9.12: Renaissance Artists
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Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) was born in France and became one of the most well-known architects of the time. Architecture at the beginning of the Renaissance was a revival of classicism, moving away from the traditional gothic style of design and construction. The main church in Florence, Italy, the Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore (Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Flower) (8.3), began in 1296 based on the Gothic style. The building design included an immense octagonal dome, and the church was theoretically to be the largest constructed in the world. The only problem - for 200 years, no one could produce a viable plan to construct the dome - so the dome left uncovered and open to the elements. From the concepts of antiquity, Filippo Brunelleschi revived the linear perspective construction techniques adopted by the Greeks and Romans and designed a dome to fit the opening.
In 1418, after convincing the city fathers of his radical design to build two domes, one inside of the other, Brunelleschi was awarded the contract to build the dome. The double-walled (fig. 8.4) system from lightweight bricks, allowed the dome to rise higher and more substantial than ever before. The dome was built 43.2 meters high, and Brunelleschi invented a herringbone brick design (8.5) spiraling upwards, adding support while the weight was shifted outwards to the dome supports. Brunelleschi had to design, create, and use numerous hoisting machines to lift the materials to the workers. The dome was a mathematical and architectural wonder, and visitors can still climb to the lantern for magnificent views of Florence.
Originally, Brunelleschi wanted the interior of the dome covered in gold to reflect the light, however, he died, and the dome was simply whitewashed. Later, the Duke of Florence commissioned artists to paint the inside of the dome with stories (8.6) representing The Last Judgement from the bible.
READING: Brunelleschi's Dome: Construction and Structure
Donato di Niccolo di Betto (aka Donatello) (1386-1466), born in Florence, the center of the new movement, was one of the original Renaissance artists. Cosimo De Medici—the first Medici dynasty leader—sponsored Donatello, and in 1430, Donatello created the first freestanding nude sculpture of David (8.7). Donatello studied Greek and Roman art along with Brunelleschi before designing the statue.
The traditional stance of a freestanding sculpture was one of the first since the Greek and Roman statues of the ancient past, making this statue revolutionary and exciting to view. The tall, lithe body of the young David is resting on one leg and his sword, leaving the other leg to bend forward over the head of Goliath. David has an enchanting (8.8) smile; his hands are by his side against smooth polished skin and his long curly locks flow from underneath his helmet.
The provocative statue stood on a column in the middle of the Medici Palazzo courtyard instead of the town square, indicating it may have been controversial to display a nude male figure at this time in the 15th century. Donatello was undoubtedly ahead of his time as an artist, leading the Renaissance revolution of acceptance and humanistic qualities in art.
Tommaso di Ser Giovanni di Simone (aka Masaccio) (1401-1428) was one of the best painters of the quattrocento period of the renaissance. During his short tenure as a painter, he had a profound influence on other artists and their methods of using perspective, changing Western painting forever. Unfortunately, he died at the young age of twenty-six.
Quattrocento – the 15 th century as a period of Italian art or architecture
Moving away from the traditional, flatter Gothic style, Masaccio used perspective (Latin to “see-through”) in his painting, a departure from standard painting methods. His use of a linear one-point perspective changed painting and drawing forever. The vanishing point (8.9) begins as a set of parallel lines like a train track, vanishing into the other side of the picture. His magnificent painting, the Trinity (8.10), located in the church, Santa Maria Novella in Florence, is a large fresco above a tomb.
The Roman triumphal arches in the Roman Forum may have been the inspiration for Masaccio. His barrel vaults are drawn to the exact perspective shown by the coffered ceiling receding into the background. The realistic illusion of space creates depth with the use of the columns and ceiling. Christ on the cross is the center of the painting, the body painted in a muscular form looking down on Mary. The entire painting is located on top of an open tomb with the inscription: “As I am now, so you shall be. As you are now, so once was I”. The incredible cavernous space shows the perspective point as right below the bottom of the cross. The significant advancements Masaccio used in this painting went on to influence the great artists of the Renaissance.
In 1436, Johannes Gensfleisch Zur Laden zum Gutenberg (1398-1468) invented the movable type printing (8.11) press in Europe. An inventor, craftsman, blacksmith, and publisher, he was well educated and from a wealthy family. Books during the 14th century Europe were each unique, monks in monasteries copying each one by hand. Gutenberg saw an opportunity when libraries were first opened, and scholars wanted access to many copies of the same books. Gutenberg started experimenting with text, cutting it up into individual letters, gluing them to small blocks of wood to use as stamps, each block inked individually. Then he invented metal text and a letter block mold, so all text was equal in size, giving typesetters the ability to form lines or pages of print. The form was inked and pressed by hand on paper. Gutenberg used a design similar to wine or apple presses with a screw design for pressure.
 The first edition of 180 identical books was highly successful and began the printing revolution. Two years after Gutenberg invented the press, book production increased, and illiteracy fell. Although a printing press was invented in China and Korea a few centuries earlier, the technology had not migrated to Europe. Gutenberg’s printing press is regarded as one of the most critical inventions in European history.
Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506) was an Italian painter who was a student of Roman archeology and informed by antiquities, an influence showing up in the backgrounds of most of Mantegna’s artwork. He was a master of optical illusion and practiced drawing the perspectives before beginning a painting. St. Sebastian, (8.12) painted in 1480, depicts the saint tied to a Greek column, impaled with arrows. The pale, agonizing figure of St. Sebastian is contradicted with the blue sky and puffy white clouds between a town and the column to which he is tied. The Greek architectural influence frames the pale skin and white robe of the saint with the gray-white marble of the columns.
Another beautiful painting by Mantegna is Christ as the Suffering Redeemer (8.13). The painting was completed fifteen to twenty years after St. Sebastian and represents the growth in Mantegna’s skill as an artist. Christ is wrapped in a white drape, flanked by two angels. In the background is the tomb, the recently buried and now resurrected Christ just emerged from, making the painting a complete story, while maintaining the focus on Christ in the center.
Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filpepi (aka Sandro Botticelli) (1445-1510) was an early Renaissance painter who attended the school of Florentine under the sponsorship of Lorenzo de Medici. Botticelli apprenticed at the age of fourteen to Fra Filippo Lippi and found himself in the middle of the golden age of Renaissance art.
In 1485, Botticelli painted one of the most iconic paintings of the Renaissance, The Birth of Venus, (8.14), based on an ancient goddess of love, and a Greek statue de Medici had in his collection. Standing on a seashell after being born from the sea, Venus is floating gracefully towards the shore. The god of wind Zephyer blows her gently to the shore, where an attendant greets her with a red flowing robe.
8.14 The Birth of Venus
8.15 Close up of Venus
The background is unrealistic and does not have the depth seen in the Maccacio painting, and an exciting illusion, the bodies not grounded on land, appearing to be floating, uncharacteristic for Renaissance artists. The sensual body and face (8.15) of the Venus, painted in soft pastel colors, lack depth, her face melancholy, her hair moved by the wind, all unusual thematic painting by Renaissance standards.
Jheronimus van Aken (aka Hieronymus Bosch) (1450-1516) was an early Netherlands painter and well known for the eccentric landscapes and detailed imagery depicting moral and religious chronicles. Bosch’s most famous work is the Garden of Earthly Delights, painted in 1490.  The cover of the painting is in black and white (8.16) depicting the earth as a globe, yet a flat landscape with clouds gathering at the top resembling the atmosphere. When the panels close, the beautiful colorful curiosities painted inside are unexpected.
