1.14: Book XIV
ULYSSES IN THE HUT WITH EUMAEUS.
Ulysses now left the haven, and took the rough track up through the wooded country and over the crest of the mountain till he reached the place where Minerva had said that he would find the swineherd, who was the most thrifty servant he had. He found him sitting in front of his hut, which was by the yards that he had built on a site which could be seen from far. He had made them spacious 126 and fair to see, with a free run for the pigs all round them; he had built them during his master’s absence, of stones which he had gathered out of the ground, without saying anything to Penelope or Laertes, and he had fenced them on top with thorn bushes. Outside the yard he had run a strong fence of oaken posts, split, and set pretty close together, while inside he had built twelve styes near one another for the sows to lie in. There were fifty pigs wallowing in each stye, all of them breeding sows; but the boars slept outside and were much fewer in number, for the suitors kept on eating them, and the swineherd had to send them the best he had continually. There were three hundred and sixty boar pigs, and the herdsman’s four hounds, which were as fierce as wolves, slept always with them. The swineherd was at that moment cutting out a pair of sandals 127 from a good stout ox hide. Three of his men were out herding the pigs in one place or another, and he had sent the fourth to town with a boar that he had been forced to send the suitors that they might sacrifice it and have their fill of meat.
When the hounds saw Ulysses they set up a furious barking and flew at him, but Ulysses was cunning enough to sit down and loose his hold of the stick that he had in his hand: still, he would have been torn by them in his own homestead had not the swineherd dropped his ox hide, rushed full speed through the gate of the yard and driven the dogs off by shouting and throwing stones at them. Then he said to Ulysses, “Old man, the dogs were likely to have made short work of you, and then you would have got me into trouble. The gods have given me quite enough worries without that, for I have lost the best of masters, and am in continual grief on his account. I have to attend swine for other people to eat, while he, if he yet lives to see the light of day, is starving in some distant land. But come inside, and when you have had your fill of bread and wine, tell me where you come from, and all about your misfortunes.”
On this the swineherd led the way into the hut and bade him sit down. He strewed a good thick bed of rushes upon the floor, and on the top of this he threw the shaggy chamois skin—a great thick one—on which he used to sleep by night. Ulysses was pleased at being made thus welcome, and said “May Jove, sir, and the rest of the gods grant you your heart’s desire in return for the kind way in which you have received me.”
To this you answered, O swineherd Eumaeus, “Stranger, though a still poorer man should come here, it would not be right for me to insult him, for all strangers and beggars are from Jove. You must take what you can get and be thankful, for servants live in fear when they have young lords for their masters; and this is my misfortune now, for heaven has hindered the return of him who would have been always good to me and given me something of my own—a house, a piece of land, a good looking wife, and all else that a liberal master allows a servant who has worked hard for him, and whose labour the gods have prospered as they have mine in the situation which I hold. If my master had grown old here he would have done great things by me, but he is gone, and I wish that Helen’s whole race were utterly destroyed, for she has been the death of many a good man. It was this matter that took my master to Ilius, the land of noble steeds, to fight the Trojans in the cause of king Agamemnon.”
As he spoke he bound his girdle round him and went to the styes where the young sucking pigs were penned. He picked out two which he brought back with him and sacrificed. He singed them, cut them up, and spitted them; when the meat was cooked he brought it all in and set it before Ulysses, hot and still on the spit, whereon Ulysses sprinkled it over with white barley meal. The swineherd then mixed wine in a bowl of ivy-wood, and taking a seat opposite Ulysses told him to begin.
“Fall to, stranger,” said he, “on a dish of servant’s pork. The fat pigs have to go to the suitors, who eat them up without shame or scruple; but the blessed gods love not such shameful doings, and respect those who do what is lawful and right. Even the fierce freebooters who go raiding on other people’s land, and Jove gives them their spoil—even they, when they have filled their ships and got home again live conscience-stricken, and look fearfully for judgement; but some god seems to have told these people that Ulysses is dead and gone; they will not, therefore, go back to their own homes and make their offers of marriage in the usual way, but waste his estate by force, without fear or stint. Not a day or night comes out of heaven, but they sacrifice not one victim nor two only, and they take the run of his wine, for he was exceedingly rich. No other great man either in Ithaca or on the mainland is as rich as he was; he had as much as twenty men put together. I will tell you what he had. There are twelve herds of cattle upon the main land, and as many flocks of sheep, there are also twelve droves of pigs, while his own men and hired strangers feed him twelve widely spreading herds of goats. Here in Ithaca he runs even large flocks of goats on the far end of the island, and they are in the charge of excellent goat herds. Each one of these sends the suitors the best goat in the flock every day. As for myself, I am in charge of the pigs that you see here, and I have to keep picking out the best I have and sending it to them.”
This was his story, but Ulysses went on eating and drinking ravenously without a word, brooding his revenge. When he had eaten enough and was satisfied, the swineherd took the bowl from which he usually drank, filled it with wine, and gave it to Ulysses, who was pleased, and said as he took it in his hands, “My friend, who was this master of yours that bought you and paid for you, so rich and so powerful as you tell me? You say he perished in the cause of King Agamemnon; tell me who he was, in case I may have met with such a person. Jove and the other gods know, but I may be able to give you news of him, for I have travelled much.”
Eumaeus answered, “Old man, no traveller who comes here with news will get Ulysses’ wife and son to believe his story. Nevertheless, tramps in want of a lodging keep coming with their mouths full of lies, and not a word of truth; every one who finds his way to Ithaca goes to my mistress and tells her falsehoods, whereon she takes them in, makes much of them, and asks them all manner of questions, crying all the time as women will when they have lost their husbands. And you too, old man, for a shirt and a cloak would doubtless make up a very pretty story. But the wolves and birds of prey have long since torn Ulysses to pieces, or the fishes of the sea have eaten him, and his bones are lying buried deep in sand upon some foreign shore; he is dead and gone, and a bad business it is for all his friends—for me especially; go where I may I shall never find so good a master, not even if I were to go home to my mother and father where I was bred and born. I do not so much care, however, about my parents now, though I should dearly like to see them again in my own country; it is the loss of Ulysses that grieves me most; I cannot speak of him without reverence though he is here no longer, for he was very fond of me, and took such care of me that wherever he may be I shall always honour his memory.”
“My friend,” replied Ulysses, “you are very positive, and very hard of belief about your master’s coming home again, nevertheless I will not merely say, but will swear, that he is coming. Do not give me anything for my news till he has actually come, you may then give me a shirt and cloak of good wear if you will.  I swear by king Jove, by the rites of hospitality, and by that hearth of Ulysses to which I have now come, that all will surely happen as I have said it will. Ulysses will return in this self same year; with the end of this moon and the beginning of the next he will be here to do vengeance on all those who are ill treating his wife and son.”
To this you answered, O swineherd Eumaeus, “Old man, you will neither get paid for bringing good news, nor will Ulysses ever come home; drink your wine in peace, and let us talk about something else. Do not keep on reminding me of all this; it always pains me when any one speaks about my honoured master. As for your oath we will let it alone, but I only wish he may come, as do Penelope, his old father Laertes, and his son Telemachus. I am terribly unhappy too about this same boy of his; he was running up fast into manhood, and bade fare to be no worse man, face and figure, than his father, but some one, either god or man, has been unsettling his mind, so he has gone off to Pylos to try and get news of his father, and the suitors are lying in wait for him as he is coming home, in the hope of leaving the house of Arceisius without a name in Ithaca. But let us say no more about him, and leave him to be taken, or else to escape if the son of Saturn holds his hand over him to protect him.  Tell me of your town and parents, what manner of ship you came in, how crew brought you to Ithaca, and from what country they professed to come—for you cannot have come by land.”
And Ulysses answered, “I will tell you all about it. If there were meat and wine enough, and we could stay here in the hut with nothing to do but to eat and drink while the others go to their work, I could easily talk on for a whole twelve months without ever finishing the story of the sorrows with which it has pleased heaven to visit me.
“I am by birth a Cretan; my father was a well to do man, who had many sons born in marriage, whereas I was the son of a slave whom he had purchased for a concubine; nevertheless, my father Castor son of Hylax (whose lineage I claim, and who was held in the highest honour among the Cretans for his wealth, prosperity, and the valour of his sons) put me on the same level with my brothers who had been born in wedlock. When, however, death took him to the house of Hades, his sons divided his estate and cast lots for their shares, but to me they gave a holding and little else; nevertheless, my valour enabled me to marry into a rich family, for I was not given to bragging, or shirking on the field of battle. It is all over now; still, if you look at the straw you can see what the ear was, for I have had trouble enough and to spare. Mars and Minerva made me doughty in war; when I had picked my men to surprise the enemy with an ambuscade I never gave death so much as a thought, but was the first to leap forward and spear all whom I could overtake.  My delight was in ships, fighting, javelins, and arrows—things that most men shudder to think of; but one man likes one thing and another another, and this was what I was most naturally inclined to. Before the Achaeans went to Troy, nine times was I in command of men and ships on foreign service, and I amassed much wealth. I had my pick of the spoil in the first instance, and much more was allotted to me later on.
“My house grew apace and I became a great man among the Cretans, but when Jove counselled that terrible expedition, in which so many perished, the people required me and Idomeneus to lead their ships to Troy, and there was no way out of it, for they insisted on our doing so. There we fought for nine whole years, but in the tenth we sacked the city of Priam and sailed home again as heaven dispersed us. Then it was that Jove devised evil against me. I spent but one month happily with my children, wife, and property, and then I conceived the idea of making a descent on Egypt, so I fitted out a fine fleet and manned it. I had nine ships, and the people flocked to fill them. For six days I and my men made feast, and I found them many victims both for sacrifice to the gods and for themselves, but on the seventh day we went on board and set sail from Crete with a fair North wind behind us though we were going down a river. Nothing went ill with any of our ships, and we had no sickness on board, but sat where we were and let the ships go as the wind and steersmen took them. On the fifth day we reached the river Aegyptus; there I stationed my ships in the river, bidding my men stay by them and keep guard over them while I sent out scouts to reconnoitre from every point of vantage.
“But the men disobeyed my orders, took to their own devices, and ravaged the land of the Egyptians, killing the men, and taking their wives and children captive. The alarm was soon carried to the city, and when they heard the war cry, the people came out at daybreak till the plain was filled with horsemen and foot soldiers and with the gleam of armour. Then Jove spread panic among my men, and they would no longer face the enemy, for they found themselves surrounded. The Egyptians killed many of us, and took the rest alive to do forced labour for them. Jove, however, put it in my mind to do thus—and I wish I had died then and there in Egypt instead, for there was much sorrow in store for me—I took off my helmet and shield and dropped my spear from my hand; then I went straight up to the king’s chariot, clasped his knees and kissed them, whereon he spared my life, bade me get into his chariot, and took me weeping to his own home.
