1.2: Micro-architectures - Achievements Connections by Wires and Microprogrammed
Introduction
This section introduces the learners to the micro-architecture of the computer. That is the resources and methods used to achieve specifications.
Activity Details
Micro-architecture is the term used to describe the resources and methods used to achieve architecture specification. The term typically includes the way in which these resources are organized as well as the design techniques used in the processor to reach the target cost and performance goals. The micro-architecture essentially forms a specification for the logical implementation.
Also called computer organization and sometimes abbreviated as μarch or uarch, is the way a given instruction set architecture (ISA) is implemented in a particular processor. A given ISA may be implemented with different micro-architectures; implementations may vary due to different goals of a given design or due to shifts in technology.
The micro-architecture is related to, but not the same as, the instruction set architecture. Micro- architectural elements may be everything from single logic gates, to registers, lookup tables, multiplexers, counters, etc., to complete ALUs, floating point units (FPU) and even larger elements.
A few important points:
- A single micro-architecture can be used to implement many different instruction sets, by means of changing the control store.
- Two machines may have the same micro-architecture, and so the same block diagram, but completely different hardware implementations. This manages both the level of the electronic circuitry and even more the physical level of manufacturing (of both ICs and/or discrete components).
- Machines with different micro-architectures may have the same instruction set architecture, and so both are capable of executing the same programs. New micro-architectures and/or circuitry solutions, along with advances in semiconductor manufacturing, are what allow newer generations of processors to achieve higher performance.
The pipelined datapath is the most commonly used datapath design in micro-architecture today. This technique is used in most modern microprocessors, microcontrollers, and DSPs. The pipelined architecture allows multiple instructions to overlap in execution, much like an assembly line.
The pipeline includes several different stages which are fundamental in micro-architecture designs. Some of these stages include instruction fetch, instruction decode, execute, and write back. Some architectures include other stages such as memory access. The design of pipelines is one of the central micro-architectural tasks.
Execution units are also essential to micro-architecture. Execution units include arithmetic logic units (ALU), floating point units (FPU), load/store units, branch prediction, and SIMD.
These units perform the operations or calculations of the processor. The choice of the number of execution units, their latency and throughput is a central micro-architectural design task.
The size, latency, throughput and connectivity of memories within the system are also micro- architectural decisions.
System-level design decisions such as whether or not to include peripherals, such as memory controllers, can be considered part of the micro-architectural design process. This includes decisions on the performance-level and connectivity of these peripherals.
Unlike architectural design, where achieving a specific performance level is the main goal, micro-architectural design pays closer attention to other constraints. Since micro-architecture design decisions directly affect what goes into a system, attention must be paid to such issues as:
- Chip area/cost.
- Power consumption.
- Logic complexity.
- Ease of connectivity.
- Manufacturability.
- Ease of debugging.
- Testability.
Conclusion
This section has highlighted the micro-architecture. It discussed the resources and methods used to achieve the architecture.
Assessment
1. Outline with an explanation the micro-architecture
Micro-architecture is used to describe the units that were controlled by the micro-program words. Micro-architecture is related to, but not the same as, the instruction set architecture.
The instruction set architecture is near to the programming model of a processor as seen by an assembly language programmer or compiler writer, which includes the execution model, processor registers, address and data formats etc. The micro-architecture (or computer organization) is mainly a lower level structure and therefore manage a large number of details that are hidden in the programming model. It describes the inside parts of the processor and how they work together in order to implement the architectural specification.
Micro-architectural elements may be everything from single logic gates, to registers, lookup tables, multiplexers, counters, etc., to complete ALUs, FPUs and even larger elements. The electronic circuitry level can, in turn, be subdivided into transistor-level details, such as which basic gate-building structures are used and what logic implementation types (static/dynamic, number of phases, etc.) are chosen, in addition to the actual logic design used built them.


2.9: Combining sets
Okay, so we have sets. Now what can we do with them? When you first learn about numbers back before kindergarten, the next thing you learn is how to combine numbers using various operations to produce other numbers. These include \(+, -, \times, \div,\) exponents, roots, etc. Sets, too, have operations that are useful for combining to make other sets. These include:
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Union ( \(\cup\) ). The union of two sets is a set that includes the elements that either (or both) of them have as members. For instance, if \(A\) = { Dad, Lizzy }, and \(B\) = { Lizzy, T.J., Johnny }, then \(A \cup B\) = { Dad, Lizzy, T.J., Johnny }. Note that an element is in the union if it is in \(A\) or \(B\) . For this reason, there is a strong relationship between the union operator of sets and the “or" ( \(\vee\) ) operator of boolean logic that we’ll see later.
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Intersection ( \(\cap\) ). The intersection of two sets is a set that includes the elements that both of them have as members. In the above example, \(A \cap B\) = { Lizzy }. There is a strong connection between intersection and the “and" ( \(\wedge\) ) boolean logic operator.
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(Partial) complement ( \(-\) ). Looks like subtraction, but significantly different. \(A - B\) contains the elements from A that are not also in B . So you start with \(A\) , and then “subtract off" the contents of \(B\) , if they occur. In the above example, \(A-B\) = { Dad }. (Note that T.J. and Johnny didn’t really enter in to the calculation.) Unlike \(\cup\) and \(\cap\) , \(-\) is not commutative . This means it’s not symmetrical: \(A-B\) doesn’t (normally) give the same answer as \(B-A\) . In this example, \(B-A\) is { T.J., Johnny }, whereas if you ever reverse the operands with union or intersection, you’ll always get the same result as before.
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[complement] (Total) complement ( \(\overline{X}\) ). Same as the partial complement, above, except that the implied first operand is \(\Omega\) . In other words, \(A-B\) is “all the things in \(A\) that aren’t in \(B\) ," whereas \(\overline{B}\) is “all the things period that aren’t in \(B\) ." Of course, “all the things period" means “all the things that we’re currently talking about." The domain of discourse \(\Omega\) is very important here. If we’re talking about the Davies family, we would say that \(\overline{M}\) = { Mom, Lizzy }, because those are all the Davieses who aren’t male. If, on the other hand, \(\Omega\) is “the grand set of absolutely everything," then not only is Mom a member of \(\overline{M}\) , but so is the number 12, the French Revolution, and my nightmare last Tuesday about a rabid platypus.
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Cartesian product ( \(\times\) ). Looks like multiplication, but very different. When you take the Cartesian product of two sets \(A\) and \(B\) , you don’t even get the elements from the sets in the result. Instead, you get ordered pairs of elements. These ordered pairs represent each combination of an element from A and an element from B. For instance, suppose \(A\) = { Bob, Dave } and \(B\) = { Jenny, Gabrielle, and Tiffany }. Then:
\(A \times B\) = { (Bob, Jenny), (Bob, Gabrielle), (Bob, Tiffany),
(Dave, Jenny), (Dave, Gabrielle), (Dave, Tiffany) }.Study that list. The first thing to realize is that it consists of neither guys nor girls, but of ordered pairs. (Clearly, for example, Jenny \(\notin A\times B\) .) Every guy appears exactly once with every girl, and the guy is always the first element of the ordered pair. Since we have two guys and three girls, there are six elements in the result, which is an easy way to remember the \(\times\) sign that represents Cartesian product. (Do not, however, make the common mistake of thinking that \(A \times B\) is 6. \(A \times B\) is a set, not a number. The cardinality of the set, of course, is 6, so it’s appropriate to write \(|A \times B| = 6\) .)
 The important thing is that these are all easily seen just by thinking about them for a moment. Put another way, these aren’t facts to memorize; they’re facts to look at and see for yourself. They’re just a few natural consequences of the way we’ve defined sets and operations, and there are many others.
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Union and intersection are commutative. As noted above, it’s easy to see that \(A \cup B\) will always give the same result as \(B \cup A\) . Same goes for \(\cap\) . (Not true for \(-\) , though.)
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Union and intersection are associative. “Associative" means that if you have an operator repeated several times, left to right, it doesn’t matter which order you evaluate them in. \((A \cup B) \cup C\) will give the same result as \(A \cup (B \cup C)\) . This means we can freely write expressions like “ \(X \cup Y \cup Z\) " and no one can accuse us of being ambiguous. This is also true if you have three (or more) intersections in a row. Be careful, though: associativity does not hold if you have unions and intersections mixed together. If I write \(A \cup B \cap C\) it matters very much whether I do the union first or the intersection first. This is just how it works with numbers: \(4 + 3 \times 2\) gives either 10 or 14 depending on the order of operations. In algebra, we learned that \(\times\) has precedence over +, and you’ll always do that one first in the absence of parentheses. We could establish a similar order for set operations, but we won’t: we’ll always make it explicit with parens.
