyKC9-9K8Fyc-9K8Fyp-9K8Fyi-9K8Fyt-9K8Fy6-9K8FxZ-9CuKTS-9CuKTQ-9CuKTN-9CrM5e-9CrM4X-9CrM52-9CrM4R-9CrM4x-9CrM4H-9p6YeG-9p6YeN-9p6YeA-9p6Yew-9p6Yem-9p6Yes-9mDKvB-9mDKvK-9bJEp1-8FtUYc . License : CC BY: Attribution


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addition reaction
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reaction in which a double carbon-carbon bond forms a single carbon-carbon bond by the addition of a reactant. Typical reaction for an alkene.
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alcohol
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organic compound with a hydroxyl group (–OH) bonded to a carbon atom
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aldehyde
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organic compound containing a carbonyl group bonded to two hydrogen atoms or a hydrogen atom and a carbon substituent
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alkane
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molecule consisting of only carbon and hydrogen atoms connected by single (σ) bonds
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alkene
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molecule consisting of carbon and hydrogen containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond
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alkyl group
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substituent, consisting of an alkane missing one hydrogen atom, attached to a larger structure
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alkyne
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molecule consisting of carbon and hydrogen containing at least one carbon-carbon triple bond
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amide
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organic molecule that features a nitrogen atom connected to the carbon atom in a carbonyl group
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amine
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organic molecule in which a nitrogen atom is bonded to one or more alkyl group
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aromatic hydrocarbon
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cyclic molecule consisting of carbon and hydrogen with delocalized alternating carbon-carbon single and double bonds, resulting in enhanced stability
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carbonyl group
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carbon atom double bonded to an oxygen atom
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carboxylic acid
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organic compound containing a carbonyl group with an attached hydroxyl group
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ester
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organic compound containing a carbonyl group with an attached oxygen atom that is bonded to a carbon substituent
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ether
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organic compound with an oxygen atom that is bonded to two carbon atoms
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functional group
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part of an organic molecule that imparts a specific chemical reactivity to the molecule
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ketone
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organic compound containing a carbonyl group with two carbon substituents attached to it
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organic compound
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natural or synthetic compound that contains carbon
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saturated hydrocarbon
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molecule containing carbon and hydrogen that has only single bonds between carbon atoms
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skeletal structure
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shorthand method of drawing organic molecules in which carbon atoms are represented by the ends of lines and bends in between lines, and hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms are not shown (but are understood to be present by the context of the structure)
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substituent
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branch or functional group that replaces hydrogen atoms in a larger hydrocarbon chain
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substitution reaction
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reaction in which one atom replaces another in a molecule
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13.5: Exercises
Lab 13 Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
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Draw the following:
Label the following
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Label the following:
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Lab 13 Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\)
Basic Ear Anatomy
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Match the following items to their proper location
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Label the following on this stylized diagram: Auricle, Auditory canal, Pharyngotympanic tube, Stapes, Incus, Malleus, Tympanic membrane, Cochlea, Outer ear, Middle ear, Inner ear
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Lab 13 Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\)
Inner Ear Anatomy
Label the following: Auricle, External Acoustic meatus, Pharyngotympanic tube, Cochlea, Vestibule, Semicircular canals, Tympanic membrane, Middle ear
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Label the following:
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Lab 13 Exercise \(\PageIndex{4}\)
Inner Ear Anatomy
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Label the following:
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Lab 13 Exercise \(\PageIndex{5}\)
Label the following: Lens, Suspensory ligaments, Ciliary body, Cornea, Iris, Choroid, Vitreous humor
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Label the following:
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Lab 13 Exercise \(\PageIndex{6}\)
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Identify Internal regions and layers of the eye:
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Lab 13 Exercise \(\PageIndex{7}\)
Eye Anatomy
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Label the following:
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Lab 13 Exercise \(\PageIndex{8}\)
Extrinsic Eye Muscles
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Identify the extrinsic eye muscles (4 are clearly visible)
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Lab 13 Exercise \(\PageIndex{9}\)
Optical Chiasm
Label the following:
- Conscious visual sensation;
- Beginning of axons of retinal ganglion cells;
- 3rd order neuron;
- synapse between 2nd & 3rd order neuron;
- Half of nerve fibers decussate here;
- First region with axons from only the left side of both eyes
Lab 13 Exercise \(\PageIndex{10}\)
Retina Histology
Label the following
| 1 | Rod | 6 | Rods and cones |
| 2 | Cone | 7 | Bipolar cells |
| 3 | Horizontal Cell | 8 | Ganglion cells |
| 4 | Bipolar Cell | 9 | Optic nerve axons |
| 5 | Ganglion cell | 10 | Pigmented epithelium |
| 11 | Vitreous humor |