“I stayed there for seven years and got together much money among the Egyptians, for they all gave me something; but when it was now going on for eight years there came a certain Phoenician, a cunning rascal, who had already committed all sorts of villainy, and this man talked me over into going with him to Phoenicia, where his house and his possessions lay. I stayed there for a whole twelve months, but at the end of that time when months and days had gone by till the same season had come round again, he set me on board a ship bound for Libya, on a pretence that I was to take a cargo along with him to that place, but really that he might sell me as a slave and take the money I fetched. I suspected his intention, but went on board with him, for I could not help it.
“The ship ran before a fresh North wind till we had reached the sea that lies between Crete and Libya; there, however, Jove counselled their destruction, for as soon as we were well out from Crete and could see nothing but sea and sky, he raised a black cloud over our ship and the sea grew dark beneath it. Then Jove let fly with his thunderbolts and the ship went round and round and was filled with fire and brimstone as the lightning struck it. The men fell all into the sea; they were carried about in the water round the ship looking like so many sea-gulls, but the god presently deprived them of all chance of getting home again. I was all dismayed. Jove, however, sent the ship’s mast within my reach, which saved my life, for I clung to it, and drifted before the fury of the gale. Nine days did I drift but in the darkness of the tenth night a great wave bore me on to the Thesprotian coast. There Pheidon king of the Thesprotians entertained me hospitably without charging me anything at all—for his son found me when I was nearly dead with cold and fatigue, whereon he raised me by the hand, took me to his father’s house and gave me clothes to wear.
“There it was that I heard news of Ulysses, for the king told me he had entertained him, and shown him much hospitality while he was on his homeward journey. He showed me also the treasure of gold, and wrought iron that Ulysses had got together. There was enough to keep his family for ten generations, so much had he left in the house of king Pheidon. But the king said Ulysses had gone to Dodona that he might learn Jove’s mind from the god’s high oak tree, and know whether after so long an absence he should return to Ithaca openly, or in secret. Moreover the king swore in my presence, making drink-offerings in his own house as he did so, that the ship was by the water side, and the crew found, that should take him to his own country. He sent me off however before Ulysses returned, for there happened to be a Thesprotian ship sailing for the wheat-growing island of Dulichium, and he told those in charge of her to be sure and take me safely to King Acastus.
“These men hatched a plot against me that would have reduced me to the very extreme of misery, for when the ship had got some way out from land they resolved on selling me as a slave. They stripped me of the shirt and cloak that I was wearing, and gave me instead the tattered old clouts in which you now see me; then, towards nightfall, they reached the tilled lands of Ithaca, and there they bound me with a strong rope fast in the ship, while they went on shore to get supper by the sea side. But the gods soon undid my bonds for me, and having drawn my rags over my head I slid down the rudder into the sea, where I struck out and swam till I was well clear of them, and came ashore near a thick wood in which I lay concealed. They were very angry at my having escaped and went searching about for me, till at last they thought it was no further use and went back to their ship. The gods, having hidden me thus easily, then took me to a good man’s door—for it seems that I am not to die yet awhile.”
To this you answered, O swineherd Eumaeus, “Poor unhappy stranger, I have found the story of your misfortunes extremely interesting, but that part about Ulysses is not right; and you will never get me to believe it.  I know all about the return of my master. The gods one and all of them detest him, or they would have taken him before Troy, or let him die with friends around him when the days of his fighting were done; for then the Achaeans would have built a mound over his ashes and his son would have been heir to his renown, but now the storm winds have spirited him away we know not whither.
“As for me I live out of the way here with the pigs, and never go to the town unless when Penelope sends for me on the arrival of some news about Ulysses. Then they all sit round and ask questions, both those who grieve over the king’s absence, and those who rejoice at it because they can eat up his property without paying for it. For my own part I have never cared about asking anyone else since the time when I was taken in by an Aetolian, who had killed a man and come a long way till at last he reached my station, and I was very kind to him. He said he had seen Ulysses with Idomeneus among the Cretans, refitting his ships which had been damaged in a gale. He said Ulysses would return in the following summer or autumn with his men, and that he would bring back much wealth.  It is not for any such reason that I shall treat you kindly, but only out of respect for Jove the god of hospitality, as fearing him and pitying you.”
Ulysses answered, “I see that you are of an unbelieving mind; I have given you my oath, and yet you will not credit me; let us then make a bargain, and call all the gods in heaven to witness it. If your master comes home, give me a cloak and shirt of good wear, and send me to Dulichium where I want to go; but if he does not come as I say he will, set your men on to me, and tell them to throw me from yonder precipice, as a warning to tramps not to go about the country telling lies.”
“And a pretty figure I should cut then,” replied Eumaeus, “both now and hereafter, if I were to kill you after receiving you into my hut and showing you hospitality. I should have to say my prayers in good earnest if I did; but it is just supper time and I hope my men will come in directly, that we may cook something savoury for supper.”
Thus did they converse, and presently the swineherds came up with the pigs, which were then shut up for the night in their styes, and a tremendous squealing they made as they were being driven into them. But Eumaeus called to his men and said, “Bring in the best pig you have, that I may sacrifice him for this stranger, and we will take toll of him ourselves. We have had trouble enough this long time feeding pigs, while others reap the fruit of our labour.”
On this he began chopping firewood, while the others brought in a fine fat five year old boar pig, and set it at the altar. Eumaeus did not forget the gods, for he was a man of good principles, so the first thing he did was to cut bristles from the pig’s face and throw them into the fire, praying to all the gods as he did so that Ulysses might return home again. Then he clubbed the pig with a billet of oak which he had kept back when he was chopping the firewood, and stunned it, while the others slaughtered and singed it. Then they cut it up, and Eumaeus began by putting raw pieces from each joint on to some of the fat; these he sprinkled with barley meal, and laid upon the embers; they cut the rest of the meat up small, put the pieces upon the spits and roasted them till they were done; when they had taken them off the spits they threw them on to the dresser in a heap. The swineherd, who was a most equitable man, then stood up to give every one his share. He made seven portions; one of these he set apart for Mercury the son of Maia and the nymphs, praying to them as he did so; the others he dealt out to the men man by man. He gave Ulysses some slices cut lengthways down the loin as a mark of especial honour, and Ulysses was much pleased. “I hope, Eumaeus,” said he, “that Jove will be as well disposed towards you as I am, for the respect you are showing to an outcast like myself.”
To this you answered, O swineherd Eumaeus, “Eat, my good fellow, and enjoy your supper, such as it is. God grants this, and withholds that, just as he thinks right, for he can do whatever he chooses.”
As he spoke he cut off the first piece and offered it as a burnt sacrifice to the immortal gods; then he made them a drink-offering, put the cup in the hands of Ulysses, and sat down to his own portion. Mesaulius brought them their bread; the swineherd had brought this man on his own account from among the Taphians during his master’s absence, and had paid for him with his own money without saying anything either to his mistress or Laertes. They then laid their hands upon the good things that were before them, and when they had had enough to eat and drink, Mesaulius took away what was left of the bread, and they all went to bed after having made a hearty supper.
Now the night came on stormy and very dark, for there was no moon. It poured without ceasing, and the wind blew strong from the West, which is a wet quarter, so Ulysses thought he would see whether Eumaeus, in the excellent care he took of him, would take off his own cloak and give it him, or make one of his men give him one. “Listen to me,” said he, “Eumaeus and the rest of you; when I have said a prayer I will tell you something. It is the wine that makes me talk in this way; wine will make even a wise man fall to singing; it will make him chuckle and dance and say many a word that he had better leave unspoken; still, as I have begun, I will go on. Would that I were still young and strong as when we got up an ambuscade before Troy. Menelaus and Ulysses were the leaders, but I was in command also, for the other two would have it so. When we had come up to the wall of the city we crouched down beneath our armour and lay there under cover of the reeds and thick brushwood that grew about the swamp. It came on to freeze with a North wind blowing; the snow fell small and fine like hoar frost, and our shields were coated thick with rime.  When the night was two-thirds through and the stars had shifted their places, I nudged Ulysses who was close to me with my elbow, and he at once gave me his ear.
“‘Ulysses,’ said I, ‘this cold will be the death of me, for I have no cloak; some god fooled me into setting off with nothing on but my shirt, and I do not know what to do.’
“Ulysses, who was as crafty as he was valiant, hit upon the following plan:
“‘Keep still,’ said he in a low voice, ‘or the others will hear you.’ Then he raised his head on his elbow.
“‘My friends,’ said he, ‘I have had a dream from heaven in my sleep. We are a long way from the ships; I wish some one would go down and tell Agamemnon to send us up more men at once.’
“On this Thoas son of Andraemon threw off his cloak and set out running to the ships, whereon I took the cloak and lay in it comfortably enough till morning. Would that I were still young and strong as I was in those days, for then some one of you swineherds would give me a cloak both out of good will and for the respect due to a brave soldier; but now people look down upon me because my clothes are shabby.”
And Eumaeus answered, “Old man, you have told us an excellent story, and have said nothing so far but what is quite satisfactory; for the present, therefore, you shall want neither clothing nor anything else that a stranger in distress may reasonably expect, but to-morrow morning you have to shake your own old rags about your body again, for we have not many spare cloaks nor shirts up here, but every man has only one. When Ulysses’ son comes home again he will give you both cloak and shirt, and send you wherever you may want to go.”
With this he got up and made a bed for Ulysses by throwing some goatskins and sheepskins on the ground in front of the fire. Here Ulysses lay down, and Eumaeus covered him over with a great heavy cloak that he kept for a change in case of extraordinarily bad weather.
Thus did Ulysses sleep, and the young men slept beside him. But the swineherd did not like sleeping away from his pigs, so he got ready to go outside, and Ulysses was glad to see that he looked after his property during his master’s absence. First he slung his sword over his brawny shoulders and put on a thick cloak to keep out the wind. He also took the skin of a large and well fed goat, and a javelin in case of attack from men or dogs. Thus equipped he went to his rest where the pigs were camping under an overhanging rock that gave them shelter from the North wind.


<IP_ADDRESS>: Normalization of a Database
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When designing a database, one important concept to understand is normalization . In simple terms, to normalize a database means to design it in a way that: 1) reduces duplication of data between tables and 2) gives the table as much flexibility as possible.
