11.2: Biology and Personality
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When talking about the role of biology in behavior, the natural starting point is the genetic makeup of each person. Our specific genetic blueprint is what distinguishes each of us as a unique individual, except for identical twins. However, since humans no longer rely on instinctive behavior, there are no aspects of personality that are specifically determined by genetics. Instead, it is more appropriate to say that our genetic makeup determines ranges within which we might develop, and our environment then determines where we fall within that range. The topics of greatest interest in the biology of personality are those topics that appear to be under a relatively greater influence of genetics than environment. But how do we determine the relative contributions of genetics and environment? Psychologists have relied mostly on twin and adoption studies.
Twin Studies, Adoption Studies, Family Studies
Twin studies have a long and interesting history in the field of psychology. Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911) studied mental abilities and is recognized as being the first to utilize twin studies. His use of identical twins, in the mid to late 1800s, is generally recognized as the first use of an experimental control group (Diamond, 1977/1997; Jensen, 1998), and the use of identical vs. fraternal twins continues to be recognized as a natural control condition by psychologists and sociobiologists (Kagan, Kearsley, & Zelazo, 1978; Wilson, 1978). Twin studies were also of interest to psychologists in the former Soviet Union (Cole & Maltzman, 1969). While Anna Freud and Melanie Klein were applying psychoanalysis to the study and treatment of children, the American physician and psychologist Arnold Gesell was comparing the achievement of fundamental developmental milestones between twins (Lomax, Kagan, & Rosencrantz, 1978), and Wayne Dennis was conducting an astonishing experiment on a pair of twins. Dennis and his wife raised the twins under conditions of minimal social and sensory stimulation. This research had a noble goal: to understand the basis for the detrimental effects of institutionalized care that was being recognized in overcrowded orphanages. However, one of the twins ended up showing signs of mental retardation (though this was attributed to an early head injury; Lomax, Kagan, & Rosencrantz, 1978). Obviously such an experiment would never be approved today, due to the ethical guidelines and oversight that have become a common part of psychological research, but twin studies done in reasonable and ethical ways continue to be an important part of psychological research.
What makes identical twins important is that they share 100 percent of their genetic material, whereas fraternal twins (like any other siblings) share an average of 50 percent of their genetic material.  This allows us to address the issue of heritability , or the degree of individual variance on some measure of behavior or personality that can be attributed to genetics. It is important to remember, however, that heritability is measured in populations (see Kagan, 1994; Sternberg, Grigorenko, & Kidd, 2005). It makes no sense to suggest, for example, that a 5-foot tall person is 54 inches tall due to genetics and then grew another 6 inches thanks to good nutrition. Adoption studies add an interesting twist to this research, since adopted children take the genetic contributions of their parents into different environmental situations, making adoption studies a useful tool for comparing the environmental contributions to the genetic contributions. However, these studies remain challenging. For example, intelligence is perhaps the most widely studied trait in terms of whether and how much it is genetic. Some of this research has been very controversial. Sir Francis Galton, who was mentioned above, believed that his research confirmed that certain races were superior to others, and that superior races had an obligation to selectively breed their best individuals for the good of future generations, as had been done (and continues to be done today) with certain breeds of dogs and horses (Galton, 1869/1997). Despite this controversial beginning to the study of genetics and intelligence, the topic has remained widely studied, but elusive nonetheless. Estimates on the heritability of intelligence range from approximately 65 to 85 percent (Gould, 1982; Jensen, 1998). However, at very early ages the genetic and environmental influences are closer to 50-50, decrease with age, and by adulthood the genetic component is almost entirely responsible for the correlation of intelligence between related individuals (Gould, 1982; Jensen, 1998). Further complicating the situation for studying children, when a wider range of extended family members are considered and cultural factors are separated from non-transmissible environmental factors, it appears that genetics, culture, and environment all play roughly equal roles (Boyd & Richerson, 1985). Indeed, culture can have profound effects on intelligence, including our definition of intelligence itself (Sternberg, 2004). Finally, returning to the controversial perspective of Galton and other proponents of the eugenics movement (the belief that superior races and classes should not mix with inferior groups), research today has demonstrated that no legitimate connection can be made between race and intelligence (Sternberg, Grigorenko, & Kidd, 2005; also see Loehlin, 1997; Williams & Ceci, 1997), and when it comes to education, IQ isn’t even the best predictor of academic performance (Duckworth & Seligman, 2005).
Another important point is the issue of family studies . Usually, we think of the family as providing genetic similarity, since children inherit their genes from their parents. Second, we tend to think that families provide a common environmental situation for each of their children, particularly in small families. However, this is not always true. In the Russian literature there was a well-known case in which the first-born girl was always treated as the elder sister, even though her younger identical twin was only minutes younger. The result of the differential treatment was that the “older” girl reached most developmental milestones before her sister (Bozhovich, 1969). In a case described by the renowned Russian neuropsychologist A. R. Luria, identical twins with retarded speech had begun to develop their own autonomous language. Once separated into different classes in nursery school, however, the autonomous language disappeared (Luria, 1969). Thus, the family can have a very dramatic environmental influence, whether intentional or not, that goes against the genetic similarity due to biological relationships or even identical twinship. What then, can we conclude regarding the heritability of personality traits in humans? Certainly genetic factors play an important role, but the complexity of the human organism and its sociocultural environment makes it difficult to draw definite conclusions about exactly how much of an influence our unique genetic profile has on our individual personality. Nonetheless, psychologists have continued to pursue this important question.
Genetically Determined Dispositions
Behavior genetics is the term most commonly used to refer to studies on the influence of genetics on behavior. Most of these studies have relied on comparing identical twins to fraternal twins, other siblings, and unrelated individuals, including when possible twins who have been reared apart. These studies are often conducted in European countries that have thorough records of family histories, but one major, longitudinal study ongoing here in the United States has been the Minnesota Twin Family Study conducted at the University of Minnesota since 1983. These various sources of data, in addition to other research procedures, have helped psychologists come to some understanding of the role played by genetics in determining behavior and personality.
Psychologist Jerome Kagan is well known for his early studies on the nature of temperament . Temperament is perhaps the most salient characteristic of personality. It has been loosely described as the emotional component of our personality, as stable behavioral and emotional reactions that appear early in life and are influenced by genetic factors (Kagan, 1994). Kagan further describes temperamental categories as qualities that (1) vary among individuals, (2) are moderately stable over time and in different situations, (3) are partly determined by genetics, and (4) appear early in life. In part because they were easy to observe, the most popular temperamental qualities that have been studied are activity, irritability, and fearfulness, or as Kagan describes them: watchful inhibition vs. fearless exploration. About 10 percent of children exhibit extreme inhibition to nonthreatening, but unfamiliar, events (Kagan, 1984). Although this behavior can seemingly be altered by parental influence, subtle signs of the behavioral inhibition can be seen as the child grows, and they tend to continue into adulthood. Similarly, with uninhibited children, it is extremely unlikely that they will ever become inhibited children. Further studies on twins have helped to confirm that being inhibited or outgoing is influenced by genetics (Kagan, Kearsley, & Zelazo, 1978). Similar results have also been found with Guatemalan and Chinese children (Kagan, Kearsley, & Zelazo, 1978). As important as our emotional reactions are (see, e.g., the work of Daniel Goleman, 1995, 1998), they still do not necessarily dominate our personality:
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)
An even temperament leads to stable behavioral and emotional reactions.
…it is wise to state explicitly that many differences among children may have little to do with temperament…Our current knowledge indicates that the motivation to perform well in school, the willingness to help a friend, loyalty to family, tolerance toward others, and a host of other motives and beliefs are minimally influenced by temperament. (pg. 77; Kagan, 1994)
Recently, Thomas Bouchard, Jr. (2004) offered a concise review of the heritability of psychological traits. With regard to the “Big Five” personality traits, they all exhibit heritability in the range of 42 to 57 percent. If one considers the alternative known as the “Big Three,” the range is 44 to 52 percent (Bouchard, 2004). Thus, genetics make a significant contribution to the nature of basic personality, but at the same time there is at least as much of an environmental contribution (though that certainly includes a variety of factors). There is also significant heritability of psychological interests (such as being realistic, artistic, social, etc.), social attitudes, and psychiatric illness (especially schizophrenia; Bouchard, 2004; see also Bouchard, 1994; Bouchard & McGue, 1990; Bouchard et al., 1990; Kety, 1975; Mendlewicz, Fleiss, & Fieve, 1975; Shields, Heston, & Gottesman, 1975). Even such complex personality variables as well-being, traditionalism, religiosity, and criminality have been found to be highly influenced by our genetic make-up (Crowe, 1975; Kagan, 1994; Kessler, 1975; Tellegen et al., 1988; Waller et al., 1990). To put it simply, virtually all psychological factors are significantly influenced by our genetic makeup, but none are specifically determined by genetics. This led Danielle Dick and Richard Rose (2002) to question whether the field of behavior genetics has completed what it can reasonably hope to accomplish. They argue that there is much more to be studied, particularly in the area of gene-environment interactions . In such interactions, individuals experience the same environment in different ways due to their genetic predispositions.
