By: Cassaundra Lewis
I. Introduction
Every year thousands of students graduate from high school and go on to college. Every year hundreds are not as successful. What can be done to assure that more high school students go on to college? What can we do to prepare students for life after high school? The United States has been debating these questions not only on state levels, but national as well. In this article I will discuss some of the benefits, hindrances, advances, and the content of vocational education and college preparation courses.
II. College Prep vs. Vocational Education
First we should define college preparation and vocational education. College preparation is a course or series of courses that help students adjust to many college-level requirements. William Tierney writes, “Important objectives of most programs are the smoothing of the transition from school to college, improvement of study habits, increase of general academic readiness, and expansion of academic options” (Increasing Access to College, 2002, pg 3). Vocational education is a course or series of courses that give students work related experience to express the nature of careers and help them learn skills that will assist towards careers in the future. According to Unger, “the basic purpose of vocational education is to get a job” (But What If…, 2006, pg 33). “In no other area has greater emphasis been placed upon the development of curricula that are relevant in terms of student and community needs and substantive outcomes.” (Curriculum Development, 1999, pg 3).
Note
Did You Know…?
Did you know…
Education for work began 4,000 years ago? According to Finch, “(the) earliest type of vocational education took the form of apprenticeship” (Curriculum Development, 1999, pg 4).
III. Main Targets of College Prep and Vocational Education
One of the main targets of college preparation courses are low-income students and minorities, who make up a very small percentage of students attending both two and four year colleges directly after high school (Preparing for College, 2005, pg 3). “Educational institutions, state and federal governments, and local communities have committed significant resources to the development of a wide array of outreach activities designed to identify and assist underrepresented students in their pathways to college” (Preparing for College, 2005, pg 1). Vocational education targets those who are even less likely to attend college immediately after high school. “Millions of students all over the world are not suited for and have no interest in traditional academic schooling—which is why alternative career education was developed: to teach students the skills they need to get a good job” (But What If…, 2006, pg 4). Both college prep and vocational education attempt to enlighten students about career choices and assist them with the transition from high school into the adult world.
IV. Positives and Negatives in College Preparation
According to Anne Lewis, of the Education Digest, “more students are taking upper-level math and science classes and more are enrolled in Advanced Placement classes” (College Prep, 2004, paragraph 1). By this, she means that more students are enrolled in classes to help them prepare for college. She goes on to state, unfortunately, “the likelihood of ninth-graders completing high school and enrolling in college by age 19 (…, having graduated from high school within four years and directly entered a higher education institution) has declined”(paragraph 2). Another major negative in college preparation is that the population targeted is not always the one assisted. Tierney writes, “Programs such as MESA, Upward Bound, AVID, (etc.)… are well intentioned, (but) minority students remain underrepresented on college campuses”(Preparing for College, 2005, pg 1).
Note
Did You Know…?
Did you know…
The National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education grades each state, on a scale of A to F, on ability to effectively prepare students for college? Seven states received an “A,” Connecticut, Colorado, Massachusetts (who scored the highest), Maryland, New Jersey, New York, and Utah. Louisiana and New Mexico were the only states to receive a “F”(College Prep, 2004, paragraph 7).
V. Positives and Negatives in Vocational Education
There are many benefits of vocational education. According to Unger, “Employers generally respect the credentials of graduates from vo-tech schools, which usually have strong job placement services and close ties with employers. Vo-tech students emerge stronger in academics as well, because students learn English, math, science, and other subjects in conjunction with their vocational education and, therefore, find these areas more interesting”(But What If…?, 2006, pg 20). Two negatives associated with vocational education are that, “Unfortunately, there are only about 325 vo-tech schools across the United States” and there is a rising inability to keep students interested (But What If…?, 2006, pg 20).
Note
Did You Know…?
Did you know…
“It’s easy to get into college, but not easy to finish and graduate? More than 40% of students who enroll in American colleges and universities quit without graduating” (But What If…, 2006, pg 3).
VI. Curriculum Content
What all is included in the curriculum for college preparation and vocational education? What factors help in considering whether or not a program should be added or subtracted? “Curriculum materials are resources that, if used properly, can assist an instructor in bringing about an intended desirable behavior change in individual students” (Curriculum Development, 1999, pg 208). Unfortunately, there is no fool proof way of being able to tell what is going to help and what isn’t. There are many things to take into consideration when choosing what programs to keep and eliminate (Increasing Access to College, 2002, pg 3). As far as college preparation is concerned, a lot of the learning occurs in advanced classes. Many different approaches are used, such as computer-based assessment and writing assessment. With vocational education, you must determine: What will the student want to study? What does the community need as far as work experience? What will motivate the students toward life after high school (Curriculum Development, 1999, pg 92)?
VII. My Personal Experience with College Preparation and Vocational Education
While I was in high school, I was fortunate enough to experience both college preparation and vocational education. In my opinion, college preparation did very much to help me familiarize myself with what college would actually be like. I attended all honors classes and college preparation meetings. During my time as a vocational education student, I had hands on job training and was able to get my license as a cosmetologist when I graduated from high school. Vocational education did just as much for me on an overall level as college preparation. I do understand that not everyone was as fortunate as I and may not have had the same type of support that I received. One contributing factor, that is very often overlooked, is the influence of home life on attending college directly after high school.
VIII. Conclusion
In conclusion, college preparation courses and vocational education courses are both designed to promote success in the community but use different avenues. College preparation is focused on getting students to college. Vocational education is focused on providing an alternative to a college education for those who might not be as interested capable. When used properly and effectively, these means of education can provide options after high school for all students.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
1. Which course is more likely to be a college preparation course?
a. Cosmetology
b. Health Education
c. Honors English
d. US History
2. Which course is more likely to be a vocational course?
a. Brick Masonry
b. Calculus
c. Driver's Education
d. Honors English
3. What could be done to increase student’s interest in college?
a. Allow students to research colleges and gather info on their own
b. Help students find out how college will benefit them personally
c. Inform students of which colleges are best and worst
d. Talk to students about your college Experience
4. What could be a benefit in attending vocational education courses?
a. Being able to go straight into the workforce after highschool
b. Developing skills to use in college
c. Making more money than students who do attend 4 year colleges
d. Spending less money than you would at a 4 year college
5. What other factors would least contribute to a student’s decision to go to college?
a. Family's interests and exoectations
b. Gender and race of students attending college
c. Student's personal expectations
d. Total Household Income
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Answer
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1. C
2. A
3. B
4. D
5. B
IX. Resources
Law, C. J. (1994). Tech Prep Education: A Total Quality Approach. Lancaster, PA: Technomic Publishing Company.
Finch, C. R., Crunkilton, J. R. (1999). Curriculum Development in Vocational and Technical Education: Planning, Content, and Implementation (5th ed.). Boston: Viacom Company.
Walter, D. M. (1992). Tech Prep: Challenges and Opportunities For Community Colleges. Southern Association of Community, Junior, and Technical Colleges (SACJTC) Occasional Paper, 10, 3-8.
Lewis, A. C. (2004). College Prep. The Education Digest, 70, 69-70.
Tierney, W. G., Corwin, Z. B., and Colyar, J. E. (2005). Preparing for College: Nine Elements of Effective Outreach. New York: State University of New York Press.
Tierney, W. G., Hagedorn, L. S. (2002). Increasing Access to College: Extending Possibilities for All Students. New York: State University of New York Press.
Unger, H. G. (2006).  New York: Checkmark Books.


6.1: Overview and Purpose
Overview and Purpose
This lab is intended to provide a hands-on learning experience about the science of paleontology and the process of fossilization. Through examining and analyzing actual fossils, students will gain an understanding of how fossils are formed and the significance of these remains for reconstructing the past.
Learning Outcomes
- Define what fossils are and how they provide insight into the Earth's past.
- Outline the general timeline of life on Earth.
- Describe of the timescale relationship of the Universe, the Earth, and life.
- Make observations and take measurements of fossils.
- Draw comparisons between fossils and their ages
- Understand the position of life in geologic and cosmic time.
Vobaulary
Fossil
Mummification
Geologic time
Paleozoic
Mesozoic
Cenezoic


12.5: Word Form
Word Form
Almost every word has a "root" -- a base unit of meaning around which the rest of the word is built. In English, most of the root words come from Greek, Latin, or Anglo Saxon. A word may also have a prefix that adds on to the meaning. For example, "prepare" has the root, "pare," which means "to cut close" or "to give birth to" -- so we can interpret this meaning an act of creation or doing. "Pre" means "before." Both "pre" and "pare" are from Latin. The word "prepare" then means before an act of doing or creation. A suffix is the word ending and indicates the part of speech or function within a sentence. For instance, although the word "prepare" is a verb, adding "ing" to the end turns it into a noun, so the meaning becomes "the act of getting ready." The word can then be used a a subject, an object of a preposition, etc. Thus, "prepare" and "preparing" would appear in two very different places in an English sentence.
Most of the time in English, the part of speech (or verb tense in the case of verbs) is indicated by the suffix (ending) of the word. As you know, word order is very important in English to indicate meanings and relationships. The word form needs to work with the word order to reinforce the meaning through the form. Many English language learners, as well as native speakers, are not sure what ending to put on the word at least some of the time. This page is a review of word form although it is not exhaustive. For more information about verb tense and form, please see Chapter 12. 6.
Table 12.5.1 -- Common Suffixes
| Common Suffixes | |||
| Nouns | Adjectives | Verbs | Adverbs |
|
--er / --or / --ar (means "the person who does") (Turns a verb into a noun) paint to painter |
--less (means "without") (Turns a noun into an adjective) clue to clueless |
--ate (means "to make, have, become") obviate |
--ly (means "how something is done") (Turns a verb into an adverb) slow to slowly |
|
--ist (means "the person who is") (Noun) theorist |
--ful (means "full of") (Turns a noun or verb into an adjective) mourn to mournful |
--ify (means "to make, have, become") (Turns an adjective into a verb) beauty to beautify |
--wise (means "in relation to") (Turns different kinds of words into an adverb) other to otherwise |
|
--ion (means "the act of doing something) (Turns a verb into a noun) act to action |
--able (means "can") (Turns a verb into an adjective) work to workable |
--ize (means "to make, have, become") (Turns a noun into a verb) sympathy to sympathize |
|
|
--ence* (means "the act of doing something") (Turns an adjective into a noun) violent to violence |
--y* (means "full of, covered with") (Turns a noun into an adjective) sneeze to sneezy |
||
|
--ment (means "the act of doing something; product or result of an action") (Turns a verb into a noun) encourage to encouragement |
--ous (means "fll of, covered with) harmony to harmonious |
||
|
--ness (means "the state of being something") (Turns an adjective into a noun.) kind to kindness |
--al (means "connected with") (Turns a noun into an adjective) emotion to emotional |
||
|
--ship (the state) friendship |
--ish (means "like, similar to") (Turns a noun into an adjective) child to childish |
||
|
--ity (means "the state of being something") (Turns an adjective into a noun.) clear to clarity |
--ic (means "like, similar to") (Turns a noun into an adjective) athlete to athletic |
||
|
--ive (means "has qualities of") (Turns a verb into an adjective) create to creative |
* Sometime the spelling of a word ending may need to change to add on the suffix correctly. A commonly known spelling rule in this area is to change "y" to "i' before adding the ending. For example, change the "y" in "activit y" to "i" when pluralizing it to "activit i es." Nouns that end in "t" should be "c" when adding endings; for example, the "t" in "violen t " becomes "c" in "violen c e." When a word ends in a silent "e" and you need to add an ending that begins with a vowel, drop the "e" and add the ending.
Adjectives and Adverbs
Adjectives and adverbs are descriptive words that bring your writing to life. Using the appropriate word form in your writing shows you understand how word variety and use is important. This also helps your writing be clear to the reader. The English language contains an enormous and ever-growing number of words. Enhancing your vocabulary by learning new words can seem overwhelming, but if you know the common prefixes and suffixes of English, you will understand many more words. Mastering common prefixes and suffixes is like learning a code. Once you crack the code, you can not only spell words more correctly but also recognize and perhaps even define unfamiliar words, especially if you are familiar with common Greek and Latin roots.
Exercise 1
Change the bolded words in the following sentences so that they are right word form for the grammatical function in the sentence.
1. Violent is not the answer; talking is.
2. Macbeth was not a virtue character.
3. The idealism decided to work in the nonprofit sector.
4. Some dictators want to have world dominate.
5. Create is necessary for many careers, even in the sciences.
6. Madison warns against factional in The Federalist Papers.
7. I finished that test very easy .
Contributors and Attributions
CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY:
- Adapted from College ESL Writers: Applied Grammar and Composing Strategies for Success . Authored by: Barbara Hall and Elizabeth Wallace. Provided by: GALILEO Open Learning Materials. License: CC BY-NC-SA (3.0): Attribution.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT:
- English Suffixes. Learn English Vocabulary . Authored by: Crown Academy of English. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License.
This page was most recently updated on June 8, 2020.


18.5: Coping with Work related Stress
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- What are the remedies for job-related stress, and how can managers motivate employees to participate actively in health promotion efforts for the benefit of all concerned?
We come now to the most important question from a managerial standpoint: What can be done to reduce job-related stress? Many suggestions for coping with stress are implicit in the previous discussions. However, it is possible to summarize several important actions employees and managers can take in order to provide a more desirable work environment and improve employee adjustment to work.
Individual Strategies
There are many things people can do to help eliminate the level of experienced stress or, at the very least, to help cope with continuing high stress. Consider the following:
Developing Self-Awareness. Individuals can increase awareness of how they behave on the job. They can learn to know their own limits and recognize signs of potential trouble. Employees should know when to withdraw from a situation (known to some as a “mental health day” instead of absenteeism) and when to seek help from others on the job in an attempt to relieve the situation.
Developing Outside Interests. In addition, individuals can develop outside interests to take their minds off work. This solution is particularly important for Type A people, whose physical health depends on toning down their drive for success. Employees can ensure that they get regular physical exercise to relieve pent-up stress. Many companies sponsor athletic activities, and some have built athletic facilities on company premises to encourage employee activity.
Leaving the Organization. Sometimes an employee may be unable to improve her situation and, as a result, may find it necessary (i.e., healthful) simply to leave the organization and find alternative employment. Although this is clearly a difficult decision to make, there are times when turnover is the only answer.
Finding a Personal or Unique Solution. Another means individuals can use to cope with stress is through a variety of personal or unique solutions. For instance, here is how one manager described his reaction to a stressful situation: “If someone finally bugs me, I politely hang up the phone and then pound the hell out of my typewriter, saying all the things on paper I wanted to say to that person on the phone. It works every time. Then, I rip up the paper and throw it into the trash can.” If an employee cannot leave a stressful situation, this may be a good temporary way out of it.
Physical Exercise. Because part of the cause of the fatigue resulting from stress is the body’s physical reaction, exercise can be an effective means of enabling the body to more effective deal with the physical components of stress. Regular exercise can be an important and effective individual strategy.
Cognitive Perspective. Finally, because stress is in part a function of how events are perceived and interpreted, controlling one’s cognitive perspective of events can also be an effective strategy. Although one would not want to go so far as framing a truck speeding toward you as an opportunity rather than a threat, positively framing situations as well as distinguishing factors that are within as well as outside your control and influence can be effective means of reducing stress.
Organizational Strategies
Because managers usually have more control over the working environment than do subordinates, it seems only natural that they have more opportunity to contribute to a reduction of work-related stress. Among their activities, managers may include the following eight strategies.
Personnel Selection and Placement. First, managers can pay more attention in the selection and placement process to the fit between job applicants, the job, and the work environment. Current selection and placement procedures are devoted almost exclusively to preventing qualitative role overload by ensuring that people have the required education, ability, experience, and training for the job. Managers could extend these selection criteria to include a consideration of the extent to which job applicants have a tolerance for ambiguity and can handle role conflict. In other words, managers could be alert in the job interview and subsequent placement process to potential stress-related problems and the ability of the applicant to deal successfully with them.
Skills Training. Second, stress can be reduced in some cases through better job-related skills training procedures, where employees are taught how to do their jobs more effectively with less stress and strain. For instance, an employee might be taught how to reduce overload by taking shortcuts or by using new or expanded skills. These techniques would only be successful, however, if management did not follow this increased effectiveness by raising work quotas. Along with this could go greater effort by managers to specify and clarify job duties to reduce ambiguity and conflict. Employees could also be trained in human relations skills in order to improve their interpersonal abilities so that they might encounter less interpersonal and intergroup conflict.
Job Redesign. Third, managers can change certain aspects of jobs or the ways people perform these jobs. Much has been written about the benefits of job redesign. Enriching a job may lead to improved task significance, autonomy, responsibility, and feedback. For many people, these jobs will present a welcome challenge, which will improve the job-person fit and reduce experienced stress. It should be noted, however, that all people do not necessarily want an enriched job. Enriching the job of a person with a very low need for achievement or external locus of control may only increase anxiety and fear of failure. Care must be taken in job enrichment to match these efforts to employee needs and desires.
In addition to job enrichment, a related technique aimed at reducing stress is job rotation . Job rotation is basically a way of spreading stress among employees and providing a respite—albeit temporary—from particularly stressful jobs. Job rotation is particularly popular in Japan as a means of allocating the more tedious or boring tasks among a large set of employees so prolonged stress is reduced. Japan is also finally working toward a reduced workweek as a means of reducing job-related stress.
Company-Sponsored Counseling Programs. Several companies have begun experimenting with counseling programs, the fourth strategy suggested here. For instance, Stanford University’s executive program includes a module on coping with stress, and the Menninger Foundation conducts a one-week anti-stress seminar in Topeka. In one experiment among police officers, the value of a stress management program was examined. In the program, which consisted of six two-hour sessions, officers were told about the nature and causes of stress, were shown useful relaxation exercises, and were put through several simulated stressful situations—such as role playing the handling of an arrest. Throughout, emphasis was placed on reinforcing the officers’ confidence that they could, in fact, successfully cope with on-the-job stress. The results of the program showed that those officers who went through the program performed better, exhibited greater self-control, and experienced less stress than officers in comparable positions who did not go through the program. Similar findings have emerged in a variety of business organizations. Once again, much work-related stress can be reduced simply by encouraging managers to be more supportive and to provide the necessary tools for people to cope with stress.
Increased Participation and Personal Control. Fifth, managers can allow employees greater participation and personal control in decisions affecting their work. As noted above, participation increases job involvement and simultaneously reduces stress by relieving ambiguity and conflict. However, although the benefits of increased participation are many, it should be noted that being more participative is no easy task for some supervisors. One study, for example, found significant differences in the extent to which different supervisors would allow their subordinates to participation in decision-making. Females were found to allow more participation than males. Supervisors with high achievement needs, high levels of confidence in the abilities of their subordinates, and low feelings of being threatened by others allowed more subordinate participation. The issue of participation does not appear to be whether subordinates desire it; instead, it appears to be whether superiors will allow it.
Work Group Cohesiveness. Sixth, managers can attempt to build work group cohesiveness. Team-building efforts are common in industry today. These efforts focus on developing groups that will be both more productive and mutually supportive. A critical ingredient in the extent to which stress is experienced is the amount of social support employees receive. Team building represents one way to achieve this support.
Improved Communication. Managers can open communication channels so employees are more informed about what is happening in the organization. With greater knowledge, role ambiguity and conflict are reduced. Managers must be aware, however, that communication is a two-way street; they should allow and be receptive to communication from subordinates. To the extent that subordinates feel their problems and complaints are being heard, they experience less stress and are less inclined to engage in counterproductive behavior.
Health Promotion Programs. Finally, many companies have recently embarked on a more systematic and comprehensive approach to stress reduction and wellness in the workplace. These programs are usually referred to as health promotion programs , and they represent a combination of diagnostic, educational, and behavior modification activities that are aimed at attaining and preserving good health. A typical program includes risk assessment, educational and instructional classes, and counseling and referrals. Health promotion programs tackle a wide array of health-related concerns, including physical fitness, weight control, dietary and nutritional counseling, smoking cessation, blood pressure monitoring, alcohol and substance abuse problems, and general lifestyle modification.
Companies involved in such programs usually feel that the costs invested to run them are more than returned through higher levels of productivity and reduced absenteeism and stress-related illness. Moreover, many companies have found that providing such services serves as an attractive incentive when recruiting employees in a tight job market.
Stress is a function of the objective environment but also of individuals’ subjective interpretation of events and their consequences. Both body and mind are involved the process. It is important for both firms and individuals to take preventive measures before the cumulative effects of stress manifest themselves in ways that cost both the individual and the company.
Eustress is a term that signifies beneficial stress, either psychological, physical. The term was coined by using the Greek prefix “eu”, meaning "good", and stress, literally meaning "good stress". Eustress was originally explored in a stress model by Richard Lazarus. It is the positive cognitive response to stress that is healthy, or gives one a feeling of fulfilment or other positive feelings.
concept check
What are some things that managers can do to reduce stress in the organization?


2.19: Outhouse Wall
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Outhouse Wall
American Decoration attributed to either Anton or Albert Bruflat, 1905 Wood (pine) Gift of Bob & Vicki Applegate MHAHS 1986.040.0001 |
This carved interior outhouse wall is a remnant from the Bruflat family’s homestead. The artist, likely one of the Bruflat sons based on the initials “AB”, incised a dove with an olive leaf and a scroll, possibly inspired by religious motifs from their local Perry Lutheran Church or common design themes found in religious publications. It is interesting to contemplate why they chose to decorate such a mundane space with an elegant carved scriptural reference.
The human impulse to mark and write, to claim ownership or personalization of an environment whether public or private, forms a continuum from the first human cave drawings to today’s graffiti culture.[1] Today, there is hardly a public restroom stall that has not been christened with the scratchings and writings of visitors driven to leave a permanent relic of their transient presence. Their wall writings are often categorized as Graffiti, defined by Howard Pearlstein as “any coherently-intended presence written, scratched, painted, engraved, printed or pasted or otherwise impressed in a public place.” Pearlstein then goes on to identify two motivations for graffiti, suggesting that the definition of graffiti is wrapped up in its drive as much as in its manifestation: “the need of the moment to personalize, integrate and possess the environment, and the desire to make one’s presence and/or perceptions known to otherwise unconnected persons who share that environment.”[2]
The outhouse is one of the most banal, dirty environments visited multiple times during the course of a day and, though we might happily withdraw our human need to visit the facilities if possible, evacuation is a necessary daily experience of every mammalian body. Hygienically separate from the homestead, the outhouse is consigned a functional space often adorned with little more than a carved window, perhaps in the shape of a moon or rooster. How ought one enhance the banality and mock sterility of the outhouse – the flat and unaesthetic space of countless cumulative waking hours. For many, the requisite trip to the loo is bettered by introspection or some solitary activity such as that requiring merely the ever-at-hand pocket knife or pen. Better yet, the bathroom venue provides the spontaneous artist with command of an anonymous, willing or unwilling, temporarily captivated audience, making it an ideal local for untrained, expressive scribbles.
This carved interior outhouse wall belonged to the Bruflat family of Blue Mounds, WI. Andrew Bruflat and his wife Kuri Bruflat married in Norway in 1880 before immigrating to the United States in 1885. The couple had seven children, five of which were born in Blue Mounds.
The pinewood canvas is incised with the outline of a large dove with long tail feathers spanning two boards. Below the bird, the artist, self-identified with the initials “AB” carved below the tail feathers, also carved the date 1905. Two of the Bruflat children possessed the initials AB: Anton (aged 19 in 1905) and Albert (aged 16 in 1905). Although it is plausible that the father, Andrew Bruflat, could have carved the image, the donor claims that it was carved by one of the sons.
The next question is “why carve a dove in an outhouse?” The dove is accompanied by an olive leaf, suggestive of Christian iconography, particularly of the story of Noah’s ark, and a scroll. The scriptures tell of Noah’s discovery of land after the great flood. He sent out a dove anticipating that if it returned to the ark, it did not find an alternative place to perch. If it did not return, that meant that the dove found land, providing Noah and his distressed family with assurance that their tribulation would soon be at an end. After Noah’s first failed attempt, the text about the dove proceeds as follows:
“He [Noah] waited seven more days and again sent out the dove from the ark. When the dove returned to him in the evening, there in its beak was a freshly plucked olive leaf! Then Noah knew that the water had receded from the earth. He waited seven more days and sent the dove out again, but this time it did not return to him.”[3]
The story of Noah’s ark and the dove in particular symbolizes God’s faithfulness to provide and the peace that knowledge provides for the recipient.
What is the meaning of adorning an outhouse wall with an elegant scriptural reference? Is it in some way irreverent? The outhouse itself is a sort of floating wooden structure separate from the house. It is also a space out of doors and more deeply connected to nature than perhaps the main homestead. In some ways, it is like the ark. A quiet, isolated space of introspection as much as a functional necessity.
Perhaps the best way to understand the Bruflat graffiti artist is to think of the messages inscribed in bathroom stalls today. They might be political, religious, personal, comical, pictorial or indecipherable. But nonetheless, we read them on a scale ranging from absentmindedness to thoughtfulness. In this way, it is easy to imagine the Bruflat artist and his family occupying the outhouse and being caused to ponder the dove and the olive branch, calling to mind the story of Noah and of God’s faithfulness all while hearing the breeze blow past the small building and the bird, perhaps a dove, chirping outside.
References
[1] Robert Reisner, Graffiti: Two Thousand Years of Wall Writing, (Chicago: Cowles Book Company, 1971), 1. 34-35 “Scholars do admit that whereas the writers, historians, and record keepers of various eras have provided panoramic stylization of a civilization, it is the graffiti that attest to the continuity of the common man, and the continued commonness of many of his problems. It was true of Pompeii, and is certainly true of ancient Rome, where the mania for writing on public and private buildings was intense. There was hardly an edifice that didn’t bear the scars of a schoolboy’s pocket-knife or some idle passerby’s nail…Many graffiti show that deeply entrenched in time and history are some of life’s daily vexations.”
[2] Howard Pearlstein, Post-Graffiti , (New York: Sidney Janis Gallery, 1983), N.P.
[3] Genesis 8:10-12, New International Version of the Bible


4.9: Editorial Writing
What it is?
Have you ever been asked to write an editorial?
When you are asked to write an editorial, you are expected to share your educated opinion on a current and often controversial or debated topic or issue. It is sometimes referred to as an opinion or perspective piece, but what distinguishes it from a purely opinion piece is that it is written from an assumed knowledge base – the author has expertise on the topic . Within an editorial, you may find yourself combining other types of writing. For example, you may draw upon a critical voice or analytical voice in which you compare and contrast or evaluate an issue, or use a persuasive style of writing to compel and convince the reader.
Editorials may be written for newspapers, blogs, or websites. You may also need to write editorials for nursing magazines and journals. Often, each issue of a healthcare journal begins with an editorial written by the editor or someone like you with an educated opinion on a current healthcare issue.
How to do it?
Where do you start and how do you write an editorial related to the healthcare field? Here are some steps to consider:
- Choose a specific topic that is current, timely, and controversial in the nursing and healthcare field. Avoid topics that are too broad or ones that hinder your ability to write comprehensively about your topic in a concise manner. For example, writing about the need for seatbelts in cars is no longer a current topic; it hasn’t been for decades. However, writing about seatbelts on buses is a timely health-related topic with some controversy surrounding it.
- Always consider the audience because they will influence the language you use and the points you emphasize. You may be writing an editorial that your instructor will read as an evaluative component of a course. But remember – although your instructor is the reader, they are not necessarily your audience. Your audience is the person or group that you are trying to influence. For example, it may be local government or key stakeholders that you are trying to influence about the need to open harm-reduction clinics in urban areas.
- Think about your purpose in writing the editorial. It is important to know what you want to convey and stick with it. An editorial’s purpose can generally be categorized into two types. The first type is to express your opinion about an issue. For example, you might express your opinion about the need for a guaranteed basic income for adults regardless of employment status. Here, you need to state your opinion and clearly argue it. The second type is to propose a solution to an issue. For example, you might argue that a solution to workplace stress is to develop and implement meditation programs. Here, you need to describe the problem and why your solution is best. Whatever the purpose of your editorial, note it at the top of your paper as you begin writing, so that you can keep it in mind and ensure that your writing always aligns with your purpose.
- Based on your informed opinion, choose a side and state your position early in the editorial. You should clearly state your opinion in the first paragraph.
- You should structure your editorial similar to other types of writing. Begin with an introduction that describes the topic and your opinion. Next, write the body of the editorial: describe both sides of the issue, explain why you disagree with one side of an issue, and then provide a sound argument to support your opinion. Finally, finish with a conclusion that really grabs your audience. This might include a call to action that prompts the audience to immediately respond to the issue.
What to keep in mind?
As you write an editorial, keep in mind the following points:
- Write using a professional tone.
- Think about how you can present your idea constructively, without suggesting a cure-all.
- Choose clear and simple language and avoid jargon and slang. Don’t make your reader “work” to understand what you are talking about.
- Create a short title that emphasizes your main point – it should be catchy and maybe provoking.
- Do your research and make sure your facts are correct. It is important that you can support your argument and use examples to explain your points.
- Keep it concise. The length will depend on the publication that you are writing for. Editorials usually range from 500–1500 words, but if you’re writing as part of a course’s evaluation component, refer to the assignment guidelines.
Student Tip
Persuading the Audience
In an editorial, you need to persuade your audience that your opinion matters. You should support your opinion with a sound argument and believable evidence. Don’t simply reject one side of an issue; instead, provide clear explanations on why you disagree with one side of an issue, and then provide evidence to support your opinion. But be careful – although you may need to include statistics, you don’t want to overwhelm your audience with too many facts and statistics.
Activities: Check Your Understanding
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The original version of this chapter contained H5P content. You may want to remove or replace this element.


6.E: Prokaryotic Diversity (Exercises)
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- Ying Liu
- City College of San Francisco
4.1: Prokaryote Habitats, Relationships, and Microbiomes
Prokaryotes are unicellular microorganisms whose cells have no nucleus. Prokaryotes can be found everywhere on our planet, even in the most extreme environments. Prokaryotes are very flexible metabolically, so they are able to adjust their feeding to the available natural resources. Prokaryotes live in communities that interact among themselves and with large organisms that they use as hosts (including humans).
Multiple Choice
The term prokaryotes refers to which of the following?
- very small organisms
- unicellular organisms that have no nucleus
- multicellular organisms
- cells that resemble animal cells more than plant cells
- Answer
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B
The term microbiota refers to which of the following?
- all microorganisms of the same species
- all of the microorganisms involved in a symbiotic relationship
- all microorganisms in a certain region of the human body
- all microorganisms in a certain geographic region
- Answer
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C
Which of the following refers to the type of interaction between two prokaryotic populations in which one population benefits and the other is not affected?
- mutualism
- commensalism
- parasitism
- neutralism
- Answer
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B
True/False
Among prokaryotes, there are some that can live in every environment on earth.
- Answer
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True
Fill in the Blank
When prokaryotes live as interacting communities in which one population benefits to the harm of the other, the type of symbiosis is called ________.
- Answer
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parasitism
The domain ________ does not include prokaryotes.
- Answer
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Eukarya
Pathogenic bacteria that are part of the transient microbiota can sometimes be eliminated by ________ therapy.
- Answer
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antibiotic
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria provide other organisms with usable nitrogen in the form of ________.
- Answer
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ammonia
Short Answer
Compare commensalism and amensalism.
Give an example of the changes of human microbiota that result from medical intervention.
4.2: Proteobacteria
Proteobacteria is a phylum of gram-negative bacteria and are classified into the classes alpha-, beta-, gamma-, delta- and epsilonproteobacteria, each class having separate orders, families, genera, and species. Alphaproteobacteria are oligotrophs. The taxa chlamydias and rickettsias are obligate intracellular pathogens, feeding on cells of host organisms; they are metabolically inactive outside of the host cell. Some Alphaproteobacteria can convert atmospheric nitrogen to nitrites.
Multiple Choice
Which of the following describes Proteobacteria in domain Bacteria?
- phylum
- class
- species
- genus
- Answer
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A
All Alphaproteobacteria are which of the following?
- oligotrophs
- intracellular
- pathogenic
- all of the above
- none of the above
- Answer
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A
Class Betaproteobacteria includes all but which of the following genera?
- Neisseria .
- Bordetella .
- Leptothrix .
- Campylobacter .
- Answer
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D
Haemophilus influenzae is a common cause of which of the following?
- influenza
- dysentery
- upper respiratory tract infections
- hemophilia
- Answer
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C
Fill in the Blank
Rickettsias are ________ intracellular bacteria.
- Answer
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obligate
The species ________, which belongs to Epsilonproteobacteria, causes peptic ulcers of the stomach and duodenum.
- Answer
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Helicobacter pylori
The genus Salmonella belongs to the class ________ and includes pathogens that cause salmonellosis and typhoid fever.
- Answer
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Gammaproteobacteria
Short Answer
What is the metabolic difference between coliforms and noncoliforms? Which category contains several species of intestinal pathogens?
Why are Mycoplasma and Chlamydia classified as obligate intracellular pathogens?
Critical Thinking
The cell shown is found in the human stomach and is now known to cause peptic ulcers. What is the name of this bacterium?
(credit: American Society for Microbiology)
4.3: Nonproteobacteria Gram-negative Bacteria and Phototrophic Bacteria
Gram-negative nonproteobacteria include the taxa spirochetes; the Cytophaga, Fusobacterium, Bacteroides group; Planctomycetes; and many representatives of phototrophic bacteria. Spirochetes are motile, spiral bacteria with a long, narrow body; they are difficult or impossible to culture. Several genera of spirochetes contain human pathogens that cause such diseases as syphilis and Lyme disease. Cytophaga, Fusobacterium, and Bacteroides are classified together as a phylum called the CFB group.
Multiple Choice
Which of the following is the organelle that spirochetes use to propel themselves?
- plasma membrane
- axial filament
- pilum
- fimbria
- Answer
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B
Which of the following bacteria are the most prevalent in the human gut?
- cyanobacteria
- staphylococci
- Borrelia
- Bacteroides
- Answer
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D
Which of the following refers to photosynthesis performed by bacteria with the use of water as the donor of electrons?
- oxygenic
- anoxygenic
- heterotrophic
- phototrophic
- Answer
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A
Fill in the Blank
The bacterium that causes syphilis is called ________.
- Answer
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Treponema pallidum pallidum
Bacteria in the genus Rhodospirillum that use hydrogen for oxidation and fix nitrogen are ________ bacteria.
- Answer
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purple nonsulfur
Short Answer
Explain the term CFB group and name the genera that this group includes.
Name and briefly describe the bacterium that causes Lyme disease.
Characterize the phylum Cyanobacteria.
4.4: Gram-positive Bacteria
Gram-positive bacteria are a very large and diverse group of microorganisms. Understanding their taxonomy and knowing their unique features is important for diagnostics and treatment of infectious diseases. Gram-positive bacteria are classified into high G+C gram-positive and low G+C gram-positive bacteria, based on the prevalence of guanine and cytosine nucleotides in their genome.
Multiple Choice
Which of the following bacterial species is classified as high G+C gram-positive?
- Corynebacterium diphtheriae
- Staphylococcus aureus
- Bacillus anthracis
- Streptococcus pneumonia
- Answer
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A
Fill in the Blank
Streptococcus is the ________ of bacteria that is responsible for many human diseases.
- Answer
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genus
One species of Streptococcus , S . pyogenes , is a classified as a ________ pathogen due to the characteristic production of pus in infections it causes.
- Answer
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pyogenic
Propionibacterium belongs to ________ G+C gram-positive bacteria. One of its species is used in the food industry and another causes acne.
- Answer
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high
Short Answer
Name and describe two types of S. aureus that show multiple antibiotic resistance.
Critical Thinking
The microscopic growth pattern shown is characteristic of which genus of bacteria?
(credit: modification of work by Janice Haney Carr/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
4.5: Deeply Branching Bacteria
Deeply branching bacteria are phylogenetically the most ancient forms of life, being the closest to the last universal common ancestor. Deeply branching bacteria include many species that thrive in extreme environments that are thought to resemble conditions on earth billions of years ago. Deeply branching bacteria are important for our understanding of evolution; some of them are used in industry.
Multiple Choice
The term “deeply branching” refers to which of the following?
- the cellular shape of deeply branching bacteria
- the position in the evolutionary tree of deeply branching bacteria
- the ability of deeply branching bacteria to live in deep ocean waters
- the pattern of growth in culture of deeply branching bacteria
- Answer
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B
Which of these deeply branching bacteria is considered a polyextremophile?
- Aquifex pyrophilus
- Deinococcus radiodurans
- Staphylococcus aureus
- Mycobacterium tuberculosis
- Answer
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B
Fill in the Blank
The length of the branches of the evolutionary tree characterizes the evolutionary ________ between organisms.
- Answer
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distance
The deeply branching bacteria are thought to be the form of life closest to the last universal ________ ________.
- Answer
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common ancestor
Many of the deeply branching bacteria are aquatic and hyperthermophilic, found near underwater volcanoes and thermal ocean ________.
- Answer
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vents
The deeply branching bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans is able to survive exposure to high doses of ________.
- Answer
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ionizing radiation
Short Answer
Briefly describe the significance of deeply branching bacteria for basic science and for industry.
What is thought to account for the unique radiation resistance of D. radiodurans ?
4.6: Archaea
Archaea are unicellular, prokaryotic microorganisms that differ from bacteria in their genetics, biochemistry, and ecology. Some archaea are extremophiles, living in environments with extremely high or low temperatures, or extreme salinity. Only archaea are known to produce methane. Methane-producing archaea are called methanogens. Halophilic archaea prefer a concentration of salt close to saturation and perform photosynthesis using bacteriorhodopsin.
Multiple Choice
Archaea and Bacteria are most similar in terms of their ________.
- genetics
- cell wall structure
- ecology
- unicellular structure
- Answer
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D
Which of the following is true of archaea that produce methane?
- They reduce carbon dioxide in the presence of nitrogen.
- They live in the most extreme environments.
- They are always anaerobes.
- They have been discovered on Mars.
- Answer
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B
Fill in the Blank
________ is a genus of Archaea. Its optimal environmental temperature ranges from 70 °C to 80 °C, and its optimal pH is 2–3. It oxidizes sulfur and produces sulfuric acid.
- Answer
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Sulfolobus
________ was once thought to be the cause of periodontal disease, but, more recently, the causal relationship between this archaean and the disease was not confirmed.
- Answer
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Methanobrevibacter oralis
Short Answer
What accounts for the purple color in salt ponds inhabited by halophilic archaea?
What evidence supports the hypothesis that some archaea live on Mars?
Critical Thinking
What is the connection between this methane bog and archaea?
(credit: Chad Skeers)


13.2: Classical Music Time Line
The Baroque-Classical Transition c. 1730–1760
At first the new style took over baroque forms—the ternary da capo aria and the sinfonia and concerto —but composed with simpler parts, more notated ornamentation and more emphatic division into sections. However, over time, the new aesthetic caused radical changes in how pieces were put together, and the basic layouts changed. Composers from this period sought dramatic effects, striking melodies, and clearer textures. The Italian composer Domenico Scarlatti was an important figure in the transition from baroque to classical. His unique compositional style is strongly related to that of the early classical period. He is best known for composing more than five hundred one-movement keyboard sonatas. In Spain,Antonio Soler also produced valuable keyboard sonatas, more varied in form than those of Scarlatti, with some pieces in three or four movements.
Baroque music generally uses many harmonic fantasies and does not concentrate that much on the structure of the musical piece, musical phrases and motives. In the classical period, the harmonic functions are simpler. However, the structure of the piece, the phrases and motives, are much more important in the tunes than in the baroque period.
Another important break with the past was the radical overhaul of opera by Christoph Willibald Gluck, who cut away a great deal of the layering and improvisational ornament and focused on the points of modulation and transition. By making these moments where the harmony changes more focal, he enabled powerful dramatic shifts in the emotional color of the music. To highlight these episodes he used changes in instrumentation, melody, and mode. Among the most successful composers of his time, Gluck spawned many emulators, one of whom was Antonio Salieri. Their emphasis on accessibility brought huge successes in opera, and in vocal music more widely: songs, oratorios, and choruses. These were considered the most important kinds of music for performance and hence enjoyed greatest success in the public estimation.
The phase between the baroque and the rise of the classical, with its broad mixture of competing ideas and attempts to unify the different demands of taste, economics and “worldview”, goes by many names. It is sometimes called g alant , r ococo , or pre-classical , or at other times early classical . It is a period where some composers still working in the baroque style flourish, though sometimes thought of as being more of the past than the present—Bach, Handel, and Telemann all composed well beyond the point at which the homophonic style is clearly in the ascendant. Musical culture was caught at a crossroads: the masters of the older style had the technique, but the public hungered for the new. This is one of the reasons C. P. E. Bach was held in such high regard: he understood the older forms quite well and knew how to present them in new garb, with an enhanced variety of form.
Circa 1750–1775
By the late 1750s there were flourishing centers of the new style in Italy, Vienna, Mannheim, and Paris; dozens of symphonies were composed and there were bands of players associated with theatres. Opera or other vocal music was the feature of most musical events, with concertos and symphonies (arising from the overture) serving as instrumental interludes and introductions for operas and church services. Over the course of the classical period, symphonies and concertos developed and were presented independently of vocal music.
The “normal” ensemble—a body of strings supplemented by winds—and movements of particular rhythmic character were established by the late 1750s in Vienna. However, the length and weight of pieces was still set with some baroque characteristics: individual movements still focused on one “affect” or had only one sharply contrasting middle section, and their length was not significantly greater than baroque movements. There was not yet a clearly enunciated theory of how to compose in the new style. It was a moment ripe for a breakthrough.
Many consider this breakthrough to have been made by C. P. E. Bach, Gluck, and several others. Indeed, C. P. E. Bach and Gluck are often considered founders of the classical style.
The first great master of the style was the composer Joseph Haydn. In the late 1750s he began composing symphonies, and by 1761 he had composed a triptych ( Morning , Noon , and Evening ) solidly in the contemporary mode. As a vice-Kapellmeister and later Kapellmeister, his output expanded: he composed over forty symphonies in the 1760s alone. And while his fame grew, as his orchestra was expanded and his compositions were copied and disseminated, his voice was only one among many.
While some suggest that he was overshadowed by Mozart and Beethoven, it would be difficult to overstate Haydn’s centrality to the new style, and therefore to the future of Western art music as a whole. At the time, before the pre-eminence of Mozart or Beethoven, and with Johann Sebastian Bach known primarily to connoisseurs of keyboard music, Haydn reached a place in music that set him above all other composers except perhaps George Frideric Handel. He took existing ideas, and radically altered how they functioned—earning him the titles “father of the symphony” and “father of the string quartet”.
One of the forces that worked as an impetus for his pressing forward was the first stirring of what would later be called Romanticism—the Sturm und Drang , or “storm and stress” phase in the arts, a short period where obvious emotionalism was a stylistic preference. Haydn accordingly wanted more dramatic contrast and more emotionally appealing melodies, with sharpened character and individuality. This period faded away in music and literature: however, it influenced what came afterward and would eventually be a component of aesthetic taste in later decades.
The Farewell Symphony , No. 45 in F ♯ Minor, exemplifies Haydn’s integration of the differing demands of the new style, with surprising sharp turns and a long adagio to end the work. In 1772, Haydn completed his Opus 20 set of six string quartets, in which he deployed the polyphonic techniques he had gathered from the previous era to provide structural coherence capable of holding together his melodic ideas. For some, this marks the beginning of the “mature” classical style, in which the period of reaction against late baroque complexity yielded to a period of integration baroque and classical elements.
Circa 1775–1790
Haydn, having worked for over a decade as the music director for a prince, had far more resources and scope for composing than most and also the ability to shape the forces that would play his music. This opportunity was not wasted, as Haydn, beginning quite early on his career, sought to press forward the technique of building ideas in music. His next important breakthrough was in the Opus 33 string quartets (1781), in which the melodic and the harmonic roles segue among the instruments: it is often momentarily unclear what is melody and what is harmony. This changes the way the ensemble works its way between dramatic moments of transition and climactic sections: the music flows smoothly and without obvious interruption. He then took this integrated style and began applying it to orchestral and vocal music.
Haydn’s gift to music was a way of composing, a way of structuring works, which was at the same time in accord with the governing aesthetic of the new style. However, a younger contemporary, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, brought his genius to Haydn’s ideas and applied them to two of the major genres of the day: opera, and the virtuoso concerto. Whereas Haydn spent much of his working life as a court composer, Mozart wanted public success in the concert life of cities. This meant opera, and it meant performing as a virtuoso. Haydn was not a virtuoso at the international touring level; nor was he seeking to create operatic works that could play for many nights in front of a large audience. Mozart wanted both. Moreover, Mozart also had a taste for more chromatic chords (and greater contrasts in harmonic language generally), a greater love for creating a welter of melodies in a single work, and a more Italianate sensibility in music as a whole. He found, in Haydn’s music and later in his study of the polyphony of Bach, the means to discipline and enrich his gifts.
Mozart rapidly came to the attention of Haydn, who hailed the new composer, studied his works, and considered the younger man his only true peer in music. In Mozart, Haydn found a greater range of instrumentation, dramatic effect and melodic resource; the learning relationship moved in two directions.
Mozart’s arrival in Vienna in 1780 brought an acceleration in the development of the classical style. There Mozart absorbed the fusion of Italianate brilliance and Germanic cohesiveness that had been brewing for the previous 20 years. His own taste for brilliances, rhythmically complex melodies and figures, long cantilena melodies, and virtuoso flourishes was merged with an appreciation for formal coherence and internal connectedness. It is at this point that war and inflation halted a trend to larger orchestras and forced the disbanding or reduction of many theater orchestras. This pressed the classical style inwards: toward seeking greater ensemble and technical challenge—for example, scattering the melody across woodwinds, or using thirds to highlight the melody taken by them. This process placed a premium on chamber music for more public performance, giving a further boost to the string quartet and other small ensemble groupings.
It was during this decade that public taste began, increasingly, to recognize that Haydn and Mozart had reached a higher standard of composition. By the time Mozart arrived at age 25, in 1781, the dominant styles of Vienna were recognizably connected to the emergence in the 1750s of the early classical style. By the end of the 1780s, changes in performance practice, the relative standing of instrumental and vocal music, technical demands on musicians, and stylistic unity had become established in the composers who imitated Mozart and Haydn. During this decade Mozart composed his most famous operas, his six late symphonies that helped to redefine the genre, and a string of piano concerti that still stand at the pinnacle of these forms.
One composer who was influential in spreading the more serious style that Mozart and Haydn had formed is Muzio Clementi, a gifted virtuoso pianist who tied with Mozart in a musical “duel” before the emperor in which they each improvised and performed their compositions. Clementi’s sonatas for the piano circulated widely, and he became the most successful composer in London during the 1780s. Also in London at this time was Jan Ladislav Dussek, who, like Clementi, encouraged piano makers to extend the range and other features of their instruments, and then fully exploited the newly opened possibilities. The importance of London in the classical period is often overlooked, but it served as the home to the Broadwood’s factory for piano manufacturing and as the base for composers who, while less notable than the “Vienna School”, had a decisive influence on what came later. They were composers of many fine works, notable in their own right. London’s taste for virtuosity may well have encouraged the complex passage work and extended statements on tonic and dominant.
Circa 1790–1820
When Haydn and Mozart began composing, symphonies were played as single movements—before, between, or as interludes within other works—and many of them lasted only ten or twelve minutes; instrumental groups had varying standards of playing, and the continuo was a central part of music-making.
In the intervening years, the social world of music had seen dramatic changes. International publication and touring had grown explosively, and concert societies formed. Notation became more specific, more descriptive—and schematics for works had been simplified (yet became more varied in their exact working out). In 1790, just before Mozart’s death, with his reputation spreading rapidly, Haydn was poised for a series of successes, notably his late oratorios and “London” symphonies. Composers in Paris, Rome, and all over Germany turned to Haydn and Mozart for their ideas on form.
The time was again ripe for a dramatic shift. In the 1790s, a new generation of composers, born around 1770, emerged. While they had grown up with the earlier styles, they heard in the recent works of Haydn and Mozart a vehicle for greater expression. In 1788 Luigi Cherubini settled in Paris and in 1791 composed Lodoiska , an opera that raised him to fame. Its style is clearly reflective of the mature Haydn and Mozart, and its instrumentation gave it a weight that had not yet been felt in the grand opera. His contemporary Étienne Méhul extended instrumental effects with his 1790 opera Euphrosine et Coradin , from which followed a series of successes.
The most fateful of the new generation was Ludwig van Beethoven, who launched his numbered works in 1794 with a set of three piano trios, which remain in the repertoire. Somewhat younger than the others, though equally accomplished because of his youthful study under Mozart and his native virtuosity, was Johann Nepomuk Hummel. Hummel studied under Haydn as well; he was a friend to Beethoven and Franz Schubert. He concentrated more on the piano than any other instrument, and his time in London in 1791 and 1792 generated the composition and publication in 1793 of three piano sonatas, opus 2, which idiomatically used Mozart’s techniques of avoiding the expected cadence, and Clementi’s sometimes modally uncertain virtuoso figuration. Taken together, these composers can be seen as the vanguard of a broad change in style and the center of music. They studied one another’s works, copied one another’s gestures in music, and on occasion behaved like quarrelsome rivals.
The crucial differences with the previous wave can be seen in the downward shift in melodies, increasing durations of movements, the acceptance of Mozart and Haydn as paradigmatic, the greater use of keyboard resources, the shift from “vocal” writing to “pianistic” writing, the growing pull of the minor and of modal ambiguity, and the increasing importance of varying accompanying figures to bring “texture” forward as an element in music. In short, the late classical was seeking a music that was internally more complex. The growth of concert societies and amateur orchestras, marking the importance of music as part of middle-class life, contributed to a booming market for pianos, piano music, and virtuosi to serve as examplars. Hummel, Beethoven, and Clementi were all renowned for their improvising.
Direct influence of the baroque continued to fade: the figured bass grew less prominent as a means of holding performance together, the performance practices of the mid-18th century continued to die out. However, at the same time, complete editions of baroque masters began to become available, and the influence of baroque style continued to grow, particularly in the ever more expansive use of brass. Another feature of the period is the growing number of performances where the composer was not present. This led to increased detail and specificity in notation; for example, there were fewer “optional” parts that stood separately from the main score.
The force of these shifts became apparent with Beethoven’s 3rd Symphony, given the name Eroica , which is Italian for “heroic,” by the composer. As with Stravinsky’s The Rite of Spring , it may not have been the first in all of its innovations, but its aggressive use of every part of the classical style set it apart from its contemporary works: in length, ambition, and harmonic resources as well.
Time Line of Classical Composers
Contributors and Attributions
- Revision and adaptation. Provided by : Lumen Learning and Natalia Kuznetsova. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Classi...period_(music) . Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_period_(music) . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


12.5: Competition-Oriented Pricing
Learning Objectives
- Explain how a retailer can use competition-oriented pricing to determine the price of a product.
Let us examine another method to develop retail pricing strategy based not on cost but instead based on competition. Competitor-based pricing, or market pricing, uses competitor’s pricing, promotions and inventory position to set a retailer’s pricing strategy. Depending on the retailer’s overall pricing strategy and business objectives, pricing may be higher, lower, or matching that of competitors.
Today prices are very transparent to most consumers. Anyone with a smart phone can be online or in a store and instantly compare prices on a similar product. That is why competitor-based pricing is so prevalent where products are easily identifiable, such as with electronics, appliances, and media. Price transparency also creates a counter-strategy where retailers avoid direct comparison through “privatizing” their branded assortments. Have you ever found the same model of mattress from Sealy or Serta at different mattress retailers so that you could compare the price?
Competition-based pricing sounds like a simple strategy to implement once a retailer has decided how pricing fits in to an overall business strategy. But with all of the channels and geographies today, there could be thousands of data points to track who is selling what for how much, especially for larger retailers. Software products have even been developed to assist retailers with this issue. Companies like Competera, Wiser, Minderest, Omnia and others offer software products to track competitive pricing and in some cases, automatically perform price adjustments at store level.
The final point on competition-based pricing relates to inventory position. Retailers take their direct competition very seriously and do not like to find out that they are being undersold by a legitimate competitor. But as we saw in the earlier case study about denim jean pricing, a lower price from a competitor is only a threat when consumers can actually buy the product at the lower price. In fact, when a retailer “low-balls” pricing on a recognizable commodity, they had better have the inventory position to support the rate of sale, otherwise they will incur the wrath of the consumer and the low-pricing attempt will actually backfire.
Practice Questions
Contributors and Attributions
- Competition-Oriented Pricing. Authored by : Bob Danielson. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


7: Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions
This chapter will describe how to symbolize chemical reactions using chemical equations, how to classify some common chemical reactions by identifying patterns of reactivity, and how to determine the quantitative relations between the amounts of substances involved in chemical reactions—that is, the reaction stoichiometry .
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- 7.1: Prelude to Stoichiometry
- This chapter will describe how to symbolize chemical reactions using chemical equations, how to classify some common chemical reactions by identifying patterns of reactivity, and how to determine the quantitative relations between the amounts of substances involved in chemical reactions—that is, the reaction stoichiometry.
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- 7.2: Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
- Chemical equations are symbolic representations of chemical and physical changes. Formulas for the substances undergoing the change (reactants) and substances generated by the change (products) are separated by an arrow and preceded by integer coefficients indicating their relative numbers. Balanced equations are those whose coefficients result in equal numbers of atoms for each element in the reactants and products.
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- 7.3: Classifying Chemical Reactions
- Chemical reactions are classified according to similar patterns of behavior. This section will help you to differentiate between the different types of reactions which we commonly see in CHE 101. You will also learn to write balanced equations for single and double replacement reactions.
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- 7.4: Reaction Stoichiometry
- A balanced chemical equation may be used to describe a reaction’s stoichiometry (the relationships between amounts of reactants and products). Coefficients from the equation are used to derive stoichiometric factors that subsequently may be used for computations relating reactant and product masses, molar amounts, and other quantitative properties.
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- 7.5: Reaction Yields
- When reactions are carried out using less-than-stoichiometric quantities of reactants, the amount of product generated will be determined by the limiting reactant. The amount of product generated by a chemical reaction is its actual yield, which is often less than the amount of product predicted by the stoichiometry of the balanced chemical equation representing the reaction (theoretical yield). The extent to which a reaction generates the theoretical amount is expressed as its percent yield.
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- 7.6: Quantitative Chemical Analysis
- The stoichiometry of chemical reactions may serve as the basis for quantitative chemical analysis methods. Titrations involve measuring the volume of a titrant solution required to completely react with a sample solution. This volume is then used to calculate the concentration of analyte in the sample using the stoichiometry of the titration reaction. Gravimetric analysis involves separating analytes from the sample, determining its mass, and then calculating its concentration.
Contributors
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Paul Flowers (University of North Carolina - Pembroke), Klaus Theopold (University of Delaware) and Richard Langley (Stephen F. Austin State University) with contributing authors. Textbook content produced by OpenStax College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license. Download for free at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>).