10.7: Acid-Base Gallery
Make sure you thoroughly understand the following essential ideas which have been presented above. It is especially important that you know the precise meanings of all the highlighted terms in the context of this topic.
- Describe some of the special properties of sulfuric acid that make it especially important both in the laboratory and in industry.
- Name the major acids and bases that are important to the fertilizer industry
- Name the natural sources of any three of the major organic acids.
- What are fatty acids ? In what major way do the physical properties of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids differ?
- Describe the general structure of an amino acid , and state why they are important.
Acids and bases are of interest not only to the chemically inclined; they play a major role in our modern industrial society — so anyone who participates in it, or who is interested in its history and development, needs to know something about them. Five of the major acids and bases fall into the "Top 20" industrial chemicals manufactured in the world. The following table shows year-2000 figures for the U.S:
| cal and rank |
Sulfuric acid - 1 |
Lime (CaO)
|
Phosphoric acid - 4 |
Ammonia
|
Sodium hydroxide - 9 |
Nitric acid - 11 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| production in 10 9 kg | 40 | 20 | 16 | 15 | 11 | 8 |
| major use | chemicals | cement | fertilizers | fertilizers | chemicals | chemicals |
The mineral acids
This term refers to any inorganic acid, but its common use is usually limited to the major strong acids plus phosphoric acid. The major mineral acids— sulfuric, nitric, and hydrochloric— have been known since medieval times. Their discovery is usually credited to the Persian alchemist Abu Musa Jabir ibn Hayyan, known in the West by his Latinized name Geber. Jabir also invented aqua regia , the mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids that has the unique ability to dissolve gold.
Sulfuric acid
More sulfuric acid is manufactured than any other industrial chemical, and it is the cheapest industrial acid worldwide. It has been continuously manufactured in the U.S. since 1793 and in Europe for much longer.
What you should know about it
- Pure anhydrous H 2 SO 4 is a dense, viscous liquid which melts at 10.4°C and boils at about 300°C, decomposing back into its constituents, H 2 O and SO 3 .
- The acid undergoes autoprotolysis
2 H 2 SO 4 → H 3 SO 4 + + HSO 4 –
H 2 SO 4 + 2 NaCl → 2 Na + + SO 4 2– + HCl (g)
C 12 H 22 O 11 (s) → 12 C (s) + 11 H 2 O
H 2 SO 4 + H 2 SO 4 → HS 2 O 7 – + H 3 O +
- Its high boiling point makes the acid ideal for making other acids, such as nitric and hydrochloric, which are more volatile; removal of the gaseous product drives the reaction to the right as predicted by the Le Chatelier Principle :
- Sulfuric acid has a voracious appetite for water, and thus is an excellent dehydrating agent .
- Owing to the autoprotolysis and self-dehydration reactions described above, "pure" sulfuric acid contains at least six minority species in addition to H 2 SO 4 .
How it is made
Sulfur trioxide, the anhydride of sulfuric acid, is the immediate precursor. Gaseous SO 3 reacts vigorously with water, liberating much heat in the process:
\[SO_{3(g)} + H_2O_{(l)} → H_2SO_{4(l)}\]
Industrial manufacture of the acid starts with sulfur dioxide, prepared from burning elemental sulfur or obtained as a byproduct from roasting sulfide ores. The oxidation of SO 2 to SO 3 looks simple
\[SO_{2(g)} + ½ O_{2(g)} → SO_{3(g)}\]
but there are several complications:
- All chemical reactions take place more rapidly at higher temperatures, but because this reaction is highly exothermic, raising the temperature decreases the yield.
- Because of the decrease in volume (1.5 moles of gases to 1 mole), raising the pressure will increase the yield, so the reaction is carried out at a temperature below 600°C but at very high pressure.
- Specialized catalysts are used to speed up the reaction at these lower temperatures.
- Dissolving the SO 3 directly in water would release large amounts of heat, creating a mist of fine acid droplets that would escape into the atmosphere. The SO 3 is instead dissolved in sulfuric acid to form pyrosulfuric acid or oleum , sometimes known as fuming sufuric acid :
\[H_2SO_{4(l)} + SO_{3(g)} → H_2S_2O_{7(l)}\]
\[H_2S_2O_{7(l)} + H_2O_{(l)} → 2 H_2SO_{4(l)}\]
- The oleum is then treated with water to form industrial grade (96-98%) sulfuric acid:
What it is used for
Sulfuric acid has a broad spectrum of industrial uses, and the annual tonnage follows the economic cycle quite closely.
- Sixty percent of worldwide product goes into the manufacture of phosphoric acid H 3 PO 4 which is used to make phosphate fertilizers and phosphate-based household detergents.
- An important nitrogen fertilizer, ammonium sulfate (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 , is made by reacting sulfuric acid with ammonia, the latter often obtained from the thermal decomposition of coal.
- Sulfuric acid is the major component of pickling acid that is used to remove surface oxide scale from steel before it is fabricated into steel product for the automobile and other industries.
- Aluminum sulfate (made from bauxite Al 2 O 3 with H 2 SO 4 ), is widely used in the papermaking industry to coagulate the cellulose fibers, producing a smooth, hard paper surface. Another major use is to make aluminum hydroxide which is used to filter out particulate matter in water treatment facilities.
- The familiar lead-acid storage battery employs sulfuric acid as an electrolyte. As the battery discharges, the concentraton of sulfuric acid in the electrolyte decreases as sulfate ions are taken up as PbSO 4 . Owing to the high density of the acid, the state of charge of the battery can be measured by means of a hydrometer.
Sulfuric acid in the environment
Acid Rain - Combustion of fossil fuels which contain organic sulfur compounds releases SO 2 into the atmosphere. Photochemical oxidation of this compound to SO 3 , which rapidly takes up moisture, leads to the formation of H 2 SO 4 , a major component of acid rain.
Acid mine drainage results when sediments of the very common iron pyrite , FeS2, are exposed to air and are oxidized:
FeS 2 (s) + 7/2 O 2 + H 2 O → Fe 2 + 2 SO 4 2– + 2 H +
further oxidation of the iron to Fe 3 + results in additional reactions. The resulting drainage liquid is often orange-brown in color and can a have a pH of below zero.
Nitric acid
Anhydrous HNO 3 is a colorless liquid boiling at 82.6°C, but "pure" HNO 3 only exists as the solid which melts at –41.6°C. In its liquid and gaseous states, the acid is always partially decomposed into nitrogen dioxide:
2 HNO 3 → 2 NO 2 + ½ O 2 + H 2 O
This reaction, which is catalyzed by light, accounts for the brownish color of HNO 3 solutions.
What you should know about it
- HNO 2 undergoes autoprotolysis to a greater extent than any other liquid. Further reactions of the conjugate acid H 2 NO 3 + with HNO 3 lead to a complicated mixture of species in the liquid.
- Dilute nitric acid can be concentrated by distillation up to a maximum of 68%, at which point it forms a constant-boiling (azeotropic) mixture with water. Higher concentrations require dehydration with sulfuric acid; the result is fuming nitric acid.
- "Concentrated nitric acid" is sold as a 70% solution in water, corresponding to a concentration of about 16M.
- Nitric acid is a very strong oxidizing agent , which adds to its corrosive behavior with organic materials including, of course, skin, which it turns yellow owing to a reaction with the protein keratin . Reactions with many organic compounds are highly exothermic and often violent. The well-known reaction of nitric acid with metallic copper produces copious amounts of brown nitrogen dioxide gas.
How it is made
The simplest method, which was used industrially before 1900, was by treatment of sodium nitrate ("Chile saltpeter", NaNO 3 ) with sulfuric acid. The direct synthesis of the acid from atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen is thermodynamically favorable
½ N 2 + 5/4 O 2 + ½ H 2 O → HNO 3
but is kinetically hindered by an extremely high activation energy, a fact for which we can be most thankful (see sidebar.) The first industrial nitrogen fixation process, developed in 1903, used this reaction to produce nitric acid, but it required the use of an electric arc to supply the activation energy and was therefore too energy-intensive to be economical.
Note
If it were not for the high activation energy required to sustain this reaction, all of the oxygen in the atmosphere would be consumed and the oceans would be a dilute solution of nitric acid.
The modern Ostwald process involves the catalytic oxidation of ammonia to nitric oxide NO, which is oxidized in a further step to NO 2 ; reaction of the latter with water yields HNO 3 . This route, first developed in 1901, did not become practical until the large-scale production of ammonia by the Haber-Bosch process in 1910.
What it is used for
The major industrial uses of nitric acid are for the production of ammonium nitrate fertilizer , and in the manufacture of explosives . On a much small scale, the acid is used in metal pickling, etching semiconductors and electronic circuit boards, and in the manufacture of acrylic fibers.
In the laboratory, the acid finds use in a wide variety of roles.
In the environment
High-temperature combustion processes (in internal combustion engines, power plants, and incinerators) can oxidize atmospheric nitrogen to nitric oxide (NO) and other oxides ("NO x "); the NO is then photooxidized to NO 2 , which reacts with water to form HNO 3 which is a major component of acid rain . NO 2 is the major precursor of photochemical smog .
Hydrochloric acid
Unlike the other major acids, there is no such substance as "pure" hydrochloric acid; what we call "hydrochloric acid" is just an aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride gas (bp –84°C). But in a sense it is more "pure" than the acids discussed above, since there is no autoprotolysis; hydronium and chloride ions are the only significant species in the solution. Hydrochloric acid is usually sold as a 32-38% (12M) solution of HCl in water; concentrations greater than this are known as fuming hydrochloric acid .
Note
Hydrochloric acid is still sometimes sold under its older name muriatic acid for cleaning bricks and other household purposes. The name comes from the same root as marine, reflecting its preparation from salt.
The acid has been known to chemists (and alchemists), and used for industrial purposes since the middle ages. Its composition HCl was demonstrated by Humphrey Davy in 1816.
What you should know about it
- Hydrochloric acid is the least hazardous of the strong mineral acids to work with because unlike the other ones, it is not an oxidizing agent. It is usually the acid of choice for titrations and other operations in which the main requirement is simply a strong source of hydronium ions.