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Union and intersection are distributive. [distributivelaw] You’ll recall from basic algebra that \(a \cdot (b+c) = ab + ac\) . Similarly with sets, \[X \cap (Y \cup Z) = (X \cap Y) \cup (X \cap Z).\] It’s important to work this out for yourself rather than just memorize it as a rule. Why does it work? Well, take a concrete example. Suppose \(X\) is the set of all female students, \(Y\) is the set of all computer science majors, and \(Z\) is the set of all math majors. (Some students, of course, double-major in both.) The left-hand side of the equals sign says “first take all the math and computer science majors and put them in a group. Then, intersect that group with the women to extract only the female students." The result is “women who are either computer science majors or math majors (or both)." Now look at the right-hand side. The first pair of parentheses encloses only female computer science majors. The right pair encloses female math majors. Then we take the union of the two, to get a group which contains only females, and specifically only the females who are computer science majors or math majors (or both). Clearly, the two sides of the equals sign have the same extension.
The distributive property in basic algebra doesn’t work if you flip the times and plus signs (normally \(a+b\cdot c \neq (a+b)\cdot (a+c)\) ), but remarkably it does here: \[X \cup (Y \cap Z) = (X \cup Y) \cap (X \cup Z).\] Using the same definitions of \(X\) , \(Y\) , and \(Z\) , work out the meaning of this one and convince yourself it’s always true.
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Identity laws. Simplest thing you’ve learned all day: \(X \cup \varnothing = X\) and \(X \cap \Omega = X\) . You don’t change \(X\) by adding nothing to it, or taking nothing away from it.
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Domination laws. The flip side of the above is that \(X \cup \Omega = \Omega\) and \(X \cap \varnothing = \varnothing\) . If you take \(X\) , and then add everything and the kitchen sink to it, you get everything and the kitchen sink. And if you restrict \(X\) to having nothing, it of course has nothing.
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Complement laws. \(X \cup \overline{X} = \Omega\) . This is another way of saying “everything (in the domain of discourse) is either in, or not in, a set." So if I take \(X\) , and then I take everything not in \(X\) , and smoosh the two together, I get everything. In a similar vein, \(X \cap \overline{X} = \varnothing\) , because there can’t be any element that’s both in \(X\) and not in \(X\) : that would be a contradiction. Interestingly, the first of these two laws has become controversial in modern philosophy. It’s called “the law of the excluded middle," and is explicitly repudiated in many modern logic systems.
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De Morgan’s laws. [demorganslaws] Now these are worth memorizing, if only because (1) they’re incredibly important, and (2) they may not slip right off the tongue the way the previous properties do. The first one can be stated this way:
\[\overline{X \cup Y} = \overline{X} \cap \overline{Y}.\]
Again, it’s best understood with a specific example. Let’s say you’re renting a house, and want to make sure you don’t have any surly characters under the roof. Let \(X\) be the set of all known thieves. Let \(Y\) be the set of all known murderers.  So who are you willing to rent to? Answer: if \(\Omega\) is the set of all people, you are willing to rent to \(\overline{X \cup Y}\) .
Why that? Because if you take \(X \cup Y\) , that gives you all the undesirables: people who are either murderers or thieves (or both). You don’t want to rent to any of them. In fact, you want to rent to the complement of that set; namely, “anybody else." Putting an overbar on that expression gives you all the non-thieves and non-murderers.
Very well. But now look at the right hand side of the equation. \(\overline{X}\) gives you the non-thieves. \(\overline{Y}\) gives you the non-murderers. Now in order to get acceptable people, you want to rent only to someone who’s in both groups. Put another way, they have to be both a non-thief and a non-murderer in order for you to rent to them. Therefore, they must be in the intersection of the non-thief group and the non-murderer group. Therefore, the two sides of this equation are the same.
The other form of De Morgan’s law is stated by flipping the intersections and unions:
\[\overline{X \cap Y} = \overline{X} \cup \overline{Y}.\]
Work this one out for yourself using a similar example, and convince yourself it’s always true.
Augustus De Morgan, by the way, was a brilliant 19 \(^\text{th}\) century mathematician with a wide range of interests. His name will come up again when we study logic and mathematical induction.


7.3: Loyalty and Customer Relationships
Industry Conversation: Ben Day, Director of Sales and Marketing, Blackcomb Springs Suites by Clique
What are the benefits of exceptional customer service?
“In hospitality, word of mouth is incredibly powerful tool to drive increased sales and profitability — even more so with the number of review sites online. Positive customer service leads to repeat business and lots of referrals. For team members, there is a natural euphoria when you make someone else’s day.”
With competition between tourism destinations and businesses continuing to grow, organizations are increasingly focusing on retaining existing customers, which is often less expensive than attracting new ones. This focus forces tourism businesses to look at the customer relationship over the long term, or the customer lifetime value (CLV) cycle, rather than at single transactions only.
It has been proven that it is much less expensive for a company to retain an existing customer than acquire a new one (Beaujean, Davidson & Madge, 2006). Ultimately, successful organizations will strive to build a base of loyal customers who will provide repeat business and may influence other potential customers. Building positive relationships with loyal customers requires planning and diligence for all customer touch points. This may include (Lovelock & Wirtz, 2007):
- Managing service encounters: training staff to provide personal service to customers
- Providing customer incentives: inducing customers to frequent the business
- Providing special service options: offering enhanced services or extra offerings to loyal customers
- Developing pricing strategies to encourage long-term use: offering repeat customers special prices or rate
- Maintaining a customer database: keeping an up-to-date set of records on customer purchase history, preferences, demographics, and so on.
- Communicating with customers: reaching individual customers through direct or specialized media, using non-mass media approaches
Loyalty programs pull together several of these elements to help a business identify, maintain contact with, and reward frequent customers.
Examples of Outstanding Service
If one uses the definition of quality in service as “meeting or exceeding customer expectations” (Kapiki, 2012), then the following examples certainly fit the description. These embody a concept known as a moment of truth (Beaujean, Davidson & Madge, 2006) when a customer’s interaction with a front-line employee makes a critical difference in his or her perception of that company or destination. The characteristics of employees that are best able to create these moments include self-empowerment and self-regulation, a positive outlook, awareness of their feelings and the feelings of others, and the ability to curb fear and anxiety while being able to access a desire to help others. These past winners of the WorldHost customer service award demonstrate this concept in action (WorldHost, n.d.):
Tamara Turcotte of the Sidney Airport Travelodge was nominated after she came into work on her day off after hearing that hundreds of travellers had been stranded after a bomb threat led to the cancellation of ferry trips from nearby Swartz Bay. Reporting for duty, she helped coordinate accommodations for these travellers, looking beyond the hotel (which was full) to the homes of coworkers and friends. Her compassion and swift actions helped turn a negative experience for these guests into a moment of truth about visiting British Columbia.
Agazzi Abbay received word that JetsGo, a small airline and his employer, had suddenly gone out of business, and he was out of a job. Concerned for the passengers that would be stranded by this abrupt end for the airline, he went to the airport to give them the opportunity to share their frustration. Even though he was unable to help their situation, he was able to demonstrate empathy and provide a listening ear as the only former JetsGo employee available across Canada.
Andrea Chan, a guest services supervisor at the Holiday Inn and Suites in Vancouver, received a call from a hotel guest who said she was ill. Concerned because the caller sounded disoriented, Andrea recommended a visit to the hospital. To be sure her guest was safe, Andrea accompanied her to the emergency room and stayed with her until her health and safety were assured — working well beyond the hours of her shift, and returning home the next morning. By treating every guest like family, Andrea created a lasting impression about Holiday Inn and its customer service value.


1.1: History of Cognitive Psychology
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Early thoughts claimed that knowledge was stored in the brain.
Renaissance and Beyond
Renaissance philosophers of the 17th century generally agreed with Nativists and even tried to show the structure and functions of the brain graphically. But also empiricist philosophers had very important ideas. According to David Hume , the internal representations of knowledge are formed obeying particular rules. These creations and transformations take effort and time. Actually, this is the basis of much current research in Cognitive Psychology. In the 19th Century Wilhelm Wundt and Franciscus Cornelis Donders made the corresponding experiments measuring the reaction time required for a response, of which further interpretation gave rise to Cognitive Psychology 55 years later.
20th Century and the Cognitive Revolution
During the first half of the 20th Century, a radical turn in the investigation of cognition took place. Behaviourists like Burrhus Frederic Skinner claimed that such mental internal operations - such as attention, memory, and thinking – are only hypothetical constructs that cannot be observed or proven. Therefore, Behaviorists asserted, mental constructs are not as important and relevant as the study and experimental analysis of behaviour (directly observable data) in response to some stimulus. According to Watson and Skinner, man could be objectively studied only in this way. The popularity of Behavioralist theory in the psychological world led investigation of mental events and processes to be abandoned for about 50 years.
In the 1950s scientific interest returned again to attention, memory, images, language processing, thinking and consciousness. The “failure” of Behaviourism heralded a new period in the investigation of cognition, called Cognitive Revolution . This was characterized by a revival of already existing theories and the rise of new ideas such as various communication theories. These theories emerged mainly from the previously created information theory, giving rise to experiments in signal detection and attention in order to form a theoretical and practical understanding of communication.
Modern linguists suggested new theories on language and grammar structure, which were correlated with cognitive processes. Chomsky’s Generative Grammar and Universal Grammar theory, proposed language hierarchy, and his critique of Skinner’s “Verbal Behaviour” are all milestones in the history of Cognitive Science. Theories of memory and models of its organization gave rise to models of other cognitive processes. Computer science, especially artificial intelligence, re-examined basic theories of problem solving and the processing and storage of memory, language processing and acquisition.