In the Student Clubs database design, the design team worked to achieve these objectives. For example, to track memberships, a simple solution might have been to create a Members field in the Clubs table and then just list the names of all of the members there. However, this design would mean that if a student joined two clubs, then his or her information would have to be entered a second time. Instead, the designers solved this problem by using two tables: Students and Memberships.
In this design, when a student joins their first club, we first must add the student to the Students table, where their first name, last name, e-mail address, and birth year are entered. This addition to the Students table will generate a student ID. Now we will add a new entry to denote that the student is a member of a specific club. This is accomplished by adding a record with the student ID and the club ID in the Memberships table. If this student joins a second club, we do not have to duplicate the entry of the student’s name, e-mail, and birth year; instead, we only need to make another entry in the Memberships table of the second club’s ID and the student’s ID.
The design of the Student Clubs database also makes it simple to change the design without major modifications to the existing structure. For example, if the design team were asked to add functionality to the system to track faculty advisors to the clubs, we could easily accomplish this by adding a Faculty Advisors table (similar to the Students table) and then adding a new field to the Clubs table to hold the Faculty Advisor ID.


15.3: Coupled Equilibria
- Describe examples of systems involving two (or more) simultaneous chemical equilibria
- Calculate reactant and product concentrations for multiple equilibrium systems
- Compare dissolution and weak electrolyte formation
There are times when one equilibrium reaction does not adequately describe the system being studied. Sometimes we have more than one type of equilibrium occurring at once (for example, an acid-base reaction and a precipitation reaction).
The ocean is a unique example of a system with multiple equilibria , or multiple states of solubility equilibria working simultaneously. Carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in sea water, forming carbonic acid (H 2 CO 3 ). The carbonic acid then ionizes to form hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions \(\ce{(HCO3- )}\), which can further ionize into more hydrogen ions and carbonate ions \(\ce{(CO3^2- )}\):
\[\ce{CO2}(g)⇌\ce{CO2}(aq) \nonumber \]
\[\ce{CO2}(aq)+\ce{H2O}⇌\ce{H2CO3}(aq) \nonumber \]
\[\ce{H2CO3}(aq)⇌\ce{H+}(aq)+\ce{HCO3-}(aq) \nonumber \]
\[\ce{HCO3-}(aq)⇌\ce{H+}(aq)+\ce{CO3^2-}(aq) \nonumber \]
The excess H + ions make seawater more acidic. Increased ocean acidification can then have negative impacts on reef-building coral, as they cannot absorb the calcium carbonate they need to grow and maintain their skeletons (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). This in turn disrupts the local biosystem that depends upon the health of the reefs for its survival. If enough local reefs are similarly affected, the disruptions to sea life can be felt globally. The world’s oceans are presently in the midst of a period of intense acidification, believed to have begun in the mid-nineteenth century, and which is now accelerating at a rate faster than any change to oceanic pH in the last 20 million years.
Learn more about ocean acidification and how it affects other marine creatures.
Slightly soluble solids derived from weak acids generally dissolve in strong acids, unless their solubility products are extremely small. For example, we can dissolve CuCO 3 , FeS, and Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 in HCl because their basic anions react to form weak acids (H 2 CO 3 , H 2 S, and \(\ce{H2PO4-}\)). The resulting decrease in the concentration of the anion results in a shift of the equilibrium concentrations to the right in accordance with Le Chatelier’s principle.
Of particular relevance to us is the dissolution of hydroxylapatite, Ca 5 (PO 4 ) 3 OH, in acid. Apatites are a class of calcium phosphate minerals (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)); a biological form of hydroxylapatite is found as the principal mineral in the enamel of our teeth. A mixture of hydroxylapatite and water (or saliva) contains an equilibrium mixture of solid Ca 5 (PO 4 ) 3 OH and dissolved Ca 2 + , \(\ce{PO4^3-}\), and OH – ions:
\[\ce{Ca5(PO4)3OH}(s)⟶\ce{5Ca^2+}(aq)+\ce{3PO4^3-}(aq)+\ce{OH-}(aq) \nonumber \]
When exposed to acid, phosphate ions react with hydronium ions to form hydrogen phosphate ions and ultimately, phosphoric acid:
\[\ce{PO4^3-}(aq)+\ce{H3O+}⇌\ce{H2PO4^2-}+\ce{H2O} \nonumber \]
\[\ce{PO4^2-}(aq)+\ce{H3O+}⇌\ce{H2PO4-}+\ce{H2O} \nonumber \]
\[\ce{H2PO4- + H3O+ ⇌ H3PO4 + H2O} \nonumber \]
Hydroxide ion reacts to form water:
\[\ce{OH-}(aq)+\ce{H3O+}⇌\ce{2H2O} \nonumber \]
These reactions decrease the phosphate and hydroxide ion concentrations, and additional hydroxylapatite dissolves in an acidic solution in accord with Le Chatelier’s principle. Our teeth develop cavities when acid waste produced by bacteria growing on them causes the hydroxylapatite of the enamel to dissolve. Fluoride toothpastes contain sodium fluoride, NaF, or stannous fluoride [more properly named tin(II) fluoride], SnF 2 . They function by replacing the OH – ion in hydroxylapatite with F – ion, producing fluorapatite, Ca 5 (PO 4 ) 3 F:
\[\ce{NaF + Ca5(PO4)3OH ⇌ Ca5(PO4)3F + Na+ + OH-} \nonumber \]
The resulting Ca 5 (PO 4 ) 3 F is slightly less soluble than Ca 5 (PO 4 ) 3 OH, and F – is a weaker base than OH – . Both of these factors make the fluorapatite more resistant to attack by acids than hydroxylapatite. See the Chemistry in Everyday Life feature on the role of fluoride in preventing tooth decay for more information.
As we saw previously, fluoride ions help protect our teeth by reacting with hydroxylapatite to form fluorapatite, Ca 5 (PO 4 ) 3 F. Since it lacks a hydroxide ion, fluorapatite is more resistant to attacks by acids in our mouths and is thus less soluble, protecting our teeth. Scientists discovered that naturally fluorinated water could be beneficial to your teeth, and so it became common practice to add fluoride to drinking water. Toothpastes and mouthwashes also contain amounts of fluoride (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)).
Unfortunately, excess fluoride can negate its advantages. Natural sources of drinking water in various parts of the world have varying concentrations of fluoride, and places where that concentration is high are prone to certain health risks when there is no other source of drinking water. The most serious side effect of excess fluoride is the bone disease, skeletal fluorosis. When excess fluoride is in the body, it can cause the joints to stiffen and the bones to thicken. It can severely impact mobility and can negatively affect the thyroid gland. Skeletal fluorosis is a condition that over 2.7 million people suffer from across the world. So while fluoride can protect our teeth from decay, the US Environmental Protection Agency sets a maximum level of 4 ppm (4 mg/L) of fluoride in drinking water in the US. Fluoride levels in water are not regulated in all countries, so fluorosis is a problem in areas with high levels of fluoride in the groundwater.
When acid rain attacks limestone or marble, which are calcium carbonates, a reaction occurs that is similar to the acid attack on hydroxylapatite. The hydronium ion from the acid rain combines with the carbonate ion from calcium carbonates and forms the hydrogen carbonate ion, a weak acid:
\[\ce{H3O+}(aq)+\ce{CO3^2-}(aq)⟶\ce{HCO3-}(aq)+\ce{H2O}(l) \nonumber \]
Calcium hydrogen carbonate, Ca(HCO 3 ) 2 , is soluble, so limestone and marble objects slowly dissolve in acid rain.
If calcium carbonate is added to a concentrated acid, hydronium ion reacts with the carbonate ion according to the equation:
\[\ce{2H3O+}(aq)+\ce{CO3^2-}(aq)⟶\ce{H2CO3}(aq)+\ce{2H2O}(l) \nonumber \]
(Acid rain is usually not sufficiently acidic to cause this reaction; however, laboratory acids are.) The solution may become saturated with the weak electrolyte carbonic acid, which is unstable, and carbon dioxide gas can be evolved:
\[\ce{H2CO3}(aq)⟶\ce{CO2}(g)+\ce{H2O}(l) \nonumber \]
These reactions decrease the carbonate ion concentration, and additional calcium carbonate dissolves. If enough acid is present, the concentration of carbonate ion is reduced to such a low level that the reaction quotient for the dissolution of calcium carbonate remains less than the solubility product of calcium carbonate, even after all of the calcium carbonate has dissolved.
Calculate the concentration of ammonium ion that is required to prevent the precipitation of Mg(OH) 2 in a solution with [Mg 2 + ] = 0.10 M and [NH 3 ] = 0.10 M .
Solution
Two equilibria are involved in this system:
- Reaction (1): \(\ce{Mg(OH)2}(s)⇌\ce{Mg^2+}(aq)+\ce{2OH-}(aq); \hspace{20px} K_\ce{sp}=8.9×10^{−12}\)
- Reaction (2): \(\ce{NH3}(aq)+\ce{H2O}(l)⇌\ce{NH4+}(aq)+\ce{OH-}(aq) \hspace{20px} K_\ce{sp}=1.8×10^{−5}\)
To prevent the formation of solid Mg(OH) 2 , we must adjust the concentration of OH – so that the reaction quotient for Equation (1), Q = [Mg 2 + ][OH – ] 2 , is less than K sp for Mg(OH) 2 . (To simplify the calculation, we determine the concentration of OH – when Q = K sp .) [OH – ] can be reduced by the addition of \(\ce{NH4+}\), which shifts Reaction (2) to the left and reduces [OH – ].
- We determine the [OH – ] at which Q = K sp when [Mg 2 + ] = 0.10 M : \[Q=\ce{[Mg^2+][OH- ]^2}=(0.10)\ce{[OH- ]^2}=8.9×10^{−12} \nonumber \]
Solid Mg(OH) 2 will not form in this solution when [OH – ] is less than 9.4 × 10 –6 M .
- We calculate the \(\mathit{[NH_4^+]}\) needed to decrease [OH – ] to 9.4 × 10 –6 M when [NH 3 ] = 0.10 . \[K_\ce{b}=\ce{\dfrac{[NH4+][OH- ]}{[NH3]}}=\dfrac{\ce{[NH4+]}(9.4×10^{−6})}{0.10}=1.8×10^{−5} \nonumber \] \[\ce{[NH4+]}=0.19\:M \nonumber \]
When \(\ce{[NH4+]}\) equals 0.19 M , [OH – ] will be 9.4 × 10 –6 M . Any \(\ce{[NH4+]}\) greater than 0.19 M will reduce [OH – ] below 9.4 × 10 –6 M and prevent the formation of Mg(OH) 2 .