- The concentrated acid boils at 48°C. As boiling continues, it loses HCl and the boiling point rises to 109°C, at which point a constant-boiling (azeotropic) solution remains, consisting of 20.2% HCl.
What it is used for
The uses of hydrochloric acid are far too many to enumerate individually, but the following stand out:
- A major industrial use is to remove surface scale from iron or steel ("pickling") before it is processed into sheets or other forms, or galvanized or coated.
- Production of chlorinated organic chemicals , particularly vinyl chloride, polyurethanes, and other construction polymers, consumes huge amounts of HCl.
- The acid is widely used for pH control of water, including neutralization of wastwater streams, and for regenerating ion-exchange water softeners .
How it is made
The ancient method of treating salt with sulfuric acid to release HCl has long since been supplanted by more efficient processes, including direct synthesis by "burning" hydrogen gas in chlorine:
\[H_{2(g)} + Cl_{2(g)} \rightarrow 2 HCl_{(g)}\]
Most hydrochloric acid production now comes from reclaiming byproduct hydrogen chloride gas from other processes, especially those associated with the production of industrial organic compounds.
2 The Alkali Metals
The term alkali usually means a basic salt of a Group 1 or 2 ("alkali" or "alkaline earth") metal. All alkalies are of course bases, but the latter term is much more general, whether defined according to the Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, or Lewis concepts. The word alkali comes from the Arabic al-qali , which refers to the ashes from which sodium and potassium hydroxides ( potash , "ashes remaining in the pot", and the origin of the element name potassium ) were extracted as a step in the making of soap.
Sodium hydroxide
Pure sodium hydroxide is a white solid consisting of Na + and OH – ions in a crystal lattice. Although it is widely thought of as an ionic solid, van der Waals forces make a substantial contribution to its stability.
What you should know about it
- Owing to its deliquescence (ability to take up moisture) and its tendency to react with carbon dioxide, the solid must be stored in a closed container.
- In industry, sodium hydroxide is commonly known as caustic soda or simply as caustic ; NaOH sold for household purposes is usually known as lye .
- Sodium hydroxide slowly attacks glass to form sodium silicate. Glass vessels used to store concentrated solutions gradually develop a cloudy coating on the inside.
- Some metals , notably aluminum, zinc, and titanium, react with strongly alkaline solutions, but iron and copper are immune to this kind of attack.
- Highly alkaline solutions also soften and dissolve skin , accounting for the slippery feeling associated with strong bases. Sodium hydroxide was once used to dispose of animal carcasses, digesting them into an easily disposable liquid form.
How it is made
Sodium hydroxide is now manufactured by the electrolysis of brine solutions, and along with chlorine, is one of the two major products of the chloralkali industry .
Electrolysis of aqueous NaCl produces Cl 2 at the anode, but because H 2 O can be reduced more readily than Na + , the water is decomposed to H 2 and OH – at the cathode, leaving a solution of NaOH. An older mercury cell process reduces the Na + to Na within a mercury amalgam (alloy), and the metallic sodium is then combined with water to produce NaOH and hydrogen. The net reaction for the reduction step is the same for both methods:
\[2 Na^+ + 2 H_2O + 2e^– \rightarrow H_{2(g)] + 2 NaOH\]
The resulting solution is usually evaporated to such a high concentration that it solidifies at ordinary temperatures. It is commonly shipped in rail cars or barges which can be heated with steam to liquefy the mixture for removal. (It is obviously uneconomical to ship large quantities of water across the country!)
What it is used for
- Sodium hydroxide is one of the most diverse industrial chemicals in terms of its applications. Most householders know it as the active ingredient of drain cleaning agents .
- Huge quantities are consumed by the pulp and paper industry, which is probably its single largest specific industrial application. It is used to remove the lignin component of wood pulp from the cellulose so that the latter can be processed into paper.
- About half of the NaOH output goes into the production of a wide variety of other industrial chemicals , and in degreasing steel drums and other industrial surfaces.
- "Lye" plays a role in the processing of many types of foods , including chocolate, olives, pretzels, and the "hominy" and "grits" corn products used in the Southern U.S. It also acts as a chemical peeling agent for fruits and vegetables.
The economic push and pull of caustic and chlorine
In contrast to the extremely diverse applications of sodium hydroxide which makes the demand for this commodity relatively immune to the ups and downs of the economic cycle, the consumption of chlorine is directly dependent on the economy as reflected in the demand for polyvinyl chloride products that are now widely used in the the construction and home furnishings industries. Because chlorine, being a gas, is expensive to store, the output of the chloralkali industry is governed largely by the demand for this commodity. When times are good this presents no problem; caustic is then largely a by-product and can easily be stockpiled if supply exceeds demand. But during an economic downturn, the demand for chlorine declines, limiting its production along with that of caustic. But because the demand for caustic tends to decline much less, it becomes scarce and its price rises, thus tending to drive the industrial economy into even deeper trouble.
Sodium carbonate
This compound is known industrially as soda ash , and domestically as washing soda . The common form is the heptahydrate , Na 2 CO 3 ·7 H 2 O. The white crystals of this substance spontaneously lose water ( effloresce ) when exposed to the air, forming the monohydrate.
What it is used for
- Although carbonates are much weaker bases than hydroxides, a solution of sodium carbonate can still have a pH of 11 or so, sufficiently high to allow it to substitute for sodium hydroxide in many applications— especially when the price of caustic is high.
- The single most important use of soda ash is in the manufacture of glass, where it serves to lower the melting point of the principal component, SiO 2 .
- Another emerging major use is to neutralize the SO 2 emissions of fossil fuel-burning power plants.
- The older use of sodium carbonate as a cleaning agent (hence the name washing soda ) was based partly on the ability of its alkaline solutions to emulsify grease, but mainly as a means of precipitating the insoluble carbonates of calcium and magnesium before these ions (commonly present in hard water) could form undesirable preciptates with soaps. The use of modern detergents has largely eliminated this once important market.
How it is made
Most of the world's sodium carbonate is made by the ammonia-soda "Solvay" process developed in 1861 by the Belgian chemist Ernest Solvay (1838-1922) whose patents made him into a major industrialist and a rich philanthropist. This process involves a set of simple reactions that essentially converts limestone (CaCO 3 ), ammonia NH 3 and brine (NaCl) into sodium bicarbonate NaHCO 3 and eventually Na 2 CO 3 , recycling several of the intermediate products in an ingenious way.
A minor source of soda ash (but quite significant in some countries, such as the U.S.) is the mining of natural evaporites (the remains of ancient lakes), such as the trona found in Southern California.
Ammonia
Ammonia NH 3 is of course not a true alkali, but it is conveniently included in this section for discussion purposes. Most people are familiar with the pungent odor of this gas, which can be detected at concentrations as low as 20-50 ppm.
Tradition dies slowly: a non-existent chemical available in bottles!
What you should know about it
- More moles of ammonia are manufactured than of any other industrial chemical.
- Ammonia is extremely soluble in water. An aqueous solution of ammonia is still sometimes referred to in commerce as "ammonium hydroxide", but this term is no longer favored by chemists because no such compound as NH 4 OH has ever been shown to exist. At neutral pH, about 99% of the ammonia in water exists as NH 4 + ions.
- Ammonia is an end product of nitrogen metabolism in most organisms. One source that may be familiar to parents of infants is the bacterial decomposition of the contents of diapers.
- Liquid ammonia (bp –33°C) is often used as an ionizing laboratory solvent.
What it is used for
- The major use of ammonia (about 80%) is as a fertilizer, most commonly as anhydrous ammonia (the gas is injected directly into the soil) or after conversion to (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 , NH 4 NO 3 , or urea O–C(NH 3 ) 2 .
- Ammonia is used in the production of numerous polymers, including nylons and polyurethanes.
- Explosives manufacture accounts for about 5% of ammonia production.
- Beyond these, there are hundreds of minor uses, including as a household cleaning agent (aqua ammonia). a refrigerant, and as a laboratory reagent.
How it is made
Ammonia is made by direct synthesis from the elements:
\[N_{2(g)} + 3 H_{2(g)} \rightarrow 2 NH_{3(g)}\]
... a simple-looking reaction, but one that required some very creative work to implement; the Haber-Bosch process is considered to be the most important chemical synthesis of the 20th Century.
3 Some important organic acids
Most acids are organic— there are millions of them. The acidic function is usually a hydroxyl group connected to a carbon that is bonded to an electron-withdrawing oxygen atom; the combination is the well-known carboxyl group , –COOH. Here are a few that are part of everyone's life.
Acetic acid
This is next to formic acid in being the simplest of the organic acids, and in the form of vinegar (a 5-8% solution in water) its characteristic odor is known to everyone. The pure acid is a colorless liquid above 16.7°C; below this temperature it forms a crystalline solid, hence the term "glacial acetic acid" that is commonly applied to the pure substance. The name of the acid comes from acetum , the Latin word for vinegar.
What you should know about it
- The pure acid, although quite weak in the proton-donor sense, is quite corrosive and its vapors are very irritating.
- A 1.0M solution of the acid has a pH of about 2.4, corresponding to only four out of every thousand CH 3 COOH molecules being dissociated.
What it is used for
Slightly less than half of the world production of acetic acid goes into the production of polymers . The end product visible to most people would be the flexible plastic bottles in which drinking water is sold. Other uses are related mostly to the production of other chemicals, mainly acetic anhydride , but also including aspirin .
How it is made
Bacterial fermentation of sugars has been the source of vinegar since ancient times, and is still accounts for most food-grade acetic acid and vinegar, but it now amounts to only about 10% of total acetic acid production:
C 6 H 12 O 6 → 3 CH 3 COOH
There are several important synthetic routes to acetic acid production, but the major one is by treating methanol with carbon monoxide:
CH 3 OH + CO → CH 3 COOH


1.3: Modern Legal Systems of the World
Even if a business is not officially “international,” it is important to understand the legal systems of the world because consumers come from all over. Consumers, business partners, and competitors are products of their environments, including their societies and legal systems. Therefore, their expectations and how they interact with each other are influenced directly by their legal systems of origin. The most successful businesses take this into account—not only for avoiding legal liability but also for enhanced consumer satisfaction. ~ Arham M., attorney
There are four main legal systems in the modern world US Department of Justice :
- Common law;
- Civil law;
- Religious law; and
- Customary law/monarchy.