In Galen’s Prophecy , Kagan (1994) describes the role that he believes the amygdala plays in mediating responses to anxiety-producing stimuli. Eight percent of children demonstrate highly reactive responses to such stimuli, which animal research has shown is associated with increased activity in the amygdala and, consequently, a behavioral inhibition system . As a result, these children either freeze or withdraw from unfamiliar people and situations. In other words, they seem shy and withdrawn. Approximately 18 percent of children demonstrate low reactivity, their amygdala and the behavioral inhibition system are not activated, and they are likely to approach unfamiliar people and situations with curiosity. These simple patterns of behavior can have profound effects on personality. Kagan (1994) has found that high reactive infants , those who become anxious as a result of unfamiliarity, tend to become dour, serious, and fearful as they grow. In contrast, the low reactive infants , those who may respond to unfamiliarity with curiosity and interest, become more joyful and fearless as they grow up. However, these tendencies are by no means guarantees, because the environment plays a significant role. If mothers are firm and set strict limits on the child’s behavior, if they are supportive but do not always hold the child when it is upset (i.e., they hold the child when it needs help, but not when the child does not need help), then a high reactive child has a much better chance of overcoming its tendency to become an anxious and withdrawn person. One explanation, according to Kagan, is that these mothers require their children to meet her socialization demands; they must learn to deal with the uncertainty of unfamiliar situations. As for overprotective parents:
…It appears that mothers who protect their high reactive infants from frustration and anxiety in the hope of effecting a benevolent outcome seem to exacerbate the infant’s uncertainty and produce the opposite effect. This result is in greater accord with the old-fashioned behavioristic view than with the modern emphasis on the infant’s need for a sensitive parent. (pg. 205; Kagan, 1994)
In support of Kagan’s studies, Fox and his colleagues have demonstrated a specific gene-environment interaction that predicts behavioral inhibition in children aged 14 and 84 months (young 1 year-olds and 7 year-olds; Fox et al., 2005). Although it is difficult to describe such studies in simple terms, suffice it to say that children with a combination of the short 5-HTT allele (a gene for the molecule that transports the neurotransmitter serotonin) and low social support are at an increased risk for behavioral inhibition. When the children were 1 year old, behavioral inhibition was measured in terms of the latency to approach novel objects and unfamiliar adults, and when the children were 7 years old it was measured in terms of their disconnection from a group of children at play. The short allele of the 5-HTT gene has been associated with increased anxiety, negative emotionality, and relatively strong coupling with the amygdala. Therefore, in the absence of social support, children with the short allele are more likely to experience stress in the presence of novelty and strangers (Fox et al., 2005). Moffitt, Caspi, and Rutter have written an excellent review of how psychologists and other scientists approach this important new field of gene-environment interactions, and in that review they suggest that it is most likely that such interactions are common in psychopathology (Moffitt et al., 2006).
Discussion Question \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Jerome Kagan studied temperament, and found that approximately 10% of children are shy and inhibited and approximately 20 percent of children are curious and adventurous, and these temperaments are most likely to continue into adulthood. Consider the people you know. Have their basic temperaments remained constant throughout their lives? What about you?
Sociobiology and Evolutionary Influences on Behavior
Sociobiology is a relatively new field of study that applies evolutionary biology to social behavior (Barash, 1977; Wilson, 1975). Although much of the research underlying sociobiology has been conducted with non-human animals, the value of this research and its applications to understanding human behavior and personality should not be underestimated. Samuel Gosling and his colleagues have demonstrated that a wide variety of other animal species have personality traits similar to those of humans (Gosling, 2001; Gosling & John, 1999; Gosling, Kwan, & John, 2003; Gosling & Vazire, 2002; Jones & Gosling, 2005; Mehta & Gosling, 2006). When the ethologists Nikolaas Tinbergen, Konrad Lorenz, and Karl von Frisch shared the Nobel Prize in 1973 it was the first Nobel Prize awarded for the study of behavior. Sociobiology, a field similar to ethology, has offered valuable new perspectives on human behavior, perspectives on behaviors that do not always seem logical at first. As an aside, sociobiology also allows us to address an exciting variety of human behaviors, including the apparent evolutionary and neurobiological bases for laughter (see Panksepp, 2005).
The fundamental concept underlying sociobiology is that of inclusive fitness . Inclusive fitness refers to the advantages of behaviors that increase the likelihood of an individual’s genetic survival through the survival of genetically related kin (Barash, 1977; Wilson, 1975). Therefore, in looking at the evolution of human social behavior, we must not consider only the ways in which behaviors contribute to individual survival (which is a traditional Darwinian perspective on survival of the fittest), but rather on how behaviors contribute to the survival of our children, family, and perhaps even our community.
Sociobiologists have looked at several major topics regarding the evolution of human behavior, but we will only take a brief look at three behaviors: mate selection, parenting, and religion. In Chapter 2 we discussed male/female differences as a matter of fact. This has become commonly accepted in the popular media, and evidence suggests that men and women are inclined to essentialize their differences (Prentice & Miller, 2006). In contrast, Janet Shibley Hyde has provided compelling evidence that men and women are actually much more alike than they are different (Hyde, 1996, 2005; also see Spelke, 2005; Stewart & McDermott, 2004). So which is it? When it comes to mate selection, sociobiology suggests that men and women should be different, because the roles they will need to play in eventual child rearing require them to be different. It is a biological fact that men need to contribute very little to the birth of a child, whereas women become pregnant for nine months and, from an evolutionary perspective, must then breast-feed the child for one or two years. Thus, a man can improve his inclusive fitness by seeking multiple relationships with women in their prime child-bearing years and exhibiting physical characteristics indicative of good reproductive health. Unfortunately, other men are looking for the same women, so competition can become fierce. Women, on the other hand, should be inclined to seek men who have already won those competitions, demonstrating that they can provide and protect resources for their offspring, usually by commanding a territory or a privileged place in society (Barash, 1977; Wilson, 1975, 1978). So it is not uncommon for women to be inclined to marry older men, particularly men who are above them on the socioeconomic scale (Barash, 1977). Women would also be inclined to select men who make some commitment in terms of child rearing (Barash, 1979). So, men who were inclined to make only the minimum commitment necessary to the sexual act did not improve their inclusive fitness, since they were not selected by discriminating females.
When parenting is discussed in introductory psychology courses, the most common topic is parenting styles and their influence on personality development. In sociobiology, however, the most relevant issues are the survival of the offspring and how taxing it is on the parents to help their offspring survive. We are just beginning to understand some aspects of the biological basis for attachment from the offspring’s perspective (Hofer, 2006), but understanding the attachment of the parent to the offspring remains elusive. Obviously, raising a child requires a considerable amount of effort on the parent’s part, but typically more on the part of the mother. Thus, close social bonding is important, and this may form the basis of love as an added emotional component to sex, as well as the growing love that parents feel for their children (Barash, 1977; Wilson, 1978). Older women are particularly more sensitive to the needs of first-born children, since the child may well represent the only opportunity for the mother to reproduce. Nature is full of well-known examples of female animals vigorously defending their young, even if their own life is endangered (Barash, 1977, 1979). Of peculiar interest is the behavior of grandparents, since a parent is really only successful in reproducing if they eventually become grandparents. Barash (1977) discusses two interesting situations. When a child is born, it is most likely that the mother’s parents come to help. But if a young couple chooses to live with parents, it is most likely the father’s parents. These may simply seem to be cultural artifacts, but they have a basis in biological fitness. Only a mother can be sure that she has made a genetic contribution to a child (at least in the past, when our behaviors were evolving). So, when a woman has a baby, only her parents are sure that they have become grandparents. The man’s parents serve their own interests best if they can watch over the woman, to make sure that she does not stray from her relationship with their son (Barash, 1977). All of this may sound cold and calculating, but it is logical nonetheless, and if we believe in an unconscious mind, then people don’t need to be aware of exactly what they are doing.
Religion has been a profound influence throughout the history of the human species. It has been suggested that children naturally seek a divine explanation for the existence of a world they cannot comprehend (Kelemen, 2004). According to sociobiologist E. O. Wilson:
The predisposition to religious belief is the most complex and powerful force in the human mind and in all probability an ineradicable part of human nature…It is one of the universals of social behavior, taking recognizable form in every society from hunter-gatherer band to socialist republics…At Shanidar, Iraq, sixty thousand years ago, Neanderthal people decorated a grave with seven species of flowers having medicinal and economic value, perhaps to honor a shaman. Since that time, according to the anthropologist Anthony F. C. Wallace, mankind has produced on the order of 100 thousand religions. (pg. 169; Wilson, 1978).
