1.4.6: Uncountable Sets
Some sets, such as the set \(\PosInt\) of positive integers, are infinite. So far we’ve seen examples of infinite sets which were all countable. However, there are also infinite sets which do not have this property. Such sets are called uncountable .
First of all, it is perhaps already surprising that there are uncountable sets. For any countable set \(A\) there is a surjective function \(f \colon \PosInt \to A\) . If a set is uncountable there is no such function. That is, no function mapping the infinitely many elements of \(\PosInt\) to \(A\) can exhaust all of \(A\) . So there are “more” elements of \(A\) than the infinitely many positive integers.
How would one prove that a set is uncountable? You have to show that no such surjective function can exist. Equivalently, you have to show that the elements of \(A\) cannot be enumerated in a one way infinite list. The best way to do this is to show that every list of elements of \(A\) must leave at least one element out; or that no function \(f\colon \PosInt \to A\) can be surjective. We can do this using Cantor’s diagonal method . Given a list of elements of \(A\) , say, \(x_1\) , \(x_2\) , …, we construct another element of \(A\) which, by its construction, cannot possibly be on that list.
Our first example is the set \(\Bin^\omega\) of all infinite, non-gappy sequences of \(0\) ’s and \(1\) ’s.
\(\Bin^\omega\) is uncountable.
Proof. Suppose, by way of contradiction, that \(\Bin^\omega\) is countable, i.e., suppose that there is a list \(s_{1}\) , \(s_{2}\) , \(s_{3}\) , \(s_{4}\) , … of all elements of \(\Bin^\omega\) . Each of these \(s_i\) is itself an infinite sequence of \(0\) ’s and \(1\) ’s. Let’s call the \(j\) -th element of the \(i\) -th sequence in this list \(s_i(j)\) . Then the \(i\) -th sequence \(s_i\) is \[s_i(1), s_i(2), s_i(3), \dots\nonumber\]
We may arrange this list, and the elements of each sequence \(s_i\) in it, in an array: \[\begin{array}{c|c|c|c|c|c} & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & \dots \\\hline 1 & \mathbf{s_{1}(1)} & s_{1}(2) & s_{1}(3) & s_1(4) & \dots \\\hline 2 & s_{2}(1)& \mathbf{s_{2}(2)} & s_2(3) & s_2(4) & \dots \\\hline 3 & s_{3}(1)& s_{3}(2) & \mathbf{s_3(3)} & s_3(4) & \dots \\\hline 4 & s_{4}(1)& s_{4}(2) & s_4(3) & \mathbf{s_4(4)} & \dots \\\hline \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \mathbf{\ddots} \end{array}\nonumber\] The labels down the side give the number of the sequence in the list \(s_1\) , \(s_2\) , …; the numbers across the top label the elements of the individual sequences. For instance, \(s_{1}(1)\) is a name for whatever number, a \(0\) or a \(1\) , is the first element in the sequence \(s_{1}\) , and so on.
Now we construct an infinite sequence, \(\overline{s}\) , of \(0\) ’s and \(1\) ’s which cannot possibly be on this list. The definition of \(\overline{s}\) will depend on the list \(s_1\) , \(s_2\) , …. Any infinite list of infinite sequences of \(0\) ’s and \(1\) ’s gives rise to an infinite sequence \(\overline{s}\) which is guaranteed to not appear on the list.
To define \(\overline{s}\) , we specify what all its elements are, i.e., we specify \(\overline{s}(n)\) for all \(n \in \PosInt\) . We do this by reading down the diagonal of the array above (hence the name “diagonal method”) and then changing every \(1\) to a \(0\) and every \(0\) to a \(1\) . More abstractly, we define \(\overline{s}(n)\) to be \(0\) or \(1\) according to whether the \(n\) -th element of the diagonal, \(s_n(n)\) , is \(1\) or \(0\) . \[\overline{s}(n) = \begin{cases} 1 & \text{if $s_{n}(n) = 0$}\\ 0 & \text{if $s_{n}(n) = 1$}. \end{cases}\nonumber\] If you like formulas better than definitions by cases, you could also define \(\overline{s}(n) = 1 - s_n(n)\) .
Clearly \(\overline{s}\) is an infinite sequence of \(0\) ’s and \(1\) ’s, since it is just the mirror sequence to the sequence of \(0\) ’s and \(1\) ’s that appear on the diagonal of our array. So \(\overline{s}\) is an element of \(\Bin^\omega\) . But it cannot be on the list \(s_1\) , \(s_2\) , … Why not?
It can’t be the first sequence in the list, \(s_1\) , because it differs from \(s_1\) in the first element. Whatever \(s_1(1)\) is, we defined \(\overline{s}(1)\) to be the opposite. It can’t be the second sequence in the list, because \(\overline{s}\) differs from \(s_2\) in the second element: if \(s_2(2)\) is \(0\) , \(\overline{s}(2)\) is \(1\) , and vice versa. And so on.
More precisely: if \(\overline{s}\) were on the list, there would be some \(k\) so that \(\overline{s} = s_{k}\) . Two sequences are identical iff they agree at every place, i.e., for any \(n\) , \(\overline{s}(n) = s_{k}(n)\) . So in particular, taking \(n = k\) as a special case, \(\overline{s}(k) = s_{k}(k)\) would have to hold. \(s_k(k)\) is either \(0\) or \(1\) . If it is \(0\) then \(\overline{s}(k)\) must be \(1\) —that’s how we defined \(\overline{s}\) . But if \(s_k(k) = 1\) then, again because of the way we defined \(\overline{s}\) , \(\overline{s}(k) = 0\) . In either case \(\overline{s}(k) \neq s_{k}(k)\) .
We started by assuming that there is a list of elements of \(\Bin^\omega\) , \(s_1\) , \(s_2\) , … From this list we constructed a sequence \(\overline{s}\) which we proved cannot be on the list. But it definitely is a sequence of \(0\) ’s and \(1\) ’s if all the \(s_i\) are sequences of \(0\) ’s and \(1\) ’s, i.e., \(\overline{s} \in \Bin^\omega\) . This shows in particular that there can be no list of all elements of \(\Bin^\omega\) , since for any such list we could also construct a sequence \(\overline{s}\) guaranteed to not be on the list, so the assumption that there is a list of all sequences in \(\Bin^\omega\) leads to a contradiction. ◻
This proof method is called “diagonalization” because it uses the diagonal of the array to define \(\overline{s}\) . Diagonalization need not involve the presence of an array: we can show that sets are not countable by using a similar idea even when no array and no actual diagonal is involved.
\(\Pow{\PosInt}\) is not countable.
Proof. We proceed in the same way, by showing that for every list of subsets of \(\PosInt\) there is a subset of \(\PosInt\) which cannot be on the list. Suppose the following is a given list of subsets of \(\PosInt\) : \[Z_{1}, Z_{2}, Z_{3}, \dots\nonumber\] We now define a set \(\overline{Z}\) such that for any \(n \in \PosInt\) , \(n \in \overline{Z}\) iff \(n \notin Z_{n}\) : \[\overline{Z} = \Setabs{n \in \PosInt}{n \notin Z_n}\nonumber\] \(\overline{Z}\) is clearly a set of positive integers, since by assumption each \(Z_n\) is, and thus \(\overline{Z} \in \Pow{\PosInt}\) . But \(\overline{Z}\) cannot be on the list. To show this, we’ll establish that for each \(k \in \PosInt\) , \(\overline{Z} \neq Z_k\) .
So let \(k \in \PosInt\) be arbitrary. We’ve defined \(\overline{Z}\) so that for any \(n \in \PosInt\) , \(n \in \overline{Z}\) iff \(n \notin Z_n\) . In particular, taking \(n=k\) , \(k \in \overline{Z}\) iff \(k \notin Z_k\) . But this shows that \(\overline{Z} \neq Z_k\) , since \(k\) is an element of one but not the other, and so \(\overline{Z}\) and \(Z_k\) have different elements. Since \(k\) was arbitrary, \(\overline{Z}\) is not on the list \(Z_1\) , \(Z_2\) , … ◻
The preceding proof did not mention a diagonal, but you can think of it as involving a diagonal if you picture it this way: Imagine the sets \(Z_1\) , \(Z_2\) , …, written in an array, where each element \(j \in Z_i\) is listed in the \(j\) -th column. Say the first four sets on that list are \(\{1,2,3,\dots\}\) , \(\{2, 4, 6, \dots\}\) , \(\{1,2,5\}\) , and \(\{3,4,5,\dots\}\) . Then the array would begin with \[\begin{array}{r@{}rrrrrrr} Z_1 = \{ & \mathbf{1}, & 2, & 3, & 4, & 5, & 6, & \dots\}\\ Z_2 = \{ & & \mathbf{2}, & & 4, & & 6, & \dots\}\\ Z_3 = \{ & 1, & 2, & & & 5\phantom{,} & & \}\\ Z_4 = \{ & & & 3, & \mathbf{4}, & 5, & 6, & \dots\}\\ \vdots & & & & & \ddots \end{array}\nonumber\] Then \(\overline{Z}\) is the set obtained by going down the diagonal, leaving out any numbers that appear along the diagonal and include those \(j\) where the array has a gap in the \(j\) -th row/column. In the above case, we would leave out \(1\) and \(2\) , include \(3\) , leave out \(4\) , etc.
Show that \(\Pow{\Nat}\) is uncountable by a diagonal argument.
Show that the set of functions \(f \colon \PosInt \to \PosInt\) is uncountable by an explicit diagonal argument. That is, show that if \(f_1\) , \(f_2\) , …, is a list of functions and each \(f_i\colon \PosInt \to \PosInt\) , then there is some \(\overline{f}\colon \PosInt \to \PosInt\) not on this list.


1.5.2: Doing Communication Research
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Students often believe that researchers are well organized, meticulous, and academic as they pursue their research projects. The reality of research is that much of it is a hit-and-miss endeavor. Albert Einstein provided wonderful insight to the messy nature of research when he said, “If we knew what it was we were doing, it would not be called research, would it?” Because a great deal of Communication research is still exploratory, we are continually developing new and more sophisticated methods to better understand how and why we communicate. Think about all of the advances in communication technologies (snapchat, instagram, etc.) and how quickly they come and go. Communication research can barely keep up with the ongoing changes to human communication.
Researching something as complex as human communication can be an exercise in creativity, patience, and failure. Communication research, while relatively new in many respects, should follow several basic principles to be effective. Similar to other types of research, Communication research should be systematic, rational, self-correcting, self-reflexive, and creative to be of use (Babbie; Bronowski; Buddenbaum; Novak; Copi; Peirce; Reichenbach; Smith; Hughes & Hayhoe).
Seven Basic Steps of Research
While research can be messy, there are steps we can follow to avoid some of the pitfalls inherent with any research project. Research doesn’t always work out right, but we do use the following guidelines as a way to keep research focused, as well as detailing our methods so other can replicate them. Let’s look at seven basic steps that help us conduct effective research.
- Identify a focus of research . To conduct research, the first thing you must do is identify what aspect of human communication interests you and make that the focus of inquiry. Most Communication researchers examine things that interest them; such as communication phenomena that they have questions about and want answered. For example, you may be interested in studying conflict between romantic partners. When using a deductive approach to research, one begins by identifying a focus of research and then examining theories and previous research to begin developing and narrowing down a research question.
- Develop a research question(s) . Simply having a focus of study is still too broad to conduct research, and would ultimately end up being an endless process of trial and error. Thus, it is essential to develop very specific research questions. Using our example above, what specific things would you want to know about conflict in romantic relationships? If you simply said you wanted to study conflict in romantic relationships, you would not have a solid focus and would spend a long time conducting your research with no results. However, you could ask, “Do couples use different types of conflict management strategies when they are first dating versus after being in a relationship for a while? It is essential to develop specific questions that guide what you research. It is also important to decide if an answer to your research question already exists somewhere in the plethora of research already conducted. A review of the literature available at your local library may help you decide if others have already asked and answered a similar question. Another convenient resource will be your university’s online database. This database will most likely provide you with resources of previous research through academic journal articles, books, catalogs, and various kinds of other literature and media.
- Define key terms . Using our example, how would you define the terms conflict, romantic relationship, dating, and long-term relationship? While these terms may seem like common sense, you would be surprised how many ways people can interpret the same terms and how particular definitions shape the research. Take the term long-term relationship, for example, what are all of the ways this can be defined? People married for 10 or more years? People living together for five or more years? Those who identify as being monogamous? It is important to consider populations who would be included and excluded from your study based on a particular definition and the resulting generalizability of your findings. Therefore, it is important to identify and set the parameters of what it is you are researching by defining what the key terms mean to you and your research. A research project must be fully operationalized , specifically describing how variables will be observed and measured. This will allow other researchers an opportunity to repeat the process in an attempt to replicate the results. Though more importantly, it will provide additional understanding and credibility to your research.
Communication Research Then
Wilber Schramm – The Modern Father of Communication
Although many aspects of the Communication discipline can be dated to the era of the ancient Greeks, and more specifically to individuals such as Aristotle or Plato, Communication Research really began to develop in the 20th century. James W. Tankard Jr. (1988) states in the article, Wilbur Schramm: Definer of a Field that, “Wilbur Schramm (1907-1987) probably did more to define and establish the field of Communication research and theory than any other person” (p. 1). In 1947 Wilbur Schramm went to the University of Illinois where he founded the first Institute of Communication Research. The Institute’s purpose was, “to apply the methods and disciplines of the social sciences (supported, where necessary, by the fine arts and natural sciences) to the basic problems of press, radio and pictures; to supply verifiable information in those areas of communications where the hunch, the tradition, the theory and thumb have too often ruled; and by so doing to contribute to the better understanding of communications and the maximum use of communications for the public good” (p. 2).
- Select an appropriate research methodology . A methodology is the actual step-by-step process of conducting research. There are various methodologies available for researching communication. Some tend to work better than others for examining particular types of communication phenomena. In our example, would you interview couples, give them a survey, observe them, or conduct some type of experiment? Depending on what you wish to study, you will have to pick a process, or methodology, in order to study it. We’ll discuss examples of methodologies later in this chapter.
- Establish a sample population or data set . It is important to decide who and what you want to study. One criticism of current Communication research is that it often relies on college students enrolled in Communication classes as the sample population. This is an example of convenience sampling. Charles Teddlie and Fen Yu write, “Convenience sampling involves drawing samples that are both easily accessible and willing to participate in a study” (78). One joke in our field is that we know more about college students than anyone else. In all seriousness, it is important that you pick samples that are truly representative of what and who you want to research. If you are concerned about how long-term romantic couples engage in conflict, (remember what we said about definitions) college students may not be the best sample population. Instead, college students might be a good population for examining how romantic couples engage in conflict in the early stages of dating.
- Gather and analyze data . Once you have a research focus, research question(s), key terms, a method, and a sample population, you are ready to gather the actual data that will show you what it is you want to answer in your research question(s). If you have ever filled out a survey in one of your classes, you have helped a researcher gather data to be analyzed in order to answer research questions. The actual “doing” of your methodology will allow you to collect the data you need to know about how romantic couples engage in conflict. For example, one approach to using a survey to collect data is to consider adapting a questionnaire that is already developed. Communication Research Measures II: A Sourcebook is a good resource to find valid instruments for measuring many different aspects of human communication (Rubin et al.).
Communication Research Now
Communicating Climate Change Through Creativity
Communicating climate change has been an increasingly important topic for the past number of years. Today we hear more about the issue in the media than ever. However, “the challenge of climate change communication is thought to require systematic evidence about public attitudes, sophisticated models of behaviour change and the rigorous application of social scientific research” (Buirski). In South Africa, schools, social workers, and psychologist have found ways to change the way young people and children learn about about the issue. Through creatively, “climate change is rendered real through everyday stories, performances, and simple yet authentic ideas through children and school teachers to create a positive social norm” (Buirski). By engaging children’s minds rather than bombarding them with information, we can capture their attention (Buirski).
- Interpret and share results . Simply collecting data does not mean that your research project is complete. Remember, our research leads us to develop and refine theories so we have more sophisticated representations about how our world works. Thus, researchers must interpret the data to see if it tells us anything of significance about how we communicate. If so, we share our research findings to further the body of knowledge we have about human communication. Imagine you completed your study about conflict and romantic couples. Others who are interested in this topic would probably want to see what you discovered in order to help them in their research. Likewise, couples might want to know what you have found in order to help themselves deal with conflict better.
Although these seven steps seem pretty clear on paper, research is rarely that simple. For example, a master’s student conducted research for their Master’s thesis on issues of privacy, ownership and free speech as it relates to using email at work. The last step before obtaining their Master’s degree was to share the results with a committee of professors. The professors began debating the merits of the research findings. Two of the three professors felt that the research had not actually answered the research questions and suggested that the master’s candidate rewrite their two chapters of conclusions. The third professor argued that the author HAD actually answered the research questions, and suggested that an alternative to completely rewriting two chapters would be to rewrite the research questions to more accurately reflect the original intention of the study. This real example demonstrates the reality that, despite trying to account for everything by following the basic steps of research, research is always open to change and modification, even toward the end of the process.
Communication Research and You
Because we have been using the example of conflict between romantic couples, here is an example of communication in action by Thomas Bradbury, Ph.D regarding the study of conflict between romantic partners. What stands out to you? What would you do differently?
Which Conflicts Consume Couples the Most
http://www.pbs.org/thisemotionallife/blogs/which-conflicts-consume-couples-most
Contributions and Affiliations
- Survey of Communication Study. Authored by : Scott T Paynton and Linda K Hahn. Provided by : Humboldt State University. Located at : en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Survey_of_Communication_Study/Preface. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


2.9: Material Equivalence
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As we saw in the last section, two different symbolic sentences can translate the same English sentence. In the last section I claimed that “~S ⊃ R” and “S v R” are equivalent. More precisely, they are equivalent ways of capturing the truth-functional relationship between propositions. Two propositions are materially equivalent if and only if they have the same truth value for every assignment of truth values to the atomic propositions. That is, they have the same truth values on every row of a truth table. The truth table below demonstrates that “~S ⊃ R” and “S v R” are materially equivalent.
| R | S | ~S ⊃ R | S v R |
|---|---|---|---|
| T | T | F T | T |
| T | F | T T | T |
| F | T | F T | T |
| F | F | T F | F |
If you look at the truth values under the main operators of each sentence, you can see that their truth values are identical on every row. That means the two statements are materially equivalent and can be used interchangeably, as far as propositional logic goes.
Let’s demonstrate material equivalence with another example. We have seen that we can translate “neither nor” statements as a conjunction of two negations. So, a statement of the form, “neither p nor q” can be translated:
~p ⋅ ~q
But another way of translating statements of this form is as a negation of a disjunction, like this:
~(p v q)
We can prove these two statements are materially equivalent with a truth table (below).
| p | q | ~p ⋅ ~q | ~(p v q) |
|---|---|---|---|
| T | T | F F F | F T |
| T | F | F F T | F T |
| F | T | T F F | F T |
| F | F | T T T | T F |
Again, as you can see from the truth table, the truth values under the main operators of each sentence are identical on every row (i.e., for every assignment of truth values to the atomic propositions). In fact, there is a fifth truth functional connective called “material equivalence” or the “biconditional” that is defined as true when the atomic propositions share the same truth value, and false when the truth values different. Although we will not be relying on the biconditional, I provide the truth table for it below. The biconditional is represented using the symbol “≡” which is called a “tribar.”
| p | q | p ≡ q |
|---|---|---|
| T | T | T |
| T | F | F |
| F | T | F |
| F | F | T |
Some common ways of expressing the biconditional in English are with the phrases “if and only if” and “just in case.” If you have been paying close attention (or do from now on out) you will see me use the phrase “if and only if” often. It is most commonly used when one is giving a definition, such as the definition of validity and also in defining the “material equivalence” in this very section. It makes sense that the biconditional would be used in this way since when we define something we are laying down an equivalent way of saying it.
Exercise
Construct a truth table to determine whether the following pairs of statements are materially equivalent.
1. A ⊃ B and ~A v B
2. ~(A ⋅ B) and ~A v ~B
3. A ⊃ B and ~B ⊃ ~A
4. A v ~B and B ⊃ A
5. B ⊃ A and A ⊃ B
6. ~(A ⊃ B) and A ⋅ ~B
7. A v B and ~A ⋅ ~B
8. A v (B ⋅ C) and (A v B) ⋅ (A v C)
9.


9.5A: General Features of Virus Replication
- Outline the features of viral replication
Multiplication Within the Host Cell
Viral replication is the term used indicate the formation of biological viruses during the infection process in the target host cells. Viruses must first penetrate and enter the cell before viral replication can occur. From the perspective of the virus, the purpose of viral replication is to allow reproduction and survival of its kind. By generating abundant copies of its genome and packaging these copies into viruses, the virus is able to continue infecting new hosts.
Replication between viruses is varied and depends on the type of genes involved. Most DNA viruses assemble in the nucleus; most RNA viruses develop solely in cytoplasm. Viral populations do not grow through cell division, because they are acellular. Instead, they hijack the machinery and metabolism of a host cell to produce multiple copies of themselves, and they assemble inside the cell.
The life cycle of viruses differs greatly between species but there are six common basic stages:
Attachment is a specific binding between viral capsid proteins and specific receptors on the host cellular surface. This specificity determines the host range of a virus. For example, HIV can infect only a limited range of human leukocytes. Its surface protein, gp120, specifically interacts only with the CD4 molecule – a chemokine receptor – which is most commonly found on the surface of CD4+ T-Cells. This mechanism has evolved to favor those viruses that infect only cells within which they are capable of replication. Attachment to the receptor can fore the viral envelope protein to undergo either changes that result in the fusion of viral and cellular membranes, or changes of non-enveloped virus surface proteins that allow the virus to enter.
Penetration follows attachment. Virions enter the host cell through receptor-mediated endocytosis or membrane fusion. This is often called viral entry . The infection of plant and fungal cells is different from that of animal cells. Plants have a rigid cell wall made of cellulose, and fungi one of chitin, so most viruses can get inside these cells only after trauma to the cell wall. However, nearly all plant viruses (such as tobacco mosaic virus) can also move directly from cell to cell, in the form of single-stranded nucleoprotein complexes, through pores called plasmodesmata. Bacteria, like plants, have strong cell walls that a virus must breach to infect the cell. However, since bacterial cell walls are much less thick than plant cell walls due to their much smaller size, some viruses have evolved mechanisms that inject their genome into the bacterial cell across the cell wall, while the viral capsid remains outside.
Uncoating is a process in which the viral capsid is removed: This may be by degradation by viral or host enzymes or by simple dissociation. In either case the end-result is the release of the viral genomic nucleic acid.
Replication of viruses depends on the multiplication of the genome. This is accomplished through synthesis of viral messenger RNA (mRNA) from “early” genes (with exceptions for positive sense RNA viruses), viral protein synthesis, possible assembly of viral proteins, then viral genome replication mediated by early or regulatory protein expression. This may be followed, for complex viruses with larger genomes, by one or more further rounds of mRNA synthesis: “late” gene expression is, in general, of structural or virion proteins.
Following the structure-mediated self-assembly of the virus particles, some modification of the proteins often occurs. In viruses such as HIV, this modification (sometimes called maturation) occurs after the virus has been released from the host cell.
Viruses can be released from the host cell by lysis, a process that kills the cell by bursting its membrane and cell wall if present. This is a feature of many bacterial and some animal viruses. Some viruses undergo a lysogenic cycle where the viral genome is incorporated by genetic recombination into a specific place in the host’s chromosome. The viral genome is then known as a provirus or, in the case of bacteriophages a prophage . Whenever the host divides, the viral genome is also replicated. The viral genome is mostly silent within the host; however, at some point the provirus or prophage may give rise to active virus, which may lyse the host cells. Enveloped viruses (e.g., HIV) typically are released from the host cell by budding. During this process the virus acquires its envelope, which is a modified piece of the host’s plasma or other internal membrane. The genetic material within virus particles, and the method by which the material is replicated, varies considerably between different types of viruses.
Key Points
- Viral populations do not grow through cell division, because they are acellular. Instead, they use the machinery and metabolism of a host cell to produce multiple copies of themselves, and they assemble in the cell.
- The life cycle of viruses differs greatly between species but there are six basic stages in the life cycle of viruses: attachment, penetration (viral entry), uncoating, replication, and lysis.
- Some viruses undergo a lysogenic cycle where the viral genome is incorporated by genetic recombination into a specific place in the host’s chromosome.
Key Terms
- lysis : The disintegration or destruction of cells
- leukocyte : A white blood cell.
- uncoating : A process in which the viral capsid of a virus is removed, leading to the release of the viral genomic nucleic acid.
- attachment : specific binding between viral capsid proteins and specific receptors on the host cellular surface


5.7: Play
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Freud saw play as a means for children to release pent-up emotions and to deal with emotionally distressing situations in a more secure environment. Vygotsky and Piaget saw play as a way of children developing their intellectual abilities (Dyer & Moneta, 2006). Piaget created stages of play that correspond with his stages of cognitive development. The stages are:
| Stage | Description |
| Functional Play | Exploring, inspecting, and learning through repetitive physical activity. |
| Symbolic Play |
The ability to use objects, actions, or ideas to represent other objects, actions, or ideas and may include taking on roles.31 |
| Constructive Play | Involves experimenting with objects to build things 32; learning things that were previously unknown with hands-on manipulations of materials. |
| Games with Rules | Imposes rules that must be followed by everyone that is playing; the logic and order involved forms that the foundations for developing game playing strategy 33 |
While Freud, Piaget, and Vygostsky looked at play slightly differently, all three theorists saw play as providing positive outcomes for children.
Mildred Parten (1932) observed two to five year-old children and noted six types of play. Three types she labeled as non-social (unoccupied, solitary, and onlooker) and three types were categorized as social play (parallel, associative, and cooperative). The table below describes each type of play. Younger children engage in non-social play more than those who are older; by age five associative and cooperative play are the most common forms of play (Dyer & Moneta, 2006). 34
| Category | Description |
| Unoccupied Play |
Children’s behavior seems more random and without a specific goal. This is the least common form of play. |
| Solitary Play |
Children play by themselves, do not interact with others, nor are they engaging in similar activities as the children around them. |
| Onlooker Play | Children are observing other children playing. They may comment on the activities and even make suggestions, but will not directly join the play. |
| Parallel Play |
Children play alongside each other, using similar toys, but do not directly act with each other |
| Associative Play |
Children will interact with each other and share toys but are not working toward a common goal. |
| Cooperative Play | Children are interacting to achieve a common goal. Children may take on different tasks to reach that goal. |
Contributors and Attributions
31. Symbolic Play (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.pgpedia.com/s/symbolic-play
32. Constructive Play (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.pgpedia.com/c/constructive-play
33. Games with Rules (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.pgpedia.com/g/games-rules
34. Lifespan Development - Module 5: Early Childhood by Lumen Learning references Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology by Laura Overstreet, licensed under CC BY 4.0


27.3: Calcium Preparations, Vitamin D, Bisphosphonates, Calcimimetics, and Peptide Hormones
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
- 27.3.1 Identify the characteristics of calcium preparations, vitamin D, bisphosphonates, calcimimetics, and peptide hormone drugs used to treat hypoparathyroidism.
- 27.3.2 Explain the indications, actions, adverse reactions, contraindications, and interactions of calcium preparations, vitamin D, bisphosphonates, calcimimetics, and peptide hormone drugs used to treat hypoparathyroidism.
- 27.3.3 Describe nursing implications of calcium preparations, vitamin D, bisphosphonates, calcimimetics, and peptide hormone drugs used to treat hypoparathyroidism.
- 27.3.4 Explain the client education related to calcium preparations, vitamin D, bisphosphonates, calcimimetics, and peptide hormone drugs used to treat hypoparathyroidism.
This section of the chapter discusses drugs used to treat parathyroid dysfunction. These drugs are used when parathyroid functioning is decreased or when calcium needs to be replaced or decreased to maintain its expected functions within the body.
Calcium Preparations
Calcium is a mineral utilized by the body to promote bone health. It also plays a role in blood clotting, muscle contraction, regulating heart rhythm, nerve function, and cell communication. Vitamin D is needed for the body to be able to absorb calcium. The two are often prescribed together.
The recommended daily amount of calcium is 1000–2000 mg for adults. Calcium can be found in many foods including dairy products such as milk, yogurt, and cheese; fish such as sardines and salmon; vegetables such as kale, broccoli, and cabbage; soy milk; almond milk; and tofu.
Special Considerations
Calcium and Race/Ethnicity, Age, and Socioeconomic Factors
In the United States, many Black and Asian people , as well as many adults experiencing poverty, aged 50 years and older, are less likely to get the recommended daily amounts of calcium (National Institutes of Health, 2023). As we age, our bodies absorb less calcium. For postmenopausal clients , a decrease in calcium absorption can lead to conditions such as osteoporosis.
This video on the role and importance of vitamin D ( calcitriol ) explains why vitamin D is vital for proper absorption and utilization of calcium.
Calcium
Some calcium supplements are available over the counter and are not regulated by the FDA. Clients should speak with their health care provider before starting any over-the-counter medication.
Calcium Acetate
Calcium acetate is used in the treatment of hypocalcemia and hyperphosphatemia but is contraindicated in clients with hypercalcemia. This phosphate binder, which comes in capsule form, reduces serum phosphate levels, thereby increasing serum calcium levels. Adverse effects include nausea, vomiting, constipation, gas, bloating, and headache.
Calcium Carbonate
Calcium carbonate is used in the treatment of hypocalcemia and can also be used as an antacid; it is contraindicated in clients with hypercalcemia. Like calcium acetate, this supplement reduces serum phosphate levels and results in increased serum calcium levels. This medication is available in a tablet, chewable tablet, capsule, and liquid. Adverse effects include upset stomach, vomiting, abdominal pain, bloating, constipation, dry mouth, loss of appetite, metallic taste, and increased urination.
Calcium Chloride
Calcium chloride is an injectable drug used in the treatment of hypocalcemia in those clients requiring a prompt increase in plasma calcium levels. Calcium chloride is contraindicated in cardiac resuscitation and for use in clients with hypercalcemia. It is administered via the intravenous route only. Adverse effects include vasodilation, decreased blood pressure, tingling sensation, and calcium taste (bitter and sour). Administration site reactions include local soft tissue inflammation, local necrosis, and extravasation.
Calcium Gluconate
Calcium gluconate is an injectable drug used in the treatment of acute symptomatic hypocalcemia. It increases serum ionized calcium levels. This medication is contraindicated in clients with hypercalcemia and in neonates (28 days old or younger) and should be used cautiously in clients with cardiac arrhythmias with concomitant cardiac glycoside use. Adverse effects include vasodilation, decreased blood pressure, cardiac arrhythmia, syncope, and cardiac arrest. Administration site reactions include local soft tissue inflammation, local necrosis, and extravasation.
Table 27.7 lists common calcium drugs and typical routes and dosing for adult clients.
| Drug | Routes and Dosage Ranges |
|---|---|
| Calcium acetate ( PhosLo , Eliphos ) | Hyperphosphatemia (in chronic kidney disease): 1334 mg orally daily with each meal. |
| Calcium carbonate ( Maalox , Tums ) |
Mild hypocalcemia:
500 mg orally daily.
Adults and children over 12 years of age: Chew 2–4 tablets as symptoms occur. Maximum dose: Do not take more than 8 tablets in 24 hours. Do not use the maximum dose for more than 2 weeks. |
|
Calcium chloride
( CaCl , CaCl 2 ) |
Individualized dosing by health care provider based on laboratory values.
Usual adult dosage in hypocalcemic disorders: 200–1000 mg; slow intravenous push at intervals of 1–3 days depending on response of the client and/or serum ionized calcium determinations. |
| Calcium gluconate ( Kalcinate ) |
Acute symptomatic hypocalcemia:
Individualized dosing by health care provider based on laboratory values.
Standard dosing starts at 1000–2000 mg intravenously initially; subsequent doses of 1000–2000 mg intravenously every 6 hours based on laboratory values (available in 100 mg/mL). |
Adverse Effects and Contraindications
Common adverse effects include kidney stones and gastrointestinal symptoms, such as constipation, bloating, abdominal discomfort, and flatulence. Drugs, such as tetracycline antibiotics, bisphosphates (e.g., alendronate), and thyroid hormone replacements, can interfere with calcium absorption so should be taken at separate times to minimize interactions. Hypercalcemia, another common adverse effect, leads to symptoms such as fatigue, confusion, constipation, increased thirst, and frequent urination.
Contraindications include hypersensitivity to the drug or any of its components. This medication is contraindicated for hypercalcemia because it will increase calcium levels in the blood and for hyperparathyroidism because increased calcium can worsen this condition. Kidney stones, as calcium preparation, may contribute to the formation of new kidney stones. Malabsorption syndrome, such as Celiac disease or Crohn’s disease, may occur because calcium may not be absorbed appropriately by the body with these conditions.
Table 27.8 is a drug prototype table for calcium carbonate. It lists drug class, mechanism of action, adult and pediatric dosage , indications, therapeutic effects, drug and food interactions, adverse effects, and contraindications.
|
Drug Class
Calcium preparation, antacid, and phosphate binder Mechanism of Action Acts in the small intestine by chelating with oxalate to prevent phosphate absorption, is absorbed in the small intestines to help circulate ionized calcium in the blood, inhibits pepsin and bile acid, increases gastric motility, and initiates peristalsis |
Drug Dosage
Mild hypocalcemia: 500 mg orally daily. Adults and children over 12 years of age: Chew 2–4 tablets as symptoms occur. Maximum dose: Do not take more than 8 tablets in 24 hours. Do not use the maximum dose for more than 2 weeks. |
|
Indications
Hypocalcemia Hypothyroidism Hypoparathyroidism Osteoporosis Osteomalacia As a calcium supplement in postmenopausal clients and during pregnancy Therapeutic Effects Improves calcium levels within the body Reduces heartburn and gastroesophageal reflux disease Increases gut motility |
Drug Interactions
Digoxin Phosphate supplements Sodium polystyrene sulfonate Food Interactions No significant interactions |
|
Adverse Effects
GI symptoms (upset stomach, vomiting, abdominal pain, bloating, constipation) Dry mouth Loss of appetite Metallic taste Increased urination |
Contraindications
Hypersensitivity Hypercalcemia Caution: Monitor closely for kidney stones |
Vitamin D
Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that promotes calcium and phosphorous absorption in the intestines and helps to maintain adequate serum calcium and phosphate levels within the body. Vitamin D has other roles in the body—it reduces inflammation, and it stimulates insulin production in the modulation of cell function, neuromuscular and immune system function, and in glucose metabolism (Chauhan et al., 2022).
Vitamin D has two forms, vitamin D 2 (ergocalciferol) and vitamin D 3 (cholecalciferol). Both forms are well absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract. The recommended daily allowance (RDA) of vitamin D for adults is 600–800 IU; however, replacement regimens for those with low vitamin D levels vary from the RDA.
Few foods naturally contain vitamin D. Those that do include trout, salmon, tuna, fish liver oils, beef liver, some mushrooms, and egg yolks. Some dairy products such as milk and cheeses are fortified with vitamin D. Sunlight is required for vitamin D synthesis; however, the FDA recommends sun protection such as sunscreen and limiting exposure to high sun times of day to prevent sun exposure complications such as skin cancer.
Ergocalciferol
Ergocalciferol is a synthetic calcium regulator. It mobilizes calcium and phosphate from bone and increases reabsorption of calcium and phosphate by the renal tubules, thereby increasing serum calcium and phosphate levels. This supplement is indicated in the treatment of hypoparathyroidism and in those with hypophosphatemia. It is frequently used off-label for vitamin D deficiency. It is contraindicated in clients with hypercalcemia, malabsorption syndrome, and hypervitaminosis D as well as clients with abnormal sensitivity to the toxic effects of vitamin D.
Calcitriol
Calcitriol is a synthetic vitamin D analog that is active in the regulation and absorption of calcium from the gastrointestinal tract. Calcitriol is readily absorbed from the intestine with peak serum concentration within 3–6 hours. It is 99.9% bound to protein in the blood and easily distributed. Calcitriol is indicated in the management of hypocalcemia and hypoparathyroidism. It is contraindicated in clients with hypercalcemia or evidence of vitamin D toxicity.
Table 27.9 lists common vitamin D drugs and typical routes and dosing for adult and pediatric clients .
| Drug | Routes and Dosage Ranges |
|---|---|
| Ergocalciferol ( Drisdol ) |
Hypoparathyroidism:
Adults: 50,000–200,000 units daily concomitantly with calcium lactate 4 g, 6 times daily. |
| Calcitriol ( Rocaltrol ) |
Hypoparathyroidism:
Adults: 0.25 mcg orally daily in the morning; dose may be increased by health care provider in 2–4 weeks based on lab values.
Contraindications include hypersensitivity to the drug or any of its components, malabsorption disorders (such as Celiac disease or Crohn’s disease), vitamin D toxicity (symptoms include recurrent vomiting, confusion, apathy, and dehydration), and hypercalcemia (symptoms include nausea and vomiting, abdominal pain, and weight loss).
Table 27.10 is a drug prototype table for the vitamin D drug calcitriol. It lists drug class, mechanism of action, adult and pediatric dosage , indications, therapeutic effects, drug and food interactions, adverse effects, and contraindications.
|
Drug Class
Vitamin D analog Mechanism of Action Acts on cells in the gastrointestinal tract to increase the production of calcium transport proteins (calbindin-D proteins), which results in increased uptake of calcium from the intestines into the body |
Drug Dosage
Hypoparathyroidism: Adults: 0.25 mcg orally daily in the morning; dose may be increased by health care provider in 2–4 weeks based on lab values.  They are divided into two groups: nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates and non-nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates that are not approved by the FDA in the treatment of osteoporosis. The nitrogen-containing agents are used in the treatment of osteoporosis and other associated conditions where bones are thin, fragile, and at an increased risk for fracture. Bisphosphonates inhibit bone resorption by attaching to hydroxyapatite binding sites on the bone. As osteoclasts resorb bone, the bisphosphonate embedded in the bone is released and impairs the osteoclast’s ability to continue bone resorption, thereby improving bone density (Ganesan at el., 2022).
Alendronate
Alendronate is a nitrogen-containing bisphosphonate that inhibits bone resorption and improves bone density. It is used in prevention and treatment of osteoporosis and to increase bone mass in male and female clients. This medication should be taken with 6–8 ounces of water, and the client should sit/stand for at least 30 minutes after administration to prevent esophageal irritation. Alendronate is contraindicated with esophageal abnormalities, the inability to stand/sit upright for 30 minutes, hypocalcemia, and hypersensitivity. Adverse effects include abdominal pain, acid regurgitation, constipation, diarrhea, dyspepsia, musculoskeletal pain, and nausea.
Ibandronate
Ibandronate is a potent nitrogen-containing bisphosphonate that is indicated for the treatment and prevention of postmenopausal osteoporosis and is available in tablet and injectable formulation. Oral dosing of ibandronate should be on an empty stomach with 6–8 ounces of water. The client should sit or stand for at least 60 minutes after administration to enhance absorption and prevent esophageal inflammation. This medication is contraindicated in clients with hypocalcemia, hypersensitivity, pregnancy, and abnormalities of the esophagus that delay emptying and those with the inability to sit/stand for at least 60 minutes after taking this drug. Adverse effects include back pain, dyspepsia, pain in extremities, diarrhea, headache, and myalgia.
Risedronate
Risedronate is also a nitrogen-containing bisphosphonate that is indicated in the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. It is available as a delayed-release and immediate-release tablet and should be taken in the morning immediately following breakfast. The client should be able to sit/stand for at least 30 minutes following administration to facilitate delivery to the stomach and to avoid esophageal irritation. The delayed-release tablet should not be chewed, crushed, or cut. Risedronate is contraindicated in clients with hypocalcemia, with abnormalities of the esophagus that delay emptying, who are unable to sit/stand for at least 30 minutes after taking this drug, with hypersensitivity, and who are pregnant. Adverse effects include abdominal pain, constipation/diarrhea, nausea/vomiting, bronchitis, arthralgia, back pain, musculoskeletal pain, pain in the extremities, myalgia, dizziness, and headache.
Table 27.11 lists common bisphosphonate drugs and typical routes and dosing for adult clients.
| Drug | Routes and Dosage Ranges |
|---|---|
|
Alendronate
( Fosamax ) |
Treatment of osteoporosis:
Daily dosing: 5–10 mg orally in the morning. Weekly dosing: 70 mg orally in the morning. |
|
Ibandronate
( Boniva ) |
Treatment of osteoporosis:
150 mg orally once monthly or 3 mg intravenously 3 times a month. |
| Risedronate sodium ( Actonel ) |
Treatment of osteoporosis:
Immediate-release tablet: 5 mg orally once daily or 35 mg orally once weekly or 150 mg orally once monthly. Delayed-release tablet: 35 mg orally once weekly in the morning. |
Adverse Effects and Contraindications
Adverse effects of bisphosphonates drug class include gastrointestinal symptoms (such as abdominal pain, dyspepsia, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea), esophageal irritation (leading to heartburn and difficulty swallowing), musculoskeletal pain, osteonecrosis of the jaw (death of bone tissue in the jaw leading to pain, swelling, infection, and exposed bone in severe cases), and atypical fractures.
Contraindications include hypersensitivity to the drugs or any of their components as well as severe renal impairment because these drugs are primarily excreted through the kidneys and use of these drugs can further impair kidney function. This class of drugs is also contraindicated in clients who have an inability to sit upright or stand for at least 30–60 minutes after taking the medication.
Table 27.12 is a drug prototype table for the bisphosphonate drug alendronate. It lists drug class, mechanism of action, adult dosage, indications, therapeutic effects, drug and food interactions, adverse effects, and contraindications.
|
Drug Class
Bisphosphonate—nitrogen-containing Mechanism of Action Inhibits bone resorption to mineral surfaces and subsequent internalization by bone-resorbing osteoclasts where they interfere with biochemical processes and therefore improve bone density |
Drug Dosage
Treatment of osteoporosis: Daily dosing: 5–10 mg orally in the morning. Weekly dosing: 70 mg orally in the morning. |
|
Indications
Osteoporosis in postmenopausal clients Paget’s disease Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis Therapeutic Effects Increases bone mass |
Drug Interactions
Calcium supplements Antacids Aspirin Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs) Food Interactions No significant interactions |
|
Adverse Effects
Abdominal pain Acid regurgitation Constipation/diarrhea Dyspepsia Nausea Musculoskeletal pain |
Contraindications
Hypersensitivity Hypocalcemia Abnormalities of the esophagus that delay emptying Inability to sit/stand upright for at least 30 minutes Pregnancy |
Calcimimetics
Calcimimetics are drugs that mimic the actions of calcium by allosteric activation of the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) in the parathyroid glands or other tissues. These drugs lower the activation of extracellular calcium ions and decrease PTH release, thus reducing the amount of calcium in the blood. Calcimimetics are used in the treatment of hyperparathyroidism and in clients who have hypercalcemia.
Cinacalcet
Cinacalcet is a positive modulator of the CaSR agonist and is indicated in the treatment of primary and secondary hyperparathyroidism and in the treatment of hypercalcemia. This medication should be taken with meals, and the tablet should not be chewed, crushed, or divided. Nurses should use cinacalcet cautiously in clients with upper gastrointestinal bleeding, those with hypotension and/or heart failure, and those with bone disease. Adverse effects include nausea and vomiting.
Adverse Effects and Contraindications
Adverse effects of calcimimetics include gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain; hypocalcemia where symptoms include muscle cramps, tingling, numbness in the fingers or lips, and seizures; hypophosphatemia where symptoms include muscle weakness, bone pain, and impaired energy metabolism; and adynamic bone disease, which is characterized by low bone turnover and increased risk of fractures.
Contraindications include hypersensitivity to the drug or any of its components and in those clients with hypocalcemia because this can cause further decrease in calcium levels and death. Calcimimetics should be used cautiously in clients with severe liver impairment because they are primarily metabolized by the liver and can further impair its function.
Table 27.13 is a drug prototype table for the calcimimetics drug cinacalcet. It lists drug class, mechanism of action, adult dosage, indications, therapeutic effects, drug and food interactions, adverse effects, and contraindications.
|
Drug Class
Calcimimetic Mechanism of Action Amplifies the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) in the parathyroid gland, thereby suppressing PTH levels and in turn reducing blood calcium levels |
Drug Dosage
Secondary hyperparathyroidism in clients with chronic kidney disease on dialysis: Recommended starting dose is 30 mg orally once daily. Serum calcium and serum phosphate levels should be measured within 1 week, and intact PTH (iPTH) should be measured 1–4 weeks after initiation. Dose adjustment should be titrated every 2–4 weeks through sequential dosing of 30, 60, 90, 120, and 180 mg orally once daily to target iPTH levels of 150–300 pg/mL. |
|
Indications
Primary and secondary hyperparathyroidism For the treatment of hypercalcemia in adults with parathyroid carcinoma Therapeutic Effects Reduces calcium levels in the blood |
Drug Interactions
CYP3A4 (such as ketoconazole, itraconazole) CYP2D6 (such as desipramine, metoprolol, and carvedilol) Food Interactions No significant interactions |
|
Adverse Effects
Nausea/vomiting Abdominal pain Muscle cramps Bone pain Increased risk for fractures |
Contraindications
Hypersensitivity Hypocalcemia Caution: Use cautiously in clients with severe liver impairment as cinacalcet is primary metabolized by the liver and can further impair its function |
Peptide Hormones
Peptide hormones are synthetic analog hormones used in the treatment of various disease processes. For this chapter, calcitonin salmon will be covered under this drug classification. This type of peptide hormone inhibits osteoclasts and increases renal excretion of calcium, thereby decreasing serum calcium levels. In the renal tubules, it reduces serum calcium and phosphate by promoting diuresis and decreasing reabsorption. In bone, this peptide hormone causes osteoclasts to contract, which reduces their motility and ability to resorb bone. For these reasons, this medication is used to treat postmenopausal osteoporosis, Paget’s disease of bone, and emergent hypercalcemia (Wang et al., 2022).
Calcitonin Salmon
Calcitonin salmon is a synthetic peptide hormone that is used in the treatment of hypercalcemia, postmenopausal osteoporosis when alternative therapies are not suitable, and symptomatic Paget’s disease. Calcitonin salmon is available as an injectable and nasal spray and is contraindicated in clients with hypersensitivity. Adverse effects of nasal administration include nasal reactions such as dryness and irritation, nausea with or without vomiting, injection site inflammation, and flushing of face or hands.
For preparation and administration of injectable calcitonin salmon, the client should visually inspect the injection vials to ensure the solution is clear and colorless. If the solution is not clear and colorless or contains any particles or if the vial is damaged, the client should discard the solution. If the volume of the drug exceeds 2 mL, intramuscular injection is preferable. The client should be instructed on how to use the sterile injection technique and to dispose of needles properly (DailyMed, Calcitonin Salmon Injection, 2023).
Adverse Effects and Contraindications
Adverse effects of peptide hormones include nasal dryness and irritation, nausea with or without vomiting, injection site inflammation, and flushing of hands or face.
Contraindications for peptide hormones include hypersensitivity to the drug or any of its components.
Table 27.14 is a drug prototype table for the peptide hormone drug calcitonin salmon . It lists drug class, mechanism of action, adult dosage, indications, therapeutic effects, drug and food interactions, adverse effects, and contraindications.
|
Drug Class
Peptide hormone Mechanism of Action Inhibits osteoclasts, the cells that breakdown existing bone, thereby decreasing the rate of bone breakdown |
Drug Dosage
Hypercalcemia: Recommended starting dose: 4 USP units/kg body weight every 12 hours by subcutaneous or intramuscular injection. If response is not satisfactory after 1–2 days, the dose may be increased to 8 USP units/kg every 12 hours. If the response remains unsatisfactory after 2 more days, the dose may be further increased to a maximum of 8 USP units/kg every 6 hours. Postmenopausal osteoporosis: In clients more than 5 years postmenopause: 100 USP units (0.5 mL) daily administered subcutaneously or intramuscularly. Nasal spray is one spray (200 USP calcitonin salmon units) daily administered intranasally, alternating nostrils daily. Paget’s disease: 100 USP units (0.5 mL) daily administered subcutaneously or intramuscularly. |
|
Indications
Hypercalcemia Postmenopausal osteoporosis Paget’s disease of the bone Therapeutic Effects Decreases the rate of bone breakdown |
Drug Interactions
No signification interactions Food Interactions No significant interactions |
|
Adverse Effects
Nasal dryness and irritation Nausea with or without vomiting Injection site reaction/inflammation Flushing of face and hands |
Contraindications
Hypersensitivity Caution: Use cautiously in clients who are taking lithium, because concomitant use of calcitonin salmon and lithium may lead to a reduction in plasma lithium concentration due to increased urinary clearance of lithium |
Nursing Implications
The nurse should do the following for clients who are taking calcium preparations, vitamin D, bisphosphonates, calcimimetics, and peptide hormones:
- Monitor calcium, vitamin D, phosphate, PTH, and thyroid hormones closely and report abnormalities to the health care provider.
- Ensure the client is able to sit/stand for 30–60 minutes after the administration of bisphosphonates.
- Educate the client taking calcium preparations, vitamin D, and bisphosphonates to eat foods high in calcium and vitamin D such as spinach, kale, soybeans, salmon, sardines, and fortified dairy products.
- Provide client teaching regarding the drug and when to call the health care provider. See below for additional client teaching guidelines.
Client Teaching Guidelines
The client taking a calcium preparation, vitamin D, bisphosphonate, calcimimetic, or peptide hormone should:
- Take the drug exactly as prescribed by the health care provider.
- Report gastrointestinal disturbance, muscle pain, muscle spasms, bone pain, fatigue, or rash to the health care provider because these may be symptoms of a severe reaction.
- Adhere to proper diet involving calcium and vitamin D products as instructed by the health care provider.
- Notify the health care provider if they are pregnant or plan to become pregnant or if they are breastfeeding.
- Store out of reach children and away from heat, moisture, and light.
The client taking a calcium preparation, vitamin D, bisphosphonate, calcimimetic, or peptide hormone should not:
- Take over-the-counter medications or herbal supplements without consulting with the health care provider.
- Lay in a supine position for 30–60 minutes after taking a bisphosphonate.
FDA Black Box Warning
Bisphosphonates
Jaw necrosis and subtrochanteric and diaphyseal femur fractures have been reported in clients treated with bisphosphonates.


3.1: Compounds, Lewis Diagrams and Ionic Bonds
If we take two or more atoms and bond them together chemically so that they now behave as a single substance, we have made a chemical compound. We will see that the process of bonding actually involves either the sharing , or the net transfer , of electrons from one atom to another. The two types of bonding are covalent , for the sharing of electrons between atoms, and ionic , for the net transfer of electrons between atoms. Covalent or ionic bonding will determine the type of compound that will be formed.
In Chapter 1 , we used atomic theory to describe the structure of the fluorine atom. We said that neutral fluorine has nine protons in its nucleus (an atomic number of 9), nine electrons surrounding the nucleus (to make it neutral), and the most common isotope has ten neutrons in its nucleus, for a mass number of 19. Further, we said that the nine electrons exist in two energy levels; the first energy level contains two electrons and is written 1 s 2 . The second energy level contains seven electrons, distributed as 2 s 2 2 p 5 . The outermost electron level in any atom is referred to as the valence shell . For the representative elements (remember, this includes all of the elements except for the transition metals), the number of electrons in the valence shell corresponds to the Group number of the element in the periodic table. Group 1A elements will have one valence electron, Group 6A elements will have six valence electrons, and so on. Fluorine is a Group 7A element and has seven valence electrons. We can show the electron configuration for fluorine using a Lewis diagram (or electron-dot structure ), named after the American chemist G. N. Lewis, who proposed the concepts of electron shells and valence electrons. In a Lewis diagram, the electrons in the valence shell are shown as small “dots” surrounding the atomic symbol for the element.
\[\cdot\underset{..}{\overset{..}F}\cdot \nonumber \]
When more than four electrons are present in the valence shell, they are shown as pairs when writing the Lewis diagram (but never more than pairs). Lewis diagrams for the atoms in the second period are shown below:
\[\cdot Li\; \; \; \; \cdot Be\: \cdot \; \; \; \; \cdot \overset{.}B\cdot \; \; \; \; \cdot \underset{.}{\overset{.}C}\cdot \nonumber \]
\[\cdot\underset{.}{\overset{..}N}\cdot\; \; \; \; :\underset{.}{\overset{..}O}\cdot\; \; \; \; \cdot\underset{..}{\overset{..}F}\cdot\; \; \; \; :\underset{..}{\overset{..}Ne}: \nonumber \]
As you look at the dot-structures please understand that it makes no difference where you place the electrons, or the electron pairs, around the symbol, as long as pairs are shown whenever there are four or more valence electrons.
If you examine the Lewis diagram for neon (Ne) above, you will see that the valence shell is filled ; that is, there are eight electrons in the valence shell. Elements in Group 8A of the periodic table are called noble gasses ; they are very stable and do not routinely combine with other elements to form compounds (although today, many compounds containing noble gasses are known). Modern bonding theory tells us that this stability arises because the valence shell in the noble gasses is completely filled. When the valence shell is not full, theory suggests that atoms will transfer or share electrons with other atoms in order to achieve a filled valence shell… that is, the electron configuration of the noble gasses. Chemical bonding can then be viewed as a quest by atoms to acquire (or lose) enough electrons so that their valence shells are filled, that is, to achieve a “noble gas configuration”. This is often referred to as the “ octet rule ”; the desire for elements to obtain eight electrons in the valence shell (except of course for helium where the noble gas configuration is two valence electrons).
Atoms can achieve a noble gas configuration by two methods; the transfer of electrons from their valence shells to another atom, or by sharing electrons with another atom. If you examine the Lewis diagram for lithium (Li), you will see that it has only one valence electron. If lithium was to transfer this electron to another atom, it would be left with two electrons in the 1 s -orbital (denoted as 1 s 2 ). This is the same electron configuration as helium (He), and so by losing this electron, lithium has achieved a noble gas configuration . Because electrons carry a negative charge, the loss of this electron leaves lithium with a single positive charge. This is the lithium cation and it is shown as Li + .
Returning to fluorine (F), in order to achieve the 2 s 2 2 p 6 configuration of neon (Ne), fluorine needs to gain one valence electron. Because fluorine has gained one electron, it now has one negative charge. This is the fluoride anion and it is shown as F - . The transfer of electrons in order to achieve a noble gas configuration is the process known as ionic bonding , and this will be covered in more detail later in this chapter.
- Sodium and chlorine are both third-period elements. Draw Lewis diagrams for each of these elements.
- What number of electrons would chlorine have to gain in order to achieve a “noble gas configuration”? What would be the charge on chlorine?
- What number of electrons would Na have to lose to obtain the noble gas configuration of Ne with eight valence electrons? What charge would Na have?


1.2.2: Mental Illness
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We have all had some exposure to mental illness, but do we really understand it or know what it is? Many of our preconceptions are incorrect. A mental illness can be defined as a health condition that changes a person’s thinking, feelings, or behavior (or all three) and that causes the person distress and difficulty in functioning. As with many diseases, mental illness is severe in some cases and mild in others.  Other individuals may show more explicit symptoms such as confusion, agitation, or withdrawal.
Even if you or a family member has not experienced mental illness directly, it is very likely that you have known someone who has. Estimates are that at least one in four people is affected by mental illness either directly or indirectly.
Consider the following statistics to get an idea of just how widespread the effects of mental illness are in society:


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Huang, J., Zang, Y., Ren, L. H., Li, F. J., & Lu, H. (2019). A review and comparison of common maternal positions during the second-stage of labor. International Journal of Nursing Sciences, 6 (4), 460–467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnss.2019.06.007
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19.8: Critical Thinking Questions
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How would you characterize the impact of colonialism on Indigenous peoples?
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Considering this chapter and overlapping subjects in previous chapters, what changes have been made within the discipline of anthropology in the 20th and 21st centuries?
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What role have casinos played in tribal economic development?
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How have Indigenous critiques and Indigenous perspectives changed and developed anthropology?
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Should Native American human remains and funerary objects be collected for scientific research or returned to tribes? Explain your answer.
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Why are language recovery and language reclamation important to maintain Indigenous cultures? Explain your answer using details from the text.
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Address Indian mascots or stereotypes you have encountered in your experience. In what ways might they be viewed as dishonoring Native peoples?
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What roles are tribal communities taking with regard to applied anthropology?


14.1B: Colonization and Growth
- Distinguish between colonization and infection
Infection begins when an organism successfully colonizes by entering the body, growing and multiplying from there. Most humans are not easily infected. Those who are weak, sick, malnourished, have cancer or are diabetic possess an increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections. Individuals who have a suppressed immune system are particularly susceptible to opportunistic infections.
Entrance to the host generally occurs through the mucosa in orifices like the oral cavity, nose, eyes, genitalia, anus, or open wounds. While a few organisms can grow at the initial site of entry, many migrate and cause systemic infection in different organs. Some pathogens grow within the host cells (intracellular) whereas others grow freely in bodily fluids. Some virulent bacteria produce special proteins that allow them to colonize parts of the host body. Helicobacter pylori is able to survive in the acidic environment of the human stomach by producing the enzyme urease. Colonization of the stomach lining by this bacterium can lead to gastric ulcer and cancer. The virulence of various strains of Helicobacter pylori tends to correlate with the level of production of urease.
Wound colonization refers to nonreplicating microorganisms within the wound, while in infected wounds replicating organisms exist and tissue is injured. All multicellular organisms are colonized to some degree by extrinsic organisms and the vast majority of these exist in either a mutualistic or commensal relationship with the host. An example of the former is the anaerobic bacteria species, which colonizes the mammalian colon, and an example of the latter is various species of staphylococcus that exist on human skin. Neither of these colonizations are considered infections.
The difference between an infection and a colonization is often only a matter of circumstance. Non-pathogenic organisms can become pathogenic given specific conditions and even the most virulent organism requires certain circumstances to cause a compromising infection. Some colonizing bacteria, such as Corynebacteria sp. and viridans streptococci, prevent the adhesion and colonization of pathogenic bacteria. They thus have a symbiotic relationship with the host, preventing infection and speeding wound healing.
The variables involved in the outcome of a host becoming inoculated by a pathogen and the ultimate outcome include: the route of entry of the pathogen and the access to host regions that it gains, the intrinsic virulence of the particular organism, the quantity or load of the initial inoculant, and the immune status of the host being colonized. As an example, the Staphylococcus species remains harmless on the skin. But when present in a normally sterile space, such as in the capsule of a joint or the peritoneum the Staphylococcus species multiplies without resistance and creates a burden on the host.
Key Points
- Some virulent bacteria produce special proteins that allow them to colonize parts of the host body.
- Wound colonization refers to nonreplicating microorganisms within the wound, while in infected wounds replicating organisms exist and tissue is injured.
- While a few organisms can grow at the initial site of entry, many migrate and cause systemic infection in different organs.
Key Terms
- infection : An uncontrolled growth of harmful microorganisms in a host.


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binary stars
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two stars that revolve about each other
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brown dwarf
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an object intermediate in size between a planet and a star; the approximate mass range is from about 1/100 of the mass of the Sun up to the lower mass limit for self-sustaining nuclear reactions, which is about 1/12 the mass of the Sun
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eclipsing binary
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a binary star in which the plane of revolution of the two stars is nearly edge-on to our line of sight, so that the light of one star is periodically diminished by the other passing in front of it
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H–R diagram
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(Hertzsprung–Russell diagram) a plot of luminosity against surface temperature (or spectral type) for a group of stars
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main sequence
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a sequence of stars on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, containing the majority of stars, that runs diagonally from the upper left to the lower right
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mass-luminosity relation
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the observed relation between the masses and luminosities of many (90% of all) stars
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selection effect
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the selection of sample data in a nonrandom way, causing the sample data to be unrepresentative of the entire data set
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spectroscopic binary
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a binary star in which the components are not resolved but whose binary nature is indicated by periodic variations in radial velocity, indicating orbital motion
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visual binary
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a binary star in which the two components are telescopically resolved
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white dwarf
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a low-mass star that has exhausted most or all of its nuclear fuel and has collapsed to a very small size; such a star is near its final state of life


1.4: Opening a Speech- Get Their Attention from the Start!
The Battle for Attention
Ways to Start a Speech
Story
The pilot lines up the plane with the Hudson River.
That’s usually not the route.
He turns off the engines.
Now, imagine being in a plane with no sound.
And then he says three words.
The most unemotional three words I’ve ever heard.
He says, “Brace for impact.”
 It’s a bright sunny day and you are taking a train.  As you board the train one of your sandals slips off and falls beside the track. (J.A. loses one sandal that falls down the platform.) You try to retrieve it. Too late. The train starts to pull away. What would you have done? I would have cursed my bad luck, mad at losing a sandal.
JA Gamache, Toastmasters 2007 World Championship.
 Please stay standing and keep your hand up there.
Arouse Suspense or Curiosity
So like Johnny Depp,
and like 25 percent of Americans
between the ages of 16 and 50,
I have a tattoo.
I first started thinking about getting it in my mid-20s,
but I deliberately waited a really long time.
Because we all know people
who have gotten tattoos when they were 17
or 19 or 23
and regretted it by the time they were 30.
That didn’t happen to me.
I got my tattoo when I was 29,
and I regretted it instantly.
And by “regretted it,”
I mean that I stepped outside of the tattoo place —
this is just a couple miles from here
down on the Lower East Side —
and I had a massive emotional meltdown in broad daylight
on the corner of East Broadway and Canal Street.
(Laughter)
Which is a great place to do it because nobody cares.
(Laughter)
And then I went home that night, and I had an even larger emotional meltdown,
which I’ll say more about in a minute.
Step Two: Credibility
Step Three: Tell Why it is Important
Step Four: Tell the Purpose of the Talk (aka Preview/ Thesis)
Try This — Inspired by TED Master Class
After you write your thesis, send it to three people with the question,
“Based on what you read here, what do you think my speech will be about?”
Putting It All Together
Teach Every Child About Food by Jamie Oliver Analyzed |
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| Sadly, in the next 18 minutes when I do our chat, four Americans that are alive will be dead through the food that they eat. | |
| Establish rapport and tell the audience why you care about the topic or why you are credible to speak on the topic. |
My name’s Jamie Oliver. I’m 34 years old. I’m from Essex in England and for the last seven years, I’ve worked fairly tirelessly to save lives in my own way. I’m not a doctor; I’m a chef, I don’t have expensive equipment or medicine.
I use information, education. |
| Tell the audience why they should care about this topic. | I profoundly believe that the power of food has a primal place in our homes that binds us to the best bits of life. We have an awful, awful reality right now. America, you’re at the top of your game. This is one of the most unhealthy countries in the world. |
| Introduce the speech thesis/preview/good idea. |
|
|
Give a transition statement
to the body of the speech. |
I’ve been doing this for seven years. I’ve been trying in America for seven years. Now is the time when it’s ripe — ripe for the picking. I went to the eye of the storm. I went to West Virginia, the most unhealthy state in America. Or it was last year. We’ve got a new one this year, but we’ll work on that next season. |
Never Start a Speech This Way
“I’m sorry, I’m losing my voice.”
Do Not Discuss Your Business with People Watching…Really! I Mean It!
Many of us are giving and listening to presentations in an online format. I have attended numerous presentations this year through Zoom where I have to sit and watch while the organizers engage in personal small talk or deal with the details of the presentation.
This is how the speech I recently attended began.”Donna, you are going to share your screen, right?”
“Yes. I have my PowerPoint ready to go. Will you push “record” when I give the signal?”
“Sure. Where did you say that button is again? Do you think we should wait five more minutes, I think we had more who were coming? Dave, what was the total we were expecting?”
“Yeah, we had 116 sign up, but the reminders went out late so this may be all we have. We can give them a few more minutes to log on.”
“Donna, How is your dog? Is she still struggling with her cone since her spay surgery? My dog never would wear the cone –she tore her stitches out and broke her wound open. It was terrible. Well, it looks like it is about time to begin, thank you everyone for coming.”
If you are organizing an event online, hosting a speech online, giving a presentation online–please keep it professional. Most platforms will allow you to keep the audience in a waiting room until it is time to start. If you have a business to deal with, keep the audience out until you have everything ready to go. Once the audience is in the meeting, you should engage the audience in group-type small talk or you should just start the presentation. In professional settings, you should start the meeting on time. Why punish those who showed up on time to wait for those who aren’t there yet?


26.3D: Diversity of Angiosperms
- Explain how angiosperm diversity is classified
Diversity of Angiosperms
Angiosperms are classified in a single phylum: the Anthophyta. Modern angiosperms appear to be a monophyletic group, which means that they originated from a single ancestor. Flowering plants are divided into two major groups according to the structure of the cotyledons and pollen grains, among others. Monocots include grasses and lilies while eudicots or dicots form a polyphyletic group. However, many species exhibit characteristics that belong to either group; as such, the classification of a plant as a monocot or a eudicot is not always clearly evident. Basal angiosperms are a group of plants that are believed to have branched off before the separation into monocots and eudicots because they exhibit traits from both groups. They are categorized separately in many classification schemes. The Magnoliidae (magnolia trees, laurels, and water lilies) and the Piperaceae (peppers) belong to the basal angiosperm group.
Basal Angiosperms
Examples of basal angiosperms include the Magnoliidae, Laurales, Nymphaeales, and the Piperales. Members in these groups all share traits from both monocot and dicot groups. The Magnoliidae are represented by the magnolias: tall trees bearing large, fragrant flowers that have many parts and are considered archaic. Laurel trees produce fragrant leaves and small, inconspicuous flowers. The Laurales grow mostly in warmer climates and are small trees and shrubs. Familiar plants in this group include the bay laurel, cinnamon, spice bush, and avocado tree. The Nymphaeales are comprised of the water lilies, lotus, and similar plants; all species thrive in freshwater biomes and have leaves that float on the water surface or grow underwater. Water lilies are particularly prized by gardeners and have graced ponds and pools for thousands of years. The Piperales are a group of herbs, shrubs, and small trees that grow in the tropical climates. They have small flowers without petals that are tightly arranged in long spikes. Many species are the source of prized fragrance or spices; for example, the berries of Piper nigrum are the familiar black peppercorns that are used to flavor many dishes.
Monocots
Plants in the monocot group are primarily identified as such by the presence of a single cotyledon in the seedling. Other anatomical features shared by monocots include veins that run parallel to the length of the leaves and flower parts that are arranged in a three- or six-fold symmetry. True woody tissue is rarely found in monocots. In palm trees, vascular and parenchyma tissues produced by the primary and secondary thickening of meristems form the trunk. The pollen from the first angiosperms was monosulcate, containing a single furrow or pore through the outer layer. This feature is still seen in the modern monocots. Vascular tissue of the stem is not arranged in any particular pattern. The root system is mostly adventitious and unusually positioned, with no major tap root. The monocots include familiar plants such as the true lilies (which are the origin of their alternate name: Liliopsida), orchids, grasses, and palms. Many important crops are monocots, such as rice and other cereals, corn, sugar cane, and tropical fruits like bananas and pineapples.
Eudicots
Eudicots, or true dicots, are characterized by the presence of two cotyledons in the developing shoot. Veins form a network in leaves, while flower parts come in four, five, or many whorls. Vascular tissue forms a ring in the stem whereas in monocots, vascular tissue is scattered in the stem. Eudicots can be herbaceous (like grasses), or produce woody tissues. Most eudicots produce pollen that is trisulcate or triporate, with three furrows or pores. The root system is usually anchored by one main root developed from the embryonic radicle. Eudicots comprise two-thirds of all flowering plants.
Contributions and Attributions
- OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44650/latest...ol11448/latest . License : CC BY: Attribution
- carpel. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/carpel . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- corolla. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/corolla . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- stamen. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/stamen . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- sepal. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sepal . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- OpenStax College, Angiosperms. October 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44650/latest...e_26_03_02.jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
- OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44650/latest...ol11448/latest . License : CC BY: Attribution
- fruit. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fruit . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- hypanthium. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hypanthium . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- pericarp. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pericarp . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- OpenStax College, Angiosperms. October 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44650/latest...e_26_03_02.jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Forest fruits from Barro Colorado. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi...o_Colorado.png . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Alsomitra macrocarpa seed (syn.nZanonia macrocarpa). Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi...acrocarpa).jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
- OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44650/latest/?collection=col11448/latest . License : CC BY: Attribution
- heterosporous. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/heterosporous . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- synergid. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/synergid . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- cotyledon. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cotyledon . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- OpenStax College, Angiosperms. October 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44650/latest/Figure_26_03_02.jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Forest fruits from Barro Colorado. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Forest_fruits_from_Barro_Colorado.png . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Alsomitra macrocarpa seed (syn.nZanonia macrocarpa). Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi...acrocarpa).jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Aesculus hippocastanum fruit. Provided by : Wikimedia commons. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ae...anum_fruit.jpg . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- data-attribution-url=cnx.org/content/m44650/latest...e_26_03_03.png. Provided by : Connexions. License : CC BY: Attribution
- angiosperm. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/angiosperm . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44650/latest/?collection=col11448/latest . License : CC BY: Attribution
- cotyledon. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cotyledon . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- basal angiosperm. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/basal%20angiosperm . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- dicot. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dicot . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- monocot. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/monocot . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- OpenStax College, Angiosperms. October 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44650/latest/Figure_26_03_02.jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Forest fruits from Barro Colorado. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Forest_fruits_from_Barro_Colorado.png . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Alsomitra macrocarpa seed (syn.nZanonia macrocarpa). Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alsomitra_macrocarpa_seed_(syn._Zanonia_macrocarpa).jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Aesculus hippocastanum fruit. Provided by : Wikimedia commons. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ae...anum_fruit.jpg . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- data-attribution-url=cnx.org/content/m44650/latest...e_26_03_03.png. Provided by : Connexions. License : CC BY: Attribution
- OpenStax College, Angiosperms. October 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44650/latest...e_26_03_05.jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
- OpenStax College, Angiosperms. October 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44650/latest..._03_04abcd.jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
Key Points
- Angiosperm are flowering plants that are classified based on characteristics that include (but are not limited to) cotyledon structure, pollen grains, as well as flower and vascular tissue arrangement.
- Basal angiosperms, classified separately, contain features found in both monocots and dicots, as they are believed to have originated before the separation of these two main groups.
- Monocots contain a single cotyledon and have veins that run parallel to the length of their leaves; their flowers are arranged in three to six-fold symmetry.
- Dicots have flowers arranged in whorls, two cotyledons, and a vein arrangement that forms networks within their leaves.
- Monocots do not contain any true woody tissue while dicots can be herbacious or woody and have vascular tissue that forms a ring in the stem.
Key Terms
- dicot : a plant whose seedlings have two cotyledons; a dicotyledon
- angiosperm : a plant whose ovules are enclosed in an ovary
- monocot : one of two major groups of flowering plants (or angiosperms) that are traditionally recognized; seedlings typically have one cotyledon (seed-leaf)
- cotyledon : the leaf of the embryo of a seed-bearing plant; after germination it becomes the first leaves of the seedling
- basal angiosperm : the first flowering plants to diverge from the ancestral angiosperm, including a single species of shrub from New Caledonia, water lilies and some other aquatic plants, and woody aromatic plants