16.5: Review and Additional Resources
Review
Review and assess your learning. Start with the "Important Terms and Concepts" to ensure you know the terminology related to the topic of the chapter and concepts discussed. Move on to the "Review Questions" to answer critical thinking questions about concepts and processes discussed in the chapter. Finally, test your overall understanding by taking the "Self-assessment quiz".
-
- volcano
- an opening in the surface of the Earth from which magma and associated gases and ash erupt; also, the form or structure, sometimes conical, that is produced by the ejected material.
-
- central vent
- The main conduit through which magma moves toward the surface
-
- crater
- sits at the top of a volcano and is the location where much of the lava, gas, rock fragments and ash are ejected from
-
- caldera
- massive craters created when pressure builds inside the volcano until the top is literally blown off, magma drains back into the central vent and the top of the cone collapses in
-
- magma chamber
- a huge, subterranean caldron of molten rock that is less dense than the surrounding rock and rises to the surface
-
- lava
- molten rock above the surface
-
- lateral vent
- found on the sides of some volcanoes where lava is extruded
-
- pyroclastic flow
- fast-moving gas and fragments of rock having temperatures of 500 o C rushing down the flanks of a volcano at speeds reaching 100 km/hr, carbonizing all in their path.
-
- hot spot
- places where a chamber of magma has accumulated at depth beneath the surface
-
- midocean Ridge
- oceanic plates are diverging and magma spreads across the ocean floor, ultimately being exposed at the surface
-
- effusive eruption
- those that create vast lava flows of low viscosity, fluid lava. Magma associated with effusive-type eruptions is relatively low in silica and thus "easily" flows up the vent and spreads across the surface
-
- shield volcano
- a product of effusive eruptions; as the fluid lava flows out onto the surface, it spreads out and cools into a broad, low-angled slope.
-
- Pahoehoe lava
- has a glistening, ropy like appearance as it moves and cools
-
- AA lava
- more pasty than pahoehoe and forms a sharp, clinkery, rough surface
-
- explosive eruption
- common to volcanoes with very viscous lava and high amounts of gas under pressure. Magma is high in silica, thus more viscous
-
- cinder cone
- primarily composed of layers of pyroclastic material built from rock fragments once lodged in the central vent of the volcano
-
- composite (Stratovolcano)
- produce explosive eruptions; form from alternating eruptions dominated by pyroclastics or lava; display layers of alternating flows
-
- lahar
- Mudflows or debris flows resulting from when hot pyroclastic material melts snowpacks, or fresh pyroclastic deposits are mobilized by heavy rains
-
- Nuees Ardentees
- noxious gases and fine particulate matter; aka "glowing clouds or avalanches"
Compare and contrast shield, composite, and cinder cone volcanoes.
- Answer
-
Shield volcanoes have broad, low-angled slopes and built layer on layer of fluid lava. Composite volcanoes are steep-sided cones built from alternating flows of lava and pyroclastics. Cinder cones are smaller cones built primarily from explosive eruptions of pyroclastics.
Where do volcanoes occur?
- Answer
-
In subduction zones, along the midocean ridge, and over hot spots.
What is the basic difference between eruptions from shield and composite volcanoes?
- Answer
-
Eruptions from shield volcanoes tend to be dominated by effusive eruptions of fluid lava. Composite volcanoes produces explosive eruptions from stickier magma.
What is a lahar?
- Answer
-
Mudflows called lahars are caused by the rapid melting and runoff of snow mixing with ash and soil.
What is a pyroclastic flow?
- Answer
-
Hot ash, pumice, rock fragments and noxious gas that moves rapidly down the side of a volcano.
What are the principal gases emitted by a volcano?
- Answer
-
The most common gas released by magma is steam (H 2 O), followed by CO 2 (carbon dioxide), SO 2 (sulfur dioxide), (HCl) hydrogen chloride and other compounds.
How do calderas form?
- Answer
-
By the volcano blowing the summit off or magma draining from the central vent removing support for the summit causing it to collapse in.
Explain how the Hawaiian Islands formed.
- Answer
-
The Hawaiian islands were formed by volcanic activity over a hot spot. The youngest island in the chain lies toward the southeast as the Pacific Plate moves toward the northwest.
How was the Columbia Plateau formed?
- Answer
-
A flood basalt of 170,000 cubic kilometers known as the Columbia River basalts covered a large portion of southeastern Washington, eastern Oregon and southern Idaho creating the plateau.
What is a volcanic neck?
- Answer
-
A volcanic neck is the "mold" of the central vent. Magma stuck in the central vent cools. Removal of the overlying rock exposes the plug-like shape within. Shiprock, NM (below) is a notable example of a volcanic neck.
-
Volcanoes are found
- along the midocean ridge
- near subduction zones
- hot spots (mantle plumes)
- all of the above
-
A volcano built by alternating flows of lava and accumulation of pyroclastics is called
- a shield volcano
- a cinder cones
- a composite volcano (stratovolcano)
- any of the above
-
A caldera
- is a lateral vent on the side of a volcano
- a huge crater at the top of the volcano
- a tube where lava pours into the ocean
- none of the above
-
The oldest island in the Hawaiian chain is located towards the ______ end of the chain.
- northwest
- northeast
- southwest
- southeast
-
The volcanoes that comprise the Hawaiian Islands are
- shield volcanoes
- composite volcanoes
- cinder cones
- none of the above
-
Shield volcanoes
- are associated with effusive eruptions
- have very steep sides
- mostly emit pyroclastic material from their central vent
- are associated with all the above
-
______ are mudflows due to rapid melting of snow packs along the sides of snow covered mountains.
- Pyroclastic avalanche
- Pahoehoe
- AA
- Lahars
-
Devil's Tower is a
- dike
- lava plateau
- a landing site for alien spacecraft
- volcanic neck
-
A lava that has a glistening, ropy-like appearance associated with effusive eruptions is known as
- AA
- Pahoehoe
- Nuees Ardentees
- Pu' u' O'o
-
The Columbia River Plateau is was built from
- limestone
- granite
- basalt
- none of the above
- Answer
-
- D
- C
- B
- A
- A
- A
- D
- D
- A
- C
Additional Resources
Focus on The Physical Environment: " Cascades Volcanoes: When Sleeping Giants Wake " (KSPS Public TV)
Physical Geography Today: Weekly Volcanic Activity (Smithsonian & USGS)
Multimedia
Volcanism Earth Revealed ( Annenberg/CPB ) from the site : "Volcanoes provide clues about what is going on inside Earth. Animations illustrate volcanic processes and how plate boundaries are related to volcanism. The program also surveys the various types of eruptions, craters, cones and vents, lava domes, magma, and volcanic rock. The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens serves as one example." Go to the Earth Revealed site and scroll to "Volcanism". One-time, free registration may be required to view film.
"Volcanoes" - Talk of the Nation - Science Friday (NPR) segment from August 2, 1996 explores how and where volcanoes form and how to predict eruptions with geologists from the Cascade Volcano Observatory and others. (RealAudio required)
Underwater Lava "Host Noah Adams talks with Christopher Fox, of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) about underwater equipment that was monitoring a nearby volcano. It got covered with molten lava, but is still working. The instrument records pressure and temperature variations -- it also has a camera, and captured the eruption in movie form, viewable under the title 'lava flow animation' on https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/vents/nemo/explorer/rumble.html ". (4:00)
Readings
Tracking a Volcano (NASA EOS) Volcanologists use satellites to measure the average temperature of lava flows and determine the rate at which the magma is coming out of the ground.
Web Sites
Anatomy of Nyriragongo (NOVA - PBS) Explore the main features of Nyiragongo and learn what risks it poses to the 500,000 people who live in its shadow.
Cascades Volcano Observatory (USGS) Wealth of information, photos, data and other reference materials related to volcanoes.
Deadly Volcanoes (NOVA - PBS) Revisit some of the worst volcanic disasters of the past 400 years.
Volcanoes of the World - wealth of information, QTVR, video clips, virtual field trips to volcanoes.
Volcano World - the Web's premier volcano site.


4.5: Oxidation Reactions
Wacker-type tandem cyclization reaction of alkenyl alcohol is reported using chiral palladium(II)-spirobis(isoxazoline) with excellent enantioselectivity (Scheme \(\PageIndex{1}\)). In this reaction, benzoquinone reoxidizes the reduced palladium(0) to palladium(II) species to complete the catalytic cycle.
Palladium complex derived from Pd(TFA) 2 and ( S,S )-BOXAX has been found to be effective for the synthesis of chiral chroman framework in the presence of benzoquinone (Scheme \(\PageIndex{2}\)).
The mercury(II) complex derived from Hg(TFA) 2 and bisoxazoline has been used for the mercuriocyclization with high enantioselectivity (Scheme \(\PageIndex{3}\)).
Chiral cobalt(II)-salen has been used for the enantioselective intramolecular iodoetherification to procure 2-substituted tetrahydrofurans with up to 90% ee (Scheme \(\PageIndex{4}\)).


 The bow rubbing the string causes vibration, which the instrument emits as sound.
The first modern violin is thought to have been developed by Andrea Amati (ca. 1505-1577) in Italy.
Listen to the different string instruments below.
Viola
Contributors and Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
- StringInstruMAPDF. Authored by : AlejandroLinaresGarcia. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:StringInstruMAPDF.JPG . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Bowed string instrument. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Bowed_string_instrument . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Ehru played by blind man. Authored by : Anna Frodesiak. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ehru_played_by_blind_man.jpg . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved
- u6c5fu6cb3u6c34. Authored by : David290 u5f20u6c9bu575a. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%B1%9F%E6%B2%B3%E6%B0%B4.ogg . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Mongolian Musician. Authored by : Eric Pouhier. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mongolian_Musician.jpg . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
All rights reserved content
- Julia Fischer - Hindemith - Finale from Sonata for Solo Violin, Op 11, No 6. Authored by : Opus 21. Located at : https://youtu.be/LL-uyKDhDUM?t=1s . License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
- Max Reger: Viola Suite, com Orquestra - Yuri Bashmet e os Solistas de Moscou (Movt. 1). Authored by : figure2000. Located at : https://youtu.be/Gji5CZ-VdHs?t=1s . License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
- Tchaikovsky: Rococo Variations Yo Yo Ma, violoncello. Authored by : Fredobel51. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iN184Ytzmpc . License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
- Edgar Meyer - BACH & friends - Michael Lawrence Films. Authored by : Michael Lawrence. Located at : https://youtu.be/hV-65UMPMMA?t=1s . License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
- Mozart-Divertimento K136-1. Authored by : Kidon Sull. Located at : https://youtu.be/dPBL-kPQzkc?t=1s . License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Standard YouTube License


1.14.48: Open System
The chemical thermodynamics of open systems [1-2] is more complicated than that of closed systems because chemical substances exchange between system and surroundings, crossing the boundary of the system.
Footnote
[1] D. Kondepudi and I. Prigogine, Modern Thermodynamics; From Heat Engines to Dissipative Structures, Wiley, New York, 1998.
[2] Clearly a treatment of the chemical thermodynamics of the human body has to take account of the fact that such systems are open. Farmers are very practical chemical thermodynamic experts because in feeding their livestock they judge if the animals they are feeding will
- produce milk for sale,
- meat for food,
- skin for the manufacture of leather and/or
- be used for breeding.
Farmers do not leave these options to chance as they cope in very practical way with such open systems.