8.16 Garden of Earthly Delights exterior 8.17 Garden of Earthly Delights panel
8.18 Garden of Earthly Delights
Opening the wings reveals a radiating picture of the earth (8.17), inhabited with numerous nude people in all states of humorous yet sinister poses. The Renaissance allowed freedom for religious imagery, and Bosch took the idea and rendered an inventive and playful painting so far ahead of its time, could have been painted today.
When the triptych is open, the eye moves around the images, emotions on high alert as though living in a dream. One part of the panel (8.18) portrays people eating giant fruit, oversized birds flying, horses racing, all with repulsive and beautiful images next to each other. The painting is a composite of a dream-like world, a world where no one grows up or has responsibilities. In a science-fiction quality of painting, the viewer is led through an imaginary world between heaven and hell. Hieronymus Bosch was a man ahead of his time; unfortunately, he did not leave any written word about his ideas, paintings, or drawings. Bosch has left the viewer to wander and explore on their own, the Garden of Earthly Delights.
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (aka Leonardo da Vinci) (1452-1519) is one of the Renaissance’s most famous painters, architect, scientist, mathematician, astronomer, botanist, writer, engineer, inventor, musician, and sculptor. Leonardo Da Vinci was born into a prominent Tuscan family and moved to Florence at the age of seventeen to begin his art career. Leonardo joined the artist guild and soon flourished in the intellectual atmosphere. Da Vinci bounced around from patron to patron, painting, drawing, and designing. He drew anatomy from stolen corpses, learning how the (8.19) body and brain worked and drawing elaborately detailed pictures of the elements of the human body, including a fetus in the womb (8.20). Leonardo had an insatiable curiosity for knowledge, which led to thousands of drawings in the sciences.
Leonardo Da Vinci left a large body of drawings of his scientific concepts for us to study. One can imagine Leonardo observing the natural world, looking at every detail, and thinking about every line. Before he even lifted a paintbrush, Leonardo completed a series of drawings, setting the stage for the actual painting. Leonardo only painted nineteen pictures in his lifetime; however, he was a prolific illustrator and writer. His Italian script was written backward and can be easily read in front of a mirror.
8.21 Flying Machine
Leonardo designed and engineered a wide variety of tools, machines, and other conceptual inventions. One of the most iconic drawings is the (8.22) Vitruvian Man, drawn in 1492, with ink on paper, the man surrounded by a circle based on ideal human proportions. In Leonardo’s journals, page after page describes drawings of flying machines, musical instruments, pumps, cannons, and many others. The central framework of the human-powered ornithopter (8.21) shows a lightweight structure designed to enable a person to fly. Mechanical wings give the ornithopter its power for lift.
8.22 Vitruvian Man
READING: Drawings of Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo’s work still guides and inspires artists, philosophers, and scientists centuries after his death. The genius of Da Vinci's work and drive for knowledge places him at the top of the list of great artists of all time. The enigma of the Mona Lisa (8.23) remains one of Leonardo’s mysteries. Everyone wants to know who she was, is it a disguised self-portrait, are there numbers painted in her eyes, are among the many theories about the painting? It was supposed to be a portrait of a cloth merchant’s wife, a portrait Leonardo did not give to the merchant. The image is painted in half-length as she sits on a chair, dressed in unremarkable clothing. There is an appearance of a window behind her as she displays the emblematic smile. The complete wonder of the painting is what draws us into the painting.
8.23 Mona Lisa
Albrecht Durer (1452-1519) was a German woodcarver, painter, and printmaker, establishing a reputation across Europe when he was in his twenties. Durer created a vast body of work with classical motifs, and religious portraits, one of his most famous engravings is Melencolia I, (8.24), an allegorical composition with many iconic subjects. The engraving was completed in 1514 and included tools of a carpenter, a magic square, an hourglass showing time running out, a scale, compass, and the despondent winged figure in the foreground with her head resting on her hand. Melencolia 1 is linked to astrology, theology, and philosophy, suggesting it is a self-portrait of the artist himself, perhaps an idea of the limitations of the earthbound realm and the inability to imagine advanced states of conceptual contemplation.
Durer always believed he could achieve perfect proportions and measurements in his figures and created Adam and Eve (8.25) in idealized positions, surrounded by animals, reflecting perfection. Durer used thousands of fine lines to develop the image and then added his name on the sign above Adam’s shoulder. He did not make the print as a final piece of artwork, rather a print to be reproduced and distributed advertising his ability, a Renaissance ad.
8.24 Melencolia I 8.25 Adam and Eve
Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni (aka Michelangelo) (1475-1564) was born during the high Renaissance, one of the most famous artists as a sculptor, painter, architect, engineer, and poet. His unparalleled genius and artistic abilities and his organic style brought marble to life, reflected in all the statues he created. One of his first major commissions was a statue of the Pieta (8.26) for one of the side altars in the church of Saint Peter’s in Rome. The writer of the time stated, “No sculptor…could ever reach this level of design and grace, nor could he, even with handwork, ever finish, polish, and cut the marble as skillfully as Michelangelo did here, for in this statue all of the worth and power of sculpture is revealed.” The folds of her dress appear to cradle the lifeless body of Christ, a body sculpted in exquisite and sublime detail, his face gentle in death.
David (8.27), one of the most breathtaking masterpieces made of lustrous white Carrera marble, was Michelangelo’s most massive sculpture, measuring 4.10 meters, and exhibiting a perfect young man, muscular, contemplative, and ready for the fight. Generally, most artists portray David after the battle with Goliath, whose head lies on the ground. However, Michelangelo’s David is caught in the tense pre-battle position. The details Michelangelo carved (8.28) were far more advanced than other sculptors, on his hands, the tendons are visible under the skin, the veins running down his arm. The look on David’s face (8.29) is deep in thought of the upcoming battle, summoning the courage for the yet expressing the soft veil of fear.
Michelangelo was also a great painter even though he thought painting should be left to others; however, he knew he had to paint the Sistine Chapel (8.30) ceiling or face the wrath of the pope. The ceiling is over 20 meters high, and Michelangelo designed scaffolding so he could stand up under the curved ceiling and paint. He began the work in 1508, drawing figures and preparing the ceiling for the frescos.
The central ceiling consists of nine panels from the Book of Genesis, starting from the story of creation to Noah and the flood. The very center panel is the iconic outstretched hand of God (8.31), giving life to Adam, whose finger extended to God, but not quite touching, creating the magnetism between man and God. The Libyan Sibyl (8.32) with her Hellenistic features is one of the most profound figures on the ceiling. Painted in her regal orange dress, she is lifting a large book off the shelf. The powerful arms and back are twisting the body, causing her clothes to fold as they flow around her legs, creating an illusion of tension.
To paint the fresco style, Michelangelo covered a small section of the ceiling in plaster and then painted it into the wet plaster, which dried in a few days, revealing the final image. Over and over again, Michelangelo painted as he moved slowly down the ceiling, four long years on the scaffolding, with his neck craned upward until he completed the most iconic ceiling fresco in the world.
In 1979, restoration began in the Sistine Chapel to clean and repair the ceiling frescos and to recondition them to their previous glory as first unveiled by Michelangelo. The restoration process started in 1980 to clean the soot and dirt of 500 years and repair cracks in the plaster, a long-involved process not completed until 1994. The image (8.33) of Daniel on the left side is how the image appeared after 500 years of dirt, and on the right is the result of the restoration process to reestablish the original beauty. The legacy of Michelangelo continues well past the Renaissance, and he has continued to be remembered as one of the greatest artists of all time.
Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino (aka Raphael) (1483-1520) was an Italian painter living in Florence, a contemporary of Leonardo and Michelangelo. Although he died at the early age of thirty-seven, he left a sizeable body of work. Raphael commissioned to paint the walls of the Vatican library, a building right next door to the Sistine Chapel, where Michelangelo was simultaneously painting the chapel’s ceiling. The library was a small room, and Raphael painted a different allegorical fresco on each wall representing the four branches of human knowledge; philosophy, theology, poetry, and justice, one on each wall.
The first painting on the east wall, Raphael, painted the famous School of Athens (8.34), portraying knowledge of the future. In the center of the painting, Aristotle in blue and brown and Plato in red and purple, holding their books appear to be walking forward. In the left lower corner, Pythagoras is demonstrating the importance of mathematics. There are statues of ancient Greek gods on either side of the great-coffered ceilings linking antiquity with the Renaissance. The second painting on the west wall, The Dispute (8.35), represents theology divided horizontally into earthly life and heavenly life. In the top half, Christ is depicted on a bench of clouds, surrounded by saints. The spiritual figures in the bottom half represent popes, priests, and leaders of the church, bringing together celestial knowledge through the divine host.
The third painting on the south wall, The Cardinal and Theological Virtues (8.36), illustrates the cardinal qualities as personified by three women: Fortitude, Prudence, and Temperance. Fortitude is holding a branch from an oak tree shaken by the cupid, Charity. Prudence is looking into a mirror showing two faces with the cupid Hope holding a torch, and Temperance is guarding the cupid Faith. The fourth painting on the north wall, The Parnassus (8.37), illustrates the Mountain Parnassus where Apollo resides. Twenty-seven people from Greece flank Apollo, who is in the center under a laurel tree, playing a musical instrument. The nine muses who portray art, nine poets from antiquity, and nine contemporary poets all flank Apollo.
All four paintings together tell a story of the journey to the Renaissance period. The compositional harmony is apparent in all the frescos, and the visual counterpoint of the different groups of people creates a superior set of frescos. These frescos all demonstrate Raphael’s unique and illustrative approach to painting.
Properzia de Rossi (1490-1530) was an Italian sculptor whose talent emerged at an early age. Because it was difficult for young girls to find any training except in managing a household, de Rossi learned to carve peach and apricot pits, an unusual material to use for anyone. The small sculptures generally based on religious themes, and after carving her intricate scene of the crucifixion on a peach pit, her talent acknowledged, she received training in marble at the university. She acquired a commission for a bas-relief panel and sculpted Joseph and Potiphar’s Wife (8.38) displaying her talent to carve marble, a talent not well received by other artists who frequently discredited her.
Sofonisba Anguissola (1532-1625) was fortunate to be in a family of the nobility who believed in training for the arts. During this period, most women could not become an apprentice to a master artist and had to learn from a family member. However, her father was able to find an artist who trained her in painting and the importance of design. A letter written by her father described how fortunate she was to meet, and perhaps studied, with Michelangelo. She painted over twelve self-portraits, a striking image for an artist of this period. In an early self-portrait (8.39), she depicts herself painting the Madonna and child, although stopped in mid-stroke and looking as though she was interrupted. Her later self-portrait (8.40) was painted when she was seventy-eight, still a master of portraits.
As a female artist, Anguissola did not have access to male models and frequently used her family members to paint group portraits. She painted her other siblings in The Chess Game (8.41), one sister looking outward, the subtle smile on her face seems to say, I won the game. Anguissola’s attention to detail involved changing textures of the brocade clothing, delicate laces, and perfectly braided hair. These family portraits and her self-portraits, the attention to elegance painted of the clothing and her perfection seen on faces, helped Anguissola build her reputation. When she was only twenty-six, she was invited to become a painter in the Spanish Court, spending several years creating official court paintings of royalty and other dignitaries. Using muted, darker colors, the official portrait for Phillip II of Spain (8.42) displays the delicate lace around his neck and perfect buttons on his gown, an indication of her successful career.
Lucia Anguissola (1536 or 1538 – 1565 to 1568) was the younger sister of Sofonisba Anguissola, both of them received education in the humanities and arts and became painters. Unfortunately, Lucia died at the early age of thirty and did not have the opportunity to establish an extensive portfolio. The man in the painting is Portrait of Pietro Manna (8.x), believed to be a relative of the Anguissola family. He was painted with a limited palette with hues of brown and grey, a sense of personality on his face demonstrating Anguissola’s capability as an artist.
Tiziano Vecelli (aka Titian) (1490-1576) was an Italian painter and part of the Venetian art school. Titian is well known for his dynamic use of color, rendering beautiful, realistic fabric in his paintings. The Assumption of the Virgin (8.44) is 23 feet tall and is one of Titian’s largest altarpieces. Assisted by angels, Mary is moving from the earthly world into the heavenly world. The over-sized figures on the bottom of the painting have outstretched hands as though trying to assist Mary on her ascent into heaven. The foreshortening of Mary is rendered exquisitely, and looking up to the clouds, and she is surrounded by a halo of luminous golden light.
A Venetian painter, Jacopo Robusti (aka Tintoretto) (1518-1594), was one of the great Italian Mannerist painters of the Renaissance. Tintoretto attended the Venetian school of art and was influenced by Michelangelo, Vasari, and Giorgione when he painted (8.45) Finding of the Body of St Mark. One of Tintoretto’s early paintings and showed a mastery of drawing and painting with the use of one-point perspective.
Looking at the art, it appears the viewer could walk into the painting and down the long hall. The exquisite use of light illuminating the body, drawing the eye to the left corner, then traveling upward to see a noble figure is pointing at people to stop them from raiding tombs anymore. In the back of the picture are two figures opening the tomb, finding the body of Saint Mark, and dragging him out. Through collapsing time and space, viewers see Saint Mark lying on the ground in the foreground; and Saint Mark also the noble figure standing in the front left, gesturing to the people to stop raiding the tombs. The long hallway of the tomb is dark; however, the architectural details are lit with the faintest of light, giving it extreme depth and the dramatic effects of perspective. The painting was completed in 1566 and is one part of a cycle of paintings for the patron Saint Mark of Venice.
The age of the Renaissance was one of the most important periods for the development of human awareness, individualism, and self-awareness, a bold contrast to the Middle Ages dominating Europe for centuries. The Renaissance started the conversation about science, art, mathematics, engineering, and cultural advancement. It was a period of the rejuvenation of antiquity, a time when innovation steered the art movement.


7.2: Wong Sun v. United States
PETITIONER RESPONDENT
Wong Sun and James Wah Toy United States
LOCATION
James Wah Toy’s Laundry
DOCKET NO. DECIDED BY
36 Warren Court
LOWER COURT
United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit
CITATION
371 US 471 (1963)
ARGUED
Mar 28, 1962 / Apr 01, 1962
REARGUED
Oct 8, 1962
DECIDED
Jan 14, 1963
GRANTED
Oct 9, 1961
ADVOCATES
Edward Bennett Williams acting under appointment by the Court, for the petitioners
Archibald Cox Solicitor General, Department of Justice, for the United States
Facts of the case
Police arrested Hom Way for possession of heroin. While under arrest, Way told police that a man named “Blackie Toy” once sold him an ounce of heroin at his laundry on Leavenworth St. Later that day, police found a laundry run by James Wah Toy. Nothing on the record identified Toy as “Blackie Toy”, but police arrested him anyway. Police then went to Toy’s house where they arrested Johnny Yee and found several tubes containing less than one ounce of heroin. Police also arrested Wong Sun. Police interrogated the men and wrote statements in English for them to sign. Both men refused, citing errors in the statements. At trial in U.S. District Court, Toy and Sun were convicted on federal narcotics charges. On appeal, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit affirmed.
