26.5: Summary
26.1 Pregnancy Loss
Pregnancy loss at any stage in the pregnancy is devastating to the parents. They are grieving the loss of their child and the family they had envisioned. During this grief, they must then make decisions about what treatment plan is best. Treatment options are dependent upon the gestational age of the fetus and the patient’s preference. During this time of discussing treatment, the nurse and health-care providers use shared decision making and allow the parents sufficient time to make decisions.
The cause of early and late pregnancy loss is many times related to chromosomal abnormalities. Early prenatal testing can detect some anomalies and allow patients to determine a plan of care during the first trimester. At other times, fetal abnormalities or maternal risk factors are not apparent until after the first trimester, making options for care more limited. Parents should be offered fetal autopsy and placental pathology to determine the cause of stillbirth or IUFD.
Bereavement care is provided throughout the process of perinatal loss. Nurses and health-care providers should be trained in bereavement care and should offer patients individualized care based on their culture, religion, and personal beliefs. Families should be offered bereavement care as well. Mental health resources should be provided to all family members.
Nurses will give education on postabortion or postpartum care at discharge. Use of support groups and counseling experts is encouraged. Nurses caring for families with perinatal loss experience emotional distress and should practice self-care.
26.2 Intrapartum Fetal Death
Intrapartum fetal death is devastating to the birthing person, their partner, support persons, family, health-care providers, and nurses. The common question is, “How could this happen?” Causes of fetal death during labor can be infection such as chorioamnionitis, hypertensive disorders, placental abruption, a cord problem or accident, growth restriction in the fetus, or a congenital anomaly. Unfortunately, many causes of fetal deaths are unknown.
Nurses caring for a family during an intrapartum fetal death can feel grief, sadness, anger, guilt, and fear. Nurses must support one another, and debriefing is a great way to provide support and allow them to talk about their feelings. Debriefing is part of self-care.
After an intrapartum fetal death, the role of the nurse is to provide routine nursing care for the postpartum person and also to meet the needs of a grieving patient, their partner, and family. The nurse can provide a cooling cot to allow the patient, their partner, and families more time with the newborn, create a memory box with mementos, contact social workers and religious support, and discuss lactation and what to expect. The nurse also screens for postpartum depression and anxiety, as this is much more prevalent after an infant loss. This process of loss affects everyone, and nurses must also care for themselves after caring for these families.
26.3 Newborn Loss
Neonatal deaths occur for multiple reasons, such as prematurity, childbirth complications, infection, and birth defects. The loss of a newborn affects all caregivers, nurses, parents, and family. Nurses must support the parents and family through the grief process. Nurses can offer resources for support groups and ensure that the family’s culture and beliefs are respected. Nurses should also debrief with their colleagues as a form of self-care. Grief is a process, and everyone involved in a neonatal death will navigate the process in different ways. Grief support is essential.


20.13: Checklist for Drain Management
Drain management systems are commonly used during post-operative surgical management to remove drainage, prevent infection, and enhance wound healing. A drain may be superficial in the skin or deep in an organ, duct, or cavity, such as a hematoma. A patient may have several drains depending on the extent and type of surgery. A closed system uses a vacuum system to withdraw fluids and collect them in a reservoir. Closed systems must be emptied and drainage measured routinely according to agency policy.
Drainage tubes contain perforations to allow fluid to drain from the surgical wound site. The drainage is collected in a closed sterile collection system/reservoir, such as a Hemovac or Jackson-Pratt. The amount of drainage varies depending on location and type of surgery. A Hemovac drain (see Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) [1] ) can hold up to 500 mL of drainage. A Jackson-Pratt (JP) drain (see Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) [2] ) is used for smaller amounts of drainage, usually ranging from 25 to 50 mL. Drains are usually sutured to the skin to prevent accidental removal, and the drainage site is covered with a sterile dressing. The site and drain should be checked periodically throughout the shift to ensure the drain is functioning effectively and that no leaking is occurring.
Checklist for Drain Management
Use the checklist below to review the steps for completion of “Drain Management.”
Steps
Disclaimer: Always review and follow agency policy regarding this specific skill.
- Gather supplies: drainage measurement container, nonsterile gloves, waterproof pad, and alcohol swab.
-
Perform safety steps:
- Perform hand hygiene.
- Check the room for transmission-based precautions.
- Introduce yourself, your role, the purpose of your visit, and an estimate of the time it will take.
- Confirm patient ID using two patient identifiers (e.g., name and date of birth).
- Explain the process to the patient and ask if they have any questions.
- Be organized and systematic.
- Use appropriate listening and questioning skills.
- Listen and attend to patient cues.
- Ensure the patient’s privacy and dignity.
- Assess ABCs.
- Apply nonsterile gloves and goggles or face shield according to agency policy to reduce the transmission of microorganisms and protect against an accidental body fluid exposure.
-
Maintaining a sterile technique, remove the plug from the pouring spout as indicated on the drain:
- Open the plug pointing away from your face to avoid an accidental splash of contaminated fluid.
- Maintain the plug’s sterility.
- Notice that the vacuum will be broken and the reservoir (drainage collection system) will expand.
- Gently tilt the opening of the reservoir toward the measuring container and pour out the drainage away from you to prevent exposure to body fluids. Do not touch the measuring container with the reservoir opening.
- Place the drainage container on the bed or hard surface, tilt it away from your face, and compress the drain to flatten it with one hand to remove all the air before closing the spout to establish the vacuum system.
- Cleanse the plug with the alcohol swab per agency policy. Maintaining sterility, place the plug back into the pour spout of the drainage system to establish the vacuum system of the drainage system.
- Secure the device onto the patient’s gown using a safety pin; check patency and placement of tube. Ensure that enough slack is present in tubing and that the reservoir hangs lower than the wound. Proper placement of the reservoir allows gravity to facilitate wound drainage. Providing enough slack to accommodate patient movement prevents tension of the drainage system and pulling on the tubing and insertion site.
-
Note the characteristics of the drainage: color, consistency, odor, and amount. Drainage counts as patient fluid output and must be documented on the patient chart per agency policy.
- Monitor and empty drains frequently in the post-operative period to reduce the weight of the reservoir and to assess drainage.
- Remove gloves and perform hand hygiene.
- Assist the patient to a comfortable position, ask if they have any questions, and thank them for their time.
-
Ensure safety measures when leaving the room:
- CALL LIGHT: Within reach
- BED: Low and locked (in lowest position and brakes on)
- SIDE RAILS: Secured
- TABLE: Within reach
- ROOM: Risk-free for falls (scan room and clear any obstacles)
-
Document the procedure and assessment findings according to agency policy. Report any unusual findings or concerns to the health care provider. If the amount of drainage increases or changes, notify the appropriate health care provider according to agency policy.
- If the amount of drainage significantly decreases, the drain may be ready to be assessed and removed.
- Notify required health care provider if the wound appears infected.
- Record the number of drains if there is more than one, and record each one separately.
- “DSC_0272-1024x678.jpg” by British Columbia Institute of Technology is licensed under CC BY 4.0. Access for free at https://opentextbc.ca/clinicalskills/chapter/4-8-drain-management-and-removal/ ↵
- ”DSC_0285-1024x678.jpg” by British Columbia Institute of Technology is licensed under CC BY 4.0. Access for free at https://opentextbc.ca/clinicalskills/chapter/4-8-drain-management-and-removal/ ↵


14.11: Introduction to Integrated Marketing Communications and Promotions
What you’ll learn to do: Explore the concept of integrated marketing communications and retail promotions
As we begin, we need to emphasize the relevance of integrated in our discussion of Marketing Communication. As you know, the emergence of digital technology, social media and mobile devices has led to significant changes in how consumers shop for and engage with brands—the emergence of an omni-channel, i.e. the varied interactions in the shopping process that consumers have pre-, during and post-purchase. The resulting proliferation of channels and fragmentation of target audiences means that firms must work hard to be present and relevant wherever and whenever consumers engage. Further, it means that outbound advertising must be integrated together to ensure that it is consistent, complementary and customized for the appropriate channel to have maximum impact on the target audience.