Consider the two equilibria:
\[\ce{ZnS}(s)⇌\ce{Zn^2+}(aq)+\ce{S^2-}(aq) \hspace{20px} K_\ce{sp}=1×10^{−27} \nonumber \]
\[\ce{2H2O}(l)+\ce{H2S}(aq)⇌\ce{2H3O+}(aq)+\ce{S^2-}(aq) \hspace{20px} K=1.0×10^{−26} \nonumber \]
and calculate the concentration of hydronium ion required to prevent the precipitation of ZnS in a solution that is 0.050 M in Zn 2 + and saturated with H 2 S (0.10 M H 2 S).
- Answer
-
\[\ce{[H3O+]}>0.2\:M \nonumber \]
([S 2– ] is less than 2 × 10 –26 M and precipitation of ZnS does not occur.)
Therefore, precise calculations of the solubility of solids from the solubility product are limited to cases in which the only significant reaction occurring when the solid dissolves is the formation of its ions.
Unexposed silver halides are removed from photographic film when they react with sodium thiosulfate (Na 2 S 2 O 3 , called hypo) to form the complex ion \(\ce{Ag(S2O3)2^3-}\) ( K f = 4.7 × 10 13 ). The reaction with silver bromide is:
What mass of Na 2 S 2 O 3 is required to prepare 1.00 L of a solution that will dissolve 1.00 g of AgBr by the formation of \(\ce{Ag(S2O3)2^3-}\)?
S olution
Two equilibria are involved when AgBr dissolves in a solution containing the \(\ce{S2O3^2-}\) ion:
- Reaction (1): \(\ce{AgBr}(s)⇌\ce{Ag+}(aq)+\ce{Br-}(aq) \hspace{20px} K_\ce{sp}=5.0×10^{−13}\)
- Reaction (2): \(\ce{Ag+}(aq)+\ce{S2O3^2-}(aq)⇌\ce{Ag(S2O3)2^3-}(aq) \hspace{20px} K_\ce{f}=4.7×10^{13}\)
In order for 1.00 g of AgBr to dissolve, the [Ag + ] in the solution that results must be low enough for Q for Reaction (1) to be smaller than K sp for this reaction. We reduce [Ag + ] by adding \(\ce{S2O3^2-}\) and thus cause Reaction (2) to shift to the right. We need the following steps to determine what mass of Na 2 S 2 O 3 is needed to provide the necessary \(\ce{S2O3^2-}\).
- We calculate the [Br – ] produced by the complete dissolution of 1.00 g of AgBr (5.33 × 10 –3 mol AgBr) in 1.00 L of solution: \[\ce{[Br- ]}=5.33×10^{−3}\:M \nonumber \]
- We use [Br – ] and K sp to determine the maximum possible concentration of Ag + that can be present without causing reprecipitation of AgBr: \[\ce{[Ag+]}=9.4×10^{−11}\:M \nonumber \]
-
We determine the
\(\mathit{[S_2O_3^{2-}]}\)
required to make [Ag
+
] = 9.4
×
10
–11
M
after the remaining Ag
+
ion has reacted with
\(\mathit{S_2O_3^{2-}}\)
according to the equation:
\[\ce{Ag+ + 2S2O3^2- ⇌ Ag(S2O3)2^3-} \hspace{20px} K_\ce{f}=4.7×10^{13} \nonumber \]
Because 5.33 × 10 –3 mol of AgBr dissolves:
\[(5.33×10^{−3})−(9.4×10^{−11})=5.33×10^{−3}\ce{\:mol\:Ag(S2O3)2^3-}\ \nonumber ]Thus, at equilibrium: \(\ce{[Ag(S2O3)2^3- ]}\) = 5.33 × 10 –3 M , [Ag + ] = 9.4× 10 –11 M , and Q = K f = 4.7 × 10 13 :
\[K_\ce{f}=\ce{\dfrac{[Ag(S2O3)2^3- ]}{[Ag+][S2O3^2- ]^2}}=4.7×10^{13} \nonumber \] \[\ce{[S2O3^2- ]}=1.1×10^{−3}\:M \nonumber \]When \(\ce{[S2O3^2- ]}\) is 1.1 × 10 –3 M , [Ag + ] is 9.4 × 10 –11 M and all AgBr remains dissolved.
- We determine the total number of moles of \(\mathit{S_2O_3^{2-}}\) that must be added to the solution. This equals the amount that reacts with Ag + to form \(\ce{Ag(S2O3)2^3-}\) plus the amount of free \(\ce{S2O3^2-}\) in solution at equilibrium. To form 5.33 × 10 –3 mol of \(\ce{Ag(S2O3)2^3-}\) requires 2 × (5.33 × 10 –3 ) mol of \(\ce{S2O3^2-}\). In addition, 1.1 × 10 –3 mol of unreacted \(\ce{S2O3^2-}\) is present (Step 3). Thus, the total amount of \(\ce{S2O3^2-}\) that must be added is: \[\mathrm{2×(5.33×10^{−3}mol\:S_2O_3^{2-}) + 1.1×10^{−3}\:mol\:S_2O_3^{2-} = 1.18×10^{−2}\: mol\:S_2O_3^{2-}} \nonumber \]
-
We determine the mass of Na
2
S
2
O
3
required to give 1.18
×
10
–2
mol
\(\mathit{S_2O_3^{2-}}\)
using the
molar mass of Na
2
S
2
O
3
:
\[\mathrm{1.18×10^{−2}\:mol\:S_2O_3^{2-}×\dfrac{158.1\:g\:Na_2S_2O_3}{1\:mol\:Na_2S_2O_3}=1.9\:g\:Na_2S_2O_3} \nonumber \]
Thus, 1.00 L of a solution prepared from 1.9 g Na 2 S 2 O 3 dissolves 1.0 g of AgBr.
AgCl( s ), silver chloride, is well known to have a very low solubility: \(\ce{Ag}(s)⇌\ce{Ag+}(aq)+\ce{Cl-}(aq)\), K sp = 1.6 × 10 –10 . Adding ammonia significantly increases the solubility of AgCl because a complex ion is formed: \(\ce{Ag+}(aq)+\ce{2NH3}(aq)⇌\ce{Ag(NH3)2+}(aq)\), K f = 1.7 × 10 7 . What mass of NH 3 is required to prepare 1.00 L of solution that will dissolve 2.00 g of AgCl by formation of \(\ce{Ag(NH3)2+}\)?
- Answer
-
1.00 L of a solution prepared with 4.81 g NH 3 dissolves 2.0 g of AgCl.
Dissolution versus Weak Electrolyte Formation
We can determine how to shift the concentration of ions in the equilibrium between a slightly soluble solid and a solution of its ions by applying Le Chatelier’s principle. For example, one way to control the concentration of manganese(II) ion, Mn 2 + , in a solution is to adjust the pH of the solution and, consequently, to manipulate the equilibrium between the slightly soluble solid manganese(II) hydroxide, manganese(II) ion, and hydroxide ion:
\[\ce{Mn(OH)2}(s) ⇌ \ce{Mn^2+}(aq)+\ce{2OH-}(aq) \hspace{20px} K_\ce{sp}=\ce{[Mn^2+][OH- ]^2} \nonumber \]
This could be important to a laundry because clothing washed in water that has a manganese concentration exceeding 0.1 mg per liter may be stained by the manganese. We can reduce the concentration of manganese by increasing the concentration of hydroxide ion. We could add, for example, a small amount of NaOH or some other base such as the silicates found in many laundry detergents. As the concentration of OH – ion increases, the equilibrium responds by shifting to the left and reducing the concentration of Mn 2 + ion while increasing the amount of solid Mn(OH) 2 in the equilibrium mixture, as predicted by Le Chatelier’s principle.
What is the effect on the amount of solid Mg(OH) 2 that dissolves and the concentrations of Mg 2 + and OH – when each of the following are added to a mixture of solid Mg(OH) 2 in water at equilibrium?
- MgCl 2
- KOH
- an acid
- NaNO 3
- Mg(OH) 2
Solution
The equilibrium among solid Mg(OH) 2 and a solution of Mg 2 + and OH – is:
\[\ce{Mg(OH)2}(s) ⇌ \ce{Mg^2+}(aq)+\ce{2OH-}(aq) \nonumber \]
(a) The reaction shifts to the left to relieve the stress produced by the additional Mg 2 + ion, in accordance with Le Chatelier’s principle. In quantitative terms, the added Mg 2 + causes the reaction quotient to be larger than the solubility product ( Q > K sp ), and Mg(OH) 2 forms until the reaction quotient again equals K sp . At the new equilibrium, [OH – ] is less and [Mg 2 + ] is greater than in the solution of Mg(OH) 2 in pure water. More solid Mg(OH) 2 is present.
(b) The reaction shifts to the left to relieve the stress of the additional OH – ion. Mg(OH) 2 forms until the reaction quotient again equals K sp . At the new equilibrium, [OH – ] is greater and [Mg 2 + ] is less than in the solution of Mg(OH) 2 in pure water. More solid Mg(OH) 2 is present.
(c) The concentration of OH – is reduced as the OH – reacts with the acid. The reaction shifts to the right to relieve the stress of less OH – ion. In quantitative terms, the decrease in the OH – concentration causes the reaction quotient to be smaller than the solubility product ( Q < K sp ), and additional Mg(OH) 2 dissolves until the reaction quotient again equals K sp . At the new equilibrium, [OH – ] is less and [Mg 2 + ] is greater than in the solution of Mg(OH) 2 in pure water. More Mg(OH) 2 is dissolved.
(d) NaNO 3 contains none of the species involved in the equilibrium, so we should expect that it has no appreciable effect on the concentrations of Mg 2 + and OH – . (As we have seen previously, dissolved salts change the activities of the ions of an electrolyte. However, the salt effect is generally small, and we shall neglect the slight errors that may result from it.)
(e) The addition of solid Mg(OH) 2 has no effect on the solubility of Mg(OH) 2 or on the concentration of Mg 2 + and OH – . The concentration of Mg(OH) 2 does not appear in the equation for the reaction quotient:
\[Q=\ce{[Mg^2+][OH- ]^2} \nonumber \]
Thus, changing the amount of solid magnesium hydroxide in the mixture has no effect on the value of Q , and no shift is required to restore Q to the value of the equilibrium constant.