But what evolutionary advantage might religion serve? This question is difficult to answer, in part because religion appears to be unique to the human species. Many of the principles of sociobiology were determined by working with lower animals, especially the social insects. Without other species to use for comparison, it is not easy to understand our own species. According to Wilson, the best avenue for understanding the advantage conferred by religion to inclusive fitness is the ability to conform to the expectations of society. Humans seem to seek indoctrination. As we became more intelligent, more capable of making individual choices, perhaps we evolved the behavioral predispositions necessary to continue remaining within our tribe. As a result, the rules and rituals that developed to codify this behavior enhance the survival of our group, and it is this group-selection that sociobiologists recognize as the evolutionary advantage resulting from religion (Boyd & Richerson, 1985; Wilson, 1975, 1978). This is not unlike the role ascribed to religion by Sigmund Freud, except that sociobiologists propose an underlying genetic basis, whereas Freud proposed an underlying psychodynamic basis.
One of the most common negative reactions to sociobiology is resistance to the idea that we are still animals being driven by our genes and evolution. The simple logic provided by sociobiologists, and the clear parallels between human behavior and the behavior of other animals is not enough to sway the minds of some people. Culture definitely plays a significant role in our lives, gene-culture co-evolution may underlie human cooperation and altruism (Henrich, et al., 2006), and separating genetics from culture on a topic such as mate selection is difficult (Buss, 2003; Miller, Putcha-Bhagavatula, & Pedersen, 2002). But is culture something different than evolution? Richard Dawkins, in his profound book The Selfish Gene (1976), has proposed that the human mind has evolved to a point where it can create self-replicating units of culture, which he called memes . Memes can be transmitted from person to person, and they can evolve faster than genes. Thus, human culture has been able to outpace genetic evolution, creating many of the challenges we face today when we try to separate culture from genetics in order to understand complex human behaviors. As examples, let us consider two potential memes: belief in God, and belief in life after death. As mentioned above, children appear to be inclined to believe in a supernatural creator of the world that they, as children, simply cannot understand. And religion is a cultural universal. Not every religion, however, believes in life after death, and even fewer believe in heaven or hell. So religion appears to be a very successful meme, whereas belief in life after death is somewhat less successful, but successful enough to still be prevalent. One of the most fascinating aspects of memes is that they may actually increase the likelihood that you can have a very long lasting effect on the world. As Dawkins points out, Queen Elizabeth II of England is a direct descendant of William the Conqueror, but the odds are very low that she has even a single gene descended from him. So, immortality cannot really be achieved through reproduction:
But if you contribute to the world’s culture, if you have a good idea, compose a tune, invent a sparking plug, write a poem, it may live on, intact, long after your genes have dissolved in the common pool. Socrates may or may not have a gene or two alive in the world today…but who cares? The meme-complexes of Socrates, Leonardo, Copernicus, and Marconi are still going strong. (pg. 214; Dawkins, 1976)
discussion Question \(\PageIndex{2}\)
According to Richard Dawkins, the true path to immortality is found through cultural contributions to society, by virtue of cultural units he called memes. What memes do you think are important in your life and in your community? Has that changed during your life and, if so, why?
Evolutionary Psychology
The field of evolutionary psychology is a direct application of sociobiology to psychology, and appears to have begun with the publication of The Adapted Mind (Barkow et al., 1992). In this landmark book, a collection of authors were brought together with the purpose of addressing three major premises: (1) that there is a universal human nature, but that it is based on evolved psychological mechanisms as opposed to culture, (2) that these psychological mechanisms were adaptations constructed by natural selection, and (3) that these adaptations fit the way of life of our ancient ancestors, and may not fit our modern circumstances. Similar to the sociobiologists, evolutionary psychologists examine how evolution shaped human behavior and cognition in ways that helped individuals to pass on their genes to future generations, covering topics such as cooperation, mate preference, parental care, the development of language and perceptual abilities, the individual need to belong, helping and altruism, and the universality of emotions (Barkow et al., 1992; Buss, 1999; Larsen & Buss, 2005).
One of the best known psychologists studying evolutionary phenomena is David Buss, and he has paid particular attention to how we choose and attempt to keep our mates. In The Evolution of Desire, Buss (2003) describes how biological differences between males and females leads to different mating strategies, and that this should lead to inevitable conflict. Thus, according to Buss, conflict in a marriage is the norm, not the result of choosing the wrong person. As a result of this conflict, and for a variety of reasons underlying it, the possibility always exists that a man or woman in a marriage (or other committed relationship) will engage in other sexual relationships outside of the marriage. In order to defend against this potential loss of a committed mate, it was an advantage for people to evolve the emotion of jealousy. In The Dangerous Passion , Buss (2000b) argues that jealousy is just as important as love and sex. Passion is necessary for us to have motivation (consider Jung’s description of the shadow archetype). But with jealousy:
…Jealousy can keep a couple committed or drive a man to savagely beat his wife. An attraction to a neighbor’s spouse can generate intoxicating sexual euphoria while destroying two marriages. (pg. 2; Buss, 2000b)
Indeed, the competition that accompanied the desire to obtain and hold onto a mate in our distant past was so intense that we also evolved the psychological mechanisms necessary to kill people. Although this psychological mechanism may be maladaptive in our society today, its effectiveness in the prehistoric past remains hidden just below the surface of our minds.
We have a tendency to think of things such as marital conflict, marital infidelity, jealousy, and murder as abnormal situations. Evolutionary psychologists suggest instead that such behaviors are the result of natural adaptations. However, as noted above, these adaptations were appropriate for our ancient ancestors, and may not fit within our society today (murder is illegal). Yet, these behaviors and emotions are common, suggesting that we can’t simply dismiss them. Since evolution typically takes a very long time, it is hard to say whether different adaptations will occur in the future of our species, given the cultural changes that have occurred through history. Perhaps the best we can hope for now is a continued development of our understanding of personality, through a variety of theoretical perspectives.
Connections Across Cultures: The Somatic Psychology of Wilhelm Reich
Wilhelm Reich (1897-1957) was a respected student and colleague of Sigmund Freud, a political activist, and eventually a convicted criminal in the United States whose books and journals were burned by the American government. But he left behind a legacy of focusing on the body and mind as deeply interrelated. In Germany in the 1930s, Reich devoted extraordinary effort to programs addressing sex education, sex hygiene, access to birth control, etc.  Despite the so-called sexual revolution of the 1960s, many of these issues still plague society today. Reich’s description of the phases involved in the experience of an organism (first studied in the 1920s and 1930s) anticipated the famous research of Masters and Johnson (1966), and incorporated a psychoanalytic view of mindsets occurring during sexual activity (Reich, 1973). His work on somatic psychology relates to physical approaches to psychotherapy that continue today.
Raised on a farm, Reich was interested in animal husbandry, and conducted extensive studies of animal sexual behavior. As a young child, he witnessed one of the family’s maids having intercourse with her boyfriend. When he asked the maid if he could “play” the lover, she obliged. When he was 12 years old, he caught his mother having an affair with one of his tutors. In a classic example of the Oedipus complex, he considered using the information to blackmail his mother into allowing him to have sexual intercourse with her! Instead, he turned again to one of the family maids. He then told his father, whom Reich had witnessed beating his mother in the past, and shortly thereafter his mother committed suicide. For the rest of his life, Reich was tormented by the thought that he may have been responsible for his mother’s death. His father died when Reich was 17 years old, and Reich took over the family farm until it was destroyed in World War I.
While attending medical school at the University of Vienna, Reich joined the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, where he began studying with Sigmund Freud. Reich and Freud were deeply impressed with one another. Reich eventually held several important positions in Freud’s training clinic, including Director of the Seminar for Psychoanalytic Therapy, and his work on character analysis was widely respected. Indeed, Reich was so involved with the society, Freud, and the clinic that many people thought of him as “Freud’s pet” (Higgins, 1973; Sharaf, 1983).
However, Reich fell out of favor with the psychoanalytic society. In 1930, he moved to Germany, joined the communist party, and became active in a variety of sex education and sex hygiene programs. But the communists opposed progressive sex education, because they hoped to gain the favor of the Catholic Church, in opposition to the growing threat of the Nazis. Reich stepped right into this dangerous controversy, often relating one particular story of how moved he was when a young pregnant girl sought his help, help she had not received from the Hitler Youth (Sharaf, 1983). In 1933, he published The Mass Psychology of Fascism , a book subsequently banned by the Nazis (Reich, 1933/1970). Eventually, Reich was excluded from both the Communist Party and the psychoanalytic society.
Reich left Germany for Denmark, and then moved to Norway, where his life and work began to take a strange turn. He became convinced that he had discovered a primordial cosmic energy, orgone energy , which provided the underlying energy for all life. He believed that orgone energy streams created hurricanes and galaxies. He built orgone energy accumulators, and began studying how it might be used for such diverse goals as treating cancer and controlling the weather. He was compelled to leave Norway, and in 1939 moved to the United States. Eventually, however, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) sought an injunction in federal court to put an end to Reich’s work on orgone energy. Reich refused to appear in court, and the injunction was issued in default (see Greenfield, 1974). Reich was accused and found guilty of criminal contempt, and sentenced to two years in federal prison. The FDA destroyed much of Reich’s equipment, and burned tons of his papers and books. In 1957, Reich suffered a heart attack and died in the Federal Penitentiary at Lewisburg, Pennsylvania.