Contributors and Attributions
- Introduction to Integrated Marketing Communications and Promotions. Authored by : Patrick Williams. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


Vowels are made without an obstruction in the vocal tract, so they are quite sonorous. The body of the tongue moves in the mouth to shape each vowel, and for some vowels, the lips are rounded as well. Linguists classify vowels according to four pieces of information: tongue height, tongue backness, lip rounding, and tenseness.
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: ecampusontario.pressbooks.pu...guistics/?p=51
Check Yourself
1. What is the articulatory description for the vowel sound represented by the IPA symbol [i]?
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High front unrounded tense vowel.
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Mid central unrounded lax reduced vowel.
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High front unrounded lax vowel.
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High back rounded tense vowel.
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High back unrounded lax vowel.
2. What is the articulatory description for the vowel sound represented by the IPA symbol [ɛ]?
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High back rounded tense vowel.
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Mid front unrounded lax vowel.
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Mid back rounded tense vowel.
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High front unrounded tense vowel.
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Mid central unrounded lax vowel.
3. What is the articulatory description for the vowel sound represented by the IPA symbol [ɑ]?
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High front unrounded tense vowel.
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Mid back unrounded lax vowel.
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Low back unrounded lax vowel.
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Mid back rounded tense vowel.
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Low back unrounded tense vowel.
Answers


3.2: Phasor Representation of Signals
There are two key ideas behind the phasor representation of a signal:
- a real, time-varying signal may be represented by a complex, time-varying signal; and
- a complex, time-varying signal may be represented as the product of a complex number that is independent of time and a complex signal that is dependent on time.
Let's be concrete. The signal
\[x(t)=A\cos(ωt+φ) \nonumber \]
illustrated in Figure, is a cosinusoidal signal with amplitude \(A\), frequency \(ω\), and phase \(φ\). The amplitude \(A\) characterizes the peak-to-peak swing of \(2A\), the angular frequency \(ω\) characterizes the period \(T=\frac {2π} ω\) between negative- to-positive zero crossings (or positive peaks or negative peaks), and the phase \(φ\) characterizes the time \(τ=\frac {−φ} ω\) when the signal reaches its first peak. With \(τ\) so defined, the signal \(x(t)\) may also be written as
\[x(t)=A\cosω(t−τ) \nonumber \]
When \(τ\) is positive, then \(τ\) is a “time delay” that describes the time (greater than zero) when the first peak is achieved. When \(τ\) is negative, then \(τ\) is a “time advance” that describes the time (less than zero) when the last peak was achieved. With the substitution \(ω=\frac {2π} T\) we obtain a third way of writing \(x(t)\):
\[x(t)=A\cos\frac {2π} {T} (t−τ) \nonumber \]
In this form the signal is easy to plot. Simply draw a cosinusoidal wave with amplitude A and period T; then strike the origin (t=0) so that the signal reaches its peak at \(τ\). In summary, the parameters that determine a cosinusoidal signal have the following units:
- A
- arbitrary (e.g., volts or meters/sec, depending upon the application)
- ω
- in radians/sec (rad/sec)
- T
- in seconds (sec)
- φ
- in radians (rad)
- τ
- in seconds (sec)
Show that \(x(t)=A\cos2πT(t−τ)\) is “periodic with period T," meaning that \(x(t+mT)=x(t)\) for all integer \(m\).
The inverse of the period T is called the “temporal frequency” of the cosinusoidal signal and is given the symbol \(f\); the units of \(f=\frac 1 T\) are (seconds) −1 or hertz (Hz). Write \(x(t)\) in terms of \(f\). How is \(f\) related to \(ω\)? Explain why \(f\) gives the number of cycles of \(x(t)\) per second.
Sketch the function \(x(t)=110\cos[2π(60)t−\frac π 8]\) versus \(t\). Repeat for \(x(t)=5\cos[2π(16×10^6)t+\frac π 4]\) and \(x(t)=2cos[\frac {2π} {10^{−3}}(t−\frac {10^{−3}} 8)]\). For each function, determine \(A,ω,T,f,φ\), and \(τ\). Label your sketches carefully.
The signal \(x(t)=A\cos(ωt+φ)\) can be represented as the real part of a complex number:
\[x(t)=\mathrm{Re}[Ae^{j(ωt+φ)}]=\mathrm{Re}[Ae^{jφ}e^{jωt}] \nonumber \]
We call \(Ae^{jφ}e^{jωt}\) the complex representation of \(x(t)\) and write
\[x(t)↔Ae^{jφ}e^{jωt} \nonumber \]
meaning that the signal \(x(t)\) may be reconstructed by taking the real part of \(Ae^{jφ}e^{jωt}\). In this representation, we call \(Ae^{jφ}\) the phasor or complex amplitude representation of \(x(t)\) and write
\[x(t)↔Ae^{jφ} \nonumber \]
meaning that the signal \(x(t)\) may be reconstructed from \(Ae^{jφ}\) by multiplying with \(e^{jωt}\) and taking the real part. In communication theory, we call \(Ae^{jφ}\) the baseband representation of the signal \(x(t)\).
For each of the signals in Problem 3, give the corresponding phasor representation \(Ae^{jφ}\).
Geometric Interpretation
Let's call
\[Ae^{jφ}e^{jωt} \nonumber \]
the complex representation of the real signal \(A\cos(ωt+φ)\). At \(t=0\), the complex representation produces the phasor
\[Ae^{jφ} \nonumber \]
This phasor is illustrated in the Figure. In the figure, \(φ\) is approximately \(\frac {−π} {10}\) If we let \(t\) increase to time \(t_1\), then the complex representation produces the phasor
We know from our study of complex numbers that \(e^{jωt_1}\) just rotates the phasor \(Ae^{jφ}\) through an angle of \(ωt_1\)! See Figure. Therefore, as we run t from 0, indefinitely, we rotate the phasor \(Ae^{jφ}\) indefinitely, turning out the circular trajectory of the Figure. When \(t=\frac {2π} ω\) then \(e^{jωt} = e^{j2π} = 1\). Therefore, every \((2πω)\) seconds, the phasor revisits any given position on the circle of radius A. We sometimes call \(Ae^{jφ}e^{jωt}\) a rotating phasor whose rotation rate is the frequency \(ω\):
\[\frac {d} {dt} ωt=ω \nonumber \]
This rotation rate is also the frequency of the cosinusoidal signal \(A\cos(ωt+φ)\).
In summary, \(Ae^{jφ}e^{jωt}\) is the complex, or rotating phasor, representation of the signal \(A\cos(ωt+φ)\). In this representation, \(e^{jωt}\) rotates the phasor \(Ae^{jφ}\) through angles \(ωt\) at the rate \(ω\). The real part of the complex representation is the desired signal \(A\cos(ωt+φ)\). This real part is read off the rotating phasor diagram as illustrated in the Figure. In the figure, the angle \(φ\) is about \(\frac {−2π} {10}\). As we become more facile with phasor representations, we will write \(x(t)=\mathrm{Re}[Xe^{jωt}]\) and call \(Xe^{jωt}\) the complex representation and \(X\) the phasor representation. The phasor \(X\) is, of course, just the phasor \(Ae^{jφ}\).
Sketch the imaginary part of \(Ae^{jφ}e^{jωt}\) to show that this is \(A\sin(ωt+φ)\). What do we mean when we say that the real and imaginary parts of \(Ae^{jφ}e^{jωt}\) are "90 ∘ out of phase"?