Common law and civil law systems are the most common legal systems. Watch the video in the Media Library .
\As the world becomes more interdependent, a fifth category of legal systems has developed — the hybrid legal system, which is a legal system that is a combination of two or more legal systems.
| Type of Legal System | Description |
|---|---|
| Common Law |
|
| Civil Law |
|
| Religious Law |
|
| Customary Law |
|
| Hybrid Law |
|
Common Law Systems
The legal system in the United States comes from the English common law tradition and the US Constitution. English common law is a system that gives written judicial decisions the force of law. As a result, the US legal system recognizes an appellate court’s ability to interpret and apply the law to future litigants through precedent. Precedent is a judicial opinion that is considered legal authority for future cases involving the same or similar questions of law. The benefit of this system is consistency and resolution of disputes without requiring the parties to take legal matters to court.
A famous example of how precedent works is the US Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka . In this landmark 1954 case, the Court unanimously ruled that racial segregation of children in public schools is unconstitutional. Brown v. Board of Education is one of the cornerstones of the Civil Rights Movement and helped establish the precedent that “separate-but-equal” education and other services were not, in fact, equal at all. The case required all racially segregated public schools to integrate, not just in Topeka, Kansas. In addition, Brown has been cited as legal precedent in thousands of cases nationwide involving racial equality.
The common law legal system is adversarial, which means that the parties are opponents present evidence to a court to resolve the conflict. The judge or jury hears the parties’ evidence and arguments before making a final decision. It is the parties’ burden to investigate the facts, argue the law, and present their best case. Judges and juries are not permitted to do independent investigations, nor are they responsible for helping parties argue their cases. It is a party’s responsibility to raise all legal issues.
Another characteristic of common law systems is that cases are often decided by juries of the parties’ peers. In both civil and criminal matters, the parties usually have a right to have a jury randomly selected from residents of the local jurisdiction to resolve the dispute. When a jury determines the outcome of a case, the judge acts as a “gatekeeper,” who decides what evidence and legal arguments the jury can properly consider. The judge ensures the parties receive a fair trial while the jury decides the outcome of the trial.
The common law tradition is unique to England, the United States, and former British colonies. Although there are differences among common law systems (e.g., whether judiciaries may declare legislative acts unconstitutional and how frequently juries may be used), all of them recognize the use of precedent, and none of them relies solely on the comprehensive, legislative codes that are prevalent in civil law systems.
Civil Law Systems
Civil law systems were developed in Europe and are based on Roman and Napoleonic law. Civil law systems are also called code systems because all the legal rules are in one or more comprehensive legislative enactments. During Napoleon’s reign, a comprehensive book of laws—a code—was developed for all of France. The code covered criminal law and procedure, non-criminal law and procedure, and commercial law. The code is used to resolve only cases brought to the courts, which are usually decided by judges without a jury.
Civil law systems are inquisitorial systems in which judges actively investigate cases. Judges have the authority to request documents and testimony, as well as to shape the parties’ legal claims. In addition, judges are not required to follow the decisions of other courts in similar cases. The law is in the code, not in the cases. The legislature, not the courts, is the primary place to enact and modify laws.
Civil law systems are used throughout Europe, Central and South America, Asia and Africa. France, Germany, Holland, Spain, and Portugal had colonies outside of Europe, and many of these colonies adopted the legal practices that were imposed on them by colonial rule.
There are also communist and socialist legal systems that differ significantly from traditional civil law systems. Legal scholars debate whether this is a separate type of legal system or a subset of modern civil law systems. In a communist or socialist legal system, the nation has a code but most property is owned by the government or agricultural cooperatives. In addition, the judiciary is subservient to the Communist party and is not an independent branch of government.
Religious Law Systems
Religious law systems arise from the sacred texts of religious traditions and usually apply to all aspects of life, including social and business relations. In religious legal systems, a religious document is used as a primary legal source. All major world religions–Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism–have a religious legal system. The Islamic legal system (Sharia) with Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh) is the most widely used religious legal system in the world. Most nations that have religious legal systems use them to supplement their secular national system. Only Saudi Arabia (Islamic) and the Vatican (Christian) are pure theocracies that have only a religious legal system in their nations.
Customary Law Systems
Customary legal systems are becoming increasingly less common. A customary system is used by a monarchy and grants specific legal powers to the kings, queens, sultans or tribal leaders as heads of state. A challenge of a customary system is that the ruler is seen to be “above the law” because the laws do not apply equally to the ruler and subjects. There are only a handful of monarchies remaining in the world, and most of them have evolved into hybrid legal systems or have adopted a different type of legal system.
Hybrid/Mixed Law Systems
Hybrid legal systems are a combination of two or more legal systems within a nation. India is a classic example of a nation with a hybrid legal system. As a former British colony, India has a common law legal system, which recognizes the power of the Supreme Court and High Courts to make binding judicial decisions as a form of precedent. However, most of its laws are integrated codes found in a Napoleonic code system. In addition, India has separate personal codes that apply to Muslims, Christians, and Hindus. As a result, India has a hybrid system made up of common law, civil law, and religious law systems.
Supplementary Attributions
Source content not listed in the footer below or otherwise referenced in the text includes: Wex Legal Dictionary and Encyclopedia by Cornell University's Legal Information Institute is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 2.5 . Original source: https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/legal_systems .
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3.2.2: The Symbolic Nature of Culture
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The Symbolic Nature of Culture
The symbolic systems that people use to capture and communicate their experiences form the basis of shared cultures.
Learning Objectives
Relate the idea that culture is symbolically coded to arguments about the dynamism of cultures
Key Points
- A symbol is any object, typically material, which is meant to represent another (usually abstract), even if there is no meaningful relationship.
- Culture is based on a shared set of symbols and meanings. Symbolic culture enables human communication and must be taught.
- Symbolic culture is more malleable and adaptable than biological evolution.
- The belief that culture is symbolically coded and can be taught from one person to another means that cultures, although bounded, can change.
- According to sociologists, symbols make up one of the 5 key elements of culture; the other key elements are language, values, beliefs, and norms.
Key Terms
- symbol : Any object, typically material, which is meant to represent another (usually abstract), even if there is no meaningful relationship.
- Max Weber : (1864–1920) A German sociologist, philosopher, and political economist who profoundly influenced social theory, social research, and the discipline of sociology itself.
A symbol is any object, typically material, which is meant to represent another (usually abstract) object, even if there is no meaningful relationship. Anthropologists have argued that, through the course of their evolution, human beings evolved a universal human capacity to classify experiences, and encode and communicate them symbolically, such as with written language. Since these symbolic systems were learned and taught, they began to develop independently of biological evolution (in other words, one human being can learn a belief, value, or way of doing something from another, even if they are not biologically related). That this capacity for symbolic thinking and social learning is a product of human evolution confounds older arguments about nature versus nurture.
This view of culture argues that people living apart from one another develop unique cultures. Elements of different cultures, however, can easily spread from one group of people to another. The belief that culture is symbolically coded and can, therefore, be taught from one person to another, means that cultures, although bounded, can change. Culture is dynamic and can be taught and learned, making it a potentially rapid form of adaptation to changes in physical conditions. Anthropologists view culture as not only a product of biological evolution, but as a supplement to it; culture can be seen as the main means of human adaptation to the natural world.
This view of culture as a symbolic system with adaptive functions, which varies from place to place, led anthropologists to conceive of different cultures as defined by distinct patterns (or structures) of enduring (although arbitrary) conventional sets of meaning. These meanings took concrete form in a variety of artifacts such as myths and rituals, tools, the design of housing, and the planning of villages. Anthropologists distinguish between material culture and symbolic culture, not only because each reflects different kinds of human activity, but also because they constitute different kinds of data that require different methodologies to study.
The sociology of culture concerns culture as it is manifested in society: the ways of thinking, the ways of acting, and the material objects that together shape a people’s way of life. According to Max Weber, symbols are important aspects of culture: people use symbols to express their spirituality and the spiritual side of real events, and ideal interests are derived from symbols. According to sociologists, symbols make up one of the five key elements of culture, the others being language, values, beliefs, and norms.
The Origins of Language
The origin of language is a widely discussed and controversial topic due to very limited empirical evidence.
Learning Objectives
Compare and contrast continuity-based theories and discontinuity-based theories about the origin of language
Key Points
- There is no consensus on the ultimate origin or age of human language.
- Continuity-based theories stress that language is so complex that it must have evolved from earlier pre-linguistic systems among pre-humans.
- Discontinuity-based theories stress that language is a unique human trait that appeared fairly suddenly in the transition from pre-hominids to early man.
Key Terms
- language : A form of communication using words either spoken or gestured with the hands and structured with grammar, often with a writing system.
- symbolic : Referring to something with an implicit meaning.
- prehistory : The history of human culture prior to written records.
The origin of language in the human species is a widely discussed topic. There is no consensus on ultimate origin or age. Empirical evidence is limited, and many scholars continue to regard the whole topic as unsuitable for serious study.
Theories about the origin of language can be divided according to their basic assumptions. Some theories are based on the idea that language is so complex that one cannot imagine it simply appearing from nothing in its final form, but that it must have evolved from earlier pre-linguistic systems among our pre-human ancestors. These theories can be called continuity-based theories.
The opposite viewpoint is that language is such a unique human trait that it cannot be compared to anything found among non-humans and that it must therefore have appeared fairly suddenly in the transition from pre-hominids to early man. These theories can be defined as discontinuity-based.
Similarly, some theories see language mostly as an innate faculty that is largely genetically encoded, while others see it as a system that is largely cultural—that is, learned through social interaction. Currently the only prominent proponent of a discontinuity theory of human language origins is Noam Chomsky.