What is the effect on the amount of solid NiCO 3 that dissolves and the concentrations of Ni 2 + and \(\ce{CO3^2-}\) when each of the following are added to a mixture of the slightly soluble solid NiCO 3 and water at equilibrium?
- Ni(NO 3 ) 2
- KClO 4
- NiCO 3
- K 2 CO 3
- HNO 3 (reacts with carbonate giving \(\ce{HCO3-}\) or H 2 O and CO 2 )
Answer
(a) mass of NiCO 3 ( s ) increases, [Ni 2 + ] increases, \(\ce{[CO3^2- ]}\) decreases; (b) no appreciable effect; (c) no effect except to increase the amount of solid NiCO 3 ; (d) mass of NiCO 3 ( s ) increases, [Ni 2 + ] decreases, \(\ce{[CO3^2- ]}\) increases; (e) mass of NiCO 3 ( s ) decreases, [Ni 2 + ] increases, \(\ce{[CO3^2- ]}\) decreases
Summary
Several systems we encounter consist of multiple equilibria, systems where two or more equilibria processes are occurring simultaneously. Some common examples include acid rain, fluoridation, and dissolution of carbon dioxide in sea water. When looking at these systems, we need to consider each equilibrium separately and then combine the individual equilibrium constants into one solubility product or reaction quotient expression using the tools from the first equilibrium chapter. Le Chatelier’s principle also must be considered, as each reaction in a multiple equilibria system will shift toward reactants or products based on what is added to the initial reaction and how it affects each subsequent equilibrium reaction.
Glossary
- multiple equilibrium
- system characterized by more than one state of balance between a slightly soluble ionic solid and an aqueous solution of ions working simultaneously


1.9: Character and Story Archetypes
One of the most insightful and captivating histories on storytelling is Joseph Campbels The Hero with a Thousand Faces . In the book he outlines how all myths and stories are analogies of the human experience and how each character and story archetype have counterparts to your life. The enduring quality of a myth is in its ability to teach and inspire the listener. There are many character and story archetypes yet each story has 5 essential archetypes. In some cases one character can be the vessel for several of the following types, yet these archetypes are always present in stories. The following are an amalgamation of many theories, yet the more you study story structure you will notice how each theory and perspective has many commonalities with its counterparts. The following is my attempt to combine them.
The Hero
The hero is your lead character and the character that the audience is meant to identify with and the character is a representation of the audience member. The hero can be any gender, race, species, etc. but each hero must possess several qualities in order to be effective.
Hero Trait 1: A hero must have a good heart
A hero or antihero must deep down have a good heart. Even and especially when the character has a jaded past and has been damaged by the world, it is vital that the audience understand and see the hero as good. The audience must see themselves as the character in order to be invested in the story and each person always feels they are good or tries to have good intentions. This is why villains in history have been so scary, because each believed that they were doing just and good things by committing atrocities. You character does not need to be overly good and can be a bad person most of the time, but you need to have at least one small moment where their inner goodness can be displayed.
Hero Trait 2: A Hero must know they are special, but not know why.
At the beginning of the journey the hero must know deep down that they are special and were meant to achieve a greater purpose. The problem that the character faces is that they do not know what that purpose is. In their current situation they do not see how they will ever be able to escape and discover who they are, let alone achieve something. The journey of your story is what will make the character’s purpose clear, but at the beginning the audience needs to see the character’s drive.
In class I always ask my students to raise their hand if they think they are special. Most of the time only a few do. I then ask, “Why did you not raise your hand? Is it because you truly do not believe you are special?” The truth is all people believe they are special and have big dreams, before life kicks them in the teeth. However, you would not have showed up to school, or work, or be reading this book if you did believe you had something to give to the world. Often we try to hide what our special qualities are and avoid voicing our dreams in order to avoid ridicule, but those desires are there in all humans. Each of us feels we have something to give and this has been the case since humans began telling stories. When we need inspiration we look to the stories we were told growing up, when we are broken we look to those heroes who overcame obstacles far scarier than our own. If your audience needs to see themselves in your hero then you need to make sure that this consistent human experience is part of your character’s traits.
Hero Trait 3: The Hero must be the Chosen One
Only the hero can defeat the villain. The hero is the chosen one and with that power and responsibility the hero must fight their own battles. Can you imagine a story where you invested your time and love following a hero you thought to be the chosen one and in the end it was someone else and they were irrelevant? You would be furious! I am sure that the writers who did this in the past patted themselves on the back and felt superior to their audience, but that victory was short lived when that story was quickly forgotten. If you spent 8 Harry Potter books to find out that Nevile Longbottom was the actual hero you would never pick up the books again. You invested and identified with the hero, it is your job to tell us how the hero defeats the villain. Now the hero does not need to win, but the hero had better go down trying because that is the human spirit and that will inspire us to keep going on our hero’s journey.
In life you will have your villians that you will need to overcome. These villains will be your villians and your villians alone.  Sometimes the villain is yourself, sometimes it is a struggle only you have, and heroes fight their battles and victims ask others to fight their battles for them. You are the hero in your life and this characteristic is central to the themes and lessons all stories have shared since humans began telling stories.
Hero Trait 4: A Hero needs a flaw
The flaw is an internal obstacle that must be overcome in order to defeat the villain. Often the hero and the villain share this flaw and are examples of how the flaw can shape your destiny and actions. In a true hero’s journey the hero has to grow and mature as the story progresses. The character is following the same structure our lives follow, but in a condensed timeline. Every human being has flaws and internal battles needed to be overcome in order to progress towards our goals, this needs to be present with the main character in the story.
Hero Trait 5: A Hero needs to have a straightforward and urgent goal
Aaron Sorkin and William Goldman refer to this as the intention, others refer to it as a goal or need, others refer to it as the super objective. What matters is that the Hero has a goal/desire/intention that helps drive them through the plot and motivates them to keep going. Each scene and the play as a whole are an attempt to achieve this goal for the character. This is connected to characteristic 2 and this goal/need/intention will serve as the characters boon (or Prize) at the end of the journey or will be the character’s downfall.
The Villain
The Villain is the antagonist of the story and will come in any form needed and derived from the conflict. In an internal conflict the Villain and the Hero are one and the same. In external conflict the Villain can be nature, another human, a society, supernatural entity, or scientific construction. What matters is the Villain is the primary obstacle in the way of the Hero achieving their goal. The Villain also has characteristics shared throughout all stories.
Villain Trait 1: The Villain hates the Hero
The Villain often hates the hero for no other reason than that they are good. The Villain sees the Hero as a threat and because of this, tries to destroy the Hero only to find that in doing so it has prepared the Hero with the skills to overcome the Villain in the final confrontation.
Villain Trait 2: The Villain wants to possess or destroy the Heroine/Goal/McGuffin
The Villain is the antagonist of the story because it seeks to possess or destroy something of great importance to the world of the Hero. The Villain is singular in its pursuit of the Heroine/Goal/McGuffin and possess such a threat to the world of the story that the audience is compelled to root for the hero.
Villain Trait 3: The less we know about the Villain the better
The audience does not need nor do they care about the Villains backstory. They are content with the knowledge that the Villain is evil. The more backstory you give to your Villain the more sympathetic you make them and you risk the audience identifying more with your Villain than your Hero. You want the villain to seem scary, powerful, and invincible so that the audience learns the lessons of self development and courage the journey is reinforcing. Neil Gaiman said “Stories are important not because they teach us that dragons are real, but that dragons can be defeated.” Remember that the villain represents intense struggles we, as the audience, will encounter in our lives and it is important to have us identify with the Hero more than the trail we will later face.
Villain Trait 4: The Villain has to destroy something precious or do something truly terrible to solidify the audiences hatred.
Even though the audience will be content with the knowledge that the Villain is evil, you will need to have the Villian do something truly terrible to reinforce the audience's hatred of the villian. The action the Villain takes will also serve as a defining moment for the Hero where failure to defeat the Villain no longer becomes an option and the final confrontation must happen. The more the audience hates the Villain the more they will root for the Hero.
One of the best speeches concerning stories that I can remember comes from the film Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers . Towards the end of the film the hero and his sidekick are exhausted and running from both humans and monsters that have tried to kill them. The Hero looks around in the middle of a battle and sees the carnage all being caused because of his journey. He sits down in the middle of the battlefield and decides to give up. His sidekick sits down next to him and says “It’s like in the old stories, the ones that really mattered. The heroes were fighting against villains that were so powerful you thought that there was no way they could win. But they kept going and in the end they did win. Those are the stories that stuck with us. Those are the stories worth telling.”
The Heroine/ Goal/ McGuffin/ Stakes
This archetype goes by many names, but is crucial for the plot. The Heroine/ Goal/ McGuffin/ Stakes is the noun (person, place, or thing) that the characters are fighting to protect. What are all of the characters fighting to save or protect? This could be a house, legacy, the world, a person, a document, etc. Each character cares about this noun and it is the driving force behind the conflict. You must be able to clearly identify it or you will need to raise the stakes of your story. If the characters do not know what they are fighting for neither will your audience and you will lose them. Ask yourself what is the conflict over? What are the characters fighting to save?
This ties to your real life in that each of us has unique things we treasure and strive to protect. The conflicts in your life that will shape you will have this treasured item at stake and these stories help to prepare us both in strategy and experience for the trials to come.
The Sidekick
The sidekick is the friend or helper on the hero’s journey. The sidekick helps the Hero overcome the Villain and saves the Hero at least once on the journey. The Sidekick is brave, loyal, and has all of the characteristics of the hero except one. The Sidekick is not the chosen one. However, the Hero can only defeat the Villain with the help of the Sidekick, but the Sidekick would lose if ever to encounter the Villain alone.
The Sidekick is a representation of the friends we encounter on our life’s journey. As a Hero you are going to face Villians that only you can defeat and save things that you care about. In your journey you can defeat any Villain you encounter, and achieve any goal you set, but all stories teach us that you can never accomplish anything alone. You will need friends. You will need friends who help shape you into the Hero you will become and also pick you up when the world has crushed you. However, your Villians are your Villains and your Villains alone. Your friends cannot fight your battles for you, merley support you in your endeavor, for they have their own Villains in their personal stories they must defeat.