For clarification: Further discussion on the "behaviorist" history.
Although the above account reflects the most common version of the rise and fall of behaviorism, it is a misrepresentation. In order to better understand the founding of cognitive psychology it must be understood in an accurate historical context. Theoretical disagreements exist in every science. However, these disagreements should be based on an honest interpretation of the opposing view. There is a general tendency to draw a false equivalence between Skinner and Watson. It is true that Watson rejected the role that mental or conscious events played in the behavior of humans. In hindsight this was an error. However, if we examine the historical context of Watson's position we can better understand why he went to such extremes. He, like many young psychologists of the time, was growing frustrated with the lack of practical progress in psychological science. The focus on consciousness was yielding inconsistent, unreliable and conflicting data. Excited by the progress coming from Pavlov's work with elicited responses and looking to the natural sciences for inspiration, Watson rejected the study of observable mental events and also pushed psychology to study stimulus-response relations as a means to better understand human behavior. This new school of psychology, "behaviorism" became very popular. Skinner's school of thought, although inspired by Watson, takes a very different approach to the study of unobservable mental events. Skinner proposed that the distinction between "mind" and "body" brought with it irreconcilable philosophical baggage. He proposed that the events going on "within the skin", previously referred to as mental events, be called private events. This would bring the private experiences of thinking, reasoning, feeling and such, back into the scientific fold of psychology. However, Skinner proposed that these were things we are doing rather than events going on at a theorized mental place. For Skinner, the question was not of a mental world existing or not, it was whether or not we need to appeal to the existence of a mental world in order to explain the things going on inside our heads. Such as the natural sciences ask whether we need to assume the existence of a creator in order to account for phenomena in the natural world. For Skinner, it was an error for psychologists to point to these private events (mental) events as causes of behavior. Instead, he suggested that these too had to be explained through the study of how one evolves as a matter of experience. For example, we could say that a student studies because she "expects" to do better on an exam if she does. To "expect" might sound like an acceptable explanation for the behavior of studying, however, Skinner would ask why she "expects". The answer to this question would yield the true explanation of why the student is studying. To "expect" is to do something, to behave "in our head", and thus must also be explained.
The cognitive psychologist Henry Roediger pointed out that many psychologists erroneously subscribe to the version of psychology presented in the first paragraph. He also pointed to the successful rebuttal against Chomsky's review of Verbal behavior. The evidence for the utility in Skinner's book can be seen in the abundance of actionable data it has generated, therapies unmatched by any modern linguistic account of language. Roediger reminded his readers that in fact, we all measure behavior, some simply choose to make more assumptions about its origins than others. He recalls how, even as a cognitive psychologist, he has been the focus of criticism for not making more assumptions about his data. The law of parsimony tells us that when choosing an explanation for a set of data about observable behavior (the data all psychologists collect), we must be careful not to make assumptions beyond those necessary to explain the data. This is where the main division lies between modern day behavior analysts and cognitive psychologists. It is not in the rejection of our private experiences, it is in how these experiences are studied. Behavior analysts study them in relation to our learning history and the brain correlates of that history. They use this information to design environments that change our private experience by changing our interaction with the world. After all, it is through our interaction with our relative world that our private experiences evolve. It is a far cry from the mechanical stimulus-response psychology of John Watson. Academic honesty requires that we make a good faith effort to understand what we wish to criticize. Henry Roediger pointed out that many psychologists understand a very stereotyped, erroneous version of psychology's history. In doing so they miss the many successful real world applications that Skinner's analysis has generated.
Neuroinformatics, which is based on the natural structure of the human nervous system, tries to build neuronal structures by the idea of artificial neurons. In addition to that, Neuroinformatics is used as a field of evidence for psychological models, for example models for memory. The artificial neuron network “learns” words and behaves like “real” neurons in the brain. If the results of the artificial neuron network are quite similar to the results of real memory experiments, it would support the model. In this way psychological models can be “tested”. Furthermore it would help to build artificial neuron networks, which posses similar skills like the human such as face recognition.
If more about the ways humans process information was understood, it would be much simpler to build artificial structures, which have the same or similar abilities. The area of cognitive development investigation tried to describe how children develop their cognitive abilities from infancy to adolescence. The theories of knowledge representation were first strongly concerned with sensory inputs. Current scientists claim to have evidence that our internal representation of reality is not a one-to-one reproduction of the physical world. It is rather stored in some abstract or neurochemical code. Tolman, Bartlett, Norman and Rumelhart made some experiments on cognitive mapping. Here, the inner knowledge seemed not only to be related to sensory input, but also to be modified by some kind of knowledge network modeled by past experience.
Newer methods, like Electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have given researchers the possibility to measure brain activity and possibly correlate it to mental states and processes. All these new approaches in the study of human cognition and psychology have defined the field of Cognitive Psychology, a very fascinating field which tries to answer what is quite possibly the most interesting question posed since the dawn of reason. There is still a lot to discover and to answer and to ask again, but first we want to make you more familiar with the concept of Cognitive Psychology.


11.2.1: How to Incorporate Data Files in Your Code Blocks- For C++
There are a number of ways data files and can be incorporated into code blocks. However, ensure that you have already followed the steps in the introduction to the CKEditor Binder Plugin Tutorial here .
Method 1: Using wget
The first method that can be used to get a data file in your code block is with wget. Follow the example below and replace the example URL with the one attained in the previous step.
Remember to press the "Run" button prior to pressing "OK". Printing both the code and output will provide the below result, to avoid this simply check "Insert Code Only" after pressing "Run" in order to achieve the example above.
Once the data file has been loaded, use C++ code that you may normally use to read out the lines in the data file


12.18: Assignment- Geological Resources
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For this assessment, you will create a poster using the program of your choice (a single page Word or slide in PowerPoint is recommended). You will investigate a resource, how it is used and how it is mined. You will also discuss the impact this resource use has on society. Remember to access the tips and hints at the bottom of the page.
Basic Requirements (assignment criteria):
1. Choose from the following list of minerals and mineral resources that we currently mine:
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Coal
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Granite
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Oil
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Gold
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Natural Gas
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Copper
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Limestone
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Any metallic ore such as nickel
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On your poster include the following:
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How the resource is currently used
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If the resource is renewable or non-renewable. If nonrenewable, state any renewable alternatives
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How the resource is typically mined
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The environmental and societal impacts or side effects of this techniques
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Any advances in mining to improve the technique(s) used for this resource
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Make sure you cite any resources you may use in the appropriate format, including pictures. Remember to not only list references but cite WITHIN the text itself.
Please note—the text is cited within the body of the work and not just listed as references. It is important to remember to cite within the body of the text so it easy to tell what information came from what source. If you do not cite within the text, it is a form of plagiarism and will negatively impact your grade.
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You can use a separate page or slide to list your references on so you don’t take away space from your poster.
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Make sure your name is on the document before saving.
Tips and hints can be found
here
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Geological Implications Assessment
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Criteria
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Ratings
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Pts
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Learns common processes of geologic formation of rock and mineral resources.
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Exceeded Expectations: Mastery with Distinction
5.0 pts
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Met Expectations: Mastery AchievedMet expectation
4.0 pts
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Fell below expectation
0.0 pts
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5.0 pts
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Describes some of the extraction methods and how extraction impacts society and our environment.
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Exceeded Expectations: Mastery with Distinction
5.0 pts
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Met Expectations: Mastery AchievedMet expectation
4.0 pts
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Fell below expectation
0.0 pts
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5.0 pts
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Describes geologic materials as current or potential energy resources and categorize sources as renewable or nonrenewable.escription of criterion
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Exceeded Expectations: Mastery with Distinction
5.0 pts
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Met Expectations: Mastery AchievedMet expectation
4.0 pts
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Fell below expectation
0.0 pts
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5.0 pts
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Total Points: 15.0
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Contributors and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original


8.2: Racial Identity and Ethnicity
Racial Identity and Ethnicity
Before we discuss racial identity and ethnicity, it is important that we define race and ethnicity, understand the myths about race and the historical context of racial grouping, why it was created, and how it evolved overtime. There are two myths or ideas about race. The first suggests people inherit physical characteristics distinguishing race. Second, the idea that one race is superior to others or that one “pure” race exists. In actuality, scientific research mapping of the human genome system found that humans are homogenous (Henslin, 2011). Race is truly an arbitrary label that has become part of society’s culture with no justifiable evidence to support differences in physical appearance substantiate the idea that there are a variety of human species. Traditionally, racial terms classify and stratify people by appearance and inherently assign racial groups as inferior or superior in society (Kottak & Kozaitis, 2012). Scientific data finds only one human species making up only one human race. Evidence shows physical differences in human appearance including skin color are a result of human migration patterns and adaptions to the environment (Jablonski, 2012). Nonetheless, people use physical characteristics to identify, relate, and interact with one another.
