Budget: a mathematical confirmation of your suspicions.
~AA Latimer
Expenses you may encounter:
-
How much is the degree or certificate you want to earn going to cost?
-
What factors go into the cost of the college?
-
What costs are included in tuition?
-
What costs are not included in tuition?
-
What is college worth to you?
-
How much money can you afford to spend on college?
-
Where can you get financing for college if you need help paying for it?
-
How much money do you think you could afford on a monthly basis to pay back a loan related to financing college?
-
What is the current interest rate on student loans?
-
Are interest rates all the same?
-
What do you think your life will be like after college?
Paying for college is an undeniable component of the educational process. While there are political discussions underway about making college free, at this point in time, students must pay for college themselves or with the help of others. Understanding the factors that combine to create the overall cost of a college education can help a student make decisions about the college that is right for him or her.
Today’s colleges are in a competitive market for students. Thinking about the services you as a student need or want from a college environment can help define what is personally important and what you are willing to pay for. The following video from John Green and Hank Green (who you may recognize from the Crash Course series on YouTube) provides a quick look at factors affecting the cost of college.
Vlogbrothers: Why Is College So Expensive?
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Video link:
https://youtu.be/5-IuFSt5xWA
The President of Colorado State University made a video explaining how tuition money is spent at that school. His information is specific to his school, but the overall explanation is applicable to many colleges. Watch what he has to say:
College costs can be measured by 7 main categories:
-
-
Tuition:
The price you pay for taking college classes is based on the academic program you choose. Tuition is also affected by selecting a school in the state where you live, and by whether the school is public, private, for-profit, or non-profit.
-
Fees:
Academic programs may have additional fees beyond tuition costs. For example, a student majoring in culinary arts will need specialized tools to participate in that program. Services the college provides to students can have associated fees. For example, a student health center may have a basic fee that all students must pay whether they use the service or not. Some colleges have dining fees that give students food cards to use on campus. Student fees are not fees students can opt out of. It is important for students to examine a college’s fee structure and maximize the services that are being paid for by fees.
-
Books and supplies:
The cost of books and the supplies students will need to complete a program can vary greatly. Books and supplies can add $1000 or more to the annual tuition cost. This is an important factor that is easily overlooked by students. Finding classes that offer low cost book option/open source materials can help reduce the overall cost of college. Often times, students will end up financing the cost of books and supplies with financial aid. It is important to remember that an additional $1000 financed with aid or credit cards can quickly add up to an unanticipated cost of college.
-
Transportation
: Getting to and from college costs vary significantly based on how close a student lives to the college campus and the transportation method selected. Some colleges may have a transportation fee as part of the student fees that might provide mass transit (trains or buses) options for getting to school. Colleges may also have parking fees for those students who drive to the campus. Seasonal weather conditions are another factor in transportation choices. As a student estimating cost of college, remember to think about the entire school year.
-
Living Expenses:
Where will you be living while attending college and with whom? The answer to this question determines a major factor in the overall cost of attending college. Living with family may be less expensive for some, but many times is not an option for students. Answers to the question of where you will live and how much it will cost vary greatly.  Will going to school change that and if so, how? Will you have to eat or spend money on groceries/meals differently than in the past? If the college you choose has a dining fee built into your tuition costs, don’t overlook using it. Staying healthy is an important part of college success.
-
Personal expenses:
Another wide open category of cost, but don’t forget you will still need basic health care and hygiene. And you will still have social events and family commitments. Students tend to underestimate how much money will be needed for personal expenses. For example, many students today cannot survive without smart phones, computers, and data plans.
-
Opportunity Cost:
Choosing to spend time and money going to college has an opportunity cost. If you are spending time and money on your education, you will not be spending that same time and money somewhere else. One example of this relationship is employment. Attending classes and doing homework may mean you can’t work at a job as much as you want to. It may also mean you will have less time to spend with friends and family. If you have a long commute to school, that may impact other aspects of your daily life. The following video examines the opportunity cost of college.
Financial Aid Basics
Most students will need some form of financial aid to help pay for college. Before accepting an offer of assistance, it is important for a student to understand what each possible offer means and what the student’s responsibility will be after accepting the offer. The Office of US Department of Education offers financial assistance to students in the forms of grants, loans, and work-study programs. Filling out the FAFSA application is the first start towards receiving financial aid for college.
The video below from Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) debunks myths about who is eligible for financial assistance for college.
Federal Student Aid: Myths About Financial Aid
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Video link:
https://youtu.be/K8JuaYVJ_LE
The following 2 videos created by Federal Student Aid provide an overview of your options and what it means to borrow money for college. FAFSA is the best place to get information about student aid for college. A student can contact them directly and the contact information is on the website.
Federal Student Aid: Overview of the Financial Aid Process
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Video link:
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Federal Student Aid: Responsible Borrowing
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Understanding interest rates and how they impact student loans is essential. Many students shy away from doing the math to understand what their responsibility will be in repaying a loan. It is also essential that students understand the difference between a
subsidized
and
unsubsidized
loan. Both types of loans may be offered to a student in an award letter for financial aid. Many of the horror stories about the burden of college debt on students when they graduate from college could be avoided if students better understood options for financing their college education and examined their college selection process in greater detail.
Wall Street Survivor
has a short explanation of how interest and compound interest work. The video demonstrates the difference between a flat/annual interest rate and a compound interest rate. Compound interest can make you very happy as an investor, but it works against you as a borrower.
Subsidized
loans
do not
add interest while a student is attending college. The interest is not compounded while the student is attending college.
Unsubsidized
loans begin charging interest as soon as you take out the loan, like a car loan would. Watch this video to gain some basic information about interest rates.
Example #1
Community College Annual In-State tuition is approximately $4,000 for each year of college
*
Stafford
unsubsidized
loan
rate for 2015-2016 is 4.29%
|
First Year of College
|
Second Year of College
|
|
A= 4,000 (1 + .0429)
2
A= 4,350.56
|
A=4,000(1+.0429)
1
A= 4,171.60
|
Total cost for loan over 2-year period:
$4,350.56 + $4171.60 = $8, 522.16 (money borrowed first will accrue interest the longest)
The interest accrued on the loan in a 2-year period is $522.16
Example #2
Community College Annual In-State tuition is approximately $6,000 for each year
*
Stafford
unsubsidized
loan
rate for 2015-2016 is 4.29%
|
First Year of College
|
Second Year of College
|
|
A= 6,000 (1 + .0429)
2
A= 6525.84
|
A=6,000(1+.0429)
1
A= 6,257.40
|
Total cost for loan over 2-year period:
$6525.84 + $6,257.4 = $12,783.24 (money borrowed first will accrue interest the longest)
The interest accrued on the loan in a 2-year period is $783.24
Example #3
College offering Bachelor’s Degree In-State Tuition at approximately $10,000 each year
*
Stafford
unsubsidized
loan
rate for 2015-2016 is 4.29%
|
First Year
|
Second Year
|
|
A=10,000(1+.0429)
4
A= 11,829.63
|
A=10,000(1+.0429)
3
A=11,343.00
|
|
Third Year of College
|
Fourth Year of College
|
|
A=10,000(1+.0429)
2
A=10,876.40
|
A=10,000(1+.0429)
1
A=10,429.00
|
Total cost for loan over 4-year period:
$11,829.63+ $11343.00+ $10,876.40+ 10429.00= $44,478.03
The interest accrued on the loan in a 4-year period is $4,478.03
The key difference between unsubsidized and subsidized loans is the amount of debt a student will leave college owing. Unsubsidized loans charge students interest while they are attending college, so the interest is growing on the loan during that time. A student might think they are borrowing $4,000.00 or $6,000.00, but unsubsidized loans add interest to the amount borrowed that adds up over time. Subsidized loans do not add interest while the student is attending college, so $4000.00 really is $4,000.00, no extras added.
Another important thing to remember when borrowing money for college is that if you add the cost of books and supplies or other needs onto the loan you have taken on for tuition, and you have unsubsidized loans, that extra money also grows over time with interest. While the tuition may have been $4000.00/year, the amount financed was more than that. Example 4 demonstrates this scenario.
Example 4
|
Year 1
|
Year 2
|
|
Community College tuition = $4,000.00
Books and supplies = $1000.00
New computer = $1000.00
Total Loan amount = $6000.00
A= 6,000 (1 + .0429)
2
A= 6525.84
|
Community College tuition = $4,000.00
Books and supplies = $1500.00
Other fees = $350
Total Loan amount = $5850.00
A=5850.00(1+.0429)
1
A= $6,100.96
|
Instead of owing $8, 522.16 like in Example #1, total cost for loan over 2-year period:
$6525.84 + $5850.00 = $12,626.80 which is $4,104.64 more for the same time period and degree. Be watchful when adding even small amounts of money to your loan balances. It can add up quickly!
Loan Calculator
Students need to remember that they are consumers when it comes to taking on loans for college. Not thinking about what the debt means after college only compounds the issues. It is important to think about how much could you afford to pay monthly on a student loan once you have completed college. It’s easy to do the math on loan costs.
The Smart Student’s Guide to Financial Aid
has a free loan calculator that will do the work for you. All you have to do is plug in the numbers. The loan calculator will also give you an estimate of what your annual salary will need to be to be able to repay the loan. Of course, the loan calculator will not know your other financial commitments, so be sure to look at the monthly payment and decide if you afford that additional expense. College debt is considered a partial economic hardship if it requires you to use more than 15% of your discretionary income.
Here are 2 examples using the same colleges costs as the previous examples:
|
Loan Balance:
|
$10,000.00
|
|
Adjusted Loan Balance:
|
$10,000.00
|
|
Loan Interest Rate:
|
4.29%
|
|
Loan Fees:
|
0.00%
|
|
Loan Term:
|
10 years
|
|
Minimum Payment:
|
$50.00
|
|
|
|
Monthly Loan Payment:
|
$102.63
|
|
Number of Payments:
|
120
|
|
|
|
Cumulative Payments:
|
$12,315.47
|
|
Total Interest Paid:
|
$2,315.47
|
|
Loan Balance:
|
4,000.00
|
|
Adjusted Loan Balance:
|
$4,000.00
|
|
Loan Interest Rate:
|
4.29%
|
|
Loan Fees:
|
0.00%
|
|
Loan Term:
|
10 years
|
|
Minimum Payment:
|
$50.00
|
|
|
|
Monthly Loan Payment:
|
$50.00
|
|
Number of Payments:
|
94
|
|
|
|
Cumulative Payments:
|
$4678.45
|
|
Total Interest Paid:
|
$678.45
|
Note: The minimum monthly payment must be at least $50.00; so on the $4,000.00 loan the number of monthly payments was shortened. Also, there isn’t a prepayment penalty for repaying loans early. If you pay as little as $25 more each month on the loan you can shorten the duration of the loan by almost 3 years.