The Mentor
The Mentor is the Teacher in the story. The Mentor helps the Hero unlock their true potential. The Mentor does not fulyl train or prepare the Hero for the Villain, because the journey does that. The Mentor’s purpose is to help the Hero discover their potential so that it can be developed. Once the Hero’s potential has been unlocked, the Mentor will encounter a barrier that it cannot cross. In some stories the teacher cannot leave the school, a trainer cannot enter the ring, in religion God cannot come down from the heavens, and in some stories the mentor dies. The barrier is important because if the Hero has a Mentor that is more powerful than themselves, then there is no reason to step up and become the Hero. The Mentor is removed from the story so that the Hero has no one to hide behind and no choice but to step up to the Hero’s challenges.
The Mentor of the story represents the influential adults in our lives that help prepare us for the obstacles ahead. In life, your teachers do not follow you outside of school, your parents will kick you out of the nest or will eventually die, and you must step up and become the guiding force in your own life. You will take the lessons you garnered from them and use them as you navigate your path, but each story attempts to prepare you for this step along the way.
- Choose a film, play, book, and TV Commercial and identify the archetypes of each story. Which characters and entities served each archetype? Did any characters fulfill multiple archetypes?
- Find a friend or partner and discuss your findings. Do you both agree with your findings? If not discuss and see if you can discover a new perspective that you both agree on.
- Choose a theme, conflict, and setting from the previous activities and create a Hero, Villain, Sidekick, Heroine/Goal/McGuffin, and Mentor that will help you tell your story.
- Find a friend or partner and discuss your findings. Do you both agree with your findings? If not discuss and see if you can discover a theme you can agree on.


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3.11: Collaborative Group Activities
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An eccentric, but very rich, alumnus of your college makes a bet with the dean that if you drop a baseball and a bowling ball from the tallest building on campus, the bowling ball would hit the ground first. Have your group discuss whether you would make a side bet that the alumnus is right. How would you decide who is right?
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Suppose someone in your astronomy class was unhappy about his or her weight. Where could a person go to weigh one-fourth as much as he or she does now? Would changing the unhappy person’s weight have any effect on his or her mass?
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When the Apollo astronauts landed on the Moon, some commentators commented that it ruined the mystery and “poetry” of the Moon forever (and that lovers could never gaze at the full moon in the same way again). Others felt that knowing more about the Moon could only enhance its interest to us as we see it from Earth. How do the various members of your group feel? Why?
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Figure 3.12 shows a swarm of satellites in orbit around Earth. What do you think all these satellites do? How many categories of functions for Earth satellites can your group come up with?
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The Making Connections feature box Astronomy and the Poets discusses how poets included the most recent astronomical knowledge in their poetry. Is this still happening today? Can your group members come up with any poems or songs that you know that deal with astronomy or outer space? If not, perhaps you could find some online, or by asking friends or roommates who are into poetry or music.


21.10: For Further Exploration
Articles
Star Formation
Blaes, O. “A Universe of Disks.” Scientific American (October 2004): 48. On accretion disks and jets around young stars and black holes.
Croswell, K. “The Dust Belt Next Door [Tau Ceti].” Scientific American (January 2015): 24. Short intro to recent observations of planets and a wide dust belt.
Frank, A. “Starmaker: The New Story of Stellar Birth.” Astronomy (July 1996): 52.
Jayawardhana, R. “Spying on Stellar Nurseries.” Astronomy (November 1998): 62. On protoplanetary disks.
O’Dell, C. R. “Exploring the Orion Nebula.” Sky & Telescope (December 1994): 20. Good review with Hubble results.
Ray, T. “Fountains of Youth: Early Days in the Life of a Star.” Scientific American (August 2000): 42. On outflows from young stars.
Young, E. “Cloudy with a Chance of Stars.” Scientific American (February 2010): 34. On how clouds of interstellar matter turn into star systems.
Young, Monica “Making Massive Stars.” Sky & Telescope (October 2015): 24. Models and observations on how the most massive stars form.
Exoplanets
Billings, L. “In Search of Alien Jupiters.” Scientific American (August 2015): 40–47. The race to image jovian planets with current instruments and why a direct image of a terrestrial planet is still in the future.
Heller, R. “Better Than Earth.” Scientific American (January 2015): 32–39. What kinds of planets may be habitable; super-Earths and jovian planet moons should also be considered.
Laughlin, G. “How Worlds Get Out of Whack.” Sky & Telescope (May 2013): 26. On how planets can migrate from the places they form in a star system.
Marcy, G. “The New Search for Distant Planets.” Astronomy (October 2006): 30. Fine brief overview. (The same issue has a dramatic fold-out visual atlas of extrasolar planets, from that era.)
Redd, N. “Why Haven’t We Found Another Earth?” Astronomy (February 2016): 25. Looking for terrestrial planets in the habitable zone with evidence of life.
Seager, S. “Exoplanets Everywhere.” Sky & Telescope (August 2013): 18. An excellent discussion of some of the frequently asked questions about the nature and arrangement of planets out there.
Seager, S. “The Hunt for Super-Earths.” Sky & Telescope (October 2010): 30. The search for planets that are up to 10 times the mass of Earth and what they can teach us.
Villard, R. “Hunting for Earthlike Planets.” Astronomy (April 2011): 28. How we expect to find and characterize super-Earth (planets somewhat bigger than ours) using new instruments and techniques that could show us what their atmospheres are made of.
Websites
Exoplanet Exploration: http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/ . PlanetQuest (from the Navigator Program at the Jet Propulsion Lab) is probably the best site for students and beginners, with introductory materials and nice illustrations; it focuses mostly on NASA work and missions.
Exoplanets: http://www.planetary.org/exoplanets/ . Planetary Society’s exoplanets pages with a dynamic catalog of planets found and good explanations.
Extrasolar Planets Encyclopedia: http://exoplanet.eu/ . Maintained by Jean Schneider of the Paris Observatory, has the largest catalog of planet discoveries and useful background material (some of it more technical).
Formation of Stars: https://www.spacetelescope.org/science/formation_of_stars/ . Star Formation page from the Hubble Space Telescope, with links to images and information.
Kepler Mission: https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/kepler/overview/index.html . The public website for the remarkable telescope in space that is searching planets using the transit technique and is our best hope for finding earthlike planets.
NASA Exoplanet Exploration Dashboard: https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/discovery/discoveries-dashboard/ . A handy place to find up-to-date information of exoplanet discoveries. This page is a summary of all discoveries by method and type. One click takes you to the full exoplanet catalog.
Proxima Centauri Planet Discovery: http://www.eso.org/public/news/eso1629/ .
Apps
Exoplanet: http://exoplanetapp.com/ . Allows you to browse through a regularly updated visual catalog of exoplanets that have been found so far.
Videos
A Star Is Born: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mkktE_fs4NA . Discovery Channel video with astronomer Michelle Thaller (2:25).
Are We Alone: An Evening Dialogue with the Kepler Mission Leaders: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O7ItAXfl0Lw . A non-technical panel discussion on Kepler results and ideas about planet formation with Bill Borucki, Natalie Batalha, and Gibor Basri (moderated by Andrew Fraknoi) at the University of California, Berkeley (2:07:01).
Finding the Next Earth: The Latest Results from Kepler: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZbijeR_AALo . Natalie Batalha (San Jose State University & NASA Ames) public talk in the Silicon Valley Astronomy Lecture Series (1:28:38).
From Hot Jupiters to Habitable Worlds: https://vimeo.com/37696087 (Part 1) and https://vimeo.com/37700700 (Part 2). Debra Fischer (Yale University) public talk in Hawaii sponsored by the Keck Observatory (15:20 Part 1, 21:32 Part 2).
Search for Habitable Exoplanets: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RLWb_T9yaDU . Sara Seeger (MIT) public talk at the SETI Institute, with Kepler results (1:10:35).


11.5: Electronic Music
We take electronic music for granted today, but we have to remember that the ability to produce tone using purely electronic means (as opposed to an acoustic instrument) and the ability to record music electronically using magnetized film or tape developed during this time period. For many composers this opened up a new world of sounds and compositional techniques. In the 1950s, electronic music was divided into two main camps, and as we’ve seen earlier in the century those camps tended to divide along French/German lines. French composers began creating works using tape recordings that included acoustically produced tones and sounds (called musique concrete), while German composers created works using tape recordings of electronically produced tones and sounds (called elektronische musik).
The piece of music on our playlist, Poeme Electronique, is an example of musique concrete. Technological developments later in the century progressed in such a way that electronic music became much more the domain of popular song, but it is worthwhile to remember the musical experiments of the middle of the century when electronic tone generation and recording seemed like a brave new frontier.
Introduction
Electronic music is music that employs electronic musical instruments and electronic music technology in its production, an electronic musician being a musician who composes and/or performs such music. In general a distinction can be made between sound produced using electromechanical means and that produced using electronic technology. Examples of electromechanical sound producing devices include the telharmonium, Hammond organ, and the electric guitar. Purely electronic sound production can be achieved using devices such as the theremin, sound synthesizer, and computer.
The first electronic devices for performing music were developed at the end of the 19th century, and shortly afterward Italian Futuristsexplored sounds that had previously not been considered musical. During the 1920s and 1930s, electronic instruments were introduced and the first compositions for electronic instruments were composed. By the 1940s, magnetic audio tape allowed musicians to tape sound and then modify them by changing the tape speed or direction, leading to the development of electroacoustic tape music in the 1940s, in Egypt and France. Musique concrète, created in Paris in 1948, was based on editing together recorded fragments of natural and industrial sounds. Music produced solely from electronic generators was first produced in Germany in 1953. Electronic music was also created in Japan and the United States beginning in the 1950s. An important new development was the advent of computers for the purpose of composing music. Algorithmic composition was first demonstrated in Australia in 1951.
In America and Europe, live electronics were pioneered in the early 1960s. During the 1970s to early 1980s, the monophonic Mini-Moog became the most widely used synthesizer in both popular and electronic art music.
In the 1970s, electronic music began having a significant influence on popular music, with the adoption of polyphonic synthesizers such as the Yamaha GX-1 and Prophet-5, electronic drums, and drum machines such as the Roland CR-78, through the emergence of genres such as krautrock, disco, new wave and synthpop. In the 1980s, electronic music became more dominant in popular music, with a greater reliance on synthesizers, and the adoption of programmable drum machines such as the Roland TR-808 and TR-909 and the Linn LM-1, and bass synthesizers such as the Roland TB-303. In the early 1980s, a group of musicians and music merchants developed the Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI), andYamaha released the first FM digital synthesizer, the DX7.
Electronically produced music became prevalent in the popular domain by the 1990s, because of the advent of affordable music technology. Contemporary electronic music includes many varieties and ranges from experimental art music to popular forms such as electronic dance music.