Ethnicity refers to the cultural characteristics related to ancestry and heritage, and also describes shared cultural group practices values, and beliefs. People who identify with an ethnic group share common cultural characteristics (i.e.,nationality, history, language, religion, etc.). Ethnic groups select rituals, customs, ceremonies, and other traditions to help preserve shared heritage (Kottak and Kozaitis, 2012). Lifestyle requirements and other identity characteristics such as geography and region influence how we adapt our ethnic behaviors to fit the context or setting in which we live. Culture is also key in determining how human bodies grow and develop such as food preferences and diet and cultural traditions promote certain activities and abilities including physical well-being and sport (Kottak and Kozaitis, 2012). Someone of Mexican decent living in Central California who is a college professor will project different ethnic behaviors than someone of the same ethnic culture who is a housekeeper in Las Vegas, Nevada. Differences in profession, social class, and region will influence each person’s lifestyle, physical composition, and health though both may identify and affiliate themselves as Mexican.
Let’s date back to the original consensus in 1790. Race was created for sorting and ranking people in the English colonies. In the 18 th century was created to rank America broke populations in to racial groups of free whites, other persons (including free blacks and taxable Indians), and slaves (Lewitt & Baker, 1994). From the early 1900s through 1950, the census subgroups included whites, negro, and other (which included American Indians, Chinese and Japanese), and a person’s race was determined by the consensus taker. Mexican was considered a race in 1930, but was dropped in 1940. Mexican was included in the white subgroup as a prior consensus. People of mixed race was usually determined by the race of the father (Lewitt & Baker, 1994). As times have progressed, the categories for racial identities has expanded. Some include:
- American Indian or Alaskan Native: A person having origins in any of the original peoples of North America, and who maintains cultural identification through tribal affiliations or community recognition.
- Asian or Pacific Islander: A person having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, or the Pacific Islands. This area includes, for example, China, India, Ja- pan, Korea, the Philippine Islands, and Samoa
- Black: A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa
- Hispanic: A person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central or South American, or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race
- White: A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, North Africa, or the Middle East (Lewitt & Baker, 1994).
Now that we have some context on how race transformed over centuries in the United States, let’s build on that understanding by learning about the impacts of race and ethnicity. Race, and the given contexts of race in America plays a huge role in how children and families will experience the world around them. Through racial grouping, identifiers such as minority groups were created. Minority groups are people who receive unequal treatment and discrimination based on social categories such as age, gender, sexuality, race and ethnicity, religious beliefs, or socio-economic class. For example, a large group of people may be a minority group because they lack social power. The physical and cultural traits of minority groups “are held in low esteem by the dominant or majority group which treats them unfairly” (Henslin, 2011, pg 217). The dominant group has higher power and status in society and receives greater privileges. As a result, the dominant group uses its position to discriminate against those that are different. White, middle class and European descendants represents the dominant group. Minority groups can garner power by expanding political boundaries or through expanded migration though both of these efforts do not occur with ease and require societal support from minority and dominant group members. The loss of power among dominant groups threatens not only their authority over other groups but also the privileges and way of life established by the majority.Race can be a huge factor in how children will experience education as well. When dissecting race using critical race theory, studies suggest that systems of oppression, marginalization, racism, inequity, and discrimination are ingrained in policies, practices, institutions, and systems of education that impacts children and families (Heard-Garris et al., 2018). Impacts of race and ethnicity can determine the resources a child have access to, the type of education they receive, and the type of hardship they encounter.
Race and ethnicity can cause families of minority groups to experience stress that’s related to implications of race and ethnicity. For an example, if a person is experiencing discrimination in the work place, and is eventually laid off, they may experience stress and other mental health issues that trickles down to their interactions with their children. This will cause a stress response in their children. Multiple studies have documented how the stresses of everyday discrimination on parents or other caregivers, such as being associated with negative stereotypes, can have harmful effects on caregiving behaviors and adult mental health. And when caregivers' mental health is affected, the challenges of coping with it can cause an excessive stress response in their children.
When considering what studies suggest, it’s important to understand that a huge portion of how children identify themselves come from their race and ethnicity. Race, ethnicity, gender, and culture are all important identifiers. This all falls in to identity formation. This formation process begins at birth, peaks during adolescence, and continues to develop throughout adulthood, thus allowing an individual to fully negotiate multiple identities. There are so many moving parts to how identity formation works. For an example, educators, including both White teachers and administrators, have an impact on the racial identity and development of African American students. Research has documented that White teachers often treat their students differently and have different expectations for them depending upon their gender, race, and perceived academic abilities. Black students frequently perceive that teachers have lower academic expectations for them and higher academic expectations for White students. These issues are highly problematic as teacher- student relations are viewed as a paramount dimension of the school environment (Decuir-Gunby 2009). Students who are giving lower academic expectations are more likely to have lower academic achievement.
We ask this question. How important is ethnic identity for the developing child? There are so many factors that contributes to a child developing low self-esteem. Can the negative effects of race and ethnicity be counteracted with teaching children to have a high sense of ethnic identity? Analyses of data collected from 12,386 adolescents showed that ethnic identity is an important qualifier of the relationships between independent variables of ethnicity and gender, and dependent variables of global self-esteem, academic self-confidence, and purpose in life. Whites and Native Americans had lower ethnic identity, and Blacks and Hispanics had higher ethnic identity. Asians and respondents of mixed ethnicity had intermediate levels of ethnic identity. The greater the ethnic identity, the higher the self-esteem, purpose in life and self-confidence (Martinez & Dukes 1997).
Racism
The terms stereotype, prejudice, discrimination, and racism are often used interchangeably in everyday conversation, but sociologists do not view them as the same. While prejudice is not necessarily specific to race, racism is a doctrine of racial supremacy that sees one racial category as somehow superior or inferior to others.
  Further, racial inequity is defined as when two or more race-ethnic groups are not standing on equal footing - which is a result of racist policies or ideas (Kendi, 2020). For Kendi, the polar of a racist is an anti-racist, one who is supporting an anti-racist policy through their actions or expressing an anti-racist idea. To say that one is not racist is a hollow statement as it is devoid of action.
Institutional racism refers to the way in which racism is embedded in the fabric of society. For example, the disproportionate number of Black men arrested, charged, and convicted of crimes may reflect racial profiling, a form of institutional racism. (At the end of this section, various types of racism are further defined, with examples).
Sociologists, in general, recognize "race" as a social construct . This means that, although the concepts of race and racism are based on observable biological characteristics, any conclusions drawn about race on the basis of those observations are heavily influenced by cultural ideologies. Racism, as an ideology, exists in a society at both the individual and institutional level.
While much of the research and work on racism during the last half-century or so has concentrated on "white racism" in the Western world, historical accounts of race-based social practices can be found across the globe. Kendi reminds us though that a person of any race-ethnic background could be racist. Racism can be broadly understood to encompass individual and group prejudices and acts of discrimination that result in material and cultural advantages conferred on a majority or a dominant social group. So-called "white racism" focuses on societies in which white populations are the majority or the dominant social group. In studies of these majority white societies, the aggregate of material and cultural advantages is usually termed "white privilege."
Racism in the United States traces the attitudes, laws, practices and actions which discriminate against various groups in the United States based on their race or ethnicity; while most white Americans enjoy legally or socially sanctioned privileges and rights which have at various times been denied to members of other ethnic or minority groups. European Americans, particularly affluent white Anglo-Saxon Protestants, are said to have enjoyed advantages in matters of education, immigration, voting rights, citizenship, land acquisition, bankruptcy, and criminal procedure throughout United States history.
Racism against various ethnic or minority groups has existed in the United States since the colonial era. African Americans in particular have faced restrictions on their political, social, and economic freedoms throughout much of United States history. Native Americans have suffered genocide, forced removals, and massacres, and they continue to face discrimination. In addition, East, South, and Southeast Asians along with Pacific Islanders have also been discriminated against. Hispanics have continuously experienced racism in the United States despite the fact that many of them have European ancestry. Middle Eastern groups such as Jews, Arabs, and Iranians continuously face discrimination in the United States, and as a result, some people who belong to these groups do not identify as, and are not perceived to be, white.
Racism has manifested itself in a variety of ways, including genocide, slavery, segregation, Native American reservations, Native American boarding schools, immigration and naturalization laws, and internment camps. Formal racial discrimination was largely banned by the mid-20th century and over time, coming to be perceived as being socially and morally unacceptable. Racial politics remains a major phenomenon, and racism continues to be reflected in socioeconomic inequality. In recent years research has uncovered extensive evidence of racial discrimination in various sectors of modern U.S. society, including the criminal justice system, business, the economy, housing, health care, the media, and politics. In the view of the United Nations and the U.S. Human Rights Network, "discrimination in the United States permeates all aspects of life and extends to all communities of color."
A general definition of racism has been provided above. Yet, in reality, sociologists have identified multiple types of racism, which are defined and described below. The analysis of these different types of racism provides more depth and complexity which can help to better diagnose, critically analyze, and potentially remedy racism.
Thinking Sociologically
Color-blind racism is defined as the use of race-neutral principles to defend the racially unequal status quo. While a mainstream definition of color-blindness suggests that race or racial classification does not affect a person's life chances or opportunities, sociologists such as Bonilla-Silva argues that this more subtle form of racism ignores race and structural racism and is the dominant ideology in the U.S. Yet, as shown below structural racism permeates every aspect of our lives, and color blind racism ignores the structural inequalities that disproportionately affect people of color.