Continuity-based theories are currently held by a majority of scholars, but they vary in how they envision this development. Those who see language as being mostly innate, such as Steven Pinker, hold the precedents to be animal cognition, whereas those who see language as a socially learned tool of communication, such as Michael Tomasello, see it as having developed from animal communication, either primate gestural or vocal communication. Other continuity-based models see language as having developed from music.
Because the emergence of language is located in the early prehistory of man, the relevant developments have left no direct historical traces and no comparable processes can be observed today. Theories that stress continuity often look at animals to see if, for example, primates display any traits that can be seen as analogous to what pre-human language must have been like. Alternatively early human fossils can be inspected to look for traces of physical adaptation to language use or for traces of pre-linguistic forms of symbolic behaviour.
Language
Language may refer either to the human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of communication, or to a specific instance of such.
Learning Objectives
Compare the different ways in which language can be studied
Key Points
- The word ” language ” has at least two basic meanings: language as a general concept, and “a language” (a specific linguistic system, e.g. “French”), a distinction first made by Ferdinand de Saussure.
- Languages, understood as the particular set of speech norms of a particular community, are also a part of the larger culture of the community that speak them.
- Humans use language as a way of signalling identity with one cultural group and difference from others.
- The organic definition of language sees language primarily as the mental faculty that allows humans to undertake linguistic behavior–to learn languages and produce and understand utterances.
- The structuralist view of language sees language as a formal system of signs governed by grammatical rules of combination to communicate meaning.
- The functional theory of language sees language as a system of communication that enables humans to cooperate.
- Humans use language as a way of signalling identity with one cultural group and difference from others.
- The organic definition of language sees language primarily as the mental faculty that allows humans to undertake linguistic behaviour: to learn languages and produce and understand utterances. These kinds of definitions are often applied by studies of language within a cognitive science framework and in neurolinguistics.
- The structuralist view of language sees language as a formal system of signs governed by grammatical rules of combination to communicate meaning. This definition stresses the fact that human languages can be described as closed structural systems consisting of rules that relate particular signs to particular meanings.
- The functional theory of language sees language as a system of communication that enables humans to cooperate. This definition stresses the social functions of language and the fact that humans use it to express themselves and to manipulate objects in their environment.
Key Terms
- semiotics : The study of signs and symbols, especially as means of language or communication.
- linguistics : The scientific study of language.
Language may refer either to the specifically human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of communication, or to a specific instance of such a system of complex communication. The scientific study of language in any of its senses is called linguistics.
The word language has at least two basic meanings: language as a general concept, and a specific linguistic system (e.g. French). Ferdinand de Saussure first explicitly formulated the distinction, using the French word langage for language as a concept, and langue as the specific instance of language.
One definition sees language primarily as the mental faculty that allows humans to undertake linguistic behaviour–to learn languages and produce and understand utterances. These kinds of definitions are often applied by studies of language within a cognitive science framework and in neurolinguistics.
Another definition sees language as a formal system of signs governed by grammatical rules of combination to communicate meaning. This definition stresses the fact that human languages can be described as closed structural systems consisting of rules that relate particular signs to particular meanings.
Yet another definition sees language as a system of communication that enables humans to cooperate. This definition stresses the social functions of language and the fact that humans use it to express themselves and to manipulate objects in their environment.
When described as a system of symbolic communication, language is traditionally seen as consisting of three parts: signs, meanings, and a code connecting signs with their meanings. The study of how signs and meanings are combined, used, and interpreted is called semiotics.
Languages, understood as the particular set of speech norms of a particular community, are also a part of the larger culture of the community that speaks them. Humans use language as a way of signalling identity with one cultural group and difference from others. Human languages are usually referred to as natural languages, and the science of studying them falls under the purview of linguistics. Human language is unique in comparison to other forms of communication, such as those used by animals, because it allows humans to produce an infinite set of utterances from a finite set of elements.
Language and Perception
Various theories assume that language is not simply a representational tool; rather it fundamentally shapes our perception.
Learning Objectives
Explain the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
Key Points
- The principle of linguistic relativity holds that the structure of a language affects the ways in which its speakers conceptualize their world (i.e., world view), or otherwise influences their cognitive processes.
- A main point of debate in the discussion of linguistic relativity is the strength of correlation between language and thought. The strongest form of correlation is linguistic determinism, which holds that language entirely determines an individual’s range of possible cognitive processes.
- The hypothesis of linguistic determinism is now generally agreed to be false, although many researchers still study weaker forms of correlation, often producing positive empirical evidence for a correlation.
- The crucial question is whether human psychological faculties are mostly universal and innate, or whether they are mostly a result of learning, and, therefore, subject to cultural and social processes that vary between places and times.
Key Terms
- Perception : (cognition) That which is detected by the five senses; not necessarily understood (imagine looking through fog, trying to understand if you see a small dog or a cat); also that which is detected within consciousness as a thought, intuition, deduction, etc.
- relativity : The state of being relative to something else.
Various theories assume that language fundamentally shapes our perception. One example is the principle of linguistic relativity. This principle holds that the structure of a language affects the ways in which its speakers conceptualize his or her world (worldview) or otherwise influences their cognitive processes. Popularly known as the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, or Whorfianism, the principle is often defined as having two versions:
- The strong version states that language determines thought and emotions/feelings, and linguistic categories limit and determine cognitive categories
- The weak version argues that linguistic categories and usage influence thought and certain kinds of non-linguistic behavior.
The concept of linguistic relativity describes different formulations of the principle that cognitive processes, such as thought, emotion/feelings and experience, may be influenced by the categories and patterns of the language a person speaks. Empirical research into the question has been associated mainly with the names of Benjamin Lee Whorf, who wrote on the topic in the 1930s, and his mentor Edward Sapir, who did not himself write extensively on the topic.
A main point of debate in the discussion of linguistic relativity is the strength of correlation between language and thought and emotion/feelings. The strongest form of correlation is linguistic determinism, which holds that language entirely determines the range of possible cognitive processes of an individual. The hypothesis of linguistic determinism is now generally agreed to be false, though many researchers are still studying weaker forms of correlation, often producing positive empirical evidence for a correlation.
A link to the YouTube element can be found in Contributors & Attributions section.
On Language and Perception : Cognition and Communication Research Centre film describing recent research on the mapping between language and perception, and whether the language one speaks affects how one thinks.
The centrality of the question of the relation between thought or emotions/feelings and language has brought attention to the issue of linguistic relativity, not only from linguists and psychologists, but also from anthropologists, philosophers, literary theorists, and political scientists. For example, can people experience or feel something they have no word to explain it with?
The crucial question is whether human psychological faculties are mostly universal and innate, or whether they are mostly a result of learning, and, therefore, subject to cultural and social processes that vary between places and times. The Universalist view holds that all humans share the same set of basic faculties, and that variability due to cultural differences is negligible. This position often sees the human mind as mostly a biological construction, so that all humans sharing the same neurological configuration can be expected to have similar or identical basic cognitive patterns.
The contrary position can be described in several ways. The constructivist view holds that human faculties and concepts are largely influenced by socially constructed and learned categories that are not subject to many biological restrictions. The idealist view holds that the human mental capacities are generally unrestricted by their biological-material basis. The essentialist view holds that there may be essential differences in the ways the different individuals or groups experience and conceptualize the world. The relativist position, which basically refers to a kind of Cultural relativism, sees different cultural groups as having different conceptual schemes that are not necessarily compatible or commensurable, nor more or less in accord with the external reality.
A link to the YouTube element can be found in Contributors & Attributions section.
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis : The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis suggests that language shapes the way we see the world.
Symbols and Nature
Language is a symbolic system of communication based on a complex system of rules relating spoken, signed, or written symbols.
Learning Objectives
Key Points
- Human language is thought to be fundamentally different from and of much higher complexity than that of other species as it is based on a complex system of rules that result in an indefinite number of possible utterances from a finite number of elements.
- Written languages use visual symbols to represent the sounds of the spoken languages, but they still require syntactic rules that govern the production of meaning from sequences of words.
- Human language differs from communication used by animals because the symbols and grammatical rules of any particular language are largely arbitrary, so that the system can only be acquired through social interaction.
- The study of how signs and meanings are combined, used, and interpreted is called semiotics.
- Signs can be composed of sounds, gestures, letters, or symbols, depending on whether the language is spoken, signed, or written.
- Language is traditionally seen as consisting of three parts: signs, meanings, and a code connecting signs with their meanings.
Key Terms
- semiotics : The study of signs and symbols, especially as means of language or communication.
- human language : Human language is typically used for communication, and may be spoken, signed, or written.
- written language : A written language is the representation of a language by means of a writing system.
Language is traditionally thought to consist of three parts: signs, meanings, and a code connecting signs with their meanings. Semiotics is the study of how signs and meanings are combined, used, and interpreted. Signs can consist of sounds, gestures, letters, or symbols, depending on whether the language is spoken, signed, or written.
Language as a whole, therefore, is the human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of communication. A single language is any specific example of such a system. Language is based on complex rules relating spoken, signed, or written symbols to their meanings. What results is an indefinite number of possible innovative utterances from a finite number of elements.
Human language is thought to be fundamentally different from and of much higher complexity than the communication systems of other species (). Human language differs from communication used by animals () because the symbols and grammatical rules of any particular language are largely arbitrary, meaning that the system can only be acquired through social interaction. ()
A link to the YouTube element can be found in Contributors & Attributions section.
Can Parrots Really Talk? : Parrots mimic the sounds of human language, but have they really learned the symbolic system?
Written language is the representation of a language by means of a writing system. Written language exists only as a complement to a specific spoken language. Written languages use visual symbols to represent the sounds of the spoken languages, but they still require syntactic rules that govern the production of meaning from sequences of words.
A sign language is a language which, instead of acoustically conveying sound patterns, uses manual communication and body language to convey meaning. This can involve simultaneously combining hand shapes; orientation and movement of the hands, arms or body; and facial expressions to fluidly express a speaker’s thoughts. Sign languages, like spoken languages, organize elementary units into meaningful semantic units.
Gestures
A gesture is a form of non-verbal communication in which visible bodily actions communicate particular messages.