Somatic Psychology
Reich’s psychoanalytic work emphasized three important topics: the intimate relationship between body and mind, the character of the individual, and the value of precise diagnosis. By the 1920s, Freud and his colleagues had stopped paying much attention to the concept of libido. In contrast, Reich became more and more interested in this sexual energy, which he associated directly with sexual activity. While working with his patients, Reich was impressed by their descriptions of feeling an “emptiness” in their genitals. This was an especially interesting point regarding women, since Reich himself considered the sexual inhibition experienced by many women as something appropriate to their development. However, as Reich pursued these ideas, he began to question the completeness and accuracy of Freud’s theories. Reich developed what became known as the orgasm theory , and he proposed the concept of orgastic potency :
Orgastic potency is the capacity to surrender to the streaming of biological energy, free of any inhibitions; the capacity to discharge completely the dammed-up sexual excitation through involuntary, pleasurable convulsions of the body… (pg. 29; Reich, 1973)
Reich considered the ability to enjoy sexual release as a critical aspect of normal and healthy personal development. This perspective demands a direct link between the body and the mind, since only through physical satisfaction can psychological and emotional satisfaction be achieved. When discussing neurotic symptoms, he described orgastic impotence as the “somatic core of the neurosis…” (Reich, 1933/1972). To further emphasize the point, Reich did not merely consider the ability to have meaningful sexual relations as important, he believed that they needed regular satisfaction:
…I maintain that every person who has succeeded in preserving a certain amount of naturalness knows that those who are psychically ill need but one thing - complete and repeated sexual gratification… (pp. 23; Reich, 1973)
Reich’s most widely respected work within the psychoanalytic community centered on character analysis, in which he emphasized character armoring and character resistance . Both of these constructs can be viewed as defense mechanisms, but they are deep and secondary fragmentations of the ego. Thus, they define the very character of the patient, and must be removed before traditional psychoanalysis can be effective. In keeping with the term somatic psychology, Reich addressed the physical manifestation of character armoring as muscular armor . Individuals who are actively character armoring demonstrate what Reich described as a chronic, frozen, muscular-like bearing. He believed that the visible muscular rigidity was the natural consequence of inhibiting aggression, and that it could be understood on the basis of only one principle: “the armoring of the periphery of the biopsychic system” (Reich, 1933/1972). In other words, the body physically responds to what the mind is doing; if the mind is defending itself, the body prepares to defend itself. This muscular tension is by no means easy to remove. If the analyst tries to get the patient to relax, the muscular tension is replaced by restlessness. Based on his theories, Reich described two basic types of character: the genital character and the neurotic character . The genital character refers to individuals who are relatively healthy in terms of their psychological development, and their capacity to enjoy life is uninhibited. The neurotic character is governed by rigid armor of both body and mind.
Many psychologists and a variety of practitioners in other areas have made the connection between body and mind an important part of their studies and their lifestyle. For example, we often “talk” with our hands (Goldin-Meadow, 2006), forced stereotypic movement leads to stereotypic thoughts about others (Mussweiler, 2006), young infants integrate their body movement and their attention (Robertson, Bacher, & Huntington, 2001), physical movement is more important than visual information for effective navigation (Ruddle & Lessels, 2006), and members of different cultures actually perceive the physical environment in different ways (Miyamoto, Nisbett, & Masuda, 2006). Yoga has become very popular in the United States, particularly the physical aspect of Hatha Yoga, and Yoga practitioners talk about understanding and respecting the body (e.g., Scaravelli, 1991; Stewart, 1994). This is particularly true as we age, since “we all die sooner or later, but what we must do is not allow the body to degenerate while living” (Scaravelli, 1991).
Reich referred to a “genetic differentiation of character types” and the “genetic-dynamic theory of the character” long before other psychologists were talking about the heritability of personality or gene-environment interactions. Reich went on to say that the social and economic/political factors that play such an important cultural role in personality development would not be as influential as they are if not for the likelihood that they “must first have impinged upon and changed human needs before these transformed drives and needs could begin to have an effect as historical factors” (Reich, 1932/1972). This sounds very much like sociobiology: the selection of behaviors, behaviors that are determined genetically, as adaptable to the relevant human condition. If indeed this idea does reflect the same basic premise as sociobiology, then Reich was thinking about a new field of research into human behavior that was still over 40 years in the future. In his discussion of muscular armor, Reich referred to three primary emotions that influence human behavior: sexuality, anxiety, and anger or hate (Reich, 1932/1972). Gotama Buddha (who most people think of as the Buddha) described three root causes of human suffering: desire, delusion, and hatred. What is sexuality but the greatest desire in human life? According to sociobiologists, particularly Dawkins (1976), life is about ensuring the propagation of individual genes, and in our case that means sexual reproduction. In addition, both Reich and the Buddha acknowledged hatred as key, and Buddhists typically see hatred as the antithesis of desire. Thus, Wilhelm Reich, once regarded as Freud’s “pet,” had incorporated both ancient Eastern philosophies and the as-yet unknown field of sociobiology into a cohesive theory of human character, while still in his mid-thirties. One can only imagine what he might have accomplished had he not pursued the odd theory of orgone energy, which led to his being ostracized and, ultimately, to the federal prison where he died.
Discussion question \(\PageIndex{3}\)
Wilhelm Reich believed that an active and uninhibited sexual life was essential for healthy development. He also believed that one’s ability to experience that healthy sexuality, their orgastic potency, was in important measure of psychological health. Do you agree with this perspective, and do you think society agrees with this perspective?


18.1: What is the case for standardized testing?
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Lauren Kathryn Crawford
Preparation, sweaty palms, anxiety over the results, these could all either be symptoms of a hot date, or of the dreaded t-word, test. In particular standardized testing which causes anxiety to everyone in the educational system from the President of the United States, to school boards, principals, teachers and students.
In the following article we are going to discuss the standardized testing, its' criticisms, the necessity for its' existence, and how to use the results as an instructor to help narrow achievement gaps.
Note
A principal from an Appalachian school in eastern Kentucky,
"There's a school eighteen miles down the road that has 80%
of the kids on free and reduced lunch... and they are at a
Higher absolute rank," to his teaching staff, "Don't bring up
to me about how our kids are disadvantaged. 'That dog won't
hunt!'"
Learning Objectives
- The student will be able to identify basic subject areas of standardized testing and understand how it is scored.
- The student will be able to identify the arguments against standardized testing.
- The student will be able to identify the benefits of standardized testing.
- The student will be able to recognize some ways that results can help him/her as an instructor to help narrow achievement gaps in their classroom.
Standardized Testing
Since the 1970's, standardized tests have been the aim of much criticism in the United States, but their basic purpose is to serve as a measure or rule of preparedness in the early grades and mastery of core subject matter in later grades (Rock, Stenner, 2005).
School entry test like the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised and The Stanford Binet- Intelligence tests are intended to determine the readiness levels of kindergartners entering schools (Rock, Stenner, 2005). These tests measure the vocabulary and cognitive ability of a child(Rock, Stenner, 2005). Similar tests are conducted in groups or individually throughout the year and many of these tests are adaptive and measure progress,they are not static measures that result in either a passing or failing grade (Rock, Stenner, 2005). An adaptive test instead uses what is known as a floor/ceiling rule (Rock, Stenner, 2005). This rule means that (in the case of vocabulary testing) a group of words will be easy for the student, falling below the floor, while a group of words will be more difficult for the student, above the ceiling (Rock, Stenner, 2005). Throughout the year progress will dictate what level the ceiling and floor will move to (Rock, Stenner, 2005).
Other tests, like the SOL used in Virginia are used to determine mastery of core subject matter taught throughout the year (Bagin, 1994). Generally, these tests measure understanding in mathematics, science, reading and writing (Bagin, 1994). Some tests, the SOL is an example, are given at a predetermined time and scoring is based on either multiple choice, short answer or open response (Bagin,Stenner 1994). Another type of testing, used in states like Kentucky uses a portfolio system that students add to all year long in conjunction with a time allotted test at another time of the year (Wolf, Borko, Elliot, 2000).
All of these tests are graded on a percentile system (Rock, Stenner, 2005). That is, how well the student does on the test in comparison with other students tested at the same grade level (Rock, Stenner, 2005). For example, a student who scores in the 90th percentile has done better than 90 percent of other students taking the test (How Standardized Testing, 2009). A student that test in the 10th percentile has only done better than 10 percent of his/her peers (How Standardized Testing, 2009).