- Example: "We are all equal" and "race doesn't matter" are phrases uttered and may sound but, but in reality these phrases ignore structural problems such as the prison industrial complex, poverty, the wealth gap, and educational inequalities - all of which hamper the life chances of people of color which means we do not all have equal chances.
- How can we reach a point where our differences are acknowledged and even celebrated or where are unequal life experiences are understood as real?
Environmental racism: Structurally analogous to environmental sexism, environmental racism involves a conceptual association between people of color and nature that marks their dual subordination (Bullard & Wright, 1987). Environmental racism is seen in the deliberate targeting of communities of color for toxic waste disposal and the siting of polluting industries(Ibid). It is racial discrimination in the official sanctioning of the life-threatening presence of poisons and pollutants in communities of color (Ibid). And, it is racial discrimination in the history of excluding people of color from the mainstream environmental groups, decision-making boards, commissions, and regulatory bodies (Ibid).
- Example: Government-sanctioned lead-contaminated drinking water in Flint, Michigan, disproportionately impacting the African-American population.
- What race-ethnic representation exists in your local, appointed and elected municipalities (government), including those that regulate water and air pollution? What environmental groups exist in your community to provide checks on these governing boards, particularly with regards to the communities populated by people of color?
Ideological racism: An ideology that considers a groups’ unchangeable physical characteristics to be linked in a direct, causal way to psychological or intellectual characteristics and that, on this basis, distinguishes between superior and inferior groups (St. Jean & Feagin, 1998).
- Example: The justification of slavery as “saving” Africans from their homeland’s “primitive culture;” Manifest Destiny that purported Euro-Americans God-given rights to the lands in the eastern United States at the expense of Native Americans who were symbolized as “savages;” former President Trump’s statements on the campaign trail linking Mexicans to rapists and criminals.
- How can the stereotypes that shape ideological racism be challenged or changed - on an individual level, in our families, in the media, and in society at large?
Internalized racism: Members of the target group are emotionally, physically, and spiritually battered to the point that they begin to actually believe that their oppression is deserved, is their lot in life, is natural and right, and that it doesn’t even exist (Yamato, 2004).
- Example: A person of color who hates their skin color and wishes to marry out of their race-ethnic group so their children will be of lighter complexion. Another example: the root of the alcohol problem in Indigenous communities can be traced to the effects of colonization, internalizing the colonizer’s message (i.e. American Indians are inferior or "savage").
- In some communities and families, internalized racism has been in the works over centuries. What types of mental health supports exist in your communities or schools that may serve to address internalized racism?
Inter-group or inter-personal racism: This is the racism that occurs between individuals or groups; it is the holding of negative attitudes towards a different race or culture (Safe Places for the Advancement of Community and Equity). Interpersonal racism often follows a victim/perpetrator model (Ibid). Within poor communities, ignorance and suspicion of groups or individuals of a different race-ethnic background may result in tension between various race-ethnic groups.
- Example: In urban spaces such as Los Angeles, Long Beach, Chicago, New York City, poor Latinx, Asian, and African American gangs fight each other rather than the capitalist system that perpetuates class inequalities.
- Can you identify examples of multiracial coalitions in your community? One such multiracial collective is Californians for Justice, located in Oakland, San Jose, Fresno, and Long Beach, which is a statewide youth-powered organization fighting for racial justice, particularly in our public schools .
Intra-group racism: Racist attitudes and behaviors against people of your “same racial group.” Colorism is a type of intra-group racism which is the ranking or judgment of individuals based on skin tone (Schaefer, 2019).
- Example: A light-skinned person of color who evaluates a dark-skinned person of color as inferior; a wealthy person of any particular "race" who speaks pejoratively of less financially wealthy individuals in their "race."
- Have you ever experienced colorism in your family, community, or social media? How did you respond to this colorism, or how could have you responded to it?
Modern racism: White beliefs that serious anti-Black (or anti-Mexican, anti-Arab, anti-Asian, etc.) discrimination does not exist today and that African Americans (or other communities of color) are making illegitimate demands for social changes. (St. Jean & Feagin, 1998). This type of racism may be understood as color-blind racism.
- Example: One white male (David C.) in the film, The Color of Fear , was sure he was not racist at all and sure that racism is a thing of the past and only a figment in the imagination of the minds of African Americans, Latinos, Asian Americans, Pacific Islanders, Native Americans, etc
- In this film, through dialoguing with other men of color and white men, David C. barely begins to understand white privilege and the systems of power that oppress people of color. Another male featured in the film, Roberto, acknowledges that unmasking white privilege is painful, as he proclaims,"The cure of the pain is in the pain." How would you respond to someone who proclaims that racism is not real, but is rather an illusion or a figment of one's imagination?
Structural racism/Systemic racism: A shorthand term for the many systemic factors that work to produce and maintain racial inequities in America today. These are aspects of our history and culture that allow the privileges associated with “whiteness” and the disadvantages associated with “color” to remain deeply embedded within the political economy. Public policies, institutional practices and cultural representations contribute to structural racism by reproducing outcomes that are racially inequitable. (The Aspen Institute)
- Example: The criminal justice system contributes to systemic racism through over-policing of communities of color, disproportionate police brutality experienced by people of color, and disproportionate mass incarceration of Black men.
- The Summer 2020 protests called to dismantle systemic racism in this country, particularly in policing. What do you think needs to happen to rid this country of system racism that is evident in our laws, schooling, mass media, criminal justice system, political representation, employment patterns, etc.?
Subtle, covert racism: Hidden, camouflaged, pernicious racism.
- Example: Merriam-Webster's Dictionary definitions of racially-coded labels such as Black, minority, and savage all contain derogatory meanings.
- What do you think is more harmful to our society: overt (obvious) racism or subtle, covert racism? While laws may address overt racism such as hate crimes, addressing covert racism may be far more challenging. How might we raise children in a way to prevent subtle, covert racism?
References
Bullard, R. D., & Wright, B. H. (1987). BLACKS AND THE ENVIRONMENT. Humboldt Journal of Social Relations, 14 (1/2), 165–184.
DeCuir-Gunby, J. T. (2009). A Review of the Racial Identity Development of African American Adolescents: The Role of Education. Review of Educational Research , 79 (1), 103–124.
Heard-Garris, N.J., Cale, M., Camaj, L., Hamati, M.C., & Dominguez, T.P. (2018).  Social Science & Medicine, 199, 230-240.
Henslin, J.M., (2011), Social Problems: A down to earth approach. 10th Ed. Pearson
Jablonski, N. G. (2012). Living color: The biological and social meaning of skin color. University of California Press.
Kendi, I.X., (2020). Stamped: Racism, antiracisim and you: A remix of the national book award winning stamped from the beginning. Little Brown and Company. New York
Kottak, C., Kozaitis, K.A. (2012), On Being Different: Diversity and multiculturalism in the north american mainstream. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Lewitt, E. M., & Baker, L. G. (1994). Race and Ethnicity: Changes for Children. The Future of Children, 4 (3), 134–144.
Martinez, R.O., Dukes, R.L. The Effects of Ethnic Identity, Ethnicity, and Gender on Adolescent Well-Being. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 26, 503–516 (1997).
Schaefer, R.T. (2019) Racial and Ethnic Groups. 15th Ed. Pearson
St. Jean, Y., & Feagin, J. R. (1998). The family costs of White racism: The case of African American families. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 29 (2), 297–312.
Yamato, G. (2004). Something about the subject makes it hard to name. In M. L. Andersen & P. H. Collins (Eds.), Race, class, & gender: An anthology (5th ed., pp. 99–103). Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth.


14.4: Discussion- Sun City Boards’ Managers and Team Leaders
Post 1: Initial Post
Instructions
This posting should be a minimum of one short paragraph and a maximum of two paragraphs. Word totals for this post should be in the 100–200-word range. Whether you agree or disagree, explain why with supporting evidence and concepts from the readings or a related experience. Include a reference, link, or citation when appropriate.
Scenario
Sun City Boards has changed dramatically since Tom reached out for help. With your coaching, Tom has developed into an effective leader and communicator. The same can not be said of some of his managers and team leaders. Tom has asked you to structure a series of communication training workshops to develop his managers communication skills and, ultimately, business performance and employee satisfaction. His two requirements: the training should be active and participants should be able to implement learning immediately.
For Discussion
- As preparation for this discussion, review the Communication and Management section of the module.
- Conduct additional research on how to develop communication—and listening—skills.
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Based on your understanding of Sun City Boards’ culture, operating dynamics and growth plans, develop the outline for a 1–2 hour communications workshop for managers that will increase their ability to achieve one or more of the four fundamental roles of management communication:
- provide clarity
- build relationships
- create commitment
- define expectations
Posts 2 and 3: Respond to Classmates’ Posts
Instructions
After you have created your initial post, look over the discussion posts of your classmates and give at least two thoughtful responses to two different classmates (one per classmate).