Learning Objectives
Explain the role of gestures in the communication process
Key Points
- Gestures allow individuals to communicate a variety of feelings and thoughts, from contempt and hostility to approval and affection, often together with body language in addition to spoken words.
- The most familiar categories of gestures are the so-called emblems or quotable gestures. These are conventional, culture -specific gestures that can be used as replacement for words, such as the handwave used in the U.S. for “hello” and “goodbye”.
- Another broad category of gestures comprises those gestures used spontaneously when we speak. These gestures are closely coordinated with speech.
- Gestural languages such as American Sign Language and its regional siblings operate as complete natural languages that are gestural in modality.
- Gesturing is probably universal; there have been no reports of communities that do not gesture.
Key Terms
- gesture : A motion of the limbs or body, especially one made to emphasize speech.
- quotable gestures : Quotable gestures are conventional, culture-specific gestures that can be used as replacement for words.
- gestural languages : A gestural language is a language which, instead of acoustically conveyed sound patterns, uses manual communication and body language to convey meaning. This can involve simultaneously combining hand shapes, orientation and movement of the hands, arms or body, and facial expressions to fluidly express a speaker’s thoughts.
A gesture is a form of non-verbal communication in which visible bodily actions communicate particular messages, either in place of speech or together and in parallel with spoken words. Gestures include movement of the hands, face, or other parts of the body. Gestures differ from physical non-verbal communication that does not communicate specific messages, such as purely expressive displays, proxemics, or displays of joint attention. Gestures allow individuals to communicate a variety of feelings and thoughts, from contempt and hostility to approval and affection, often together with body language in addition to spoken words.
The most familiar categories of gestures are the so-called emblems or quotable gestures. These are conventional, culture-specific gestures that can be used as replacement for words, such as the handwave used in the U.S. for “hello” and “goodbye. ” Another broad category of gestures comprises those gestures used spontaneously when we speak. These gestures are closely coordinated with speech. Gestural languages such as American Sign Language and its regional siblings operate as complete natural languages that are gestural.
Many animals, including humans, use gestures to initiate a mating ritual. This may include elaborate dances and other movements. Gestures play a major role in many aspects of human life. Gesturing is probably universal; there have been no reports of communities that do not gesture.  Gestures have been documented in the arts such as in Greek vase paintings, Indian Miniatures, and European paintings.
Values
Cultures have values that are largely shared by their members, which identify what should be judged as good or evil.
Learning Objectives
Contrast values and norms
Key Points
- The values of a society can often be identified by noting which people receive honor or respect.
- Values are related to the norms of a culture, but they are more global and abstract than norms.
- Norms are rules for behavior in specific situations, while values identify what should be judged as good or evil.
- Members take part in a culture even if each member’s personal values do not entirely agree with some of the normative values sanctioned in the culture.
- Values clarification is helping people clarify what their lives are for and what is worth working for.
- Cognitive moral education is based on the belief that students should learn to value things like democracy and justice as their moral reasoning develops.
Key Terms
- norm : A rule that is enforced by members of a community.
- culture : The beliefs, values, behavior, and material objects that constitute a people’s way of life.
- subculture : A portion of a culture distinguished from the larger society around it by its customs or other features.
Values can be defined as broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of action or outcomes. Values reflect a person’s sense of right and wrong, or what “ought” to be. Some examples of values are the concepts of “equal rights for all,” “excellence deserves admiration,” and “people should be treated with respect and dignity. ” Values tend to influence attitudes and behavior.
Cultures have values that are largely shared by their members. Different cultures reflect different values. Noting which people receive honor or respect can provide clues to the values of a society. In the US, for example, some professional athletes are honored (in the form of monetary payment) more than college professors.
Values are related to the norms of a culture, but they are more global and abstract than norms. Norms are rules for behavior in specific situations, while values identify what should be judged as good or evil. Flying the national flag on a holiday is a norm, but it reflects the value of patriotism. Wearing dark clothing and appearing solemn are normative behaviors at a funeral; in certain cultures, this reflects the values of respect for and support of friends and family. Different cultures reflect different values.
Members take part in a culture even if each member’s personal values do not entirely agree with some of the normative values sanctioned in the culture. This reflects an individual’s ability to synthesize and extract aspects valuable to them from the multiple subcultures to which they belong. If a group member expresses a value that is in serious conflict with the group’s norms, the group’s authority may encourage conformity or stigmatize the non-conforming behavior of its members.

Learning Objectives
Explain the origin, reinforcement, and significance of social norms in a society or group
Key Points
- Norms can be defined as the shared ways of thinking, feeling, desiring, deciding, and acting which are observable in regularly repeated behaviours and are adopted because they are assumed to solve problems.
- Social norms are neither static nor universal; they change with respect to time and vary with respect to culture, social classes, and social groups.
- Social norms can be enforced formally (e.g., through sanctions ) or informally (e.g., through body language and non-verbal communication cues).
- One form of norm adoption is the formal method, where norms are written down and formally adopted. However, social norms are more likely to be informal and emerge gradually (e.g., not wearing socks with sandals).
Key Terms
- social classes : Social class (or simply “class”) is a set of concepts in the social sciences and political theory centered on models of social stratification in which people are grouped into a set of hierarchical social categories.
- social group : A collection of humans or animals that share certain characteristics, interact with one another, accept expectations and obligations as members of the group, and share a common identity.
- social norms : Social norms are described by sociologists as being laws that govern society’s behaviors.
 They define the expected or acceptable behavior in particular circumstances. Social norms can also be defined as the shared ways of thinking, feeling, desiring, deciding, and acting which are observable in regularly repeated behaviors and are adopted because they are assumed to solve problems.
Social norms are neither static nor universal; they change with respect to time and vary with respect to culture, social classes, and social groups. What is deemed acceptable dress, speech, or behavior in one social group may not be acceptable in another.
Deference to social norms maintains one’s acceptance and popularity within a particular group. Social norms can be enforced formally (e.g., through sanctions) or informally (e.g., through body language and non-verbal communication cues). By ignoring or breaking social norms, one risks facing formal sanctions or quiet disapproval, finding oneself unpopular with or ostracized from a group.
As social beings, individuals learn when and where it is appropriate to say certain things, use certain words, discuss certain topics, or wear certain clothes, and when it is not. Groups may adopt norms in two different ways. One form of norm adoption is the formal method, where norms are written down and formally adopted (e.g., laws, legislation, club rules). Social norms are much more likely to be informal and to emerge gradually (e.g., not wearing socks with sandals).
A link to the YouTube element can be found in Contributors & Attributions section.
Social Norms of Personal Space : Students demonstrate social norms of personal space by violating the norms. This type of experiment is called a breaching experiment.
Groups internalize norms by accepting them as reasonable and proper standards for behavior within the group. That said, while it is more likely that a new individual entering a group will adopt the group’s norms, values, and perspectives, newcomers to a group can also change a group’s norms.
Sanctions
As opposed to forms of internal control, like norms and values, sociologists consider sanctions a form of external control.
Learning Objectives
Differentiate between methods of formal and informal social control
Key Points
- Sanctions can either be positive ( rewards ) or negative (punishment).
- Sanctions can arise from either formal or informal control.
- With informal sanctions, ridicule or ostracism can realign a straying individual towards norms. Informal sanctions may include shame, ridicule, sarcasm, criticism, and disapproval.
- Groups, organizations, and societies of various kinds can promulgate rules that act as formal sanctions to reward or punish behavior. For example, government and organizations use law enforcement mechanisms and other formal sanctions such as fines and imprisonment.
- To maintain control and regulate their subjects, authoritarian organizations and governments use severe sanctions such as censorship, expulsion, and limits on political freedom.
Key Terms
- social control : any control, either formal or informal, that is exerted by a group, especially by one’s peers
- sanction : a penalty, or some coercive measure, intended to ensure compliance; especially one adopted by several nations, or by an international body
- Informal sanctions : These are the reactions of individuals and groups that bring about conformity to norms and laws. These can include peer and community pressure, bystander intervention in a crime, and collective responses such as citizen patrol groups.
Sanctions
Sanctions are mechanisms of social control. As opposed to forms of internal control, like cultural norms and values, sociologists consider sanctions a form of external control. Sanctions can either be positive (rewards) or negative (punishment), and can arise from either formal or informal control.
A link to the YouTube element can be found in Contributors & Attributions section.
Formal and Informal Sanctions : Societies use formal and informal sanctions to enforce norms.
Informal Social Control and Deviance
The social values present in individuals are products of informal social control. This type of control emerges from society, but is rarely stated explicitly to individuals. Instead, it is expressed and transmitted indirectly, through customs, norms and mores. Whether consciously or not, individuals are socialized. With informal sanctions, ridicule or ostracism can cause a straying individual to realign behavior toward group norms. Informal sanctions may include shame, ridicule, sarcasm, criticism, and disapproval. In extreme cases, sanctions may include social discrimination and exclusion. If a young boy is caught skipping school, and his peers ostracize him for his deviant behavior, they are exercising an informal sanction on him. Informal sanctions can check deviant behavior of individuals or groups, either through internalization, or through disincentivizing the deviant behavior.
As with formal controls, informal controls reward or punish acceptable or unacceptable behavior, otherwise known as deviance. Informal controls are varied and differ from individual to individual, group to group, and society to society. To maintain control and regulate their subjects, groups, organizations, and societies of various kinds can promulgate rules that act as formal sanctions to reward or punish behavior. For example, in order to regulate behavior, government and organizations use law enforcement mechanisms and other formal sanctions such as fines and imprisonment. Authoritarian organizations and governments may rely on more directly aggressive sanctions. These actions might include censorship, expulsion, restrictions on political freedom, or violence. Typically, these more extreme sanctions emerge in situations where the public disapproves of either the government or organization in question.
Folkways and Mores
Folkways and mores are informal norms that dictate behavior; however, the violation of mores carries heavier consequences.
Learning Objectives
Differentiate between folkways and mores
Key Points
- Societal norms, or rules that are enforced by members of a community, can exist as both formal and informal rules of behavior. Informal norms can be divided into two distinct groups: folkways and mores.
- Both “mores” and “folkways” are terms coined by the American sociologist William Graham Sumner.