13.7: The Verdict
In a criminal trial, the burden of proof is on the government. Defendants do not have to prove their innocence. Instead, the government must provide evidence to convince the jury of the defendant’s guilt. The standard of proof in a criminal trial gives the prosecutor a much greater burden than the plaintiff in a civil trial. The defendant must be found guilty “beyond a reasonable doubt,” which means the evidence must be so strong that there is no reasonable doubt that the defendant committed the crime.
Not Guilty
If the jury finds the defendant not guilty, it is called an “acquittal” and the defendant will be released. The defendant can never be tried again for the same crime. This is called “double jeopardy.” A finding of not guilty is not the same as a finding of innocence. It simply means that the jury was not convinced that the defendant was guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. The arrest will still show on the defendant’s record, along with the acquittal. If a defendant was wrongfully arrested and charged, and he or she wants to get the arrest removed from her or his record, a hearing to determine the factual innocence of the defendant must be held in front of a judge. It is often much harder to prove factual innocence than to raise a reasonable doubt about guilt.


14: Genomics and Systems Biology
Imagine that you could identify and quantify every molecule within a cell (Figure 11.1) in a single assay. You could use this ability to better understand almost any aspect of biology. For example, by comparing the molecular profiles of plants that differed in their resistance to drought, you might discover which combination of genes or proteins makes a crop drought tolerant. Although it is not currently possible to study literally every molecule in a cell in a single experiment, recent advances in molecular biology have made it possible to study many genes (or their products) in parallel.
Figure 11.1: An artist’s depiction of part of an E.coli cell, showing many different types of molecules in their typical abundance. mRNA appears as white lines associated with purple ribosomes, while DNA and proteins such as histones are yellow. (Goodsell, Scripps-EDU)
-
- 14.1: ‘Omics Technologies
- This page discusses the genome as the complete DNA set of an organism and genomics as the large-scale study of genes. It highlights advancements in technology that improve research efficiency and reduce costs. The term –omics describes high-throughput analyses of biological molecules (transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics). It also notes that interpreting this data necessitates bioinformatics expertise, and integrating various –omics forms is referred to as systems biology.
-
- 14.2: DNA Sequencing
- This page discusses DNA sequencing and its techniques, including dideoxy sequencing, which uses modified nucleotides to determine sequences, and capillary electrophoresis for fragment analysis. It highlights next-generation sequencing methods like Illumina, which improve speed and cost-effectiveness by sequencing multiple short templates at once but notes the limitation of these short lengths in certain applications.
-
- 14.3: Whole Genome Sequencing
- This page explains the necessity of genome assembly in sequencing, due to short read lengths (45bp to 700bp) versus the large size of human genomes (3 billion bp). It describes two main strategies: clone-by-clone sequencing, utilizing mapped DNA fragments, and whole genome shotgun sequencing, which assembles small fragments without a map. While shotgun sequencing is prevalent, it often needs supplementary methods for complete assemblies.
-
- 14.4: Functional Genomics – Determining Function(s)
- This page discusses functional genomics and its techniques for determining gene functions post-genome identification, highlighting microarray analysis as a key method. Microarrays measure mRNA abundance across numerous genes, indicating gene activity and expression variations in different tissues and conditions, including development stages and responses to external factors. They visualize transcript levels with fluorescence, revealing patterns of tissue-specific or temporal gene expression.
Contributors
-
Dr. Todd Nickle and Isabelle Barrette-Ng (Mount Royal University) The content on this page is licensed under CC SA 3.0 licensing guidelines.


4.2: Tempo Markings and Changes
Tempo Markings
A tempo marking that is a word or phrase gives you the composer’s idea of how fast the music should feel. How fast a piece of music feels depends on several different things, including the texture and complexity of the music, how often the beat gets divided into faster notes, and how fast the beats themselves are (the metronome marking). Also, the same tempo marking can mean quite different things to different composers; if a metronome marking is not available, the performer should use a knowledge of the music’s style and genre, and musical common sense, to decide on the proper tempo. When possible, listening to a professional play the piece can help with tempo decisions, but it is also reasonable for different performers to prefer slightly different tempos for the same piece.
Traditionally, tempo instructions are given in Italian.
Tempo Terms
- Grave – very slow and solemn (pronounced “GRAH-vay”)
- Largo – slow and broad (“LAR-go”)
- Larghetto – not quite as slow as largo (“lar-GET-oh”)
- Adagio – slow (“uh-DAH-jee-oh”)
- Lento – slow (“LEN-toe”)
- Andante – literally “walking”, a medium slow tempo (“on-DON-tay”)
- Moderato – moderate, or medium (“MOD-er-AH-toe”)
- Allegretto – Not as fast as allegro (“AL-luh-GRET-oh”)
- Allegro – fast (“uh-LAY-grow”)
- Vivo, or Vivace – lively and brisk (“VEE-voh”)
- Presto – very fast (“PRESS-toe”)
- Prestissimo – very, very fast (“press-TEE-see-moe”)
These terms, along with a little more Italian, will help you decipher most tempo instructions.
Additional Useful Italian
- (un) poco – a little (“oon POH-koe”)
- molto – a lot (“MOLE-toe”)
- piu – more (“pew”)
- meno – less (“MAY-no”)
- mosso – literally “moved”; motion or movement (“MOE-so”)
Slow Tempo
- Grave —slow and solemn (20–40 BPM)
- Lento —slowly (40–45 BPM)
- Largo —broadly (45–50 BPM)
- Larghetto —rather broadly (50–55 BPM)
- Adagio —slow and stately (literally, “at ease”) (55–65 BPM)
- Andante —at a walking pace (73–77 BPM)
Fast Tempo
- Allegro —fast, quickly and bright (109–132 BPM)
- Vivace —lively and fast (132–140 BPM)
- Presto —very fast (168–177 BPM)
Of course, tempo instructions don’t have to be given in Italian. Much folk, popular, and modern music, gives instructions in English or in the composer’s language. Tempo indications such as “Not too fast”, “With energy”, “Calmly”, or “March tempo” give a good idea of how fast the music should feel.
Tempo Changes
If the tempo of a piece of music suddenly changes into a completely different tempo, there will be a new tempo given, usually marked in the same way (metronome tempo, Italian term, etc.) as the original tempo. Gradual changes in the basic tempo are also common in music, though, and these have their own set of terms. These terms often appear below the staff, although writing them above the staff is also allowed. These terms can also appear with modifiers like molto or un poco. You may notice that there are quite a few terms for slowing down. Again, the use of these terms will vary from one composer to the next; unless beginning and ending tempo markings are included, the performer must simply use good musical judgement to decide how much to slow down in a particular ritardando orrallentando.
Changing-Tempo Terms
- accelerando – (abbreviated accel.) accelerating; getting faster
- ritardando – (abbrev. rit.) slowing down
- ritenuto – (abbrev. riten.) slower
- rallentando – (abbrev. rall.) gradually slower
- rubato – don’t be too strict with the rhythm; while keeping the basic tempo, allow the music to gently speed up and relax in ways that emphasize the phrasing
- poco a poco – little by little; gradually
- Tempo I – (“tempo one” or “tempo primo”) back to the original tempo (this instruction usually appears above the staff)
Listen for the dynamic changes in W. A. Mozart’s, Overture to “The Marriage of Figaro”
Before you start listening look for the dynamic markings in the score : pp, p, ff, p.
Contributors and Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
- Sonata No. 8 in C Minor Pathetique, Op. 13 - I. Grave - Allegro di molto e con brio. Authored by : Musopen. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Beethoven,_Sonata_No._8_in_C_Minor_Pathetique,_Op._13_-_I._Grave_-_Allegro_di_molto_e_con_brio.ogg . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved
- Prelude in E Minor, Op. 28, Nr. 4 for piano.. Authored by : Porticodoro / SmartCGArt Media Productions. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FChopinPreludeOp28n4.OGG . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Sonata No. 8 in C Minor Pathetique, Op. 13 - III. Rondo - Allegro. Authored by : Musopen. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Beethoven,_Sonata_No._8_in_C_Minor_Pathetique,_Op._13_-_III._Rondo_-_Allegro.ogg . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved
- Tempo. Authored by : Catherine Schmidt-Jones. Located at : http://cnx.org/contents/0d0a576a-f615-4847-a456-fe74e7a1a09a@11 . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Allegro con fuoco. Authored by : Angus. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/eyesore9/2393260403/ . License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives


6.2: Kirby Bauer Procedure
Kirby Bauer Test
Name: _____________________________________________________
Course Section: ______________________________________________
The following activity will teach students how to perform a Kirby Bauer antibiotic susceptibility test. Post-inoculation, students will determine the antibiotic susceptibility of a given bacterial species.
| Materials |
|
| Procedure |
|
Day 1:
Day 2:
|
Figure 1. Zones of inhibition are measured in millimeters (mm).
Results
| Antibiotic disk abbreviation | Antibiotic name | Antibiotic disk concentration | Resistant (mm) | Intermediate (mm) | Susceptible (mm) |
| E15 | Erythromycin | 15 µg | 13 or less | 14 – 22 | 23 or more |
| CIP5 | Ciprofloxacin | 5µg | 15 or less | 16 - 20 | 21 or more |
| SXT | Trimethoprim | 1.25µg | 10 or less | 11 - 15 | 16 or more |
| P10 |
Penicillin ( Staphylococcus) |
10 U | 28 or less | 29 or more | |
| P10 |
Penicillin (other bacteria) |
10 U | 14 or less | 15 or more | |
| C30 | Chloramphenicol | 30 µg | 12 or less | 13 – 17 | 18 or more |
| TE30 | Tetracycline | 30 µg | 14 or less | 15 – 18 | 19 or more |
| Antibiotic disk | Diameter of the zone of inhibition (mm) | ____________________ is... (resistant, intermediate, or susceptible) to this antibiotic. |
|
|
||
|
|
||
|
|
||
|
|
Complete the table above using measurements of the diameter of the zones of inhibition and the interpretation table above to determine if your bacteria are resistant, intermediate, or susceptible to each antibiotic.
General Questions
1. If you had a patient with an infection of this strain, which antibiotic(s) might be a good choice for treatment? Explain your answer.
2. Define "zone of inhibition."
3. Explain how the size of the zone of inhibition relates to the concentration of the antibiotic.
4. Explain how the size of the zone of inhibition relates to the susceptibility or resistance to an antibiotic.
5. Define antibiotic resistance?
6. Why do physicians often rely on empirical evidence rather than waiting for susceptibility testing when prescribing antibiotics?
7. What risks are associated with selecting an inappropriate empiric therapy, both for the patient and in terms of promoting antimicrobial resistance?