A response posting should be a minimum of one short paragraph. Word totals for these posts should be in the 75–100-word range. Whether you agree or disagree, explain why with supporting evidence and concepts from the readings or a related experience. Include a reference, link, or citation when appropriate. The goal of your response posts is to extend discussions already taking place or pose new possibilities or opinions not previously voiced. Your goal should be to motivate the group discussion and present a creative approach to the topic.
Contributors and Attributions
- Discussion: Sun City Boards' Managers and Team Leaders. Authored by : Nina Burokas. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


11.5.3: Batch Culture of Bacteriophages
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Learning Objectives
- Define the reasons for, and ways to batch culture bacteriophages
Strategies of Replication
Virus or phage cultures require host cells in which to multiply. For bacteriophages, cultures are grown by infecting bacterial cells. The phage can then be isolated from the resulting plaques in a lawn of bacteria on a plate.
A bacteriophage is any one of a number of viruses that infect bacteria. They do this by injecting genetic material, which they carry enclosed in an outer protein capsid, into a host bacterial cell. The genetic material can be ssRNA, dsRNA, ssDNA, or dsDNA (‘ss-‘ or ‘ds-‘ prefix denotes single-strand or double-strand), along with either circular or linear arrangements.
To enter a host cell, bacteriophages attach to specific receptors on the surface of bacteria, including lipopolysaccharides, teichoic acids, proteins, or even flagella. This specificity means a bacteriophage can infect only those bacteria bearing receptors to which they can bind, which in turn determines the phage’s host range. Host growth conditions also influence the ability of the phage to attach and invade them. As phage virions do not move independently, they must rely on random encounters with the right receptors when in solution within blood, lymphatic circulation, irrigation, soil water, or other environments..
Phages may be released via cell lysis, by extrusion, or, in a few cases, by budding. Lysis, by tailed phages, is achieved by an enzyme called endolysin, which attacks and breaks down the cell wall peptidoglycan. An altogether different phage type, the filamentous phages, make the host cell continually secrete new virus particles. Released virions are described as free, and, unless defective, are capable of infecting a new bacterium. Budding is associated with certain Mycoplasma phages. In contrast to virion release, phages displaying a lysogenic cycle do not kill the host but, rather, become long-term residents as prophage.
Key Points
- A bacteriophage is a type of virus that infects bacteria. It does so by injecting genetic material – either DNA or RNA – which it carries enclosed in an outer protein capsid.
- To enter a host cell, bacteriophages attach to specific receptors on the surface of bacteria, including lipopolysaccharides, teichoic acids, proteins, or even flagella.
- Phage virions do not move independently, they must rely on random encounters with the right receptors when in solution (blood, lymphatic circulation, irrigation, soil water, etc. ).
Key Terms
- bacteriophage : A virus that specifically infects bacteria.


9.16: Assignment- Operating Budgets
This assignment is available for download as a Word Document.
Read the following scenario and complete the questions and tasks below.
Don Flowers, CEO of Burbage Manufacturing looked around the conference room as his management team chatted and settled in for the monthly meeting.
“Let’s get started,” Don said, “we have a lot to cover today, and frankly it’s not all good news.” The room fell quiet. Don continued, “As you know we recently experienced a cash shortage despite last quarter’s record sales. We can’t keep going back to the bank to borrow money to support operations. I am counting on each of you to figure out a way to keep this from happening in the future.”
Brian Mitchell, the newest member of the team raised his hand somewhat sheepishly. “Sir, perhaps if we looked at the Master Budget for last month we could begin to identify areas for improvement.”
Don looked to Alex, his CFO. “Well, Alex that’s your area of expertise and Brian’s suggestion makes sense. Let’s have a look at that Master Budget.”
Alex looked down at the desk and began shuffling through his paperwork. “Well Don, we don’t exactly have a Master Budget per se. I mean we have budgets for different areas within the company, but I really rely on the managers to know what they need to do in their areas.”
Terri, the production manager spoke up, “Hey, wait a minute Alex. You’re the CFO. I’m doing everything I can just to keep up with demand down there on the floor. I don’t have time to worry about that kind of thing.  Besides, that’s your job, Alex.”
“You know she has a point there Alex.  I need Terri to put all of her time towards keeping the production line running smoothly,” Don said.
“Look, Don, Alex replied, “In January I asked everyone to send me their budgets for the year and the only thing I got was a sales budget from Peter with a note attached that asked for a pay increase for his account managers.”
Brian raised his hand to speak. “Well, I know I’m new here, but at my last company we had budgets for sales, finished goods, cash – pretty much everything was budgeted. It seemed to work pretty well, and everyone had a good grasp of where we were financially.”
Alex, the CFO gave Brian an icy stare.
Don turned to Alex. “Alex, I think this young man has a point. Is there some reason why we aren’t budgeting like he described?”
“Well”, Alex began, “It’s really complicated, Don. Marjorie in materials is short two people and she’s paying overtime to her remaining people just to meet supply requisitions from the shop floor. And then there’s the problem with the corporate office. Every time I turn around I am getting an invoice from them for some piece of office equipment or another. Last week I got a bill from some company that Jessica hired to water the plants. How am I supposed to keep track of all of this? And then ….”
 “Look, I know we are a complex organization – but the fact of the matter is that I can’t keep going to the bank every month, borrowing money to pay the suppliers. For heaven’s sake – we are a multi-million-dollar company.” By this time Don was red in the face and everyone around the table was showing an intense interest in the conference table. He continued, “What am I going to tell the shareholders at the annual meeting when we don’t have enough cash to pay a dividend – that Jessica spent their money on potted plants?”
“This is going to end, today. Brian, you seem like a smart young man. You are going to work with Alex and anyone else in this company to get us on board with establishing and using budgets to correct this situation,” Don explained. “Further, as for the rest of you -when Brian comes and asks you for information treat him as if it was me making the request. Understood?”
Everyone nodded their heads in agreement.
“Meeting adjourned,” Don declared.
Questions:
- Identify the problems that appear to exist in Burbage’s budgetary control system and explain how these problems are contributing to the company’s poor cash position.
- Identify the budgets that Brian and Alex will need to create to resolve these issues, including the information that is needed to construct each budget.
- Once you have identified the problems and necessary budgets, prepare a report for Don and the rest of the management team outlining your plan for establishing a budgetary control system, making certain to include how each component of the system will benefit the overall financial health of the company.


2.5.2: Carbohydrate Molecules
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Learning Objectives
- Describe the structure of mono-, di-, and poly-saccharides
Carbohydrates can be represented by the stoichiometric formula (CH 2 O) n , where n is the number of carbons in the molecule. Therefore, the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1 in carbohydrate molecules. The origin of the term “carbohydrate” is based on its components: carbon (“carbo”) and water (“hydrate”). Carbohydrates are classified into three subtypes: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides (mono- = “one”; sacchar- = “sweet”) are simple sugars. In monosaccharides, the number of carbons usually ranges from three to seven. If the sugar has an aldehyde group (the functional group with the structure R-CHO), it is known as an aldose, and if it has a ketone group (the functional group with the structure RC(=O)R’), it is known as a ketose. Depending on the number of carbons in the sugar, they also may be known as trioses (three carbons), pentoses (five carbons), and or hexoses (six carbons). Monosaccharides can exist as a linear chain or as ring-shaped molecules; in aqueous solutions they are usually found in ring forms.
Common Monosaccharides
Glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) is a common monosaccharide and an important source of energy. During cellular respiration, energy is released from glucose and that energy is used to help make adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Plants synthesize glucose using carbon dioxide and water, and glucose, in turn, is used for energy requirements for the plant.
Galactose (a milk sugar) and fructose (found in fruit) are other common monosaccharides. Although glucose, galactose, and fructose all have the same chemical formula (C 6 H 12 O 6 ), they differ structurally and stereochemically. This makes them different molecules despite sharing the same atoms in the same proportions, and they are all isomers of one another, or isomeric monosaccharides. Glucose and galactose are aldoses, and fructose is a ketose.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides (di- = “two”) form when two monosaccharides undergo a dehydration reaction (also known as a condensation reaction or dehydration synthesis). During this process, the hydroxyl group of one monosaccharide combines with the hydrogen of another monosaccharide, releasing a molecule of water and forming a covalent bond. A covalent bond formed between a carbohydrate molecule and another molecule (in this case, between two monosaccharides) is known as a glycosidic bond. Glycosidic bonds (also called glycosidic linkages) can be of the alpha or the beta type.
Common Disaccharides
Common disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose. Lactose is a disaccharide consisting of the monomers glucose and galactose. It is found naturally in milk. Maltose, or malt sugar, is a disaccharide formed by a dehydration reaction between two glucose molecules. The most common disaccharide is sucrose, or table sugar, which is composed of the monomers glucose and fructose.
Polysaccharides
A long chain of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds is known as a polysaccharide (poly- = “many”). The chain may be branched or unbranched, and it may contain different types of monosaccharides. Starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin are primary examples of polysaccharides.