- Mores distinguish the difference between right and wrong, while folkways draw a line between right and rude. While folkways may raise an eyebrow if violated, mores dictate morality and come with heavy consequences.
Key Terms
- mores : A set of moral norms or customs derived from generally accepted practices. Mores derive from the established practices of a society rather than its written laws.
- William Graham Sumner : An American academic with numerous books and essays on American history, economic history, political theory, sociology, and anthropology.
- folkway : A custom or belief common to members of a society or culture.
Societal norms, or rules that are enforced by members of a community, can exist as both formal and informal rules of behavior. Informal norms can be divided into two distinct groups: folkways and mores. Folkways are informal rules and norms that, while not offensive to violate, are expected to be followed. Mores (pronounced more-rays ) are also informal rules that are not written, but, when violated, result in severe punishments and social sanction upon the individuals, such as social and religious exclusions,.
William Graham Sumner, an early U.S. sociologist, recognized that some norms are more important to our lives than others. Sumner coined the term mores to refer to norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance. Mores are often seen as taboos; for example, most societies hold the more that adults not engage in sexual relations with children. Mores emphasize morality through right and wrong, and come with heavy consequences if violated.
Sumner also coined the term folkway to refer to norms for more routine or casual interaction. This includes ideas about appropriate greetings and proper dress in different situations. In comparison to the morality of mores, folkways dictate what could be considered either polite or rude behavior. Their violation does not invite any punishment or sanctions, but may come with reprimands or warnings.
An example to distinguish the two: a man who does not wear a tie to a formal dinner party may raise eyebrows for violating folkways; were he to arrive wearing only a tie, he would violate cultural mores and invite a more serious response.
Contributors and Attributions
CC licensed content, Specific attribution


2.2: My Day
Serves: 2 Players
Cook Time: 20 min
Ingredients
- 10 Players
- Memory
Instructions
- Players are paired up
- Each player takes a turn telling the other player they’re activities for the entire day up until the moment they came to class
- While telling the partner of the activities they use physical movements to simulate that activity
- Players must continue talking without stopping or saying ‘um, um’
- After each player does this then partner A repeats the same story but at one point the Instructor will yell ‘Freeze’. The Instructor will then offer a prompt, example: ‘Suddenly, Big Foot shows up with a bundle of flowers.”
- Once the prompt is heard the player must incorporate that prompt into their original story.
Notes
Players must maintain eye contact, cannot break eye contact.


Section 4: Working with models
We will use the double turnstile symbol for QL much as we did for SL. ‘\(\mathcal{A}\) |= \(\mathcal{B}\)’ means that ‘\(\mathcal{A}\) entails \(\mathcal{B}\)’: When \(\mathcal{A}\) and \(\mathcal{B}\) are two sentences of QL, \(\mathcal{A}\) |= \(\mathcal{B}\) means that there is no model in which \(\mathcal{A}\) is true and \(\mathcal{B}\) is false. |= \(\mathcal{A}\) means that \(\mathcal{A}\) is true in every model.
This allows us to give definitions for various concepts in QL. Because we are using the same symbol, these definitions will look similar to the definitions in SL. Remember, however, that the definitions in QL are in terms of models rather than in terms of truth value assignments.
A
tautology in ql
is a sentence \(\mathcal{A}\) that is true in every model;
i.e., |= \(\mathcal{A}\).
A
contradiction in ql
is a sentence \(\mathcal{A}\) that is false in every model;
i.e., |= ¬\(\mathcal{A}\).
A sentence is contingent in ql if and only if it is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.
An argument “ \(\mathcal{P}\) 1 ,\(\mathcal{P}\) 2 ,···, .˙. \(\mathcal{C}\) ” is valid in ql if and only if there is no model in which all of the premises are true and the conclusion is false; i.e., {\(\mathcal{P}\) 1 ,\(\mathcal{P}\) 2 ,···}|= \(\mathcal{C}\). It is invalid in ql otherwise.
Two sentences \(\mathcal{A}\) and \(\mathcal{B}\) are logically equivalent in ql if and only if both \(\mathcal{A}\) |= \(\mathcal{B}\) and \(\mathcal{B}\) |= \(\mathcal{A}\).
The set {\(\mathcal{A}\) 1 ,\(\mathcal{A}\) 2 ,\(\mathcal{A}\) 3 ,···} is consistent in ql if and only if there is at least one model in which all of the sentences are true. The set is inconsistent in ql if and if only there is no such model.
Constructing models
Suppose we want to show that ∀\(xAxx\) → \(Bd\) is not a tautology. This requires showing that the sentence is not true in every model; i.e., that it is false in some model. If we can provide just one model in which the sentence is false, then we will have shown that the sentence is not a tautology.
What would such a model look like? In order for ∀\(xAxx\) → \(Bd\) to be false, the antecedent (∀\(xAxx\)) must be true, and the consequent (\(Bd\)) must be false.
To construct such a model, we start with a UD. It will be easier to specify extensions for predicates if we have a small UD, so start with a UD that has just one member. Formally, this single member might be anything. Let’s say it is the city of Paris.
We want ∀\(xAxx\) to be true, so we want all members of the UD to be paired with themself in the extension of \(A\); this means that the extension of \(A\) must be {<Paris,Paris>}.
We want \(Bd\) to be false, so the referent of \(d\) must not be in the extension of \(B\).
We give \(B\) an empty extension.
Since Paris is the only member of the UD, it must be the referent of \(d\). The model we have constructed looks like this:
UD = {Paris}
extension(\(A\)) = {<Paris,Paris>}
extension(\(B\)) = ∅
referent(\(d\)) = Paris
Strictly speaking, a model specifies an extension for every predicate of QL and a referent for every constant. As such, it is generally impossible to write down a complete model. That would require writing down infinitely many extensions and infinitely many referents. However, we do not need to consider every predicate in order to show that there are models in which ∀\(xAxx\) → \(Bd\) is false. Predicates like \(H\) and constants like \(f\) 13 make no difference to the truth or falsity of this sentence. It is enough to specify extensions for \(A\) and \(B\) and a referent for \(d\), as we have done. This provides a partial model in which the sentence is false.
Perhaps you are wondering: What does the predicate \(A\) mean in English? The partial model could correspond to an interpretation like this one:
UD: Paris
\(Axy\): \(x\) is in the same country as \(y\).
\(Bx\): \(x\) was founded in the 20th century.
\(d\): the City of Lights
However, all that the partial model tells us is that \(A\) is a predicate which is true of Paris and Paris. There are indefinitely many predicates in English that have this extension. \(Axy\) might instead translate ‘\(x\) is the same size as \(y\)’ or ‘\(x\) and \(y\) are both cities.’ Similarly, \(Bx\) is some predicate that does not apply to Paris; it might instead translate ‘\(x\) is on an island’ or ‘\(x\) is a subcompact car.’ When we specify the extensions of \(A\) and \(B\), we do not specify what English predicates \(A\) and \(B\) should be used to translate. We are concerned with whether the ∀\(xAxx\) → \(Bd\) comes out true or false, and all that matters for truth and falsity in QL is the information in the model: the UD, the extensions of predicates, and the referents of constants.
We can just as easily show that ∀\(xAxx\) → \(Bd\) is not a contradiction. We need only specify a model in which ∀\(xAxx\) → \(Bd\) is true; i.e., a model in which either ∀\(xAxx\) is false or \(Bd\) is true. Here is one such partial model:
UD = {Paris}
extension(\(A\)) = {<Paris,Paris>}
extension(\(B\)) = {Paris}
referent(\(d\)) = Paris
We have now shown that ∀\(xAxx\) → \(Bd\) is neither a tautology nor a contradiction. By the definition of ‘contingent in QL,’ this means that ∀\(xAxx \)→ \(Bd\) is contingent. In general, showing that a sentence is contingent will require two models: one in which the sentence is true and another in which the sentence is false.
Suppose we want to show that ∀\(xSx\) and ∃\(xSx\) are not logically equivalent. We need to construct a model in which the two sentences have different truth values; we want one of them to be true and the other to be false. We start by specifying a UD. Again, we make the UD small so that we can specify extensions easily. We will need at least two members. Let the UD be {Duke, Miles}. (If we chose a UD with only one member, the two sentences would end up with the same truth value. In order to see why, try constructing some partial models with one-member UDs.)
We can make ∃\(xSx\) true by including something in the extension of \(S\), and we can make ∀\(xSx\) false by leaving something out of the extension of \(S\). It does not matter which one we include and which one we leave out. Making Duke the only \(S\), we get a partial model that looks like this:
UD = {Duke, Miles}
extension(\(S\)) = {Duke}
This partial model shows that the two sentences are not logically equivalent.
Back on p. 63, we said that this argument would be invalid in QL:
(\(Rc\)&\(K\)
1
c)&\(Tc\)
.˙. \(Tc\)&\(K\)
2
\(c\)
In order to show that it is invalid, we need to show that there is some model in which the premises are true and the conclusion is false. We can construct such a model deliberately. Here is one way to do it:
UD = {Björk}
extension(\(T\)) = {Björk}
extension(\(K\)
1
) = {Björk}
extension(\(K\)
2
) = ∅
extension(\(R\)) = {Björk}
referent(\(c\)) = Björk
Similarly, we can show that a set of sentences is consistent by constructing a model in which all of the sentences are true.
Reasoning about all models
We can show that a sentence is not a tautology just by providing one carefully specified model: a model in which the sentence is false. To show that something is a tautology, on the other hand, it would not be enough to construct ten, one hundred, or even a thousand models in which the sentence is true. It is only a tautology if it is true in every model, and there are infinitely many models. This cannot be avoided just by constructing partial models, because there are infinitely many partial models.
Consider, for example, the sentence \(Raa\) ↔ \(Raa\). There are two logically distinct partial models of this sentence that have a 1-member UD. There are 32 distinct partial models that have a 2-member UD. There are 1526 distinct partial models that have a 3-member UD. There are 262,144 distinct partial models that have a 4-member UD. And so on to infinity. In order to show that this sentence is a tautology, we need to show something about all of these models. There is no hope of doing so by dealing with them one at a time.