 According to an article titled
The Feds Don’t Care If You Dropped Out of College. They Want Their Money
, students who dropped out of college and ultimately didn’t obtain a degree or certificate, generally don’t earn higher wages after leaving school. Statistics show that students who start college but don’t finish struggle with student debt.
The US government backs loans that are taken out through FAFSA/Federal Student Aid. Repayment is expected. The government has the authority to garnish wages and withhold tax returns as part of repayment of loans that are not paid. Government-backed debt cannot be forgiven in bankruptcy, except under rare circumstances.
Bloomberg: Why It’s So Hard to Get Rid of Student Debt
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The cost of going to college seems to be constantly increasing. Understanding the opportunity cost both now and in the future needs to be an important part of a student’s decision process when selecting a college and a major. Do the math! There are plenty of resources to help you. Follow your dreams, but be informed.
Financial aid vocabulary is a specialized language that students participating in the process must understand. Try free flashcards that can make learning financial aid vocabulary fun!
Common Financial Aid Vocabulary Definitions
|
Terminology
|
Definition
|
|
Award package
|
The way colleges and universities deliver their news about student eligibility for financial aid or grants. The most common packages include Pell Grants, Stafford Loans, and Work Study.
|
|
Borrower
|
A person or group that obtains funds from a lender for a particular period of time. A borrower signs a “promissory note” as evidence of indebtedness.
|
|
Campus-Based Financial Aid Programs
|
The three major aid programs are funded by the federal government, but the disposition of the funds is handled by colleges’ financial aid offices. The aid programs are: the Federal Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grant, the Federal Perkins Loan, and Federal Work-Study (FWS).
|
|
Cost of education
|
This includes tuition and fees, room and board, books and supplies, transportation, and miscellaneous expenses. A student’s financial aid eligibility is the difference between the cost of education and the Expected Family Contribution as computed by the federal government using the FAFSA.
|
|
Default
|
A failure to meet a financial obligation, especially a failure to make a payment on a loan. Defaults are recorded on permanent credit records and may result in prosecution and/or loss of future borrowing possibilities.
|
|
Dependent Student
|
A student claimed as a dependent member of household for federal income tax purposes.
|
|
Expected Family Contribution (EFC)
|
The amount of financial support a family is expected to contribute toward a child’s college education. This amount is part of the formula used by the federal government to determine financial aid eligibility using the FAFSA form.
|
|
Federal Direct Loan
|
A group of federal loan programs for which the lender is the federal government. Included in these programs are government-subsidized loans for students and unsubsidized loans for both students and parents.
|
|
Federal Pell Grant Program
|
This is a federally sponsored and administered program that provides grants based on need to undergraduate students. Congress annually sets the appropriation; amounts range from approximately $400 to $3,000 annually. This is “free” money because it does not need to be repaid.
|
|
Federal PLUS Loan
|
A nonsubsidized loan program for parents of undergraduate students under the Federal Education Loan Program umbrella
|
|
Federal Perkins Loan Program
|
A federally run program based on need and administered by a college’s financial aid office. This program offers low-interest loans for undergraduate study. Repayment does not begin until a student graduates.
|
|
Federal Stafford Loan
|
A federal program based on need that allows a student to borrow money for educational expenses directly from banks and other lending institutions (sometimes from the colleges themselves). These loans may be either subsidized or unsubsidized. Repayment begins six months after a student’s course load drops to less than halftime. Currently the interest rate is 0 percent while in school and then is variable up to 8.25 percent. The loan is typically repaid within ten years. Be sure to know the interest rate at the time of borrowing.
|
|
Federal Work-Study Program (FSW)
|
A federally financed program that arranges for students to combine employment and college study; the employment may be an integral part of the academic program (as in cooperative education or internships) or simply a means of paying for college.
|
|
Financial Aid Award Letter
|
Written notification to an applicant from a college that details how much and which types of financial aid are being offered if the applicant enrolls.
|
|
Financial Aid Package
|
The total amount of financial aid a student receives for a year of study.
|
|
Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA)
|
This is the federal government’s instrument for calculating need-based aid. It is available from high school guidance departments, college financial aid offices, and the Internet (www.fafsa.ed.gov). The form should be completed and mailed as soon after January 2 as possible.
|
|
Gap
|
The difference between the amount of a financial aid package and the cost of attending a college or university. The student and his/her family are expected to fill the gap.
|
|
Gift Aid
|
Grant and scholarship money given as financial aid that does not have to be repaid.
|
|
Grants/scholarships
|
These are financial awards that are usually dispensed by the financial aid offices of colleges and universities. The awards may be need- or merit-based. Most are need-based. Merit-based awards may be awarded on the basis of excellence in academics, leadership, volunteerism, athletic ability, or special talent.
|
|
Lender
|
One who provides money on the condition that the money be returned, usually with an interest charge.
|
|
Merit awards, merit-based scholarships
|
More “free” money, these awards are based on excellence in academics, leadership, volunteerism, athletic ability, and other areas determined by the granting organization, which can be a college or university, an organization, or an individual. They are not based on financial need.
|
|
PIN
|
Personal identification number.
|
|
Student Aid Report (SAR)
|
Report of the government’s review of a student’s FAFSA. The SAR is sent to the student and released electronically to the schools that the student listed. The SAR does not supply a real money figure for aid but indicates whether the student is eligible.
|
|
Subsidized Student Loan
|
The government is paying the interest on the loan while the student is in college at least part-time (six credits).
|
|
Tuition
|
Amount of money charged to students for instructional services. Tuition may be charged per term, per course, or per credit.
|
|
Unsubsidized Student Loan
|
The interest is accruing while the student is in college. The government is not paying the interest on the loan.
|
Making It Personal:
-
-
-
What is the tuition cost for the college/program you want to enroll in?
-
What additional fees can you expect to pay along with tuition?
-
What kinds of services will you get from the additional fees you pay?
-
Can you estimate the cost of books and supplies for your chosen program?
-
Are you more likely to be a full-time student or a part-time student?
-
What is your plan for paying for college?
-
If you were to take out loans, how much money do you think you would need to borrow?
-
Who is ultimately responsible for your college expenses?

-
What do you feel like you need more help with in relation to financing college?
Susan Dynarski: Why Financial Aid Is Broken And A Simple Solution to Fix It (TED Talk)
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Video link:
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16.4: How Membrane Proteins are Held in Membranes
The hydrophobic domain of integral membrane proteins consists of one or more alphahelical regions that interact with the hydrophobic interior of the membranes. Hydrophilic domains tend to have more tertiary structure with hydrophilic surfaces, and so face the aqueous cytosol and cell exterior. Two trans-membrane proteins are cartooned below.
The protein on the left crosses the membrane once, while the one on the right crosses the membrane three times. How a transmembrane protein inserts into the membrane during synthesis dictates the locations of its N- and C-terminus. Transmembrane proteins can in fact cross a membrane more than once, which also determines the location of its N- and C-termini. N-terminal end of a plasma membrane polypeptide always ends up exposed to the outside of the cell. The alpha helical domains that anchor proteins in membranes are mostly non-polar and hydrophobic themselves. As an example, consider the amino acids in the alpha-helical domain of the red blood cell protein glycophorin A , a membrane protein that prevents red blood cells from aggregating, or clumping in the circulation. One glycophorin A polypeptide with its hydrophobic trans-membrane alpha helix is cartooned below. Glycophorin A monomers pair to form dimers in the plasma membrane.
Proteins that span membranes multiple times may include amino acids with charged, polar side chains, provided that these side chains interact between helices so that they are shielded from the fatty acid environment in the membrane. Because of these hydrophilic interactions, such proteins can create pores for the transport of polar molecules and ions; we will see some of these proteins later. Integral membrane proteins that do not span the membrane also have a hydrophobic helical domain that anchors them in the membrane, while their hydrophilic domains typically interact with intracellular or extracellular molecules to e.g., hold cells in place give cells and tissues their structure, etc.
The very presence of the hydrophobic alpha-helical domains in trans-membrane proteins makes them difficult if not impossible to isolate from membranes in a biologically active form. By contrast, the peripheral polypeptide cytochrome c readily dissociates from the cristal membrane, making it easy to purify. For many years, an inability to purify other cristal membrane electron carriers in biologically active form limited our understanding of the structure and function of the mitochondrial electron transport system.
Hydrophobic alpha-helical domains are in fact, a hallmark of membrane-spanning proteins. It is even possible to determine the primary structure of a polypeptide encoded by a gene before the protein itself has been isolated. For example, knowing the DNA sequence of a gene, we can infer the amino acid sequence of the protein encoded by the gene. A hydrophobicity analysis of the inferred amino acid sequence can tell us if a protein is likely to be a membrane protein. Let’s look at a hydropathy ( hydrophobicity ) plot (below).
To see how an hydropathy plot can predict whether a protein is a membrane protein, check out the link below.
287 Hydropathy Predicts Hydrophobic Domains and Membrane Proteins


19.7.0: Review Questions
-
- Last updated
- Save as PDF
Review Questions
1 .
The nurse is caring for a patient experiencing nephrotic syndrome, which allows large amounts of plasma proteins to filter through the glomeruli of the kidneys and be eliminated in urine. What manifestation does the nurse anticipate this patient will exhibit?
-
hypervolemia
-
third spacing
-
hypochloremia
-
bounding pulses
2 .
An 82-year-old patient asks the nurse how much water she should drink every day. What additional information does the nurse prioritize obtaining to answer this question?