Skip to main content
-
Hormones
are chemicals that are released into the blood by
endocrine glands
i.e. Glands with no ducts. Hormones act on specific
target organs
that recognize them.
-
The main endocrine glands in the body are the
hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid
and
adrenal glands,
the
pancreas, ovaries
and
testes
.
-
The
hypothalamus
is situated under the
cerebrum
of the brain. It produces or controls many of the hormones released by the pituitary gland lying adjacent to it.
-
The
pituitary gland
is divided into two parts: the
anterior pituitary
and the
posterior pituitary
.
-
The
anterior pituitary
produces:
-
-
Growth hormone
that stimulates body growth
-
Prolactin
that initiates milk production
-
Follicle stimulating hormone
(
FSH
) that stimulates the development of
ova
-
Luteinising hormone (LH
) that stimulates the development of the
corpus luteum
-
Plus several other hormones
-
The
posterior pituitary
releases:
-
-
Antidiuretic hormone
(ADH) that regulates
water loss
and raises
blood pressure
-
Oxytocin
that stimulates milk “let down”.
-
The
pineal gland
in the brain produces
melatonin
that influences
sexual development
and
breeding cycles
.
-
The
thyroid gland
located in the neck, produces thyroxine, which influences the
rate of growth
and
development
of young animals. Thyroxine consists of 60%
iodine
. Lack of iodine leads to
goitre
.
-
The
parathyroid glands
situated adjacent to the thyroid glands in the neck produce
parathormone
that regulates blood
calcium
levels and the excretion of
phosphates
.
-
The
adrenal gland
located adjacent to the kidneys is divided into the outer
cortex
and the inner
medulla
.
-
The
adrenal cortex
produces:
-
-
Aldosterone
that regulates the blood concentration of
sodium and potassium
-
Cortisone
and
hydrocortisone
that affect
glucose, protein
and
fat
metabolism
-
Male and female
sex hormones
-
The
adrenal medulla
produces
adrenalin
responsible for the
flight, fright,
fight
response that prepares animals for emergencies.
-
The
pancreas
that lies in the first bend of the small intestine produces
insulin
that regulates blood
glucose
levels.
-
The
ovaries
are located in the lower abdomen produce 2 important sex hormones:
-
-
The
follicle cells
of the developing ova produce
oestrogen
, which controls the development of the
mammary glands
and prepares the uterus for pregnancy.
-
The
corpus luteum
that develops in the empty
follicle
after ovulation produces
progesterone
. This hormone further prepares the
uterus
for pregnancy and maintains the pregnancy.
-
The
testes
produce
testosterone
that stimulates the development of the
male reproductive system
and
sexual characteristics
.


10.2.1: Prediction
Recall the third exam/final exam example. We examined the scatter plot and showed that the correlation coefficient is significant. We found the equation of the best-fit line for the final exam grade as a function of the grade on the third-exam. We can now use the least-squares regression line for prediction.
Suppose you want to estimate, or predict, the mean final exam score of statistics students who received 73 on the third exam. The exam scores (\(x\)-values) range from 65 to 75. Since 73 is between the \(x\)-values 65 and 75, substitute \(x = 73\) into the equation. Then:
\[\hat{y} = -173.51 + 4.83(73) = 179.08\nonumber \]
We predict that statistics students who earn a grade of 73 on the third exam will earn a grade of 179.08 on the final exam, on average.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Recall the third exam/final exam example.
- What would you predict the final exam score to be for a student who scored a 66 on the third exam?
- What would you predict the final exam score to be for a student who scored a 90 on the third exam?
Answer
a. 145.27
b. The \(x\) values in the data are between 65 and 75. Ninety is outside of the domain of the observed \(x\) values in the data (independent variable), so you cannot reliably predict the final exam score for this student. (Even though it is possible to enter 90 into the equation for \(x\) and calculate a corresponding \(y\) value, the \(y\) value that you get will not be reliable.)
To understand really how unreliable the prediction can be outside of the observed \(x\)-values observed in the data, make the substitution \(x = 90\) into the equation.
\[\hat{y} = -173.51 + 4.83(90) = 261.19\nonumber \]
The final-exam score is predicted to be 261.19. The largest the final-exam score can be is 200.
The process of predicting inside of the observed \(x\) values observed in the data is called interpolation . The process of predicting outside of the observed \(x\)-values observed in the data is called extrapolation .
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Data are collected on the relationship between the number of hours per week practicing a musical instrument and scores on a math test. The line of best fit is as follows:
\[\hat{y} = 72.5 + 2.8x \nonumber \]
What would you predict the score on a math test would be for a student who practices a musical instrument for five hours a week?
- Answer
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86.5
Summary
After determining the presence of a strong correlation coefficient and calculating the line of best fit, you can use the least squares regression line to make predictions about your data.
If your hypothesis test does not show a significant correlation (if \(r\) is not strong), then you cannot use the line of best fit to predict anything. Instead, the best predicted value for a specific \(x\) value is the mean of the \(y\) values of the original data set.
References
- Data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
- Data from the National Center for HIV, STD, and TB Prevention.
- Data from the United States Census Bureau. Available online at www.census.gov/compendia/stat...atalities.html
- Data from the National Center for Health Statistics.
Contributors and Attributions
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Barbara Illowsky and Susan Dean (De Anza College) with many other contributing authors. Content produced by OpenStax College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license. Download for free at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>.


