1.9: John Keats (1795-1821)
John Keats, like Blake, was trained in a profession. He studied to be a surgeon and was expected to earn his own living. His mother Frances Jennings was from the landed gentry; his father Thomas Keats was a livery stable-keeper. Because his society consequently placed him within the labor class, Keats’s decision to write poetry, a “genteel” art, was in itself a radical act.
His poetic aspirations were encouraged by Leigh Hunt (1784-1859), editor at The Examiner , who published Keats’ first collection of poems and Endymion , an epic poem based on the poetic myth of a young shepherd who becomes beloved by the goddess of the moon. During the course of writing this epic, Keats honed his skill, expressing the desire for just ten years more to reach his poetic epitome. He lived for only two.
Keats’ first published poems received harsh criticism, to some extent sharpened by Keats’ association with Hunt and by Keats’ lower class status. The conjunction of these criticisms and Keats’s death at the age of twenty-five led some contemporaries to believe that Keats died of a broken heart. This belief connected with some views of Keats’ poetry as sensual and emotional without intellectual heft. Keats’ letters, though, published after his death, demonstrate his extraordinary conceptual thinking, about poetry’s role in society and about what makes a poem or poet great.
His theory of Negative Capability in particular fleshes out his ideas on the imagination. Negative Capability is sustained potentiality; it allows all possibilities to exist at once in the imagination together without the poet reaching towards one and thus eliminating all of the others. Through Negative Capability, the poet sees both the world of color, or the rainbow world, and the world in black and white; sees both the glittery surface of the ocean and the menacing whales beneath; sees both the delightful, delicate sparrow and the worm-ravening beast. Through Negative Capability, the poet doesn’t reach after fact or reason but allows all things—new stars, flowers bred by the fancy—to be. The completion of an experience is the negative capability, the not reaching after. For Keats, the poet sustains intensity and detachment, poise, suspension.
To learn medicine, Keats worked as a dresser, that is, the person who cleans up after the surgeons’ bloody work. He was apprenticed to a surgeon named Hammond—sometimes called “Butcher” Hammond—for five years, but stayed with him three and a half years. Keats then studied with well-known doctors, particularly Astley Cooper, who mentored Keats. After a year more of study, Keats began to doubt his abilities and interest in medicine. He took an apothecary license, but, with six months of study remaining for him to license as a surgeon, Keats left medicine for poetry.
His medical skills, though, were required in his caring for his brother Tom, who died of tuberculosis. His emotional skills were called on when he fell in love with Fanny Brawne (1800-1865), the daughter of his landlord. He hoped to marry her, but his having contracted tuberculosis—probably from his mother—made that impossible, due to the disease being extremely contagious. In hopes of recovery, he traveled to Rome, accompanied by his friend the portrait artist John Severn (1793- 1879). Keats died in Rome, with both acceptance and bitter awareness of his fate. He described himself as being like a frog going out in the first frost. And he said his epitaph should read that “here is one whose name is writ on water,” that is, no sooner visible than gone. His last hours were spent writing letters of to his friends, to whom he made an “awkward bow.”
His poetry is characterized by its sensuality, to the point of sensual overload, and its pursuit of beauty—often (but not always) idealized like Greek art; its use of paradox that evokes Negative Capability by sustaining opposites; and its subjectivity to the point of relativity, for what the heart loves becomes its truth and whatever the imagination seizes on as beauty must be true. He lauds imagination as a power to help people recover from sorrow and misery, from the inevitable pains and suffering of life.
1.13.1: Letter to George and Thomas Keats
Hampstead Sunday
22 December 1818
My dear Brothers I must crave your pardon for not having written ere this [ . . . ] [T]he excellence of every Art is its intensity, capable of making all disagreeables evaporate, from their being in close relationship with Beauty & Truth—Examine King Lear & you will find this exemplified throughout; but in this picture we have unpleasantness without any momentous depth of speculation excited, in which to bury its repulsiveness— The picture is larger than Christ rejected—I dined with Haydon the sunday after you left, & had a very pleasant day, I dined too (for I have been out too much lately) with Horace Smith & met his two brothers with Hill & Kingston & one Du Bois, they only served to convince me, how superior humour is to wit in respect to enjoyment—These men say things which make one start, without making one feel, they are all alike; their manners are alike; they all know fashionables; they have a mannerism in their very eating & drinking, in their mere handling a Decanter— They talked of Kean & his low company—Would I were with that company instead of yours said I to myself! I know such like acquaintance will never do for me & yet I am going to Reynolds, on wednesday—Brown & Dilke walked with me & back from the Christmas pantomime. I had not a dispute but a disquisition with Dilke, on various subjects; several things dovetailed in my mind, & at once it struck me, what quality went to form a Man of Achievement especially in Literature & which Shakespeare possessed so enormously—I mean Negative Capability, that is when man is capable of being in uncertainties, Mysteries, doubts, without any irritable reaching after fact & reason—Coleridge, for instance, would let go by a fine isolated verisimilitude caught from the Penetralium of mystery, from being incapable of remaining content with half knowledge. This pursued through Volumes would perhaps take us no further than this, that with a great poet the sense of Beauty overcomes every other consideration, or rather obliterates all consideration.
1.13.2: “La Belle Dame Sans Merci”
1
Ah what can ail thee, wretched wight,
Alone and palely loitering;
The sedge is wither’d from the lake,
And no birds sing.
2
Ah what can ail thee, wretched wight,
So haggard and so woe-begone?
The squirrel’s granary is full,
And the harvest’s done.
3
I see a lilly on thy brow,
With anguish moist and fever dew;
And on thy cheek a fading rose
Fast withereth too.
4
I met a lady in the meads
Full beautiful, a fairy’s child;
Her hair was long, her foot was light,
And her eyes were wild.
5
I set her on my pacing steed,
And nothing else saw all day long;
For sideways would she lean, and sing
A faery’s song.
6
I made a garland for her head,
And bracelets too, and fragrant zone;
She look’d at me as she did love,
And made sweet moan.
7
She found me roots of relish sweet,
And honey wild, and manna dew,
And sure in language strange she said,
I love thee true.
8
She took me to her elfin grot,
And there she gaz’d and sighed deep,
And there I shut her wild sad eyes—
So kiss’d to sleep.
9
And there we slumber’d on the moss,
And there I dream’d, ah woe betide
The latest dream I ever dream’d
On the cold hill side.
10
I saw pale kings, and princes too,
Pale warriors, death-pale were they all;
Who cry’d—”Le belle Dame sans mercy
Hath thee in thrall!”
11
I saw their starv’d lips in the gloom
With horrid warning gaped wide,
And I awoke, and found me here
On the cold hill side.
12
And this is why I sojourn here
Alone and palely loitering,
Though the sedge is wither’d from the lake,
And no birds sing.
1.13.4: “Ode on Melancholy”
No, no, go not to Lethe, neither twist
Wolf’s-bane, tight-rooted, for its poisonous wine;
Nor suffer thy pale forehead to be kiss’d
By nightshade, ruby grape of Proserpine;
Make not your rosary of yew-berries,
Nor let the beetle, nor the death-moth be
Your mournful Psyche, nor the downy owl
A partner in your sorrow’s mysteries;
For shade to shade will come too drowsily,
And drown the wakeful anguish of the soul.
But when the melancholy fit shall fall
Sudden from heaven like a weeping cloud,
That fosters the droop-headed flowers all,
And hides the green hill in an April shroud;
Then glut thy sorrow on a morning rose,
Or on the rainbow of the salt sand-wave,
Or on the wealth of globed peonies;
Or if thy mistress some rich anger shows,
Emprison her soft hand, and let her rave,
And feed deep, deep upon her peerless eyes.
She dwells with Beauty—Beauty that must die;
And Joy, whose hand is ever at his lips
Bidding adieu; and aching Pleasure nigh,
Turning to poison while the bee-mouth sips:
Ay, in the very temple of Delight
Veil’d Melancholy has her sovran shrine,
Though seen of none save him whose strenuous tongue
Can burst Joy’s grape against his palate fine;
His soul shalt taste the sadness of her might,
And be among her cloudy trophies hung
1.13.8: “To Autumn”
Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness,
Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun;
Conspiring with him how to load and bless
With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eves run;
To bend with apples the moss’d cottage-trees,
And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core;
To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells
With a sweet kernel; to set budding more,
And still more, later flowers for the bees,
Until they think warm days will never cease,
For summer has o’er-brimm’d their clammy cells.
