15: Politics, Government, and Issues
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Child Labor
The United States has passed many laws at the city, state, and national level which have impacted the US family. From its earliest inception, settlers came with strong traditions and beliefs about what the family and its member “should” be like. Various laws were enacted, numerous traditions were set into place, and even though the system has common themes, there has never been complete consensus on what these laws and traditions “should” be for all of the population. Arguably, there can never be total consensus. But, over time the majority have won the policy and legal battles-a pattern which persist today. This chapter will discuss childhood, education, marital, and other issues where the family interacts with the state and other institutions in society.
Children were not always protected and nurtured in the US. At times they were kicked out by their parents being orphaned in a society that was hesitant to take in orphans. At other times they were beaten without any repercussion to the family or friends who mistreated them physically, sexually, and emotionally. In a truly unexpected historical process, it was the tender-hearted animal protection advocates who ended up facilitating the protection of children. An 1874 Case where Mary Ellen Wilson was being beaten by her adoptive parents, yet was rescued by the head of the New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals proved to be a turning point in US history as far as protection of children is concerned (retrieved 13 April 2010 from http://en.Wikipedia.org/ wiki/Timeline_of_children%27s_rights_in_the_United_States).
Soon after this event the first society for the protection of children was formed in 1875.
After that various labor and interest groups began promoting and advocating for better treatment of children. Eventually, in 1877 the American [Humane Society] Association formed as a coalition of animal and child protection groups (see http://www.americanhumane.org/ . A psychologist named John Dewy (1859-1952) was also known as a national child protection and education advocate. He is attributed with making tremendous strides in behalf of children. He was also the 1899 President of the American Psychological Assoc. (see http://www.apa.org/about/governance/...residents.aspx ).
During the Industrial Revolution, workers of all ages were employed in the jobs that kept the economy going. Women and children were employed for lower wages than men, and children were quite often placed in harsh and sometimes dangerous jobs. Over the last century formal efforts were made to protect children from exploitation in the workplace.
The US Department of Labor posts the children protection guidelines for those 18 and younger who are employed in the non-agricultural sector of the economy (see www.dol.gov/compliance/guide/childlbr.htm Retrieved 13 April, 2010). As you read from these provisions, you will notice that the issue of schooling is factored in:
“Minors age 16 and 17 may perform any job not declared hazardous by the Secretary, and are not subject to restrictions on hours Minors age 14 and 15 may work outside school hours in various nonmanufacturing, non-mining, nonhazardous jobs listed by the secretary in regulations published at 29 CFR Part 570 under the following conditions: no more than three hours on a school day, 18 hours in a school week, eight hours on a non-school day, or 40 hours in a non-school week. In addition, they may not begin work before 7 a.m. or work after 7 p.m., except from June 1 through Labor Day, when evening hours are extended until 9 p.m. The permissible work for 14 and 15 year olds is limited to those jobs in the retail, food service, and gasoline service establishments specifically listed in the Secretary's regulations. Those enrolled in an approved Work Experience and Career Exploration Program (WECEP) may work up to 23 hours in school weeks and three hours on school days (including during school hours) These are taken from Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (FLSA), as amended (PDF).
By federal mandate children are no longer exploited and put into danger. If that were to happen, the penalties to the business and corporation become punitive. Some form of schooling is also required. Today, many teenaged children are employed part-time. Some work with their parents, others babysit or do odd jobs, and still others are employed in the community. Teens have been participating in the labor force by the millions.
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) shows their proportion of labor force participation with estimated numbers. In 1980 8.8 percent of the labor force was comprised of teens (1990 was 6.2%; 2000 was 5.8%; and 2008 was 4.4%). The child labor laws protect all of these teens except the 19 year-olds who are protected under the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (see www.osha.gov).
Why teens go to work in our society is interesting, some teens work to help out their families, others want to save for college expenses. Still others want to make a specific purchase (see www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/fe.../jobs_6-21.pdf retrieved 15 April, 2010 teen workers face dismal summer job outlook June 21, 2004).
Regardless of the motivation, early work experience benefits teens by helping them to get into college, building their resumes, and developing personal character and a strong work ethic. At a teen hiring website there is an article that documents the declining jobs available for teens in the US. ( http://www.teens4hire.org/articles/joboutlook.asp ). Their studies indicate that in 2010 about 80 percent of US teens want to work, but the jobs will not be there for all of them. Still, this generation of teens is work-minded and likely to gain some work experience at some level before age 20 and most likely work while attending school.
Education
Childhood education has been compulsory in the US for more than a century, with the first mandatory education laws emerging in the North Eastern states. In the US today most children have to be educated between ages 5-18, depending upon state laws. The K-12, Kindergarten through 12th grade model is the most common model of education in the US. Students can attend parochial schools, private schools, public schools, and/or home schools. Public schools are funded by the state (through taxation) and regulated by Boards of Education. Parochial schools are typically controlled and funded through either private or religious organizations. Home Schooling is the process of educating children in the home using family, friends, and consultants as educators.
There has been a steady growth in the resistance among parents to send their children to public schools. Safety, religious concerns, quality of education, content of education, and other concerns relating specifically to the child have fueled this growth. Teachers unions and the National Education Association oppose home schooling in the US, yet homeschooling is increasingly being adopted in the US and other Western nations as a common practice. (see Lips, Dan, Feinberg, Evan (2008-04-03). "Homeschooling: A Growing Option in American Education". Heritage Foundation. http://www.heritage.org/ Research/education/bg2122.cfm. Retrieved 2008-08-15).
Studies of homeschooling versus other forms of schooling have shown trends in competence and, at times, excellence when comparing homeschooled to public schooled student achievement (see www.hslda.org/docs/nche/000010/200410250.asp).
Homeschooled children have recently won state and national Spelling and Geography Bees which has served as an affirmation to many homeschoolers about their efforts in behalf of their children. Many online homeschooling support websites have emerged to provide support and directions to parents who want to homeschool their children (see www.K12.com , www.keystoneschoolonline.com , www.CalvertSchool.org , www.homeedmag.com/ , www.homeschoolcentral.com/ ,or www.hslda.org/).
Most US children are educated in public schools. In 2008 there were 8.7 million nursery and kindergarteners, 32.3 million elementary, 16.7 million High school, and 18.6 million college students in the US (retrieved 15 April, 2010 from www.census.gov/population/www...l/cps2008.html. Education plays a key role in the economic quality of life for children when they become adults. Here's the fact, pure and simple-more education means more money and opportunity in the United States. Typically, the higher your education the higher your: economic status, power, prestige, and levels of property. Socio-Economic Status (SES) is a combination of one's education, occupation, and income and has been found to be highly correlated with a better quality of life for those in society who have higher SES scores. There is more job stability (less unemployment and more pay) for those with higher educations.
A recently published E-article articulated the many benefits of college graduation (see “Education Pays: The Benefits of Higher Education for Individuals and Society” by Sandy Baum and Jennifer Ma; in Trends in Higher Education Series 2007 Taken from Internet on 23 March 2009 from http://www.collegeboard.com/prod_dow...d_pays_2007.pd f).
Baum and Ma also pointed out that the higher your education the better your medical insurance, health, lifestyle for family and next generation, contribution to society, and more. Education, especially earning degrees, is a doorway to many life-long payoffs to college graduates. You need education because we live in a credentialed society. Credentialed Societies are societies which use diplomas or degrees to determine who is eligible for a job. The key in the US is to graduate every chance you get. Certificate is 1- year past high school, Associates is 2-years degree, Bachelor's is 4-year degree, Masters is another 2-year degree past Bachelor's, and Doctorate is another 4-6 years past Bachelor's degree.
Look at Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) below to see the relationship between higher education levels and the “American dream” or “Ideal” lifestyle. Education is the great equalizer and allows the tradition of college attendance and graduation to be introduced into any individual's personal and family life experience if they so desire and can muster the personal work and commitment along with the resources needed to attend then graduate. Tens of millions in the US have zero, nada, or no medical or health care coverage. Most of them have lower education levels and little to no college education. The extremely poor and disabled may have limited government coverage, but most poor and near poor have no medical insurance.
For the most part, working class and middle class people have some level of medical insurance. Interested in a job or career with yearly salary and not hourly pay? Interested in medical benefits and year-end bonuses with paid time off and vacations? Then you need at least a Bachelor's, Master's or Doctoral degree, or you may be from the top 10-25 percent of our economic strata that are born into privilege. They get the educational levels, social networking, marriage market, and overall better life chances that only money can buy, including exclusive education, prep-school, admittance into competitive programs, and Ivy League launch pads.