Question
- Were the petitioners' arrests lawful?
- Were the petitioners' unsigned statements admissible as evidence?
Conclusion
5–4 DECISION FOR WONG SUN MAJORITY OPINION BY WILLIAM J. BRENNAN, JR.
| FOR | AGAINST |
|---|---|
|
Douglas Black Goldberg Warren Brennan |
White Clark Harlan Stewart |
Prejudicial error at trial may have considered each petitioner's statement as corroboration of the other petitioner's guilt No, No. In a 5-4 decision, Justice William J. Brennan wrote the majority opinion reversing the lower court and remanding for a new trial. The Supreme Court held that the police did not have probable cause to justify the arrests. With regard to Toy, the court should exclude all evidence found during the search because they are the “fruits” of an unlawful search. The unsigned statement was not corroborated, so it gave no basis for conviction. Sun’s unsigned confession and evidence against him were admissible. Justice Tom C. Clark wrote a dissent, stating that the arrests were lawful and there was no reason to grant Sun a new trial. Justices James M. Harlan, Potter Stewart, and Byron R. White joined in the dissent.


6: Learning
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- 6.1: Prelude to Learning
- We humans pride ourselves on our ability to learn. In fact, over thousands of years and across cultures, we have created institutions devoted entirely to learning. But have you ever asked yourself how exactly it is that we learn? What processes are at work as we come to know what we know? This chapter focuses on the primary ways in which learning occurs.
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- 6.2: What Is Learning?
- Learning, like reflexes and instincts, allows an organism to adapt to its environment. But unlike instincts and reflexes, learned behaviors involve change and experience: learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience. In contrast to the innate behaviors discussed above, learning involves acquiring knowledge and skills through experience.
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- 6.3: Classical Conditioning
- Pavlov (1849–1936), a Russian scientist, performed extensive research on dogs and is best known for his experiments in classical conditioning. As we discussed briefly in the previous section, classical conditioning is a process by which we learn to associate stimuli and, consequently, to anticipate events.
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- 6.5: Observational Learning (Modeling)
- In observational learning, we learn by watching others and then imitating, or modeling, what they do or say. The individuals performing the imitated behavior are called models. Research suggests that this imitative learning involves a specific type of neuron, called a mirror neuron.
Contributors and Attributions
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Rose M. Spielman with many significant contributors. The OpenStax name, OpenStax logo, OpenStax book covers, OpenStax CNX name, and OpenStax CNX logo are not subject to the creative commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written consent of Rice University. For questions regarding this license, please contact<EMAIL_ADDRESS>.Textbook content produced by OpenStax College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license. Download for free at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>.


10.3: Examples of Blood Terms Easily Defined By Their Word Components
Here are examples of common medical terms related to the hematology system that can be easily defined by breaking the terms into their word components.
Hematologist
- Break down the medical term into word components: Hemat / o / logist
- Label the word components: Hemat = WR; o = CV; logist = S
- Define the word components: Hemat = blood; logist = specialist who studies and treats
- Create a final definition of the medical term: A specialist who studies and treats diseases of the blood
Hemostasis
- Break down the medical term into word components: Hem / o / stasis
- Label the word components: Hem = WR; o = CV; stasis = S
- Define the word components: Hem = blood; stasis = stopping
- Create a final definition of the medical term: Stopping blood (bleeding)
Leukocytopenia
- Break down the medical term into word components: Leuk / o / cyt / o / penia
- Label the word components: Leuk = WR; o = CV; cyt = WR; o = CV; penia = S
- Define the word components: Leuk = white (blood cell); cyt = cell; penia = abnormal reduction in number
- Create a final definition of the medical term: Abnormal reduction of white blood cells
Interactive Learning Activity: Practice defining and pronouncing terms related to blood by breaking them into word parts.
Query \(\PageIndex{1}\)
You can also print these flashcard activities as a Chapter 10 Student Companion Worksheet and check your answers with this Answer Key .


1.10: Temperature and Heat (Answer)
Check Your Understanding
1.1. The actual amount (mass) of gasoline left in the tank when the gauge hits “empty” is less in the summer than in the winter. The gasoline has the same volume as it does in the winter when the “add fuel” light goes on, but because the gasoline has expanded, there is less mass.
1.2. Not necessarily, as the thermal stress is also proportional to Young’s modulus.
1.3. To a good approximation, the heat transfer depends only on the temperature difference. Since the temperature differences are the same in both cases, the same 25 kJ is necessary in the second case. (As we will see in the next section, the answer would have been different if the object had been made of some substance that changes phase anywhere between 30°C and 50°C .)
1.4. The ice and liquid water are in thermal equilibrium, so that the temperature stays at the freezing temperature as long as ice remains in the liquid. (Once all of the ice melts, the water temperature will start to rise.)
1.5. Snow is formed from ice crystals and thus is the solid phase of water. Because enormous heat is necessary for phase changes, it takes a certain amount of time for this heat to be transferred from the air, even if the air is above 0°C .
1.6. Conduction: Heat transfers into your hands as you hold a hot cup of coffee. Convection: Heat transfers as the barista “steams” cold milk to make hot cocoa. Radiation: Heat transfers from the Sun to a jar of water with tea leaves in it to make “Sun tea.” A great many other answers are possible.
1.7. Because area is the product of two spatial dimensions, it increases by a factor of four when each dimension is doubled (\(\displaystyle A_{final}=(2d)^2=4d^2=4A_{initial}\)). The distance, however, simply doubles. Because the temperature difference and the coefficient of thermal conductivity are independent of the spatial dimensions, the rate of heat transfer by conduction increases by a factor of four divided by two, or two: \(\displaystyle P_{final}=\frac{kA_{final}(T_h−T_c)}{d_{final}}=\frac{k(4A_{final}(T_h−T_c))}{2d_{initial}}=2\frac{kA_{final}(T_h−T_c)}{d_{initial}}=2P_{initial}\).
1.8. Using a fan increases the flow of air: Warm air near your body is replaced by cooler air from elsewhere. Convection increases the rate of heat transfer so that moving air “feels” cooler than still air.
1.9. The radiated heat is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature. Because \(\displaystyle T_1=293K\) and \(\displaystyle T_2=313K\), the rate of heat transfer increases by about 30% of the original rate.
Conceptual Questions
1. They are at the same temperature, and if they are placed in contact, no net heat flows between them.
3. The reading will change.
5. The cold water cools part of the inner surface, making it contract, while the rest remains expanded. The strain is too great for the strength of the material. Pyrex contracts less, so it experiences less strain.
7. In principle, the lid expands more than the jar because metals have higher coefficients of expansion than glass. That should make unscrewing the lid easier. (In practice, getting the lid and jar wet may make gripping them more difficult.)
9. After being heated, the length is \(\displaystyle (1+300α)(1m)\). After being cooled, the length is \(\displaystyle (1−300α)(1+300α)(1m)\). That answer is not 1 m, but it should be. The explanation is that even if \(\displaystyle α\) is exactly constant, the relation \(\displaystyle ΔL=αLΔT\) is strictly true only in the limit of small \(\displaystyle ΔT\). Since \(\displaystyle α\) values are small, the discrepancy is unimportant in practice.