-
“What is your favorite beverage?”
-
“Do you have a bathroom scale you can use to weigh yourself?”
-
“Do you think you are not drinking enough water?”
-
“Have you experienced any cardiac or kidney problems?”
3 .
What would a patient with a serum calcium level of 14.3 mg/dL most likely be experiencing?
-
hyperparathyroidism
-
adrenal insufficiency
-
diabetes insipidus
-
SIADH
4 .
A nurse determines a patient’s skin feels dry and there are small bumps present on the skin surface of the arms and legs. What question is best for the nurse to ask to gather more data?
-
“Are you drinking an adequate amount of water every day?”
-
“Have you always had dry skin?”
-
“Tell me about your skin care routine”
-
“Do you have a dermatologist?”
5 .
A nurse is reviewing morning laboratory results on a series of patients. What patient should the nurse see first?
-
a patient with a BUN level of 16.4 mg/dL and creatinine level of 0.8 mg/dL
-
a patient with a blood pressure of 130/82 mm Hg with a history of hypertension
-
a patient with a HCT of 27 percent who had surgery yesterday
-
a patient complaining of being thirsty after being NPO for several hours awaiting a scheduled procedure
6 .
The nurse is reviewing the charting of an unlicensed assistant (UA) and notices the UA documented 1 cup of ice chips as 120 mL of oral intake. What response by the nurse is appropriate?
-
Explain to the UA that a cup of ice is equal to 240 mL.
-
Change the intake amount to 480 mL.
-
Educate the UA that ice is not considered oral intake, because it is a solid.
-
Take no action because the UA documented correctly.
7 .
The nurse empties the urinary catheter of a patient and notes the urine is a dark tea color. What should the nurse do first?
-
Encourage the patient to drink more fluids.
-
Send a urine sample to the laboratory for a specific gravity analysis.
-
Contact the provider for an order to start an IV
-
Review the patient I & O balance for the past several days.
8 .
The nurse is caring for a patient who is experiencing third spacing due to hyponatremia. What IVF, if requested, will address third spacing?
-
0.45% NaCl
-
D 5 W
-
Lactated Ringer’s solution
-
D 5 0 and 45% NaCl
9 .
The nurse is assisting a patient who is on a fluid restriction to choose the best beverage option. The patient’s goal is to limit sodium and sugar and to increase protein. What should the nurse encourage the patient to choose?
-
vegetable juice
-
milk
-
apple juice
-
cola
10 .
The nurse is prescribed to administer 50 mg of spironolactone (e.g., Aldactone). For which serum laboratory value might spironolactone be contraindicated?
-
K + = 4.7 mEq/L
-
K + = 3.7 mEq/L
-
K + = 2.9 mEq/L
-
K + = 2.1 mEq/L
11 .
A runner is brought to the rescue tent at a local marathon. The woman states she is feeling extremely thirsty and having some leg cramps. Her blood pressure is 106/76 mm Hg and her resting heart rate is 82 bpm. What type of IVF would be best to administer to this patient?
-
hypertonic
-
hypotonic
-
isotonic
-
tonicity
12 .
A nurse is planning the care for a patient with functional incontinence. What intervention is included in the plan of care?
-
Encourage adequate oral intake.
-
Assess for bladder distention every shift.
-
Assist the patient onto the bedpan every 2 to 3 hours.
-
Place an adult diaper on the patient.
13 .
The nurse is providing education to a patient planning to do self-care with PD at home. What statement by the patient indicates the patient requires additional information?
-
“I will wash my hands before connecting the dialysate bag to my PD catheter.”
-
“The effluent volume should be one-half the dialysate volume.”
-
“The effluent should be clear and look like urine.”
-
“I will cover my PD catheter and insertion site when I’m not using the catheter.”
14 .
The provider orders morning laboratory tests for a patient with an AV fistula, but the phlebotomist is unable to get any blood from the patient’s nonaffected arm. What should happen next?
-
The nurse should obtain the specimen from the arm with the AV fistula.
-
The nurse should contact the HD nurse to obtain a specimen from the AV fistula.
-
The blood should be left uncollected until the patient is in HD.
-
The nurse or another phlebotomist should try to obtain the specimen from the unaffected arm.


4.2: Google
Background
The history of Google began in 1995 when Stanford University student Larry Page met a man named Sergey Brin. They initially worked on a search engine called BackRub that was used at Stanford for about a year. It wasn’t until September 15, 1997 that Google.com was registered. In 1998, Google was set as a private company and while a small startup in a garage with one employee, the future to come set up the path for the company to become the giant we know today.
Growth: In the first couple years of operation, the company received offers for a buyout, even going up to one million dollars. While Page and Brin considered this so they could go back to focus on their studies, they declined. In late 1999, google received a $25 million dollar investment that significantly boosted its growth. Google’s rise combined with the fall of the giant at the time, Yahoo, significantly helped Google grow and become the powerhouse it is today. As it grew, Google began to add more services such as ads, images, and a defining moment in 2005 when they added maps. Google expanded more and more from office to office and then worldwide. Eventually, Google’s success lead them to invest in stuff of their own, for example investing 200 million dollars in a wind farm. They also bought YouTube for $1.65 billion dollars. Today, Google’s logo is one that half the world recognizes and it is one of the most valuable companies of our time. Also, Google has officially become the verb that people are widely acknowledge. There are so many more important milestones in Google’s journey.
Google Today
Google is owned by Alphabet Inc. However, the Alphabet CEO is one of the original creators of Google, Larry Page. Google is currently run by a man named Sundar Pichai. Its stated mission is “to organize the world’s information and make it universally accessible and useful” and, while they are very successful in their mission, Google goes much further than just that. Google is a giant service that provides the most recent news, email services, document services, and the list goes on and on. It is used in the everyday life of American people and other people around the world. It is not just a website but a platform to connect the world.
Financial
In its 2017 Annual report, Google reported it generates most of its revenues from advertising. This includes sales of apps, purchases made in-app, digital content products on Google and YouTube, Android, and licensing and service fees, including fees received for Google Cloud offerings. 46% of this was from clicks (cost per clicks), amounting to US$109,652 million in 2017. This includes three principal methods, namely AdMob, AdSense (such as AdSense for Content, AdSense for Search, etc.) and DoubleClick AdExchange.
For the 2006 fiscal year, the company reported $10.492 billion in total advertising revenues and only $112 million in licensing and other revenues.In 2011, 96% of Google’s revenue was derived from its advertising programs. In addition to its own algorithms for understanding search requests, Google uses technology from a company they acquired, DoubleClick, to project user interest and target advertising to the search context and the user history.
In 2007, Google launched “AdSense for Mobile”, taking advantage of the emerging mobile advertising market.
Google Analytics allows website owners to track where and how people use their website, for example by examining click rates for all the links on a page. Google advertisements can be placed on third-party websites in a two-part program. Google’s AdWords allows advertisers to display their advertisements in the Google content network, through a cost-per-click scheme.The sister service, Google AdSense, allows website owners to display these advertisements on their website and earn money every time ads are clicked. One of the criticisms of this program is the possibility of click fraud, which occurs when a person or automated script clicks on advertisements without being interested in the product, causing the advertiser to pay money to Google unduly. Industry reports in 2006 claimed that approximately 14 to 20 percent of clicks were fraudulent or invalid.
Data
Like any other website or forum that you can create an account on, Google gathers information about people, which can be concerning for some. Google has access to your name, birthday, and gender, your password and phone number, emails you write and receive on Gmail, photos and videos you save, Docs, Sheets, and Slides you create on Drive, comments you make on YouTube, contacts you add, and calendar events.
News
There are two ways that users can find news on Google. The first way Google can represent news is by using its search engine that helps users find the most relevant news. How Google does this is by matching our search keywords with texts from different websites which will be relevant to our search. Users often try to place their sites prominently by using Search Engine Optimization, attempting to influence the order in which website/pages appear when we search for something. We can also think of Google and the internet as the internet being like a Library and Google like the librarian who shows us the information which it thinks might be useful for us. Since Google’s results ranking algorithm is proprietary, we really can’t know for sure how it works.
The only limit that available right now is the keywords choice from users because Google Search Algorithm gives user more accurate result base on the region of users. Suppose we have users in the US and users in Asia countries search for the same topic, there are chances that Google gives different results. We can consider how different the search result that users in some countries like North Korea and China will get from users in Europe or America. Also, this sorting algorithm is based on the keywords of your search, and since not everyone typing an idea the same way, different search results will appear based on the keywords that they look up. The results might also be affected by the location of user. This is the main idea of this search algorithm: “Search algorithms look at many factors, including the words of your query, relevance and usability of pages, expertise of sources, and your location and settings.” As the company explains ,
With the amount of information available on the web, finding what you need would be nearly impossible without some help sorting through it. Google ranking systems are designed to do just that: sort through hundreds of billions of webpages in our Search index to find the most relevant, useful results in a fraction of a second, and present them in a way that helps you find what you’re looking for.
The second way is using Google News . Every user that has a Google account can use this function. This function has a headlines newsfeed and also offer users specific categories that users are looking for. This is a nice feature of Google that allows user update news constantly. Google uses sources from popular channel like Fox News, CNN and The New York Times . Google shows the sources with the title so users can have multiple options to choose for their sources.
The News feature is developing fact checking tools to helps users check the accountability of their source of news. This is an extremely helpful tools for social and political violence because this feature does not just representing news but it is also show articles that respond and warn people about the fake news that some unreliable sources posted.
Since Google will show users different results base on users keywords, there might be a chance that Google will also show the unreliable sources. However, the ranking systems will also help to prevent those unreliable sources from appearing on the front sites of the search so unless users look for those sources on purpose but, there is no possible way to completely eliminate this.
Some people are able to push unreliable sources onto the front by taking advantage of phrases that may not be as mainstream or used very often. So when these phrases are searched, the non-mainstream or extremists sites show up. It is a problem that is very hard to get around because there is no way to stop it besides completely restricting some words or phrases which goes against what Google wants.