Table 1 also shows the levels of income typically associated with these degrees. The difference between high school dropouts and graduates is about $8,100/year more for graduates or, on a 35-year career in the labor force, at least $283,500 more money earned by graduates. What would a 4-year Bachelor's degree add per year? $19,400 per year for Bachelor's grads compared to high school grads or $679,000 in 35 years of career work.
A 4-year degree is financially well worth it.
Table \(\PageIndex{1}\): Degrees and Median Incomes Associated with Them Degrees Median Yearly Incomes Drop out $23,400 High School $31,500 Vocational Certificate $37,100 Associates $40,000 Bachelor's $50,900 Masters $61,300 Doctorate (Ph.D; Ed.D.; JD,; or MD) $79,400 Specialization or Post-doctoral education $100,000+
When students ask me how I feel about taking out student loans, I explain the following to them:
If you choose to go to college and forfeit full-time wages to become a full-time student you will lose about $126,000 of wages while in college. Plus, it might cost you another $25,000 in student loans or expenses. So you could conclude that it cost you about $151,000 to earn a 4-year degree. Subtract that $151,000 from the extra $697,000 and you end up a $546,000 net increase in career earnings, even accounting for missed wages and student loan expenses. So, going to college pays, but how does dropping out of high school affect individuals and society?
The worst possible scenario in terms of work and lifestyle is to drop out of high school, and millions drop out each year in the US. Table 2 shows the dropout rates by racial classification for the US. By far, Asians Americans dropout the least at only 18.7 percent, followed closely by Whites at 22.4 percent. Hispanics, African Americans and Native Americans each have over 40 percent dropout rates-all that income lost, all that lifestyle forfeit, and all those other benefits of higher education missed.
| Racial Classification | Percent Dropping Out of High School |
|---|---|
| Native American | 49.4% |
| African American | 44.7% |
| Hispanic | 42.2% |
| White | 22.4% |
| Asian American | 18.7% |
Jason Amos (2008) in his study of US dropouts also stated that:
“Individuals who fail to earn a high school diploma are at a great disadvantage, and not only when it comes to finding good-paying jobs. They are also generally less healthy and die earlier, are more likely to become parents when very young, are more at risk of tangling with the criminal justice system, and are more likely to need social welfare assistance. Even more tragic, their children are more likely to become high school dropouts themselves, as are their children's children, and so on, in a possibly endless cycle of poverty (page 7).”
Truly this is an accurate statement. The US has some of the best educational opportunities for average children to acquire a good public education. But, it lacks cultural motivations that translate across racial and ethnic lines in such a way that education becomes valued and pursued by average children as a way of opening doors and improving life chances for themselves and their families. It is a paradox in the context of Weber's life chances, because so many life chances are readily available to average people, yet, they are refused or ignored by millions.
Amos (2008) also pointed out that high school dropouts from the Class of 2008 will lose $318,000,000,000 in lost lifetime earnings. They will be more likely to be arrested and use welfare for another combined cost of $25,000,000,000 to local and state agencies (page 8). The billions of lost earnings and judicial and welfare costs translate to a lower collective standard of living that could be corrected and improved upon if dropouts would graduate or even go back to earn their high school equivalency diploma, GED.
Figure 3 shows US dropout rates by race for 1972 and 1980-2006. Overall, the dropout rate has been slightly declining for years, but remains disproportionately high for non-Whites. This confirms data listed above and shows that it has been an ongoing problem, especially where non-White schools and districts have been historically underfunded at the basic level of need.
Marriage and Divorce Issues
Marriage is a legal union between a man and a woman. Although some US states are allowing for same-sex marriages, those are the exceptions rather than the national norm, for the moment. Current US marriage laws date back to traditions and practices from Europe, especially from the United Kingdom. Generally speaking, in European and early US history, marriage was a legal issue of property ownership-the man had legal rights to his wife that fell clearly under the legal property right laws. Sad as it sounds, hundreds of years ago, a wife was a man's property. Historically a woman and man were married by the authority of a clan, tribe, religion, or family member.
European governments asserted rights over legal marriages starting in about the 1700s.
One law in Scotland was designed to stop secret marriages (see “An Act for the Better Preventing of Clandestine Marriage”). More and more governments demanded the right to declare a marriage as being legal. After the laws and traditions were in place, spouses were found to have certain rights and obligations toward one another. Children born to the same parents have consanguineous relationships with their parents and siblings, these are often referred to as blood-ties or genetic ties in modern-day terms.
Upon marriage couples form matrimonial relationships with one another. These are called affinal relationships which form through the marriage of a bride and groom and socially bind the extended family members into in-law type relationships. Also, long before genetics were discovered, exogamy rules applied which mandated that adults marry outside of one's family of origin and/or close range of cousins. For non-family members, endogamy rules apply which suggest the need for a marriage of people of similar categorical backgrounds and walks of life. Table 3 shows a list of these rights.
| Marital Rights and Obligations |
|---|
| 1. To act as protector, nurturer, and supporter of one's spouse, even in difficult times. |
| 2. To accept one's spouse's trial and calamities as your own while also accepting his or her gains or windfalls as your own |
| 3. To provide sexual pleasure and services to one another |
| 4.  To claim rights to property and legal protection under the state recognized marriage |
| 6. To provide unpaid services to one another in support of the couple's overall economic well-being |
| 7. To co-own debts and obligations |
| 8. To own and claim rights to property, inheritances, and assets |
| 9. To serve as co-parents in the capacity of legal guardians of the children |
| 10. To have social and religious claim in extended family relationships |
| 11. To act, if needed, in each other's behalf legally and in informal ways |
These rights and obligations may be obvious once you read them. But, they provide clear boundaries that facilitate the smooth functioning of families in the larger context of society. Family laws and rights undergird the regulation and governance of private property, the upbringing of children, and the interaction of the state with individual families.
Death of a Spouse
What happens when a spouse dies?  Property rights almost always default to the surviving spouse upon the death of a husband or wife.
Prenuptial agreements are contractual pre-arrangements agreed to prior to the marriage which identify the distribution of wealth if a divorce or death transpires. These agreements, if made according to law, trump traditional survivor and inheritance practices.
Wealthy couples who remarry, famous couples, and wealthier people who have more wealth at stake tend to make pre-nuptial agreements prior to marriage more than do average couples. One critic of pre-nuptial agreements told me that “a pre-nup is nothing more than an agreement to end the marriage before it ever really starts.” I disagree. With great fortunes at stake, many children protect their inheritances from potentially greedy spouses by forcing or encouraging pre-nuptial agreements.
Inheritance patterns use to follow a patriarchal pattern of father to son. This was during the early colonies which eventually formed the United States and also thereafter for decades. Remember, back then a wife was protected as the man's property. The widow was also felt to be protected by her oldest son. In modern law, the widow or widower now receives all assets and debt obligations of the deceased spouse. In a few societies, inheritances are passed from mothers to daughters to granddaughters, these are called matrilineal inheritance patterns. Patrilineal inheritances are passed from grandfathers to fathers to sons.
Legal wills are documents prepared by individuals and filed with the state in which the person lives and which dictates how inheritances and assets are to be distributed after the death of the individual. When there is no will (this is called dying intestate) and few assets, declaring the distribution of assets may not matter. Where a will is in place and is verified as being valid by the state (this is called probating the will) all creditors and debtors are notified and after a lengthy court and legal process, the will is executed. This probation of the will can be very expensive. An executor (male) or executrix (female) legally ensures that the will is followed. A living trust is a legal action that puts a person's assets into an Internal Revenue Service-classification that shelters assets from taxes and protects the person's allocation of assets from the public eye. Again, wills and living trusts are more often utilized by wealthy and/or famous persons who have more property at stake.
Divorce Laws
What happens when marriages end in divorce? This is much more complicated than simple wills and trusts. Most couples have no pre-nuptial agreement, so assets and debts must be divided. Most couples have children, and if they are under age 18 when the divorce is filed for, then child custody terms have to be settled. During a divorce, child custody or child guardianship is the legal right an adult (most often a parent) has to act in behalf of a minor (less than 18 year old) child. During marriage, either parent can act in the child's behalf. After divorce, legal arrangements have to be articulate stating how the child or children will live since their parents are no longer married.