Scores on these tests are used in a number of ways. Collectively, nation-wide these scores tell our president how well our students are doing as a whole and at the state level (Bagin, 1994). States allocate funding based on test results and individual schools determine which programs need more improvement (King, Houston, Middleton, 2000). Teachers use these scores to evaluate their teaching methods and yes, these scores are also used at times to determine the readiness of students to continue to the next grade level (Rock, Stenner, 2005).
Criticisms of Standardized Testing
Opponents to current standardized testing techniques dislike test like the Peabody and the SOL for a number of reasons, but the two main arguments are against their reliability and what they see as racial bias existing in the questions themselves.
In order for a test to be deemed useful, it must above all else be reliable (Rock, Stenner, 2005). That is that results should be consistent (Rock, Stenner, 2005). One way tests are measured for consistency is by doing sample runs with panels of a representative sample of students (Rock, Stenner, 2005). Sample runs of the tests are conducted in two different ways:
1. Two versions of the test with like questions are run. If the test is reliable similar results should be yielded by both groups of test takers (Rock, Stenner, 2005).
2. A single test is randomly and equally divided (Rock, Stenner, 2005). This test is ran and reliability is determined by the similarity of these results (Rock, Stenner, 2005).
The results of these sample runs are measured in much the same way that standardized tests results are measured. A rating of 90% means a test yields similar results 90 percent of the time while a rating of 10% would mean that the test yields similar results only ten percent of the time.
Because it is generally accepted that the range of achievement cannot be accurately predicted; a reliability rating of eighty-percent or more is seen as acceptable by national standards and critics disagree (Thernstrom, 1992).
Critics believe that if a test yields dissimilar results even only twenty percent of the time that the test could not possibly be measuring what it is intended to (Thernstrom, 1992(.
Other critics of the tests believe that they are racially biased for a number of reasons (King et al. , 2000). One basis for this belief is that the achievement gap between students of European heritage typically score much higher than minorities do (Thernstrom, 1992). One test for scholastic readiness showed that when test results were compared between students of European heritage and those of African descent, the former group scored higher seventy-six percent of the time, while the latter only scored higher twenty-four (Rock, Stenner, 2005).
On the other hand,some questions are viewed as being racially biased because they are deemed as culturally irrelevant (Thernstrom, 1992). For example, a question that asks "What is the name of a baby cow?", is more relevant to someone growing up in a rural area than someone living in an urban one (Thernstrom, 1992). Some critiques even believe that language tests are racially biased because they see one form of spoken language as correct while another form of the same language as incorrect (Thernstrom, 1992).
A Need For Change: The Case for Standardized Testing
While both critiques and proponents of standardized testing could debate their sides all day, the need to assess students to determine both their progress and the progress of their teachers and schools is undeniable.
Standardized testing evaluates students early in their education on their readiness both scholastically and behaviorally (Rock, Stenner, 2005). Students and their parents are able to measure at least generally their progress and areas in which they need improvement (Wolf et al. , 2000).
In older grades standardized testing measures where students rate in comparison with their peers and thus how the student and his teachers are doing (Bagin, 1994). While these test do rate students according to how well they do on these tests, some schools have used these scores to reform their systems and in turn drastically improve their methods (Wolf et al. , 2000).
Schools in economically devastated areas like the ones in eastern Kentucky, have under the strong leadership of their principals and the dedication of their teachers achieved higher ratings (Wolf et al. , 2000). One principal of such a school stated, "there's a school 18 miles down the road that has 80% of their kids on free and reduced lunch... and they have made progress and are at a higher absolute rank." To his teachers this same principal would say, " Don't bring up to me about how our kids are disadvantaged. That dog won't hunt." The latter part of the statement is a local expression he used in this case to mean that excuses would not help their school improve (Wolf et al. , 2000).
Instead of making excuses, schools that have taken poor standardized testing results and used them to improve their schools, have used them more in how one principal put it, as "stock market quotes." They see poor results in one area as a flag to improve that department (Wolf et al. , 2000). They have teachers take classes in new teaching methods and they work together to see that their children improve (Wolf et al. , 2000).
While the jury is still out on whether or not there is a better method of determining individual student progress. The need for a common measure to compare students to bring about change is still more present than ever.
How to use Standardized Testing Results to Bridge Achievement Gaps
So the question is, is if these test are not completely reliable, and if they are irrelevant to some students, how do we change that?
The answer: Be Innovative Forward Thinking Teachers!
The best teachers, one principal, stated were teachers that were in fact themselves learners (Wolf et al. , 2000). Actively seeking out new methods to add to and modify their instruction (Wolf et al. , 2000). The teachers that work together with parents and their fellow students as well as counselors to understand individual needs (Wolf et al. ). Lastly the teachers that ignore the pessimism of others and raise expectation levels of their students and make the material relevant for those it might not other wise be ( Wolf et al. , 2000).
Several companies currently travel from state to state and hold seminars and lesson demos (Wolf, et al. , 2000). These seminars cover an array of matter from core areas like writing and math to how to incorporate technology into their lessons (Wolf et al. , 2000). The attitude today is to work smarter not harder (Wolf et al. , 2000). Teachers that attend these continuing education generally report positive feedback (Wolf et al. , 2000). One teacher reported after a lesson demo on writing where they had students add a reflection to a narrative assignment, "I think what I've learned here is not something completely different from what I've been doing all together but adding to it. I'm really excited about this!" Other lessons show teachers how to incorporate technology into their daily activities to make planning easier and to tie lessons together (Wolf et al. , 2000).
Also, schools seemed to do better when the idea of community was present.(Wolf et al. , 2000) At one school where major improvements have been said to occur a teacher spoke of how there was a concept of the students being the schools responsibility and not just the particular teacher that they happened to have that year (Wolf et al. , 2000). Dedicated teachers attend meetings sometimes daily with other teachers and counselors of the students to better grasp their backgrounds and particular predicaments (Wolf et al. , 2000).
Lastly, despite criticisms of standardized testing, the proficient teachers of today do not accept that their students have limitations, or are incapable of learning any given concept. Instead these teacher work hard everyday to make material relevant for their children and develop lesson plans that speak to individual lesson plans.
Note
Tips to Narrow Achievement Gaps
1. Ask parents to talk to their kids and explain the importance of education to them; that education is a necessary step to professional success in America.(In a study high achievers commonly had parents that expressed these views.)(Lee, 1994)
2. Assess students often to keep track of their progress and give encouragement throughout the school year.
3. Understand that poor assessments might be the result of language barriers or a stressful home environment, have a plan to address these types of issues(Lee, 1994).
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
1. A student that scores in the 90th percentile on a standardized test like the SOL has scored how?
a) Better than 90 percent of his/her peers.
b) Worse than 90 percent of his/her peers.
c) Worse than 90 of his/her peers.
d) Better than 90 of his/her peers.
2. Which of these is NOT a criticism of standardized testing?
a)It is unreliable.
b)Its' results can be used by teachers and the educational system as a whole to improve their methods.
c)It is racially biased because it asks questions that are unrelated to some students' culture.
d)It puts unreasonable pressure on students and teachers to do well.
3. A teacher has just reviewed the results from this years SOL. She notices that even her students who received high scores in both the math and verbal seemed to fail to grasp long division. She should...
a)Focus on verbal instruction since the students did well in that area.
b)Use the same verbal instruction method year after year since that seemed to work and reform her long division plans.
c) Reteach the lesson in long division and find a reliable teacher whose students did well on that part of the test for some ideas on how to improve her instruction.
d) Give up, these disadvantaged kids are incapable of learning anything anyway!
4. A quiet, hard working young Asian student Chris Young is getting farther and farther behind in his studies and has done poorly on the reading portion of his SOL. He refuses to go to after school help sessions and only socializes with other Asian students. All of the following might encourage this student to do better EXCEPT...
a)Give Chris a sheet of resources that offer online help to students with language barriers. Being online might reduce any embarrassment he may have in learning English as a second language if this is a problem he is encountering.
b)Discuss his progress with his family. In some Asian cultures failure is seen as an embarrassment and Chris might not admit that he is having difficulty before it is too late.
c)Create lesson plans that allow for group work so that Chris has a chance to socialize with different types of students and might be more comfortable with getting help.
d)Ignore the issue Asian kids ALWAYS do better on things like standardized testing, this is obviously a failure of the test
- Answer
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1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D
References
Bagin, C.B. (1994, February 2). What parents should know about standardized testing in schools. Retrieved April 11, 2009, from Standardized testing Web site: www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content/standardized.testing.html
(2009). How standardized testing damages education. Retrieved April 11, 2009, from Fair test Web site: http://www.fairtest.org/facts/howharm.htm
King, L.A., Houston, I.S., & Middleton, R.A An explanation for school failure: moving beyond Black Inferiority and Alienation as a policy-making agenda. British Journal of Educational Studies, 49, Retrieved March 30, 2009, from http://www.jstor.org.proxy.lib.odu.edu/stable/3122363 .