11. Temperature differences cause heat transfer.
13. No, it is stored as thermal energy. A thermodynamic system does not have a well-defined quantity of heat.
15. It raises the boiling point, so the water, which the food gains heat from, is at a higher temperature.
17. Yes, by raising the pressure above 56 atm.
19. work
21. 0°C (at or near atmospheric pressure)
23. Condensation releases heat, so it speeds up the melting.
25. Because of water’s high specific heat, it changes temperature less than land. Also, evaporation reduces temperature rises. The air tends to stay close to equilibrium with the water, so its temperature does not change much where there’s a lot of water around, as in San Francisco but not Sacramento.
27. The liquid is oxygen, whose boiling point is above that of nitrogen but whose melting point is below the boiling point of liquid nitrogen. The crystals that sublime are carbon dioxide, which has no liquid phase at atmospheric pressure. The crystals that melt are water, whose melting point is above carbon dioxide’s sublimation point. The water came from the instructor’s breath.
29. Increasing circulation to the surface will warm the person, as the temperature of the water is warmer than human body temperature. Sweating will cause no evaporative cooling under water or in the humid air immediately above the tub.
31. It spread the heat over the area above the heating elements, evening the temperature there, but does not spread the heat much beyond the heating elements.
33. Heat is conducted from the fire through the fire box to the circulating air and then convected by the air into the room (forced convection).
35. The tent is heated by the Sun and transfers heat to you by all three processes, especially radiation.
37. If shielded, it measures the air temperature. If not, it measures the combined effect of air temperature and net radiative heat gain from the Sun.
39. Turn the thermostat down. To have the house at the normal temperature, the heating system must replace all the heat that was lost. For all three mechanisms of heat transfer, the greater the temperature difference between inside and outside, the more heat is lost and must be replaced. So the house should be at the lowest temperature that does not allow freezing damage.
41. Air is a good insulator, so there is little conduction, and the heated air rises, so there is little convection downward.
Problems
43. That must be Celsius. Your Fahrenheit temperature is 102°F . Yes, it is time to get treatment.
45. a. \(\displaystyle ΔT_C=22.2°C\);
b. We know that \(\displaystyle ΔT_F=T_{F2}−T_{F1}\). We also know that \(\displaystyle T_{F2}=\frac{9}{5}T_{C2}+32\) and \(\displaystyle T_{F1}=\frac{9}{5}T_{C1}+32\). So, substituting, we have \(\displaystyle ΔT_F=(\frac{9}{5}T_{C2}+32)−(\frac{9}{5}T_{C1}+32)\). Partially solving and rearranging the equation, we have \(\displaystyle ΔT_F=\frac{9}{5}(T_{C2}−T_{C1})\). Therefore, \(\displaystyle ΔT_F=\frac{9}{5}ΔT_C\)ΔTF=95ΔTC.
47. a. −40° ; b. 575 K
49. Using Table 1.2 to find the coefficient of thermal expansion of marble:
\(\displaystyle L=L_0+ΔL=L_0(1+αΔT)=170m[1+(2.5×10^{−6}/°C)(−45.0°C)]=169.98m\)
(Answer rounded to five significant figures to show the slight difference in height.)
51. We use \(\beta\) instead of \(\alpha\) since this is a volume expansion with constant surface area. Therefore:
\(\displaystyle ΔL=αLΔT=(6.0×10^{−5}/°C)(0.0300m)(3.00°C)=5.4×10^{−6}m\).
53. On the warmer day, our tape measure will expand linearly. Therefore, each measured dimension will be smaller than the actual dimension of the land. Calling these measured dimensions l'l' and w'w', we will find a new area, A. Let’s calculate these measured dimensions:
\(\displaystyle l'=l_0−Δl=(20m)−(20°C)(20m)(\frac{1.2×10^{−5}}{°C})=19.9952m\)
\(\displaystyle A'=l×w'=(29.9928m)(19.9952m)=599.71m^2\)
Cost change = \(\displaystyle (A−A')(\frac{$60,000}{m^2})=((600−599.71)m^2)(\frac{$60,000}{m^2})=$17,000\)
Because the area gets smaller, the price of the land decreases by about $17,000.
55. a. Use Table 1.2 to find the coefficients of thermal expansion of steel and aluminum. Then \(\displaystyle ΔL_{Al}−ΔL_{steel}=(α_{Al}−α_{steel})L_0ΔT=(\frac{2.5×10^{−5}}{°C}−\frac{1.2×10^{−5}}{°C})(1.00m)(22°C)=2.9×10^{−4}m\)
b. By the same method with \(\displaystyle L_0=30.0m\), we have \(\displaystyle ΔL=8.6×10^{−3}m\).
57. \(\displaystyle ΔV=0.475L\)
59. If we start with the freezing of water, then it would expand to \(\displaystyle (1m^3)(\frac{1000kg/m^3}{917kg/m^3})=1.09m^3=1.98×10^8N/m^2\) of ice.
61. \(\displaystyle m=5.20×10^8J\)
63. \(\displaystyle Q=mcΔT⇒ΔT=\frac{Q}{mc}\); a. 21.0°C ; b. 25.0°C ; c. 29.3°C ; d. 50.0°C
65. \(\displaystyle Q=mcΔT⇒c=\frac{Q}{mΔT}=\frac{1.04kcal}{(0.250kg)(45.0°C)}=0.0924kcal/kg⋅°C\). It is copper.
67. a. \(\displaystyle Q=m_wc_wΔT+m_{A1}c_{A1}ΔT=(m_wc_w+m_{A1}c_{A1})ΔT; \(\displaystyle Q=[(0.500kg)(1.00kcal/kg⋅°C)+(0.100kg)(0.215kcal/kg⋅°C)](54.9°C)=28.63kcal\); \(\displaystyle \frac{Q}{m_p}=\frac{28.63kcal}{5.00g}=5.73kcal/g;\)
b. \(\displaystyle \frac{Q}{m_p}=\frac{200kcal}{33g}=6kcal/g\), which is consistent with our results to part (a), to one significant figure.
69. 0.139°C
71. It should be lower. The beaker will not make much difference: 16.3°C
73. a. \(\displaystyle 1.00×10^5J\);
b. \(\displaystyle 3.68×10^5J\);
c. The ice is much more effective in absorbing heat because it first must be melted, which requires a lot of energy, and then it gains the same amount of heat as the bag that started with water. The first \(\displaystyle 2.67×10^5J\) of heat is used to melt the ice, then it absorbs the \(\displaystyle 1.00×10^5J\) of heat as water.
75. 58.1 g
77. Let M be the mass of pool water and m be the mass of pool water that evaporates.
\(\displaystyle McΔT=mLV_{(37°C)}⇒\frac{m}{M}=\frac{cΔT}{L_{V(37°C)}}=\frac{(1.00kcal/kg⋅°C)(1.50°C)}{580kcal/kg}=2.59×10^{−3}\);
(Note that \(\displaystyle L_V\) for water at 37°C is used here as a better approximation than \(\displaystyle L_V\) for 100°C water.)
79. a. \(\displaystyle 1.47×10^{15}kg\);
b. \(\displaystyle 4.90×10^{20}J\);
c. \(\displaystyle 48.5 y\)
81. a. 9.35 L;
b. Crude oil is less dense than water, so it floats on top of the water, thereby exposing it to the oxygen in the air, which it uses to burn. Also, if the water is under the oil, it is less able to absorb the heat generated by the oil.