In general, Google is a very effective search engine that helps users find the most reliable sources to their search. It also has a feature that allow user to update news with reliable sources. Google has been an effective tools for users to find their answers for many years and now it also helps people to take in information from reliable sources. With the size of Google right now, this new feature of Google has an important meaning to social and political violence. It allows users to find the right answer as long as they willing to look for it at the right source.
The problem with Google is that it relies more on the publishers reputation than following the search string algorithm. This leads to the users not finding the exact answers that they were looking for. This thing became huge when in 2016 Google put fake news with false numbers for its top search results about the 2016 Elections saying that Donald Trump won both the popular and electoral votes, which was not true.
Criticism of Google
The first criticism that users have about Google is click fraud .  Invalid clicks, for which Google does not charge advertisers, include inadvertent double clicks on an ad. Since Google cannot provide data about click fraud, advertisers have to use third party companies to fight against click fraud. Industry reports say fraudulent clicks range from 14 percent to 20 percent of total clicks. Google has introduced a new system is called Adwords and customers will be able to see data on invalid clicks on a daily basis.
The second major criticism of Google is user privacy . On March 1st, 2012, Google began to allow sharing data across a wide variety of services. The policy was widely criticized for creating an environment that discourages Internet-innovation by making Internet users more fearful and wary about what they put online. Privacy International has raised concerns because of Google having a centrally-located widely popular data warehouse of millions of Internet users’ searches. At one point, Google could have been forced to hand over all such information to the U.S. government. In 2007, in its Consultation Report , Privacy International ranked Google as “Hostile to Privacy”, its lowest rating on their report, making Google the only company in the list to receive that ranking.
In the summer of 2016, Google quietly dropped its ban on including personally-identifiable info in its DoubleClick ad service. The policy was changed to state it “may” combine web-browsing records obtained through DoubleClick with what the company learns from the use of other Google services. While new users were automatically opted-in, existing users were asked if they wanted to opt-in, and it remains possible to opt-out by going to the “Activity controls” in the “My Account” page of a Google account. DoubleClick ads that follow people around on the web may now be customized based on your name and other information Google knows about you. It also means that Google could now, if it wished to, build a portrait of a user by name, based on everything the user writes in their email, every website they visit, and the searches they conduct. Google responded that it doesn’t “currently” use Gmail keywords to target web ads.
Beside the two major threats that we mentioned, there are some other potential for data disclosure such as attacking user’s cookies, tracking, or Gmail. Because of the size of the company and the size of data that Google has to process, it will be extremely hard for Google to provide users different tools to protect themselves online. If users want to protect their data on a higher level they need to be equipped with products that cover their digital footprints.
Recommended Reading
“ 7 Ways to Master the New Google News ” by Michael Simon, PC World, June 20, 2018.
“ A Deep Look at Google’s Biggest-Ever Search Quality Crisis ” by Danny Sullivan, Search Engine Land, April 3, 2017.
“ Google Has a Striking History of Bias Against Black Girls ” by Safiya Noble, Time, March 26, 2018.
“ Google Tried to Change China; China May End Up Changing Google ” by Farad Majoo, The New York Times, August 22, 2018.
“ Google’s ‘Dirty Secret’ Allows Third Party Apps to Read Gmail Messages ” by Steven Lerner, Tech Times, July 3, 2018.


10.2: Introduction to Physical Development in Late Adulthood
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What you’ll learn to do: describe physical changes in late adulthood
In this section, you’ll learn more about physical changes in late adulthood. While late adulthood is generally a time of physical decline, there are no set rules as to when and how it happens. We are continually learning more about how to promote greater health during the aging process.
Watch It
Watch this clip from Marco Pahor, a professor in the University of Florida department of aging and geriatric research, as he discusses his research about ways physical activity affects the mobility of older adults and how it may result in longer life, lower medical costs, and increased long-term independence.
A link to an interactive elements can be found at the bottom of this page.
You can
view the transcript for “Study proves physical activity helps maintain mobility in older adults” here (opens in new window)
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Contributors and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
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Introduction to Physical Development in Late Adulthood.
Authored by
: Sonja Ann Miller for Lumen Learning.
Provided by
: Lumen Learning.
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11.19: Merchandise Assortment Options
Learning Objectives
- Compare and contrast various merchandise assortment options
As we began this chapter we discussed the merchandise management process. You might remember we discussed assortment planning as a key function of merchandise planning. As the seasonal plan evolves, inventory dollars are broken down into categories and further down to specific items. This part of the process is known as assortment planning,
Let’s talk about the What, Why, and How of Assortment Planning.
- What: Assortment Planning is the process of determining product in each merchandise category.
- Why: Retailers increase sales, productivity (turnover), and margin while also improving customer satisfaction.
- How: By identifying store level opportunities as well as how much (breadth of assortment) and in what quantities (depth of assortment) should be carried in a merchandise category.
Assortment Planning Questions
Some key questions that drive assortment planning are:
- What SKUs will drive profitability?
- What key items are essential to your business?
- How does your assortment compare to competition?
- How original are the items within your assortment and how much is duplication?
Assortment Planning Considerations
Before beginning the assortment planning process there are several key considerations.
What is the merchandise capacity of the stores?
Will store capacity fit all of the assortment options I am planning? This can be a little tricky for those chains that have different prototypes across the store base. Another key responsibility of Merchandise Planning is to rank stores by sales performance and other factors to determine their assortment level. All stores might not receive every item in your assortment.
Is there a need for complementary merchandise to service the customer?
If you carry laptops should you carry laptop cases as well? Think about servicing your customer needs completely. If they don’t get it from your store they can go to another store which means you lose sales in this case. At the same time if the customer knows you don’t carry the complementary merchandise they are less likely to visit your store in the future
Is this merchandise profitable?
 You will probably have both low and high margin-producing items in your assortment to service the customer. The mix of both low and high margin producing items might still put you in line with your overall profitability goals. In addition, if you aren’t meeting margin goals on certain items this might be an indication that you need to work with the vendor to reduce the cost of the item.
What are the corporate objectives and does the merchandise align with the strategy and goals of the company and department?
You always want to ensure the goals of your department are in line with the total company strategy. Different retailers will stand for different things: exclusive products, lowest prices to beat competition, designer goods, highest quality products, etc.
What are the regional needs for the area in which I am planning the assortment?
If you work for a retailer with multiple locations across the United States and even the globe this becomes especially important. For example, Florida is a resort area where people often vacation. If you have stores in this area you might consider carrying an extensive assortment of resort-like product such as swimsuits, flip flops, and sunglasses. In addition, if you have stores near any theme parks such as Disney World or Six Flags you might want to carry themed product and other quick travel accessory items such as tote bags. You might even be able to hold a competitive advantage here because those items could be more expensive at the park.
As we wrap of this section of the chapter let’s take a look at a specific example of an assortment plan for missy collection tops. In this plan you can see the sales dollars, receipts, anticipated sell-through, ending inventory dollars and gross margin planned. You can also see the sales and receipt mix percentages.
Example: Excerpts from a Sample Assortment Plan
| Sales $ | Rcpt $ | Sell Thru % | EOP $ | GM % | Sales Merch Mix % | Rcpt $ Merch Mix % | GM $ Merch Mix % | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Women’s Tees | $220,982 | $269,579 | 83.26% | $47,089 | 64.16% | 100.00% | 100.00% | 100.00% | |
| * Black Triangle | $25,166 | $30,275 | 83.26% | $5,789 | 64.54% | 7.99% | 7.90% | 8.03% | |
| * Red Triangle | $29,408 | $35,125 | 83.26% | $5,314 | 64.51% | 9.33% | 9.23% | 9.39% | |
| * Blue Triangle | $22,621 | $28,545 | 83.23% | $4,568 | 64.55% | 7.18% | 7.10% | 7.22% | |
| * Yellow Square | $26,580 | $32,584 | 83.26% | $6,657 | 64.54% | 8.43% | 8.35% | 8.48% | |
| * Pink Square | $34,742 | $49,568 | 83.26% | $7,546 | 61.38% | 11.98% | 12.91% | 11.46% | |
| * Orange Square | $25,735 | $31,357 | 83.26% | $5,123 | 64.54% | 8.17% | 8.08% | 8.21% | |
| * Green Diamond | $27,154 | $33,582 | 83.26% | $7,524 | 64.54% | 8.61% | 8.52% | 8.66% | |
| * Purple Diamond | $29,576 | $28,543 | 83.26% | $4,568 | 64.54% | 9.42% | 9.32% | 9.48% |
| Geometric Collection by Grade | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | B | C | D | E | |||
| Women’s Tees | Sls Tot $/ Avg Str | $11,548 | $12,584 | $12,684 | $11,158 | $9,863 | $13,138 |
| Sls Tot $ | $311,395 | $37,456 | $114,134 | $56,134 | $76,203 | $27,468 | |
| Sell Thru $ % | 83.26% | 82.28% | 81.99% | 82.24% | 83.66% | 91.65% | |
| Rcpt $/ Avg Str | $14,864 | $15,578 | $15,208 | $14,928 | $12,392 | $15,465 | |
| Rcpt $ | $413,846 | $47,896 | $141,653 | $71,209 | $97,152 | $30,643 | |
| Sls Tot $ Loc Mix | 100.00% | 12.03% | 36.65% | 18.03% | 24.47% | 8.82% |
For example, the first item under Women’s Tees (Black Triangle) is 65.54% GM%, 7.99% of the sales and 7.9% of the receipts. What changes would you make based on what you see below? Take a look at Pink Square. Notice anything about that item you would change? If you said you would plan less receipts you are correct! That item is 11.98% of the sales, 12.91% of the receipts, and 11.46% of the gross margin dollars. It has more receipts planned than sales and is producing less gross margin dollars. You might consider decreasing the amount of receipts of this item.
In the lower section of the assortment plan you can see the plan numbers broken out by average store for the assortment. In looking at this plan, you can see how the retailer has developed sales, inventory and purchase levels across the entire organization—broken down by style—and if the assortment makes sense at store level. Notice the level of detail in how the assortment plan applies key metrics to each and every style in the assortment.
Practice Questions
Contributors and Attributions
- Merchandise Assortment Options. Authored by : Robert Danielson. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


12.6: More Exotic Array Modifications
There are lots of additional things you can do to an array to either modify its structure or rearrange its contents. Here’s a few. Important: all of the functions in this section return a modified copy of the array you pass to it. They do not change the array in place.