Musique concrete
It wasn’t long before composers in Paris also began using the tape recorder to develop a new technique for composition called musique concrète . This technique involved editing together recorded fragments of natural and industrial sounds. The first pieces of musique concrète in Paris were assembled by Pierre Schaeffer, who went on to collaborate with Pierre Henry.
On 5 October 1948, Radiodiffusion Française (RDF) broadcast composer Pierre Schaeffer’s Etude aux chemins de fer . This was the first “movement” of Cinq études de bruits , and marked the beginning of studio realizations and musique concrète (or acousmatic art). Schaeffer employed a disk-cutting lathe, four turntables, a four-channel mixer, filters, an echo chamber, and a mobile recording unit. Not long after this, Henry began collaborating with Schaeffer, a partnership that would have profound and lasting effects on the direction of electronic music. Another associate of Schaeffer, Edgard Varèse, began work on Déserts , a work for chamber orchestra and tape. The tape parts were created at Pierre Schaeffer’s studio, and were later revised at Columbia University.
In 1950, Schaeffer gave the first public (non-broadcast) concert of musique concrète at the École Normale de Musique de Paris. “Schaeffer used a PA system, several turntables, and mixers. The performance did not go well, as creating live montages with turntables had never been done before.” Later that same year, Pierre Henry collaborated with Schaeffer on Symphonie pour un homme seul (1950) the first major work of musique concrete. In Paris in 1951, in what was to become an important worldwide trend, RTF established the first studio for the production of electronic music. Also in 1951, Schaeffer and Henry produced an opera, Orpheus , for concrete sounds and voices.
Elektronische Musik
Karlheinz Stockhausen worked briefly in Schaeffer’s studio in 1952, and afterward for many years at the WDR Cologne’s Studio for Electronic Music.
In Cologne, what would become the most famous electronic music studio in the world was officially opened at the radio studios of the NWDR in 1953, though it had been in the planning stages as early as 1950 and early compositions were made and broadcast in 1951. The brain child of Werner Meyer-Eppler, Robert Beyer, and Herbert Eimert (who became its first director), the studio was soon joined by Karlheinz Stockhausen and Gottfried Michael Koenig. In his 1949 thesis Elektronische Klangerzeugung: Elektronische Musik und Synthetische Sprache , Meyer-Eppler conceived the idea to synthesize music entirely from electronically produced signals; in this way, elektronische Musik was sharply differentiated from French musique concrète , which used sounds recorded from acoustical sources.
“With Stockhausen and Mauricio Kagel in residence, it became a year-round hive of charismatic avante-gardism [ sic ]” on two occasions combining electronically generated sounds with relatively conventional orchestras—in Mixtur (1964) and Hymnen, dritte Region mit Orchester (1967). Stockhausen stated that his listeners had told him his electronic music gave them an experience of “outer space,” sensations of flying, or being in a “fantastic dream world.” More recently, Stockhausen turned to producing electronic music in his own studio in Kürten, his last work in the medium being Cosmic Pulses (2007).
Contributors and Attributions
- Authored by : Elliott Jones. Provided by : Santa Ana College. Located at : http://www.sac.edu . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Electronic music. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_music . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


10.1: Deviance and Crime
| Actor complies with legal code | Actor violates legal code | |
| Actor complies with group norms | Conforming behaviors | Criminal behaviors |
| Actor violates gorup norms | Deviant behaviors | Deviant and criminal behaviors |
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In sum, deviance is a violation of a norm . Any unexpected behavior or behavior that violates social norms can be seen as deviant. A social actor exercising deviant behaviors runs the risk of being labeled a deviant. But what is the difference in conformity, deviance, and crime? Is all crime deviant ? Is all deviance criminal ? In Table \(10.1.1\), Robert K. Merton’s matrix combining group norms and legal code behaviors illustrates how deviant and criminal behaviors differ.
Table \(10.1.1\): Robert Merton's Deviant and Criminal Behaviors 301
| Actor complies with legal code | Actor violates legal code | |
| Actor complies with group norms | Conforming behaviors | Criminal behaviors |
| Actor violates gorup norms | Deviant behaviors | Deviant and criminal behaviors |
When an actor complies with group norms and the law it’s called conformity , or an adherence to the normative and legal standards of a group in society. An example might be the clothes you wore to class today, assuming you wore clothes to class and they are normative. When an actor violates group norms but complies with the law, it is deviance . An example might be if you wore your Halloween costume to class in July. If an actor complies with group norms yet breaks violates legal code, it’s called criminal . Crime is behavior which violates laws and to which governments can apply negative sanctions. An example of this might be when one drives 10 miles over the speed limit on the freeway. In this case, while speeding is against the law, if everybody is speeding and you do too, it could be seen as normative crime (although you may still receive a negative formal sanction in the form of a speeding ticket). Over–reporting deductions and under-reporting income on your income tax return can be seen as a normative crime (but, again, negative formal sanctions may still be applied in the form of an audit or paying penalties, etc.). When an actor violates group norms and legal codes, these are deviant and criminal behaviors .
301 Merton, Robert K. 1938. “Social Structure and Anomie.” American Sociological Review 3:672–82.


11.7: Using the t.test() Function
-
- Last updated
- Save as PDF
In this chapter, we’ve talked about three different kinds of t-test: the one sample test, the independent samples test (Student’s and Welch’s), and the paired samples test. In order to run these different tests, I’ve shown you three different functions:
oneSampleTTest()
,
independentSamplesTTest()
and
pairedSamplesTTest()
. I wrote these as three different functions for two reasons. Firstly, I thought it made sense to have separate functions for each test, in order to help make it clear to beginners that there
are
different tests. Secondly, I wanted to show you some functions that produced “verbose” output, to help you see what hypotheses are being tested and so on.
However, once you’ve started to become familiar with t-tests and with using R, you might find it easier to use the
t.test()
function. It’s one function, but it can run all four of the different t-tests that we’ve talked about. Here’s how it works. Firstly, suppose you want to run a one sample t-test. To run the test on the
grades
data from Dr Zeppo’s class (Section 13.2), we’d use a command like this:
t.test( x = grades, mu = 67.5 )
##
## One Sample t-test
##
## data: grades
## t = 2.2547, df = 19, p-value = 0.03615
## alternative hypothesis: true mean is not equal to 67.5
## 95 percent confidence interval:
## 67.84422 76.75578
## sample estimates:
## mean of x
## 72.3
The input is the same as for the
oneSampleTTest()
: we specify the sample data using the argument
x
, and the value against which it is to be tested using the argument
mu
. The output is a lot more compressed.
As you can see, it still has all the information you need. It tells you what type of test it ran and the data it tested it on. It gives you the t-statistic, the degrees of freedom and the p-value. And so on. There’s nothing wrong with this output, but in my experience it can be a little confusing when you’re just starting to learn statistics, because it’s a little disorganised. Once you know what you’re looking at though, it’s pretty easy to read off the relevant information.
What about independent samples t-tests? As it happens, the
t.test()
function can be used in much the same way as the
independentSamplesTTest()
function, by specifying a formula, a data frame, and using
var.equal
to indicate whether you want a Student test or a Welch test. If you want to run the Welch test from Section 13.4, then you’d use this command:
t.test( formula = grade ~ tutor, data = harpo )
##
## Welch Two Sample t-test
##
## data: grade by tutor
## t = 2.0342, df = 23.025, p-value = 0.05361
## alternative hypothesis: true difference in means is not equal to 0
## 95 percent confidence interval:
## -0.09249349 11.04804904
## sample estimates:
## mean in group Anastasia mean in group Bernadette
## 74.53333 69.05556
If you want to do the Student test, it’s exactly the same except that you need to add an additional argument indicating that
var.equal = TRUE
. This is no different to how it worked in the
independentSamplesTTest()
function.
Finally, we come to the paired samples t-test. Somewhat surprisingly, given that most R functions for dealing with repeated measures data require data to be in long form, the
t.test()
function isn’t really set up to handle data in long form. Instead it expects to be given two separate variables,
x
and
y
, and you need to specify
paired=TRUE
. And on top of that, you’d better make sure that the first element of
x
and the first element of
y
actually correspond to the same person! Because it doesn’t ask for an “id” variable. I don’t know why. So, in order to run the paired samples t test on the data from Dr Chico’s class, we’d use this command:
t.test( x = chico$grade_test2, # variable 1 is the "test2" scores
y = chico$grade_test1, # variable 2 is the "test1" scores
paired = TRUE # paired test
)
##
## Paired t-test
##
## data: chico$grade_test2 and chico$grade_test1
## t = 6.4754, df = 19, p-value = 3.321e-06
## alternative hypothesis: true difference in means is not equal to 0
## 95 percent confidence interval:
## 0.9508686 1.8591314
## sample estimates:
## mean of the differences
## 1.405
Yet again, these are the same numbers that we saw in Section 13.5. Feel free to check.


1: Chemical Principles
Background to chemical principles involved in the isolation and identification of cations from mixtures are described. Solubility of ionic compounds in water and the solubility variation by common ion effect, pH effect, coordination complex formation, and redox reaction are described in relation to the selective precipitation or dissolution of salts of the cations.
-
- 1.2: Solubility equilibria
- The solubility equilibrium constant (Ksp), i.e., the equilibrium constant of the dissociation reaction of ionic compounds in water and selective precipitation by adding a reagent that precipitates one of the dissolved cations or a particular group of dissolved cations but not the others are described.
-
- 1.5: Separation of cations in groups
- Cations commonly found in water are separated into five groups by adding suitable reagents that selectively precipitate a set of cations. Group I is separated as insoluble chlorides, group II as sulfides in acidic medium, group III as hydroxides and sulfides in basic medium, group IV as carbonates, and group V remains soluble in this process


2.7: Exploring your Quick Search results
Quick Search’s results page contains elements that tell you more about the items you found. Here are some particularly useful ones to make note of:
Material type
Each item on your list has information to tell you what format your item is in, for example whether it is a book, journal article, or video. This is helpful when you are seeking a specific format (e.g. when your instructor requires a specific number of source formats, like one book and four journal articles). It also signals whether you can expect the resource to be long or short, or whether it is text-based or audio-visual.
Multiple versions exist
This indicates your search has found something with more than one edition or format. You can click either the title or the see all versions link to find the list of versions. This might be helpful when you want a specific edition of a book or a specific recording of a musical piece. Think of Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet . In this case, “multiple versions” includes several different film versions, music recordings, different editions of books, physical books and e-books, and more.
Available or Checked out
This shows whether an item is available for you to use, or if it is not available to you because it is checked out.