83. a. 319 kcal; b. 2.00°C
85. First bring the ice up to 0°C and melt it with heat \(\displaystyle Q_1\): 4.74 kcal. This lowers the temperature of water by \(\displaystyle ΔT_2: 23.15°C\). Now, the heat lost by the hot water equals that gained by the cold water (\(\displaystyle T_f\) is the final temperature): 20.6°C
87. Let the subscripts r, e, v, and w represent rock, equilibrium, vapor, and water, respectively.
\(\displaystyle m_rc_r(T_1−T_e)=m_VL_V+m_Wc_W(T_e−T_2)\);
\(\displaystyle m_r=\frac{m_VL_V+m_Wc_W(T_e−T_2)}{c_r(T_1−T_e)}=\frac{(0.0250kg)(2256×10^3J/kg)+(3.975kg)(4186×10^3J/kg⋅°C)(100°C−15°C)}{(840J/kg⋅°C)(500°C−100°C)}=4.38kg\)
89. a. \(\displaystyle 1.01×10^3W\);
b. One 1-kilowatt room heater is needed.
91. 84.0 W
93. 2.59 kg
95. a. 39.7 W; b. 820 kcal
97. \(\displaystyle \frac{Q}{t}=\frac{kA(T_2−T_1)}{d}, so that \frac{(Q/t)_{wall}}{(Q/t)_{window}}=\frac{k_{wall}A_{wall}d_{window}}{k_{window}A_{window}d_{wall}}=\frac{(2×0.042J/s⋅m⋅°C)(10.0m^2)(0.750×10^{−2}m)}{(0.84J/s⋅m⋅°C)(2.00m^2)(13.0×10^{−2}m)}\)
This gives 0.0288 wall: window, or 35:1 window: wall
99. \(\displaystyle \frac{Q}{t}=\frac{kA(T_2−T_1)}{d}=\frac{kAΔT}{d}⇒ΔT=\frac{d(Q/t)}{kA}=\frac{(6.00×10^{−3}m)(2256W)}{(0.84J/s⋅m⋅°C)(1.54×10^{−2}m^2)}=1046°C=1.05×10^3K\)
101. We found in the preceding problem that \(\displaystyle P=126ΔTW⋅°C\) as baseline energy use. So the total heat loss during this period is \(\displaystyle Q=(126J/s⋅°C)(15.0°C)(120days)(86.4×10^3s/day)=1960×10^6J\). At the cost of $1/MJ, the cost is $1960. From an earlier problem, the savings is 12% or $235/y. We need \(\displaystyle 150m^2\) of insulation in the attic. At \(\displaystyle $4/m^2\), this is a $500 cost. So the payback period is \(\displaystyle $600/($235/y)=2.6years\) (excluding labor costs).
Additional Problems
103. 7.39%
105. \(\displaystyle \frac{F}{A}=(210×10^9Pa)(12×10^{−6}/°C)(40°C−(−15°C))=1.4×10^8N/m^2\)
107. a. 1.06 cm;
b. 1.11 cm
109. \(\displaystyle 1.7kJ/(kg⋅ºC)\)
111. a. \(\displaystyle 1.57×10^4kcal\);
b. \(\displaystyle 18.3kW⋅h\);
c. \(\displaystyle 1.29×10^4\) kcal
113. 6.3°C . All of the ice melted.
115. 63.9°C , all the ice melted
117. a. 83 W;
b. \(\displaystyle 1.97×10^3W\); The single-pane window has a rate of heat conduction equal to 1969/83, or 24 times that of a double-pane window.
119. The rate of heat transfer by conduction is 20.0 W. On a daily basis, this is 1,728 kJ/day. Daily food intake is 2400kcal/d×4186J/kcal=10,050kJ/ day . So only 17.2% of energy intake goes as heat transfer by conduction to the environment at this \(\displaystyle ΔT\).
121. 620 K
Challenge Problems
123. Denoting the period by P , we know \(\displaystyle P=2π\sqrt{L/g}\). When the temperature increases by dT, the length increases by \(\displaystyle αLdT\). Then the new length is a. \(\displaystyle P=2π\sqrt{L+αLdT}{g}=2π\sqrt{\frac{L}{g}(1+αdT)}=2π\sqrt{\frac{L}{g}}(1+\frac{1}{2}αdT)=P(1+\frac{1}{2}αdT)\) by the binomial expansion. b. The clock runs slower, as its new period is 1.00019 s. It loses 16.4 s per day.
125. The amount of heat to melt the ice and raise it to 100°C is not enough to condense the steam, but it is more than enough to lower the steam’s temperature by 50°C , so the final state will consist of steam and liquid water in equilibrium, and the final temperature is 100°C ; 9.5 g of steam condenses, so the final state contains 49.5 g of steam and 40.5 g of liquid water.
127. a. \(\displaystyle dL/dT=kT/ρL\);
b. \(\displaystyle L=\sqrt{2kTt/ρL_f}\);
c. yes
129. a. \(\displaystyle σ(πR^2)T_s^4\);
b. \(\displaystyle eσπR^2T_s^4\);
c. \(\displaystyle 2eσπR^2T_e^4\);
d. \(\displaystyle T^4_s=2T^4_eT_s^4=2T_e^4\);
e. \(\displaystyle eσT^4_s+\frac{1}{4}(1−A)S=σT^4_s\);
f. 288 K


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adhesive force
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force of attraction between molecules of different chemical identities
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amorphous solid
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(also, noncrystalline solid) solid in which the particles lack an ordered internal structure
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body-centered cubic (BCC) solid
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crystalline structure that has a cubic unit cell with lattice points at the corners and in the center of the cell
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body-centered cubic unit cell
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simplest repeating unit of a body-centered cubic crystal; it is a cube containing lattice points at each corner and in the center of the cube
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boiling point
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temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the pressure of the gas above it
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Bragg equation
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equation that relates the angles at which X-rays are diffracted by the atoms within a crystal
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capillary action
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flow of liquid within a porous material due to the attraction of the liquid molecules to the surface of the material and to other liquid molecules
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Clausius-Clapeyron equation
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mathematical relationship between the temperature, vapor pressure, and enthalpy of vaporization for a substance
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cohesive force
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force of attraction between identical molecules
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condensation
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change from a gaseous to a liquid state
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coordination number
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number of atoms closest to any given atom in a crystal or to the central metal atom in a complex
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covalent network solid
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solid whose particles are held together by covalent bonds
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critical point
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temperature and pressure above which a gas cannot be condensed into a liquid
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crystalline solid
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solid in which the particles are arranged in a definite repeating pattern
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cubic closest packing (CCP)
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crystalline structure in which planes of closely packed atoms or ions are stacked as a series of three alternating layers of different relative orientations (ABC)
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deposition
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change from a gaseous state directly to a solid state
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diffraction
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redirection of electromagnetic radiation that occurs when it encounters a physical barrier of appropriate dimensions
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dipole-dipole attraction
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intermolecular attraction between two permanent dipoles
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dispersion force
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(also, London dispersion force) attraction between two rapidly fluctuating, temporary dipoles; significant only when particles are very close together
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dynamic equilibrium
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state of a system in which reciprocal processes are occurring at equal rates
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face-centered cubic (FCC) solid
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crystalline structure consisting of a cubic unit cell with lattice points on the corners and in the center of each face
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face-centered cubic unit cell
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simplest repeating unit of a face-centered cubic crystal; it is a cube containing lattice points at each corner and in the center of each face
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freezing
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change from a liquid state to a solid state
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freezing point
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temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are in equilibrium; see also
melting point
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hexagonal closest packing (HCP)
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crystalline structure in which close packed layers of atoms or ions are stacked as a series of two alternating layers of different relative orientations (AB)
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hole
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(also, interstice) space between atoms within a crystal
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hydrogen bonding
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occurs when exceptionally strong dipoles attract; bonding that exists when hydrogen is bonded to one of the three most electronegative elements: F, O, or N
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induced dipole
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temporary dipole formed when the electrons of an atom or molecule are distorted by the instantaneous dipole of a neighboring atom or molecule
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instantaneous dipole
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temporary dipole that occurs for a brief moment in time when the electrons of an atom or molecule are distributed asymmetrically
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intermolecular force
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noncovalent attractive force between atoms, molecules, and/or ions
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interstitial sites
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spaces between the regular particle positions in any array of atoms or ions