Lee, J.S., & Bowen, N.K. (2006). Parent involvement, cultural capital, and the achievement gap among elementary school children. American Educational Research Journal, 43, Retrieved March 30, 2009, from http://www.jstor.org.proxy.lib.odu.edu/stable/3699418 .
Lee, S.J. (1994). Behind the model-minority stereotype: voices of high- and Low-Achieving Asian American students. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 24, Retrieved March 30, 2009, from http://www.jstor.org.proxy.lib.odu.edu/stable/3195858
Rock, D.A., & Stenner , J.A. (2005). Assessment issues in the testing of children at school entry. The Future of Children, 15, Retrieved March 30, 2009, from http://www.jstor.org.proxy.lib.odu.edu/stable/1602660 .
Thernstrom, A. (1992). The drive for racially inclusive schools. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 523, Retrieved March 30, 2009, from http://www.jstor.org.proxy.lib.odu.edu/stable/1047586
Wolf, S.A., Borko, H., Elliot, R.L., & McIver, M.C. (2000). "That dog won't hunt":exemplary school change efforts within the Kentucky reform. American Educational Research Reform, 37, RetrievedMarch 30, 2009, from http://www.jstor.org.proxy.lib.odu.edu/stable/1163528 .


Questions to consider:
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What happens if things don’t go according to plan?
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How can I make adjustments to my plan if things change?
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Is it OK to ask for planning help, and from whom?
Though we’ve discussed planning in a great degree of detail, the good news is that you don’t have to have it all figured out in order to be successful. Recall the upside-down puzzle analogy from earlier in this chapter. You can still put a puzzle together picture-side down by fitting together the pieces with trial and error. Similarly, you can absolutely be successful in your academic and career life even if you don’t have it all figured out. It will be especially important to keep this in mind as circumstances change or things don’t go according to your original plan.
Consider Elena’s and Ray’s stories as examples.
Elena had always intended to go to college. It was her goal to become a nurse like her grandmother. She decided that the best path would be to complete her BSN degree at a state university nearby. She researched the program, planned her bachelor’s degree semester by semester, and was very excited to work with real patients while completing her clinicals! During her second year, Elena’s grandmother fell ill and needed more regular care. Elena made the difficult decision to stop-out of her program to help care for her grandmother. She spoke with her academic advisor, who told her about the policies for readmission. Because the nursing program was limited to a certain number of students, it would be challenging to reenter her program whenever she was ready to return.
At first Elena felt discouraged, but then her advisor assisted her in mapping a plan to take some prerequisite courses part-time at a community college near her home while she cared for her grandmother. She could then transfer those credits back to the university so they would count toward her degree there, or she could finish an associate’s degree and then return to a bachelor’s degree program whenever she was able. Although things weren’t following her original plans, she would be able to continue working toward her goals while also tending to one of her greatest values—her family. Elena’s plans changed, but her values and long-term goals didn’t have to change.
Ray’s parents wanted him to go to college to increase his chances of getting a good job. He wasn’t really sure what he wanted to study, so his dad suggested he choose business. During Ray’s first semester he took an introduction to business course that was required of all business majors in their first semester. He did well in the course, but it wasn’t his favorite topic. Conversely, he loved the history course on early Western civilization that he was taking to meet a general education requirement. He wasn’t necessarily ready to change his major from business to history, so he met with an academic advisor to see if there were any classes he could take during his second semester that would count toward either major. Ray was still exploring and had yet to set specific goals. But Ray did know that he wanted to finish college within a reasonable amount of time, so he made flexible plans that would allow him to change his mind and change his major if necessary.
Expecting Change
After you’ve devoted time to planning, it can be frustrating when circumstances unexpectedly change. Change can be the result of internal or external factors. Internal factors are those that you have control over. They may include indecision, or changing your mind about a situation after receiving new information or recognizing that something is not a good fit for your values and goals. Though change resulting from internal factors can be stressful, it is often easier to accept and to navigate because you know why the change must occur. You can plan for a change and make even better decisions for your path when the reason for change is, simply put—you! Ray’s story demonstrates how internal factors contribute to his need or desire to change plans.
External factors that necessitate change are often harder to plan for and accept. Some external factors are very personal. These may include financial concerns, your health or the health of a loved one, or other family circumstances, such as in Elena’s example. Other external factors may be more related to the requirements of a major or college. For example, perhaps you are not accepted into the college or degree program that you had always hoped to attend or study. Or you may not perform well enough in a class to continue your studies without repeating that course during a semester when you had originally planned to move on to other courses. Change caused by external factors can be frustrating. Because external factors are often unexpected, when you encounter them you’ll often have to spend more time changing your plans or even revising your goals before you’ll feel as though you’re back on track.
Managing Change
It is important to recognize that change, whether internal or external, is inevitable. You can probably think of an example of a time when you had to change your plans due to unforeseen circumstances. Perhaps it’s a situation as simple as canceling a date with friends because of an obligation to babysit a sibling. Even though this simple example would not have had long-term consequences, you can probably recall a feeling of disappointment. It’s okay to feel disappointed; however, you’ll also want to recognize that you can manage your response to changing circumstances. You can ask yourself the following questions:
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What can I control in this situation?
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Do I need to reconsider my values?
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Do I need to reconsider my goals?
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Do I need to change my plans as a result of this new information or these new circumstances?
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What resources, tools, or people are available to assist me in revising my plans?
When encountering change, it helps to remember that decision-making and planning are continuous processes. In other words, active individuals are always engaged in decision-making, setting new plans, and revising old plans. This continuous process is not always the result of major life-changing circumstances either. Oftentimes, we need to make changes simply because we’ve learned some new information that causes a shift in our plans. Planning, like learning, is an ongoing lifetime process.
Asking for Help
“Be strong enough to stand alone, be yourself enough to stand apart, but be wise enough to stand together when the time comes.”
— Mark Amend, American Author
Figure 5.13: Your instructors are an important not only in your courses, but as potential advisors and mentors. (Credit: Rural Institute / Flickr / Public Domain)
Throughout this chapter we have made mention of individuals who can help you plan your path, but noted that your path is ultimately your own. Some students make the mistake of taking too much advice when planning and making decisions. They may forgo their values and goals for others’ values and goals for them. Or they may mistakenly trust advice that comes from well-meaning but ill-informed sources.
In other cases, students grapple with unfamiliar college paperwork and technology with little assistance as they proudly tackle perhaps newfound roles as adult decision makers. It’s important to know that seeking help is a strength, not a weakness, particularly when that help comes from well-informed individuals who have your best interests in mind. When you share your goals and include others in your planning, you develop both a support network and a system of personal accountability. Being held
accountable
for your goals means that others are also tracking your progress and are interested in seeing you succeed. When you are working toward a goal and sticking to a plan, it’s important to have unconditional cheerleaders in your life as well as folks who keep pushing you to stay on track, especially if they see you stray. It’s important to know who in your life can play these roles.
Asking for Help: Anton’s Story
Anton is in his first semester at State University. His high school guidance counselor, who he was required to meet with in his junior and senior years, was very helpful in preparing his college applications and in discussing what he could expect through the admissions process. When he was accepted to State University, she celebrated with him as well! Now that he’s arrived at college, though, he’s found it to be different from his high school. There are so many more options available to him and more freedom to plan his own time. About halfway through the semester, Anton falls behind in his information technology course, the introductory class for his major. He had been so excited to study more about computers and systems networking, but he’s finding it harder and harder to understand the content and he feels discouraged.
After learning that he’s headed for a D grade in the course, Anton is not certain what to do both about the class and about his major. In high school he would have spoken with his guidance counselor, who he knew by name and ran into in the hallway frequently. But he’s not yet well-connected to resources at his college. When his mom texts him from back home to share a story about his younger sister, he considers confiding in her about the course but doesn’t want her to worry about his focus or dedication. Anton is the first person from his family to attend college, so he feels a particular pressure to succeed and isn’t even certain if his mom would know how to help. He ends the text thread with a generic thumbs-up emoji and heads to the college fitness center to let off some steam.
At the fitness center he sees another student from his class, Noura, who mentions that she just came from meeting with an academic advisor. After talking a bit more about Noura’s interaction with her advisor, Anton learns that advising is both free and available on a walk-in basis. In fact, he finds out that at State University he even has an advisor who is assigned to him, similar to his high school counselor. Anton heads over to the advising center after class the next morning. He’s a bit hesitant to share about his concerns about his grade, but he feels more confident after speaking with Noura about her experiences. When he meets his advisor, Anton also finds out that the information he shares is confidential to his personal academic records. After introductions and sharing this privacy information, Anton’s advisor starts by asking him how everything is going this term. The casual conversation develops from there into a detailed plan for how Anton can seek some additional help in his course, including language he can use in an email to his instructor, the hours and location of the computer science tutoring lab, and “intel” on where the computer science students hang out so he can drop by to discuss their experiences in classes further along in the major. When Anton leaves his advisor’s office, he’s still considering a change to his major but decides to focus on improving his grade first and then making more decisions from there. Anton makes arrangements to meet with his advisor again before registering for the next semester and plans to follow up with him about his course via email after he speaks with his instructor. The whole experience was more casual and friendly than he could have imagined. He looks forward to running into Noura again to thank her (after he texts his mom back, of course!).