(MATLAB) Modify Demo 2.1 in "The Function \(e^x\) and \(e^{jθ}\)" so that \(θ=ωt\), with \(ω\) an input frequency variable and \(t\) a time variable that ranges from \(−2(\frac {2π} {ω})\) to+\(2(\frac {2π} ω)\) in steps of \(0.02 (\frac {2π} ω)\). In your modified program, compute and plot \(e^{jωt}\), \(\mathrm{Re{[e^{jωt}]}}\), and \(\mathrm{Im}[e^{jωt}]\) for \(−2(\frac {2π} ω)≤t<2(\frac {2π} ω)\) in steps of \(0.02 (\frac {2π} ω)\). Plot \(e^{jωt}\) in a two-dimensional plot to get a picture like the Figure and plot \(\mathrm{Re}[e^{jωt}]\) and \(\mathrm{Im}[e^{jωt}]\) versus \(t\) to get signals like those of the Figure. You should observe something like the Figure using the subplot features discussed in An Introduction to MATLAB. (In the figure, \(w\) represents Greek \(ω\).)
Positive and Negative Frequencies
There is an alternative phasor representation for the signal \(x(t)=A\cos(ωt+φ)\). We obtain it by using the Euler formula of "The Function e x e jθ ", namely, \(\cos θ=\frac 1 2 (e^{jθ}+e^{−jθ})\). When this formula is applied to \(x(t)\), we obtain the result
\[x(t)=\frac A 2 [e^{j(ωt+φ)}+e^{−j(ωt+φ)}]=\frac A 2 e^{jφ}e^{jωt} + \frac A 2 e^{−jφ}e^{−jωt} \nonumber \]
In this formula, the term \(\frac A 2 e^{jφ}e^{jωt}\) is a rotating phasor that begins at the phasor value \(\frac A 2 e^{jφ}\) (for t=0) and rotates counterclockwise with frequency \(ω\). The term \(\frac A 2 e^{−jφ}e^{−jωt}\) is a rotating phasor that begins at the (complex conjugate) phasor value \(\frac A 2 e^{−jφ}\) (for t=0) and rotates clockwise with (negative) fequency \(ω\). The physically meaningful frequency for a cosine is \(ω\), a positive number like \(2π(60)\) for 60 Hz power. There is no such thing as a negative frequency. The so-called negative frequency of the term \(\frac A 2 e^{−jφ}e^{−jωt}\) just indicates that the direction of rotation for the rotating phasor is clock-wise and not counterclockwise. The notion of a negative frequency is just an artifact of the two-phasor representation of \(Acos(ωt+φ)\). In the one-phasor representation, when we take the “real part,” the artifact does not arise. In your study of circuits, systems theory, electromagnetics, solid-state devices, signal processing, control, and communications, you will encounter both the one- and two-phasor representations. Become facile with them.
Sketch the two-phasor representation of \(A\cos(ωt+φ)\). Show clearly how this representation works by discussing the counterclockwise rotation of the positive frequency part and the clockwise rotation of the negative frequency part.
Adding Phasors
The sum of two signals with common frequencies but different amplitudes and phases is
\[A_1\cos(ωt+φ_1)+A_2\cos(ωt+φ_2) \nonumber \]
The rotating phasor representation for this sum is
\[(A_1e^{jφ_1}+A_2e^{jφ_2})e^{jωt} \nonumber \]
The new phasor is \(A_1e^{jφ_1}+A_2e^{jφ_2}\), and the corresponding real signal is \(x(t)=Re[(A_1e^{jφ_1}+A_2e^{jφ_2})e^{jωt}]\). The new phasor is illustrated in the Figure.
Write the phasor \(A_1e^{jφ_1}+A_2e^{jφ_2}\) as \(A_3e^{jφ_3}\) ; determine \(A_3\) and \(φ_3\) in terms of \(A_1,A_2,φ_1,\) and \(φ_2\). What is the corresponding real signal?
Differentiating and Integrating Phasors
The derivative of the signal \(A\cos(ωt+φ)\) is the signal
\[\frac d {dt} A\cos(ωt+φ) = −ωA\sin(ωt+φ) \nonumber \]
\[=−\mathrm{Im}[ωAe^{jφ}e^{jωt}]=\mathrm{Re}[jωAe^{jφ}e^{jωt}] \nonumber \]
\[=\mathrm{Re}[ωe^{jπ/2}Ae^{jφ}e^{jωt}] \nonumber \]
This finding is very important. It says that the derivative of \(A\cos(ωt+φ)\) has the phasor representation
\[\frac d {dt} A\cos(ωt+φ) ↔ jωAe^{jφ}↔ωe^{jπ/2}Ae^{jφ} \nonumber \]
These two phasor representations are entirely equivalent. The first says that the phasor \(Ae^{jφ}\) is complex scaled by \(jω\) to produce the phasor for \(\frac d {dt} A\cos(ωt+φ)\), and the second says that it is scaled by \(ω\) and phased by \(+π/2\). The phasor representations of \(A\cos(ωt+φ)\) and \(\frac d {dt} A\cos(ωt+φ)\) are illustrated in Figure 3.6. Note that the derivative “leads by \(π/2\) radians (90)."
The integral of \(A\cos(ωt+φ)\) is
\[∫A\cos(ωt+φ)dt=\frac A ω \sin(ωt+φ)=\mathrm{Im}[\frac A ω e^{jφ}e^{jωt}] \nonumber \]
\[=\mathrm{Re}[−j\frac A ω e^{jφ}e^{jωt}] = \mathrm{Re}[\frac A {jω} e^{jφ}e^{jωt}] = \mathrm{Re}[\frac 1 ω e^{−jπ/2}Ae^{jφ}e^{jωt}] \nonumber \]
This finding shows that the integral of \(A\cos(ωt+φ)\) has the phasor representation
\[∫A\cos(ωt+φ)dt↔\frac 1 {jω} Ae^{jφ}↔\frac 1 ω e^{−jπ/2} Ae^{jφ} \nonumber \]
The phasor \(Ae^{jφ}\) is complex scaled by \(\frac 1 {jω}\) or scaled by \(\frac 1 ω\) and phased by \(e^{−jπ/2}\) to produce the phasor for \(∫A\cos(ωt+φ)dt\). This is illustrated in the Figure. Note that the integral “lags by \(π/2\) radians (90". Keep these geometrical pictures of leading and lagging by \(π/2\) in your mind at all times as you continue your more advanced study of engineering.
An Aside: The Harmonic Oscillator
The signal \(A\cos(ωt+φ)\) stands on its own as an interesting signal. But the fact that it reproduces itself (with scaling and phasing) under differentiation means that it obeys the second-order differential equation of the simple harmonic oscillator. 1 That is, the differential equation
\[\frac {d^2x(t)} {dt^2} + ω^2x(t)=0 \nonumber \]
has the solution
\[x(t)=A\cos(ωt+φ) \nonumber \]
Try it:
\[\frac {d^2} {dt^2} x(t)=\frac d {dt}[−Aω\sin(ωt+φ)]=−ω2A\cos(ωt+φ) \nonumber \]
The constants \(A\) and \(φ\) are determined from the initial conditions
\[x(0)=A\cosφ ⇔ x^2(0)+x^2(\frac π {2ω})=A^2 \nonumber \]
\[x(\frac π {2ω})=−A\sinφ ⇔ −\frac {x(π/2ω)} {x(0)} = \tanφ \nonumber \]
Show how to compute \(A\) and \(φ\) in the equation \(x(t)=A\cos(ωt+φ)\) from the initial conditions \(x(O)\) and \(\frac d {dt} x(t)|_{t=0}\).
Footnotes
1. This means, also, that we have an easy way to synthesize cosines with circuits that obey the equation of a simple harmonic oscillator!


20.3: Assessing Wounds
Wounds should be assessed and documented at every dressing change. Wound assessment should include the following components:
- Anatomic location
- Type of wound (if known)
- Degree of tissue damage
- Wound bed
- Wound size
- Wound edges and periwound skin
- Signs of infection
- Pain [1]
These components are further discussed in the following sections.