5.4E: Exercises - Combinations
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Do the following problems using combinations.
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How many different 3-people committees can be chosen from ten people?
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How many different 5-player teams can be chosen from eight players?
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In how many ways can a person chose to vote for three out of five candidates on a ballot for a school board election?
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Compute the following:
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9C2
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6C4
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8C3
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7C4
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How many 5-card hands can be chosen from a deck of cards?
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How many 13-card bridge hands can be chosen from a deck of cards?
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There are twelve people at a party. If they all shake hands, how many different hand-shakes are there?
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In how many ways can a student choose to do four questions out of five on a test?
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Five points lie on a circle. How many chords can be drawn through them?
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How many diagonals does a hexagon have?
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There are five teams in a league. How many games are played if every team plays each other twice?
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A team plays 15 games a season. In how many ways can it have 8 wins and 7 losses?
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In how many different ways can a 4-child family have 2 boys and 2 girls?
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A coin is tossed five times. In how many ways can it fall three heads and two tails?
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The shopping area of a town is a square that is six blocks by six blocks. How many different routes can a taxi driver take to go from one corner of the shopping area to the opposite cater-corner?
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If the shopping area in the previous problem has a rectangular form of 5 blocks by 3 blocks, then how many different routes can a taxi driver take to drive from one end of the shopping area to the opposite kitty corner end?
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A team of 7 workers is assigned to a project. In how many ways can 3 of the 7 workers be selected to make a presentation to the management about their progress on the project?
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A real estate company has 12 houses listed for sale by their clients. In how many ways can 5 of the 12 houses be selected to be featured in an advertising brochures?
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A frozen yogurt store has 9 toppings to choose from. In how many ways can 3 of the 9 toppings be selected ?
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A kindergarten teacher has 14 books about a holiday. In how many ways can she select 4 of the books to read to her class in the week before the holiday?
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The following problems involve combinations from several different sets.
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How many 5-people committees consisting of three boys and two girls can be chosen from a group of four boys and four girls?
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A club has 4 men, 5 women, 8 boys and 10 girls as members. In how many ways can a group of 2 men, 3 women, 4 boys and 4 girls be chosen?
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How many 4-people committees chosen from 4 men and 6 women will have at least 3 men?
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A batch contains 10 transistors of which three are defective. If three are chosen, in how many ways can they be selected with two defective?
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In how many ways can five counters labeled A, B, C, D and E at a store be staffed by two men and three women chosen from a group of four men and six women?
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How many 4-letter word sequences consisting of two vowels and two consonants can be made from the letters of the word PHOENIX if no letter is repeated?
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Three marbles are chosen from an urn that contains 5 red, 4 white, and 3 blue marbles. How many samples of the following type are possible?
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All three white.
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Two blue and one white
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One of each color.
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All three of the same color.
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At least two red.
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None red.
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The following problems involve combinations from several different sets.
Five coins are chosen from a bag that contains 4 dimes, 5 nickels, and 6 pennies. How many samples of five coins of the following types are possible?
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At least four nickels.
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No pennies.
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Five of a kind.
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Four of a kind.
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Two of one kind and two of another kind.
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Three of one kind and two of another kind.
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Find the number of different ways draw a 5-card hand from a deck to have the following combinations.
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Three face cards.
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A heart flush (all hearts).
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Two hearts and three diamonds
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Two cards of one suit, and three of another suit.
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Two kings and three queens.
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2 cards of one value and 3 of another value
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The party affiliation of the 100 United States Senators in the 114
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Congress, January 2015, was:
44 Democrats, 54 Republicans, and 2 Independents.
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In how many ways could a 10 person committee be selected if it is to contain 4 Democrats, 5 Republicans, and 1 Independent?
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In how many different ways could a 10 person committee be selected with 6 or 7 Republicans and the Democrats (with no Independents)?
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The 100 United States Senators in the 114
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Congress, January 2015, included 80 men and 20 women. Suppose a committee of senators is working on legislation about wage discrimination by gender.
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In how many ways could a 12 person committee be selected to contain equal numbers of men and women.
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In how many ways could a 6 person committee be selected to contain fewer women than men?
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1.2: Quantity Calculus
This section gives examples of how we may manipulate physical quantities by the rules of algebra. The method is called quantity calculus , although a better term might be “quantity algebra.”
This shows the new text
Quantity calculus is based on the concept that a physical quantity, unless it is dimensionless, has a value equal to the product of a numerical value (a pure number) and one or more units : \begin{equation} \tx{physical quantity = numerical value \(\times\) units} \tag{1.2.1} \end{equation} (If the quantity is dimensionless, it is equal to a pure number without units.) The physical property may be denoted by a symbol, but the symbol does not imply a particular choice of units. For instance, this e-book uses the symbol \(\rho\) for density, but \(\rho\) can be expressed in any units having the dimensions of mass divided by volume.
A simple example illustrates the use of quantity calculus. We may express the density of water at \(25\units{\(\degC\)}\) to four significant digits in SI base units by the equation \begin{equation} \rho = 9.970 \timesten{2} \units{kg m\(^{-3}\)} \tag{1.2.2} \end{equation} and in different density units by the equation \begin{equation} \rho = 0.9970 \units{g cm\(^{-3}\)} \tag{1.2.3} \end{equation} We may divide both sides of the last equation by \(1\units{g cm\(^{-3}\)}\) to obtain a new equation \begin{equation} \rho / \tx{g cm\(^{-3}\)}=0.9970 \tag{1.2.4} \end{equation} Now the pure number \(0.9970\) appearing in this equation is the number of grams in one cubic centimeter of water, so we may call the ratio \(\rho/\)g cm\(^{-3}\) “the number of grams per cubic centimeter.” By the same reasoning, \(\rho/\)kg m\(^{-3}\) is the number of kilograms per cubic meter. In general, a physical quantity divided by particular units for the physical quantity is a pure number representing the number of those units.
Just as it would be incorrect to call \(\rho\) “the number of grams per cubic centimeter,” because that would refer to a particular choice of units for \(\rho\), the common practice of calling \(n\) “the number of moles” is also strictly speaking not correct. It is actually the ratio \(n/\tx{mol}\) that is the number of moles.
In a table, the ratio \(\rho/\)g cm\(^{-3}\) makes a convenient heading for a column of density values because the column can then show pure numbers. Likewise, it is convenient to use \(\rho/\)g cm\(^{-3}\) as the label of a graph axis and to show pure numbers at the grid marks of the axis. You will see many examples of this usage in the tables and figures in this e-book.
A major advantage of using SI base units and SI derived units is that they are coherent . That is, values of a physical quantity expressed in different combinations of these units have the same numerical value.
For example, suppose we wish to evaluate the pressure of a gas according to the ideal gas equation \begin{gather} \s{ p=\frac{nRT}{V} } \tag{1.2.5} \cond{(ideal gas)} \end{gather} This is the first equation that, like many others to follow, shows conditions of validity in parentheses immediately below the equation number at the right. Thus, Eq. 1.2.5 is valid for an ideal gas. In this equation, \(p\), \(n\), \(T\), and \(V\) are the symbols for the physical quantities pressure, amount (amount of substance), thermodynamic temperature, and volume, respectively, and \(R\) is the gas constant.
The calculation of \(p\) for \(5.000\) moles of an ideal gas at a temperature of \(298.15\) kelvins, in a volume of \(4.000\) cubic meters, is \begin{equation} p = \frac{(5.000\mol)(\R)(298.15\K)}{4.000\units{m\(^{3}\)}} = 3.099\timesten{3}\units{J m\(^{-3}\)} \tag{1.2.6} \end{equation} The mole and kelvin units cancel, and we are left with units of J m\(^{-3}\), a combination of an SI derived unit (the joule) and an SI base unit (the meter). The units J m\(^{-3}\) must have dimensions of pressure, but are not commonly used to express pressure.
To convert J m\(^{-3}\) to the SI derived unit of pressure, the pascal (Pa), we can use the following relations from Table 1.2: \begin{equation} 1\units{J} = 1\units{N m} \qquad 1\Pa =1\units{N m\(^{-2}\)} \tag{1.2.7} \end{equation} When we divide both sides of the first relation by \(1\units{J}\) and divide both sides of the second relation by \(1\units{N m\(^{-2}\)}\), we obtain the two new relations \begin{equation} 1=(1\units{N m}/\tx{J}) \qquad (1\units{Pa}/\tx{N m\(^{-2}\)})=1 \tag{1.2.8} \end{equation} The ratios in parentheses are conversion factors . When a physical quantity is multiplied by a conversion factor that, like these, is equal to the pure number \(1\), the physical quantity changes its units but not its value. When we multiply Eq. 1.2.6 by both of these conversion factors, all units cancel except Pa: \begin{equation} \begin{split} p & = (3.099\timesten{3}\units{J m\(^{-3}\)}) \times (1\units{N m}/\tx{J}) \times (1\Pa/\tx{N m\(^{-2}\)}) \ & = 3.099\timesten{3}\Pa \end{split} \tag{1.2.9} \end{equation}
This example illustrates the fact that to calculate a physical quantity, we can simply enter into a calculator numerical values expressed in SI units, and the result is the numerical value of the calculated quantity expressed in SI units. In other words, as long as we use only SI base units and SI derived units (without prefixes), all conversion factors are unity .
Of course we do not have to limit the calculation to SI units. Suppose we wish to express the calculated pressure in torrs, a non-SI unit. In this case, using a conversion factor obtained from the definition of the torr in Table 1.3, the calculation becomes \begin{equation} \begin{split} p & = (3.099\timesten{3}\Pa) \times (760\units{Torr}/101,325\Pa) \ & = 23.24\units{Torr} \end{split} \tag{1.2.10} \end{equation}