- np.append() can be used to add a single element to the end of an array, or to add an entire second array of elements to it. (In the latter case, this is really concatenation of arrays.)
- np.insert() is like the first form of np.append() , except it inserts in the middle (or the beginning).
- np.delete() will remove an element of an array by position . In other words, you tell it which index number to remove, not which element.
- np.flip() reverses the order of elements in an array.
These functions are all summarized in Figure 9.8.1.
Remember that when you’re calling a function like this – which returns a modified copy – it is perfectly acceptable to store the return value in the same variable that you passed it. This is common if you don’t actually want to keep around the original:
Code \(\PageIndex{1}\) (Python):
ice_cream_flavors = np.flip(ice_cream_flavors)
In this pattern, the net effect is effectively to modify the array in place, since you’re making a reversed copy, and then assigning that reversed copy to the same variable.
Anyway, here’s some example code to illustrate the functions in this section:
Code \(\PageIndex{2}\) (Python):
clowns = np.array(["Bozo", "Krusty"])
more_clowns = np.array(["Pennywise", "Skelton"])
more_clowns = np.insert(more_clowns, 1, "Happy Slappy")
all_clowns = np.append(clowns, more_clowns)
all_clowns = np.append(all_clowns, "Ronald McDonald")
all_clowns = np.flip(all_clowns)
all_clowns = np.delete(all_clowns, 2)
print("clowns is: {}".format(clowns))
print("more_clowns is: {}".format(more_clowns))
print("all_clowns is: {}".format(all_clowns))
| clowns is: ['Bozo' 'Krusty']
| more_clowns is: ['Pennywise' 'Happy Slappy' 'Skelton']
| all_clowns is: ['Ronald' 'Skelton' 'Pennywise' 'Krusty' 'Bozo']
An excellent exercise to help cement your understanding of the ideas in this chapter would be to go through the above “clowns” code line by line, drawing the memory picture as you go, and then confirm that your output matches the actual output.
Yes, an excellent exercise indeed!


10.2: Star Color
Stars in the Night Skies
As one looks at the stars in the night sky, a couple of things become obvious, especially if you are observing from a dark sky site. First, you will observe that the stars are of various brightnesses. This is due to two main factors: the distance to the star and the type of star. Second, you will see that not all stars are white in color. You will see red stars, orange stars, blue and blue-white stars.   Yet, through a telescope, and for some in binoculars, the yellow color is visible. (1)
Star Color
Astronomers measure a star’s surface temperature at its photosphere. Recall that the photosphere is the outer layer of the star from which light is radiated. The star’s photosphere temperature dictates its color. Conversely, the color of a star at its photosphere shows its temperature. The hotter the star is, the more blue or blue-white it is. And, the cooler the star, the redder the star will appear in color.
Astronomers classify stars by their color and/or photosphere temperature, called a star’s Spectral Type or Spectral Class. An astronomer, Annie Jump Cannon, sorted spectral data and designed the stellar spectral types we still use; O-B-A-F-G-K-M.
A more-detailed form of Cannon’s classification, the Morgan-Keenan classification, provides more information about each star by adding Roman numerals with the spectral types. See the table, below, for examples of stars, temperature, and color. (1)
Examples of Stars and Spectral Types
| Spectral Type | Star Example | Temperature Range, K | Stellar Color |
|---|---|---|---|
| O | Orion Belt Stars | >30,000 | Blue-Blue White |
| B | Rigel | 10,000–30,000 | Blue-White |
| A | Sirius | 7,500–10,000 | White |
| F | Polaris | 6,000–7,500 | Yellow |
| G | Sun | 5,000–6,000 | Deep Yellow |
| K | Arcturus | 3,5000–5,000 | Orange |
| M | Betelgeuse | <3,500 | Red |
Seeing Star Colors
Perhaps the best constellation to view various star colors is Orion. This winter constellation includes the stars Rigel (Blue-White), Belt Stars (Blue-Blue White), and Betelgeuse (Red).
You can easily see the star colors without a telescope or binoculars, especially red Betelgeuse and the other blue stars. With a pair of binoculars, star colors become even-more obvious. Many have likened these colorful stars as celestial gems.
Albireo, also known as Beta Cygni, is a double star system in the constellation Cygnus the Swan.  Through a small telescope or even binoculars, one can see two stars that astronomers call Albireo A and Albireo B. The obvious orange and blue stars are occasionally referred to as the “Gator Double.”
Polaris, the Pole Star in the constellation Ursa Minor (the little bear), is usually easy to find, unless you have too many streetlights around you or your horizon blocks your view to the north. Polaris is an F star, based on Annie Jump Cannon’s classification. It is a yellow star, and slightly hotter at its photosphere than our Sun. (1)
- Authored by : Florida State College at Jacksonville. License : CC BY: Attribution


5.4: Regular and semi-regular tilings in the plane
In Problem 36 we saw that a regular n-gon has a circumcentre O. If we join each vertex to the point O , we get n triangles, each with angle sum π. Hence the total angle sum in all n triangles is πn. Since the n angles around the point O add to 2π, the angles of the regular n -gon itself have sum (n-2)π. Hence each angle of the regular n -gon has size .(In the next chapter you will prove the general result that the sum of the angles in any n -gon is equal to (n-2)π radians.)
Problem 180 A regular tiling of the plane is an arrangement of identical regular polygons, which fit together edge-to-edge so as to cover the plane with no overlaps.
(a) Prove that if a regular tiling of the plane with p-gons is possible, then p = 3,4, or 6.
(b) Prove that a regular tiling of the plane exists for each of the values in (a).
We refer to the arrangement of tiles around a vertex as the vertex figure. In a regular tiling all vertex figures are automatically identical, so it is natural to refer to the tiling in terms of its vertex figure. When p = 3, exactly q = 6 tiles fit together at each vertex, and we abbreviate “six equilateral triangles” as 3 6 . In the same way we denote the tiling whose vertex figure consists of “four squares” as 4 4 , and the tiling whose vertex figure consists of “three regular hexagons” as 6 3 .
The natural approach in part (a) of Problem 180 is first to identify which vertex figures have no gaps or overlaps - giving a necessary condition for a regular tiling to exist. It is tempting to stop there, and to assume that this obvious necessary condition is also sufficient. The temptation arises in part because 2-dimensional regular tilings are so familiar. But it is important to recognize the distinction between a necessary and a sufficient condition; so the temptation should be resisted, and a construction given.
The procedure hidden in the solution to Problem 180 illustrates a key strategy, which dates back to the ancient Greeks, and which is called the method of analysis .
- First, we imagine that we have a typical solution to the problem - perhaps by giving it a name (even though we do not yet know anything about such a solution).
- We then use the given conditions to deduce features which any such solution must necessarily have.
- And we continue deriving more and more necessary conditions until we believe our list of derived conditions may also be sufficient .
- Finally we show that any configuration which satisfies our final derived list of necessary conditions is in fact a solution to the original problem, so that the list of necessary conditions is in fact sufficient , and we have effectively pinned down all possible solutions.
This is what we did in a very simple way in the solution to Problem 180 : the condition on vertex figures gave an evident necessary condition, which turned out to be sufficient to guarantee that such a tiling exists. The same general strategy guided our classification of primitive Pythagorean triples back in Problem 23 .
In the seventeenth century, this ancient Greek strategy was further developed by Fermat (1601-1665), and by Descartes (1596-1650). For example, Fermat left very few proofs; but his proof that the equation
has no solutions in positive integers x , y, z illustrated the method:
- Fermat started by supposing that a solution exists, and concluded that ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) would then be a Pythagorean triple.
- The known formula for such Pythagorean triples then allowed him to derive even stronger necessary conditions on x , y , z .
- These conditions were so strong they could never be satisfied!
Descartes developed a “method”, whereby hard geometry problems could be solved by translating them into algebra - essentially using the method of analysis .
- Faced with a hard problem, Descartes first imagined that he had a point, or a locus, or a curve of the kind required for a solution.
- Then he introduced coordinates “x” and “y” to denote unknowns that were linked in the problem to be solved, and interpreted the given conditions as equations which the unknowns x and y would have to satisfy (i.e. as necessary constraints).
- The solutions to these equations then corresponded to possible solutions of the original problem.
- Sometimes the algebra did not quite generate a sufficient condition, giving rise to “pseudo-solutions” (values of x that satisfy the necessary conditions, but which did not correspond to actual solutions). So it was important to check each apparent solution - exactly as we did in Problem 180 (b), where we checked that we can construct tilings for each of the vertex figures that arise in part (a).
The importance of the final step in this process (checking that the list of necessary constraints is also sufficient) is underlined in the next problem where we try to classify certain “almost regular” tilings.
Problem 181 A semi-regular tiling of the plane is an arrangement of regular polygons (not necessarily all identical), which fit together edge-to-edge so as to cover the plane without overlaps, and such that the arrangements of tiles around any two vertices are congruent.
(a) (i) Refine your argument in Problem 180 (a) to list all possible vertex figures in a semi-regular tiling.
(ii) Try to find additional necessary conditions to eliminate vertex figures which cannot be realized, until your list of necessary conditions seems likely to be sufficient.
(b) The necessary conditions in part (a) give rise to a finite list of possible vertex figures. Construct all possible tilings corresponding to this list of possible vertex figures.