Plants are able to synthesize glucose, and the excess glucose is stored as starch in different plant parts, including roots and seeds. Starch is the stored form of sugars in plants and is made up of glucose monomers that are joined by α1-4 or 1-6 glycosidic bonds. The starch in the seeds provides food for the embryo as it germinates while the starch that is consumed by humans is broken down by enzymes into smaller molecules, such as maltose and glucose. The cells can then absorb the glucose.
Common Polysaccharides
Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates. It is made up of monomers of glucose. Glycogen is the animal equivalent of starch and is a highly branched molecule usually stored in liver and muscle cells. Whenever blood glucose levels decrease, glycogen is broken down to release glucose in a process known as glycogenolysis.
Cellulose is the most abundant natural biopolymer. The cell wall of plants is mostly made of cellulose and provides structural support to the cell. Cellulose is made up of glucose monomers that are linked by β 1-4 glycosidic bonds. Every other glucose monomer in cellulose is flipped over, and the monomers are packed tightly as extended long chains. This gives cellulose its rigidity and high tensile strength—which is so important to plant cells.
Carbohydrate Function
Carbohydrates serve various functions in different animals. Arthropods have an outer skeleton, the exoskeleton, which protects their internal body parts. This exoskeleton is made of chitin, which is a polysaccharide-containing nitrogen. It is made of repeating units of N-acetyl-β-d-glucosamine, a modified sugar. Chitin is also a major component of fungal cell walls
Key Points
- Monosaccharides are simple sugars made up of three to seven carbons, and they can exist as a linear chain or as ring-shaped molecules.
- Glucose, galactose, and fructose are monosaccharide isomers, which means they all have the same chemical formula but differ structurally and chemically.
- Disaccharides form when two monosaccharides undergo a dehydration reaction (a condensation reaction); they are held together by a covalent bond.
- Sucrose (table sugar) is the most common disaccharide, which is composed of the monomers glucose and fructose.
- A polysaccharide is a long chain of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds; the chain may be branched or unbranched and can contain many types of monosaccharides.
Key Terms
- isomer : Any of two or more compounds with the same molecular formula but with different structure.
- dehydration reaction : A chemical reaction in which two molecules are covalently linked in a reaction that generates H2O as a second product.
- biopolymer : Any macromolecule of a living organism that is formed from the polymerization of smaller entities; a polymer that occurs in a living organism or results from life.


5.8: Worksheet
Name: ______________________________
Section: _____________________________
Student ID#:__________________________
Work in groups on these problems. You should try to answer the questions without referring to your textbook. If you get stuck, try asking another group for help.
1. The outermost layer of the skin is: the dermis / the epidermis / fat layer
2. Which is the thickest layer: the dermis / the epidermis?
3.  Which of the following happens to epidermal cells as they move up to the surface of the skin?
 Keratin deposited in the epidermal cells:
- makes it stronger / gives it color / makes it waterproof / makes it flexible / kills the cells.
6. Which of the following is NOT a keratin skin structure:
- foot pads / hair / nails / feathers / antlers / reptilian scales / horns?
7. The function of melanin in the skin is to:
- cause cancer / give the skin a nice color / protect underlying layers from the harmful rays of the sun / make the skin tough.
8. The hair erector muscle:
- gives humans goose bumps / squeezes out sweat / makes animals hair stand on end / reduces blood flow in the skin / makes animals shiver.
9. Sebaceous glands secrete:
- sweat / milk / oils / scent
10. Sweat glands are:
- exocrine glands / endocrine glands.
11. Sense organs for touch, pressure, pain and temperature are found in the:
- epidermis / subcutaneous fat layers / dermis?
12. All vertebrates are homoiothermic (warm blooded) animals. True or false?
13. Temperature regulation is under the control of the:
- medulla oblongata / pituitary gland / hypothalamus / sympathetic nervous system.
14. Which of the following are NOT important in temperature regulation of the body:
- smooth muscle around capillaries / adipose tissue / sweat glands / sebaceous glands / hair / shivering / panting.
15. Which vitamin is produced in the skin in sunlight?
- Vitamin A / Vitamin B12 / Vitamin C / Vitamin D / Vitamin E / Vitamin K.
16. Large animals find it easier to keep warm than small ones because:
- they lose less heat through their lungs / they are more active / the ratio of the outside body surface to the inner volume is smaller?
17. Which of the following is NOT a function of the skin:
- holding in the organs / temperature regulation / protection/ water proofing / sensing stimuli / excretion of waste products?
18. Frogs and other amphibians use their skin for:
- maintaining their temperature / gas exchange / preventing water loss / attracting a mate.
19. Match the skin structure with its function.
| Structure | Function |
|---|---|
| A. Epidermis | a. Insulation |
| B. Hair erector muscle | b. Water proofing |
| C. Fat cells | c. Protection from sun's rays |
| D. Sebaceous gland | d. Heat retention |
| E. Dermis | e. Heat loss |
| F. Melanin | f. Protection from infection |
| G. Hair | g. Makes hairs stand on end |
| H. Sweat gland | h. Secretes oily substance to coat hairs |
| I. Blood capillaries in the dermis | i. Makes skin tough |
| J. Keratin | k. Constrict or dilate to control heat loss |


Unit VIII: Ecology
Ecology is the study of the interactions of living organisms with their environment. One core goal of ecology is to understand the distribution and abundance of living things in the physical environment. Attainment of this goal requires the integration of scientific disciplines inside and outside of biology, such as biochemistry, physiology, evolution, biodiversity, molecular biology, geology, and climatology. Some ecological research also applies aspects of chemistry and physics, and it frequently uses mathematical models. In Unit 8, ecological concepts are broadly covered in this unit, with features highlighting localized, real-world issues of conservation and biodiversity.
Thumbnail: Bee pollinating Aquilegia vulgaris. (CC BY-SA 3.0 / cropped from original; Roo72 via Wikimedia Commons ).
Contributors and Attributions
Connie Rye (East Mississippi Community College), Robert Wise (University of Wisconsin, Oshkosh), Vladimir Jurukovski (Suffolk County Community College), Jean DeSaix (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill), Jung Choi (Georgia Institute of Technology), Yael Avissar (Rhode Island College) among other contributing authors. Original content by OpenStax (CC BY 4.0; Download for free at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>).


1.8: Portfolio- Tracing Writing Development
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Reflect on the development of composing processes.
- Reflect on how those composing processes affect your work.
Figure \(1.10\) (credit: “Carbon fiber keyboard” by H. Sterling Cross/Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 2.0)
The Portfolio: And So It Begins . . .
In simplest terms, a writing portfolio is a collection of your writing contained within a single binder or folder. This writing may have been done over a number of weeks, months, or even years. It may be organized chronologically, thematically, or according to quality. A private writing portfolio may contain writing that you wish to keep only for yourself. In this case, you decide what is in it and what it looks like. However, a writing portfolio assigned for a class will contain writing to be shared with an audience to demonstrate the growth of your writing and reasoning abilities. One kind of writing portfolio, accumulated during a college course, presents a record of your work over a semester, and your instructor may be use it to assign a grade. Another type of portfolio presents a condensed, edited story of your semester’s progress in a more narrative form.
The most common type of portfolio assigned in a writing course combines the cumulative work collected over the semester, plus a cover letter in which you explain the nature and value of these papers. Sometimes you will be asked to assign yourself a grade on the basis of your own assessment. The following suggestions may help you prepare a course portfolio:
- Make your portfolio speak for you. If your course portfolio is clean, complete, and carefully organized, that is how it will be judged. If it is unique, colorful, creative, and imaginative, that, too, is how it will be judged. Similarly, your folder will be judged more critically if it is messy, incomplete, and haphazardly put together. Before giving your portfolio to somebody else for evaluation, consider whether it reflects how you want to be presented.
- Include exactly what is asked for. If an instructor wants three finished papers and a dozen sample journal entries, that is the minimum your course portfolio should contain. Sometimes you can include more than what is asked for, but never include less.
- Add supplemental material judiciously. Course portfolios are among the most flexible means of presenting yourself. If you believe that supplemental writing will show you in a better light, include that too, but only after the required material. If you include extra material, attach a memo to explain why it is there and what you think it adds to your portfolio. Supplemental writing might include journals, letters, sketches, or diagrams that suggest other useful dimensions of your thinking.
- Include perfect final drafts. At least make them as close to perfect as you can. Show that your own standard for finished work is high. Check spelling, grammar, citation, formatting, and font sizes and types. You should go over your work carefully and be able to find the smallest errors. In addition, if you are asked for a hard copy of your portfolio, final drafts should be double-spaced and printed on only one side of high-quality paper, unless another format is requested. And, of course, your work should be carefully proofread and should follow the language and genre conventions appropriate to the task.
- Demonstrate growth. This is a tall order, but course portfolios, unlike most other assessment instruments, can show positive change. The primary value of portfolios in writing classes is that they allow you to demonstrate how a finished paper came into being. Consequently, instructors frequently ask for early drafts to be attached to final drafts of each paper, the most recent on top, so they can see how you followed revision suggestions, how much effort you invested, how many drafts you wrote, and how often you took risks and tried to improve. To build such a record of your work, make sure the date of every draft is clearly marked on each one, and keep it in a safe place (and backed up electronically).