One of the most common settlements of child custody after divorce is joint custody. Joint custody is an award of custody to both parents wherein the child is considered to live physically at both addresses (the mother's and the father's). The judge agrees to and signs divorce papers stating how the child support will be paid, how the children will visit the other parent over the course of the year, and how adjustments to the visitations arrangements are to be agreed upon and made. Child support is a legal agreement on how much money a parent must pay for the care of a child after divorce. Child support is most often associated with sole custody arrangements, but may be present under joint custody as well.
Sole custody is an award agreed to and signed by a judge where one parent is considered the custodial parent and where visitation with the non-custodial parent is scheduled over the course of the year. The phrase, “sole physical custody” is often used to describe sole custody, because the custodial parent spends the majority of the child's life with them and ensures that the non-present parent gets scheduled visitation with the child. A non-custodial parent is the visiting parent in this type of custody arrangement.
Often the non-custodial parent agrees to pay maintenance support to their ex-spouse in the form of alimony. Alimony is financial support to an ex-spouse. Alimony may be short or long-term rehabilitative to support an ex-spouse getting up on their feet as independent bread winners, and/or compensatory reimbursing an ex-spouse for support and investments made over the course of the marriage. The court considers the duration of the marriage, the spouses' ages, the income of both parties, health of both parties, and if a party is female or male (alimony is more often awarded to females).
Child support payments most often are made directly to the state and dispersed according to court orders. When child support payments are not made, the non-custodial parent is considered delinquent and is often referred to as a “deadbeat parent.” I personally dislike this label and find that an absence of payments of child support does not always a deadbeat make. There are disabled, challenged, and at times unemployed (or underemployed) parents who may desire to fulfill their financial obligations to the child, but simply can't. When child support and/or alimony are not paid, ex-spouses often appeal to state recovery services agencies that have legal power to garnish wages and attach assets and tax returns so that divorce-decreed support is collected. As mentioned in Chapter 12, no-fault divorce completely changed the nature of the divorce process and settlement in the United States.
For most of US history, fault had to be proven in order for a divorce to be granted. I've often taught my students that prior to 1969 you had to prove that “your spouse was a louse to get them out of the house.” Today, no-fault divorce is the common practice. In no-fault divorce, couples can dissolve a happy marriage, a functional marriage, even a convenient and congenial marriage with no regard to who is at fault for the marriage ending in divorce. California was the first to pass a no-fault divorce law which went into effect in 1970 (see the California Family Law Act of 1969). Almost all the other states except New York followed suit (most passed similar laws by 1983). Interestingly, other countries did not follow the no-fault example set by the United States.
No-fault divorce eliminated the need for the expenses of developing a court case and having an adversarial battle with the ex-spouse. It allowed couples to declare “irreconcilable differences” and simply move on with their lives, without each other. I personally know a 90 year old man whose wife filed for divorce after a 7-year attempt at their first marriage (during the 1950's). He told me that the judge would not grant her a divorce, but was willing to grant him one.  In his words, “the judge said I deserved a divorce, but she didn't. So, I agreed to end the marriage.”
An annulment is a legal decree that the marriage is void-as though the marriage never happened. Annulments are decrees as though there never was a marriage. Annulments are not just handed out easily. They are often filed for very early in the marriage. They often take into considerations unexpected extremes such as failure to share the marriage bed; illegal activities and/or fraud, infidelity, and even insanity.
I personally know another man who discovered that his new wife had been unfaithful to him the day after they returned from their honeymoon.
When the man made this discovery after their 15th anniversary he confronted his wife.
She filed for divorce and the marriage was ended in six months. Had the early affair been discovered immediately, he may have been able to apply for an annulment. In very rare cases kidnapping can be grounds for an annulment. This might be if it was later discovered that one of the spouses was forced to marry in the first place (I realize how bizarre some of these extremes sound).
Divorce has been found in most societies and cultures of the world throughout most of the recorded history of humans. The society and state in which the divorce occurs greatly influences the reconciliation of assets and liabilities during the divorce process. For those with modest assets and liabilities, things can be worked out with going to court. For middle-class persons collaborative or mediated divorces are more and more common. If there are children, mediation is required before divorces will be decreed. Many couples choose to work out their divorce terms with professional help, but without attorneys-this is where professional mediation helps.
Collaborative divorces use attorneys for all the behind the scenes work and then file the results with the State courts. For mediated divorce, mediators who may or may not be attorneys work to find a mutually agreeable solution for both spouses. For those with more, things often end up litigated before a judge. Wikipedia reported that when Robert Murdoch divorced his wife it is estimated that they spent 1.7 billion US dollars on the divorce(retrieved 19 April 2010 from http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of...nsive_divorces ).
Community Property (also called marital property) is property acquired and obtained during the marriage, which neither person owned before the marriage. This includes all monies earned by either spouse during the marriage plus the assets they purchased with those monies. It may also include retirements and annuities earned during the marriage, but not yet paid out. Separate Property was owned before the marriage, inherited during the marriage, or acquired after the separation. States vary on how the rules of consideration for division are considered in community property.
Most state laws mention “equitable division” when it comes to property division in divorces. But, property rarely gets divided exactly equally. According to one Web Site, (retrieved 19 April, 2010 from www.equalityinmarriage.org/wdget.html).
Numerous sites offer free advice for those studying or considering divorce (see www.eglin.af.mil/legal/diadvi.htm). You might also be interested in the Cornell web page which has an accurate summary of all 50 State's divorce codes (see http://topics.law.cornell.edu/wex/table_divorce ).
As of the writing of this chapter, Massachusetts had legalized same-sex marriages. This opened a new era of issues in divorce. In a 2008 Washington Post article the issues of same-sex divorce were discussed (retrieved 19 April, 2010 from “Same-Sex Divorce Challenges the Legal System Most States Lack Law, Precedent To Settle Issues” by Lizner, D. www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn...010101734.html). This article not only addresses the uniqueness of same-sex divorce issues, but also focuses on the fact that the IRS tax laws rarely address deductions and other issues which are in place for heterosexual couples. Legislatures may be waiting to see what happens, ignoring the issue, or trying to find a working consensus so that IRS tax law can be written. Essentially, same-sex marriages are so rare and unique that few laws are in place to resolve the legal equity issues. Most same-sex couples are cohabiters and their relationship breakups fall under the common-law marriage laws.
Cohabitation
Cohabitation is very common in the US with tens of millions of cohabiters. Heterosexual and same-sex couples cohabit and when their relationships end, they typically refer to common-law marriage laws if their state actually has these laws. Most states have done away with “common-law” laws. Common-law marriages are cohabiting relationships which have no state license and typically have no marriage ceremony.
So, what is the difference between Common-law marriages and simple cohabitation relationships? States vary, but where common-law is available these core issues are used in making distinctions. First, did the couple present themselves as spouses; second, are they of the same age required in the jurisdiction they live in to even be married; third, did they spend significant time together as a couple; fourth did they share bank accounts; and fifth, are they legally marriageable (not still married to another)? The National Conference of State Legislatures reported that “Currently, only 9 states (Alabama, Colorado, Kansas, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Iowa, Montana, Oklahoma, and Texas) and the District of Columbia recognize common-law marriages contracted within their borders. In addition, five states have "grandfathered" common law marriage (Georgia, Idaho, Ohio, Oklahoma and Pennsylvania) allowing those established before a certain date to be recognized. New Hampshire recognizes common law marriage only for purposes of probate, and Utah recognizes common law marriages only if they have been validated by a court or administrative order” (retrieved 17 April, 2010 from www.ncsl.org/default.aspx?tabid=4265).
I'd add that Utah and Washington D.C. now recognize common-law. Common-law has few of the tax breaks that the IRS allows for married couples, but has similar division of property where states recognize them. If children were born to the cohabiting couple and raised together, some states require a legal dissolution of the relationship to handle these post-relationship issues.
Adoption
Another important issue relating to legal issues of the family in the broader social context is adoption. Adoption is the formal process of making a child not born in a family, legally part of the family, having the same rights as a birth child is afforded. Adoptions are very common in the US and the world. In every adoption there is a birth mother, birth father, adopting parent or parents, and the government that will formalize the adoption process. In the US, one study suggested that 1.1 percent of women and 2.3 percent of men ages 18-44 have ever adopted a child. Another 1.6 percent of the population ages 18-44 want to adopt a child (retrieved 19 April, 2010 from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/adoption.htm , Fedstats). A 2009 Federal report commented on the characteristics of people who adopt who tend to be married, older, male, and have had various infertility issues (retrieved 19 April, 2010 from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db12.pdf ).
Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\) shows the percentage of White, total, and Black women who relinquished their child to adoption during the first month of life, starting pre-1973 and going up through 2002. Fewer and fewer women relinquish their newborns to adoption. In fact this same report suggested only 1 percent did as of 2002. Part of the reason is the availability of both abortion and contraception to the average unwed mother. The US passed the 2000 Adoption Awareness Act which trained pregnancy and health counselors on how to present adoption as an option to women with unintended pregnancies (see www.adoptioncouncil.org/infa...nitiative.html).
Adoptions are common both within and beyond the US. The Hague Convention on the Protection of Children and Co-operation in Respect of Inter-Country Adoption was passed in 1993. The US signed on in 1994. As of this writing, 80 nations had signed on with this convention. Basically, participating nations ensure that the safeguards for children are in place for the best interest of the child, the children are legally adoptable, proper effort is given to the child's country of origin (laws and customs), and that all legal requirements are met by the country of origin and the country the child is being adopted into at the time of the adoption (see adoption.state.gov/hague/overview.html).
When adoptions take place, great efforts are made to protect the confidentiality of children and parents, so statistics are often difficult to come by.
In spite of this a few statistics are known. According to http://www.adoptioninstitute.org/ FactOverview/international.html there were over 250,000 children adopted to the US between 1971 and 2001 (retrieved 19 April, 2010 Factsheets on Adoption). There were 2 girls for every boy adopted and 80 percent were ages 4 and under. Asia provided almost 60 percent of the adopted children, followed by Europe, Mexico, and South America.
Without exception, lawyers are needed to assist parents through the very difficult and tedious processes of conforming to the Hague Convention while adopting internationally.
The US State Department, Office of Children's Issues recently reported that over 50,000 children have been legally and successfully adopted from Russia (retrieved 19 April, 2010 from adoption.state.gov/news/russia.html). Russia was recently in the news because a set of US parents sent their troubled Russian child back home after his issues surpassed their willingness or capacity to meet his needs.
The United States has an organization that assists families, states, and government entities with adoption issues. It is called the National Council on Adoption at https://www.adoptioncouncil.org/ . Even birth parents can go here for support.
Biological fathers and mothers have to relinquish their rights to the child. This does not always take place if the father is out of the picture and does not know about the child, or if the father cannot be located. Many adoption advocates argue in behalf of consideration of father's rights.
Parental rights are the legal rights and obligations afforded to the birth or adopted parents. If a child is born, these legal rights are in place. If a parent adopts a child, then it is the court that grants him or her, their parental rights. These rights include obligations to care for and be responsible for the child. They also typically include custody of the child, visitation of the child, ability to represent the child and speak for the child in medical, legal, and social matters, the responsibility to raise the child, the obligation to keep the child safe and to ensure that the child is educated, and unfortunately the obligation to be liable for any destructive acts the child may commit.
A parent or parents may voluntarily yield their parental rights to an adopting parent through the courts. In some cases the state has legal authority to take the rights of a parent under certain adverse circumstances. The parental rights have been supported up to the US Supreme Court in numerous rulings. Grandparent's rights have been established thus far as being limited to the right to request visitation and not much else.
Parental rights trump grandparent rights. But, in extreme circumstances the best interest of the child is considered and courts may grant grandparents certain privileges if the court is trying to keep children off the welfare rolls (e.g., when the mother is in prison or jail).
Emancipation of a minor is the legal process of a child being freed from control of his or her parents which simultaneously frees the parents of obligations to the child.
Emancipation of children is possible in most countries of the world, yet rare. A minor is a person younger than 18 in the US and can theoretically apply for emancipation if so desired. The minor would petition the court with legal assistance for emancipation and depending on the laws of that state would have to prove a case and the capacity to support him or herself (of course with an attorney's help which may even be paid for by the state).
Open adoption is when information about the parents is shared between birth parents and adopting parents. Closed adoption is when no information is shared between parents and confidentiality is enforced. Adoption is a different process than most other endeavors which family members undertake. Adoption requires a fortitude that is not needed even when homes are purchased, marriages are entered into, and wills are probated. Adoption has a “cloud of uncertainty” that hangs over it. When parents want to adopt they have to pay money for legal support, initiate a relationship with the birth parent (if the adoption is open), decide if they actually want to adopt the child, and then endure through the uncertainty of the adoption process that may take years.
Don't get discouraged about adoption. Thousands of parents adopt each year. Just realize that adoption includes the adopting parents, birth parents, grandparents (at times), courts, and multiple jurisdictions. My friends have one son they are the birth parents to and three adopted children. They went to Lithuania to adopt their 2nd child. He had been abused and neglected so it took them 4 years to even be able to hug him. They adopted their 3rd child from California. They adopted their 4th child from Alabama.
The children are all teens now and the oldest child married last year. Sounds cut and dry doesn't it?
Here is the rest of the story.  They had those children for 6 months before the mother backed out. “Total emotional devastation” was how they described being torn from these children. Years later they called us and announced that they had 2 newborn twins that were extremely high risk health and medical-wise. They paid the mother, followed through with the legal process and the mother backed out three days before her grace period ended. She kept their money and placed the twins into the state foster system until she was released from prison.
My other friend, who adopted, took a year to get all the financial, legal, social, and physical issues resolved. Her adoption was finalized and she has been the mother of this wonderful young man for 10 years now. She told me that adoption is not the same as birth because there is always a small question mark floating above the whole thing.
“That question mark is really big during the adoption process. Once it's all legal, my son's birth mother could show up at any time into his life. She could sue, she could kidnap him, or she could decide she needs to be his friend. I know these are not very likely, but we adoptive parents live with this when birth parents never have to.”
Paternity is the establishment of one man as the biological father of a child. How can you know who the father of a child might be? I had a student in 1991 that narrowed down the potential father of her child to 3 college students that she had sex with in the course of a week. Thousands of years ago, it would have been nearly impossible to establish which provided the sperm that fertilized the egg. Today we have DNA tests. If the man and woman are married, then paternity is assumed to be assigned to the husband. If there is an out-of-marriage pregnancy, paternity can be established to within 99.9 percent accuracy with a DNA test involving only a painless swab inside the mouth. If the father is not the sperm donor, then the likelihood may range from zero (not the father) to a few percentage points. If the tested person is a close relative of the father (brother, father, or uncle) that can also be established.
A biological explanation of the test was available on 20 April, 2010 at bioforensics.com/conference/Paternity/. When paternity and maternity are in place, legal guardianship is granted. A Legal Guardian is the steward or person authorized to act in behalf of the child in all manners. Guardianship is clear in cases of birth and adoption. But, what happens in cases of criminal behavior, abuse, neglect, and other nefarious circumstances where the child is at risk of harm? State legal practice allows courts to appoint a guardian in place of the legal parents when needed. When this happens, legal guardianship may be granted for a period of time for the child.
A Guardian ad litem is an adult appointed to represent the interest of the child during divorces, abuse, neglect, or other hardships where the child's interests need to be protected independent of the parents. When a court appoints an ad litem for a child it is called a Court Ordered Special Advocate (CASA). In 1977, a Judge named David W. Soukup initiated CASA and it was later adopted, boasting 68,000 CASA women and men in the US (retrieved 22 April, 2010 from www.in.gov/judiciary/galcasa/about.html).
One of my students served as a CASA, advocating for children in a bitter, other-accusing, and generally nasty divorce. She truly felt a need to protect the minor child and was given authority and legal backing to do so. In the end, the child's parents divorced, but their efforts to use this little girl as a pawn in their cruel game of divorce chess was greatly limited.


2: The purpose of a literature review
Simply put, the purpose of a literature review is to recognize and track the previous knowledge upon which research is built. In the thousands of years that humans have been observing their surroundings and making discoveries, we have collectively built a sizeable body of knowledge. Homo erectus (purportedly) created the first controlled fire. Likely this happened by observing the aftermaths of lightning strikes, and then discovering the result of friction between organic matter, or experimenting with colliding various rocks together. They certainly did not have the organized process we have today for expanding the body of knowledge, but they made a momentous contribution no less – controlled fire allowed for a considerable list of other possibilities within civilization (forging weapons, cooking, etc). Today we don’t typically stumble upon discoveries like early civilization. Instead we use the scientific method, controlled experiments, or logically constructed theories from previous observations to continue expanding the body of knowledge at a rapidly cumulative rate.