Semi-regular tilings are often called Archimedean tilings. The reason for this name remains unclear. Pappus (c. 290-c. 350 AD), writing more than 500 years after the death of Archimedes (d. 212 BC), stated that Archimedes classified the semi-regular polyhedra. Now the classification of semi-regular polyhedra (Problem 190 ) uses a similar approach to the classification of planar tilings, except that the sum of the angles at each vertex has sum less than (rather than exactly equal to) 360°. So it may be that the semi-regular tilings are named after Archimedes simply because he did something similar for polyhedra; or it may be that, since inequalities are harder to control than equalities, someone inferred (perhaps dodgily) that Archimedes must have known about semi-regular tilings as well as about semi-regular polyhedra. Whatever the reason, tilings and polyhedra have fascinated mathematicians, artists and craftsmen for all sorts of unexpected reasons - as indicated by:
- the fact that the classification and construction of the five regular polyhedra appear as the culmination of the thirteen books of Elements by Euclid (flourished c. 300 BC);
- the ancient Greek attempt to link the five regular polyhedra with the four elements (earth, air, fire, and water) and the cosmos;
- the ceramic tilings to be found in Islamic art - for example, on the walls of the Alhambra in Grenada;
- the book De Divina Proportions by Luca Pacioli (c. 1445-1509), and the continuing fascination with the Golden Ratio;
- the geometric sketches of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519);
- the work of Kepler (1571-1630) who used the regular polyhedra to explain his bold theoretical cosmology in the Astronomia Nova (1609).


7.4: The Family of Geometries (Xₖ, Gₖ)
A strong connection exists between the family \((\mathbb{P}^2_k,{\cal S}_k)\) of elliptic geometries with curvature \(k\gt 0\) and the family \((\mathbb{D}_k,{\cal H}_k)\) of hyperbolic geometries with curvature \(k\lt 0\text{.}\) The two families sport identical descriptions of the transformation group, identical descriptions of straight lines, identical arc-length and area formulas, as well as identical formulas for the area of a triangle.
We may symbolize this connection with the following description of an infinite family of geometries, one for each real number \(k\text{.}\) This general description will allow us to elegantly express some important features common to hyperbolic, Euclidean, and elliptic geometry.
For each real number \(k\) the geometry \(\boldsymbol{(X_k,G_k)}\) has space
\[ X_k = \begin{cases} \mathbb{D}_k & \text{ if \(k \lt 0\); } \\ \mathbb{C} & \text{ if \(k = 0\); } \\ \mathbb{P}^2_k & \text{ if \(k \gt 0\), } \end{cases} \]
and group of transformations \(G_k\) consisting of all Möbius transformations of the form
\[ T(z) = e^{i\theta}\dfrac{z-z_0}{1+k\overline{z_0}z}\text{,} \]
where \(\theta \in \mathbb{R}\) and \(z_0\) is a point in \(X_k\text{.}\) Moreover, the unique line through two points \(p\) and \(q\) in \((X_k,G_k)\) is the unique cline through the points \(p, q\text{,}\) and \(-\dfrac{1}{(k\overline{p})}\text{.}\) A smooth curve \(\boldsymbol{r}:[a,b]\to X_k\) has arc-length given by
\[ {\cal L}(\boldsymbol{r}) = \int_a^b \dfrac{2|\boldsymbol{r}^\prime(t)|}{1 + k|\boldsymbol{r}(t)|^2}~dt\text{.} \]
The area of a polar region \(R\) in \((X_k,G_k)\) is given by
\[ A(R) = \iint_R \dfrac{4r}{(1+kr^2)^2}dr d\theta\text{.} \]
As we have seen, these geometries manifest themselves in strikingly different ways. If \(k \gt 0\text{,}\) the sum of the angles of a triangle must be greater than \(\pi\text{;}\) and if \(k \lt 0\) the sum of the angles of a triangle must be less than \(\pi\text{.}\) If \(k \gt 0\) the space \(X_k = \mathbb{P}^2_k\) has finite area; if \(k \lt 0\text{,}\) \(X_k = \mathbb{D}_k\) has infinite area. If \(k \gt 0\) the circumference of a circle with radius \(r\) is less than \(2\pi r\text{;}\) if \(k \lt 0\) the circumference is greater than \(2\pi r\text{.}\)
What about when \(k = 0\text{?}\) We may check that \((X_0,G_0)\) corresponds to Euclidean geometry, though with a scaled metric. In particular, lines in \((X_0,G_0)\) correspond to Euclidean lines (since \(k = 0\text{,}\) \(-\dfrac{1}{(k\overline{p})} = \infty\text{,}\) so the unique line through \(p\) and \(q\) is the Euclidean line), and when \(k = 0\) the arc-length is simply twice the usual Euclidean arc-length. So while we are scaling distances in \((X_0,G_0)\text{,}\) Euclidean geometry applies: triangles are Euclidean triangles and have angle sum equal to \(180^{\circ}\text{.}\) Triangles with a right angle are Euclidean right triangles and satisfy the Pythagorean theorem.
Thus, we treat \((X_k,G_k)\) as one big family of geometries. The sign of \(k\) dictates the type of geometry we have, and the magnitude of \(k\) dictates the radius of the disk in which we model the geometry (unless \(k = 0\) in which case the space is \(\mathbb{C}\)). Morevoer, Euclidean geometry \((X_0,G_0)\) marks the edge of the knife from which we move into a hyperbolic world is \(k\) drops below \(0\), and into an elliptic world if \(k\) rises above \(0\).
We now summarize some results established in the previous sections and emphasize key features common to all \((X_k,G_k)\text{.}\)
First and foremost, we note that arc-length is an invariant function of \((X_k,G_k)\) and that the arc-length ensures that the shortest path from \(p\) to \(q\) in \((X_k,G_k)\) is along the line between them. We have discussed these facts in the cases \(k = -1,0,1\text{,}\) and the result holds for arbitrary \(k\text{.}\) So, the arc-length formula provides a metric on \((X_k,G_k)\text{:}\) Given \(p,q \in X_k\text{,}\) we define \(d_k(p,q)\) to be the length of the shortest path from \(p\) to \(q\text{.}\) The circle in \((X_k,G_k)\) centered at \(p\) through \(q\) consists of all points in \(X_k\) whose distance from \(p\) equals \(d_k(p,q)\text{.}\)
For all real numbers \(k\text{,}\) \((X_k,G_k)\) is homogeneous and isotropic.
- Proof
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Given any point \(p\) in \(X_k\text{,}\) the transformation \(T(z) = \dfrac{z-p}{1+k\overline{p}z}\) in \(G_k\) maps \(p\) to the origin. So all points in \(X_k\) are congruent to \(0\text{.}\) By the group structure of \(G_k\) it follows that any two points in \(X_k\) are congruent, so the geometry is homogeneous.
To show \((X_k,G_k)\) is isotropic we consider three cases.
If \(k \lt 0\) then \((X_k,G_k)\) models hyperbolic geometry on the open disk with radius \(s = \dfrac{1}{\sqrt{|k|}}\text{.}\) As such, \(G_k\) contains the sorts of Möbius transformations discussed in Chapter 5 and pictured in Figure \(5.1.3\). In particular, for any point \(p \in \mathbb{D}_k\text{,}\) \(G_k\) contains all elliptic Möbius transformations that swirl points around type II clines of \(p\) and \(-\dfrac{1}{(k\overline{p})}\text{,}\) the point symmetric to \(p\) with respect to the circle at infinity. These maps are preciley the rotations about the point \(p\) in this geometry: they rotate points in \(X_k\) around cicles centered at \(p\text{.}\)
If \(k = 0\text{,}\) then transformations in \(G_0\) have the form \(T(z)=e^{i\theta}(z-z_0)\text{.}\) Now, rotation by angle \(\theta\) about the point \(p\) in the Euclidean plane is given by \(T(z)=e^{i\theta}(z-p)+p\text{.}\) Setting \(z_0 = p-pe^{-i\theta}\) we see that this rotation indeed lives in \(G_0\text{.}\)
If \(k \gt 0\) then \((X_k,G_k)\) models elliptic geometry on the projective plane with radius \(s = \dfrac{1}{\sqrt{k}}\text{.}\) As such, for each \(p \in X_k\text{,}\) \(G_k\) contains all elliptic Möbius transformations that fix \(p\) and \(p_a\text{,}\) the point antipodal to \(p\) with respect to the circle with radius \(s\text{.}\) Such a map rotates points around type II clines with respect to \(p\) and \(p_a\text{.}\) Since these type II clines correspond to circles in \(X_k\) centered at the fixed point, it follows that \(G_k\) contains all rotations.
Thus, for all \(k \in \mathbb{R}\text{,}\) \((X_k,G_k)\) is isotropic.
Suppose \(k\) is any real number, and we have a triangle in \((X_k,G_k)\) whose angles are \(\alpha, \beta,\) and \(\gamma\) and whose area is \(A\text{.}\) Then
\[ kA = (\alpha + \beta + \gamma - \pi)\text{.} \]
Proof of this tidy result has already appeared in pieces (see Exercise \(1.2.2\), Lemma \(7.2.2\), and Lemma \(7.3.1\)); we emphasize that this triangle area formula reveals the locally Euclidean nature of all the geometries \((X_k, G_k)\text{:}\) a small triangle (one with area close to \(0\)) will have an angle sum close to \(180^{\circ}\text{.}\) Observe also that the closer \(|k|\) is to \(0\), the larger a triangle needs to be in order to detect an angle sum different from \(180^{\circ}\text{.}\) Of course, if \(k = 0\) the theorem tells us that the angles of a Euclidean triangle sum to \(\pi\) radians.
Suppose a convex \(n\)-sided polygon \((n \geq 3)\) in \((X_k,G_k)\) has interior angles \(\alpha_i\) for \(i = 1, 2, \ldots, n\text{.}\) The area \(A\) of the \(n\)-gon is related to its interior angles by
\[ kA = \bigg(\sum_{i=1}^n\alpha_i\bigg) - (n-2)\pi\text{.} \]
- Proof
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A convex \(n\)-gon can be divided into \(n-2\) triangles as in Figure \(7.4.1\). Observe that the area of the \(n\)-gon equals the sum of the areas of these triangles.
By Theorem \(7.4.2\), the area \(A_i\) of the \(i\)th triangle \(\Delta_i\) is related to its angle sum by
\[ kA_i = (\sum \text{angles in } \Delta_i) - \pi\text{.} \]
Thus,
\begin{align*} kA & = \sum_{i=1}^{n-2}kA_i\\ & = \sum_{i=1}^{n-2}(\sum \text{angles in } \Delta_i - \pi)\text{.} \end{align*}
Now, the total angle sum of the \(n-2\) triangles equals the interior angle sum of the \(n\)-gon, so it follows that
\[ kA = \bigg(\sum_{i=1}^n \alpha_i \bigg) - (n-2)\pi\text{.} \]
This completes the proof.