Who hath not seen thee oft amid thy store?
Sometimes whoever seeks abroad may find
Thee sitting careless on a granary floor,
Thy hair soft-lifted by the winnowing wind;
Or on a half-reap’d furrow sound asleep,
Drowsed with the fume of poppies, while thy hook
Spares the next swath and all its twined flowers:
And sometimes like a gleaner thou dost keep
Steady thy laden head across a brook;
Or by a cider-press, with patient look,
Thou watchest the last oozings, hours by hours.
Where are the songs of Spring? Ay, where are they?
Think not of them, thou hast thy music too,—
While barred clouds bloom the soft-dying day,
And touch the stubble-plains with rosy hue;
Then in a wailful choir the small gnats mourn
Among the river sallows, borne aloft
Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies;
And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly born;
Hedge-crickets sing; and now with treble soft
The redbreast whistles from a garden-croft,
And gathering swallows twitter in the skies.


8.3: §59. A Summary of Latin Prefixes
The time has come to present a summary of the most common Latin prefixes, including several that have not yet been mentioned. The table on the next page is intended mainly for future reference, since Latin prefixes are most closely associated with verb vocabulary. You should learn to recognize them in a general fashion now; their use will become much clearer as you work through the chapters that follow.
| LATIN PREFIX | ENGLISH TRANSLATION | Intensive? [1] | Altered form [2] |
| a- ab- abs- | (away) from | ||
| ad- | to, toward | yes | |
| ante- | before | ||
| circum- | around | ||
| con- co- | with, together | yes | |
| contra- | against | counter- | |
| de- | down; off, away | yes | |
| di- dis- | apart, asunder, in two | ||
| e- ex- | out (of) | yes | s- |
| extra- | outside | ||
| in- | in(to), against; not | en-, em- | |
| inter- | between, among | ||
| intra- intro- | within, inside | ||
| ob- | against, face-to-face | yes | |
| per- | through; to the bad | yes | |
| post- | after | ||
| prae- | before, ahead; surpassing | pre- | |
| pro- | before; forward | pur- | |
| re- red- | back, again | yes | |
| retro- | back(ward) | ||
| se- | apart | ||
| sub- | under | ||
| super- | over, above | sur- | |
| trans- | across |
It may be helpful to comment on a few of the more important Latin prefixes not yet discussed. One of these is prae- (“before,” “ahead”), which always assumes the English form of pre- , as in the word prefix itself. In Latin, prae- is a close synonym of ante- , meaning “before” either in time or in place. When combined with the noun via , it provides the source of the English adjective previous (L prae-vi-us , “ahead on the road”).
Another common form is ob- (“against”), a prefix that suggests a collision course: if something is obvious (L ob-vi-us ), it is on the road directly in front of you. Rather different in meaning is contra -; though it also means “against,” it suggests a deliberate opposition of will or purpose. Watch out for assimilation in the case of ob- : we have just met it in the word opposition , and we’ll see it also in words like occur and offer .
-
The Latin prefixes identified in this column can at times merely intensify or strengthen the meaning of a verb. If a prefix has this INTENSIVE force, its customary meaning will not likely be apparent. ↵
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This column shows the altered form that some prefixes may take after transmission through French. ↵


6.3: Horney's Shifting Perspective on Psychodynamic Theory
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Horney did not establish a specific theory of personality. Rather, her career proceeded through a series of stages in which she addressed the issues that were of particular concern to her at the time. Accordingly, her theories can be grouped into three stages: feminine psychology, culture and disturbed human relationships, and finally, the mature theory in which she focused on the distinction between interpersonal and intrapsychic defenses (Paris, 1994).
Feminine Psychology
Horney was neither the first, nor the only, significant woman in the early days of psychodynamic theory and psychoanalysis. However, women such as Helene Deutsch, Marie Bonaparte, Anna Freud, and Melanie Klein remained faithful to Freud’s basic theories. In contrast, Horney directly challenged Freud’s theories, and offered her own alternatives. In doing so, she offered a very different perspective on the psychology of women and personality development in girls and women. Her papers have been collected and published in Feminine Psychology by her friend and colleague Harold Kelman (1967), and an excellent overview of their content can be found in the biography written by Rubins (1978).
In her first two papers, On the Genesis of the Castration Complex in Women (Horney, 1923/1967) and The Flight from Womanhood (Horney, 1926/1967), Horney challenged the Freudian perspective on the psychological development of females. Although she acknowledged Freud’s pioneering theories, even as they applied to women, she believed that they suffered from a male perspective, and that the men who originally offered these theories simply did not understand the feminine perspective. Horney agreed that girls develop penis envy, but not that it is the only dynamic force influencing development during the phallic stage. Girls envy the ability of boys to urinate standing up, the fact that boys can see their genitals, and the relative ease with which boys can satisfy their desire for masturbation. More important for girls than penis envy, however, was the fear and anxiety young girls experience with regard to vaginal injury were they to actually have intercourse with their fathers (which, Horney agreed, they may fantasize). Thus, they experience a unique dynamic force called female genital anxiety . Another element of the castration complex in women, according to Horney, was the consequence of castration fantasies that she called wounded womanhood (incorporating the belief that the girl had been castrated).
Far more important than these basic processes, however, was the male bias inherent in society and culture. The very name phallic stage implies that only someone with a phallus (penis) can achieve sexual satisfaction and healthy personality development. Girls are repeatedly made to feel inferior to boys, feminine values are considered inferior to masculine values, even motherhood is considered a burden for women to bear (according to the Bible, the pain of childbirth is a curse from God!). In addition, male-dominated societies do not provide women with adequate outlets for their creative drives. As a result, many women develop a masculinity complex , involving feelings of revenge against men and the rejection of their own feminine traits. Thus, it may be true that women are more likely to suffer from anxiety and other psychological disorders, but this is not due to an inherent inferiority as proposed by Freud.
Perhaps the most curious aspect of these early studies was the fact that Horney turned the tables on Freud and his concept of penis envy. The female’s biological role in childbirth is vastly superior (if that is a proper term) to that of the male. Horney noted that many boys express an intense envy of pregnancy and motherhood.  Horney suggests that the apparently greater need of men to depreciate women is a reflection of their unconscious feelings of inferiority, due to the very limited role they play in childbirth and the raising of children (particularly breast-feeding infants, which they cannot do). In addition, the powerful creative drives and excessive ambition that are characteristic of many men can be viewed, according to Horney, as overcompensation for their limited role in parenting. Thus, as wonderful and intimate as motherhood may be, it can be a burden in the sense that the men who dominate society have turned it against women. This is, of course, an illogical state of affairs, since the children being born and raised by women are also the children of the very men who then feel inferior and psychologically threatened.
In a later paper, Horney (1932/1967) carried these ideas a step further.  They dread this inadequacy, which leads to anxiety and fear of rejection. This proves to be quite frustrating, and in accordance with the frustration-aggression hypothesis, the boy becomes angry and aggressive toward his mother. For men who are unable to overcome this issue, their adult sexual life becomes an ongoing effort to conquer and possess as many women as possible (a narcissistic overcompensation for their feelings of inadequacy). Unfortunately, according to Horney, these men become very upset with any woman who then expects a long-term or meaningful relationship, since that would require him to then prove his manhood in other, non-sexual ways.
For women, one of the most significant problems that results from these development processes is a desperate need to be in a relationship with a man, which Horney addressed in two of her last papers on feminine psychology: The Overvaluation of Love (1934/1967) and The Neurotic Need for Love (1937/1967). She recognized in many of her patients an obsession with having a relationship with a man, so much so that all other aspects of life seem unimportant. While others had considered this an inherent characteristic of women, Horney insisted that characteristics such as this overvaluation of love always include a significant portion of tradition and culture. Thus, it is not an inherent need in women, but one that has accompanied the patriarchal society’s demeaning of women, leading to low self-esteem that can only be overcome within society by becoming a wife and mother. Indeed, Horney found that many women suffer an intense fear of not being normal. Unfortunately, as noted above, the men these women are seeking relationships with are themselves seeking to avoid long-term relationships (due to their own insecurities). This results in an intense and destructive attitude of rivalry between women (at least, those women caught up in this neurotic need for love). When a woman loses a man to another woman, which may happen again and again, the situation can lead to depression, permanent feelings of insecurity with regard to feminine self-esteem, and profound anger toward other women. If these feelings are repressed, and remain primarily unconscious, the effect is that the woman searches within her own personality for answers to her failure to maintain the coveted relationship with a man. She may feel shame, believe that she is ugly, or imagine that she has some physical defect. Horney described the potential intensity of these feelings as “self-tormenting.”
In 1935, just a few years after coming to America, Horney rather abruptly stopped studying the psychology of women (though her last paper on the subject was not published until 1937). Bernard Paris found the transcript of a talk that Horney had delivered that year to the National Federation of Professional and Business Women’s Clubs, which provided her reasoning for this change in her professional direction (see Paris, 1994). First, Horney suggested that women should be suspicious of any general interest in feminine psychology, since it usually represents an effort by men to keep women in their subservient position. In order to avoid competition, men praise the values of being a loving wife and mother. When women accept these same values, they themselves begin to demean any other pursuits in life. They become a teacher because they consider themselves unattractive to men, or they go into business because they aren’t feminine and lack sex appeal (Horney, cited in Paris, 1994). The emphasis on attracting men and having children leads to a “cult of beauty and charm,” and the overvaluation of love. The consequence of this tragic situation is that as women become mature, they become more anxious due to their fear of displeasing men:
…The young woman feels a temporary security because of her ability to attract men, but mature women can hardly hope to escape being devalued even in their own eyes. And this feeling of inferiority robs them of the strength for action which rightly belongs to maturity.
Inferiority feelings are the most common evil of our time and our culture. To be sure we do not die of them, but I think they are nevertheless more disastrous to happiness and progress than cancer or tuberculosis. (pg. 236; Horney cited in Paris, 1994)
The key to the preceding quote is Horney’s reference to culture. Having been in America for a few years at this point, she was already questioning the difference between the greater opportunities for women in America than in Europe (though the difference was merely relative). She also emphasized that when women are demeaned by society, this had negative consequences on men and children. Thus, she wanted to break away from any perspective that led to challenges between men and women:
…First of all we need to understand that there are no unalterable qualities of inferiority of our sex due to laws of God or of nature. Our limitations are, for the greater part, culturally and socially conditioned. Men who have lived under the same conditions for a long time have developed similar attitudes and shortcomings.
Once and for all we should stop bothering about what is feminine and what is not. Such concerns only undermine our energies…In the meantime what we can do is to work together for the full development of the human personalities of all for the sake of general welfare. (pg. 238; Horney cited in Paris, 1994)
In her final paper on feminine psychology, Horney (1937/1967) concludes her discussion of the neurotic need for love with a general discussion of the relationship between anxiety and the need for love. Of course, this is true for both boys and girls. This conclusion provided a clear transition from Horney’s study of the psychology of women to her more general perspectives on human development, beginning with the child’s need for security and the anxiety that arises when that security seems threatened.
Discussion Question: After a number of years studying feminine psychology, Horney came to believe that women are no different than any other minority group, and she began to pursue different directions in her career. Are the problems faced by women different than other minority groups? If so, how are they different?
Anxiety and Culture
In the introduction to The Neurotic Personality of Our Time , Horney (1937) makes three important points. First, she acknowledged that neuroses have their roots in childhood experiences, but she also considered the experiences of adulthood to be equally important. Second, she believed that neuroses can only develop within a cultural context. They may stem from individual experience, but their form and expression are intimately tied to one’s cultural setting. And finally, she emphasized that she was not rejecting Freud’s basic theory. Though she disagreed with many of his ideas, she considered it an honor to build upon the foundation of his “gigantic achievements.” To do so, she wrote, helps to avoid the danger of stagnation. If any more evidence than her word was necessary to demonstrate her loyalty to Freud, in this introduction we also find mention of Alfred Adler. Although Horney acknowledges some similarities with Adler’s perspective, she insists that her ideas are grounded in Freudian theory, and she describes Adler’s work as having become sterile and one-sided.
Horney believed that anxiety was a natural state of all living things, something the German philosophers had called Angst der Kreatur (anxiety of the creature), a feeling that one is helpless against such forces as illness, old age, and death. We first experience this anxiety as infants, and it remains with us throughout life. It does not, however, lead to neurotic anxiety. But if a child is not cared for, if their anxiety is not alleviated by the protection of their parents, the child may develop basic anxiety :
The condition that is fostered…is an insidiously increasing, all-pervading feeling of being lonely and helpless in a hostile world…This attitude as such does not constitute a neurosis but it is the nutritive soil out of which a definite neurosis may develop at any time. (pg. 89; Horney, 1937)
Thus, in contrast to Freud’s belief that anxiety followed the threat of id impulses breaking free of the unconscious mind, Horney places anxiety before behavior. The child, through interactions with other people (particularly the parents), strives to alleviate its anxiety. If the child does not find support, then basic anxiety develops, and neurotic disorders become a distinct possibility. From that point forward, the child’s drives and impulses are motivated by anxiety, rather than being the cause of anxiety as proposed by Freud. Basic anxiety is considered basic for two reasons, one of which is that it is the source of neuroses. The other reason is that it arises out of early, but disturbed, relationships with the parents. This leads to feelings of hostility toward the parents, and Horney considered there to be a very close connection between anxiety and hostility. And yet, the child remains dependent on the parents, so it must not exhibit that hostility. This creates a vicious circle in which more anxiety is experienced, followed by more hostility, etc. Unresolved, these psychological processes leave the child feeling not only basic anxiety, but also basic hostility (Horney, 1937; May, 1977). In order to deal with this basic anxiety and basic hostility, Horney proposed both interpersonal and intrapsychic strategies of defense (which we will examine in the next two sections). First, however, let’s take a brief, closer look at Horney’s views on culture and anxiety.
A neurotic individual, simply put, is someone whose anxiety levels and behavior are significantly different than normal. What is normal, of course, can only be defined within a cultural context. Horney cited a number of famous anthropologists and sociologists to support this claim, including Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict. She cites H. Scudder Mekeel’s somewhat famous example of Native Americans having high regard for individuals who have visions and hallucinations, since those visions are considered to be special gifts, indeed blessings, from the spirits. This is in sharp contrast to the standard Western view, which considers hallucinations to be a symptom of psychosis. And yet, Native Americans are not fundamentally different than Westerners. Only one year after Horney’s book was published, Mekeel led Erik Erikson on the first of Erikson’s studies of Native American development, which led Erikson to conclude that his stages of psychosocial crisis were valid, since they seemed to apply to Europeans, European-Americans, and Native Americans. After citing many such examples, from simple matters such as preferred foods to complex matters such as attitudes toward murder, Horney concluded that every aspect of human life, including personality, was intimately tied to cultural factors:
It is no longer valid to suppose that a new psychological finding reveals a universal trend inherent in human nature…This in turn means that if we know the cultural conditions under which we live we have a good chance of gaining a much deeper understanding of the special character of normal feelings and attitudes. (pg. 19; Horney, 1937)
This emphasis on culture, however, should not be confused with the importance of individuality. Anxieties and neurotic symptoms exist within individuals, and present themselves within personal relationships. Culture, once again, merely guides the nature or form of those anxieties. In Western culture, we are driven primarily by economic and individual competition. Thus, other people are seen as competitors, or rivals. For one person to gain something, another must lose. As a result, according to Horney, there is a diffuse hostile tension pervading all of our relationships. For those who cannot resolve this tension, most likely due to having experienced the culturally determined anxieties in exaggerated form during a dysfunctional childhood, they become neurotic. Accordingly, Horney described the neurotic individual as “a stepchild of our culture” (Horney, 1937).
Interpersonal Strategies of Defense
Horney considered inner conflicts, and the personality disturbances they cause, to be the source of all psychological illness. In other words, calm, well-balanced individuals do not suffer psychological disorders (consider the stress-diathesis model of abnormal psychology). Although Freud approached this concept in his work, it was those who followed him, such as Franz Alexander, Otto Rank, Wilhelm Reich, and Harald Schultz-Nencke, who defined it more clearly. Still, Horney felt they all failed to understand the precise nature and dynamics of character structure, because they did not take into account the cultural influences. It was only during her own work on feminine psychology that Horney came to the full understanding of these psychodynamic processes (at least, in her own view; Horney, 1945).
At the core of these conflicts is a basic conflict , which Freud described as being between one’s desire for immediate and total satisfaction (the id) and the forbidding environment, such as the parents and society (the superego). Horney generally agreed with Freud on this concept, but she did not consider the basic conflict to be basic. Rather, she considered it an essential aspect of only the neurotic personality. Thus, it is a basic conflict in the neurotic individual, one which expresses itself in the person’s predominant style of relating to others. The three general attitudes that arise as neurotic attempts to solve conflict are known as moving toward people , moving against people , and moving away from people (Horney, 1945). Although they provide a way for neurotics to attempt solutions in their disturbed interpersonal relationships, they achieve only an artificial balance, which creates new conflicts. These new conflicts create greater hostility, anxiety, and alienation, thus continuing a vicious circle, which Horney believed could be broken by psychoanalysis.
Psychoanalysis is important for understanding neurotic individuals in part because they build a defensive structure around their basic conflict. Their behavior, according to Horney, reflects more of their efforts to solve conflicts, rather than the basic conflict itself. Thus, the basic conflict becomes so deeply embedded in the personality, that it can never be seen in its pure form. Nonetheless, when one of the basic character attitudes becomes predominant, we can observe characteristic behaviors that reflect the neurotic failure to resolve one’s inner conflicts.
Moving toward people, also known as the compliant personality , incorporates needs for affection and approval, and a special need for a partner who will fulfill all of one’s expectations of life. These needs are characteristic of neurotic trends: they are compulsive, indiscriminate, and they generate anxiety when they are frustrated. In addition, they operate independently of one’s feelings toward or value of the person who is the object of those needs (Horney, 1945). In order to ensure the continued support of others, the compliant individual will do almost anything to maintain relationships, but they give themselves over so completely that they may enjoy nothing for themselves. They begin to feel weak and helpless, and they subordinate themselves to others, thinking that everyone is smarter, more attractive, and more worthwhile than they are. They rate themselves by the opinions of others, so much so that any rejection can be catastrophic. Love becomes the most compulsive desire, but their lack of self-esteem makes true love difficult.
Just as the compliant type clings to the belief that people are “nice,” and is continually baffled by evidence to the contrary, so the aggressive type takes it for granted that everyone is hostile, and refuses to admit that they are not. To him life is a struggle of all against all, and the devil take the hindmost. (pg. 63; Horney, 1945)
As noted in the preceding quote, those who move against people, the aggressive personality, are driven by a need to control others. They view the world in a Darwinian sense, a world dominated by survival of the fittest, where the strong annihilate the weak. The aggressive person may seem polite and fair-minded, but it is mostly a front, put up in order to facilitate their own goals. They may be openly aggressive, or they may choose to manipulate others indirectly, sometimes preferring to be the power behind the throne. Love, which is such a desperate need for the compliant person, is of little consequence for the aggressive person. They may very well be “in love,” and they may marry, but they are more concerned in what they can get out of the relationship. They tend to choose mates for their attractiveness, prestige, or wealth. What is most important is how their mate can enhance their own social position. They are keen competitors, looking for any evidence of weakness or ambition in others. Unfortunately, they also tend to suppress emotion in their lives, making it difficult, if not impossible, to enjoy life.
Those who move away from people, the detached personality , are not merely seeking meaningful solitude. Instead, they are driven to avoid other people because of the unbearable strain of associating with others. In addition, they are estranged from themselves, they do not know who they are, or what they love, desire, value, or believe. Horney described them as zombies, able to work and function like living people, but there is no life in them. A crucial element appears to be their desire to put emotional distance between themselves and others. They become very self-sufficient and private. Since these individuals seek negative goals, not to be involved, not to need help, not to be bothered, as opposed to having clear goals (needing a loving partner or needing to control others) their behavior is more subject to variability, but the focus remains on being detached from others in order to avoid facing the conflicts within their psyche (Horney, 1945).
Each of these three character attitudes has within it some value. It is important and healthy to maintain relationships with others (moving toward), ambition and a drive to excel have definite benefits in many cultures (moving against), and peaceful solitude, a chance to get away from it all, can be very refreshing (moving away). The healthy individual is likely able to make use of each of these solutions in the appropriate situations. When someone needs our help, we reach out to them. If someone tries to take advantage of us, we stand up for ourselves. When the daily hassles of life wear us down, we retreat into solitude for a short time, maybe exercising, going to a movie, or listening to our favorite music. As Horney attempted to make very clear, the neurotic individual is marked by a compulsion to use one style of relating to others, and they do so to their own detriment.
connections across cultures
Cultural Differences in Interpersonal Relationship Styles
As Horney repeatedly pointed out, neurotic behavior can only be viewed as such within a cultural context. Thus, in the competitive and individualistic Western world, our cultural tendencies are likely to favor moving against and moving away from others. The same is not true in many other cultures.
Relationships can exist in two basic styles: exchange or communal relationships. Exchange relationships are based on the expectation of some return on one’s investment in the relationship. Communal relationships , in contrast, occur when one person feels responsible for the well-being of the other person(s). In African and African-American cultures we are much more likely to find communal relationships, and interpersonal relationships are considered to be a core value amongst people of African descent (Belgrave & Allison, 2006). While there may be a tendency in Western culture to consider this dependence on others as somehow “weak,” it provides a source of emotional attachment, need fulfillment, and the influence and involvement of people in each other’s activities and lives.
Cultural differences also come into play in love and marriage. In America, passionate love tends to be favored, whereas in China companionate love is favored. African cultures seem to fall somewhere in between (Belgrave & Allison, 2006). When considering the divorce rate in America, as compared to many other countries, it has been suggested that Americans marry the person they love, whereas people in many other cultures love the person they marry. In a study involving people from India, Pakistan, Thailand, Mexico, Brazil, Japan, Hong Kong, the Philippines, Australia, England, and the United States, it was found that individualistic cultures placed greater importance on the role of love in choosing to get married, and also on the loss of love as sufficient justification for divorce. For intercultural marriages, these differences are a significant, though not insurmountable, source of conflict (Matsumoto & Juang, 2004). Attempting to maintain awareness of cultural differences when relationship conflicts occur, rather than attributing the conflict to the personality of the other person, can be an important first step in resolving intercultural conflict. However, it must also be remembered that different cultures acknowledge and tolerate conflict to different extents (Brislin, 2000; Matsumoto, 1997; Okun, Fried, & Okun, 1999; for a brief discussion of intergroup dialogue and conflict resolution options, see Miller & Garran, 2008).
These cultural differences are so fundamental, that even at the level of considering basic intelligence we see the effects of these contrasting perspectives. In a study on the Kiganda culture (within the country of Uganda, in Africa), Wober (1974) found that they consider intelligence to be more externally directed than we do, and they view successful social climbing and social interaction as evidence of intelligent behavior. This matches the attitude amongst Mediterranean cultures that notable people will be devoted to a life of public service (in contrast, the word “idiot” is derived from a Greek word meaning a private man).
Thus, moving toward others would be favored much more in other cultures than it might be in the Western world. Consequently, a significant attitude and the behavior of moving toward others would be less likely to be viewed as neurotic. Such issues are, of course, very important as we interact with people of other cultures, as we may consider their behavior to be odd according to our standards. Naturally, they may be thinking the same thing about us. What is probably most important is that we learn about and experience other cultures, so that differences in customs and behavior are not surprising when they occur.
There are two other mechanisms that Horney suggested are used by people in their attempts to resolve inner conflict: the idealized image , and externalization (Horney, 1945). The idealized image is a creation of what the person believes themselves to be, or what they feel they can or ought to be. It is always flattering, and quite removed from reality. The individual may see themselves as beautiful, powerful, saintly, or a genius.  The more unrealistic their view is, the more compulsive their need for affirmation and recognition. Since they need no confirmation of what they know to be true, they are particularly sensitive when questioned about their false claims! The idealized image is not to be confused with authentic ideals. Ideals are goals, they have a dynamic quality, they arouse incentive to achieve those goals, and they are important for personal growth and development. Having genuine ideals tends to result in humility. The idealized image, in contrast, is static, and it hinders growth by denying or condemning one’s shortcomings.
The idealized image can provide a temporary refuge from the basic conflict, but when the tension between the actual self and the idealized image becomes unbearable, there is nothing within the self to fall back on. Consequently, an extreme attempt at a solution is to run away from the self entirely. Externalization is the tendency to experience one’s own psychodynamic processes as having occurred outside oneself, and then blaming others for one’s own problems. Such individuals become dependent on others, because they become preoccupied with changing, reforming, punishing, or impressing those individuals who are responsible for their own well-being. A particularly unfortunate consequence of externalization is a feeling Horney described as a “gnawing sense of emptiness and shallowness” (pg. 117; Horney, 1945). However, rather than allowing themselves to feel the emotion, they might experience it as an empty feeling in the stomach, and attempt to satisfy themselves by, for example, overeating. Overall, the self-contempt they feel is externalized in two basic ways: either despising others, or feeling that others despise them. Either way, it is easy to see how damaged the individual’s personal relationships would become. Horney described externalization as a process of self-elimination, which aggravates the very process with set it in motion: the conflict between the person and their environment.
Discussion Question: Horney described three basic attitudes regarding other people: moving toward, moving against, or moving away from them. Do you easily use all three styles of relating to others, or do you tend to rely on one more than the others? Does this create problems in your relationships?
Intrapsychic Strategies of Defense
In Neurosis and Human Growth , Horney (1950) addressed the psychodynamic struggle toward self-realization. She described a series of psychological events that occur in the development of a neurotic personality, and how they interfere with the healthy psychological growth of the real self . Indeed, neurotic symptoms arise out of the conflict between the real self, our deep source of growth, and the idealized image. She began this book with a simple statement as to why she focused so much of her work on neurotic personalities:
The neurotic process is a special form of human development, and - because of the waste of constructive energies which it involves - is a particularly unfortunate one. (pg. 13; Horney, 1950)
Horney believed in an innate potentiality within all people, which she referred to as growth toward self-realization . The real self underlies this tendency toward self-realization, but it can be diverted by the development of basic anxiety. In order to overcome basic anxiety, the child adopts one of the strategies described above, attempting to solve its conflicts by moving toward, against, or away from others. Under adverse conditions, the child adopts one of these strategies in a rigid and extreme fashion, and begins the neurotic development. And yet, the tendency toward self-realization remains deep within the psyche, demanding that the neurotic development seek some higher level. Thus, the idealized image is formed, and a variety of intrapsychic processes begin an attempt to justify oneself based upon that idealized image.
The establishment of the idealized image involves self-glorification, and it reflects a need to lift oneself above others. The psychic energy associated with self-realization is shifted toward realization of the idealized image, establishing a general drive that Horney called the search for glory (Horney, 1950). The search for glory includes several elements, which are manifested as drives or needs. There is a need for perfection , which aims at the complete molding of the personality into the idealized self, and a drive for neurotic ambition , or striving for external success. The most damaging element of the search for glory, however, is the drive toward vindictive triumph . The aim of vindictive triumph is to put others to shame, or to defeat them, through one’s own success. Horney considered this drive to be vindictive because its motivating source is the desire to take revenge for humiliations suffered in childhood (i.e., to pay others back for the circumstances that created basic anxiety).
The elements of the search for glory are not necessarily bad. Who wouldn’t want to be perfect, ambitious, and triumphant? However, in their compulsive and neurotic form, Horney believed that people came to expect these elements, creating what she called the neurotic claims . When simple desires or needs become claims, individual feel they have a right to those things, they feel they are entitled. They fully expect to be satisfied in every way, and they also expect, indeed feel they are entitled, to never be criticized, doubted, or questioned (Horney, 1950). These claims are not only made on other people, but also on institutions, such as the workplace or society as a whole. The individual becomes highly egocentric, reminding others of a spoiled child, and they expect their needs to be satisfied without putting forth any effort of their own. Obviously, it is highly unlikely that such a person’s needs are going to be fulfilled, creating a diffuse state of frustration and discontent, so all-encompassing that Horney suggested it can actually be viewed as a character trait in the neurotic individual. From the therapist’s point of view, neurotic claims are particularly serious because they take the place of the patient’s actual personality growth. In other words, the patient believes that merely wanting or intending to change is enough, and no effort is necessary. Indeed, the claims themselves are the neurotic’s guarantee of future glory (Horney, 1950).
While these neurotic claims and the feelings of entitlement that accompany them may seem to be just a personal problem, the fact is that many people make seriously flawed self-assessments of their abilities, attributes, and future behavior. Indeed, the “average” person typically rates themselves as “above average” in many areas of their lives. These flawed self-assessments come into play in many aspects of our lives, and can easily affect others (Dunning, Heath, & Suls, 2004; Williams, 2004). For example, the United States spends more of its gross domestic product on health care than any other major industrialized country, and yet many people seriously underestimate the consequences of a wide range of unhealthy behaviors, such as smoking, drinking alcohol, overeating to the point of obesity, and avoiding exercise. The poor physical health of many Americans has become a regular topic in the mainstream media, as it threatens both individual lives (and, consequently, the family and friends of those who die) and our ability to fund healthcare for those who are poor or aged. In education, students dramatically overestimate the extent to which they have learned, limiting the likelihood that they will take fuller advantage of their education. And in business, the consequences can be severe for many employees, and therefore their families, when a President or CEO is so over-confident that they make poor decisions that bankrupt the company. As suggested above, these problems are common, not just confined to those who are neurotic. Thus, the problem of overconfidence, whether the result of an unreasonable trend in society to ensure everyone’s self-esteem or the result of neurotic claims, as well as the extent to which individuals are able to know themselves and, therefore, function in the real world, is critical to everyone (Dunning, Heath, & Suls, 2004; Williams, 2004).
 They begin to tell themselves (though this may unconscious) to forget about the worthless creature they believe they are , and start behaving as they should . In order to match up with the idealized image, they should be honest, generous, and just, they should be able to endure any misfortune, they should be the perfect friend and lover, they should like everyone, they should never feel hurt, they should never be attached to anyone or anything, they should know, understand, and foresee everything, they should be able to overcome any difficulty, etc. Obviously, no one can be everything at all times. Horney described this tragic state as the tyranny of the should . Since it is virtually impossible for anyone to maintain such discipline in their life, rather than developing real self-confidence, the neurotic individual develops a questionable alternative: neurotic pride . However, the pride is not in who the individual is, but rather in who the individual believes they should be (Horney, 1950).
Sooner or later, it is inevitable that the neurotic individual will have their pride hurt in real life. When this happens, the other side of neurotic pride comes out: self-hate . Indeed, Horney believed that pride and self-hate are a single entity, which she called the pride system . As the neurotic individual becomes more aware of their failure to live up to the idealized self, they develop self-hate and self-contempt. According to Horney, the battle lines are now drawn between the pride system and the real self. It is not the real self that is hated, however, but the emerging constructive forces of the real self (the actual aim of psychotherapy!). This conflict, between the pride system and the constructive forces for change inherent in the real self, are so profound, that Horney named it the central inner conflict ! In her earlier writings, Horney used the term neurotic conflict to refer to conflicts between incompatible compulsive drives. The central inner conflict is unique, in that it sets up a conflict between a neurotic drive (the pride system) and a healthy drive (the trend toward self-realization). Horney believed that individuals who have arrived at this psychological state of affairs were indeed in a difficult situation:
Surveying self-hate and its ravaging force, we cannot help but see in it a great tragedy, perhaps the greatest tragedy of the human mind. Man in reaching out for the Infinite and Absolute also starts destroying himself.
Discussion Question: Horney defined the central inner conflict as the battle between the constructive forces for change inherent in the real self and the self-hate that arises out of the pride system. Have you ever found yourself giving up on something important because you feel incapable, unworthy, or overly self-critical? If you have ever been aware of these feelings at the time they occurred, what, if anything, did you do about them?
Horney’s Challenge for Psychoanalysis
One of the actions that made Horney most controversial was her willingness to challenge how psychoanalysis should be conducted with patients. In New Ways in Psychoanalysis (Horney, 1939), Horney made it very clear why she thought that psychoanalysis needed to be questioned:
My desire to make a critical re-evaluation of psychoanalytical theories had its origin in a dissatisfaction with therapeutic results. (pg. 7; Horney, 1939)
Simply put, she had asked many leading psychoanalysts questions about problems in treating her patients, and none of them could offer meaningful answers (at least, they had no meaning for Horney). In addition, a few of them, such as Wilhelm Reich, encouraged her to question orthodox psychoanalytic theory. As always, Horney did not see this as a rejection of Freud. Indeed, she felt that as she pursued new ideas, she found stronger reasons to admire the foundation that Freud had established. More importantly, she was upset that those who criticized psychoanalysis often simply ignored it, rather than looking more deeply into the valuable insights she believed it still had to offer for any therapist. As before, she saved her most serious critiques for the study of feminine psychology, though she still considered psychoanalysis with an emphasis on culture to be a valid therapeutic approach:
The American woman is different from the German woman; both are different from certain Pueblo Indian women. The New York society woman is different from the farmer’s wife in Idaho. The way specific cultural conditions engender specific qualities and faculties, in women as in men - this is what we may hope to understand. (pg. 119; Horney, 1939)
In her second book on therapy, Horney proposed something quite radical: the possibility of Self-Analysis (Horney, 1942). She considered self-analysis important for two main reasons. First, psychoanalysis was an important means of personal development, though not the only means. In this assertion, she was both emphasizing the value of psychoanalysis for many people, while at the same time saying that it wasn’t so important that it had to conducted in the orthodox manner by an extensively trained psychoanalyst, since there are many paths to self-development (e.g., good friends and a meaningful career). Second, even if many people sought traditional psychoanalysis, there simply aren’t enough psychoanalysts to go around. So, Horney provided a book to help those willing to pursue their own self-analysis, even if they do so only occasionally (which she believed could be quite effective for specific issues). She did not suggest that self-analysis was by any means easy, but more important was the realization that it was possible. With regard to the possible criticism that self-analysts might not finish the job, that they might not delve into the darkest and most repressed areas of their psyche, she simply suggested that no analysis is ever complete. What matters more than being successful is the desire to continue (Horney, 1942).
When the Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis was established, an important part of their mission was community education. One of the courses was entitled Are You Considering Psychoanalysis? This course was so popular, that the instructors decided to publish a book by the same name, and Horney was chosen the editor-in-chief (Horney, 1946). The chapters present very practical topics, such as: What Are Your Doubts About Psychoanalysis? (Kelman, 1946); What Do You Do in Analysis? (Kilpatrick, 1946); and How Does Analysis Help? (Ivimey, 1946). Perhaps reflecting her own concerns about the ability of psychoanalysis to “cure” a person’s problems, Horney entitled the final chapter, which she wrote herself: How Do You Progress After Analysis? She begins the chapter by addressing the concern that many of her patients had: why would a person need more progress after psychoanalysis? Isn’t psychoanalysis supposed to resolve all of a person’s psychological problems? As noted above, however, Horney felt that no analysis is ever complete. But this time the reasoning is not based on questioning the effectiveness of psychoanalysis itself. Rather, it is based on the potential for human growth, a potential that is boundless:
Your growth as a human being, however, is a process that can and should go on as long as you live…analytical therapy merely sets this process in motion… (pg. 236; Horney, 1946)
Discussion Question: Have you ever tried self-analysis, in either a formal or an informal way? If yes, were your efforts based on any personal experience or knowledge, and did it prove to be helpful?


2.3: Stems
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The shoot system of a plant consists of stems and leaves (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Stems may range in length from a few millimeters to hundreds of meters, and also vary in diameter, depending on the plant type. Stems are usually aboveground, although the modified stems of some plants, such as the potato, also grow underground. Stems may be herbaceous (soft) or woody in nature. A stem may be unbranched, like that of a palm tree, or it may be highly branched, like that of a magnolia tree.
The stem of the plant functions in support, conduction, photosynthesis, and storage. Stems support leaves, flowers, and buds. They connect the roots to the leaves, helping to transport absorbed water and minerals to different parts of the plant. It also helps to transport the products of photosynthesis, namely sugars, from the leaves to the rest of the plant. Stems also store food for the plant, mainly in the form of starch.
Curated and authored by Melissa Ha using the following sources:
Thumbnail image: Cross section of the woody stem of Aristolochia . Image by Berkshire Community College Bioscience Image Library (public domain).


30.3: Second Species Counterpoint
30.3 Second Species Counterpoint
In second species, one writes two half notes against a cantus firmus in whole notes. (Second species can also include writing three half notes against a cantus firmus of dotted whole notes in 32.) The rules are generally the same as first species except that one simple dissonance is allowed in second species: the passing tone. Please see the details below.
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Begin your counterpoint with a half note at the octave or unison on either the first or third beat of the measure; if starting on the third beat, put a half rest at the beginning of the measure.
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End with a whole note on an octave or unison, using one of these concluding formulas:
- If the cantus firmus is in the lower part, approach the final octave with intervals of a fifth and sixth (6^ –7^ against 2^ in the cantus firmus ).
- If the cantus firmus is in the upper part, approach the final octave or unison with the intervals of a fifth and third (5^ –7^ against 2^ in the cantus firmus ).
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Phrygian mode has an exception: if the cantus firmus is in the upper part, approach the final octave or unison with the intervals of a sixth to a third (4^ –♭7^ against ♭2^ in the
cantus firmus
).
- Of the two half notes you write in each measure, the first must always be a consonance (unison, 3rd, 5th, 6th, 8ve, or compound interval equivalent). If the second is a dissonance, it can only be a passing tone (approached and left by step). Otherwise, the second note must be a consonance. The only allowable leaps are the same as in first species.
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When crossing barlines, apply the following:
- “Imperfect” consonances (3rds and 6ths) can be approached in any manner.
- “Perfect” consonances (unisons, 5ths, 8ves, 12ths) may only be approached in contrary motion in order to avoid direct 5ths and direct 8ves.
- Do not repeat notes across barlines
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Avoid 8ves on consecutive downbeats and avoid 5ths on consecutive downbeats
unless
there is the leap of 4th occurring after the 8ve or 5th on the downbeat
Notice that dissonant interval numbers (2, 4, tt, 7) are circled to highlight that they must be handled in a special manner.
Go to Second Species Practice Exercises .


4: The Basics of Chemistry
The chapters in this unit are absolutely essential for anyone embarking on the serious study of Chemistry. The material covered here will be needed in virtually every topic you will encounter in the remainder of your first-year course, as well as in subsequent Chemistry courses — so you might as well master it now!
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- 4.1: Atoms, Elements, and the Nucleus
- The parallel concepts of the element and the atom constitute the very foundations of chemical science. The concept of the element is a macroscopic one that relates to the world that we can observe with our senses. The atom is the microscopic realization of this concept; that is, it is the actual physical particle that is unique to each chemical element. Their very small size has long prevented atoms from being observable by direct means, so their existence was not universally accepted until the
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- 4.2: Avogadro's Number and the Mole
- The chemical changes we observe always involve discrete numbers of atoms that rearrange themselves into new configurations. These numbers are far too large in magnitude for us to count , but they are still numbers, and we need to have a way to deal with them. We also need a bridge between these numbers, which we are unable to measure directly, and the weights of substances, which we do measure and observe. The mole concept provides this bridge, and is key to all of quantitative chemistry.
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- 4.3: Formulas and Their Meaning
- At the heart of chemistry are substances — elements or compounds— which have adefinite composition which is expressed by a chemical formula. In this unit you will learn how to write and interpret chemical formulas both in terms of moles and masses, and to go in the reverse direction, in which we use experimental information about the composition of a compound to work out a formula.
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- 4.4: Chemical Equations and Stoichiometry
- A chemical equation expresses the net change in composition associated with a chemical reaction by showing the number of moles of reactants and products. But because each component has its own molar mass, equations also implicitly define the way in which the masses of products and reactants are related. In this unit we will concentrate on understanding and making use of these mass relations.
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- 4.5: Introduction to Chemical Nomenclature
- Chemical nomenclature is far too big a topic to treat comprehensively, and it would be a useless diversion to attempt to do so in a beginning course; most chemistry students pick up chemical names and the rules governing them as they go along. But we can hardly talk about chemistry without mentioning some chemical substances, all of which do have names— and often, more than one!
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- 4.6: Significant Figures and Rounding
- The numerical values we deal with in science (and in many other aspects of life) represent measurements whose values are never known exactly. Our pocket-calculators or computers don't know this; they treat the numbers we punch into them as "pure" mathematical entities, with the result that the operations of arithmetic frequently yield answers that are physically ridiculous even though mathematically correct.
Thumbnail: Spinning Buckminsterfullerene (\(\ce{C60}\)). (CC BY-SA 3.0; unported; Sponk ).


2.6.2: Polyploidy Arises from Changes in Whole Sets of Chromosomes
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If you refer back to Figure \(\PageIndex{15}\) you can see that humans, like most animals and most eukaryotic genetic model organisms, have two copies of each autosome. This situation is called diploidy . This means that most of their cells have two homologous copies of each chromosome. In contrast, many plant species and even a few animal species are polyploids . This means they have more than two chromosome sets, and so have more than two homologs of each chromosome in each cell.
When the nuclear content changes by a whole chromosome set we call it a change in ploidy. Gametes are haploid (1n) and thus most animals are diploid (2n), formed by the fusion of two haploid gametes. However, some species can exist as monoploid (1x), triploid (3x), tetraploid (4x), pentaploid (5x), hexaploid (6x), or higher.
Notation of ploidy
When describing polyploids, we use the letter “ x ” (not “n”) to define the level of ploidy. A di ploid is 2x, because there are two basic sets of chromosomes, and a tetra ploid is 4x, because it contains four chromosome sets. For clarity when discussing polyploids, geneticists will often combine the “x” notation with the “n” notation already defined previously in this chapter. Thus for both diploids and polyploids, “n” is the number of chromosomes in a gamete, and “2n” is the number of chromosomes following fertilization. For a diploid, therefore, n=x, and 2n=2x. But for a tetraploid, n=2x, and 2n=4x and for a hexaploid, n=3x, and 2n=6x.
Male Bees are Monoploid
Monoploids , with only one set, are usually inviable in most species, however, in many species of hymenoptera (bees, wasps, ants) the males are monoploid and develop from unfertilized eggs. These males don’t undergo meiosis for gametes; mitosis produces sperm. Females are diploid (from fertilized eggs) and produce eggs via meiosis. This is the basis for the haploid-diploid sex determination system (not the X/Y chromosome system). Female bees are diploid (2n=32) and are formed when an egg (n=16) is fertilized by a sperm (n=16). If an egg isn't fertilized it can still develop and the result is a n=16 male drone. Males are described as haploid (because they have the same number of chromosomes as a gamete) or monoploid (because they have only one chromosome set). Females produce eggs by meiosis while males produce sperm by mitosis. This form of sex determination produces more females – workers, which do the work (Figure 2-18) than males, who are only needed for reproduction.
Figure \(\PageIndex{18}\): A worker caste European honey bee, which is female and diploid. Male drones are haploid. (Wikipedia-J. Severns-PD)
Polyploids can be stable or sterile
Like diploids (2n=2x), stable polyploids generally have an even number of copies of each chromosome: tetraploid (2n=4x), hexaploid (2n=6x), and so on. The reason for this is clear from a consideration of meiosis. Remembering that the purpose of meiosis is to reduce the sum of the genetic material by half, meiosis can equally divide an even number of chromosome sets, but not an odd number. Thus, polyploids with an odd number of chromosomes (e.g. triploids, 2n=3x) tend to be sterile , even if they are otherwise healthy.
The mechanism of meiosis in stable polyploids is essentially the same as in diploids: during metaphase I, homologous chromosomes pair with each other. Depending on the species, all of the homologs may be aligned together at metaphase, or in multiple separate pairs. For example, in a tetraploid, some species may form tetravalents in which the four homologs from each chromosome align together, or alternatively, two pairs of homologs may form two bivalents. Note that because that mitosis does not involve any pairing of homologous chromosomes, mitosis is equally effective in diploids, even-number polyploids, and odd-number polyploids.
Many Crop Plants are Hexaploid or Octoploid
Polyploid plants tend to be larger and healthier than their diploid counterparts. The strawberries sold in grocery stores come from octoploid (8x) strains and are much larger than the strawberries formed by wild diploid strains. An example is bread wheat which is a hexaploid (6x) strain. This species is derived from the combination of three other wheat species, T. monococcum (chromosome sets = AA), T. searsii (BB), and T. tauschii (DD). Each of these chromosome sets has 7 chromosomes so the diploid species are 2n=2x=14 and bread wheat is 2n=6x=42 and has the chromosome sets AABBDD. Bread wheat is viable because each chromosome behaves independently during mitosis. The species is also fertile because during meiosis I the A chromosomes pair with the other A chromosomes, and so on. Thus, even in a polyploid, homologous chromosomes can segregate equally and gene balance can be maintained.
Bananas, Watermelons, and Other Seedless Plants are Triploid
The bananas found in grocery stores are a seedless variety called Cavendish. They are a triploid variety (chromosome sets = AAA) of a normally diploid species called Musa acuminata (AA). Cavendish plants are viable because mitosis can occur. However they are sterile because the chromosomes cannot pair properly during meiosis I. During prophase I there are three copies of each chromosome trying to “pair” with each other. Because proper chromosome segregation in meiosis fails, seeds cannot be made and the result is a fruit that is easier to eat because there are no seeds to spit out. Seedless watermelons (Figure \(\PageIndex{19}\)) have a similar explanation.
Figure \(\PageIndex{19}\): Seedless watermelon is triploid, with the white, aborted seeds within the flesh. (Flickr-Darwin Bell-CC:AN)If triploids cannot make seeds, how do we obtain enough triploid individuals for cultivation? The answer depends on the plant species involved. In some cases, such as banana, it is possible to propagate the plant asexually; new progeny can simply be grown from cuttings from a triploid plant. On the other hand, seeds for seedless watermelon are produced sexually: a tetraploid watermelon plant is crossed with a diploid watermelon plant. Both the tetraploid and the diploid are fully fertile, and produce gametes with two (1n=2x) or one (1n=1x) sets of chromosomes, respectively. These gametes fuse to produce a zygote (2n=3x) that is able to develop normally into an adult plant through multiple rounds of mitosis, but is unable to compete normal meiosis or produce seeds.
Polyploids are often larger in size than their diploid relatives (Figure \(\PageIndex{20}\)). This feature is used extensively in food plants. For example, most strawberries you eat are not diploid, but octoploid (8x).
Polyploidy in animals is rare, essentially limited to lower forms, which often reproduce by parthenogenesis.
Credit: www.jamesandthegiantcorn.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/strawberries2.jpg


8.1.3G: Income Distribution
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The United States has a high level of income inequality, with a wide gap between the top and bottom brackets of earners.
Learning Objectives
- Explain the development of income distribution in the US since the 1970’s and what is meant by the “Great Divergence”
Key Points
- Since the 1970s, inequality has increased dramatically in the United States.
- Different groups get different compensation for the same work. The discrepancy in wages between males and females is called the ” gender wage gap,” and the discrepancy between whites and minorities is called the “racial wage gap”.
- While earnings from capital and investment are still a significant cause of inequality, income is increasingly segregated by occupation as well. Of earners, 60% in the top 0.1% are executives, managers, supervisors, and financial professionals.
Key Terms
- Race Wage Gap : The difference in earnings between racial or ethnic groups.
- Gender Wage Gap : The difference between male and female earnings expressed as a percentage of male earnings.
- great divergence : Refers to the growth of economic inequality in America since the 1970s.
Unequal distribution of income between genders, races, and the population, in general, in the United States has been the frequent subject of study by scholars and institutions. Inequality between male and female workers, called the “gender wage gap,” has decreased considerably over the last several decades. During the same time, inequality between black and white Americans, sometimes called the “race wage gap,” has stagnated, not improving but not getting worse. Nevertheless, data from a number of sources indicate that overall income inequality in the United States has grown significantly since the late 1970s, widening the gap between the country’s rich and poor.
A number of studies by the U.S. Department of Commerce, Congressional Budget Office (CBO), and Internal Revenue Service (IRS) have found that the distribution of income in the United States has become increasingly unequal since the 1970s. Economist Paul Krugman and journalist Timothy Noah have referred to this trend as the “Great Divergence.” Since the 1970s, income inequality has grown almost continuously, with the exceptions being during the economic recessions in 1990-91, 2001, and 2007. The Great Divergence differs in some ways from the pre-Depression era inequality observed in the early 1900s (the last period of great inequality). Before 1937, a larger share of top earners’ income came from capital (interest, dividends, income from rent, capital gains). Post-1970, a higher proportion of the income of high-income taxpayers comes predominantly from employment compensation–60% of earners in the top 0.1% are executives, managers, supervisors, and financial professionals, and the five most common professions among the top 1% of earners are managers, physicians, administrators, lawyers, and financial specialists. Still, much of the richest Americans’ accumulated wealth is in the form of stocks and real estate.
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6: Fueling and Building Cells
Chapter 6 BIOL 235 Learning Outcomes
- Identify the two types of metabolic process by which chemoheterotrophs obtain energy
- Explain why a terminal electron acceptor is necessary for energy-generating metabolic processes (respiration or fermentation).
- Distinguish between the two mechanisms (__________ phosphorylation and _____________ phosphorylation) by which ATP is formed in cells.
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Differentiate between fermentation and respiration based on the following questions:
- Is it always, sometimes, or never an anaerobic process?
- By what mechanism is ATP formed (substrate-level, oxidative)?
- Is the terminal electron acceptor always, sometimes, or never organic?
- Is an electron transport chain used to generate energy?
- Compare the amount of ATP produced from glucose by aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, and fermentation (see Table 6.2.1 ) (most, in between, or least; don't worry about exact numbers).
- Given a metabolic pathway, determine if it is a usable fermentation pathway based on 1) does it produce a net gain of ATP and 2) are all NADH re-oxidized to NAD+.
- If given an energy-generating metabolic process (either described or in a figure), determine whether it is fermentation, aerobic respiration, or anaerobic respiration.
- Sketch the processes of lactic acid fermentation and respiration (general, including cellular location).
- Identify common products of bacterial fermentations, including the kind of molecule always produced in bacterial fermentations.
- Explain how oxidation/reduction of electron carriers can be linked to pumping of protons across a membrane.
- Explain where the electrons for the electron transport chain come from in an organism using glucose as an energy source and on what molecule those electrons are carried. Consider both the original chemical source of the electrons and the metabolic pathways that harvest those electrons.
- Define proton motive force and explain why it is necessary for ATP synthesis through respiration.
- Describe the generation of ATP by ATP synthase (oxidative phosphorylation).
- Identify the main difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
- Describe how the metabolites of glycolysis and the Krebs (TCA) cycle can be used by the cell for purposes other than energy generation
- Describe the biosynthesis of amino acids by both amination and transamination
- Explain nitrogen fixation, how it differs from the way most organisms obtain nitrogen for their cells, and what domain of organisms nitrogen fixation is limited to.
- Give one example of a nitrogen fixer and explain its direct role in food production.
As discussed in Chapter 4 , all organisms require both carbon (the cell's main building material) and energy (to build the cell's structures and perform other metabolic functions). Although microbes can use either organic carbon (heterotrophs) or carbon dioxide (autotrophs) for carbon and light (phototrophs) or chemical energy (chemotrophs), all pathogens are chemoheterotrophs. The host which they are infecting is their source of both carbon and energy. Most microbes used for food production are also chemoheterotrophs. Therefore, we will focus on how chemoheterotrophs fuel and build their cells.
Chemoheterotrophs can generate ATP from organic molecules using two different mechanisms: respiration and fermentation. In both mechanisms, the electrons stored on NADH in the metabolic reactions of Central Metabolism are "dumped" on a final electron acceptor, thus regenerating NAD+ to be used again in Central Metabolism. In respiration, the transfer of electrons from NADH to the final electron acceptor (obtained from the environment) occurs via an electron transport chain (ETC). The ETC concurrently creates a proton gradient which is used by ATP synthase to generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. In fermentation, however, the transfer of electrons from NADH to the final electron acceptor (a metabolite formed within the cell) does not generate ATP in addition to that already produced by substrate-level phosphorylation.
The precursor metabolites generated through Central Metabolism are used to build the important molecules (and eventually structures) of the cell in anabolic pathways. Sometimes additional macronutrients are required to build the molecules of the cell, which cells acquire in various ways. For example, amino acids require nitrogen for their amino group. Although there are hundreds of critical anabolic pathways in cells, the acquisition of nitrogen and synthesis of amino acids will be used as an example of anabolism in bacteria.
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- 6.1: Respiration
- Respiration begins when electrons are transferred from an electron donor through a series of chemical reactions to a final inorganic electron acceptor obtained from the environment (either oxygen in aerobic respiration or non-oxygen inorganic molecules in anaerobic respiration). In chemoheterotrophs the electron donors are NADH and FADH2 which carry electrons from glycolysis and the TCA cycle, but in chemoautotrophs the electron donor is another source of chemical energy such as hydrogen sulfide
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- 6.2: Fermentation
- Fermentation uses an organic molecule as a final electron acceptor to regenerate NAD+ from NADH so that glycolysis can continue. Fermentation does not involve an electron transport system, and no ATP is made by the fermentation process directly. Fermenters make very little ATP—only two ATP molecules per glucose molecule during glycolysis. Microbial fermentation processes have been used for the production of foods and pharmaceuticals, and for the identification of microbes.
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- 6.3: Catabolism of Lipids and Proteins
- Collectively, microbes have the ability to degrade a wide variety of carbon sources besides carbohydrates, including lipids and proteins. The catabolic pathways for all of these molecules eventually connect into glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. Several types of lipids can be microbially degraded. Triglycerides are degraded by extracellular lipases, releasing fatty acids from the glycerol backbone. Phospholipids are degraded by phospholipases, releasing fatty acids and phosphorylated head groups.
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- 6.4: Photosynthesis and the Importance of Light
- Heterotrophic organisms ranging from E. coli to humans rely on the chemical energy found mainly in carbohydrate molecules. Many of these carbohydrates are produced by photosynthesis, the biochemical process by which phototrophic organisms convert solar energy (sunlight) into chemical energy. Although photosynthesis is most commonly associated with plants, microbial photosynthesis is also a significant supplier of chemical energy, fueling many diverse ecosystems.
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- 6.5: Biogeochemical Cycles
- Energy flows directionally through ecosystems, entering as sunlight for phototrophs or as inorganic molecules for chemoautotrophs. The six most common elements associated with organic molecules—carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur—take a variety of chemical forms and may exist for long periods in the atmosphere, on land, in water, or beneath earth’s surface
Thumbnail: "Making Traditionally Fermented Pickles" by Chiot's Run is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0


4.1: Aseptic Technique Introduction
- Perform appropriate hand hygiene
- Use standard precautions
- Use category-specific, transmission-based precautions
- Maintain a sterile field and equipment
- Apply and safely remove sterile gloves and personal protective equipment
- Dispose of contaminated wastes appropriately
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), over 2 million patients in America contract a healthcare-associated infection, and 99,000 patients die from a healthcare-associated infection every year. [1] Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) are unintended and often preventable infections caused by care received in a health care setting. Healthcare-associated infections can be prevented by consistently following standard precautions and transmission-based precautions outlined by the CDC (2020). Standard precautions are used when caring for all patients and include performing appropriate hand hygiene ; wearing personal protective equipment when indicated; implementing category-specific transmission precautions; encouraging respiratory hygiene; and following environmental infection control measures, including handling of sharps, laundry, and hazardous waste. Additional infection control measures include the appropriate use of aseptic technique and sterile technique when performing nursing procedures to protect the patient from transmission of microorganisms. [2] Each of these strategies to keep patients and health care workers free of infection is discussed in further detail in this chapter.
- The Joint Commission. (n.d.). Hand hygiene . https://www.centerfortransforminghealthcare.org/improvement-topics/hand-hygiene/?_ga=2.185680553.1649963228.1601313691-322773533.1571518854 ↵
- Collins, A. S. (2008). Preventing health care-associated infections. In Hughes, R.G. (Ed.). Patient safety and quality: An evidence-based handbook for nurses . www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2683/ ↵


10: Care of the Home and Personal Belongings
Maintaining a clean and organized home is an important task of the Home Health Aide/Personal Care Aide. It helps to provide a home free of infection and pests and promotes good hygiene and physical and psychological well-being. This module will explore the purpose of housekeeping and discuss how housekeeping in a patient’s home is different than in one’s own home. We will learn the importance of using proper body mechanics and how to prioritize tasks in order to be as efficient as possible. We will explore different types of cleaning products and why each are used. Finally, we will discuss important housekeeping tasks to be completed in each room of the house, as well as how to do laundry.