Nevertheless, \(Raa\) ↔ \(Raa\) is obviously a tautology. We can prove it with a simple argument:
There are two kinds of models: those in which {referent(\(a\)),referent(\(a\))i is in the extension of \(R\) and those in which it is not. In the first kind of model, \(Raa\) is true; by the truth table for the biconditional, \(Raa\) ↔ \(Raa\) is also true. In the second kind of model, \(Raa\) is false; this makes \(Raa\) ↔ \(Raa\) true. Since the sentence is true in both kinds of model, and since every model is one of the two kinds, \(Raa\) ↔ \(Raa\) is true in every model. Therefore, it is a tautology.
This argument is valid, of course, and its conclusion is true. However, it is not an argument in QL. Rather, it is an argument in English about QL; it is an argument in the metalanguage. There is no formal procedure for evaluating or constructing natural language arguments like this one. The imprecision of natural language is the very reason we began thinking about formal languages.
There are further difficulties with this approach.
Consider the sentence ∀\(x\)(\(Rxx\) → \(Rxx\)), another obvious tautology. It might be tempting to reason in this way: ‘\(Rxx\) → \(Rxx\) is true in every model, so ∀\(x\)(\(Rxx\) → \(Rxx\)) must be true.’ The problem is that \(Rxx\) → \(Rxx\) is not true in every model. It is not a sentence, and so it is neither true nor false. We do not yet have the vocabulary to say what we want to say about \(Rxx\) → \(Rxx\). In the next section, we introduce the concept of satisfaction ; after doing so, we will be better able to provide an argument that ∀\(x\)(\(Rxx\) → \(Rxx\)) is a tautology.
It is necessary to reason about an infinity of models to show that a sentence is a tautology. Similarly, it is necessary to reason about an infinity of models to show that a sentence is a contradition, that two sentences are equivalent, that a set of sentences is inconsistent, or that an argument is valid. There are other things we can show by carefully constructing a model or two. Table 5.1 summarizes which things are which.
Table 5.1: It is relatively easy to answer a question if you can do it by constructing a model or two. It is much harder if you need to reason about all possible models. This table shows when constructing models is enough.
| YES | NO | |
| Is \(\mathcal{A}\) a tautology? | show that \(\mathcal{A}\) must be true in any model | construct a model in which \(\mathcal{A}\) is false |
| Is \(\mathcal{A}\) a contradiction? | show that \(\mathcal{A}\) must be false in any model | construct a model in which \(\mathcal{A}\) is true |
| Is \(\mathcal{A}\) contingent? | construct two models , one in which \(\mathcal{A}\) is true and another in which \(\mathcal{A}\) is false | either show that \(\mathcal{A}\) is a tautology or show that \(\mathcal{A}\) is a contradiction |
| Are \(\mathcal{A}\) and \(\mathcal{B}\) equivalent? | show that \(\mathcal{A}\) and \(\mathcal{B}\) must have the same truth value in any model | construct a model in which \(\mathcal{A}\) and \(\mathcal{B}\) have different truth values |
| Is the set \(\mathbb{A}\) consistent? | construct a model in which all the sentences in \(\mathbb{A}\) are true | show that the sentences could not all be true in any model |
| Is the argument `\(\mathcal{P}\), .˙. \(\mathcal{C}\)' valid? | show that any model in which \(\mathcal{P}\) is true must be a model in which \(\mathcal{C}\) is true | construct a model in which \(\mathcal{P}\) is true and \(\mathcal{C}\) is false |


13.3E: Geometric Sequences (Exercises)
13. Find the common ratio for the geometric sequence \(2.5, \quad 5, \quad 10, \quad 20, \ldots\)
14. Is the sequence \(4,16,28,40 \ldots\) geometric? If so find the common ratio. If not, explain why.
15. A geometric sequence has terms \(a_{7}=16,384\) and \(a_{9}=262,144 .\) What are the first five terms?
16. A geometric sequence has the first term \(a_{1}=-3\) and common ratio \(r=\frac{1}{2} .\) What is the \(8^{\text {th }}\) term?
17. What are the first five terms of the geometric sequence \(a_{1}=3, \quad a_{n}=4 \cdot a_{n-1} ?\)
18. Write a recursive formula for the geometric sequence \(1, \quad \frac{1}{3}, \quad \frac{1}{9}, \quad \frac{1}{27}, \ldots\)
19. Write an explicit formula for the geometric sequence \(-\frac{1}{5}, \quad-\frac{1}{15}, \quad-\frac{1}{45}, \quad-\frac{1}{135}, \ldots\)
20. How many terms are in the finite geometric sequence \(-5,-\frac{5}{3},-\frac{5}{9}, \ldots,-\frac{5}{59,049} ?\)


12.13.5: Collaborative
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Collaborative
As more of us use smartphones and wearables, it will be simpler than ever to share data with each other for mutual benefit. Some of this sharing can be done passively, such as reporting our location in order to update traffic statistics. Other data can be reported actively, such as adding our rating of a restaurant to a review site.
The smartphone app Waze is a community-based tool that keeps track of the route you are traveling and how fast you are making your way to your destination. In return for providing your data, you can benefit from the data being sent from all of the other users of the app. Waze will route you around traffic and accidents based upon real-time reports from other users.
Yelp! allows consumers to post ratings and reviews of local businesses into a database, and then it provides that data back to consumers via its website or mobile phone app. By compiling ratings of restaurants, shopping centers, and services, and then allowing consumers to search through its directory, Yelp! has become a huge source of business for many companies. Unlike data collected passively however, Yelp! relies on its users to take the time to provide honest ratings and reviews.
Printable
One of the most amazing innovations to be developed recently is the 3-D printer. A 3-D printer allows you to print virtually any 3-D object based on a model of that object designed on a computer. 3-D printers work by creating layer upon layer of the model using malleable materials, such as different types of glass, metals, or even wax.
3-D printing is quite useful for prototyping the designs of products to determine their feasibility and marketability. 3-D printing has also been used to create working prosthetic legs , handguns , and even an ear that can hear beyond the range of normal hearing . The US Air Force now uses 3-D printed parts on the F-18 fighter jet. [11]
3-D printing is one of many technologies embraced by the “maker” movement. Chris Anderson, editor of Wired magazine, puts it this way [12] :
In a nutshell, the term “Maker” refers to a new category of builders who are using open-source methods and the latest technology to bring manufacturing out of its traditional factory context, and into the realm of the personal desktop computer. Until recently, the ability to manufacture was reserved for those who owned factories. What’s happened over the last five years is that we’ve brought the Web’s democratizing power to manufacturing. Today, you can manufacture with the push of a button.


12.5E: Exercises
Practice Makes Perfect
In the following exercises, expand each binomial using Pascal’s Triangle.
- \((x+y)^{4}\)
- \((a+b)^{8}\)
- \((m+n)^{10}\)
- \((p+q)^{9}\)
- \((x-y)^{5}\)
- \((a-b)^{6}\)
- \((x+4)^{4}\)
- \((x+5)^{3}\)
- \((y+2)^{5}\)
- \((y+1)^{7}\)
- \((z-3)^{5}\)
- \((z-2)^{6}\)
- \((4x-1)^{3}\)
- \((3x-1)^{5}\)
- \((3 x-4)^{4}\)
- \((3 x-5)^{3}\)
- \((2 x+3 y)^{3}\)
- \((3 x+5 y)^{3}\)
- Answer
-
2. \(\begin{array}{l}{a^{8}+8 a^{7} b+28 a^{6} b^{2}+56 a^{5} b^{3}} {+70 a^{4} b^{4}+56 a^{3} b^{5}+28 a^{2} b^{6}} {+8 a b^{7}+b^{8}}\end{array}\)
4. \(\begin{array}{l}{p^{9}+9 p^{8} q+36 p^{7} q^{2}+84 p^{6} q^{3}} {+126 p^{5} q^{4}+126 p^{4} q^{5}+84 p^{3} q^{6}} {+36 p^{2} q^{7}+9 p q^{8}+q^{9}}\end{array}\)
6. \(\begin{array}{l}{a^{6}-6 a^{5} b+15 a^{4} b^{2}-20 a^{3} b^{3}} {+15 a^{2} b^{4}-6 a b^{5}+b^{6}}\end{array}\)
8. \(x^{3}+15 x^{2}+75 x+125\)
10. \(\begin{array}{l}{y^{7}+7 y^{6}+21 y^{5}+35 y^{4}+35 y^{3}} {+21 y^{2}+7 y+1}\end{array}\)
12. \(\begin{array}{l}{z^{6}-12 z^{5}+60 z^{4}-160 z^{3}+240 z^{2}} \\ {-192 z+64}\end{array}\)
14. \(\begin{array}{l}{243 x^{5}-405 x^{4}+270 x^{3}-90 x^{2}} {+15 x-1}\end{array}\)
16. \(27 x^{3}-135 x^{2}+225 x-125\)
18. \(27 x^{3}+135 x^{2} y+225 x y^{2}+125 y^{3}\)
-
- \(\left( \begin{array}{l}{8} \\ {1}\end{array}\right)\)
- \(\left( \begin{array}{l}{10} \\ {10}\end{array}\right)\)
- \(\left( \begin{array}{l}{6} \\ {0}\end{array}\right)\)
- \(\left( \begin{array}{l}{9} \\ {3}\end{array}\right)\)
-
- \(\left( \begin{array}{l}{7} \\ {1}\end{array}\right)\)
- \(\left( \begin{array}{l}{4} \\ {4}\end{array}\right)\)
- \(\left( \begin{array}{l}{3} \\ {0}\end{array}\right)\)
- \(\left( \begin{array}{l}{5} \\ {3}\end{array}\right)\)
-
- \(\left( \begin{array}{l}{3} \\ {1}\end{array}\right)\)
- \(\left( \begin{array}{l}{9} \\ {9}\end{array}\right)\)
- \(\left( \begin{array}{l}{7} \\ {0}\end{array}\right)\)
- \(\left( \begin{array}{l}{5} \\ {3}\end{array}\right)\)
-
- \(\left( \begin{array}{l}{4} \\ {1}\end{array}\right)\)
- \(\left( \begin{array}{l}{5} \\ {5}\end{array}\right)\)
- \(\left( \begin{array}{l}{8} \\ {0}\end{array}\right)\)
- \(\left( \begin{array}{l}{11} \\ {9}\end{array}\right)\)
- Answer
-
2.