The body of knowledge is “the complete set of concepts, terms and activities that make up a professional domain, as defined by the relevant learned society or professional association” (Oliver, 2012, p. 3). In short, its what we know about any discipline. When taken collectively, the body of knowledge is everything the scientific community knows about the world. Some areas of the body of knowledge are well developed, and others are simply beginning. We know a lot more about mathematics and chemistry than we do for example behavioral economics, or mental illness. Yet, everything together represents an important platform from which to expand the body of knowledge.
A good analogy for this body of knowledge is a sphere. At any given point in time this sphere contains everything the world knows about all disciplines. As more studies are conducted and science advances, the sphere expands. In most disciplines the expansion is a small, incremental bump. For example, if you conducted a study on the “impact of social media bullying on middle school students’ mental health,” the results of that study would create a small bump on the body of knowledge. Conversely, in cases where ground breaking research fundamentally changes humankind or understanding of the universe, the bump would protrude substantially. Nobel prizes are given out for these types of advances; such is the case in physics, medicine, and economics. Think discovery of the radio wave, or contributions to organ transplant science, or Keynesian economics. Therefore, this sphere which represents the body of knowledge is not perfectly smooth, but rather bumpy and perhaps organically lopsided at times as disciplines advance at different rates. For this reason, it’s less like a pool ball or balloon, and more like an orange with all of its imperfections, organic surface bumps, and small craters.
Adding a bump
The “literature review” stems from the scientific method, which is the standard process by which we learn about our world. The scientific method has five basic steps: define the question to investigate, make predictions, gather data, observe, draw conclusions. This basic framework is taught to fifth graders working on a project for the science fair, and utilized alike by scientists conducting studies on nano-particle acceleration. The first step is the most crucial in expanding the body of knowledge because we cannot make predictions in fields too advanced for our thinking, or upon those which we have almost no understanding. In the sphere analogy, this would be tantamount to creating a new circle or bump which lies in space, not connected to the existing mass. Imagine Da Vinci trying to grasp helicopter avionics with his 15th century crude design of the helicopter, or Edison delving into laser research immediately after discovering artificial light creation. These connections wouldn’t happen because the human mind is limited in conceiving of advancements too far removed from their existing reality. Advancement takes time for societies and academic communities to digest, and scientists need time to ruminate on new possibilities.
The sphere analogy allows us to visualize this progress of science, discovery, and knowledge creation. Solid, acceptable research must be built on the existing, contemporary understanding of the world. In fact, the scientific community values the scientific method so much that it would reject findings of a research study if the scholar does not recognize previous developments and describe how the research expands the body of knowledge. This acknowledgement is the purpose of the literature review. The literature review helps us see where on the body of knowledge we are making our bump.
Two kinds of Literature Review
The “literature review” is often a source of frustration and confusion for many masters and doctoral students. They usually have two questions – what is the literature, and what is a literature review? The answer to the first question is simple. The literature (sometimes called the academic literature) is the written findings from all of the studies ever conducted and written about. In modern academia and scientific community, this comes in the form of peer-reviewed research articles published in journals. Peer reviewed means that after completing a research study, the scholar (or scientist) describes the study using whichever variation of the scientific method used in the research. This first draft, called a manuscript at this stage, is sent to other scholars in that field. These peers have one role – to validate, critique, and ultimately accept or reject the study that was conducted. For this reason, the process is called peer-reviewed research. The feedback on the manuscript given to the scholar allows them to revise and fix any issues. Once the final draft is accepted, the manuscript becomes a published article in a “peer-reviewed” journal, and hence a part of the accepted literature. The idea behind peer review is that experts in the field will look at existing knowledge, and determine if in fact the research study was successful in advancing the body of knowledge. This means that magazine articles, news outlets, blogs, online content such as Wikipedia and the like are not considered valid sources of information for the systematic way we advance scientific knowledge. Although, important to note is that some disciplines will accept books or book chapters as valid scientific output, especially if its peer-reviewed.
The literature review plays an important role in this process because it establishes the baseline and foundation for the research. Even if you are writing papers for a class and not submitting to a peer-reviewed journal, the same process and discipline should be followed. The second question that students ask – (what is a literature review?) – requires a more nuanced response. There are two principle types of literature reviews. The first type of literature review is a section of a research paper and functions much as described in the “standing on the shoulder of giants” analogy. It’s the part of the research that justifies how the project advances existing knowledge. The second type of literature review is an article unto itself. There is a slightly different purpose in the latter as it entails more synthesis of contemporary research, and provides a more explicit exhortation on future research direction of the field. We will describe both of these approaches and provide examples in the subsequent chapters.
The literature review as a section of a research project
The structure of a research project stems from the scientific method and most commonly entails the introduction, literature review, method, results, and discussion sections. The Introduction describes the importance of the study, provides context, and tells the community why this particular phenomenon should be studied. This is the sales pitch of the article and the part that compels others to continue reading. The Literature Review traces the roots of the theory or knowledge the project is attempting to advance. In the Method section, the exact process is described so that peers can either replicate the study in future attempts, or can critique the robustness or validity of the research (by means of the peer-review process). The Results section is usually the shortest part of a paper in that it simply reports the outcome. In quantitative studies there are recorded metrics and statistics that show the outcome of the experiment or analysis. In qualitative studies, the themes or key understandings are identified. The Discussion section brings everything to a point by articulating how the study did what it set out to do, and how it advances the particular theory or research train that it intended to. This section also outlines any limitations of the study (size or scope, for example), as well as maps out a logical future research agenda for peer-scholars to follow.
Literature reviews which are section of a scientific study serve the primary purpose of mapping the roots of the study, and then choosing a specific theory upon which the project is based. Let’s go back to our social media bullying example. If we were to conduct a study on social media bullying in schools we might first acknowledge Social Cognition Theory (how individuals learn from each other), as well as the Theory of Planned Behavior (how we act on our intentions), as well as any studies that investigated the impact of bullying not in the online environment but in the physical realm. The literature review can be constructed using a chronological approach (start with the first theory you are referencing and concluding with more recent trends) or a thematic approach (put the studies you are citing into themes and describe those themes). It most cases it’s important to acknowledge those giants we talked about. Studies which identified ground breaking theory that compel many scholars after them to use as the basis of their work are called “seminal works.” Good examples of this are Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs or Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory (sometimes these seminal authors are called the Godfather of their discipline). Using the sphere analogy, the roots to our social media bullying study might look something like this.
We are using the sphere diagram here to improve your ability to visualize how literature reviews are constructed. When writing the literature review, the task is to provide a logical flow of theories and historical progression of understanding within the field. In some cases, scholars create similar visualizations to show the reader this flow. Most importantly with the literature review here is to make the case for why the theory you have chosen is relevant and most appropriate. Additionally, the literature review provides justification for the study in that it demonstrates where research is needed to “fill in the gap.”
Take this excerpt from Helens-Hart, et. al, (2022) for example. They begin their literature review section on reality TV with this qualifying statement:
“In this section, we present an overview of research on reality television programming (RTP), Undercover Boss, and organizational dissent. Through this discussion, we show how our work is situated within the larger research context and justify the need for continued research.” (p. 3).
Of final note on this type of literature review is that it’s important to recognize inconsistencies in the history of the literature. Point blank, sometimes scientists or scholars get it wrong. No reasonable psychologist today would use Freud’s theory of sexualized behavior to diagnose modern problems. Although contemporary psychologist find fault and cast doubt regarding the relevancy of his theories, a literature review on behavior or sexuality might trace theory back to its seminal work, in this case Freud. Second, sometimes the findings of studies disagree with other scholars’ findings. This disagreement is acceptable, and certainly significant to report in a literature review. For example, some research in human resources report that discrimination is a primary driver a gender pay gap, while others found that factors “other than discrimination” explain the difference in wages between men and women. These disagreements are often fertile ground for new studies as scientists seek to settle the score. The literature review needs to include these debates and discussions. One well known example of this was on global culture studies. A prominent scholar Hofstede made a case for a set of common elements that constituted culture. Javidan and House found a different set of elements, and these scholars went back and forth in the literature making their case. Smith (2006) wrote an article which provided insightful commentary on this debate, and based his article title on an old African proverb – When elephants fight, the grass gets trampled . This third commentary on the original debate provided key direction and distinctions on the academic conversation moving forward.