Mentors
When making academic decisions and career plans, it is also useful to have a mentor who has had similar goals. A
mentor
is an experienced individual who helps to guide a
mentee
, the less experienced person seeking advice. A good mentor for a student who is engaged in academic and career planning is someone who is knowledgeable about the student’s desired career field and is perhaps more advanced in their career than an entry-level position. This is a person who can model the type of values and behaviors that are essential to a successful career. Your college or university may be able to connect you with a mentor through an organized mentorship program or through the alumni association. If your college does not have an organized mentor program, you may be able to find your own by reaching out to family friends who work in your field of interest, searching online for a local professional association or organization related to your field (as some associations have mentorship programs as well), or speaking to the professors who teach the courses in your major.
ACTIVITY
Your Support Call List
When you start a new job, go to a new school, or even fill out paperwork at a new doctor’s office, you’re often asked to provide contact information for someone who can assist in making decisions and look out for your best interests in the event of an emergency. Academic decision-making and planning doesn’t involve the same level of urgency, but it’s useful to have in mind the people in your life or the offices and individuals available to you at your college who motivate and support your plans, or can assist you in setting them. Prepare your support call (or text, email, or DM) list now so that all you have to do is pick up your phone to get the support you need. Keep in mind that one person can fulfill more than one role.
Table 5.4
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Who knows your interests? Knows what you love or what you hate to do sometimes even before you do? Who can list your strengths and weaknesses without bias? This is the person who can support you when you are deciding on a degree program or major:
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Name of individual(s) or office:
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Who knows the college or university degree and program details, policies, procedures, and technological systems? This is the person who can support you when you are drafting your plan:
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Name of individual(s) or office:
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Who knows the career and graduate school opportunities available to someone in your major or program? This is the person who can support you in planning for activities beyond your courses:
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Name of individual(s) or office:
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Who is your biggest cheerleader who you can contact when you’re feeling discouraged or unmotivated? This is the person who can support you when plans need to change:
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Name of individual(s) or office:
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Who has successfully navigated all of this college planning in the past and is now working in a career that interests you as well? This is the person who can become your mentor:
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Name of individual or office:
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ANALYSIS QUESTION
Consider, are you someone who panics if there is a change in plans, or are you relatively flexible? What techniques will you employ to help you manage change if you encounter it?
This chapter focuses on the importance of decision-making and planning, stressors that can sometimes feel overwhelming. If you are feeling less excited about the possibilities of planning and more overwhelmed, it’s important that you take a break from this process. If you talk to others who are already working in their career fields, even those who work at your college, you’ll probably find many individuals who were undecided in their path. Take some comfort in their stories and in knowing that you can absolutely find success even if you don’t yet have a plan. Take a break and engage in those self-care activities that bring you some peace of mind. If you are ever feeling anxious, stressed, depressed, or overwhelmed, please find the resources available at your college to assist you.
STUDENT PROFILE
“I graduated with my bachelor’s degree in elementary education about 10 years ago and was lucky to get a job at the same school where I completed my student teaching requirement. I absolutely love my students and am very happy as a teacher. Recently, though, I’ve had the opportunity to mentor some new teachers at my school. After I got over the shock of not being the new teacher myself anymore (am I that old?!), I realized how much I enjoyed helping new teachers get established in their classroom as well. I’ve been thinking about maybe going to back school to get a master’s degree in education so that I can someday become an administrator or maybe a principal at a school. I guess I should start researching programs that will help me meet my goal, because I know I won’t get started until I have a plan in place. I’ll need a program that can allow me to continue working full-time while going back to school. It’s totally exciting, but I’m also overwhelmed.”
—Amara
, Brookdale Community College
ANALYSIS QUESTION
Some jobs require a graduate degree as a minimum entry requirement, but in other career fields, a graduate degree can help an individual advance to a management position or to a higher-level job with a higher salary. If you were in Amara’s position, what would you factor into your consideration when deciding whether to go back to college for a master’s degree? If you were Amara’s friend or advisor, what questions would you ask her to help her find a fitting program and create an academic plan?


5.22: Capacitance
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When separate regions of positive and negative charge exist in proximity, Coulomb forces (Section 5.1) will attempt to decrease the separation between the charges. As noted in Section 5.8, this can be interpreted as a tendency of a system to reduce its potential energy. If the charges are fixed in place, then the potential energy remains constant. This potential energy is proportional to the Coulomb force. Referring back to Section 5.1, the Coulomb force is:
- Proportional to quantity of positive charge squared
- Inversely proportional to the separation between the charges squared
- Inversely proportional to the permittivity of the material separating the charges
Therefore, the potential energy of the system is likewise dependent on charge, separation, and permittivity. Furthermore, we see that the ability of a system to store energy in this manner depends on the geometry of the charge distribution and the permittivity of the intervening material.
Now recall that the electric field intensity \({\bf E}\) is essentially defined in terms of the Coulomb force; i.e., \({\bf F}=q{\bf E}\) (Section 2.2). So, rather than thinking of the potential energy of the system as being associated with the Coulomb force, it is equally valid to think of the potential energy as being stored in the electric field associated with the charge distribution. It follows from the previous paragraph that the energy stored in the electric field depends on the geometry of the charge distribution and the permittivity of the intervening media. This relationship is what we mean by capacitance . We summarize as follows:
Capacitance is the ability of a structure to store energy in an electric field.
and
The capacitance of a structure depends on its geometry and the permittivity of the medium separating regions of positive and negative charge.
Note that capacitance does not depend on charge, which we view as either a stimulus or response from this point of view. The corresponding response or stimulus, respectively, is the potential associated with this charge. This leads to the following definition: \[\boxed{ C \triangleq \frac{Q_+}{V} } \label{m0112_Cdef} \] where \(Q_+\) (units of C) is the total positive charge, \(V\) (units of V) is the potential associated with this charge (defined such that it is positive), and \(C\) (units of F) is the associated capacitance. So:
In practice, capacitance is defined as the ratio of charge present on one conductor of a two-conductor system to the potential difference between the conductors (Equation \ref{m0112_Cdef}).
In other words, a structure is said to have greater capacitance if it stores more charge – and therefore stores more energy – in response to a given potential difference.
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) shows the relevant features of this definition.
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Electrostatic interpretation of capacitance.Here, a battery imposes the potential difference \(V\) between two regions of perfectly-conducting material. \(Q_+\) is the total charge on the surface of the PEC region attached to the positive terminal of the battery. An equal amount of negative charge appears on the surface of the PEC region attached to the negative terminal of the battery (Section 5.19). This charge distribution gives rise to an electric field. Assuming the two PEC regions are fixed in place, \(Q_+\) will increase linearly with increasing \(V\), at a rate determined by the capacitance \(C\) of the structure.
A capacitor is a device that is designed to exhibit a specified capacitance. We can now make the connection to the concept of the capacitor as it appears in elementary circuit theory. In circuit theory, the behavior of devices is characterized in terms of terminal voltage \(V_T\) in response to terminal current \(I_T\), and vice versa. First, note that current does not normally flow through a capacitor, 1 so when we refer to “terminal current” for a capacitor, what we really mean is the flow of charge arriving or departing from one of the conductors via the circuit, which is equal to the flow of charge departing or arriving (respectively) at the other conductor. This gives the appearance of current flow through the capacitor when the current is examined from outside the capacitor. With that settled, we proceed as follows. Using Equation \ref{m0112_Cdef}, we express the voltage \(V_T\) across the terminals of a capacitor having capacitance \(C\):
\[V_T = \frac{Q_+}{C} \nonumber \]
We seek a relationship between \(V_T\) and \(I_T\). Current is charge per unit time, so the charge on either conductor is the integral of \(I_T\) over time; i.e.:
\[Q_+(t) = \int_{t_0}^{t} { I_T(\tau)~d\tau } + Q_+(t_0) \nonumber \]
where \(t_0\) is an arbitrarily-selected start time. In other words, amps integrated over time is charge. If we define \(I_T\) as being positive in the direction of the flow of positive charge as is the usual convention, then we have:
\[V_T(t) = \frac{1}{C}\int_{t_0}^{t} { I_T(\tau)~d\tau } + \frac{1}{C}Q_+(t_0) \nonumber \]
Again applying Equation \ref{m0112_Cdef}, we see that the second term is simply \(V_T(t_0)\). This is the expected relationship from elementary circuit theory.