2.1.1: Introduction (1400 )
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The Middle Ages or Medieval period in Europe began after the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5 th century until the start of the Renaissance in the 15 th century. Plagues, religious wars, and Crusades marked the long, dark period. Great religious churches and cathedrals were constructed during the period supporting religious organizations as they defined the rules to control people's lives. Most women of the time toiled in the fields or worked in family shops, had numerous children, and died early. Childbirth was the most hazardous part of a woman's life, and the mother's and child's mortality rate were exceptionally high. Lack of sanitation in the villages and cities created disease-infested environments across Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. The Greek ideals of athleticism and daily bathing disappeared.
Art in Europe was usually based on religious concepts and images to teach biblical stories to the illiterate masses. These took the form of paintings in churches or illustrated manuscripts. Artistic endeavors were usually family-run workshops or nuns in the convents. Much of the documentation about women comes from those of noble rank or nuns; both groups had access to education and books. Nuns also had the luxury of not worrying about a male-dominated society's activities and controls or childbirth's consequences. Much of the surviving information about art from female artists was about those from the convents. Art in Europe was usually based on religious concepts and images to teach biblical stories to the illiterate masses. These took the form of paintings in churches or illustrated manuscripts.
Rinascita , Italian for "rebirth," was a period marking the end of Europe's feudal systems and entering a new form of a cultural and political society built on commerce. The shift from the Middle Ages in Europe to the Renaissance was a revival act of the classical styles of Greek and Roman art, highlighting humanists' progression. Humanistic learning dominated philosophy and the sciences, leaving medieval values behind. Humanism was a mode of inquiry studied through the education of influential philosophies from the past. However, it is difficult for historians to define; they have settled on "a middle-of-the-road definition... the movement to recover, interpret, and assimilate the language, literature, learning, and values of ancient Greece and Rome". [2] Moving from the academic Middle Ages study of Latin, natural science, and mathematics, the Renaissance concentrated on the human instead of a higher being to resolve tribulations and rationalize knowledge. The Renaissance spread from Italy to other regions of the continent, creating an artistic, political, cultural, and economic Rinascita .
The beginning of the Renaissance was the Quattrocento (1400-1499), the Italian word for the number 400, which encompassed artists' innovative, creative styles. The quattrocento art centers leading the transition included the Republic of Florence, the Papal States, Milan, and Venice. Shedding decorative mosaics, illuminated manuscripts, and stained glass of the Gothic period, artists painted on wood panels and fresco walls using linear perspective to create realistic art.
Europe was in a cultural rebirth of art, and its development of linear perspective, Latin for "to see through," accelerated the realistic aesthetics of painting. Linear perspective became important, using receding parallel lines to create movement and the illusion of three-dimensional space on a piece of paper or painting. Gone were the large gold halos, elongated figures, and static, flat holy people's painted bodies of the Gothic period. The Renaissance gave way to the beauty of nature, representing human forms by artists who were part of the vibrant culture of realism in paintings and the rich culture of authenticity in paintings. The expanding trade along the Silk Road created an influx of money and an insatiable need for luxuries from the East.
The Cinquecento (1500-1550) (five hundred) encompassed the high Renaissance, Mannerism, and early Baroque art styles. Giorgione and da Vinci's development of chiaroscuro and sfumato became the norm in painting, leading to dark and expressive paintings. The manipulation of light and dark created a bold contrast between the subject matter and the background, emphasizing essential areas. The High Renaissance was a short period yet profoundly influenced by the artist of the 15 th century and paved the way for the new up-and-coming artists of the Mannerism movement. The High Renaissance was a period of enormous achievement and continuing political turmoil throughout Italy. [3]
Churches created the greatest need for art with a boom in the church building and the ultimate adornment of those buildings. The art was typological, with the doctrine expressing the relationship between the Old and New Testaments. There was a resurgence in the devotion to the Virgin Mary, and art took on a hieratical appearance with Mary present in most art. A new way to create art for churches, and even small pieces for homes, was oil paint on panels, allowing artists to make small, realistic works. The churches required monumental altarpieces with hinged panels that opened and closed, depending on the religious story the artist was portraying.
The controls and issues of Medieval times still plagued women. They were controlled by their husbands, lived with a male relative, or in a convent. It did not matter what class a woman belonged to; at the time, they were considered the sinful daughter of Eve and carried her sins of lust and debauchery. Therefore, the women needed to be controlled by their male family members, the church, and the state. The other alternative for Catholic women of all classes was the convent, where a woman was free from marriage and childbirth and had the opportunity of an education. The holy life also allowed the corrupted daughter of Eve to transform herself into the flawless daughter of Mary. Those women who were Protestant only had the choice of marriage as the Protestant Reformation closed all the convents. During the Renaissance, some women emerged and changed to available opportunities. Depending on their societal position, they became queens, scholars, artists, writers, or a patron of the arts. Women in wealthy families commissioned paintings, buildings, or sculptures. The advent of the printing press also allowed more women to become educated and write poetry. However, the limited abilities of women to become active artists were based on their position in a wealthy family or as part of the church hierarchy.
Illuminated Manuscripts
Medieval illuminated manuscripts encompassed diverse artifacts such as bibles, hymnals, choir books, classical literary works, patents of nobility, grants of arms, and beautifully adorned addresses. Each region had different styles and techniques. [1] The manuscripts were handwritten and decorated during the Medieval period and illustrated with gold, silver, and other bright colors. The pages of the manuscripts were made from parchment or vellum. Parchment was made from skins of any age animal, usually sheep, goats, or cows. The skins were stretched and held on a frame, then scraped and dried. Vellum was highly refined and made of much more delicate skins from baby goats, lambs, or calves. After the skins were cut into pages, text and illustrations were added before binding them into a book. The printing press was not invented in Europe until the 1400s.
The illuminated manuscripts ranged from small handheld to large enough for a group to read. The design for the illuminated manuscript was usually drawn on the animal skin, with guidelines for the lettering drawn with thin ink lines. Paint colors were made with mixed pigment and binders. Red was a standard color as multiple pigments were available to make reds. Blue was the second choice of color, a pigment found in azurite in most European countries. The prized blue was lapis lazuli, found only in Afghanistan, an expensive import. The yellow part of the egg was an effective binder for the pigment. The book was supplemented with elaborate initials, detailed borders, and miniatures. The work as an illuminator demanded great artistic skill to design and create the desired decorations.
Interactive Element: How to make manuscripts.
An illuminated manuscript is a book written and decorated entirely by hand. Illuminated manuscripts were among the most precious objects produced in the Middle Ages and the early Renaissance, primarily in monasteries and courts. Society, emperors, kings, dukes, cardinals, and bishops--commissioned the most splendid manuscripts.
Medieval Embroidery
A symbol of wealth and power, highly embroidered textiles were a luxury of the elite, religious, and ruling classes. The textiles were generally complex and detailed. The embroideries from England were especially sought after and crucial to English trade during the Medieval period. Embroidery styles from England were called Opus Anglicanum (English work) and were highly prized throughout Europe. Embroidery for church and secular use was made with metal threads, giving the garments the shine of wealth. Goldwork was even used in banners and horse decorations.
The base fabric was usually linen or dark silk. For velvet, the embroidery was worked first on linen and then applied to the velvet. The Opus Anglicanum was made with a split stitch and couching using a gold or silver thread on silk. By the 13 th century, most exceptional work was done in London workshops. The designs were seen in manuscript illumination and architectural structures. The designs featured spirals, scrolls, and figures of royalty and saints framed by geometric shapes.
Interactive Element: How to embroidery.
Medieval embroidery was a detailed and precise art form performed by skilled embroiderers – both men and women – primarily based in London. This film shows contemporary embroiderer Rosie Taylor-Davies recreating a detail from a 700-year-old fragment of English embroidery. Working entirely by hand, she demonstrates the intricate process and skill of 14th-century embroiderers, who created some of England's beautiful and elaborate textile art.
Interactive Element: Renaissance Art
An overview of the Renaissance art period by whiteboard.
Oil Paint in the Renaissance and Mannerism Periods
Artists made paint with a colored pigment mixed with a transparent medium having a gummy quality that acts as a binder. Twenty thousand years ago, people created cave art using pigment mixed with animal fat, blood, spit, or water. Over time, techniques improved, and in the European Middle Ages, the pigment was mixed with egg yolk as the binder, producing bright colors. The colors did not mix well, and the paint was prone to flaking.
During the Renaissance and Mannerism periods, oil paint replaced egg tempera paint. Pigment mixed with linseed oil from the flax plant gave the paint flexibility with minimal cracking, although the paint yellowed with age. Walnut, poppy, and safflower were other oils used to mix paint; however, they were not as viscous and tended to crack over time. Oil paint was slow to dry, and the thickness of the paint determined how long it took to dry. The painters created layers with glazing by adding a minimal amount of pigment to the oil and applying a thin layer of paint to the surface. The coating dried quickly, and other layers of glaze could be used, building up the paint with subtle colors. The light was also reflected in the different layers of paint moving through the colors to create the luminosity in oil paintings. The plasticity of oil paint and the luminosity of light allowed the artists to create realistic images in a diversity of color palettes.
The Renaissance and Mannerism painters mixed their colors. They had a wide range of minerals besides the primary Naples yellow, smalt, carmine lake (cochineal), vermilion, and madder lake used by Medieval painters. Now they had greens from verdigris, green earth, and malachite; yellows from orpiment, lead-tin yellow; browns from umber; whites from gypsum, lime; and blacks from carbon and bone. These colors, and the ability to apply layers, allowed a painter to paint chiaroscuro's deep, dark shadows, shafts of illuminating light, or bright red vermillion.
Interactive Element: Oil Painting in Venice
A review of fresco and tempera and the development of oil paint by artists in Venice.
Interactive Element: Oil Paint
Oil painting and the importance of knowing your materials.
Frescoes in the Renaissance
Frescoes (from the Italian word affre sco ) were typical in the ancient world until mosaics became the preferred art form. Around the 1300s, the use of frescoes returned, particularly in monumental architectural structures. Frescoes were a medium able to be created quickly over large surfaces. Fresco meant wet; pigments were applied on the damp wall plaster. A secco is pigment added to a drywall. The advantage of damp plaster was based on calcium carbonate or lime paste and air trapping the color on the wall.
Painting the large frescoes required scaffolding to cover the distances of the painting. In the 14 th century, an artist drew outlines of the design with plaster. By the 15 th century, artists drew images on paper, made small holes with a needle, and held the pattern on the application, pouncing a small bag of carbon to produce the background. When the plaster was ready for the pigment to be applied, the artist had to select earth pigments that were chemically stable and did not react with oxygen, discoloring over time. When Michelangelo painted the ceiling in the Sistine Chapel, he only mixed enough color to apply to small sections. Sometimes, he had to make several samples to achieve the subtle color he needed, a repeated process. The entire process was labor-intensive and time-consuming; however, the frescoes and their colors lasted centuries unless they were damaged by pollution or water.
During the Renaissance, artists moved from labor-intensive fresco painting to oil painting on canvas for significant works. With the growth of wealthy merchants buying artwork and the economic force of churches as substantial supporters of artists declining, the use of frescoes faded away.
Interactive Element: Fresco Technique
The real Fresco Technique using a reproduction of a 14th century fresco. Includes the stratigraphy of a fresco painting.
Marble in the Renaissance
The Renaissance brought a period of renewal in classical art and an interest in marble sculptures. The surviving sculptures from the classical Greek and Roman periods were made of marble. Other cultures melted the spectacular Greek bronze statues throughout the ages. Generally, only marble survived, becoming the signature of classicalism.
Marble is formed from calcite, changed by heat or pressure into calcium carbonate. The stone is relatively easy to work with when first quarried, is shatter-resistant, and hardens with age. Calcite is ranked low on the refractory index allowing light to enter the stone and produce the transparency and appearance of human skin. With the exceptionally fine grain in the marble, artists can sculpt fine details in the stone. Carrara in Italy was the favorite quarry of Renaissance sculptors to procure marble.
Before carving the marble, most artists usually made an accurate, small sample or maquette by constructing an armature and covering it with clay or wax. The artist used measurements on the maquette as reference points on the large block of marble, inserting tacks in specific locations. Today, artists use power tools. Renaissance artists used a mallet and different chisels, first making a rough version of the model, then using more sophisticated tools to carve the detail. When the statue was completed, the marble was sanded and polished to generate a reflective shine. Significantly few female artists were sculptors. The works were done in workshops where women were not allowed.
Interactive Element: Quarrying and Carving Marble
Quarrying and carving Carrera marble in the Italian Mountains.
[1] Retrieved from: https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/illum...ed-manuscripts
[2] Burke, P. (1990). The spread of Italian humanism. The Impact of Humanism on Western Europe. Goodman and MacKay, London. (2)
[3] Adams, L. (2001). Italian Renaissance Art . Westview Press. (p. 291).


21.7: Descending Chromatic Bass Lines
A common musical pattern is the descending chromatic bass line (1^ –7^ –♭7^ –6^ –♭6^–5^ ). Composers harmonize descending chromatic bass lines with all manner of harmonies, including secondary chords, borrowed chords, augmented sixth chords, and rarely-used diatonic chords. Below are some examples from the past four centuries.
Below is a table comparing the harmonizations of these descending bass lines.
| Bass Line | 1^ | 7^ | ♭7^ | 6^ | ♭6^ | 5^ |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Purcell | ii | VV6 | VivV24/iv | IVIV6 | iviv6 | VV |
| Bach | ii–viiVvii∘34/V | VV6 | viivii7–viiivvii∘34/iv | IVIV6 | iviv6–FrFr+6 | ii46–VV6 |
| Beethoven | ii | VV6 | VivV24/iv | IVIV6 | GerGer+6 | ii46 |
| Beatles | ii | ii24 | IVIV56 | VIVI | ||
| Led Zeppellin | ii | IIIIII+M34 | ii24 | IVIV6 | VIVIM7 | |
| Aerosmith | ii | ii24 | ♯vi ø viø7 | VIVIM7 | ||
| S.T.P. | ii | VV6 | VivV24/iv | ♯vi ø viø7 | (VIVI) | |
| Perri | ii | VV6 | ii24 | IVIV6 |
For the harmonization of scale degree 6^ , remember that the concept of ♯vivi∘ was introduced when Roman numerals in minor were introduced. The notes of the ♯vi ø viø7 chord belong to the melodic minor scale.