The literature review as a stand-alone paper
The literature review as a stand-alone paper serves a slightly different purpose. As opposed to the literature review which serves as the grounding and mapping element of a peer reviewed academic article, the purpose of a stand-alone literature review article is to synthesize the most recent findings of a field, and to provide a roadmap for future direction of research. Tracing the roots, seminal works, and historical progression of a field is still important. However, when the literature review gets to recent discoveries, the two-fold purpose become apparent – identify modern themes which have not been summarized and provide a map for future direction. Let us return to the sphere analogy, noting that discoveries in a given field expand the body of knowledge, creating the bump on the outside of the field. What happens in fields which develop rapidly (meaning, a lot of articles are being published, new discoveries are being made, etc.) is that these bumps grow and grow, building upon each other in single trains of thought and development, becoming more like stalactites, and less like minor bumps on the surface of the body of knowledge. Alternatively, a field might be developing new ideas which are varied and diverse – not necessarily building upon each other, but rather exploring new themes which increase the breadth of the field, but not much depth – more analogous to skin acne on the surface of the sphere. In each of these cases, a scholar might review all of the new articles in a field and provide commentary on which themes go together, which topics within the field are gaining momentum, synthesize related concepts within the growing field, or even demonstrate how the advancements in a field are creating a completely new field unto itself. Let’s use the example of entrepreneurship. Much of the early academic literature on entrepreneurship (1980s) focused on what characteristics make an entrepreneur. These early scholars were defining the term and which activities constituted entrepreneurship. More recent literature on entrepreneurship has focused on the nuanced “process” of entrepreneurship. As these different steps in the process of entrepreneurship become developed, and build upon each other, a need becomes apparent for a scholar to summarize and synthesize what is happening in our discovery of the field. It might look something like this:
Literature on entrepreneurship, for example, has recently focused on themes such as boot-strapping (early stages of entrepreneurship whereby the entrepreneur works on thin margins, high potential, long-term payout opportunities), ideation (how entrepreneurs get new ideas for entrepreneurial endeavors), and effectuation (how do ideas get turned into actual entrepreneurial ventures). As these individual tracks grow, a scholar might recognize the need for a literature review to show how these themes are related and contextualize these concepts within the entrepreneurship field. Even though each of these areas are growing on themselves, they are inter-related and represent elements of a common theme of entrepreneurial process. By providing a literature review which brings several of these individual tracks together, the tracks become one (entrepreneurial process), and not the individual spikes, but rather a larger lump on the body of knowledge (remember we said the sphere isn’t perfectly circular as various fields develop at different paces).
The second phase of a literature review in a stand-alone paper is to provide a roadmap for future direction of the field. Several themes or related tracks might be identified in this literature review, and it’s the job of the scholar to provide commentary on what future research in the field needs to focus on. This could be anticipation or prediction of where the field will likely go, or where the field should focus its investigation, based on social, economic, or political need. For example, some entrepreneurial scholars are focusing on entrepreneurial mindset to determine if it can be taught and used as a means from economic struggle. Other scholars are using entrepreneurial process to solve social problems such as pollution, sustainability, or conservation. Some scholars are working to discover how we can better serve and support subsistence entrepreneurs (someone who is an entrepreneur not by choice but necessity, like a street vendor or shop owner in a developing country). The stand-alone literature review gives scholars shoulders to stand on after notching the themes and summarizing the progress in the field.


1.10.27: Gibbs Energies- Binary Liquid Mixtures- General Properties
A given binary liquid mixture ( at temperature \(\mathrm{T}\) and pressure \(\mathrm{p}\), which is close to the standard pressure) mole fraction \(x_{1}\left(=1-x_{2}\right)\) can be characterised by the molar Gibbs energy of mixing, \(\Delta_{\text{mix}} \mathrm{~G}_{\mathrm{m}}\) and related molar enthalpic, volumetric and entropic properties. A corresponding set of properties exists for this mixture granted that the thermodynamic properties are ideal; e.g. \(\Delta_{\text {mix }} G_{m}(\mathrm{id})\). Hence we can define the corresponding excess molar property, \(\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}}=\Delta_{\operatorname{mix}} \mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}-\Delta_{\operatorname{mix}} \mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}} \text { (id) }\). Interesting patterns emerge relating these properties and the corresponding partial molar properties; e.g. chemical potentials.
Ideal Mixing Properties
At defined \(\mathrm{T}\) and \(\mathrm{p}\), the molar Gibbs energy for an ideal binary liquid mixture is given by equation (a).
\[\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}(\mathrm{id})=\mathrm{x}_{1} \,\left[\mu_{1}^{*}(\ell)+\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{1}\right)\right]+\mathrm{x}_{2} \,\left[\mu_{2}^{*}(\ell)+\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{2}\right)\right] \nonumber \]
Here \(\mu_{1}^{*}(\ell)\) and \(\mu_{2}^{*}(\ell)\) are the chemical potentials of the two pure liquids 1 and 2 at the same \(\mathrm{T}\) and \(\mathrm{p}\). If the same amounts of the two liquid had not been allowed to mix,
\[\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}(\text { no }-\operatorname{mix})=\mathrm{x}_{1} \, \mu_{1}^{*}(\ell)+\mathrm{x}_{2} \, \mu_{2}^{*}(\ell) \nonumber \]
By definition,
\[\Delta_{\text {mix }} G_{m}(\mathrm{id})=x_{1} \, R \, T \, \ln \left(x_{1}\right)+x_{2} \, R \, T \, \ln \left(x_{2}\right) \nonumber \]
Recalling that \(x_{1}+x_{2}=1\) and \(dx_{1}=-d x_{2}\),
\[\mathrm{d} \Delta_{\text {mix }} \mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}(\mathrm{id}) / \mathrm{dx} \mathrm{x}_{2}=-\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{1}\right)-\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T}+\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{2}\right)+\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \nonumber \]
We use equation (c) for \(\ln \left(x_{2}\right)\) and substitute in equation (d).
\[\begin{aligned}
&\mathrm{d} \Delta_{\text {mix }} \mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}(\mathrm{id}) / \mathrm{dx} \mathrm{x}_{2}= \\
&-\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{1}\right)+\left(1 / \mathrm{x}_{2}\right) \,\left[\Delta_{\text {mix }} \mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}(\mathrm{id})-\mathrm{x}_{1} \, \mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{1}\right)\right]
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]
\[\begin{aligned}
&\mathrm{x}_{2} \, \mathrm{d} \Delta_{\operatorname{mix}} \mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}(\mathrm{id}) / \mathrm{dx} \mathrm{x}_{2}= \\
&\left.-\mathrm{x}_{2} \, \mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{1}\right)+\Delta_{\text {mix }} \mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}(\mathrm{id})-\mathrm{x}_{1} \, \mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{1}\right)\right]
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]
Hence,
\[\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{1}\right)=\Delta_{\mathrm{mix}} \mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}(\mathrm{id})-\mathrm{x}_{2} \, \mathrm{d} \Delta_{\mathrm{mix}} \mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}(\mathrm{id}) / \mathrm{dx} \mathrm{x}_{2} \nonumber \]
At all mole fractions, \(\Delta_{\operatorname{mix}} \mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}(\mathrm{id})\) is negative, the plot of \(\Delta_{\operatorname{mix}} \mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}(\mathrm{id})\) against \(x_{1}\) being symmetric about ‘\(x_{1}=0.5\)’. At the extreme, where \(\mathrm{d} \Delta_{\operatorname{mix}} \mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}(\mathrm{id}) / \mathrm{dx} \mathrm{x}_{2}\) is zero; equation (c) shows that \(\Delta_{\operatorname{mix}} \mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}(\mathrm{id}) \text { equals } [\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln (0.5)]\). At \(298 \mathrm{~K}\), the latter quantity equals \(– 1.72 \mathrm{~kJ mol}^{-1}\).
Using equation (c), the ratio \(\Delta_{\operatorname{mix}} \mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}(\mathrm{id}) / \mathrm{T}\) is given by equation (h)
\[\Delta_{\operatorname{mix}} \mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}(\mathrm{id}) / \mathrm{T}=\mathrm{R} \,\left[\mathrm{x}_{1} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{1}\right)+\mathrm{x}_{2} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{2}\right)\right] \nonumber \]
Hence using the Gibbs-Helmholtz it follows that the molar enthalpy of mixing is zero at all mole fractions. Similarly the molar isobaric heat capacity of mixing is zero at all mole fractions. In terms of entropies,
\[\Delta_{\operatorname{mix}} \mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{m}}(\mathrm{id})=-\mathrm{R} \,\left[\mathrm{x}_{1} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{1}\right)+\mathrm{x}_{2} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{2}\right)\right] \nonumber \]
But at all (real) mole fractions (other than \(x_{1} =1 \text { and } x_{2} = 1\)) \(\left[x_{1} \, \ln \left(x_{1}\right)+x_{2} \, \ln \left(x_{2}\right)\right]<0\). Hence \(\Delta_{\operatorname{mix}} \mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{m}}(\mathrm{id})>0\). In the event that mixing of two liquids at temperature \(\mathrm{T}\) to produce a binary liquid mixture having ideal properties, then \(\Delta_{\text {mix }} \mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}(\mathrm{id})\) is negative because \(\Delta_{\operatorname{mix}} \mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{m}}(\mathrm{id})\) is positive, \(\Delta_{\text {mix }} \mathrm{H}_{\mathrm{m}}(\mathrm{id})\) being zero. In other words we have a reference against which to examine the properties of real liquid mixtures.
Excess properties
The molar Gibbs energy of a real binary liquid mixture is related to the mole fraction composition using equation (j).
\[\begin{aligned}
&\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}= \\
&\mathrm{x}_{1} \,\left[\mu_{1}^{*}(\ell)+\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{1} \, \mathrm{f}_{1}\right)\right]+\mathrm{x}_{2} \,\left[\mu_{2}^{*}(\ell)+\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{2} \, \mathrm{f}_{2}\right)\right]
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]
For the corresponding mixture having ideal thermodynamic properties,
\[\begin{aligned}
&\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}(\mathrm{id})= \\
&\mathrm{x}_{1} \,\left[\mu_{1}^{*}(\ell)+\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{1}\right)\right]+\mathrm{x}_{2} \,\left[\mu_{2}^{*}(\ell)+\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{x}_{2}\right)\right]
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]
The excess molar Gibbs energy \({\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}}^{\mathrm{E}}\) is therefore given by equation (l).
\[\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}}=\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \,\left[\mathrm{x}_{1} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{f}_{1}\right)+\mathrm{x}_{2} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{f}_{2}\right)\right] \nonumber \]
We differentiate equation (l) with respect to mole fraction, \(x_{1}\).
\[\frac{1}{R \, T} \, \frac{\mathrm{dG}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}}}{\mathrm{dx}_{1}}=\ln \left(\mathrm{f}_{1}\right)+\mathrm{x}_{1} \, \frac{\mathrm{d} \ln \left(\mathrm{f}_{1}\right)}{d \mathrm{x}_{1}}-\ln \left(\mathrm{f}_{2}\right)+\mathrm{x}_{2} \, \frac{\mathrm{d} \ln \left(\mathrm{f}_{2}\right)}{\mathrm{dx}_{1}} \nonumber \]
But from the Gibbs-Duhem equation at fixed \(\mathrm{T}\) and \(\mathrm{p}\),
\[x_{1} \, \frac{d \ln \left(\mu_{1}\right)}{d x_{1}}+x_{2} \, \frac{d \ln \left(\mu_{2}\right)}{d x_{1}}=0 \nonumber \]
Hence,
\[x_{1} \, \frac{d \ln \left(f_{1}\right)}{d x_{1}}+x_{2} \, \frac{d \ln \left(f_{2}\right)}{d x_{1}}=0 \nonumber \]
From equation (k),
\[\ln \left(f_{2}\right)=\ln \left(f_{1}\right)-\frac{1}{R \, T} \, \frac{d G_{m}^{E}}{d x_{1}} \nonumber \]
Hence using equation (j),
\[\frac{\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}}}{\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T}}=\ln \left(\mathrm{f}_{1}\right)-\frac{\mathrm{X}_{2}}{\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T}} \, \frac{\mathrm{dG}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}}}{\mathrm{dx}} \nonumber \]
Or
\[\ln \left(\mathrm{f}_{1}\right)=\frac{\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}}}{\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T}}=+\frac{\mathrm{x}_{2}}{\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T}} \, \frac{\mathrm{dG}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}}}{\mathrm{dx}_{1}} \nonumber \]
Equation (o) has an interesting feature. At the mole fraction composition where \(\frac{\mathrm{dG}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}}}{\mathrm{dx}_{1}}\) is zero, \(\frac{\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}}}{\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T}}\) offers a direct measure of \(\ln \left(f_{1}\right)\) at that mole fraction.
Perhaps the most direct measure of the extent to which the thermodynamic properties of a given binary liquid mixture differs from that defined as ideal is afforded by the molar enthalpy of mixing which is therefore the excess molar enthalpy of mixing \({\mathrm{H}_{\mathrm{m}}}^{\mathrm{E}\). Thus,
\[\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}}=\mathrm{H}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}}-\mathrm{T} \, \mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}} \nonumber \]
where
\[\mathrm{C}_{\mathrm{pmn}}^{\mathrm{E}}=\left(\partial \mathrm{H}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}} / \partial \mathrm{T}\right)_{\mathrm{p}} \nonumber \]
In many reports the properties of a given binary liquid mixture at \(298.15 \mathrm{~K}\) and ambient pressure are summarised in a plot showing the three properties \({\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}}^{\mathrm{E}\), \({\mathrm{H}_{\mathrm{m}}}^{\mathrm{E}\) and \(\mathrm{T} \, \mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}}\) as a function of the mole fraction composition. An enormous amount of information can be summarised in such plots. In order to understand the various patterns which emerge two liquid mixtures are often taken as models against which to compare the properties of other liquid mixtures.
-
Trichloromethane + Methanol
For this mixture both \({\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}}^{\mathrm{E}\) and \({\mathrm{H}_{\mathrm{m}}}^{\mathrm{E}\) are negative, their minima being at approx. mole fractions at 0.5. The pattern in understood in terms of strong inter-component interaction, hydrogen bonding. In these terms the mixing is ‘favourable’ and exothermic. -
Tetrachloromethane + Methanol
For this mixture the mixing is, for the most part endothermic and \({\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}}^{\mathrm{E}\) is positive with a maximum at mole fractions equal to 0.5. Thus the mixing is unfavourable and endothermic. This pattern points to the impact of added tetrachloromethane disrupting the intermolecular hydrogen bonding between methanol molecules.
These two liquid mixtures provide a basis for the examination of the properties of binary aqueous mixtures for which there is an immense published information. In most cases \({\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}}^{\mathrm{E}\) is either positive or negative across the mole fraction range for a given liquid mixture although plots of \({\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}}^{\mathrm{E}\) and \(\mathrm{T} \, \mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{m}}^{\mathrm{E}}\) against mole fraction composition are often S-shaped, nevertheless operating to produce a smooth change in \({\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}}^{\mathrm{E}\). Plots of \({\mathrm{C}_{\mathrm{pm}}}^{\mathrm{E}}\) and excess molar volume of mixing \({\mathrm{V}_{\mathrm{m}}}^{\mathrm{E}}\) against mole fraction are often quite complicated.
In a few cases the plot of \({\mathrm{G}_{\mathrm{m}}}^{\mathrm{E}\) against composition is S-shaped. One such system is the mixture, water + 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoropropanol [1]. Explanations of such complex patterns are not straightforward. However we might for an alcohol + water mixture envisage a switch from
- at low \(x_{2}\) strong water-water interactions with weak alcohol-water interactions to
- at high \(x_{2}\) strong alcohol-water interactions.
Definition of excess thermodynamic properties is not straightforward in all instances; e.g. isentropic compressibilities.[2]
Footnotes
[1] M. J. Blandamer, J. Burgess, A. Cooney, H. J. Cowles, I. M. Horn, K. J. Martin, K. W. Morcom and P. Warwick, J. Chem. Soc. Faraday Trans.,1990, 86 ,2209`
[2] G. Douheret, C . Moreau and A. Viallard, Fluid Phase Equilibrium, 1985, 22 ,277; 289.


14.E: Cosmic Samples and the Origin of the Solar System (Exercises)
For Further Exploration
Note: Resources about exoplanets are provided in The Birth of Stars and the Discovery of Planets outside the Solar System.