Suppose \(k \in \mathbb{R}\text{,}\) \(s = \dfrac{1}{\sqrt{|k|}}\) and \(0 \lt x \lt s\) is a real number (if \(k = 0\text{,}\) we just assume \(0 \lt x\)). In \((X_k,G_k)\text{,}\) the circle centered at \(0\) through \(x\) has area
\[ \dfrac{4\pi x^2}{1+kx^2}\text{.} \]
- Proof
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Consider the circle centered at the origin that goes through the point \(x\) on the positive real axis, where \(0 \lt x \lt s\text{.}\) The circular region matches the polar rectangle \(0 \lt \theta \lt 2\pi\) and \(0 \lt r \lt x\text{,}\) so the area is given by
\[ \int_0^{2\pi} \int_0^x \dfrac{4r}{(1+kr^2)^2}dr d\theta\text{.} \]
Evaluating this integral gives the result, and the details are left as an exercise.
Suppose \(k \in \mathbb{R}\text{,}\) and we have a geodesic right triangle in \((X_k,G_k)\) whose legs have length \(a\) and \(b\) and whose hypotenuse has length \(c\text{.}\) Then
\[ A(c)=A(a)+A(b)-\dfrac{k}{2\pi}A(a)A(b)\text{,} \]
where \(A(r)\) denotes the area of a circle with radius \(r\) as measured in \((X_k,G_k)\text{.}\)
- Proof
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Suppose \(k \in \mathbb{R}\text{.}\) If \(k = 0\) the equation reduces to \(c^2 = a^2 + b^2\text{,}\) which is true by the Pythagorean Theorem \(1.2.1\)! Otherwise, assume \(k \neq 0\) and let \(s = \dfrac{1}{\sqrt{|k|}}\text{,}\) as usual. Without loss of generality we may assume our right triangle is defined by the points \(z = 0\text{,}\) \(p = x\text{,}\) and \(q = yi\text{,}\) where \(0 \lt x,y \lt s\text{.}\) By construction, the legs \(zp\) and \(zq\) are Euclidean segments, and \(\angle pzq\) is right.
Let \(a = d_k(z,p), b = d_k(z,q),\) and \(c = d_k(p,q)\text{.}\) By Lemma \(7.4.1\),
\[ A(a) = \dfrac{4\pi x^2}{1+kx^2},~~{\text and}~~A(b) = \dfrac{4\pi y^2}{1+ky^2}\text{.} \]
To find \(A(c)\text{,}\) we first find \(d_k(p,q)\text{.}\) By invariance of distance,
\[ d_k(p,q)=d_k(0,|T(q)|)\text{,} \]
where \(T(z) = \dfrac{z - p}{1+k\overline{p}z}\text{.}\) Let \(t = |T(q)| =\dfrac{|yi-x|}{|1+kxyi|}\text{,}\) which is a real number.
Now, \(A(c)\) is the area of a circle with radius \(c\text{,}\) and the circle centered at \(0\) through \(t\) has this radius, so
\[ A(c) = \dfrac{4\pi t^2}{1+kt^2}\text{.} \]
Using the fact that \(t^2 = \dfrac{x^2+y^2}{1 + k^2x^2y^2}\text{,}\) one can now check by direct substitution that
\[ A(c) = A(a) + A(b)-\dfrac{k}{2\pi}A(a)A(b)\text{.} \]
While we have proved the theorem, it feels a bit like we have missed the best part - discovery of the relationship. For more on this, we encourage the reader to consult [20] .
Suppose a two-dimensional bug in \((X_k,G_k)\) walks along a line for \(a \gt 0\) units, turns left \(90^{\circ}\text{,}\) and walks on a line for another \(a\) units, thus creating a right triangle with legs of equal length. Let \(c\) denote the hypotenuse of this triangle. The diagram below depicts such a route, in each of the three geometry types. For convenience, we assume the journey begins at the origin and proceeds first along the positive real axis.
It turns out the value of \(c\) as a function of \(a\) can reveal the curvature \(k\) of the geometry. If \(k = 0\) the Pythagorean theorem tells us that \(c^2 = 2a^2\text{.}\) For \(k \lt 0\text{,}\) the hyperbolic law of cosines (Exercise \(7.3.4\)) tells us that \(\cosh(\sqrt{|k|} c) = \cosh^2(\sqrt{|k|}a)\text{.}\) For \(k \gt 0\text{,}\) the elliptic law of cosines (Exercise \(7.2.5\)) tells us that \(\cos(\sqrt{k} c) = \cos^2(\sqrt{k}a)\text{.}\) We may solve each of these equations for \(c\text{,}\) using the fact that \(a\) and \(c\) are positive, to give us \(c\) as a function of \(a\) and the curvature \(k\text{.}\) We have plotted these functions for \(k = -1,0,1\) below. When \(k \lt 0\) the length of the hypotenuse of such a triangle is slightly longer than that predicted by the Euclidean formula (the Pythagorean theorem); when \(k \gt 0\) the length is smaller than the length predicted by the Euclidean formula.
We close by summarizing measurement formulas for these geometries. Except for the case \(k=0\) these formulas were proved in the exercises of the previoius two sections. The case \(k=0\) is tackled in Exercise \(7.4.1\).
Suppose \(k \in \mathbb{R}\text{,}\) \(s = \dfrac{1}{\sqrt{|k|}}\) and \(0 \lt x \lt s\) is a real number (with the convention that if \(k = 0\) we simply require \(0 \lt x\)).
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In \((X_k,G_k)\text{,}\) the distance from 0 to \(x\) is given by
\[ d_k(0,x) = \begin{cases}s \ln\bigg(\dfrac{s+x}{s-x}\bigg) & \text{ if \(k \lt 0\); } \\ 2x & \text{ if \(k=0\); } \\ 2s \arctan(\dfrac{x}{s}) & \text{if \(k \gt 0\).} \end{cases} \]
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A circle with radius \(r\) as measured in \((X_k,G_k)\) has area \(A(r)\) given by
\[ A(r) = \begin{cases} 4\pi s^2 \sinh^2(\dfrac{r}{2s})& \text{ if \(k \lt 0\); } \\ \pi r^2 & \text{ if \(k=0\); } \\ 4\pi s^2 \sin^2(\frac{r}{2s}) & \text{if \(k \gt 0\),} \end{cases} \]
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A circle with radius \(r\) as measured in \((X_k,G_k)\) has circumference \(C(r)\) given by
\[ C(r) = \begin{cases}2\pi s \sinh(\dfrac{r}{s}) & \text{ if \(k \lt 0\); } \\ 2\pi r & \text{ if \(k=0\); } \\ 2\pi s \sin(\dfrac{r}{s}) & \text{if \(k \gt 0\).} \end{cases} \]
Exercises
Check that the measurement formulas in \((X_k,G_k)\) are correct when \(k = 0\text{.}\) In particular, show that \(d_0(0,x)=2x\) for any \(x \gt 0\) on the real axis, and that a circle with radius \(r\) as measured in \((X_0,G_0)\) has area \(A(r) = \pi r^2\) and circumference \(C(r)=2\pi r\text{.}\)
Complete the proof of Lemma \(7.4.1\).
Suppose an intrepid team of two-dimensional explorers sets out to determine which \(2\)-dimensional geometry is theirs. Their cosmologists have told them there world is homogeneous, isotropic, and metric, so they believe that the geometry of their universe is modeled by \((X_k,G_k)\) for some real number \(k\text{.}\) They carefully measure the angles and area of a triangle. They find the angles to be \(29.2438^{\circ}\text{,}\) \(73.4526^{\circ}\text{,}\) and \(77.2886^{\circ}\text{,}\) and the area is \(8.81\) km\(^2\text{.}\) Which geometry is theirs? What is the curvature of their universe?
Prove that in \((X_k,G_k)\) the derivative of area with respect to \(r\) is circumference: \(\dfrac{d}{dr}[A(r)]=C(r)\text{.}\)
Suppose a two-dimensional bug in \((X_k,G_k)\) traces the right triangle route from 0 to \(p\) as depicted in Example \(7.4.1\). Argue that for a given value of \(a\text{,}\) the hyperbolic hypotenuse length exceeds the Euclidean hypotenuse length, which exceeds the elliptic hypotenuse length.
- Hint
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One might prove that for all \(k\text{,}\) when \(a = 0\text{,}\) \(c = 0\) and \(\dfrac{dc}{da}\vert_{a=0}=\sqrt{2}\text{;}\) and then show that for \(a \gt 0\text{,}\) \(\dfrac{d^2 c}{da^2}\) is positive for negative values of \(k\text{,}\) and it is negative for positive values of \(k\text{.}\)
Suppose a team of two-dimensional explorers living in \((X_k,G_k)\) travels \(8\) units along a line. Then they turn right (\(90^{\circ}\)) and travel \(8\) units along a line. At this point they find they are \(12\) units from their starting point. Which type of geometry applies to their universe? Can they determine the value of \(k\) from this measurement? If so, what is it?
Repeat the previous exercise using the measurements \(a = 8\) units and \(c = 11.2\) units.
Suppose a team of two-dimensional explorers living in \((X_k,G_k)\) finds themselves at point \(p\text{.}\) They travel \(8\) units along a line to a point \(z\text{,}\) turn right (\(90^{\circ}\)) and travel another \(8\) units along a line to the point \(q\text{.}\) At this point they measure \(\angle pqz =.789\) radians. Which type of geometry applies to their universe? Can they determine the value of \(k\) from this measurement? If so, what is it?
Suppose a team of two-dimensional explorers living in \((X_k,G_k)\) tethers one of their team to a line \(18\) scrambles long (a scramble is the standard unit for measuring length in this world - and \(24\) scrambles equals one tubablast). They swing the volunteer around in a circle, and though he laughs maniacally, he is able to record with confidence that he traveled \(113.4\) scrambles. Assuming these measurements are correct, which type of geometry applies to their universe? Can they determine the value of \(k\) from these measurements? If so, what is it?