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ionic solid
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solid composed of positive and negative ions held together by strong electrostatic attractions
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isomorphous
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possessing the same crystalline structure
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melting
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change from a solid state to a liquid state
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melting point
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temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are in equilibrium; see also
freezing point
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metallic solid
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solid composed of metal atoms
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molecular solid
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solid composed of neutral molecules held together by intermolecular forces of attraction
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normal boiling point
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temperature at which a liquid’s vapor pressure equals 1 atm (760 torr)
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octahedral hole
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open space in a crystal at the center of six particles located at the corners of an octahedron
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phase diagram
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pressure-temperature graph summarizing conditions under which the phases of a substance can exist
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polarizability
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measure of the ability of a charge to distort a molecule’s charge distribution (electron cloud)
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simple cubic structure
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crystalline structure with a cubic unit cell with lattice points only at the corners
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simple cubic unit cell
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(also, primitive cubic unit cell) unit cell in the simple cubic structure
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space lattice
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all points within a crystal that have identical environments
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sublimation
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change from solid state directly to gaseous state
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supercritical fluid
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substance at a temperature and pressure higher than its critical point; exhibits properties intermediate between those of gaseous and liquid states
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surface tension
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energy required to increase the area, or length, of a liquid surface by a given amount
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tetrahedral hole
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tetrahedral space formed by four atoms or ions in a crystal
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triple point
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temperature and pressure at which three phases of a substance are in equilibrium
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unit cell
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smallest portion of a space lattice that is repeated in three dimensions to form the entire lattice
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vacancy
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defect that occurs when a position that should contain an atom or ion is vacant
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van der Waals force
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attractive or repulsive force between molecules, including dipole-dipole, dipole-induced dipole, and London dispersion forces; does not include forces due to covalent or ionic bonding, or the attraction between ions and molecules
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vapor pressure
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(also, equilibrium vapor pressure) pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with a solid or a liquid at a given temperature
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vaporization
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change from liquid state to gaseous state
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viscosity
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measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow
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X-ray crystallography
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experimental technique for determining distances between atoms in a crystal by measuring the angles at which X-rays are diffracted when passing through the crystal
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13.1: §87. The Latin suffixes -BILIS (> E -ble) and -ILIS (> E -ile)
Before reading this chapter, you might be well advised to review Chapter 5 (summary in §41), where you learned how a variety of suffixes can be attached to Latin NOUN bases in order to form derived adjectives. A closely parallel process occurs with VERBS, using an altogether different set of suffixes. [1] Once again, the Latin categories are reflected quite systematically in their English derivatives. Since the principle is one that we have now seen many times, the less important types will be presented with a minimum of comment.
There are two suffixes that convey the idea “able to be,” when joined either to a present or perfect verb base.
- The first is -BILIS , which is linked to the verb base by a stem vowel: -a- for the 1st conjugation, and -i- for the rest. Thus the 1st conjugation verb laudare (“praise”) gave rise to the adjective laud- ā -bilis (“able to be praised”) > English laudable . This Latin loan-word is very close in meaning to the English hybrid praiseworthy . [2] The 4th conjugation verb audire (“hear”) produced aud- ĭ -bilis (“able to be heard”) > English audible. Similarly, portable (< L port- ā -bilis ) means “able to be carried”; and visible (< L vis- ĭ -bilis ) means “able to be seen.” Notice that the suffix usually expresses a PASSIVE rather than an ACTIVE meaning; that is to say, audible conveys the notion “able to be heard,” not “able to hear.” Sometimes an active meaning is apparent, as in the adjective stable (< L sta-bilis ), “able to stand.” [3] Occasionally the suffix has a slightly different force, as in horrible (< L horr- ĭ -bilis < horr ē re , “shudder”), which suggests “able to cause a shudder” (L horror ).
From Latin present infinitive bases we get such English adjectives as tangible (L tangibilis < tang ĕ re , “touch”); credible (L credibilis < cred ĕ re , “believe”); con-vertible and in-contro-vertible (L vertibilis < vert ĕ re , “turn”). From Latin perfect participle bases come visible (L visibilis < vid ĕ re , visus ); flexible (L flexibilis < flect ĕ re , flexus , “bend”); and risible (L risibilis < rid ē re , risus , “laugh”). Soluble (late Latin solubilis ) is a slightly irregular derivative of solv ĕ re , solutus , “loose.”
Unfortunately, a knowledge of Latin will not provide an infallible [4] guide to English spelling. As we saw with Latin present participles, the process of French transmission can confuse the conjugation rules. Thus English has forms such as tenable and movable , both derived from 2nd conjugation verbs in – ē re . Moreover, in modern English usage -able is treated as a standard suffix that can be added to almost any verb, whether Latin or Germanic in origin; accordingly, we have transferable , manageable , workable , and a host of other adjectives that have no original Latin counterpart.
- The second suffix is -ILIS , [5] identical in usage to -bilis . Alongside of tangible , we have the adjective tactile (L tactilis < tangere , tactus ), which has exactly the same etymological meaning, “able to be touched.” In English, tactile has acquired a special meaning, “pertaining to the sense of touch.” Although the adjective frangible does exist in English, we more often use fragile (L fragilis , “able to be broken” < frangere , fractus , root frag -). Etymologically, docile (L docilis < docere , “teach”) means “able to be taught”; today it is a virtual synonym for tractable (L tractabilis < tractare ), “able to be handled.” Agile (L agilis ) has an active meaning: “able to act” or “do” ( agere ). A missile is “able to be sent” ( mittere , missus ), whereas a projectile is “able to be thrown forward” ( pro-jicere , pro-jectus ). Can you work out the etymological meanings of ductile, tensile, reptile, versatile, and volatile ?
Both the -bilis and -ilis adjective types could form nouns in -itas , as suggested by our words portability, visibility, agility, and fragility (= frailty ). Many such English forms, however, are modern coinages, including all hybrids like workability .
-
This chapter deals only with DEVERBATIVE adjectives formed by the use of suffixes. Don’t forget that the perfect participle, the present participle, and the gerundive are all verbal adjectives, as well; in their case, one may say that the verb stem itself is modified, rather than augmented by a suffix. ↵
-
It is called a hybrid because the etymon of
praise
is Latin
pretiare
(“to value”), a denominative verb from
pretium
. The English words
praise
,
prize
, and
price
are all close relatives. ↵
-
The
stable
in which farm animals are kept is a homograph derived from L
sta-bulum
(a “stand thing”); see §74, number 4. ↵
-
< L
fall
ĕ
re
, “deceive.” ↵
-
This morpheme did not have the same Latin pronunciation as the
-
īlis
that was attached to nouns (e.g.,
sen-
īlis
, “like an old man”), since the deverbative suffix had a short
-
ĭ
-
(e.g.,
ag
ĭ
lis
). ↵


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-
Normal Distribution
-
a continuous random variable where \(\mu\) is the mean of the distribution and \(\sigma\) is the standard deviation; notation: \(X \sim N(\mu, \sigma)\). If \(\mu = 0\) and \(\sigma = 1\), the \(RV\), \(Z\), is called the
standard normal distribution
.