Anatomic Location and Type of Wound
The location of the wound should be documented clearly using correct anatomical terms and numbering. This will ensure that if more than one wound is present, the correct one is being assessed and treated. Many agencies use images to facilitate communication regarding the location of wounds among the health care team. See Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) [2] for an example of facility documentation that includes images to indicate wound location.
The location of a wound also provides information about the cause and type of a wound. For example, a wound over the sacral area of an immobile patient is likely a pressure injury, and a wound near the ankle of a patient with venous insufficiency is likely a venous ulcer. For successful healing, different types of wounds require different treatments based on the cause of the wound.
Degree of Tissue Damage
It is important to continually assess the degree of tissue damage in pressure injuries because the level of damage can worsen if they are not treated appropriately. Refer to the “Staging” subsection of “Pressure Injuries” in the “ Basic Concepts Related to Wounds ” section for more information about tissue damage.
Wound Base
Assess the color of the wound base. Recall that healthy granulation tissue appears pink due to the new capillary formation. It is moist, painless to the touch, and may appear “bumpy.” Conversely, unhealthy granulation tissue is dark red and painful. It bleeds easily with minimal contact and may be covered with biofilm. The appearance of slough (yellow) or eschar (black) in the wound base should be documented and communicated to the health care provider because it likely will need to be removed for healing. Tunneling and undermining should also be assessed, documented, and communicated.
Type and Amount of Exudate
The color, consistency, and amount of exudate (drainage) should be assessed and documented at every dressing change. The amount of drainage from wounds is categorized as scant, small/minimal, moderate, or large/copious. Use the following descriptions to select the appropriate terms: [3]
- No exudate: The wound base is dry.
- Scant amount of exudate: The wound is moist but no measurable amount of exudate appears on the dressing.
- Minimal amount of exudate: Exudate covers less than 25% of the size of the bandage.
- Moderate amount of drainage: Wound tissue is wet, and drainage covers 25% to 75% of the size of the bandage.
- Large or copious amount of drainage: Wound tissue is filled with fluid, and exudate covers more than 75% of the bandage. [4]
The type of wound drainage should be described using medical terms such as serosanguinous, sanguineous, serous, or purulent.
- Sanguineous : Sanguineous exudate is fresh bleeding. [5]
- Serous : Serous drainage is clear, thin, watery plasma. It’s normal during the inflammatory stage of wound healing, and small amounts are considered normal wound drainage. [6]
- Serosanguinous : Serosanguineous exudate contains serous drainage with small amounts of blood present. [7]
- Purulent : Purulent exudate is thick and opaque. It can be tan, yellow, green, or brown. It is never considered normal in a wound bed, and new purulent drainage should always be reported to the health care provider. [8] See Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) [9] for an image of purulent drainage.
Wound Size
Wounds should be measured on admission and during every dressing change to evaluate for signs of healing. Accurate wound measurements are vital for monitoring wound healing. Measurements should be taken in the same manner by all clinicians to maintain consistent and accurate documentation of wound progress. This can be difficult to accomplish with oddly shaped wounds because there can be confusion about how consistently to measure them. Wounds should be described by length by width, with the length of the wound based on the head-to-toe axis. The width of a wound should be measured from side to side laterally. If a wound is deep, the deepest point of the wound should be measured to the wound surface using a sterile, cotton-tipped applicator. Many facilities use disposable, clear plastic measurement tools to measure the area of a wound healing by secondary intention. Measurements are typically documented in centimeters. See Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\) [10] for an image of a wound measurement tool.
Tunneling can occur in a full-thickness wound that can lead to abscess formation. The depth of a tunneling can be measured by gently probing the tunnelled area with a sterile, cotton-tipped applicator from the wound base to the end of the tract. When probing a tunnel, it is imperative to not force the swab but only insert until resistance is felt to prevent further damage to the area. The location of the tunnel in the wound should be documented using the analogy of a clock face, with 12:00 pointing toward the patient’s head. [11]
Undermining occurs when the tissue under the wound edges becomes eroded, resulting in a pocket beneath the skin at the wound’s edge. Undermining is measured by inserting a probe under the wound edge directed almost parallel to the wound surface until resistance is felt. The amount of undermining is the distance from the probe tip to the point at which the probe is level with the wound edge. Clock terms are also used to identify the area of undermining. [12]
Wound Edges and Periwound Skin
If the wound is healing by primary intention, it should be documented if the wound edges are well-approximated (closed together) or if there are any signs of dehiscence. The skin outside the outer edges of the wound, called the periwound skin, provides information related to wound development or healing. For example, a venous ulcer often has excess wound drainage that macerates the periwound skin, giving it a wet, waterlogged appearance that is soft and gray white in color. [13] See Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\) [14] for an image of erythematous periwound with partial dehiscence.
Signs of Infection
Wounds should be continually monitored for signs of infection. Signs of localized wound infection include erythema (redness), induration (area of hardened tissue), pain, edema, purulent exudate (yellow or green drainage), and wound odor. [15] New signs of infection should be reported to the health care provider with an anticipated order for a wound culture.
Pain
The intensity of pain that a patient is experiencing with a wound should be assessed and documented. If a patient experiences pain during dressing changes, it should be managed with administration of pain medication before scheduled dressing changes. Be aware that the degree of pain may not correlate to the extent of tissue damage. For example, skin tears are often painful because the nerve endings are exposed in the dermal layer, whereas patients with severe diabetic ulcers on their feet may experience little or no pain because of existing neuropathic damage. [16]
- Cox, J. (2019). Wound care 101. Nursing, 49 (10). doi.org/10.1097/01.nurse.0000580632.58318.08↵
- “putool7bfig.jpg” by unknown is in the Public Domain . Access for free at https://www.ahrq.gov/patient-safety/settings/hospital/resource/pressureulcer/tool/pu7b.html . ↵
- Wound Care Advisor. (n.d.). Exudate amounts . https://woundcareadvisor.com/exudate-amounts/#:~:text=Small%20or%20minimal%20amount%20of,than%2075%25%20of%20the%20bandage ↵
- Wound Care Advisor. (n.d.). Exudate amounts . https://woundcareadvisor.com/exudate-amounts/#:~:text=Small%20or%20minimal%20amount%20of,than%2075%25%20of%20the%20bandage ↵
- Wound Care Advisor. (n.d.). Exudate amounts . https://woundcareadvisor.com/exudate-amounts/#:~:text=Small%20or%20minimal%20amount%20of,than%2075%25%20of%20the%20bandage ↵
- Wound Care Advisor. (n.d.). Exudate amounts . https://woundcareadvisor.com/exudate-amounts/#:~:text=Small%20or%20minimal%20amount%20of,than%2075%25%20of%20the%20bandage ↵
- Wound Care Advisor. (n.d.). Exudate amounts . https://woundcareadvisor.com/exudate-amounts/#:~:text=Small%20or%20minimal%20amount%20of,than%2075%25%20of%20the%20bandage ↵
- Wound Care Advisor. (n.d.). Exudate amounts . https://woundcareadvisor.com/exudate-amounts/#:~:text=Small%20or%20minimal%20amount%20of,than%2075%25%20of%20the%20bandage ↵
- “ Purulant knee aspirate.JPG ” by James Heilman, MD is licensed under CC BY 3.0 ↵
- "Sample Wound Measuring Guide.jpg" by Deanna Hoyord, Chippewa Valley Technical College is licensed under CC BY 4.0 ↵
- Cox, J. (2019). Wound care 101. Nursing, 49 (10). doi.org/10.1097/01.nurse.0000580632.58318.08↵
- WoundEducators.com. (2016, July 1). Wound undermining . https://woundeducators.com/measure-wound-undermining/#:~:text=Wound%20undermining%20occurs%20when%20the,surface%20until%20resistance%20is%20felt. ↵
- Cox, J. (2019). Wound care 101. Nursing, 49 (10). doi.org/10.1097/01.nurse.0000580632.58318.08↵
- “ Post operative wound.JPG ” by Intermedichbo is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 ↵
- Cox, J. (2019). Wound care 101. Nursing, 49 (10). doi.org/10.1097/01.nurse.0000580632.58318.08↵
- Cox, J. (2019). Wound care 101. Nursing, 49 (10). doi.org/10.1097/01.nurse.0000580632.58318.08↵


5.14: Discussion- Workforce Planning
O*Net Online is “the nation’s primary source of occupational information.” We’re going to use it to help the leader of our operations department hire a new employee!