<IP_ADDRESS>: Understanding College Costs
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The cost of college can include a variety of items including some you might not expect. By understanding college costs, you can compare schools and explore options for how to lower your costs.
What is included in the cost of college?
How can I lower the cost of college?
How can I compare the costs of colleges?
What is included in the cost of college?
College costs include more than tuition and room and board . Here are common costs:
|
Item |
Description |
|---|---|
| Tuition | The cost of taking courses. Course costs vary by school. |
| Room and board | Lodging and food costs vary by school. |
| Books and school supplies |
Books can be expensive. School supplies include
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| Fees | Fees depend upon your school. Examples include activity fees and parking decal fees. Schools can provide a list of fees. |
| Equipment and room materials |
This category might include
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| Travel and miscellaneous expenses |
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Make sure colleges and career schools give you a clear statement of their tuition and fees.
How can I lower the cost of college?
Here are some suggestions on how you might be able to lower the cost of college. For many of these suggestions, you’ll want to follow up with the colleges or career schools you are interested in to get additional details.
- Set a budget and stick to it! Having a budget will help you compare anticipated college or career school expenses against your potential available income and financial aid. You also can use a budget to compare costs between different schools. Learn about budgeting.
- College or career school costs can vary significantly and there are many schools with affordable tuition and generous financial assistance. Make sure to research all schools that may meet your academic and financial needs. To find colleges or career schools, use our college search tool, College Navigator .
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You may be able to get school credit based on your knowledge or life experiences, and you can manage your course work to reduce costs.
- Ask your school whether it’s possible to “test out of” any classes. If you don’t take a class, you may not have to pay for the credits.
- Some colleges give credit for life experiences, thereby reducing the number of credits needed for graduation.
- Most schools charge a set price for a specific number of credits taken in a semester. If academically possible, take the maximum number of credits allowed. This strategy reduces the amount of time needed to graduate.
- Some schools offer combined degree programs or three-year programs that allow you to take all of the courses needed for graduation in three years, instead of four, thereby eliminating one year’s educational expenses.
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Colleges and career schools may offer discounts on tuition if
- you are a child of an alumnus or alumna (i.e., if your parent went to the school);
- more than one family member is enrolled at the school;
- you are a student government leader or the editor of the college newspaper or yearbook;
- you are an older student;
- your family’s main wage earner is unemployed; or
- you or a member of your family works at the school.
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Housing costs can add up. Here are some tips for reducing your housing costs:
- If you go to a college or career school near home, consider living with your parents or other family.

- Most colleges and universities sponsor resident advisor programs that offer reduced tuition or reduced room and board costs if you work in a residence hall.
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You may be eligible for health care benefits including the following:
- Most young adults can stay on their parents’ family plan until they turn 26, even if they are married or still living with their parents.
- If you have been uninsured because of a pre-existing condition, you may be eligible to join the Pre-Existing Condition Insurance Plan.
- If you are in a new insurance plan, insurance companies cannot charge you a deductible or copays for recommended or preventive services such as flu shots or other immunizations.
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You can work part-time to pay part of your costs. Be sure your work and school schedules don’t conflict and that you have enough time for studying. Here are a couple of options:
- The Federal Work-Study Program provides an opportunity to earn money while going to school. Ask schools if they participate in the program.
- Cooperative education programs allow students to alternate between working full-time and studying full-time.
- Most schools have placement offices that help students find employment and personnel offices that hire students to work on campus.
- Taking small steps can add up. For example, you can lower the cost of textbooks if you buy used books or rent textbooks (if you won’t need the books once you finish the class).
A credit card can help you build a credit history, if you use it wisely. But use it for emergencies only and don’t spend more than you can afford to pay. If you decide to get a credit card, make sure you understand the terms.
How can I compare the costs of colleges?
You can find information about whether the cost of a college is low, medium, or high by using the College Scorecard . Keep in mind that a higher-priced school might have more financial aid available to help you pay for your education, so take a look at the school’s net price if you want an idea of how much it might cost you after financial aid is taken into account.
Quick Links
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Applying to Schools
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Taking Required Tests
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Types of Aid
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Things to Consider
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Glossary
Room and Board
An allowance for the cost of housing and food while attending college or career school.
Budget
A financial plan that helps you track your money, make informed spending decisions, and plan for your financial goals.
Contributors and Attributions
- Authored by : Federal Student Aid. Located at : studentaid.ed.gov/sa/prepare-for-college/choosing-schools/consider/costs. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright


<IP_ADDRESS>: The World...
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The Network Society
In 1996, social-sciences researcher Manuel Castells published The Rise of the Network Society, in which he identified new ways in which economic activity was being organized around the networks that the new telecommunication technologies have provided. This new, global economic activity was different from the past, because “it is an economy with the capacity to work as a unit in real time on a planetary scale.” [2] We are now into this network society, where we are all connected on a global scale.
The World Is Flat
In 2005, Thomas Friedman’s seminal book, The World Is Flat , was published. In this book, Friedman unpacks the impacts that the personal computer, the Internet, and communication software have had on business, specifically the impact they have had on globalization. He begins the book by defining the three eras of globalization [3] :
- “Globalization 1.0″ occurred from 1492 until about 1800. In this era, globalization was centered around countries. It was about how much horsepower, wind power, and steam power a country had and how creatively it was deployed. The world shrank from size “large” to size “medium.”
- “Globalization 2.0″ occurred from about 1800 until 2000, interrupted only by the two World Wars. In this era, the dynamic force driving change was multinational companies. The world shrank from size “medium” to size “small.”
- “Globalization 3.0″ is our current era, beginning in the year 2000. The convergence of the personal computer, fiber-optic Internet connections, and software has created a “flat-world platform” that allows small groups and even individuals to go global. The world has shrunk from size “small” to size “tiny.”
According to Friedman, this third era of globalization was brought about, in many respects, by information technology. Some of the specific technologies he lists include:
- The graphical user interface for the personal computer popularized in the late 1980s. Before the graphical user interface, using a computer was relatively difficult. By making the personal computer something that anyone could use, it became commonplace very quickly. Friedman points out that this digital storage of content made people much more productive and, as the Internet evolved, made it simpler to communicate content worldwide.
- The build-out of the Internet infrastructure during the dot-com boom during the late-1990s. During the late 1990s, telecommunications companies laid thousands of miles of fiber-optic cable all over the world, turning network communications into a commodity. At the same time, the Internet protocols, such as SMTP (e-mail), HTML (web pages), and TCP/IP (network communications) became standards that were available for free and used by everyone.
- The introduction of software to automate and integrate business processes. As the Internet continued to grow and become the dominant form of communication, it became essential to build on the standards developed earlier so that the websites and applications running on the Internet would work well together. Friedman calls this “workflow software,” by which he means software that allows people to work together more easily, and allows different software packages and databases to integrate with each other more easily. Examples include payment-processing systems and shipping calculators.
These three technologies came together in the late 1990s to create a “platform for global collaboration.” Once these technologies were in place, they continued to evolve. Friedman also points out a couple more technologies that have contributed to the flat-world platform – the open-source movement (see chapter 10) and the advent of mobile technologies.
The World Is Flat was published in 2005. Since then, we have seen even more growth in information technologies that have contributed to global collaborations. We will discuss current and future trends in chapter 13.


1.18: The Early Universe
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The hot big bang contained a hot, dense "soup" of elementary particles. Fermilab is a U.S. national laboratory in Illinois that is the home of the Tevatron, a particle accelerator that smashed protons into anti-protons at high energies to create new particles. |
In the next chapters we study the "primordial soup" of the big bang. One of the first human beings to travel this intellectual territory was George Gamow born in 1904 in Russia as Georgi Antonovich Gamow. While at university of Leningrad, he studied under Friedmann (of Friedmann-Robertson-Walker fame) until Friedmann suddenly died in 1925, forcing Gamow to change dissertation advisers. Gamow's early accomplishments include in 1928 solving the problem of alpha decay of nuclei through quantum tunneling, for which the Gamow Factor (a probability factor involved in tunneling through the Coulomb barrier) bears his name. As the Soviet Union grew more oppressive, Gamow sought to escape to Europe but was denied permission to leave. Eventually Gamow and his wife managed to flee to the United States where he became a professor at George Washington University in 1934.
At GWU, Gamow turned his interest toward astrophysics and fathered the idea of the hot Big Bang. His main assumption was that the universe started at near-infinite temperature and density from which it rapidly expanded and cooled. In this early stage, the universe would consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons zipping around in a hot bath of electromagnetic radiation. He argued that one could build all the elements from the ground up via neutron capture, but in the end was never able to account for the abundances of elements higher than helium. Gamow joked that his theory was basically correct, since it accounted for 99% of the universe's rest mass in hydrogen and helium. Gamow published the paper, titled ``The Origin of Chemical Elements'' with his PhD student Ralph Alpher in the April 1948 issue of Physical Review. Gamow included famous contemporary astrophysicist Hans Bethe in the author list (without his notification, nevermind permission!) so that it would read like \(\alpha\), \(\beta\), \(\gamma\).
Alpher and Gamow found that the big bang had to be hot in order to avoid over production of the elements. A cold big bang would expand more slowly, allowing more time for build-up of heavy elements via neutron capture. Alpher and another researcher, Robert Herman, predicted that this heat should still be present today, in the form of black-body radiation cooled down by the expansion from billions of degrees to just about \(5^\circ\) Kelvin. This prediction was eventually verified with an accidental discovery in 1964 by Bell Labs astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson of an isotropic background with a temperature of about \(3^\circ\) K, a discovery that led to the establishment of the hot big bang as the dominant cosmological paradigm, as well as the 1979 Nobel Prize in physics for Penzias and Wilson.
It is now quite well-established that the universe used to be very hot, very dense, and expanding very rapidly. Relics that remain today from that era include most of the Hydrogen and Helium in the universe, trace amounts of Deuterium, Helium-3, and the photons that comprise the cosmic microwave background discovered by Penzias and Wilson. There is indirect evidence, via multiple channels, that there is also a cosmic neutrino background today, left over from the big bang. More speculatively, the dark matter is another relic of the big bang.
To understand this primordial soup and its relics, we now turn our attention from a relativistic understanding of the expansion of space, to statistical mechanics. We begin with equilibrium statistical mechanics, before moving on to a discussion of departures from equilibrium. We will come to understand the production in the big bang of Helium, photons, other "hot" relics such as neutrinos, and "cold" relics such as the dark matter. We will also discuss the observations that test our ideas and constrain parameters of the standard cosmological model and its extensions.