-
Standard Normal Distribution
-
a continuous random variable \((RV) X \sim N(0, 1)\); when \(X\) follows the standard normal distribution, it is often noted as \(Z \sim N(0, 1)\).
-
z
-score
-
the linear transformation of the form \(z=\frac{x-\mu}{\sigma}\) or written as \(z=\frac{|x-\mu|}{\sigma}\); if this transformation is applied to any normal distribution \(X \sim N(\mu, \sigma)\) the result is the standard normal distribution \(Z \sim N(0,1)\). If this transformation is applied to any specific value \(x\) of the \(RV\) with mean \(\mu\) and standard deviation \(\sigma\), the result is called the
z
-score of \(x\). The
z
-score allows us to compare data that are normally distributed but scaled differently. A
z
-score is the number of standard deviations a particular \(x\) is away from its mean value.


Alchemy
Skills to Develop
- Distinguish physical properties from chemical properties
- Understand the difference between homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures
If everything is made of the same 4 elements in different ratios, perhaps you can adjust the ratios of elements through various processes and change one material into another. This was called transmutation . In particular, people wanted to change inexpensive metals into gold.
There were known examples of one material turning into another. For instance, there's a reddish mineral called cinnabar, and if you heat it, you get silvery liquid mercury. Oddly, if you heat it again, you get another red solid. We'll explain that in chemical terms soon (it's a chemical change!) but it looked like a proof of principle for transmutation, with one substance becoming another.
Also, some people claimed to be able to make gold. The problem here was that they weren't distinguishing between a pure substance and a mixture . A pure substance is composed of a single type of molecule. Gold (theoretically) is a pure substance: not just a pure substance, but a pure element. However, you can make compounds that look a little like gold, that are yellow and shiny, by mixing different metals, such as copper and tin. We call that a mixture (or more specifically an alloy, which is a mixture of metals).
A compound is a substance that contains multiple elements. Water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. However, water is a pure substance, because each molecule of water is the same. Air is a mixture, not a pure substance, because it contains different types of molecules, some of which are compounds, like carbon dioxide, which is a compound of carbon and oxygen. The difference between a compound and a mixture is that in a compound you always have the same ratio of the elements: in carbon dioxide, the ratio is there in the name: one carbon atom, two (di) oxygen atoms. Carbon dioxide is CO 2 . In a mixture, the ratio can vary. Air contains nitrogen (N 2 ) and oxygen (O 2 ) molecules and many other components, and a sample from a lecture hall and a sample from a forest would probably have slightly different ratios.
Alchemists did not always distinguish between mixtures and pure compounds or elements, for instance gold vs bronze (an alloy of copper and tin). We can distinguish different materials by using the properties of the materials. Properties are things like what temperature it melts at, whether it dissolves in acid, and so on. We can distinguish physical properties and chemical properties . Melting point is a physical property, and solubility in acid is a chemical property.
Alchemists developed many of the techniques of chemistry that we still use. For instance, a heterogeneous mixture of a solid and a liquid, such as sugar in oil, could be separated by filtration. If you have a solution, like sugar in water, that is homogeneous , because all the sugar has dissolved, you can't filter it. Instead, you could let the water evaporate slowly until big crystals grow. (We call that rock candy in English.) This process is called recrystallization , and is used to purify solids. To purify liquids, you can use distillation , which is based on different boiling points: heat at a temperature where one component boils and the other doesn't, and collect the vapor. Sublimation is similar: some solids will vaporize with heat, and can then be recollected from the vapor on a cold surface, where they solidify.
Overall, alchemists were sometimes excellent experimentalists, and they definitely spent time "in the lab." However, their explanations and reasons for beliefs may seem strange from a modern perspective. For instance, if a theory had parallels to Christian religious events, that might be considered evidence that it was correct. The other "unscientific" thing about their practice was that they often reported results in a way that was intended to confuse the reader, if they reported the results at all, and they often looked to ancient texts as an authority, even when there was no evidence that the authors had accomplished anything. Finally, the goals they chose were very ambitious, so instead of trying to look at the simplest questions first, to get clear answers, they used many complicated procedures and got results that are hard to explain even now.
Summary
Transmutation involves changing one material into another by adjusting the ratios of elements through various processes. A pure substance has a chemical composition of only one type of molecule .A compound is a substance that contains 2 or more types of atoms chemically bonded together. Mixtures have two or more substances physically combined, meaning that each component retains its chemical composition and properties. The components of a heterogeneous mixture are not uniformly combined while the components of a homogeneous mixture are. A substance's physical properties can be observed without changing its chemical composition (i.e. color, volume, melting point) while its chemical properties are observed through chemical changes (i.e. burning, rusting).


13: Acid-Base Equilibria
Acid-base chemistry can be extremely confusing, particularly when dealing with weak acids and bases. This set of lessons presents an updated view of the Brønsted-Lowry theory that makes it easy to understand answers to common questions: What's the fundamental difference between a strong acid and a weak acid? Can acid A neutralize base B? Why are some salts acidic and others alkaline? How do buffers work? What governs the shapes of titration curves?
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- 13.1: Introduction to Acid/Base Equilibria
- Acid-base reactions, in which protons are exchanged between donor molecules (acids) and acceptors (bases), form the basis of the most common kinds of equilibrium problems which you will encounter in almost any application of chemistry. Acid-base reactions, in which protons are exchanged between donor molecules (acids) and acceptors (bases), form the basis of the most common kinds of equilibrium problems which you will encounter in almost any application of chemistry.
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- 13.2: Strong Monoprotic Acids and Bases
- To a good approximation, strong acids, in the forms we encounter in the laboratory and in much of the industrial world, have no real existence; they are all really solutions of H3O+. So if you think about it, the labels on those reagent bottles you see in the lab are not strictly true! However, if the strong acid is highly diluted, the amount of H3O+ it contributes to the solution becomes comparable to that which derives from the autoprotolysis of water.
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- 13.3: Finding the pH of weak Acids, Bases, and Salts
- Most acids are weak; there are hundreds of thousands of them, whereas there are fewer than a dozen strong acids. We can treat weak acid solutions in much the same general way as we did for strong acids. The only difference is that we must now take into account the incomplete "dissociation"of the acid. We will start with the simple case of the pure acid in water, and then go from there to the more general one in which salts of the acid are present - these are known as buffer solutions.
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- 13.4: Conjugate Pairs and Buffers
- We often tend to regard the pH as a quantity that is dependent on other variables such as the concentration and strength of an acid, base or salt. But in much of chemistry (and especially in biochemistry), we find it more useful to treat pH as the "master" variable that controls the relative concentrations of the acid- and base-forms of one or more sets of conjugate acid-base systems. In this Module, we explore this approach in some detail, showing its application to buffer solutions.
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- 13.5: Acid/Base Titration
- The objective of an acid-base titration is to determine Ca, the nominal concentration of acid in the solution. In its simplest form, titration is carried out by measuring the volume of the solution of strong base required to complete the neutralization reaction . The point at which this reaction is just complete is known as the equivalence point, which is distinguished from the end point, which is the value we observe experimentally.
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- 13.7: Exact Calculations and Approximations
- The methods for dealing with acid-base equilibria that we developed in the earlier units of this series are widely used in ordinary practice. Although many of these involve approximations of various kinds, the results are usually good enough for most purposes. Sometimes, however — for example, in problems involving very dilute solutions, the approximations break down, often because they ignore the small quantities of H+ and OH– ions always present in pure water.