A national retailer is growing to the point where they have decided it would be wise to have some regional meetings a few times a year with their store managers, and perhaps even a national meeting that all store managers would attend. With 500 stores and counting, this would mean a lot of people in attendance. They’d need to look at hotels or convention centers to provide space. They would raise funds from the company’s vendors to pay for the event.
As the manager of the operations department, Litong has decided that an event manager would be an excellent addition to the operations team and has approached the company’s human resources department to get started.
Discussion Prompt
You, as a human resources professional, should perform a job analysis on event managers (code 13-1121.00) using O*Net Online and the O*Net Resource Center . What tasks should you look to complete (note: for this discussion, you do not need to complete these tasks, simply identify what information you need to find).
Grading
Share your opinions below and respond to two of your classmates’ thoughts.
| Criteria | Not Evident | Developing | Exemplary | Points |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Submit your initial response |
0 pts
No post made |
5 pts
Post is either late or off-topic |
10 pts
Post is made on time and is focused on the prompt |
10 pts |
| Respond to at least two peers’ presentations |
0 pts
No response to peers |
2
pts
Responded to only one peer |
5 pts
Responded to two peers |
5 pts |
| Total: | 15 pts |
Contributors and Attributions
- Discussion: Workforce Planning. Authored by : Freedom Learning Group. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


2.6: Introduction to Behavioral and Cognitive Theories
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What you’ll learn to do: explain key principles of behaviorism and cognitive psychology
Is all behavior learned from the environment? Should psychology, as science, focus on observable behavior—the result of stimulus-response, as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion? Is there little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals? These are types of questions considered by behaviorists, which we’ll learn more about in this section. We’ll also consider cognitive theories, which examine the construction of thought processes, including remembering, problem-solving, and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to adulthood.
Contributors and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
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Introduction to Behavioral and Cognitive Theories.
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: Sonja Ann Miller for Lumen Learning.
Provided by
: Lumen Learning.
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15.8: Quantum states, Microstates, and Energy spreading in Reactions
You are expected to be able to define and explain the significance of terms identified in bold .
-
energy
within a system.
- The entropy of a substance increases with its molecular weight and complexity and with temperature. The entropy also increases as the pressure or concentration becomes smaller. Entropies of gases are much larger than those of condensed phases.
The Physical Meaning of Entropy
Entropy is a measure of the degree of spreading and sharing of thermal energy within a system. This “spreading and sharing” can be spreading of the thermal energy into a larger volume of space or its sharing amongst previously inaccessible microstates of the system. The following table shows how this concept applies to a number of common processes.
| system and process | source of entropy increase of system |
|---|---|
| A deck of cards is shuffled, or 100 coins, initially heads up, are randomly tossed. | This has nothing to do with entropy because macro objects are unable to exchange thermal energy with the surroundings within the time scale of the process |
| Two identical blocks of copper, one at 20°C and the other at 40°C, are placed in contact. | The cooler block contains more unoccupied microstates, so heat flows from the warmer block until equal numbers of microstates are populated in the two blocks. |
| A gas expands isothermally to twice its initial volume. | A constant amount of thermal energy spreads over a larger volume of space |
| 1 mole of water is heated by 1C°. | The increased thermal energy makes additional microstates accessible. (The increase is by a factor of about 10 20,000,000,000,000, 000,000,000 .) |
| Equal volumes of two gases are allowed to mix. | The effect is the same as allowing each gas to expand to twice its volume; the thermal energy in each is now spread over a larger volume. |
| One mole of dihydrogen, H 2 , is placed in a container and heated to 3000K. | Some of the H 2 dissociates to H because at this temperature there are more thermally accessible microstates in the 2 moles of H. |
| The above reaction mixture is cooled to 300K. | The composition shifts back to virtually all H 2 because this molecule contains more thermally accessible microstates at low temperatures. |
Entropy is an extensive quantity; that is, it is proportional to the quantity of matter in a system; thus 100 g of metallic copper has twice the entropy of 50 g at the same temperature. This makes sense because the larger piece of copper contains twice as many quantized energy levels able to contain the thermal energy.
Thermal energy is the portion of a molecule's energy that is proportional to its temperature , and thus relates to motion at the molecular scale. What kinds of molecular motions are possible? For monatomic molecules, there is only one: actual movement from one location to another, which we call translation . Since there are three directions in space, all molecules possess three modes of translational motion .
For polyatomic molecules, two additional kinds of motions are possible. One of these is rotation ; a linear molecule such as CO 2 in which the atoms are all laid out along the x-axis can rotate along the y- and z-axes, while molecules having less symmetry can rotate about all three axes. Thus linear molecules possess two modes of rotational motion, while non-linear ones have three rotational modes. Finally, molecules consisting of two or more atoms can undergo internal vibrations . For freely moving molecules in a gas, the number of vibrational modes or patterns depends on both the number of atoms and the shape of the molecule, and it increases rapidly as the molecule becomes more complicated.
The relative populations of the quantized translational, rotational and vibrational energy states of a typical diatomic molecule are depicted by the thickness of the lines in this schematic (not-to-scale!) diagram. The colored shading indicates the total thermal energy available at an arbitrary temperature. The numbers at the top show order-of-magnitude spacings between adjacent levels.
Notice that the spacing between the quantized translational levels is so minute that they can be considered nearly continuous. This means that at all temperatures, the thermal energy of a collection of molecules resides almost exclusively in translational microstates. At ordinary temperatures (around 25° C), most of the molecules are in their zero-level vibrational and rotational states (corresponding to the bottom-most bars in the diagram.) The prevalence of vibrational states is so overwhelming that we can effectively equate the thermal energy of molecules with translational motions alone.
The number of ways in which thermal energy can be distributed amongst the allowed states within a collection of molecules is easily calculated from simple statistics. A very important point to bear in mind is that the number of discrete microstates that can be populated by an arbitrary quantity of energy depends on the spacing of the states. As a very simple example, suppose that we have two molecules (depicted by the orange dots) in a system total available thermal energy is indicated by the yellow shading.
In the system with the more closely-spaced energy levels, there are three possible microstates, while in the one with the more widely-spaced levels, only two possibilities are available.
The spacing of molecular energy states becomes closer as the mass and number of bonds in the molecule increases, so we can generally say that the more complex the molecule, the greater the density of its energy states.
At the atomic and molecular level, all energy is quantized ; each particle possesses discrete states of kinetic energy and is able to accept thermal energy only in packets whose values correspond to the energies of one or more of these states. Polyatomic molecules can store energy in rotational and vibrational motions, and all molecules (even monatomic ones) will possess translational kinetic energy (thermal energy) at all temperatures above absolute zero. The energy difference between adjacent translational states is so minute that translational kinetic energy can be regarded as continuous (non-quantized) for most practical purposes.
The number of ways in which thermal energy can be distributed amongst the allowed states within a collection of molecules is easily calculated from simple statistics, but we will confine ourselves to an example here. Suppose that we have a system consisting of three molecules and three quanta of energy to share among them. We can give all the kinetic energy to any one molecule, leaving the others with none, we can give two units to one molecule and one unit to another, or we can share out the energy equally and give one unit to each molecule. All told, there are ten possible ways of distributing three units of energy among three identical molecules as shown here:
Each of these ten possibilities represents a distinct microstate that will describe the system at any instant in time. Those microstates that possess identical distributions of energy among the accessible quantum levels (and differ only in which particular molecules occupy the levels) are known as configurations . Because all microstates are equally probable, the probability of any one configuration is proportional to the number of microstates that can produce it. Thus in the system shown above, the configuration labeled ii will be observed 60% of the time, while iii will occur only 10% of the time.
As the number of molecules and the number of quanta increases, the number of accessible microstates grows explosively; if 1000 quanta of energy are shared by 1000 molecules, the number of available microstates will be around 10 600 — a number that greatly exceeds the number of atoms in the observable universe! The number of possible configurations (as defined above) also increases, but in such a way as to greatly reduce the probability of all but the most probable configurations. Thus for a sample of a gas large enough to be observable under normal conditions, only a single configuration (energy distribution amongst the quantum states) need be considered; even the second-most-probable configuration can be neglected.
The bottom line : any collection of molecules large enough in numbers to have chemical significance will have its therrmal energy distributed over an unimaginably large number of microstates. The number of microstates increases exponentially as more energy states ("configurations" as defined above) become accessible owing to
- Addition of energy quanta (higher temperature),
- Increase in the number of molecules (resulting from dissociation, for example).
- the volume of the system increases (which decreases the spacing between energy states, allowing more of them to be populated at a given temperature.)
Using Entropy to Understand Spontaneous Processes
Heat Death
Energy is conserved ; if you lift a book off the table, and let it fall, the total amount of energy in the world remains unchanged. All you have done is transferred it from the form in which it was stored within the glucose in your body to your muscles, and then to the book (that is, you did work on the book by moving it up against the earth’s gravitational field). After the book has fallen, this same quantity of energy exists as thermal energy (heat) in the book and table top.
What has changed, however, is the availability of this energy. Once the energy has spread into the huge number of thermal microstates in the warmed objects, the probability of its spontaneously (that is, by chance) becoming un-dispersed is essentially zero. Thus although the energy is still “there”, it is forever beyond utilization or recovery. The profundity of this conclusion was recognized around 1900, when it was first described at the “heat death” of the world. This refers to the fact that every spontaneous process (essentially every change that occurs) is accompanied by the “dilution” of energy. The obvious implication is that all of the molecular-level kinetic energy will be spread out completely, and nothing more will ever happen.
Gases Expansions
Everybody knows that a gas, if left to itself, will tend to expand and fill the volume within which it is confined completely and uniformly. What “drives” this expansion? At the simplest level it is clear that with more space available, random motions of the individual molecules will inevitably disperse them throughout the space. But as we mentioned above, the allowed energy states that molecules can occupy are spaced more closely in a larger volume than in a smaller one. The larger the volume available to the gas, the greater the number of microstates its thermal energy can occupy. Since all such states within the thermally accessible range of energies are equally probable, the expansion of the gas can be viewed as a consequence of the tendency of thermal energy to be spread and shared as widely as possible. Once this has happened, the probability that this sharing of energy will reverse itself (that is, that the gas will spontaneously contract) is so minute as to be unthinkable.
Imagine a gas initially confined to one half of a box (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). The barrier is then removed so that it can expand into the full volume of the container. We know that the entropy of the gas will increase as the thermal energy of its molecules spreads into the enlarged space. In terms of the spreading of thermal energy, Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\) may be helpful. The tendency of a gas to expand is due to the more closely-spaced thermal energy states in the larger volume .
Mixing and dilution
Mixing and dilution really amount to the same thing, especially for idea gases. Replace the pair of containers shown above with one containing two kinds of molecules in the separate sections (Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\)). When we remove the barrier, the "red" and "blue" molecules will each expand into the space of the other. (Recall Dalton's Law that "each gas is a vacuum to the other gas".) However, notice that although each gas underwent an expansion, the overall process amounts to what we call "mixing".
What is true for gaseous molecules can, in principle, apply also to solute molecules dissolved in a solvent. But bear in mind that whereas the enthalpy associated with the expansion of a perfect gas is by definition zero, Δ H 's of mixing of two liquids or of dissolving a solute in a solvent have finite values which may limit the miscibility of liquids or the solubility of a solute.
It's unfortunate the the simplified diagrams we are using to illustrate the greater numbers of energetically accessible microstates in an expanded gas or a mixture of gases fail to convey the immensity of this increase. Only by working through the statistical mathematics of these processes (beyond the scope of first-year Chemistry!) can one gain an appreciation of the magnitude of the probabilities of these spontaneous processes.
It turns out that when just one molecule of a second gas is inroduced into the container of another gas, an unimaginably huge number of new configurations becom available. This happens because the added molecule (indicated by the blue arrow in the diagram) can in principle replace any one of the old (red) ones, each case giving rise to a new microstate.
Heat Flow
ust as gases spontaneously change their volumes from “smaller-to-larger”, the flow of heat from a warmer body to a cooler one always operates in the direction “warmer-to-cooler” because this allows thermal energy to populate a larger number of energy microstates as new ones are made available by bringing the cooler body into contact with the warmer one; in effect, the thermal energy becomes more “diluted”. In this simplified schematic diagram, the "cold" and "hot" bodies differ in the numbers of translational microstates that are occupied, as indicated by the shading. When they are brought into thermal contact, a hugely greater number of microstates are created, as is indicated by their closer spacing in the rightmost section of the diagram, which represents the combined bodies in thermal equilibrium. The thermal energy in the initial two bodies fills these new microstates to a level (and thus, temperature) that is somewhere between those of the two original bodies.
Note that this explanation applies equally well to the case of two solids brought into thermal contact, or two the mixing of two fluids having different temperatures.
As you might expect, the increase in the amount of energy spreading and sharing is proportional to the amount of heat transferred q , but there is one other factor involved, and that is the temperature at which the transfer occurs. When a quantity of heat q passes into a system at temperature T , the degree of dilution of the thermal energy is given by
\[\dfrac{q}{T}\]
To understand why we have to divide by the temperature, consider the effect of very large and very small values of \(T\) in the denominator. If the body receiving the heat is initially at a very low temperature, relatively few thermal energy states are initially occupied, so the amount of energy spreading into vacant states can be very great. Conversely, if the temperature is initially large, more thermal energy is already spread around within it, and absorption of the additional energy will have a relatively small effect on the degree of thermal disorder within the body.
Chemical Reactions and Equilibrium
When a chemical reaction takes place, two kinds of changes relating to thermal energy are involved:
- The ways that thermal energy can be stored within the reactants will generally be different from those for the products. For example, in the reaction H 2 → 2 H, the reactant dihydrogen possesses vibrational and rotational energy states, while the atomic hydrogen in the product has translational states only— but the total number of translational states in two moles of H is twice as great as in one mole of H 2 . Because of their extremely close spacing, translational states are the only ones that really count at ordinary temperatures, so we can say that thermal energy can become twice as diluted (“spread out”) in the product than in the reactant. If this were the only factor to consider, then dissociation of dihydrogen would always be spontaneous and this molecule would not exist.
- In order for this dissociation to occur, however, a quantity of thermal energy (heat) \( q =Δ U\) must be taken up from the surroundings in order to break the H–H bond. In other words, the ground state (the energy at which the manifold of energy states begins) is higher in \(H\), as indicated by the vertical displacement of the right half in each of the four panels below.
In Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\) a re schematic representations of the translational energy levels of the two components H and H 2 of the hydrogen dissociation reaction. The shading shows how the relative populations of occupied microstates vary with the temperature, causing the equilibrium composition to change in favor of the dissociation product.
The ability of energy to spread into the product molecules is constrained by the availability of sufficient thermal energy to produce these molecules. This is where the temperature comes in. At absolute zero the situation is very simple; no thermal energy is available to bring about dissociation, so the only component present will be dihydrogen.
- As the temperature increases, the number of populated energy states rises, as indicated by the shading in the diagram. At temperature T 1 , the number of populated states of H 2 is greater than that of 2H, so some of the latter will be present in the equilibrium mixture, but only as the minority component.
- At some temperature T 2 the numbers of populated states in the two components of the reaction system will be identical, so the equilibrium mixture will contain H 2 and “2H” in equal amounts; that is, the mole ratio of H 2 /H will be 1:2.
- As the temperature rises to T 3 and above, we see that the number of energy states that are thermally accessible in the product begins to exceed that for the reactant, thus favoring dissociation.
The result is exactly what the Le Chatelier Principle predicts: the equilibrium state for an endothermic reaction is shifted to the right at higher temperatures.
The following table generalizes these relations for the four sign-combinations of ΔH and ΔS. (Note that use of the standard ΔH° and ΔS° values in the example reactions is not strictly correct here, and can yield misleading results when used generally.)
> 0
This
combustion reaction
, like most such reactions, is
spontaneous at all temperatures
. The positive entropy change is due mainly to the greater mass of CO
2
molecules compared to those of O
2
.
< 0
- Δ H ° = –46.2 kJ
- Δ S ° = –389 J K –1
- Δ G ° = –16.4 kJ at 298 K
The decrease in moles of gas in the
Haber ammonia synthesis
drives the entropy change negative, making the reaction
spontaneous only at low temperatures
. Thus higher
T
, which speeds up the reaction, also reduces its extent.
> 0
- Δ H ° = 55.3 kJ
- Δ S ° = +176 J K –1
- Δ G ° = +2.8 kJ at 298 K
Dissociation reactions
are typically endothermic with positive entropy change, and are therefore
spontaneous at high temperatures
.
Ultimately, all molecules decompose to their atoms at sufficiently high temperatures.
< 0
- Δ H ° = 33.2 kJ
- ΔS° = –249 J K – 1
- Δ G ° = +51.3 kJ at 298 K
This reaction is not spontaneous at any temperature , meaning that its reverse is always spontaneous . But because the reverse reaction is kinetically inhibited, NO 2 can exist indefinitely at ordinary temperatures even though it is thermodynamically unstable.
Phase Changes
Everybody knows that the solid is the stable form of a substance at low temperatures, while the gaseous state prevails at high temperatures. Why should this be? The diagram in Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\) shows that
- the density of energy states is smallest in the solid and greatest (much, much greater) in the gas, and
- the ground states of the liquid and gas are offset from that of the previous state by the heats of fusion and vaporization, respectively.
Changes of phase involve exchange of energy with the surroundings (whose energy content relative to the system is indicated (with much exaggeration!) by the height of the yellow vertical bars in Figure \(\PageIndex{13}\). When solid and liquid are in equilibrium (middle section of diagram below), there is sufficient thermal energy (indicated by pink shading) to populate the energy states of both phases. If heat is allowed to flow into the surroundings, it is withdrawn selectively from the more abundantly populated levels of the liquid phase, causing the quantity of this phase to decrease in favor of the solid. The temperature remains constant as the heat of fusion is returned to the system in exact compensation for the heat lost to the surroundings. Finally, after the last trace of liquid has disappeared, the only states remaining are those of the solid. Any further withdrawal of heat results in a temperature drop as the states of the solid become depopulated.
Colligative Properties of Solutions
Vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression and osmosis are well-known phenomena that occur when a non-volatile solute such as sugar or a salt is dissolved in a volatile solvent such as water. All these effects result from “dilution” of the solvent by the added solute, and because of this commonality they are referred to as colligative properties (Lat. co ligare , connected to.) The key role of the solvent concentration is obscured by the greatly-simplified expressions used to calculate the magnitude of these effects, in which only the solute concentration appears. The details of how to carry out these calculations and the many important applications of colligative properties are covered elsewhere. Our purpose here is to offer a more complete explanation of why these phenomena occur.
Basically, these all result from the effect of dilution of the solvent on its entropy, and thus in the increase in the density of energy states of the system in the solution compared to that in the pure liquid. Equilibrium between two phases (liquid-gas for boiling and solid-liquid for freezing) occurs when the energy states in each phase can be populated at equal densities . The temperatures at which this occurs are depicted by the shading.
Dilution of the solvent adds new energy states to the liquid, but does not affect the vapor phase. This raises the temperature required to make equal numbers of microstates accessible in the two phases.
Dilution of the solvent adds new energy states to the liquid, but does not affect the solid phase. This reduces the temperature required to make equal numbers of states accessible in the two phases.
Osmotic Pressure: Effects of Pressure on the Entropy
When a liquid is subjected to hydrostatic pressure— for example, by an inert, non-dissolving gas that occupies the vapor space above the surface, the vapor pressure of the liquid is raised (Figure \(\PageIndex{13}\)). The pressure acts to compress the liquid very slightly, effectively narrowing the potential energy well in which the individual molecules reside and thus increasing their tendency to escape from the liquid phase. (Because liquids are not very compressible, the effect is quite small; a 100-atm applied pressure will raise the vapor pressure of water at 25°C by only about 2 torr.) In terms of the entropy, we can say that the applied pressure reduces the dimensions of the "box" within which the principal translational motions of the molecules are confined within the liquid, thus reducing the density of energy states in the liquid phase.
Applying hydrostatic pressure to a liquid increases the spacing of its microstates, so that the number of energetically accessible states in the gas, although unchanged, is relatively greater— thus increasing the tendency of molecules to escape into the vapor phase. In terms of free energy, the higher pressure raises the free energy of the liquid, but does not affect that of the gas phase.
This phenomenon can explain osmotic pressure . Osmotic pressure, students must be reminded, is not what drives osmosis, but is rather the hydrostatic pressure that must be applied to the more concentrated solution (more dilute solvent) in order to stop osmotic flow of solvent into the solution. The effect of this pressure \(\Pi\) is to slightly increase the spacing of solvent energy states on the high-pressure (dilute-solvent) side of the membrane to match that of the pure solvent, restoring osmotic equilibrium.


1.14.65: Spontaneous Change: Isothermal and Isobaric
By definition,
\[\mathrm{G}=\mathrm{H}-\mathrm{T} \, \mathrm{S} \nonumber \]
\(\mathrm{G}, \mathrm{~H} \text { and } \mathrm{S}\) are extensive functions of state. At fixed \(\mathrm{T}\) and \(\mathrm{p}\), the dependences of these variables on extent of reaction, \(\xi\) are related.
\[(\partial \mathrm{G} / \partial \xi)_{\mathrm{T}, \mathrm{p}}=(\partial \mathrm{H} / \partial \xi)_{\mathrm{T}, \mathrm{p}}-\mathrm{T} \,(\partial \mathrm{S} / \partial \xi)_{\mathrm{T}, \mathrm{p}} \nonumber \]
For a spontaneous change \((\partial \mathrm{G} / \partial \xi)_{\mathrm{T}, \mathrm{p}}<0\) where the affinity for spontaneous change \(\mathrm{A}\left[=-(\partial \mathrm{G} / \partial \xi)_{\mathrm{T}, \mathrm{p}}\right]\) is positive. This can arise under two limiting circumstances.
- The spontaneous process is exothermic; [i.e.\(\left[\text { i.e. }(\partial \mathrm{H} / \partial \xi)_{\mathrm{T}, \mathrm{p}}<0\right]\) such that \(\left.\left|\mathrm{T} \,(\partial \mathrm{S} / \partial \xi)_{\mathrm{T}, \mathrm{p}}\right|<\mid \partial \mathrm{H} / \partial \xi\right)_{\mathrm{T}, \mathrm{p}} \mid\). The decrease in \(\mathrm{G}\) is enthalpy driven.