20: Respiratory System
The respiratory system consists of specific organs and structures designed to deliver clean and conditioned oxygenated air to the sites of gas exchange in the lungs while also functioning to excrete waste in the form of carbon dioxide. The respiratory system also follows the gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) as they travel via specialized structures through the bloodstream to be exchanged with tissues throughout the body. (Thumbnail credit: "Respiratory System" by Theresa Knott is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.5 )
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- 20.1: Introduction to the Respiratory System
- You may be surprised to learn that although oxygen is a critical need for cells, it is actually the accumulation of carbon dioxide that primarily drives your need to breathe. Carbon dioxide is exhaled and oxygen is inhaled through the respiratory system, which includes muscles to move air into and out of the lungs, passageways through which air moves, and microscopic gas exchange surfaces covered by capillaries.
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- 20.2: Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System
- The major organs of the respiratory system function primarily to provide oxygen to body tissues for cellular respiration, remove the waste product carbon dioxide, and help to maintain acid-base balance. Portions of the respiratory system are also used for non-vital functions, such as sensing odors, speech production, and for straining, such as during childbirth or coughing.
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- 20.3: The Lungs
- A major organ of the respiratory system, each lung houses structures of both the conducting and respiratory zones. The main function of the lungs is to perform the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide with air from the atmosphere. To this end, the lungs exchange respiratory gases across a very large epithelial surface area—about 70 square meters—that is highly permeable to gases.
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- 20.4: The Processes of the Respiratory System
- The processes of the respiratory system are pulmonary ventilation, external respiration (gas exchange at the respiratory membrane), transport of gases within the circulatory system, internal respiration (gas exchange at the tissues of the body), and cellular respiration (the process by which the cell makes adenosine triphosphate (ATP) using oxygen and producing carbon dioxide as a waste product that must be removed from the body.
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- 20.5: Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System
- Development of the respiratory system begins early in the fetus. It is a complex process that includes many structures, most of which arise from the endoderm and the splanchnic mesoderm. Toward the end of development, the fetus can be observed making breathing movements. Until birth, however, the mother provides all of the oxygen to the fetus as well as removes all of the fetal carbon dioxide via the placenta.


9.2: Work
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Essentially all women work. Some are artists, politicians, assistants, farmers, soldiers, teachers, parents, spouses, architects, or dishwashers. Some find their work enjoyable, and some are working out of necessity. Economists today separate paid and unpaid work with the terms “productive” and “unproductive” work. This distinction is essential when we’re exploring many women’s everyday struggle to balance their daily lives. With this definition, anyone who spends their days making meals, doing dishes, folding laundry, ironing, carpooling, feeding the dogs, cleaning the cat box, helping with homework, setting up play dates, getting kids to soccer practice, and grocery shopping is not involved in “productive work.”
In recent decades, women have entered the workforce and obtained jobs that were once reserved for men. However, most paid jobs in the United States are still divided by gender lines. In 2019, 57.4 percent of all women participated in the labor force while the labor force participation rate for men was 69.2 percent. Women accounted for 51.8 percent of all workers employed in management, professional, and related occupations in 2019, somewhat more than their share of total employment (47.0 percent). By industry, women accounted for more than half of all workers within several sectors in 2019: education and health services (74.8 percent), financial activities (52.6 percent), and leisure and hospitality (51.2 percent). However, women were substantially underrepresented (relative to their share of total employment) in manufacturing (29.4 percent), agriculture (26.2 percent), transportation and utilities (24.1 percent), mining (15.8 percent), and construction (10.3 percent). 266
Women continue to dominate in positions in supportive or service areas. These types of jobs would include being secretaries, assistants, health aids, servers, day-care workers, elderly caregivers, and in other people’s homes. In these types of positions, women are often treated as expendable and replaceable in their positions. This treatment also places the people in these occupations are greater risk for labor and wage exploitation. In her book Doméstica: Immigrant Workers Cleaning and Caring in the Shadows of Affluence , sociologist Pierrette Hondagneu- Sotelo shares the voices, experiences, and views of Mexican and Central American women who care for other people's children and homes. In it, she describes how paid domestic work has largely become the domain of disenfranchised immigrant women of color. Many of these workers were not earning a living wage, and some employers even exercise great pains not to flaunt their affluence. In one telling moment, Hondagneu-Sotelo writes:
Some employers try to snip off the price tags on new clothing and home furnishings before the Latina domestic workers read them because they fear the women will compare the prices of those items with their wages - which they invariably do. While some employers often feel guilty about 'having so much' around someone who 'has so little,' the women who do the work resent not their affluence but the job arrangements, which generally afford the workers little in the way of respect and living wages. 267
Women in professional jobs tend to dominate occupations like teaching (76%), 268 social work (83%), 269 and nursing (89%). 270 There is a definite emphasis on care-giving or serving others in women’s professions. But there is another difference between women’s and men’s work, and that comes in the form of their wages. “You don’t have to look to Venus or Mars to find the difference in men and women. Just look at their paychecks.” 271
266
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics (2021). Women in the labor force: a databook.
https://www.bls.gov/opub/reports/wom.../2020/home.htm
267
Hondagneu-Sotelo, P. (2007).
Doméstica: Immigrant Workers Cleaning and Caring in the Shadows of Affluence
. University of California Press. Pg 11-12.
268
National Center for Education Statistics. (2022). Characteristics of Public School Teachers. Condition of Education. U.S. Department of Education,
Institute of Education Sciences
. Retrieved [August 2022], from
https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/clr
.
269
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2021). Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey.
https://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat11.htm
270
Jennifer Cheeseman Day and Cheridan Christnacht, “Your Health Care is in Women’s Hands,”
US Census Bureau
, August 14, 2019.
271
Tucker, Cynthia. 1996. Women’s practical vote for Clinton.
Chicago Tribune
. Page 3


1.2: What’s College For?
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“Learning is a treasure that will follow its owner everywhere .”
– Chinese Proverb
What’s college for? That’s a little question with a big answer! A college education comes in many shapes and sizes. In 2014, according to the National Center for Education Statistics, there were over 4,700 different post-secondary degree- granting institutions in the United States. [1]
These schools may be public, private, religious, small, large, for-profit, community colleges, junior colleges. Considering the variety of college options, there is no single answer to the question, “What is college for?” Brenda Hellyer, Chancellor of San Jacinto College in Houston and Pasadena, Texas, wrote in the Chronicle of Higher Education that students “are seeking more than an education—they are seeking options, opportunities, and guidance.”
People go to college for a variety of reasons. The type of college you select will help set parameters and expectations for your experiences. Before jumping into the details of going to college, it’s important to stop and think about the purpose college has in your life. Traditionally, college was a place young adults went after high school to explore courses and majors before settling into a job path. According to a 2015 UCLA survey, most people currently go to college for one or more of 7 main reasons: [2]
1) To be able to get a better job 2) To gain a general education and appreciation of ideas 3) To become a more cultured person 4) To be able to make more money 5) To learn more about things that interest me 6) To get training for a specific career 7) To prepare for graduate or professional schoolA YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://press.rebus.community/blueprint2/?p=218
An article from 2015 in the Washington Post, What’s the purpose of college: A job or an education? says that students entering college today list getting a better job as the most important reason to attend college. In the past, learning about things that interested them was listed as the top reason to attend college. When did the change in priority occur? Dan Berrett says the change in priority can be linked to Ronald Reagan, when he was Governor of California. [3]
Economic times were tough in 1967 for California. Everyone needed to “tighten their belts.” At that time, California was known for its excellent higher educational system. In a speech Reagan gave on Feb. 28, 1967, a month into his term as Governor, Reagan assured people that he wouldn’t do anything to harm the quality of their public education system. “But,” he added, “We do believe that there are certain intellectual luxuries that perhaps we could do without.” Taxpayers should not be “subsidizing intellectual curiosity,” he said. By the time Reagan won the presidency, in 1980, practical degrees had become the popular choice. In the 1930s, around the time Reagan went to college, about 8% of students majored in “business and commerce.” When he was elected Governor, that share was 12%. By the time he moved into the White House, more students majored in business than anything else. Business, as a major, has held that top spot ever since.
Deciding to go to college has an “ opportunity cost .” An opportunity cost is based on the economic principle that there are limited resources available and choices must be made. Examples of resources would be things like time and money. If you are spending time doing something, you must give up doing something else you want to do. That is the opportunity cost of your choice. Going to college will have an opportunity cost in your life. An important question to ask in the beginning of your college venture is: what are you willing to trade off for going to college?
Opportunity costs are tied to the idea of return on investment. Once you make an investment of your time and money in college, what investment are you hoping to get in return? How you define success in relationship to your college experience impacts how you see the concept of return on investment. Some ways to gauge return on investment include: job opportunities after college, immediate financial benefit to earned wages, social network/connections made while attending college, development of communication and other “soft skills,” and personal enrichment and/or happiness.
Short-term rewards compared to long-term rewards are another way to look at return on investment. For example, it takes much longer to become a CEO (Chief Executive Officer) of a company than it does to get a well-paid job at the same company. Different skills would be required from the CEO and it may require more investment to acquire those skills. Frances Bronet, the Dean of the School of Architecture at the University of Oregon, conducted a survey of former engineering graduates when she taught at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. She asked former graduates what they felt they had missed in their education. The results were very different depending on how recent their graduation was. Students who had graduated 1 year ago felt that they needed more technical skills. People who had graduated 5 years ago felt that they needed more management skills, and people who had graduated 10-20 years ago felt that they needed more cultural literacy because their work now involved more working with other cultures.
Deciding to go to college is a big decision and choosing a course of study can seem overwhelming to many students. Considering the changing world we live in, knowing what direction to go is not easy. According to Richard Riley, secretary of education under Bill Clinton, “We are currently preparing students for jobs that don’t exist using technology that haven’t been invented in order to solve problems that we don’t even know.”
A TED element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://press.rebus.community/blueprint2/?p=218
Scott Carlson, “How to Assess the Real Pay Off of a College Degree,” Chronicle of Higher Education, 2013.
Jeffery J. Selingo, “What’s The Purpose of College: A Job or An Education?,” The Washington Post , 2015.
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Ken Robinson: Do Schools Kill Creativity? Authored by TED.com
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