Articles
Meteors and Meteorites
Alper, J. “It Came from Outer Space.” Astronomy (November 2002): 36. On the analysis of organic materials in meteorites.
Beatty, J. “Catch a Fallen Star.” Sky & Telescope (August 2009): 22. On the recovery of meteorites from an impact that was seen in the sky.
Durda, D. “The Chelyabinsk Super-Meteor.” Sky & Telescope (June 2013): 24. A nice summary, with photos and eyewitness reporting.
Garcia, R., & Notkin, G. “Touching the Stars without Leaving Home.” Sky & Telescope (October 2008): 32. Hunting and collecting meteorites.
Kring, D. “Unlocking the Solar System’s Past.” Astronomy (August 2006): 32. Part of a special issue devoted to meteorites.
Rubin, A. “Secrets of Primitive Meteorites.” Scientific American (February 2013): 36. What they can teach us about the environment in which the solar system formed.
Evolution of the Solar System and Protoplanetary Disks
Jewitt, D., & Young, E. “Oceans from the Skies.” Scientific American (March 2015): 36–43. How did Earth and the other inner planets get their water after the initial hot period?
Talcott, R. “How the Solar System Came to Be.” Astronomy (November 2012): 24. On the formation period of the Sun and the planets.
Young, E. “Cloudy with a Chance of Stars.” Scientific American (February 2010): 34. On how clouds of interstellar matter turn into star systems.
Websites
Meteors and Meteorites
American Meteor Society: http://www.amsmeteors.org/ . For serious observers.
British and Irish Meteorite Society: http://www.bimsociety.org/meteorites1.shtml .
Meteor Showers Online: http://meteorshowersonline.com/ . By Gary Kronk.
Meteorite Information: http://www.meteorite-information.com/ . A great collection of links for understanding and even collecting meteorites.
Meteorites from Mars: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/ . A listing and links from the Jet Propulsion Lab.
Meteors and Meteor Showers: www.astronomy.com/observing/o...meteor-showers. From Astronomy magazine.
Meteors: http://www.skyandtelescope.com/obser...watch/meteors/ . A collection of articles on meteor observing from Sky & Telescope magazine.
Nine Planets Meteorites and Meteors Page: http://nineplanets.org/meteorites.html .
Some Interesting Meteorite Falls of the Last Two Centuries: www.icq.eps.harvard.edu/meteorites-1.html.
Evolution of the Solar System and Protoplanetary Disks
Circumstellar Disk Learning Site: http://www.disksite.com/ . By Dr. Paul Kalas.
Disk Detective Project: http://www.diskdetective.org/ . The WISE mission is asking the public to help them find protoplanetary disks in their infrared data.
Videos
Meteors and Meteorites
Meteorites and Meteor-wrongs: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VQO335Y3zXo . Video with Dr. Randy Korotev of Washington U. in St. Louis (7:05).
Rare Meteorites from London’s Natural History Museum: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w-Rsk-ywN44 . A tour of the meteorite collection with curator Caroline Smith (18:22). Also see a short news piece about a martian meteorite: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1EMR2r53f2s (2:54).
What Is a Meteor Shower (and How to Watch Them): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xNmgvlwInCA . Top tips for watching meteor showers from the At-Bristol Science Center (3:18).
Evolution of the Solar System and Protoplanetary Disks
Origins of the Solar System: www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/space/o...ar-system.html. Video from Nova ScienceNow narrated by Neil deGrasse Tyson (13:02).
Where Do Planets Come From?: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zdIJUdZWlXo . Public talk by Anjali Tripathi in March 2016 in the Center for Astrophysics Observatory Nights Series (56:14).
Collaborative Group Activities
- Ever since the true (cosmic) origin of meteorites was understood, people have tried to make money selling them to museums and planetariums. More recently, a growing number of private collectors have been interested in purchasing meteorite fragments, and a network of dealers (some more reputable than others) has sprung up to meet this need. What does your group think of all this? Who should own a meteorite? The person on whose land it falls, the person who finds it, or the local, state, or federal government where it falls? What if it falls on public land? Should there be any limit to what people charge for meteorites? Or should all meteorites be the common property of humanity? (If you can, try to research what the law is now in your area. See, for example, www.space.com/18009-meteorite...ds-rules.html.)
- Your group has been formed to advise a very rich person who wants to buy some meteorites but is afraid of being cheated and sold some Earth rocks. How would you advise your client to make sure that the meteorites she buys are authentic?
- Your group is a committee set up to give advice to NASA about how to design satellites and telescopes in space to minimize the danger of meteor impacts. Remember that the heavier a satellite is, the harder (more expensive) it is to launch. What would you include in your recommendations?
- Discuss what you would do if you suddenly found that a small meteorite had crashed in or near your home. Whom would you call first, second, third? What would you do with the sample? (And would any damage to your home be covered by your insurance?)
- A friend of your group really wants to see a meteor shower. The group becomes a committee to assist her in fulfilling this desire. What time of year would be best? What equipment would you recommend she gets? What advice would you give her?
- Work with your group to find a table of the phases of the Moon for the next calendar year. Then look at the table of well-known meteor showers in this chapter and report on what phase the Moon will be in during each shower. (The brighter the Moon is in the night sky, the harder it is to see the faint flashes of meteors.)
- Thinking that all giant planets had to be far from their stars (because the ones in our solar system are) is an example of making theories without having enough data (or examples). Can your group make a list of other instances in science (and human relations) where we have made incorrect judgments without having explored enough examples?
- Have your group list and then discuss several ways in which the discovery of a diverse group of exoplanets (planets orbiting other stars) has challenged our conventional view of the formation of planetary systems like our solar system.
 The next day she confides in you that she was concerned that the stars in the Big Dipper (her favorite star pattern) might be the next ones to go. How would you put her mind at ease?
- In what ways are meteorites different from meteors? What is the probable origin of each?
- How are comets related to meteor showers?
- What do we mean by primitive material? How can we tell if a meteorite is primitive?
- Describe the solar nebula, and outline the sequence of events within the nebula that gave rise to the planetesimals.
- Why do the giant planets and their moons have compositions different from those of the terrestrial planets?
- How do the planets discovered so far around other stars differ from those in our own solar system? List at least two ways.
- Explain the role of impacts in planetary evolution, including both giant impacts and more modest ones.
- Why are some planets and moons more geologically active than others?
- Summarize the origin and evolution of the atmospheres of Venus, Earth, and Mars.
- Why do meteors in a meteor shower appear to come from just one point in the sky?
Thought Questions
- What methods do scientists use to distinguish a meteorite from terrestrial material?
- Why do iron meteorites represent a much higher percentage of finds than of falls
- Why is it more useful to classify meteorites according to whether they are primitive or differentiated rather than whether they are stones, irons, or stony-irons?
- Which meteorites are the most useful for defining the age of the solar system? Why?
- Suppose a new primitive meteorite is discovered (sometime after it falls in a field of soybeans) and analysis reveals that it contains a trace of amino acids, all of which show the same rotational symmetry (unlike the Murchison meteorite). What might you conclude from this finding?
- How do we know when the solar system formed? Usually we say that the solar system is 4.5 billion years old. To what does this age correspond?
- We have seen how Mars can support greater elevation differences than Earth or Venus. According to the same arguments, the Moon should have higher mountains than any of the other terrestrial planets, yet we know it does not. What is wrong with applying the same line of reasoning to the mountains on the Moon?
- Present theory suggests that giant planets cannot form without condensation of water ice, which becomes vapor at the high temperatures close to a star. So how can we explain the presence of jovian-sized exoplanets closer to their star than Mercury is to our Sun?
- Why are meteorites of primitive material considered more important than other meteorites? Why have most of them been found in Antarctica?
Figuring for Yourself
- How long would material take to go around if the solar nebula in Example \(14.3.1\) in Section 14.3 became the size of Earth’s orbit?
- Consider the differentiated meteorites. We think the irons are from the cores, the stony-irons are from the interfaces between mantles and cores, and the stones are from the mantles of their differentiated parent bodies. If these parent bodies were like Earth, what fraction of the meteorites would you expect to consist of irons, stony-irons, and stones? Is this consistent with the observed numbers of each? (Hint: You will need to look up what percent of the volume of Earth is taken up by its core, mantle, and crust.)
- Estimate the maximum height of the mountains on a hypothetical planet similar to Earth but with twice the surface gravity of our planet.