Full text available
This means the whole item, not just a snippet or excerpt, is available in a digital format. Clicking on online access or full text available takes you either directly to your item, or to the digital collection that includes your item. If there is more than one digital collection listed, check which years are displayed for each and select one that includes the year you need (when your resource was published).
Tweak my results
On the right side of your search result page you’ll find a number of filters that will help you focus your results. We’ll talk about them in more detail later; however, it is worth noting that they can be helpful at any stage of the search process. Some filters you might start using right away are availability (whether something is available online or in the library), format type, creation date, and topic.
Using Quick Search to locate library materials
Quick Search helps you find both electronic and physical items within the library. Electronic items usually have one or more links which allow access to the item. To locate a physical item, you need these three things: collection, location (Map it), and call number.
Collection
To find a physical item in the library, first check which collection your item is in. Collections you might encounter include:
- General Collection: Most library materials fall within this collection. These can be located on the Lower Level, Floors 2 and 3, and Tiers 1 through 7 of the library. You can find maps of the floors and tiers on the library website.
- Media Center : Located on the Lower Level, this collection includes DVDs, CDs, and other multimedia items.
- Special Collections : This department is home to rare and unique research materials that support major research areas of Iowa State University. Because these materials are rare and tend to be fragile, access is more restricted and hours are limited. Special Collections is located on Floor 4.
- Other locations, such as Design, Veterinary Medical Library, or the Storage Building may also be listed with the call number.
Location (Map it)
Some collections are spread across multiple floors, so Quick Search’s Map it can help. This feature indicates where your item is located in Parks Library. Map it lists the floor or tier your item should be on, and provides a graphic indicating the approximate location. If you need help locating your items you can always ask for assistance at the Main Desk.
Call numbers
Each item in the library has a unique call number. Like most academic research libraries in the United States, the ISU Library uses the Library of Congress Classification System to organize its books and journals. The first thing you need to know about this system is that it is alphanumeric, meaning its call numbers are composed of both letters and numbers. Call numbers are made up of at least two sections that encode a book’s subject and other attributes. Because of this, books on the same shelf will be about similar topics.
In library catalogs and library discovery tools like Quick Search, call numbers typically appear in one long string with spaces in between each section of the call number. When call numbers are printed on the spine of a book, the sections will often be stacked in several short rows. Here’s an example of the same call number in these two different formats:
In Quick Search:
ML419 K495 S313 2006
On a book spine:
ML419
K495
S313
2006
In both formats, each section of the call number signifies a different part of the book’s code. It’s not necessary to know what these mean; the important thing is to understand how they are read and arranged.


21.1: Introduction to the Digestive System
Chapter Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
- List and describe the functional anatomy of the organs and accessory organs of the digestive system
- Discuss how food moves through the digestive tract
- Discuss the anatomy of the accessory organs of the digestive system, which include liver, pancreas, and gallbladder
The digestive system is continually at work, yet people seldom appreciate the complex tasks it performs in a choreographed biologic symphony.   You may be taking a walk or studying or sleeping, having forgotten all about the apple, but your stomach and intestines are busy digesting it and absorbing its vitamins and other nutrients. By the time any waste material is excreted, the body has appropriated all it can use from the apple. In short, whether you pay attention or not, the organs of the digestive system perform their specific functions, allowing you to use the food you eat to keep you going. This chapter examines the structure of these organs, and explores the mechanics of the digestive system processes.
Contributors and Attributions
-
OpenStax Anatomy & Physiology (CC BY 4.0). Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology


5.2: Managing Your Research Project
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Identify reasons for outlining the scope and sequence of a research project.
- Recognize the steps of the research writing process.
- Develop a plan for managing time and resources to complete the research project on time.
- Identify organizational tools and strategies to use in managing the project.
The prewriting you have completed so far has helped you begin to plan the content of your research paper—your topic, research questions, and preliminary thesis. It is equally important to plan out the process of researching and writing the paper. Although some types of writing assignments can be completed relatively quickly, developing a good research paper is a complex process that takes time. Breaking it into manageable steps is crucial. Review the steps outlined at the beginning of this chapter.
Steps to Writing a Research Paper
- Choose a topic.
- Schedule and plan time for research and writing.
- Conduct research.
- Organize research
- Draft your paper.
- Revise and edit your paper.
You have already completed step 1. In this section, you will complete step 2. The remaining steps fall under two broad categories—the research phase of the project (steps 3 and 4) and the writing phase (steps 5 and 6). Both phases present challenges. Understanding the tasks involved and allowing enough time to complete each task will help you complete your research paper on time with a minimal amount of stress.
Planning Your Project
Each step of a research project requires time and attention. Careful planning helps ensure that you will keep your project running smoothly and produce your best work. Set up a project schedule that shows when you will complete each step. Think about how you will complete each step and what project resources you will use. Resources may include anything from library databases and word-processing software to interview subjects and writing tutors.
To develop your schedule, use a calendar and work backward from the date your final draft is due. Generally, it is wise to divide half of the available time on the research phase of the project and half on the writing phase. For example, if you have a month to work, plan for two weeks for each phase. If you have a full semester, plan to begin research early and to start writing by the middle of the term. You might think that no one really works that far ahead, but try it. You will probably be pleased with the quality of your work and with the reduction in your stress level.
As you plan, break down major steps into smaller tasks if necessary. For example, step 3, conducting research, involves locating potential sources, evaluating their usefulness and reliability, reading, and taking notes. Defining these smaller tasks makes the project more manageable by giving you concrete goals to achieve.
Jorge had six weeks to complete his research project. Working backward from a due date of May 2, he mapped out a schedule for completing his research by early April so that he would have ample time to write. Jorge chose to write his schedule in his weekly planner to help keep himself on track.
Review Jorge’s schedule. Key target dates are shaded. Note that Jorge planned times to use available resources by visiting the library and writing center and by meeting with his instructor.
Exercise 1
- Working backward from the date your final draft is due, create a project schedule. You may choose to write a sequential list of tasks or record tasks on a calendar.
- Check your schedule to be sure that you have broken each step into smaller tasks and assigned a target completion date to each key task.
- Review your target dates to make sure they are realistic. Always allow a little more time than you think you will actually need.
Tip
Plan your schedule realistically, and consider other commitments that may sometimes take precedence. A business trip or family visit may mean that you are unable to work on the research project for a few days. Make the most of the time you have available. Plan for unexpected interruptions, but keep in mind that a short time away from the project may help you come back to it with renewed enthusiasm. Another strategy many writers find helpful is to finish each day’s work at a point when the next task is an easy one. That makes it easier to start again.Writing at Work
When you create a project schedule at work, you set target dates for completing certain tasks and identify the resources you plan to use on the project. It is important to build in some flexibility. Materials may not be received on time because of a shipping delay. An employee on your team may be called away to work on a higher-priority project. Essential equipment may malfunction. You should always plan for the unexpected.
Staying Organized
Although setting up a schedule is easy, sticking to one is challenging. Even if you are the rare person who never procrastinates, unforeseen events may interfere with your ability to complete tasks on time. A self-imposed deadline may slip your mind despite your best intentions. Organizational tools—calendars, checklists, note cards, software, and so forth—can help you stay on track.
Throughout your project, organize both your time and your resources systematically. Review your schedule frequently and check your progress. It helps to post your schedule in a place where you will see it every day. Both personal and workplace e-mail systems usually include a calendar feature where you can record tasks, arrange to receive daily reminders, and check off completed tasks. Electronic devices such as smartphones have similar features.
Organize project documents in a binder or electronic folder, and label project documents and folders clearly. Use note cards or an electronic document to record bibliographical information for each source you plan to use in your paper. Tracking this information throughout the research process can save you hours of time when you create your references page.
EXERCISE 2
- Revisit the schedule you created in Note 11.42 “Exercise 1.” Transfer it into a format that will help you stay on track from day to day. You may wish to input it into your smartphone, write it in a weekly planner, post it by your desk, or have your e-mail account send you daily reminders. Consider setting up a buddy system with a classmate that will help you both stay on track.
TIP
Some people enjoy using the most up-to-date technology to help them stay organized. Other people prefer simple methods, such as crossing off items on a checklist. The key to staying organized is finding a system you like enough to use daily. The particulars of the method are not important as long as you are consistent.Anticipating Challenges
Do any of these scenarios sound familiar? You have identified a book that would be a great resource for your project, but it is currently checked out of the library. You planned to interview a subject matter expert on your topic, but she calls to reschedule your meeting. You have begun writing your draft, but now you realize that you will need to modify your thesis and conduct additional research. Or you have finally completed your draft when your computer crashes, and days of hard work disappear in an instant.
These troubling situations are all too common. No matter how carefully you plan your schedule, you may encounter a glitch or setback. Managing your project effectively means anticipating potential problems, taking steps to minimize them where possible, and allowing time in your schedule to handle any setbacks.
Many times a situation becomes a problem due only to lack of planning. For example, if a book is checked out of your local library, it might be available through interlibrary loan, which usually takes a few days for the library staff to process. Alternatively, you might locate another, equally useful source. If you have allowed enough time for research, a brief delay will not become a major setback.
You can manage other potential problems by staying organized and maintaining a take-charge attitude. Take a minute each day to save a backup copy of your work on a portable hard drive. Maintain detailed note cards and source cards as you conduct research—doing so will make citing sources in your draft infinitely easier. If you run into difficulties with your research or your writing, ask your instructor for help, or make an appointment with a writing tutor.
EXERCISE 3
- Identify five potential problems you might encounter in the process of researching and writing your paper. Write them on a separate sheet of paper. For each problem, write at least one strategy for solving the problem or minimizing its effect on your project.
Writing at Work
In the workplace, documents prepared at the beginning of a project often include a detailed plan for risk management. When you manage a project, it makes sense to anticipate and prepare for potential setbacks. For example, to roll out a new product line, a software development company must strive to complete tasks on a schedule in order to meet the new product release date. The project manager may need to adjust the project plan if one or more tasks fall behind schedule.
Key Takeaways
- To complete a research project successfully, a writer must carefully manage each phase of the process and break major steps into smaller tasks.
- Writers can plan a research project by setting up a schedule based on the deadline and by identifying useful project resources.
- Writers stay focused by using organizational tools that suit their needs.
- Anticipating and planning for potential setbacks can help writers avoid those setbacks or minimize their effect on the project schedule.
Contributors and Attributions
- Successful Writing. Authored by : Anonymous. Provided by : Anonymous. Located at : http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/successful-writing/ . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike