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action potential
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fight-or-flight
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peroxisomes
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active transport
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flaccid
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phagocytosis
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adaptin
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free energy
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phospholipase C
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adenylate cyclase
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G protein subunits
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phosphorylase kinase
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adherens junctions
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gap junctions
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pinocytosis
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adrenaline
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gluconeogenesis
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PKA
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allosteric change regulates transport
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GLUT1
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PKC
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antiport
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glycolysis
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plasmodesmata
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aquaporins
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good cholesterol
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plamolysis
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bad cholesterol
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G-protein-linked receptors
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poikilothermic organisms
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basal lamina
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Heat shock protein
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potential difference
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belt desmosomes
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HSP70 protein
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protein kinase A
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Ca
2+
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hydrophilic corridor
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protein kinase C
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cadherin
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hypertonic
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protein packaging
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cargo receptor
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hypotonic
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protein phosphorylation
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carrier proteins
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IgG light chain
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proton gate
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cell adhesion molecules
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inositol triphosphate
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proton pump
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cell-cell attachment
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integrin
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receptor-mediated endocytosis
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cell-cell recognition
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ion channels
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RER membrane
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cell-free translation
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ion flow
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resting potential
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channel proteins
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ion pumps
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secondary active transporters
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chaperone proteins
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IP
3
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serine-threonine kinases
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cholesterol effects in membranes
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isotonic
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signal peptide
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clathrin
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LDL (low density lipoprotein)
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signal recognition particle
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coated pits
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ligand (chemically) gated channels
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signal sequence
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coasted vesicle
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lysosome
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signal transduction
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connexins
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MAP kinase
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smooth endoplasmic reticulum
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contact inhibition
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mechanically gated channels
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sodium-potassium pump
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contractile vacuole
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membrane depolarization
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solute concentration gradients
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COP
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membrane hyperpolarization
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solute transport
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cotransport
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membrane invagination
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sorting vesicle
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coupled transport
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membrane potential
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spot desmosomes
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cytoskeleton
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microbodies
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stop-transfer sequence
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DAG
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mitochondrial membrane contact proteins
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symport
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diffusion kinetics
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mitogenic effects
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tight junction membrane proteins
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early endosome
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nerve growth factor
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tight junctions
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ECM
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neurotransmitters
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TJMPs
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effector molecules
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NGF
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tonoplast
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EGF
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nuclear envelope
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T-SNARE
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endocytosis
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nuclear pore fibrils
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turgid
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endomembrane system
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nuclear transport receptor
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turgor pressure
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3.1: Number Systems
Our number system is a western adaptation of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system developed somewhere between the first and fourth centuries CE (Common Era, previously referred to as "AD"). However, numbers have been recorded with tally marks throughout history. The Ishango Bone [1] from Africa is about 25,000 years old. It’s the lower leg bone from a baboon, and contains tally marks. We know the marks were used for counting because they appear in distinct groups.
This reindeer antler [2] from France is about 15,000 years old, and also shows clearly grouped tally marks.
Of course, we still use tally marks today! [3]
Base ten numbers (the ones you have probably been using your whole life), and base b numbers (where b is not 10) are both positional number systems.
A positional number system (also called place-value notation) is one way of writing numbers. It has unique symbols for 1 through b – 1, where b is the base of the system. Modern positional number systems also include a symbol for 0.
The positional value of each symbol depends on its position in the number:
- The positional value of a symbol in the first position (usually the furthest to the right when dealing with natural numbers) is just its face value.
- The positional value of a symbol in the second position is b times its value.
- The positional value of a symbol in the third position is times its value.
- And so on.
The value of a number is the sum of the positional values of its digits.
In an additive number system, the value of a written number is the sum of the face values of the symbols that make up the number. The only symbol necessary for an additive number system is a symbol for 1, however many additive number systems contain other symbols.
History: Roman numerals
The ancient Romans used a version of an additive number systems. The Romans represented numbers this way:
| Number | Roman Numeral |
|---|---|
| 1 | I |
| 5 | V |
| 10 | X |
| 50 | L |
| 100 | C |
| 500 | D |
| 1,000 | M |
So the number 2013 would be represented as MMXIII because it represents 2,000 (two M’s), one ten (one X), and three ones (three I’s).
For any additive number system very large numbers become impractical to write without inventing more and more symbols. To represent the number one million in Roman numerals it would take one thousand M’s or defining a new symbol (which some people have done)!
Classical Roman numerals were completely additive and written with the largest values on the left and smallest values on the right. However, the Roman numerals later developed one efficiency advantage by making the order of the symbols matter. If a symbol to the left was smaller than the symbol to the right, it would be subtracted instead of added. So for example nine is represented as IX rather than the Classical Roman notation VIIII.
If you don’t already know how to use Roman numerals, research it a little bit. Then answer these questions.
- Write the numbers 1–20 in Roman numerals.
- What is the maximum number of symbols needed to write any number between 1 and 1,000 in Roman Numerals? Justify your answer.
The earliest positional number systems are attributed to the Babylonians (base 60) and the Mayans (base 20). These positional systems were both developed before they had a symbol or a clear concept for zero. Instead of using 0, a blank space was used to indicate skipping a particular place value. This could lead to ambiguity.
Suppose we didn’t have a symbol for 0, and someone wrote the number
\[2 \quad 3 \ldotp \nonumber \]
It would be impossible to tell if they mean 23, 203, 2003, or maybe two separate numbers (two and three).
Leonardo Pisano Bigollo, more commonly known as Fibonacci [4] , played a pivotal role in guiding Europe out of a long period in which the importance and development of math was in marked decline. He was born in Italy around 1170 CE to Guglielmo Bonacci, a successful merchant. Guglielmo brought his son with him to what is now Algeria, and Leonardo was educated in mathematics there.
Fibonacci
At the time, Roman Numerals dominated Europe, and the official means of calculations was the abacus. Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī [5] described the use of Hindu-Arabic system in his book On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals in 825 CE, but it was not well-known in Europe.
Statue of al-Khwarizmi at Amirkabir University of Technology
Fibonacci’s book Liber Abaci described the Hindu-Arabic system and its business applications for a European readership. His book was well-received throughout Europe, and it marked the beginning of a reawakening of European mathematics.
History: Numbers in Hawai'i
The Hindu-Arabic number system is now used nearly exclusively throughout the globe. But many cultures had their own number systems before contact and trade with other countries spread the work of al-Khwārizmī throughout the world.
There is evidence that people in Hawai'i prior to contact with non-Polynesians actually used two different number systems. Depending on what they were counting, they might have used base 4 (or a mixed base-10 and base-4 system). One theory is that certain objects (fish, taro, etc.) were often put in bundles of 4, so were more natural to count by 4’s than by 10’s. The number four also had spiritual significance in Hawaiian culture.
Humans have 5 fingers on each hand, making base ten a natural choice for counting. But there are 4 gaps between the fingers, meaning that a hand can carry four fish or taro plants or similar objects, making base four a natural choice for some cultures.
In the mixed base system, instead of powers of 10, numbers are broken down into sums of numbers that look like 4 times a power of 10 (40, 400, 4000, etc.).
| 1 | ‘ekahi |
| 2 | ‘elua |
| 3 | ‘ekolu |
| 4 | ‘ehā (or kauna) |
| 5 | ‘elima |
| 6 | ‘eono |
| 7 | ‘ehiku |
| 8 | ‘ewalu |
| 9 | ‘eiwa |
| 10 | ‘umi |
| 11–19 | ‘umi kumamā {kahi, lua, kolu, hā, etc.} |
| 20 | iwakālua |
| 21–29 | Iwakālua kumamā {kahi, lua, kolu, hā, etc.} |
| 30 | kanakolu |
| 31–39 | kanakolu kumamā {kahi, lua, etc.} |
| 40 | kanahā |
| 400 | lau |
| 4,000 | mano |
| 40,000 | kini |
| 400,000 | lehu |
Here are a few examples (refer to the table above for the Hawaiian names of the numbers):
‘ekolu kini, ‘ewalu lau me ‘ekahi
translates to three 40,000’s, eight 400’s, and one;
3 ⋅ 40000 + 8 ⋅ 400 + 1 = 123201
5207 = 1 ⋅ 4000 + 3 ⋅ 400 + 7
would be ‘ekahi mano, ‘ekolu lau me ‘ehiku
On Your Own
Work on the following exercises on your own or with a partner.
- Translate this Hawaiian number to English and then write it in base ten. ‘ekahi kanahā me kanakolu kumamāiwa
- Translate this base‐ten number to Hawaiian: \(1,573\)
Note: there is no need to try to memorize the information about Roman and Hawaiian numbers. The important thing is to comprehend how they work. You will always be able to look up the details.
How is learning about different number systems (including representing numbers in different bases) valuable to you as a future teacher?
- Image of Ishango bone by Ben2 (Own work), CC-BY-SA-3.0 or CC BY-SA 2.5-2.0-1.0], via Wikimedia Commons. ↵
- Image of antler By Ryan Somma from Occoquan, USA [CC BY-SA 2.0], via Wikimedia Commons ↵
- Image of Hanakapiai beach warning sign by God of War at the English language Wikipedia [GFDL or CC-BY-SA-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons. ↵
- Image of Fibonacci via Wikimedia Commons, in the public domain. ↵
- Image of al-Khwarizmi statue by M. Tomczak [CC BY-SA 3.0], via Wikimedia Commons. ↵


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-
alopecia
-
hair loss
-
autoimmune disorder
-
occurs when the body’s immune system attacks and destroys healthy body tissue
-
basal ganglia
-
a part of the brain that starts and coordinate movements; diseases of the cells leading into the basal ganglia include Parkinson’s disease that results in tremors
-
Braden scale
-
an assessment tool using six categories to determine pressure injury risk
-
crepitus
-
a grating sound produced by friction between bone and cartilage or bone and bone
-
diascopy
-
a test for determining how quickly the skin blanches under pressure
-
genu varum
-
bowing of legs
-
hirsutism
-
an abundance of hair in places where hair is normally scarce or absent
-
integumentary system
-
the body system that includes the skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and nerves on the skin
-
intoeing
-
foot turned inward
-
kyphosis
-
an excessive outward curvature of the spine
-
lordosis
-
an excessive inward curvature of the spine
-
muscle tone
-
a measure of a muscle’s resistance to stretching while in a passive resting state
-
musculoskeletal system
-
the bones of the skeleton and the cartilages, ligaments, and other connective tissues and muscles
-
osteoarthritis
-
a degenerative joint disease resulting in chronic pain and often edema
-
patch testing
-
a skin test for allergies
-
polyphenols
-
beneficial plant compounds with antioxidant properties
-
psoriatic arthritis
-
a long-term inflammatory disease of the joints
-
range of motion (ROM)
-
reflects the client’s ability to move their joints actively or passively
-
scoliosis
-
a sideways curvature of the spine
-
scraping
-
a technique for obtaining superficial dead skin for testing
-
tenting
-
when the skin remains raised after being pinched on the back of the hand
-
Tzanck testing
-
a test used to diagnose viral disease with active vesicles
-
vitiligo
-
skin pigmentation disturbance
-
wood light test
-
a black light test used to diagnose lesions


8.8: Characterization of Covalently Functionalized Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes
Characterization of nanoparticles in general, and carbon nanotubes in particular, remains a technical challenge even though the chemistry of covalent functionalization has been studied for more than a decade. It has been noted by several researchers that the characterization of products represents a constant problem in nanotube chemistry. A systematic tool or suites of tools are needed for adequate characterization of chemically functionalized single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs), and is necessary for declaration of success or failure in functionalization trials.
So far, a wide range of techniques have been applied to characterize functionalized SWNTs: infra red (IR), Raman, and UV/visible spectroscopies, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), atomic force microscopy (AFM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), etc. A summary of the attribute of each of the characterization method is given in Table \(\PageIndex{1}\).
| Method | Sample | Information | Limitations |
|---|---|---|---|
| TGA | Solid | Functionalization ratio | no evidence for covalent functionalization, not specific |
| XPS | solid | elements, functionalization ratio | no evidence of covalent functionalization, not specific quantification complicated |
| Raman | solid | sp 3 indicated by D mode | not specific, quantification not reliable |
| Infrared (IR) | solid for ATR-IR or solution | substituent groups | no direct evidence for covalent functionalization quantification not possible |
| UV/Visible | solution | sidewall functionalization | not specific or quantitative, need highly disperesed sample |
| Solution NMR | solution | substituents | no evidence of covalent functionalization, high solubility of sample |
| Solid state NMR | solid | substituents sp 3 molecular motions, quantification at high level of functionalization | high functionalization needed, long time for signal acquisition, quantification not available for samples with protons on side chains |
| AFM | solid on substrate | topography | only a small portion of sample characterized, no evidence of covalent functionalization, no chemical identity |
| TEM | solid on substrate | image of sample distribution dispersion | only a small portion of sample characterized, no evidence of covalent functionalization, no chemical identity dispersion information complicated |
| STM | solid on substrate | distribution | no chemical identity of functional groups small portion of sample conductive sample only |
Elemental and Physical Analysis
Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) is the mostly widely used method to determine the level of sidewall functionalization. Since most functional groups are labile or decompose upon heating, while the SWNTs are stable up to 1200 °C under Ar atmosphere. The weight loss at 800 °C under Ar is often used to determine functionalization ratio using this indirect method. Unfortunately, quantification can be complicated with presence of multiple functional groups. Also, TGA does not provide direct evidence for covalent functionalization since it cannot differentiate between covalent attachment and physical adsorption.
X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)
XPS confirms the presence of different elements in functionalized SWNTs. This is useful for identification of heteroatom elements such as F and N, and then XPS can be used for quantification with simple substituent groups and used indirectly. Deconvolution of XPS is useful to study fine structures on SWNTs. However, the overlapping of binding energies in the spectrum complicates quantification.
Spectroscopy
Raman Spectroscopy
Raman spectroscopy is very informative and important for characterizing functionalized SWNTs. The tangential G mode (ca. 1550 – 1600 cm-1) is characteristic of sp2 carbons on the hexagonal graphene network. The D-band, so-called disorder mode (found at ca. 1295 cm-1) appears due to disruption of the hexagonal sp2 network of SWNTs. The D-band was largely used to characterize functionalized SWNTs and ensure functionalization is covalent and occurred at the sidewalls. However, the observation of D band in Raman can also be related to presence of defects such as vacancies, 5-7 pairs, or dopants. Thus, using Raman to provide evidence of covalent functionalization needs to be done with caution. In particular, the use of Raman spectroscopy for a determination of the degree of functionalization is not reliable.
It has been shown that quantification with Raman is complicated by the distribution of functional groups on the sidewall of SWNTs. For example, if fluorinated-SWNTs (F-SWNTs) are functionalized with thiol or thiophene terminated moieties, TGA shows that they have similar level of functionalization. However, their relative intensities of D:G in Raman spectrum are quite different. The use of sulfur substituents allow for gold nanoparticles with 5 nm in diameter to be attached as a “chemical marker” for direct imaging of the distribution of functional groups. AFM and STM suggest that the functional groups of thio-SWNTs are group together while the thiophene groups are widely distributed on the sidewall of SWNTs. Thus the difference is not due to significant difference in substituent concentration but on substituent distribution, while Raman shows different D:G ratio.
Infrared Spectroscopy
IR spectroscopy is useful in characterizing functional groups bound to SWNTs. A variety of organic functional groups on sidewall of SWNTs have been identified by IR, such as COOH(R), -CH2, -CH3, -NH2, -OH, etc. However, it is difficult to get direct functionalization information from IR spectroscopy. The C-F group has been identified by IR in F-SWNTs. However, C-C, C-N, C-O groups associated with the side-wall functionalization have not been observed in the appropriately functionalized SWNTs.
UV/Visible Spectroscopy
UV/visible spectroscopy is maybe the most accessible technique that provides information about the electronic states of SWNTs, and hence functionalization. The absorption spectrum shows bands at ca. 1400 nm and 1800 nm for pristine SWNTs. A complete loss of such structure is observed after chemical alteration of SWNTs sidewalls. However, such information is not quantitative and also does not show what type of functional moiety is on the sidewall of SWNTs.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
NMR can be considered as a “new” characterization technique as far as SWNTs are concerned. Solution state NMR is limited for SWNT characterization because low solubility and slow tumbling of the SWNTs results in broad spectra. Despite this issue, there are still solution 1H NMR reported of SWNTs functionalized by carbenes, nitrenes and azomethine ylides because of the high solubility of derivatized SWNTs. However, proof of covalent functionalization cannot be obtained from the 1H NMR. As an alternative, solid state 13C NMR has been employed to characterize several functionalized SWNTs and show successful observation of sidewall organic functional groups, such as carboxylic and alkyl groups. But there has been a lack of direct evidence of sp3 carbons on the sidewall of SWNTs that provides information of covalent functionalization.
Solid state 13C NMR has been successfully employed in the characterization of F-SWNTs through the direct observation of the sp3C-F carbons on sidewall of SWNTs. This methodology has been transferred to more complicated systems; however, it has been found that longer side chain length increases the ease to observe sp3C-X sidewall carbons.
Solid state NMR is a potentially powerful technique for characterizing functionalized SWNTs because molecular dynamic information can also be obtained. Observation that higher side chain mobility can be achieved by using a longer side chain length offers a method of exploring functional group conformation. In fact, there have been reports using solid state NMR to study molecular mobility of functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes.
Microscopy
AFM, TEM and STM are useful imaging techniques to characterize functionalized SWNTs. As techniques, they are routinely used to provide an “image” of an individual nanoparticle, as opposed to an average of all the particles.
Atomic Force Microscopy
AFM shows morphology on the surface of SWNTs. The height profile on AFM is often used to show presence of functional groups on sidewall of SWNTs. Individual SWNTs can be probed by AFM and sometimes provide information of dispersion and exfoliation of bundles. Measurement of heights along an individual SWNT can be correlated with the substituent group, i.e., the larger an alkyl chain of a sidewall substituent the greater the height measured. AFM does not distinguish whether those functional groups are covalently attached or physically adsorbed on the surface of SWNTs.
Transmission Electron Microscopy
TEM can be used to directly image SWNTs and at high resolution clearly shows the sidewall of individual SWNT. However, the resolution of TEM is not sufficient to directly observe covalent attachment of chemical modification moieties, i.e., to differentiate between sp2 and sp3 carbon atoms. TEM can be used to provide information of functionalization effect on dispersion and exfoliation of ropes.
Samples are usually prepared from very dilute concentration of SWNTs. Sample needs to be very homogeneous to get reliable data. As with AFM, TEM only shows a very small portion of sample, using them to characterize functionalized SWNTs and evaluate dispersion of samples in solvents needs to be done with caution.
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy
STM offers a lot of insight on structure and surface of functionalized SWNTs. STM measures electronic structure, while sometimes the topographical information can be indirectly inferred by STM images. STM has been used to characterize F-SWNTs gold-marked SWNTs, and organic functionalized SWNTs. Distribution of functional groups can be inferred from STM images since the location of a substituent alters the localized electronic structure of the tube. STM images the position/location of chemical changes to the SWNT structure. The band-like structure of F-SWNTs was first disclosed by STM.
STM has the same problem that is inherent with AFM and TEM, that when using small sample size, the result may not be statistically relevant. Also, chemical identity of the features on SWNTs cannot be determined by STM; rather, they have to be identified by spectroscopic methods such as IR or NMR. A difficulty with STM imaging is that the sample has to be conductive, thus deposition of the SWNT onto a gold (or similar) surface is necessary.


18.13: Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of the Noble Gases
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Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the properties, preparation, and uses of the noble gases
The elements in group 18 are the noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon). They earned the name “noble” because they were assumed to be nonreactive since they have filled valence shells. In 1962, Dr. Neil Bartlett at the University of British Columbia proved this assumption to be false.
These elements are present in the atmosphere in small amounts. Some natural gas contains 1–2% helium by mass. Helium is isolated from natural gas by liquefying the condensable components, leaving only helium as a gas. The United States possesses most of the world’s commercial supply of this element in its helium-bearing gas fields. Argon, neon, krypton, and xenon come from the fractional distillation of liquid air. Radon comes from other radioactive elements. More recently, it was observed that this radioactive gas is present in very small amounts in soils and minerals. Its accumulation in well-insulated, tightly sealed buildings, however, constitutes a health hazard, primarily lung cancer.
The boiling points and melting points of the noble gases are extremely low relative to those of other substances of comparable atomic or molecular masses. This is because only weak London dispersion forces are present, and these forces can hold the atoms together only when molecular motion is very slight, as it is at very low temperatures. Helium is the only substance known that does not solidify on cooling at normal pressure. It remains liquid close to absolute zero (0.001 K) at ordinary pressures, but it solidifies under elevated pressure.
Helium is used for filling balloons and lighter-than-air craft because it does not burn, making it safer to use than hydrogen. Helium at high pressures is not a narcotic like nitrogen. Thus, mixtures of oxygen and helium are important for divers working under high pressures. Using a helium-oxygen mixture avoids the disoriented mental state known as nitrogen narcosis, the so-called rapture of the deep. Helium is important as an inert atmosphere for the melting and welding of easily oxidizable metals and for many chemical processes that are sensitive to air.
Liquid helium (boiling point, 4.2 K) is an important coolant to reach the low temperatures necessary for cryogenic research, and it is essential for achieving the low temperatures necessary to produce superconduction in traditional superconducting materials used in powerful magnets and other devices. This cooling ability is necessary for the magnets used for magnetic resonance imaging, a common medical diagnostic procedure. The other common coolant is liquid nitrogen (boiling point, 77 K), which is significantly cheaper.
Neon is a component of neon lamps and signs. Passing an electric spark through a tube containing neon at low pressure generates the familiar red glow of neon. It is possible to change the color of the light by mixing argon or mercury vapor with the neon or by utilizing glass tubes of a special color.
Argon was useful in the manufacture of gas-filled electric light bulbs, where its lower heat conductivity and chemical inertness made it preferable to nitrogen for inhibiting the vaporization of the tungsten filament and prolonging the life of the bulb. Fluorescent tubes commonly contain a mixture of argon and mercury vapor. Argon is the third most abundant gas in dry air.
Krypton-xenon flash tubes are used to take high-speed photographs. An electric discharge through such a tube gives a very intense light that lasts only of a second. Krypton forms a difluoride, KrF 2 , which is thermally unstable at room temperature.
Stable compounds of xenon form when xenon reacts with fluorine. Xenon difluoride, XeF 2 , forms after heating an excess of xenon gas with fluorine gas and then cooling. The material forms colorless crystals, which are stable at room temperature in a dry atmosphere. Xenon tetrafluoride, XeF 4 , and xenon hexafluoride, XeF 6 , are prepared in an analogous manner, with a stoichiometric amount of fluorine and an excess of fluorine, respectively. Compounds with oxygen are prepared by replacing fluorine atoms in the xenon fluorides with oxygen.
When XeF 6 reacts with water, a solution of XeO 3 results and the xenon remains in the 6+-oxidation state:
\[\ce{XeF6(s) + 3 H2O(l) \longrightarrow XeO3(aq) + 6 HF(aq)} \nonumber \]
Dry, solid xenon trioxide, XeO 3 , is extremely explosive—it will spontaneously detonate. Both XeF 6 and XeO 3 disproportionate in basic solution, producing xenon, oxygen, and salts of the perxenate ion, in which xenon reaches its maximum oxidation sate of 8+.
Radon apparently forms RnF 2 —evidence of this compound comes from radiochemical tracer techniques.
Unstable compounds of argon form at low temperatures, but stable compounds of helium and neon are not known.


12.8.1: Procedure- Proper Body Mechanics
Proper body mechanics means using your body in an efficient and safe way. Using proper body mechanics prevents Home Health Aides/Personal Care Aides from injuring themselves or their patient. Proper body mechanics involves always using good posture, keeping your back and trunk straight and aligned with your hips, and keeping your head facing forward toward the direction you are working. This prevents twisting, which increases your risk of injury. Turn your entire body, including your legs in the direction you move. Never twist the trunk or waist.
Bend your legs and not your back while working. Your feet should be about 12 inches apart to provide a strong base of support and balance for you to work. Use the larger and stronger muscles of your thighs, hips, shoulders, and upper arms while bending or lifting objects. This protects your back and smaller muscles from injury.
Keep objects close to your body when lifting or carrying them. Home Health Aides/Personal Care Aides should always raise the bed to waist height when working with a patient who is in bed or making a bed. This prevents unnecessary bending of the back. When pushing, place one leg forward. When pulling, move one leg back. This provides you with a stronger and more stable base of support. Keep in mind when moving a patient that your path, or direction in which you are moving should be clear of objects that could get in the way and cause potential injury. Home Health Aides/Personal Care Aides should always lock the brakes on the bed and wheelchair before transferring a patient. This prevents the bed or wheelchair from moving and causing potential injury to them or the patient.


32.8: It’s Always Sunny in America!
In the past fifty years, film has easily become one of the most prominent forms–if not the most prominent form–of literature. A quick internet search will easily reveal that. This year , over 4-million copies of Delia Owens Where The Crawdads Sing were sold, a book that New York Times rated 2019’s best seller. On the other hand, on the opening weekend of Marvel Superheroes Avengers: Endgame , the highest grossing film of 2019, over 100-million people came to see the film. That’s a 96-million person difference.
With film being so popular, we have gathered many representations of contemporary American Literature using the medium. I’d like to focus on the popular American sitcom It’s Always Sunny in Philadelphia.
The show is set in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and centered around a cast of long-time relatives and friends: Dee, Charlie, Mac, Dennis, and Frank. Together, the five own a rundown bar named Paddy’s Pub. Here they spend literally everyday drinking, often contriving ways to entertain themselves or make money, and when not doing that, they always find themselves in the most bizarre situations. The group is extraordinary to say the least. Just as in the next clip where we find a few of our group members attempting to impress a corporation so that they may fund there dilapidated bar.
It has probably immediately came to your mind, “how is It’s Always Sunny in Philadelphia considered American Literature?” Looking at how hotly-debated the genre of American Literature is, it could be argued that it is not. Although from my own perspective, it surely is. The first of those reasons is that it was made in the United States by U.S. citizens.
Looking back to many of the previous texts, we can consider the sitcom to be American Literature from the variety of themes and topics it often addresses. Themes that we see often (taken directly from one of the last worksheets used in class) are “notions of gender, race, the human/nonhuman divide, sexual threat, violence, citizenship, [and] nationhood…” And, considering the listed themes, we can already see their presence in this two-minute scene.
“Actually Dee, you won’t be zinging anything around, because men are intimidated by funny women, okay? So what we need you to be is just pretty and benign.”
When Dennis says to Dee “…men are intimidated by funny women…” he doesn’t actually mean it in that he believes they are truly funny. The way he says it (and portrayed by Dennis overall morals throughout the show) shows that this gives the women power and control of themselves and situations. They are touching on a topic that has been in American Literature for many years. American Society has proven again and again that when women gain power, weak men become intimidated. They don’t want to lose the patriarchy.
I’m currently brought to think of the Grandmother from Harriet Jacobs Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl. The Grandmother is of course a slave, owned by the rich, white patriarchy of the nineteenth century. Yet whenever we see the Grandmother confronted by men of this type, she never lets them have the upper hand. The white men who literally own her are actually intimidated by her. The following passage shows how steadfast she is against white men who constantly threatened her life:
“Where’d the damned n**gers git all dis sheet an’ table clarf?” My grandmother, emboldened by the presence of our white protector, said, “You may be sure we didn’t pilfer ’em from your houses” (Jacobs 100).
To conclude, the TV show highlights touchy and unspoken subjects that are prevalent in American society without ever directly saying that it is what they are doing. That is why it’s a sitcom. The subjects they touch upon are endless, though they often come up in quick, second-long segments scattered throughout the series, just as within the first clip. And it is American Literature because it is written about the lives of people who live and deal with, or have dealt with, the problems of an American society. Similarly, Benito Cereno highlights the troubles of foreign slavers being saved by an American group, Self-Reliance is a text which contradictingly attempts conform Americans to a different style of life, and Song of Myself i s an ode to the beauty in the U.S. that, all the while, described many of its not-so-beautiful issues.
It’s Always Sunny even often blatantly just uses various members of our society in extremely humorous ways. I think we all know the person this clip talks about: big truck, Don’t Tread On Me sticker, uses the founding fathers as the basis for most arguments, has a collection of American Flags. Well, Charlie was that person for an episode, and yes, it was meant to be entirely ironic. They just are utilizing people we know and live near.
 That, I believe, has to do with the interpretations that can be made of the film. When we watch each mannerism and here every inflection being acted by the characters themselves, we gain an actual understanding of what is being conveyed or portrayed. We can here by how when Dennis tells Dee what men are intimidated of, he is being serious, but from the show’s genre as a black-comedy sitcom, we understand that he is making fun of those men; he is not actually trying to state a fact.
Looking at the excerpt I took from Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, it is much harder to understand that when the Lisa writes “emboldened by the presence of our white protector” she means not that the grandmother feels more confident in his protecting her; rather that she feels more confident in herself to rebuke to this white man. The only reason we are to know that is from how the grandmother is portrayed throughout the text.
Furthermore, with living in the twenty-first century, we are in the presence of a massive hive-mind that is called the internet where we are now able to disseminate texts and films completely at will. Here we gain with the film or text an assortment of readings and perspectives that we would not have been able to have all those years ago. If I google an analysis of It’s Always Sunny in Philadelphia through an American Literature lens, I am sure I would find hundreds of pieces on it. The same goes for whatever I would need to search for a written text. There are thousands of works being analyzed by millions of people all the time and they are entirely available on the internet. Our Open Anthology of American Literature is the greatest representation of that. Not only does it give us access to a variety of texts, it also gives us access to essays of other students on the texts.
Technology has provided us with the means to gain access to whatever we want whenever we want, more or less. If this were the nineteenth century, I could not just look at a piece of paper and say “I want that book” and expect it in the mail within a few days. Nor could I even watch a film. With all these things, we have gained instant access and a multitudes of analysis. We, whenever we are so interested, are able to deep dive into whatever we want, whenever we want. The world is–for better or worse–at our disposal.
Jacobs, Harriet. Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl. Oxford University Press, 1988.
FX Productions. It’s Always Sunny in Philadelphia . [United States]: 20th Century Fox, 2019.


10: The Baroque Period in Northern Europe
Introduction
Caravaggio’s paintings demonstrating theatricality, dramatic lighting, and a sense of realism in secular and religious paintings is a major influence on painters across western Europe. Renaissance artists such as Michelangelo, Raphael, and Leonardo de Vinci continue to inspire and contribute to the evolution of European painting. We see this in the works of the great northern painter Peter Paul Rubens. Rubens, much like Raphael and da Vinci has success both in art and politics. He attains wealth, prosperity, and a comfortable living through his social status and talents. He travels to Rome and studies the paintings on the walls and ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. His drawings from this time are still preserved and remind us of the rigorous academic studies coming into the art schools at this time.
The Raising of the Cross closely resembles the style and rigorous movement Michelangelo creates in the Sistine Chapel. The figures in Ruben’s painting are muscular and rugged. The action is dramatic, and the composition is theatrical, very much in line with the Baroque art movement. An earlier sketch helps to show the evolution of this visual concept from a more sprawling landscape to a more focused and tighter composition. The color palette is rich and vibrant with elements that resemble the works of high Renaissance painters. The action and power of the imagery is what is new and unique to the Baroque. This moment in time is captured in a Counter Reformation painting that draws us into the scene through the angle of Christ on the cross. We, the viewers, are placed right at the bottom of the cross and become part of the painting. The visual space is both in diagonal recession, creating a dynamic composition, as well as space coming out towards us with the figure to the lower right. This is a modified version of Caravaggio’s tenebristic paintings since the palette is brighter and the space deeper.
https://www.nga.gov/collection/art-object-page.46159.html
The Raising of the Cross , Peter Paul Rubens 1610-1611
Sketch for The Raising of the Cross Rubens 1609
Drawing after Michelangelo’s Ignudi from the Sistine Chapel Rubens 1601-1602
Portrait of Marchesa Spinola Doria , Rubens 1606 Marie de ‘Medici, Queen of France, Landing in Marseilles Rubens 1622-1625
Rubens excels at painting textures and fabrics as well as images of architecture. His visual storytelling is striking and effective. Merging mythological imagery with a painting of pure propaganda, Marie de ‘Medici, Queen of France, Landing in Marseilles places us, the viewer at ocean level looking up at the new queen as she ceremoniously arrives at Marseilles. An ocean voyage at that time was an arduous and long adventure with few conveniences. The political turmoil that will follow Marie de ‘Medici are also factors not present in this elaborate and luxuriously optimistic painting.
Garden of Love , Rubens 1638
The Garden of Love presents a secular image of the fine life of aristocrats living in Holland at this time. The women are dressed in the finest garments and are, as many of Rubens’ women, full-bodied. The term Rubenesque refers to women who are well endowed and quite fleshy. The painting is a celebration of love and romance, sentimental and humorous. The setting has references to the classical past with a fountain circulating water from a porpoise’s mouth and the breast of a nude female. Cupids encourage romance by pushing one female dancer towards her male partner and shooting love arrows into the group. They actively engage in the folly by flying around in twisted and contorted arial displays. The cupids frame the painting in the upper left and right and direct our eyes to the lower center where the group has gathered.
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/334653
Portrait of Charles I Hunting , Anthony van Dyck 1635
Charles I is painted as the confident and powerful ruler of the lands upon which he stands. Even the horse bows down to this king. The stance will be repeated by Louis XIV, the Sun King, in his royal portrait as these two rival nations vie for world supremacy. Unfortunately, Charles I will be accused of treason and beheaded leading to an unstable period for England.
https://www.nationaltrustcollections.org.uk/object/593112
https://artuk.org/discover/artworks/charles-i-16001649-in-the-hunting-field-100958
Market Stall , Frans Snyders 1614
Frans Snyders paints a delightful and humorous work during a time when merchants were allowed to set up stalls in their local towns for selling their crops and other products. This overblown still-life is an overwhelming collection of slaughtered animals from the countryside presented in a haphazard display. Greeting the potential buyer, the seller raises his hat and is proud to show off his items. However, behind the bravado is more sinister elements coming into play. The black cat eyes the fighting cocks, the birds attempt to fly away, and the boy is pick-pocketing the money from the man’s trousers. Brilliantly painted in realistic detail, the painting is a reminder of both the sin of gluttony and excess, and also of restraint and responsibility to self and community.
https://www.artic.edu/artworks/62042/still-life-with-dead-game-fruits-and-vegetables-in-a-market
Still Life with Parrots , Jan de Heem 1640s
The Vikings ruled the seas in the Medieval Period and the Dutch continue the seafaring ways by becoming major importers of exotic goods from around the globe. Monies poor into the Netherlands and this, combined with a pragmatic sensibility, leads to the development of painting genre reflective of both. Still-lifes, genre paintings, and market scenes begin to be more common and also affordable to the wealthier middle class art buyers. The still-lifes often include a narrative built around both prosperity and biblical or general life lessons. It is an interesting juxtaposition of these two themes that repeats in the paintings. Many paintings will include themes around the transient nature of life. These paintings are referred to as vanitas art and become popular in Holland at this time. Still Life with Parrots , by Jan de Heem, is a good example of the luxuries and exotic goods now appearing in Holland. Paintings like these are more affordable and smaller in scale than the larger commissioned paintings such as group paintings of civic guards. A new market for smaller, affordable paintings grows in the Netherlands and painters are able to sell openly to the emerging middle class. This was not the case in Renaissance Italy where an artist needed to be aligned with a patron.
Banquet of the Officers of the St. George Civic Guard , Frans Hals 1616
Married Couple in a Garden , Frans Hals 1622
The Jolly Toper , Frans Hals 1628-1630
Frans Hals is considered a painter’s painter since his fresh and loose brushstrokes are often visible in his paintings. He has much success capturing the essence of the sitter’s expression or the gesture and movement of the individual. Painting large commissions such as the Banquet of the Officers of the St. George Civic Guard. His painting, Married Couple in a Garden, breaks with the formal paintings emphasizing wealth and power, and instead presents a painting that emphasizes happiness, heartfelt love, and a marriage of equality. The husband places his hand over his heart representing the love he feels for his wife, while his wife casually leans on her husband with a little playful smirk. It is a refreshing painting that balances wealth and happiness. The pair leans up against a tree connecting them with the land they own and making the painting feel even more natural. The Jolly Toper also shows a moment in time where Hals captures the feeling, expression, and happy mood of the individual.
Self-Portrait , Judith Leyster 1630
Young Flute Player , Judith Leyster 1630-1635
Judith Leyster had to create a painting to submit to the Guild of Saint Luke to teach professionally and to make a living. Her Self Portrait is believed to be the art she submitted to the jury. If so, it completes three tasks. One, it was successful in granting her the right and privilege to pursue art as a profession and to help support her family financially. Second, it demonstrated she can paint portraiture. Third, it shows and advertises, that she can paint genre paintings. It was a very clever way to gain notoriety by presenting herself this way. Young Flute Player is a great example of her genre painting style.
https://www.nga.gov/collection/artist-info.1485.html
https://nmwa.org/art/artists/judith-leyster/
https://www.nga.gov/features/slideshows/judith-leyster.html
https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/baroque-art1/holland/v/leyster-self
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6O52DIb2R30
The Night Watch (Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq) Rembrandt van Rijn 1642
It is believed that more is written about Rembrandt than any other painter. Rembrandt paints in a combination of traditional Northern techniques infused with the innovations of Caravaggio. We see in his work The Night Watch a unique presentation of the tradition civic guard paintings. Here, Rembrandt places the soldiers in a composition highlighting the hierarchy of the company. The captain is placed at the center, leading the group with his left arm reaching out towards us, the viewer. He is flanked by his next in command whose spear projects out toward us. This space moving out of the picture plane engages us, much as in the paintings by Caravaggio. The setting is very theatrical as is the lighting. A spotlight falls upon the two main leaders as they stride forward. The stage is darkened around them and multilevel creating a three-dimensional setting allowing Rembrandt to paint in each individual member of the company.
https://smarthistory.org/rembrandt-the-night-watch/
https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/SK-C-5
https://www.cnn.com/2023/12/19/style/x-rays-lead-rembrandt-the-night-watch-scn/index.html
Self-Portrait , Rembrandt 1658
Rembrandt’s self-portraits are unique amongst artists up to this time in Western art. They give us a glimpse into the painter and his psyche. There are over 80 self-portraits discovered over the years attributed to Rembrandt.  They do show us how he aged over time, and also demonstrated many of his studio props used for his history and portrait paintings.
https://www.nga.gov/collection/highlights/rembrandt-self-portrait.html
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/437397
Woman Holding a Balance, Jan Vermeer 1664
The Love Letter , Jan Vermeer 1665-1668
Vermeer paints softly lighted interior scenes of women at specific moments. Woman Holding a Balance shows a young pregnant woman holding a balance. Her jewelry is out of the box and placed on the table and she gazes down in quiet contemplation. Is she thinking about her past, present or future? Is she concerned about her upcoming delivery? Is she wondering if the scales (judgement) will favor her. The Last Judgement is a painting hanging on the wall next to her, so the household considers the concerns of Christianity and is likely religious. It is an intimate portrait, quiet, and full of mystery.
https://www.nga.gov/collection/art-object-page.1236.html
https://www.nga.gov/collection/highlights/vermeer-woman-holding-a-balance.html
https://smarthistory.org/johannes-vermeer-woman-holding-a-balance/
Vermeer is the subject of a feature film. This is the link to the trailer:


1.2: Calafia and the First People to See Her
The fabled "Isle of California" was first described in the 16 th century Spanish romance novel, Las Sergas de Esplandián. This mystical island was to be found in the South Seas, placed next to the Terrestrial Paradise, or the Garden of Eden. Calafia was the Queen of the Island, the ruler of many beautiful Amazonian women with griffins, and countless treasures. Calafia and her people may be a narrative legend; however, the idea of her island is probably the mistake of early explorers mis-identified the Baja California Peninsula as a massive island, these are the stories in which legends are made.
For more than two hundred years, there was a difference of opinion as to whether this land which we now know as Lower California was an island or a part of the mainland. In a book published in London in 1725 entitled, Map of The World , California is described and mapped as a large island extending north to the Straits of Anián, today known as Puget Sound in Washington state.
In that book, all that is known of California is given in one paragraph, a part of which reads as follows:
"This island was formerly esteemed a peninsula, but now found to be entirely surrounded with water. Its north part was discovered by Sir Francis Drake, Anno 1577, and by him called New Albion, where, erecting a pillar, he fastened thereto the arms of England. The inland parts were afterward searched into and are found to be only a dry, barren, cold country. Europeans were discouraged from sending colonies to the same so that it still remains in the hands of the natives."
After the establishment, of the first of the missions, in 1769, within the boundaries of the present State, the northern portion of that indefinite area to which the name California had been given came to be known as New, or Upper California, while the older known peninsula was called Old, or Lower California.
It was not until after the war with Mexican-America War of 1846-1848, that the boundaries of Upper California became clearly defined, although on the north the forty-second parallel had been previously recognized by the Adams-Onís Treaty with Spain in 1818, as separating it from the Oregon territory.
As one result of the Mexican War, California came into possession of Lower as well as Upper California, but a treaty of peace finally established the southern boundary of the present State near the thirty-second parallel, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. The original draft of the treaty included the mouth of the Colorado River in the United States and should have been ratified as it was, for it would have avoided disputes as to the use of the river and saved an arbitrary boundary line across its great and fertile delta. The land that the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo brought into the United States became all or part of nine states: California (1850), Nevada (1864), Utah (1896), and Arizona (1912), as well as, depending upon interpretation, the entire state of Texas (1845), which then included part of Kansas (1861); Colorado (1876); Wyoming (1890); Oklahoma (1907); and New Mexico (1912).
The eastern boundary of California, during Mexican rule, was quite indefinite. It was held, on the one hand, that the summit of the Sierra Nevada or Snowy Mountains was the eastern limit, while on the other, the country as far east as Colorado was included in the territory. The line as finally established, however, followed a middle course, including a strip of the desert country east of the Sierra which geographically belongs to Nevada.
The only natural features, then, which sharply separated California from the adjacent regions are the Pacific Ocean upon the west, and the Colorado river upon the southeast. The coastal region and the Great, or Central Valley with its tributary slopes are so isolated by mountains and deserts that with the primitive means of travel in the early days they were extremely difficult to reach.
The influence of the waterways upon the discovery and settlement of California was much less than is usually the case with new countries. The Colorado River was practically useless because of the great canyon in which it is buried throughout most of its course. In addition, its lower portion is shallow and its mouth is in such a remote and inaccessible region that it was almost unused in the early days. No other streams were available for those attempting to cross the continent. Although, for some years before Fremont's explorations, it was erroneously supposed, and this error crept into the maps of that time, that a great river known as the Buenaventura rose in a lake in the Rocky Mountains and flowed westerly into San Francisco Bay. Fremont attempted to find this supposed river when caught in the deserts of northern Nevada with winter coming on, and nearly perished in the snows of the Sierra Nevada range which was found to lie directly across the path of the imaginary stream.
With California hemmed in by mountains and deserts upon the land side, it would surely seem that in the Pacific Ocean, which borders it for such a long distance, we would find an easy way of approach the coast. However, the records of the various exploring expeditions which visited the Pacific coast of North America show that they were repeatedly driven southward by the northwesterly winds and storms. Time and again the expeditions sent north from Mexico were beaten back and disabled. Parties traveling by land made better time and encountered fewer difficulties than those upon the ocean. The difficulty of exploring the coast by sea caused both Drake and Visciano to sail past the entrance to San Francisco Bay without seeing it, due to the thick fog, and led to its interesting discovery by a land expedition under Portola.