- \(7\)
- \(1\)
- \(1\)
- \(45\)
4.
- \(4\)
- \(1\)
- \(1\)
- \(55\)
In the following exercises, expand each binomial.
- \((x+y)^{3}\)
- \((m+n)^{5}\)
- \((a+b)^{6}\)
- \((s+t)^{7}\)
- \((x-2)^{4}\)
- \((y-3)^{4}\)
- \((p-1)^{5}\)
- \((q-4)^{3}\)
- \((3x-y)^{5}\)
- \((5x-2y)^{4}\)
- \((2x+5y)^{4}\)
- \((3x+4y)^{5}\)
- Answer
-
2. \(\begin{array}{l}{m^{5}+5 m^{4} n+10 m^{3} n^{2}+10 m^{2} n^{3}} {+5 m n^{4}+n^{5}}\end{array}\)
4. \(\begin{array}{l}{s^{7}+7 s^{6} t+21 s^{5} t^{2}+35 s^{4} t^{3}} {+35 s^{3} t^{4}+21 s^{2} t^{5}+7 s t^{6}+t^{7}}\end{array}\)
6. \(y^{4}-12 y^{3}+54 y^{2}-108 y+81\)
8. \(q^{3}-12 q^{2}+48 q-64\)
10. \(\begin{array}{l}{625 x^{4}-1000 x^{3} y+600 x^{2} y^{2}} {-160 x y^{3}+16 y^{4}}\end{array}\)
12. \(\begin{array}{l}{243 x^{5}+1620 x^{4} y+4320 x^{3} y^{2}} {+5760 x^{2} y^{3}+3840 x y^{4}+1024 y^{5}}\end{array}\)
In the following exercises, find the indicated term in the expansion of the binomial.
- Sixth term of \((x+y)^{10}\)
- Fifth term of \((a+b)^{9}\)
- Fourth term of \((x-y)^{8}\)
- Seventh term of \((x-y)^{11}\)
- Answer
-
2. \(126a^{5} b^{4}\)
4. \(462x^{5} y^{6}\)
In the following exercises, find the coefficient of the indicated term in the expansion of the binomial.
- \(y^{3}\) term of \((y+5)^{4}\)
- \(x^{6}\) term of \((x+2)^{8}\)
- \(x^{5}\) term of \((x-4)^{6}\)
- \(x^{7}\) term of \((x-3)^{9}\)
- \(a^{4} b^{2}\) term of \((2 a+b)^{6}\)
- \(p^{5} q^{4}\) term of \((3 p+q)^{9}\)
- Answer
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2. \(112\)
4. \(324\)
6. \(30,618\)
- In your own words explain how to find the rows of the Pascal's Triangle. Write the first five rows of Pascal's Triangle.
- In your own words, explain the pattern of exponents for each variable in the expansion of.
- In your own words, explain the difference between \((a+b)^{n}\) and \((a-b)^{n}\).
- In your own words, explain how to find a specific term in the expansion of a binomial without expanding the whole thing. Use an example to help explain.
- Answer
-
2. Answers will vary
4. Answers will vary
Self Check
a. After completing the exercises, use this checklist to evaluate your mastery of the objectives of this section.
b. On a scale of 1-10, how would you rate your mastery of this section in light of your responses on the checklist? How can you improve this?


5.5: Post-test
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Which of the following are examples of positive coping skills?
Select
all
that
apply
.
- Seeking revenge
- Procrastination
- Exercising
- Writing poetry
- Drinking alcohol
- Talking to a friend
- Praying
- Writing in a journal
- Withdrawing from others
- Use positive self-talk
- True or False: Stigma against people with a mental illness can result in people with mental health disorders not seeking or receiving the treatment they need.
- True or False: Mental illness is a disease, just like hypertension, diabetes, heart failure, or COPD are diseases.
- True or False: With proper treatment, people who suffer from mental illness can recover.
-
Which of the following factors can cause, or result in mental health disorders?
Select
all
that
apply
.
- Substance abuse
- Genetics (family history of mental illness)
- Traumatic Brain Injury
- Physical illness or disability
- Chemical imbalances in the brain
- Traumatic events such as death of a loved one or war
- Life stresses
-
Which of the following types of mental illnesses also have a high rate of suicide risk?
Select
all
that
apply
.
- Anxiety disorders
- Depression
- Schizophrenia
- True or False: Home Health Aides/Personal Care Aides should always immediately report unsafe situations and behaviors to their supervisor.
-
In which ways can a Home Health Aide/Personal Care Aide help a person with mental illness?
Select
all
that
apply
.
- Remind them about psychiatrist and counseling appointments.
- Provide personal care if the patient is unable to do so.
- Keep the home safe, clean, and clutter free.
- Report bizarre behaviors, unkempt appearances, and failure to take medications to the supervisor.
- Provide support, encouragement, and companionship.
- Provide supervision for patients who are at risk for unhealthy behaviors.
- True or False: Noncompliance means patients agree to and follow treatment plan recommendations, take their medications, and attend mental health appointments.
- True or False: Home care workers should accurately document behaviors observed without being judgmental, drawing conclusions, or making diagnoses about a patient. They should only report the facts and observations made.
- Answer
-
1. C, D, F, G, H, J
2. True
3. True
4. True
5. All of these could result in mental health disorders
6. All of these disorders can result in suicide
7. True
8.  False
10. True


3: The Atmosphere
The atmosphere that envelops us reflects the complex interactions between the major spheres that comprise the Earth system. The gaseous composition of the atmosphere is being regulated by the biotic elements of the Earth system as well as the geological processes that have shaped our Earth. Volcanic eruptions release vast quantities of gases and particles into the air causing changes to the composition and heat dynamics of the atmosphere. Human activity has also had a profound impact on the composition of the atmosphere locally, regionally, and globally. In this chapter you will investigate the structure and composition of the atmosphere and its influence on physical systems of the Earth.
By the end of the chapter you should be able to:
- Draw a diagram of the layers of the atmosphere based on temperature change.
- List and explain the importance of the permanent and variable gases that comprise the atmosphere.
- Explain what the greenhouse effect is and how human activities influence global warming.
- Explain the difference between normal and environmental lapse rate.
- Explain the function of the ionosphere and ozonosphere.
See if you are prepared for this chapter by Getting Ready for Chapter 3: The Atmosphere.
-
- 3.3: Greenhouse Effect
- Solar radiation (shortwave) passes through most of the atmospheric gases without being absorbed to a significant extent. However, longwave radiation emitted from the Earth's surface and directed toward the sky is readily absorbed by greenhouse gases. When absorbed, the temperature of the atmosphere increases. Some of this absorbed energy is emitted to space while some is emitted back towards the Earth. This is the basis for the greenhouse effect.


1.2: Case Brief Sample - Miranda v. Arizona
384 U.S. 436 (1966)
Court: United States Supreme Court.
Judicial History: Ernesto Miranda (D) was convicted for kidnapping, rape, and robbery by the Arizona criminal courts. D appealed to the Arizona Supreme Court but the conviction was sustained. The U.S. Supreme Court granted certiorari to determine the role police have in protecting the rights of the accused from issues arising in four different cases (Miranda v. Arizona; Vignera v. New York; Westover v. United Stated; and California v. Stewart).
Facts: D was a Mexican immigrant living in Phoenix, AZ. D had a history of mental instability and was a 9th grade drop out. D was identified as a suspect in the kidnapping and rape of an 18 year old girl. D was arrested by the Phoenix Police Department at his home and taken to the police station for questioning. D was not advised of his Constitutional guarantees of self-incrimination or to have attorney present. After two hours of police interrogation, D confessed to the crimes. D was convicted and sentenced concurrently to twenty years each. D appealed to the Arizona Supreme Court citing that his confession was not truly voluntary but the AZ Supreme Court sustained the conviction.
Issue: During custodial interrogation and before questioning, must the police (1) inform a suspect that he has a right to remain silent (2) warn him that any statements he makes may be used against him and (3) advise him that he has a right to an attorney?
Holding: Yes. Law enforcement officers must inform a person of his rights when that person is in custody and subject to an interrogation. Any incriminating statements obtained in violation of these rights are inadmissible at trial.
Reasoning: The Supreme Court scrutinized coercive conditions in which police were obtaining and introducing incriminating admissions obtained during police questioning which was in conflict with one of the Nation’s most cherished principlesthe right against self-incrimination. In order to preserve Constitutional protections guaranteed by the 5th and 6th Amendments, the Court ruled that these protections would be extended from criminal trials to custodial interrogations. Statements or confessions would not be made admissible at trial unless a suspect was informed that (1) he has a right to remain silent (2) anything he says will be used against him in court (3) he has the right to consult with a lawyer and to have that lawyer present during questioning and (4) if he cannot afford and attorney, one will be appointed to him by the court.
Decision: 5-4. Miranda’s conviction overturned and remanded back to state court.
Opinion: Chief Justice Warren, joined by Justices Black, Douglas, Brennan, and Fortas.
Dissenting Opinions: Written by Chief Justice Harlan and joined by Justices Stewart and White. These new rules do not discourage police brutality or coercion but rather negate police pressures and ultimately discourage any suspect confessions at all. Furthermore, the new rules do not discourage any officers already predisposed to corrupt practices. The court is taking a real risk with society’s welfare as it relates to crime control and engaging in hazardous experimentation.
Dissenting in Part Opinion: Written by Justice White. There is no support in the history of the protection to support the majority findings. Furthermore, the language does not allow for such a basis in common law.
Follow-Up
After Miranda’s conviction was overturned, the state court retired him. Miranda’s confession was not introduced into evidence. The prosecution relied on witness testimony and Miranda was again convicted and sentenced to 20-30 years in prison.