Finally, solving for \(I_T\) we obtain the differential form of this relationship: \[I_T(t) = C\frac{d}{dt}V_T(t) \nonumber \]
- If it does, it’s probably experiencing dielectric breakdown ; see Section 5.21.↩


26.3: Activity 2 - The characteristics of an algorithm
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This section introduces the learners to the characteristics of algorithms. These characteristics make the learner become aware of what to ensure is basic, present and mandatory for any algorithm to qualify to be one. It also exposes the learner to what to expect from an algorithm to achieve or indicate. Key expectations are: the fact that an algorithm must be exact, terminate, effective, general among others.
The following are some key characteristics of an algorithm.
This section has highlighted the properties of algorithms to the learner who is new to the concept of data structure and algorithm. It also alerts the learner on what to do to ensure the expected outcomes can be obtained when the algorithm is implemented in any computer programming language. This will ensure the learner comes up with very correct and accurate algorithms for solving any task at hand.


15.10: Customer Expectations
- Explain the role of customer expectations in determining the value of service perceived
Successful businesses work proactively to obtain information from their customers to ensure they are meeting their needs.
Customer Feedback
Service quality generally refers to a customer’s comparison of service expectations as it relates to a company’s performance. A business with a high level of service quality is likely capable of meeting customer needs while also remaining economically competitive in their respective industry. Successful businesses who remain competitive and relevant in the marketplace work proactively to obtain information from their current or potential customer base so they can ensure they are meeting their needs.
No amount of discussing with professionals, friends, or colleagues will ever replace the information that a company can receive from a real customer.
The following questions are crucial when obtaining customer feedback:
- What does the customer like?
- What do they dislike?
- How can things be improved?
- Are their needs and expectations being met?
- How much will they pay for something?
- Is convenience important?
- Should items be packaged together?
- Is after-sales service critical?
Customer feedback can be collected by:
- Asking consumers directly: This tactic comes across particularly effective during the point-of-purchase at a retail store because consumers are being probed on their experiences while they are shopping.
- Questionnaires: Distribute one-page questionnaires that ask some key questions and encourage customers to fill them out. These can be mailed out as pre-paid postcards or emailed to consumers who give their permission to be contacted.
- Focus groups: This involves gathering a number of customers, sitting them down, and discussing a range of issues relevant to a company’s business. The advantage of using this method over a questionnaire is that it will yield more detailed information and feedback, rather than “tick the box” style responses from a questionnaire. In-person focus groups and one-on-one interviews are helpful tools that provide explanation of product or consumer-related issues because you are going to the main source directly.
- Telephone: Some surveys can be conducted via phone. These yield a more private conversation exchange between the customer and the service provider.
- Virtual online communities or private consumer panels: Technology has made it increasingly easier for companies to obtain feedback from their customers. With the explosion of technology in the marketplace and the consumer’s everyday life, many companies are now building their own proprietary online panels of consumers which give them unencumbered access to their target market on an ongoing basis. In exchange for their honest opinions and feedback, customers are incentivized for their time. Community blogs and forums also enable customers to provide detailed explanations of both negative as well as positive experiences with a company.
Instant feedback
Recently, many organizations have implemented feedback loops that allow them to capture feedback at the point of experience. For example, National Express, one of the UK’s leading travel companies, has invited passengers to send text messages while riding the bus. This has been shown to be useful, as it allows companies to improve their customer service before the customer defects, thus making it far more likely that the customer will return next time.
Problem Resolution Through Excellent Customer Service
Ultimately, the best method of resolving simple problems – often before they arise – is through the delivery of excellent customer service. By ensuring a close relationship with the customer, knowing their wants and needs and avoiding any misunderstandings, a company is able to ensure that problems of a non-technical nature are minimized, often before they even arise. Any problems that do arise can be resolved with an attentive approach to the customer, ensuring that all will be done to solve the problem as soon as possible. When the customer knows that they are valued in such a way, they tend to be much more forgiving and patient with the company.
Customer Support
Customer support is a range of customer services to assist customers in making cost effective and correct use of a product. It includes assistance in planning, installation, training, troubleshooting, maintenance, upgrading, and disposal of a product. Through effective and attentive customer support, any potential problems that the customer has with a product or service can be resolved quickly and cleanly.
Automation
Customer support automation involves the building of a knowledge base of known issues and their resolutions to support incidents with delivery mechanisms, often by expert systems. A service automation platform includes a suite of support solutions including proactive support, assisted support, and self support. Automation of service organizations aim to achieve, for example, lower mean time to repair (MTTR). With automated support, service organizations can make their services available to their customers 24 hours a day and seven days a week, by monitoring alarms, identifying problems at an early stage, and resolving issues before they become problems.
Automated assisted support enables remote access to sites that need instant problem solving. By automating the collection of information of devices and applications coexisting with the supported application, problems can be quickly detected and fixed.
Automated self support, automates the self support process, freeing users from self-help diagnostics and troubleshooting from online libraries or knowledge bases. Support automation solutions can be integrated with customer relationship management (CRM) systems and network management systems (NMS). They can also provide full customer reports to management by tallying problems and incidents that were solved mechanically to ensure compliance with industry regulations.
Tech Support
Tech support refers to a range of services by which companies provide assistance to users of technology products such as mobile phones, televisions, computers, software products, or other electronic or mechanical goods.
In general, technical support services attempt to help the user solve specific problems with a product—rather than providing training, customization, or other support services. Most companies offer technical support for the products they sell, generally for free. Others provide a fee for technical support or a fee for premium support services (no waiting in line or talking to a machine, for example).
Contributors and Attributions
- Boundless Marketing. Provided by : Boundless. Located at : https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-marketing/ . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


3.7: Key Terms Defined
Asylum seeker – those who leave the sovereign territory of one country in order to achieve refugee status in another, based upon claims of danger because of race, religion, nationality, or other pertinent identifiers.
Brain drain – the collective loss of skills, education, training, and wealth that occurs when highly-skilled and educated people move away from a country (usually away from a relatively poor country).
Brain gain – the collective gain of skills, education, training, and wealth that occurs when highly-skilled and educated people move into another country (usually to a relatively wealthier country).
Brain waste – a phenomenon in which international migrants with high levels of education and/or training often are not eligible to work in their area of training due to regulations or certification requirements, resulting in a “wasted” potential in certain groups.
Diaspora – a group of people sharing a common historical and ethnic connection to a territory, but who no longer live in that territory or country. Some members of a diaspora may have been removed from the traditional homeland for multiple generations but still identify with it as a “homeland.”
Ecumene – human inhabited areas of Earth
Emigrant – an individual who moves away from one country into another for a prolonged period. The definition of “prolonged” varies by country and is defined by the World Bank as minimum of one year.
Forced migration – a type of movement in which individuals or groups are coerced into moving by an external set of forces, most notably environmental, economic, social, or political factors.
Globalization – all those processes, technologies, and systems that result in greater connections, communication, and movement among increasingly distant people and places on Earth.
Guest worker – someone without legal permanent status who has been granted permission to reside in a country’s territory in order to work for a specific set of time on a particular kind of work.
Highly skilled migration – patterns movement by those with skills that are in high demand on the global market. Examples include nurses, doctors, IT specialists, actors/artists, and athletes who tend to enjoy greater levels of movement across borders than others.
Highly skilled migration – patterns movement by those with skills that are in high demand on the global market. Examples include nurses, doctors, IT specialists, actors/artists, and athletes who tend to enjoy greater levels of movement across borders than others.
Immigrant – an individual who moves for a prolonged period to another country. The definition of “prolonged” varies by country. In 2016 there were 246 million immigrants in the world.
Internally Displaced People (IDP) – those who have moved or been forced to move from a homeland for the same reasons as refugees but have not crossed an international boundary and do not have refugee status.
Laws of migration – generalizations about international migration as detailed by nineteenth-century demographers
Migration – a permanent move to a new location
Net migration – the difference between the number of immigrants and the number of emigrants in any given year
Points system – a national immigration policy that seeks to attract people with a specific set of skills, experience, and job training to satisfy unmet demand among those currently in the country. Regardless of origin country, anyone with the prescribed set of skills, linguistic ability, and education may apply to migrate to that country if they have acquired enough points to do so. Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and England all have a points system.
Pull Factor – those forces that encourage people to move into a particular place
Push Factor – those forces that encourage people to move away from a particular place
Refugee – an individual who, owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality, and is unable, or unwilling, to avail themselves of the protection of that country. An individual who has been granted “refugee” status is afforded a certain set of rights and privileges, mostnotably, the right not to be forcibly returned to the country of origin.
Remittances – money sent “home” by international migrants. Remittances represent the largest single source of external funding in many developing countries. The global figure for 2016 was US$600 billion.
Return migration – a return of a migrant to the country or place of origin
Transnationalism – exchanges and interactions across borders that are a regular and sustained part of migrants’ realities and activities that transcend a purely “national” space.
Undocumented migrants – those inside of a country without proper authorization or proof of residence.
Visa – the legal permission granted by a receiving country to those seeking to enter. Examples include tourist, temporary work, and student visas. A visa is different from a passport.