13.2: Putting It Together- Employee Termination
Let’s take a look back at XYZ Automotive. In 2012, they learned the hard way that short-term cost cutting can lead to long-term effects on a company’s reputation and profitability. After learning from their downsizing shortcomings in 2012, XYZ Automotive was better equipped to handle future restructuring situations. In 2018, when faced with the need to layoff employees to reduce costs, XYZ Automotive decided to take a different approach than they took in 2012. This time, they decided to clearly explain their reasonings behind the layoffs. In 2012, profits were up, which made it all the more confusing when the layoffs began. If XYZ Automotive had clearly explained the reasonings behind the layoffs (increased plant costs and lowered sales prices to stay competitive), they may have been met with less outrage. In addition, instead of completely eliminating an entire plant, in 2018, XYZ Automotive decided to spread out the layoffs over their entire company.
While there is never an easy way to downsize, there are ways organizations can provide better understanding and compensation to help lessen the blow. It is most important to consider long-term strategic decisions instead of focusing on short-term solutions. If rash decisions are made during the downsizing process, potential consequences are more likely to be overlooked and can cost the company a lot more money in the long run.
Contributors and Attributions
- Putting It Together: Employee Termination. Authored by : Freedom Learning Group. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Row of Cars. Authored by : EveryCarListed P. Provided by : Flickr. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/127619525@N05/15261010832 . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


6.4: Some Neurobiological Facts about Memory
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In this section, we will first consider how information is stored in synapses and then talk about two regions of the brain that are mainly involved in forming new memories, namely the amygdala and the hippocampus . To show what effects memory diseases can have and how they are classified, we will discuss a case study of amnesia and two other common examples for amnesic diseases: Karsakoff’s amnesia and Alzheimer’s disease .
Information storage
The idea that physiological changes at synapses happen during learning and memory was first introduced by Donald Hebb . [18] It was in fact shown that activity at a synapse leads to structural changes at the synapse and to enhanced firing in the postsynaptic neuron. Since this process of enhanced firing lasts for several days or weeks, we talk about Long Term Potentiation (LTP). During this process, existing synaptic proteins are altered and new proteins are synthesized at the modified synapse. What does all this have to do with memory? It has been discovered that LTP is most easily generated in regions of the brain which are involved in learning and memory - especially the hippocampus, about which we will talk in more detail later. Donald Hebb found out that not only a synapse of two neurons is involved in LTP but that a particular group of neurons is more likely to fire together. According to this, an experience is represented by the firing of this group of neurons. So it works according to the principle: “what wires together fires together” .
Amygdala
The amygdala is involved in the modulation of memory consolidation .
Following any learning event, the Long Term Memory for the event is not instantaneously formed. Rather, information regarding the event is slowly assimilated into long term storage over time, a process referred to as memory consolidation , until it reaches a relatively permanent state. During the consolidation period, memory can be modulated. In particular, it appears that emotional arousal following a learning event influences the strength of the subsequent memory for that event. Greater emotional arousal following a learning event enhances a person's retention of that event. Experiments have shown that administration of stress hormones to individuals, immediately after they learn something, enhances their retention when they are tested two weeks later. The amygdala, especially the basolateral nuclei, is involved in mediating the effects of emotional arousal on the strength of the memory for the event. There were experiments conducted by James McGaugh on animals in special laboratories. These laboratories have trained animals on a variety of learning tasks and found that drugs injected into the amygdala after training affect the animal’s subsequent retention of the task. These tasks include basic Pavlovian Tasks such as Inhibitory Avoidance , where a rat learns to associate a mild footshock with a particular compartment of an apparatus, and more complex tasks such as spatial or cued water maze, where a rat learns to swim to a platform to escape the water. If a drug that activates the amygdala is injected into the amygdala, the animals had better memory for the training in the task. When a drug that inactivated the amygdala was injected, the animals had impaired memory for the task. Despite the importance of the amygdala in modulating memory consolidation, however, learning can occur without it, although such learning appears to be impaired, as in fear conditioning impairments following amygdala damage. Evidence from work with humans indicates a similar role of the amygdala in humans. Amygdala activity at the time of encoding information correlates with retention for that information. However, this correlation depends on the relative "emotionality" of the information. More emotionally-arousing information increases amygdalar activity, and that activity correlates with retention.
Hippocampus
Psychologists and neuroscientists dispute over the precise role of the hippocampus , but, generally, agree that it plays an essential role in the formation of new memories about experienced events (Episodic or Autobiographical Memory).
Some researchers prefer to consider the hippocampus as part of a larger medial temporal lobe memory system responsible for general declarative memory (memories that can be explicitly verbalized — these would include, for example, memory for facts in addition to episodic memory). Some evidence supports the idea that, although these forms of memory often last a lifetime, the hippocampus ceases to play a crucial role in the retention of the memory after a period of consolidation. Damage to the hippocampus usually results in profound difficulties in forming new memories (anterograde amnesia), and normally also affects access to memories prior to the damage (retrograde amnesia). Although the retrograde effect normally extends some years prior to the brain damage, in some cases older memories remain intact - this sparing of older memories leads to the idea that consolidation over time involves the transfer of memories out of the hippocampus to other parts of the brain. However, researchers have difficulties in testing the sparing of older memories and, in some cases of retrograde amnesia, the sparing appears to affect memories formed decades before the damage to the hippocampus occurred, so its role in maintaining these older memories remains controversial.
Amnesia
As already mentioned in the preceding section about the hippocampus, there are two types of amnesia - retrograde and antrograde amnesia .
Different types of Amnesia
Amnesia can occur when there is damage to a number of regions in the medial temporal lobe and their surrounding structures. The patient H.M. is probably one of the best known patients who suffered from amnesia. Removing his medial temporal lobes, including the hippocampus, seemed to be a good way to treat the epilepsy. What could be observed after this surgery was that H.M. was no longer able to remember things which happened after his 16th birthday, which was 11 years before the surgery. So given the definitions above one can say that he suffered retrograde amnesia. Unfortunately, he was not able to learn new information due to the fact that his hippocampus was also removed. H.M. therefore suffered not only from retrograde amnesia, but also from anterograde amnesia. His Implicit Memory, however, was still working. In procedural memory tests, for example, he still performed well.  But after some weeks his performance improved even though he could not remember having done the task many times before. Thus, H.M.’s Declarative Memory showed severe deficits but his Implicit Memory was still fine. Another quite common cause of amnesia is the Korsakoff’s syndrome or also called Korsakoff’s amnesia. Long term alcoholism usually elicits this Korsakoff’s amnesia due to a prolonged deficiency of vitamin B1. This syndrome is associated with the pathology of the midline diencephalon including the dorsomedial thalamus. Alzheimer’s disease is probably the best known type of amnesia because it is the most common type in our society. Over 40 percent of the people who are older than 80 are affected by Alzheimer’s disease. It is a neurodegenerative disease and the region in the brain which is most affected is the entorhinal cortex. This cortex forms the main input and output of the hippocampus and so damages here are mostly severe. Knowing that the hippocampus is especially involved in forming new memories one can already guess the patients have difficulties in learning new information. But in late stages of Alzheimer’s disease also retrograde amnesia and even other cognitive abilities, which we are not going to discuss here, might occur.
This figure shows the brain structures which are involved in forming new memories
- Final checklist of what you should keep in mind
- Why does memory exist?
- What is sensory memory?
- What is the distinction between Short Term memory and Working Memory?
- What is Long Term Memory and which brain area(s) are involved in forming new memories?
- Remember the main results of the theory (For example: What does the Filter Theory show?)
- Don’t forget why we forget!


23.5: Checklist for Primary IV Solution Administration
Use the checklist below to review the steps for completion of “Primary IV Solution Administration.” Review the steps to safely administer all types of medication in the “ Checklist for Oral Medication Administration ” in the “Administration of Enteral Medications” chapter.
Steps
Disclaimer: Always review and follow agency policy regarding this specific skill.
- Gather supplies: IV fluid, primary tubing, tubing change label, and alcohol pads/scrub hubs.
- Verify the provider order with the medication administration record (eMAR/MAR).
- Perform the first check of the six rights of medication administration while withdrawing the IV fluids from the medication dispensing unit. Check expiration date and verify patient allergies.
- Remove the IV solution from the packaging and gently apply pressure to the bag while inspecting for tears or leaks.
- Check the color and clarity of the solution.
- Perform the second check of the six rights of medication administration.
- Enter the patient room and greet the patient.
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Perform safety steps:
- Perform hand hygiene.
- Check the room for transmission-based precautions.
- Introduce yourself, your role, the purpose of your visit, and an estimate of the time it will take.
- Confirm patient ID using two patient identifiers (e.g., name and date of birth).
- Explain the process to the patient and ask if they have any questions.
- Be organized and systematic.
- Use appropriate listening and questioning skills.
- Listen and attend to patient cues.
- Ensure the patient’s privacy and dignity.
- Assess ABCs.
- Perform the third medication check of the six rights of medication administration at the patient’s bedside.
- Remove the primary IV tubing from the packaging. If administering IV fluid by gravity, note the drip factor on the package and calculate drops/min. Perform the necessary calculations for the infusion rate.
- Move the roller clamp so that it is halfway up the tubing and clamp it.
- Remove the cover from the tubing port on the bag of IV fluid.
- Remove the cap from the insertion spike on the tubing. While maintaining sterility, insert the spike into the tubing port of the bag of IV fluid.
- Squeeze the drip chamber two or three times to fill the chamber halfway.
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Loosen the cap from the end of the IV tubing and open the clamp to prime the tubing over the sink:
- If using multiple port tubing, invert the ports to prime them and to prevent air accumulation in line.
- If the solution is an antibiotic, take care to not waste solution while priming the tubing to ensure the patient receives the correct dosage.
- Once primed, clamp the IV tubing and check the entire length of the tubing for air bubbles. Tap the tubing gently to remove any air.
- Replace or tighten the cap on the end of the tubing.
- Label the primary IV fluid bag with the date and time. Place the tubing label on the tubing near the drip chamber.
- Assess the patient’s venipuncture site for signs and symptoms of vein irritation or infiltration. Do not proceed with administering fluids at this site if there are any concerns.
- Vigorously cleanse the catheter cap on the patient’s IV port with an alcohol pad/scrub hub (or the agency required cleansing agent) for at least five seconds and allow it to dry.
- Assess IV site patency according to agency policy. Purge a prefilled normal saline syringe of air. Attach the syringe onto the the saline lock cap. Undo the clamp on the extension tubing. Inject 3 to 5 mL of normal saline using a turbulent stop-start technique. If resistance is felt, do not force the flush and do not proceed with IV solution administration; follow up according to agency policy.
- Remove the syringe from the IV cap and then clamp the extension tubing.
- Vigorously cleanse the catheter cap on the patient’s IV port with an alcohol pad/scrub hub (or the agency required cleansing agent) for at least five seconds and allow it to dry.
- Remove the protective cap from the end of the primary tubing and attach it to the IV port while maintaining sterility.
- Move the slide clamp on the saline lock to open the tubing.
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Set the infusion rate based on the provider order:
- For infusion pump: Set volume to be infused and rate (mL/hr) to be administered.
- For gravity: Calculate drop per minute.
- Assess the patient’s IV site for signs and symptoms of vein irritation or infiltration after infusion begins.
- Secure the tubing to the patient’s arm.
- Assist the patient to a comfortable position, ask if they have any questions, and thank them for their time.
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Ensure safety measures when leaving the room:
- CALL LIGHT: Within reach
- BED: Low and locked (in lowest position and brakes on)
- SIDE RAILS: Secured
- TABLE: Within reach
- ROOM: Risk-free for falls (scan room and clear any obstacles)
- Perform hand hygiene.
- Document the procedure and related assessment findings. Report any concerns according to agency policy. Include IV fluids on patient’s input/output documentation.


2.6: Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis
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- Jennifer Hasty, David G. Lewis, & Marjorie M. Snipes
- OpenStax
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Identify differences between quantitative and qualitative information.
- Provide an example of how an anthropologist might model research findings.
- Describe the steps of the scientific method.
Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Information
Quantitative information is measurable or countable data that can provide insight into research questions. Quantitative information is one of the most direct ways to understand limited, specific questions, such as how often people in a culture perform a certain action or how many times an art form or motif appears in a cultural artifact. Statistics created from quantitative data help researchers understand trends and changes over time. Counts of cultural remains, such as the number and distribution of animal remains found at a campsite, can show how much the campsite was used and what type of animal was being hunted. Statistical comparisons may be made of several different sites that Indigenous peoples used to process food in order to determine the primary purpose of each site.
In cultural research, qualitative data allows anthropologists to understand culture based on more subjective analyses of language, behavior, ritual, symbolism, and interrelationships of people. Qualitative data has the potential for more in-depth responses via open-ended questions, which can be coded and categorized in order to better identify common themes. Qualitative analysis is less about frequency and the number of things and more about a researcher’s subjective insights and understandings. Anthropology and other fields in the social sciences frequently integrate both types of data by using mixed methods. Through the triangulation of data, anthropologists can use both objective and frequency data (for example, survey results) and subjective data (such as observations) to provide a more holistic understanding.
Modeling
Many anthropologists create models to help others visualize and understand their research findings. Models help people understand the relationships between various points of data and can include qualitative elements as well. One very familiar model is a map. Maps are constructed from many thousands of data points projected onto a flat surface to help people understand distances and relationships. Maps are typically two-dimensional, but we are of course all familiar with the three-dimensional version of a world map known as a globe. Maps and globes are built on data points, but they also include qualitative information, such as the colors used to represent various features and the human-assigned names of various geographical features. Other familiar types of models include graphs, calendars, timelines, and charts. GPS is also a significant modeling tool today.
GPS, or the Global Position System, is increasingly used in archaeology. A model of a research site can be created using computer programs and a series of GPS coordinates. Any artifacts found or important features identified within the site can mapped to their exact locations within this model. This type of mapping is incredibly helpful if further work is warranted, making it possible for the researcher to return to the exact site where the original artifacts were found. These types of models also provide construction companies with an understanding of where the most sensitive cultural sites are located so that they may avoid destroying them. Government agencies and tribal governments are now constructing GPS maps of important cultural sites that include a variety of layers. Layering types of data within a landscape allows researchers to easily sort the available data and focus on what is most relevant to a particular question or task.
Wild food plants, water sources, roads and trails, and even individual trees can be documented and mapped with precision. Archaeologists can create complex layered maps of traditional Native landscapes, with original habitations, trails, and resource locations marked. GPS has significant applications in the re-creation of historic periods. By comparing the placements of buildings at various points in the past, GPS models can be created showing how neighborhoods or even whole cities have changed over time. In addition, layers can be created that contain cultural and historic information. These types of models are an important part of efforts to preserve remaining cultural and historic sites and features.
The Science of Anthropology
Anthropology is a science, and as such, anthropologists follow the scientific method . First, an anthropologist forms a research question based on some phenomenon they have encountered. They then construct a testable hypothesis based on their question. To test their hypothesis, they gather data and information. Information can come from one or many sources and can be either quantitative or qualitative in nature. Part of the evaluation might include statistical analyses of the data. The anthropologist then draws a conclusion. Conclusions are rarely 100 percent positive or 100 percent negative; generally, the results are somewhere on a continuum. Most conclusions to the positive will be stated as “likely” to be true. Scholars may also develop methods of testing and retesting their conclusions to make sure that what they think is true is proven true through various means. When a hypothesis is rigorously tested and the results conform with empirical observations of the world, then a theory is considered “likely to be accurate.” Hypotheses are always subject to being disproven or modified as more information is collected.


6.1: Introduction to Compare/Contrast Essay
Comparison in writing discusses elements that are similar, while contrast in writing discusses elements that are different.
The key to a good compare-and-contrast essay is to choose two or more subjects that connect in a meaningful way. The purpose of conducting the comparison or contrast is not simply to state the obvious but rather to illuminate subtle differences or unexpected similarities. Through this process, the essay reveals insights that are interesting to the reader.
In this module, you will develop your skills in compare and contrast writing.
Module Outcomes
After successfully completing this module, you should be able to:
- Determine the purpose and structure of the compare and contrast essay.
- Understand how to write a compare and contrast essay.


22.1: Medical, First-aid, and Bloodborne Pathogens
A duty of care
Every workplace and therefore every employer must render first aid to an injured employee. Depending on the severity of the injury, i.e. if the employer's emergency plan is activated, then the duty of care is to get the employee to an emergency facility as soon as possible. When the workplace is a construction site or some distance away from an urgent care or hospital emergency room the employer must have the capacity to provide immediate first aid commensurate with the injury and then proceed if necessary to offsite care for medical treatment. The employer must ensure the availability of medical personnel for advice and consultation no matter the work location.
General
Prior to a project or construction start provisions shall be made as part of the emergency action plan to address serious injury occurring at the worksite. In the absence of an infirmary, clinic, hospital, or physician, that is reasonably accessible in terms of time and distance to the worksite, which is available for the treatment of injured employees, a person who has a valid certificate in first-aid training from the U.S. Bureau of Mines, the American Red Cross, or equivalent training that can be verified by documentary evidence, shall be available at the worksite to render first aid.
First-aid
First aid supplies are required to be easily accessible under paragraph Sec. 1926.50(d)(1). An example of the minimal contents of a generic first aid kit is described in American National Standard (ANSI) Z308.1-1978 "Minimum Requirements for Industrial Unit-Type First-aid Kits". The contents of the kit listed in the ANSI standard should be adequate for small work sites. When larger operations or multiple operations are being conducted at the same location, employers should determine the need for additional first aid kits at the worksite, additional types of first aid equipment and supplies and additional quantities and types of supplies and equipment in the first aid kits.
If it is reasonably anticipated employees will be exposed to blood or other potentially infectious materials (OPIM) while using first-aid supplies, employers shall provide personal protective equipment (PPE). Appropriate PPE includes gloves, gowns, face shields, masks and eye protection.
Rendering Aid
The employer or designee when rendering aid to an injured worker shall adhere to the following:
- First aid supplies shall be easily accessible when required.
- The contents of the first aid kit shall be placed in a weatherproof container with individual sealed packages for each type of item, and shall be checked by the employer before being sent out on each job and at least weekly on each job to ensure that the expended items are replaced.
- Proper equipment for prompt transportation of the injured person to a physician or hospital, or a communication system for contacting necessary ambulance service, shall be provided.
- In areas where 911 emergency dispatch services are not available, the telephone numbers of the physicians, hospitals, or ambulances shall be conspicuously posted.
- In areas where 911 emergency dispatch services are available and an employer uses a communication system for contacting necessary emergency-medical service, the employer must:
- Ensure that the communication system is effective in contacting the emergency-medical service; and
- When using a communication system in an area that does not automatically supply the caller's latitude and longitude information to the 911 emergency dispatcher, the employer must post in a conspicuous location at the worksite either:
- The latitude and longitude of the worksite; or
- Other location-identification information that communicates effectively to employees the location of the worksite.
- Where the eyes or body of any person may be exposed to injurious corrosive materials, suitable facilities for quick drenching or flushing of the eyes and body shall be provided within the work area for immediate emergency use.
First Aid vs 911
Part 1904 Recordkeeping distinguishes “first aid” from emergency or urgent care “medical treatment” by a medical professional for the purposes of recordkeeping and reporting requirements. Each employee is granted the right to have access to employer injury and illness records. Employers must keep records of employee injuries via OSHA 300 Log but not all injuries are reportable to OSHA. The following are defined as first aid injuries for the purposes of distinguishing OSHA 300A reporting requirements:
- Using a non-prescription medication at nonprescription strength (for medications available in both prescription and non-prescription form, a recommendation by a physician or other licensed health care professional to use a non-prescription medication at prescription strength is considered medical treatment for recordkeeping purposes);
- Administering tetanus immunizations (other immunizations, such as Hepatitis B vaccine or rabies vaccine, are considered medical treatment);
- Cleaning, flushing or soaking wounds on the surface of the skin;
- Using wound coverings such as bandages, Band-Aids™, gauze pads, etc.; or using butterfly bandages or Steri-Strips™ (other wound closing devices such as sutures, staples, etc., are considered medical treatment);
- Using hot or cold therapy;
- Using any non-rigid means of support, such as elastic bandages, wraps, non-rigid back belts, etc. (devices with rigid stays or other systems designed to immobilize parts of the body are considered medical treatment for recordkeeping purposes);
- Using temporary immobilization devices while transporting an accident victim (e.g., splints, slings, neck collars, back boards, etc.).
- Drilling of a fingernail or toenail to relieve pressure, or draining fluid from a blister;
- Using eye patches;
- Removing foreign bodies from the eye using only irrigation or a cotton swab;
- Removing splinters or foreign material from areas other than the eye by irrigation, tweezers, cotton swabs or other simple means;
- Using finger guards;
- Using massages (physical therapy or chiropractic treatment are considered medical treatment for recordkeeping purposes); or
- Drinking fluids for relief of heat stress.
"Medical treatment" means the management and care of a patient to combat disease or disorder. It does not include diagnostic procedures or counseling outside of those required by medical monitoring under the bloodborne pathogen standard or exposures to toxic substances.
Bloodborne Pathogens
Bloodborne pathogens are infectious microorganisms in human blood or other potentially infectious materials (OPIM) that can cause disease in humans. These pathogens include, but are not limited to, hepatitis B (HBV), hepatitis C (HCV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Workers routinely (through occupational exposure) exposed to needles and sharps, broken glass or other mechanisms which expose them to bodily fluids are the most at risk.
In order to reduce or eliminate the hazards of occupational exposure to bloodborne pathogens, an employer must implement an exposure control plan (ECP) for the worksite with details on employee protection measures. The plan must also describe how an employer will use engineering and work practice controls, personal protective clothing and equipment, employee training, medical surveillance, hepatitis B vaccinations, and other provisions as required by OSHA's Bloodborne Pathogens Standard.
Although not all industries or employers are required to implement an ECP, OSHA’s general duty clause (Section 5(a)(1) of the OSH Act) will be used, where appropriate, to protect employees from bloodborne hazards in construction, longshoring, marine terminals and agriculture. Employees who are trained as first responders in any organization are covered under the Bloodborne Pathogen Standard. Any employee exposed to blood or OPIM must have the hepatitis vaccine made available to them as soon as possible but in no event later than 24 hours after the exposure incident. If an exposure incident as defined in the standard has taken place, other post-exposure follow-up procedures must be initiated immediately, as per the requirements of the standard.
In general the ECP must contain the following:
- The exposure determination which identifies job classifications with occupational exposure and tasks and procedures where there is occupational exposure and that are performed by employees in job classifications in which some employees have occupational exposure.
- The procedures for evaluating the circumstances surrounding exposure incidents;
- A schedule of how other provisions of the standard are implemented, including methods of compliance, HIV and HBV research laboratories and production facilities requirements, hepatitis B vaccination and post-exposure evaluation and follow-up, communication of hazards to employees, and recordkeeping;
- Methods of compliance include:
- Universal Precautions;
- Engineering and work practice controls, e.g., safer medical devices, sharps disposal containers, hand hygiene;
- Personal protective equipment;
- Housekeeping, including decontamination procedures and removal of regulated waste.
- Documentation of:
- the annual consideration and implementation of appropriate commercially available and effective safer medical devices designed to eliminate or minimize occupational exposure, and
- the solicitation of non-managerial healthcare workers (who are responsible for direct patient care and are potentially exposed to injuries from contaminated sharps) in the identification, evaluation, and selection of effective engineering and work practice controls.


2.9: Article indexes and databases
Quick Search is the best place to start your research if books or book chapters are what you need. Quick Search can help find some articles; however, if you find you need more results or highly specialized articles, the library has other tools that may be more effective.
When you need to find a comprehensive set of articles on your topic, the most efficient finding tool to use is an article index. In the context of scholarly research, an index is an article finding tool, rather than a list of topics and page numbers in the back of a book. Article indexes (sometimes referred to as databases ) help you identify and find articles on your topic. An article index allows you to search for your topic in hundreds of journals at once, so using an index is a huge time saver when you don’t have one specific journal in mind. Some indexes also cover magazines, newspapers, book chapters, conference presentations, dissertations, or other materials.
Which index should you choose?
The ISU Library subscribes to hundreds of article indexes providing access to articles. Each index is different in terms of:
- subject(s) covered
- types of materials included
- whether materials are peer-reviewed
- whether abstracts or full text materials are provided
- dates included
- languages included
- overall design and search options
Abstracts are brief summaries of articles, books, and other published materials. These help you decide whether you want to read the full item.
Features of article indexes
Indexes provide a variety of robust advanced search features to help researchers focus their searches. You can typically select, sort, and download articles or article abstracts. For scholarly research, indexes tend to be either general purpose or subject-focused.
Strengths and weaknesses of indexes
Strengths
- The best finding tool for locating scholarly articles
- Provide many robust search features that give you control over your searches
- Provide a list of what subjects and dates are covered
- Provide a list of which journals and conference publications may be found within
- Connect directly to full-text articles
- Subject-specific indexes cover an extensive set of journal articles and other materials focused on a subject area
Weaknesses
- Often too specific for finding general or background information
- Interfaces may be clunky or not compatible with mobile devices
- May not include the full text of articles


27.9: Sample lab report review (Measuring g using a pendulum)
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The authors measured the period of a pendulum to determine \(g\). They measured \(g\) to be \((7.65\pm0.378)\text{m/s}^{2}\) which is inconsistent with the accepted value. The authors were incorrect in assuming that the pendulum would undergo simple harmonic motion in the conditions that they used.
The experimental procedure was clearly written and one could mostly reproduce this experiment with the given description.
The authors thought about minimizing uncertainties by measuring the period over several oscillations, although it appears that \(20\) was perhaps too large, as friction was likely to have an effect. The authors should have taken more care in determining the number of oscillations to use so that the uncertainty in the time is minimized while also keeping the effects of friction negligible. Ultimately, the authors did not specify the uncertainty in the time that they measured.
The authors also claim to have measured the length of the pendulum with a precision of \(0.5\text{mm}\), but did not specify the length of the ruler that they used. I would not expect the measurement to be that precise unless they used a very precise ruler that is longer than \(1\text{m}\). However, the authors made the length of the pendulum as long as possible so as to minimize the uncertainty in the length.
The authors did not describe the mass that was attached at the end of the pendulum, and whether its size would be expected to cause significant air drag.
The authors made a mistake in assuming that a pendulum would undergo simple harmonic motion with an amplitude of \(90^{\circ}\), as the small angle approximation used to determine the period does not apply in this case.
The experimental procedure was scientifically sound, other than the choices for the number of oscillations and their amplitude.
Satisfactory - The experiment was well described, but the authors should have paid more attention to their choice of \(20\) oscillations, and they made a mistake in assuming that their pendulum would exhibit simple harmonic oscillation with a large amplitude.