- Demonstrate work in progress. Course portfolios allow writers to present partially finished work that suggests future directions and intentions. Both instructors and potential employers may find such preliminary drafts or outlines as valuable as some of your finished work. When you include a tentative draft, be sure to attach a memo or note explaining why you still believe it has merit and in which direction you plan to take your next revisions.
- Attach a table of contents. For portfolios containing more than three papers, attach a separate table of contents. For those containing only a few papers, embed your table of contents in the cover letter.
-
Organize your work using clear logic. Three methods of organization are particularly appealing:
- Chronological order: Writing is arranged in order, beginning with the first week of class and ending with the last week, with all drafts, papers, journal entries, letters, and such fitting in place according to the date written. Only the cover letter is out of chronological order, appearing at the beginning and serving as an introduction to what follows. This method allows you to show the evolution of growth most clearly, with your latest writing (presumably the best) presented at the end.
- Reverse chronological order: The most recent writing is up front, and the earliest writing at the back. In this instance, the most recent written document—the cover letter—is in place at the beginning of the portfolio. This method features your latest (presumably the best) work up front and allows readers to trace the history of how it got there.
 Organizing a portfolio this way suggests that the work you consider strongest should count most heavily in evaluating the semester’s work.
With each completed chapter in this textbook, you will add to this portfolio. As you work through the chapters and complete the assignments, save each one on your computer or in the cloud, unless your instructor asks you to print your work and arrange it in a binder. Each assignment becomes an artifact that will form a piece of your portfolio. Depending on your preference or your instructor’s approach, you may write a little about each assignment as you add to the portfolio. As you compile your portfolio, take some time to read the assignments—drafts and finished products—carefully. Undoubtedly, you will see improvement in your writing over a short amount of time. Be sure to make note of this improvement because it will prove useful moving forward.
Reflective Task: The Freedom of Freewriting
As you begin your portfolio with the addition of your critical response, compose an accompanying freewrite, sometimes called a quick write. In this case, you will be responding to your own text—a powerful tool in your intellectual development. To begin, write quickly and without stopping about the process of composing your critical response and the finished product. See where your thoughts go, a process that often helps you clarify your own thoughts about the subject—your own text and its creation. When you freewrite, write to yourself in your own natural style, without worrying about sentence structure, grammar, spelling, or punctuation. The purpose is to help you tie together the ideas from your writing process, your assignment, and other thoughts and experiences in your mind. One future value of freewriting is that the process tends to generate questions at random, capture them, and leave the answering for a later task or assignment. Another bonus of freewriting is that you will build confidence with writing and become more disciplined when you have to write. In other words, the more you write, the more confidence you will have in your voice and your writing.
By now you may have realized that writing, whether on social media platforms or in the classroom, is a conversation. The conversation may take place with yourself (freewriting), with your instructor and classmates (assignment), or with the world (social media). You have learned how people like Selena Gomez and others use simple and effective strategies, such as vulnerability, understanding, analysis, and evaluation, to engage in such conversations. Now adopt these same processes—try them on for size, practice them, and learn to master them. As you move through the remainder of this course and text, compose with intention by keeping in mind the limits and freedoms of a particular defined rhetorical situation.
Further Reading
It’s a good idea to familiarize yourself with texts of evaluation and analysis. Below, you will find a few titles with which to start.
Boyd, Danah. “Wikipedia as a Source of Knowledge Production.” It’s Complicated: The Social Lives of Networked Teens , Yale UP, 2014, pp. 765–770.
Bradford, Clare. “‘Where Happily Ever After Happens Every Day’: The Medievalisms of Disney’s Princesses.” The Disney Middle Ages , Palgrave Macmillan, 2012, pp. 171–188, doi:10.1057/9781137066923_10.
Miller, Matthew. “Runner-Up: Frost’s Broken Roads.” W. W. Norton , wwnorton.com/norton-writers-prize/ 2017-winners/runner-up:-frosts-broken-roads.
Thorne, William. “Movie Review: ’The Circle.’” Daily Bruin , 28 Apr. 2017, dailybruin.com/2017/04/28/movie-review-the-circle.
Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher. Well-Behaved Women Seldom Make History . Alfred A. Knopf, 2008.
Wise, Sean. “5 Social Media Moves That Prove Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez Is the Queen of Digital Emotional Intelligence.” Inc. , 20 Feb. 2019, https://www.inc.com/sean-wise/5-soci...elligence.html .
Works Cited
Goddard, Henry Herbert. The Criminal Imbecile . 1915. Project Gutenberg, 2013, http://www.gutenberg.org/ files/43064/43064-h/43064-h.htm.
Okwodu, Janelle. “Selena Gomez Wants Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter to Do Better.” Vogue , 7 Jan. 2021, www.vogue.com/article/selena-gomez-social-media-leaders.
Park, Sabrina. “Selena Gomez Reveals Why She Sacrificed Social Media for the Sake of Her Mental Health.” Harper’s Bazaar , 19 Aug. 2021, www.harpersbazaar.com/celebrity/latest/a37348873/selena-gomez-mental-health-giving-up-instagram/.
Cunningham, John M. “Selena Gomez.” Encyclopædia Britannica , updated 30 Aug. 2021, www.britannica.com/ biography/Selena-Gomez.
The Manhattan Engineer District, United States Army. The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . 1946. Project Gutenberg, 2008, www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/685/pg685.html.
Walansky, A. “Selena Gomez Opens Up About the Dangers (and Value) of Social Media.” Goalcast , 18 Nov. 2019, www.goalcast.com/selena-gomez-reflects-on-the-danger-and-value-of-social-media/amp/.


1: Science and the Universe - A Brief Tour
Such discoveries are what make astronomy such an exciting field for scientists and many others—but you will explore much more than just the objects in our universe and the latest discoveries about them. We will pay equal attention to the process by which we have come to understand the realms beyond Earth and the tools we use to increase that understanding. We gather information about the cosmos from the messages the universe sends our way. Because the stars are the fundamental building blocks of the universe, decoding the message of starlight has been a central challenge and triumph of modern astronomy. By the time you have finished reading this text, you will know a bit about how to read that message and how to understand what it is telling us.
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- 1.2: The Nature of Astronomy
- In considering the history of the universe, we will see again and again that the cosmos evolves; it changes in profound ways over long periods of time. For example, the universe made the carbon, the calcium, and the oxygen necessary to construct something as interesting and complicated as you. Today, many billions of years later, the universe has evolved into a more hospitable place for life.
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- 1.3: The Nature of Science
- The ultimate judge in science is always what nature itself reveals based on observations, experiments, models, and testing. Science is not merely a body of knowledge, but a method by which we attempt to understand nature and how it behaves. This method begins with many observations over a period of time. From the trends found through observations, scientists can modelthe particular phenomena we want to understand. Such models are always approximations of nature, subject to further testing.
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- 1.4: The Laws of Nature
- Over centuries scientists have extracted various scientific laws from countless observations, hypotheses, and experiments. These scientific laws are, in a sense, the “rules” of the game that nature plays. One remarkable discovery about nature—one that underlies everything you will read about in this text—is that the same laws apply everywhere in the universe.
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- 1.5: Numbers in Astronomy
- In astronomy we deal with distances on a scale you may never have thought about before, with numbers larger than any you may have encountered. We adopt two approaches that make dealing with astronomical numbers a little bit easier. First, we use a system for writing large and small numbers called scientific notation (or sometimes powers-of-ten notation). This system is very appealing because it eliminates the many zeros that can seem overwhelming to the reader.
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- 1.6: Consequences of Light Travel Time
- This sets a limit on how quickly we can learn about events in the universe. If a star is 100 light-years away, the light we see from it tonight left that star 100 years ago and is just now arriving in our neighborhood. The soonest we can learn about any changes in that star is 100 years after the fact. For a star 500 light-years away, the light we detect tonight left 500 years ago and is carrying 500-year-old news.
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- 1.8: The Universe on the Large Scale
- In a very rough sense, you could think of the solar system as your house or apartment and the Galaxy as your town, made up of many houses and buildings. In the twentieth century, astronomers were able to show that, just as our world is made up of many, many towns, so the universe is made up of enormous numbers of galaxies. Galaxies stretch as far into space as our telescopes can see, many billions of them within the reach of modern instruments.
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- 1.9: The Universe of the Very Small
- The foregoing discussion has likely impressed on you that the universe is extraordinarily large and extraordinarily empty. On average, it is 10,000 times more empty than our Galaxy. Yet, as we have seen, even the Galaxy is mostly empty space. Intergalactic space is filled so sparsely that to find one atom, on average, we must search through a cubic meter of space. Most of the universe is fantastically empty; places that are dense, such as the human body, are tremendously rare.
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- 1.10: A Conclusion and a Beginning
- Learning astronomy is a little like learning a new language: at first it seems there are so many new expressions that you’ll never master them all, but with practice, you soon develop facility with them. At this point you may also feel a bit small and insignificant, dwarfed by the cosmic scales of distance and time. But, there is another way to look at what you have learned from our first glimpses of the cosmos.
Thumbnail: A photograph of galaxy NGC 6744, which might resemble the Milky Way. (CC BY-SA 3.0; http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso1118a/ )