23.11: Electrical Safety - Systems and Devices
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain how various modern safety features in electric circuits work, with an emphasis on how induction is employed.
Electricity has two hazards. A thermal hazard occurs when there is electrical overheating. A shock hazard occurs when electric current passes through a person. Both hazards have already been discussed. Here we will concentrate on systems and devices that prevent electrical hazards.
Figure 1 shows the schematic for a simple AC circuit with no safety features. This is not how power is distributed in practice. Modern household and industrial wiring requires the three-wire system , shown schematically in Figure 2, which has several safety features. First is the familiar circuit breaker (or fuse ) to prevent thermal overload. Second, there is a protective case around the appliance, such as a toaster or refrigerator. The case’s safety feature is that it prevents a person from touching exposed wires and coming into electrical contact with the circuit, helping prevent shocks.
There are three connections to earth or ground (hereafter referred to as “earth/ground”) shown in Figure 2. Recall that an earth/ground connection is a low-resistance path directly to the earth. The two earth/ground connections on the neutral wire force it to be at zero volts relative to the earth, giving the wire its name. This wire is therefore safe to touch even if its insulation, usually white, is missing. The neutral wire is the return path for the current to follow to complete the circuit. Furthermore, the two earth/ground connections supply an alternative path through the earth, a good conductor, to complete the circuit. The earth/ground connection closest to the power source could be at the generating plant, while the other is at the user’s location. The third earth/ground is to the case of the appliance, through the green earth/ground wire , forcing the case, too, to be at zero volts. The live or hot wire (hereafter referred to as “live/hot”) supplies voltage and current to operate the appliance. Figure 3 shows a more pictorial version of how the three-wire system is connected through a three-prong plug to an appliance.
A note on insulation color-coding: Insulating plastic is color-coded to identify live/hot, neutral and ground wires but these codes vary around the world. Live/hot wires may be brown, red, black, blue or grey. Neutral wire may be blue, black or white. Since the same color may be used for live/hot or neutral in different parts of the world, it is essential to determine the color code in your region. The only exception is the earth/ground wire which is often green but may be yellow or just bare wire. Striped coatings are sometimes used for the benefit of those who are colorblind.
The three-wire system replaced the older two-wire system, which lacks an earth/ground wire. Under ordinary circumstances, insulation on the live/hot and neutral wires prevents the case from being directly in the circuit, so that the earth/ground wire may seem like double protection. Grounding the case solves more than one problem, however. The simplest problem is worn insulation on the live/hot wire that allows it to contact the case, as shown in Figure 4 Lacking an earth/ground connection (some people cut the third prong off the plug because they only have outdated two hole receptacles), a severe shock is possible. This is particularly dangerous in the kitchen, where a good connection to earth/ground is available through water on the floor or a water faucet. With the earth/ground connection intact, the circuit breaker will trip, forcing repair of the appliance. Why are some appliances still sold with two-prong plugs? These have nonconducting cases, such as power tools with impact resistant plastic cases, and are called doubly insulated . Modern two-prong plugs can be inserted into the asymmetric standard outlet in only one way, to ensure proper connection of live/hot and neutral wires.
Electromagnetic induction causes a more subtle problem that is solved by grounding the case. The AC current in appliances can induce an emf on the case. If grounded, the case voltage is kept near zero, but if the case is not grounded, a shock can occur as pictured in Figure 5 Current driven by the induced case emf is called a leakage current , although current does not necessarily pass from the resistor to the case.
A ground fault interrupter (GFI) is a safety device found in updated kitchen and bathroom wiring that works based on electromagnetic induction. GFIs compare the currents in the live/hot and neutral wires. When live/hot and neutral currents are not equal, it is almost always because current in the neutral is less than in the live/hot wire. Then some of the current, again called a leakage current, is returning to the voltage source by a path other than through the neutral wire. It is assumed that this path presents a hazard, such as shown in Figure 6. GFIs are usually set to interrupt the circuit if the leakage current is greater than 5 mA, the accepted maximum harmless shock. Even if the leakage current goes safely to earth/ground through an intact earth/ground wire, the GFI will trip, forcing repair of the leakage.
Figure 7 shows how a GFI works. If the currents in the live/hot and neutral wires are equal, then they induce equal and opposite emfs in the coil. If not, then the circuit breaker will trip.
Another induction-based safety device is the isolation transformer , shown in Figure 8. Most isolation transformers have equal input and output voltages. Their function is to put a large resistance between the original voltage source and the device being operated. This prevents a complete circuit between them, even in the circumstance shown. There is a complete circuit through the appliance. But there is not a complete circuit for current to flow through the person in the figure, who is touching only one of the transformer’s output wires, and neither output wire is grounded. The appliance is isolated from the original voltage source by the high resistance of the material between the transformer coils, hence the name isolation transformer. For current to flow through the person, it must pass through the high-resistance material between the coils, through the wire, the person, and back through the earth—a path with such a large resistance that the current is negligible.
The basics of electrical safety presented here help prevent many electrical hazards. Electrical safety can be pursued to greater depths. There are, for example, problems related to different earth/ground connections for appliances in close proximity. Many other examples are found in hospitals. Microshock-sensitive patients, for instance, require special protection. For these people, currents as low as 0.1 mA may cause ventricular fibrillation. The interested reader can use the material presented here as a basis for further study.
Summary
- Electrical safety systems and devices are employed to prevent thermal and shock hazards.
- Circuit breakers and fuses interrupt excessive currents to prevent thermal hazards.
- The three-wire system guards against thermal and shock hazards, utilizing live/hot, neutral, and earth/ground wires, and grounding the neutral wire and case of the appliance.
- A ground fault interrupter (GFI) prevents shock by detecting the loss of current to unintentional paths.
- An isolation transformer insulates the device being powered from the original source, also to prevent shock.
- Many of these devices use induction to perform their basic function.
Glossary
- thermal hazard
- the term for electrical hazards due to overheating
- shock hazard
- the term for electrical hazards due to current passing through a human
- three-wire system
- the wiring system used at present for safety reasons, with live, neutral, and ground wire


2.6.1: Metabolism of Carbohydrates
- Analyze the importance of carbohydrate metabolism to energy production
Metabolism of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are one of the major forms of energy for animals and plants. Plants build carbohydrates using light energy from the sun (during the process of photosynthesis), while animals eat plants or other animals to obtain carbohydrates. Plants store carbohydrates in long polysaccharides chains called starch, while animals store carbohydrates as the molecule glycogen. These large polysaccharides contain many chemical bonds and therefore store a lot of chemical energy. When these molecules are broken down during metabolism, the energy in the chemical bonds is released and can be harnessed for cellular processes.
Energy Production from Carbohydrates (Cellular Respiration )
The metabolism of any monosaccharide (simple sugar) can produce energy for the cell to use. Excess carbohydrates are stored as starch in plants and as glycogen in animals, ready for metabolism if the energy demands of the organism suddenly increase. When those energy demands increase, carbohydrates are broken down into constituent monosaccharides, which are then distributed to all the living cells of an organism. Glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) is a common example of the monosaccharides used for energy production.
Inside the cell, each sugar molecule is broken down through a complex series of chemical reactions. As chemical energy is released from the bonds in the monosaccharide, it is harnessed to synthesize high-energy adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules. ATP is the primary energy currency of all cells. Just as the dollar is used as currency to buy goods, cells use molecules of ATP to perform immediate work and power chemical reactions.
The breakdown of glucose during metabolism is call cellular respiration can be described by the equation:
\[\ce{C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy}\]
Producing Carbohydrates (Photosynthesis)
Plants and some other types of organisms produce carbohydrates through the process called photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, plants convert light energy into chemical energy by building carbon dioxide gas molecules (CO 2 ) into sugar molecules like glucose. Because this process involves building bonds to synthesize a large molecule, it requires an input of energy (light) to proceed. The synthesis of glucose by photosynthesis is described by this equation (notice that it is the reverse of the previous equation):
\[\ce{6CO2 + 6H2O + energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2}\]
As part of plants’ chemical processes, glucose molecules can be combined with and converted into other types of sugars. In plants, glucose is stored in the form of starch, which can be broken down back into glucose via cellular respiration in order to supply ATP.
Key Points
- The breakdown of glucose living organisms utilize to produce energy is described by the equation: \[\ce{C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy} \nonumber\]
- The photosynthetic process plants utilize to synthesize glucose is described by the equation: \[\ce{6CO2 + 6H2O + energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2} \nonumber\]
- Glucose that is consumed is used to make energy in the form of ATP, which is used to perform work and power chemical reactions in the cell.
- During photosynthesis, plants convert light energy into chemical energy that is used to build molecules of glucose.
Key Terms
- adenosine triphosphate : a multifunctional nucleoside triphosphate used in cells as a coenzyme, often called the “molecular unit of energy currency” in intracellular energy transfer
- glucose : a simple monosaccharide (sugar) with a molecular formula of C6H12O6C6H12O6C6H12O6; it is a principal source of energy for cellular metabolism


8.3: Graph a Line Given its Equation
Learning Outcomes
- Identify the slope and y-intercept from the equation of a line.
- Plot the y-intercept of a line given its equation.
- Plot a second point on a line given the y-intercept and the slope.
- Graph a line given its equation in slope y-intercept form.
Often we are given an equation of a line and we want to visualize it. For this reason, it is important to be able to graph a line given its equation. We will look at lines that are in slope intercept form: \(y=a + bx\) where \(a\) is the y-intercept of the line and \(b\) is the slope of the line. The y-intercept is the value of \(y\) where the line crosses the y-axis. The slope is the rise over run. If we write the slope as a fraction, then the numerator tells us how far to move up (or down if it is negative) and the denominator tells us how far to the right we need to go. The main application to statistics is in regression analysis which is the study of how to use a line to make a prediction about one variable based on the value of the other variable.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Graph the line given by the equation:
\[y=1+\frac{3}{2}x \nonumber\]
Solution
We follow the three step process:
Step 1: Plot the y-intercept
The y-intercept is the number that is not associated with the \(x\). For this example, it is 1. The x-coordinate of the y-intercept is always 0. So the coordinates of the y-intercept are (0, 1). Thus start at the origin and move up 1:
Step 2: Plot the Slope.
The slope of a line is the coefficient of the \(x\) term. Here it is \(\dfrac{3}{2}\). What this means is that we rise 3 and run to the right 2. Rising 3 from an original y-coordinate of 1 gives a new y-coordinate of 4. Running 2 to the right from an initial x-coordinate of 0 gives a new x-coordinate of 2. Thus we next plot the point (2, 4).
Step 3: Connect the Dots
The last thing we need to do is connect the dots with a line:
Example \(\PageIndex{2}\)
A study was done to look at the relationship between the weight of a car, \(x\), in tons and its gas mileage in mpg, \(y\). The equation of the regression line was found to be:
\[y=110-70x \nonumber\]
Graph this line.
Solution
The fist step is to note that the y-intercept is 110, hence the graph goes through the point (0, 110). The next step is to see that the slope is -70. We can always put a number over 1 in order to make it a fraction. The slope of \(-\dfrac{70}{1}\) tells us that \(y\) goes down by 70 if \(x\) goes up by 1. We use this to find the second point. The y-coordinate is: \(110\:-\:70\:=\:40\). The x-coordinate is 1. Thus, a second point is (1, 40). We can now plot the two points and connect the dots with a line.
Exercise
The regression line that relates the ounces of beer consumed just before a test, \(x\), and the score on the test, \(y\), is given by
\(y=93-1.2x\)
Graph this line.
- Answer
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Additional video resources:


9.1: Conductors
A material that allows energy to flow with relative ease is known as a conductor . The most common form of electrical conductor used is the wire. Most electrical wires are made from copper or aluminum and are in one of two forms: solid or stranded.
The term electrical cable usually refers to multiple insulated wires grouped in a common sheathing (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)).
Stranded conductors
Stranded wire is a collection of solid wires twisted or braided together, commonly around a central core (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)).
The current carrying capacity of a stranded wire is close to the current carrying ability of a single strand. Stranded wires act as a single conductor and carry a single electrical current. Stranded conductors are normally used in a thin wire that requires flexibility, such as speaker wire. Ordinarily, a stranded conductor has wires all the same size. The size of the strands used depends on the flexibility required. For example, #00 gauge cable may be made up of seven strands of #7 gauge wire, or 19 strands of #12 gauge, or 37 strands of #24 gauge, the last one being rated “extra flexible.”
Solid conductors
Solid wire consists of one strand of copper metal wire, bare or surrounded by an insulator. Solid wire is normally found in smaller sizes only. Solid wire is cheaper to manufacture than stranded wire and is used where there is little need for flexibility in the wire.
Insulating materials
The purpose of conductor insulation is to prevent unwanted flow of electrical current, such as ground faults, short circuits, or electric shock. There are various methods used to insulate conductors to satisfy the many conditions encountered in electrical installations, such as temperature, moisture, and different voltage
ratings. Insulating materials include:
- enamel coating
- rubber
- thermoplastics
- minerals
Stripping insulation
To make any type of electrical connection, you will need to expose the base wire from
the insulated covering. You can do this with wire strippers (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)).
With wire strippers, you can strip the amount of wire required for the type of connection being made. It is important to avoid damaging the copper wire by nicking the copper or cutting into it. Nicked wires can lead to overheating and eventually could cause an electrical fire.
Colour coding
Most electrical wiring circuits look complicated because several wires are found at any one point in the circuit. To make it easier to know exactly which is which, wires are identified by colour or labeled.
For building construction, the Canadian Electrical Code reserves two colours for specific applications:
When this system of colour coding is followed, at any point in any circuit, a white wire always indicates a neutral conductor. A green wire always indicates an equipment grounding conductor. Any other colour wires, such as red, black, or blue, can be assumed to be live or hot, meaning that they will have a voltage on the conductor and are therefore dangerous.
Wire size
Wires are manufactured in sizes according to the American Wire Gauge (AWG) system. The cross-sectional area of each gauge is an important factor for determining the current carrying capacity of a wire (ampacity). Increasing gauge numbers denote decreasing wire diameters, ranging from the largest 0000 (4/0) to the smallest, 44.
- White or natural grey covering is reserved for insulated, identified conductors, identified common conductors, and identified neutral conductors.
- Green covering is reserved for the equipment grounding conductor.


11.25: Personal Financial Planning Problem
You are given the following :
- This year, Abraham will start graduate school. The annual cost is $30,000 per year for each of two years, payable at the start of the year.
- The tuition will increase by 3% in the second year, due to inflation.
- Abraham currently owes $25,000 from his undergraduate student loans.
- When he finishes his M.B.A. in two years, his parents will give him a $50,000 gift.
- Upon graduation, Abraham plans to pay off his loans fully in ten years. How much will he have to pay annually in order to achieve his goal?
- Assume throughout an 8% cost of funds rate, compounded quarterly, except for the annuity payoff payments, which will be at an 8% annual rate.
Solution Plan :
- First lay down the given data , in nominal terms, in their proper places in a timeline ; then, import the numbers into a spreadsheet.
- Calculate the future value of the costs at the end of year 2, using the cost of funds rate given. Note the gift as money in.
- Use the mortgage formula to calculate the annuity payment required to pay off the accumulated debts in the last 10 years.
Solution :
Calculations :
Step 1 : ( $30,000) (1 + .08/4) 2 × 4 = $ 35,149.78
Step 2 : $30,000 × 1.03 = $30,900
($30,900) (1 + .08/4) 1 × 4 = $33,447.15
Step 3 : $25,000 × (1 + .08/4) 2 × 4 = $29,291.48
Step 4 : $50,000 gift
Step 5 : Sum of Steps 1-4
Step 6 : Calculate the annual annuity payments.
(47,888.41) = (x) (PVAF 0.08; 10)
(47,888.41) (6.7101)
x = 7,136.77


10.3: Transition Effects
Learning Outcomes
- Change slide transition effects.
Another major edit you may make to an existing presentation is to change the transition effects on a slide.
Transition effects are animation options within a presentation. You cannot see the transitions in action from the static presentation view of slides. But when you start the actual slideshow, transitions will dictate how the presentation progresses from one slide to the next. Transitions can be used to set specific time intervals before moving forward in the show, or can be used to make slides change with the click of a mouse button. Transitions also change the way a new slide enters or exits the screen.
To edit transition effects, you need to access the Transitions tab. From this area you can edit, delete, or add transitions to a slide.
If you hover your mouse over a transition option, you will see a brief description of that transition. Some effects have several options. For example the Wipe transition could start from the right, top, left, bottom, or other directions. The Effect Options dropdown menu is to the right of the transition options.
Contributors and Attributions
- Effects. Authored by : Shelli Carter. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


10.3A: Structural Diversity of Neurons
A number of anatomically neuron types have evolved to participate in different organismal functions.
- Describe the structural diversity of neurons
Key Points
- Neurons are electrically excitable cells that are the structural unit of the nervous system.
- A typical neuron consists of a cell body and neuronal processes such as dendrites and axon.
- Neurons can generally be anatomically characterized as unipolar, bipolar, or multipolar.
- A number of anatomically distinct neuron types, such as sensory, motor, and interneurons, have evolved to participate in different organismal functions.
Key Terms
- Neurons : Electrically excitable cells that are the structural unit of the nervous system.
- dendrites : Short, tapering extensions that convey incoming messages toward the body of the neuron.
- Axons : The conducting region of the neuron.
Neurons are electrically excitable cells that are the structural unit of the nervous system. A typical neuron consists of a cell body and neuronal processes such as dendrites and axon. The dendrites are short, tapering extensions that are the receptive regions and help in conveying incoming messages towards the cell body. Axons arise from a cone-shaped area of the cell body called axon hillock. These extensions are the conducting region of the neuron. Nerve impulses are generated in the axon and transmitted away from the cell body towards the synapse. The cell body is the major biosynthetic center of the neuron. It contains neurotransmitters and other organelles needed to synthesize proteins and chemicals. The cell body is the focal point for the outgrowth of neuronal process during embryonic development.
A number of anatomically distinct types of neurons have evolved to participate in different organismal functions. For example, sensory neurons respond to touch, sound, light, and other sensory inputs. Motor neurons receive signals from the brain and spinal cord to initiate muscle contractions and affect glands. Interneurons act as relays between neurons in close proximity to one another.
Neurotransmission at a Chemical Synapse : A signal propagating down an axon to the cell body and dendrites of the next cell
Neurons can generally be grouped according to the number of processes extending from their cell bodies. Three major neuron groups make up this classification: multipolar, bipolar, and unipolar. Unipolar neurons have a single short process that emerges from the cell body and divides T-like into proximal and distal branches. Bipolar neurons have two processes, an axon and a dendrite, that extend from opposite ends of the soma. Multipolar neurons, the most common type, have one axon and two or more dendrites.
types of neurons : 1: Unipolar neuron, 2: Bipolar neuron, 3: Multipolar neuron, 4: Pseudounipolar neuron


10.3: Assignment- The World of Foreign Direct Investment
The World of Foreign Direct Investment
Foreign direct investment (FDI) is a key element in international economic integration. FDI creates direct, stable and long-lasting links between economies. It encourages the transfer of technology and know-how between countries, and allows the host economy to promote its products more widely in international markets. FDI is also an additional source of funding for investment and, under the right policy environment, it can be an important vehicle for development.
FDI is defined as cross-border investment by a resident entity in one economy with the objective of obtaining a lasting interest in an enterprise resident in another economy. The lasting interest implies the existence of a long-term relationship between the direct investor and the enterprise and a significant degree of influence by the direct investor on the management of the enterprise. Ownership of at least 10% of the voting power, representing the influence by the investor, is the basic criterion used. Source: http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/factbook-2013-en/04/02/01/index.html?itemId=/content/chapter/factbook-2013-34-en
DISCUSSION BOARD ASSIGNMENT:
- RESEARCH FDI on the Internet . You may select FDI in either the U.S. or abroad. For background information, the link to the OECD iLibrary has been provided: OECD iLibrary
- SELECT AN ARTICLE OR NEWS ITEM THAT DEALS WITH FDI. This is a link to an article that I found about China in Time magazine: “Hey China, Foreign Direct Investors Just Aren’t That Into You” http://time.com/13789/hey-china-foreign-investors-just-arent-that-into-you/
- COPY THE LINK TO YOUR ARTICLE into your initial post.
DISCUSSION POSTINGS:
- INITIAL POST (150 – 175 words)
- Briefly describe your article and what it says about FDI . Make sure to include information about any trends that you find in your article. Is FDI on the rise or decline? Is it shifting from one country to another?
- Why is FDI such a good option for businesses that want to go global? What does your article or research say that supports your position?
- What do you think the future is for FDI?
- POST REPONSES TO AT LEAST 2 OF YOUR CLASSMATES. (75 – 100 words)
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