- The spontaneous process is endothermic; \(\left[\text { i.e. }(\partial H / \partial \xi)_{\mathrm{T}, \mathrm{p}}>0\right]\) such that \(\left.\left|\mathrm{T} \,(\partial \mathrm{S} / \partial \xi)_{\mathrm{T}, \mathrm{p}}\right|>\mid \partial \mathrm{H} / \partial \xi\right)_{\mathrm{T}, \mathrm{p}} \mid\). The decrease in \(\mathrm{G}\) is entropy driven.
If for a given possible process, \((\partial \mathrm{G} / \partial \xi)_{\mathrm{T}, \mathrm{p}}>0\), then the process is not spontaneous; there is no affinity for spontaneous change. If \((\partial \mathrm{G} / \partial \xi)_{\mathrm{T}, \mathrm{p}}\) is zero at defined \(\mathrm{T}\) and \(\mathrm{p}\), the system is at equilibrium with the surroundings; the affinity for spontaneous change is zero. The chemical equilibrium is stable if \((\partial \mathrm{A} / \partial \xi)_{\mathrm{T}, \mathrm{p}}\) is negative.


3.1: Introduction
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CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:
- Understand and use the terminology of probability.
- Determine whether two events are mutually exclusive and whether two events are independent.
- Calculate probabilities using the Addition Rules and Multiplication Rules.
- Construct and interpret Contingency Tables.
- Construct and interpret Venn Diagrams.
- Construct and interpret Tree Diagrams.
It is often necessary to "guess" about the outcome of an event in order to make a decision. Politicians study polls to guess their likelihood of winning an election. Teachers choose a particular course of study based on what they think students can comprehend. Doctors choose the treatments needed for various diseases based on their assessment of likely results. You may have visited a casino where people play games chosen because of the belief that the likelihood of winning is good. You may have chosen your course of study based on the probable availability of jobs.
You have, more than likely, used probability. In fact, you probably have an intuitive sense of probability. Probability deals with the chance of an event occurring. Whenever you weigh the odds of whether or not to do your homework or to study for an exam, you are using probability. In this chapter, you will learn how to solve probability problems using a systematic approach.
Collaborative Exercise
Your instructor will survey your class. Count the number of students in the class today.
- Raise your hand if you have any change in your pocket or purse. Record the number of raised hands.
- Raise your hand if you rode a bus within the past month. Record the number of raised hands.
- Raise your hand if you answered "yes" to BOTH of the first two questions. Record the number of raised hands.
Use the class data as estimates of the following probabilities. \(P(\text{change})\) means the probability that a randomly chosen person in your class has change in his/her pocket or purse. \(P(\text{bus})\) means the probability that a randomly chosen person in your class rode a bus within the last month and so on. Discuss your answers.
- Find \(P(\text{change})\).
- Find \(P(\text{bus})\).
- Find \(P(\text{change AND bus})\). Find the probability that a randomly chosen student in your class has change in his/her pocket or purse and rode a bus within the last month.
- Find \(P(\text{change|bus})\). Find the probability that a randomly chosen student has change given that he or she rode a bus within the last month. Count all the students that rode a bus. From the group of students who rode a bus, count those who have change. The probability is equal to those who have change and rode a bus divided by those who rode a bus.


23: Adaptive Immunity II
People living in developed nations and born in the 1960s or later may have difficulty understanding the once heavy burden of devastating infectious diseases. For example, smallpox , a deadly viral disease, once destroyed entire civilizations but has since been eradicated. Thanks to the vaccination efforts by multiple groups, including the World Health Organization, Rotary International, and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), smallpox has not been diagnosed in a patient since 1977. Polio is another excellent example. This crippling viral disease paralyzed patients, who were often kept alive in “iron lung wards” as recently as the 1950s (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Today, vaccination against polio has nearly eradicated the disease. Vaccines have also reduced the prevalence of once-common infectious diseases such as chickenpox , German measles , measles , mumps , and whooping cough . The success of these and other vaccines is due to the very specific and adaptive host defenses that are the focus of this chapter.
Innate Nonspecific Host Defenses described innate immunity against microbial pathogens. Higher animals, such as humans, also possess an adaptive immune defense, which is highly specific for individual microbial pathogens. This specific adaptive immunity is acquired through active infection or vaccination and serves as an important defense against pathogens that evade the defenses of innate immunity.
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- 23.1: T Lymphocytes - Overview
- The antibodies involved in humoral immunity often bind pathogens and toxins before they can attach to and invade host cells. Thus, humoral immunity is primarily concerned with fighting pathogens in extracellular spaces. However, pathogens that have already gained entry to host cells are largely protected from the humoral antibody-mediated defenses. Cellular immunity, on the other hand, targets and eliminates intracellular pathogens through the actions of T lymphocytes, or T cells.
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- 23.2: T-Cell Receptors (TCR) and Helper T Cells
- The antibodies involved in humoral immunity often bind pathogens and toxins before they can attach to and invade host cells. Thus, humoral immunity is primarily concerned with fighting pathogens in extracellular spaces. However, pathogens that have already gained entry to host cells are largely protected from the humoral antibody-mediated defenses. Cellular immunity, on the other hand, targets and eliminates intracellular pathogens through the actions of T lymphocytes, or T cells.
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- 23.3: Cytotoxic T Cells and Superantigens
- The antibodies involved in humoral immunity often bind pathogens and toxins before they can attach to and invade host cells. Thus, humoral immunity is primarily concerned with fighting pathogens in extracellular spaces. However, pathogens that have already gained entry to host cells are largely protected from the humoral antibody-mediated defenses. Cellular immunity, on the other hand, targets and eliminates intracellular pathogens through the actions of T lymphocytes, or T cells.
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- 23.6: Vaccines
- By artificially stimulating the adaptive immune defenses, a vaccine triggers memory cell production similar to that which would occur during a primary response. In so doing, the patient is able to mount a strong secondary response upon exposure to the pathogen—but without having to first suffer through an initial infection. In this section, we will explore several different kinds of artificial immunity along with various types of vaccines and their mechanisms for inducing artificial immunity.
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- 23.7: Variolation and Vaccination
- By artificially stimulating the adaptive immune defenses, a vaccine triggers memory cell production similar to that which would occur during a primary response. In so doing, the patient is able to mount a strong secondary response upon exposure to the pathogen—but without having to first suffer through an initial infection. In this section, we will explore several different kinds of artificial immunity along with various types of vaccines and their mechanisms for inducing artificial immunity.
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- 23.8: Classes of Vaccines
- By artificially stimulating the adaptive immune defenses, a vaccine triggers memory cell production similar to that which would occur during a primary response. In so doing, the patient is able to mount a strong secondary response upon exposure to the pathogen—but without having to first suffer through an initial infection. In this section, we will explore several different kinds of artificial immunity along with various types of vaccines and their mechanisms for inducing artificial immunity.
Thumbnail: From left to right: erythrocyte, platelet and lymphocyte. (Public Domain; The National Cancer Institute at Frederick).


6.3: Eye and Ear Assessment
Now that we have reviewed the anatomy of the eyes and ears and their common disorders, let’s discuss common eye and ear assessments performed by nurses.
Subjective Assessment
Nurses collect subjective information from the patient and/or family caregivers using detailed questions and pay close attention to what the patient is reporting to guide the physical exam. Focused interview questions include inquiring about current symptoms, as well as any history of eye and ear conditions. See Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) for suggested interview questions related to the eyes and ears.
|
Interview Questions |
|---|
|
Eye
Have you had any difficulty seeing or experienced blurred vision? Do you wear glasses or contact lenses? When was your last vision test? Have you had any redness, swelling, watering, or discharge from the eyes? Have you ever been diagnosed with an eye condition such as cataracts, glaucoma, or macular degeneration? Are you currently using any medication, eye drops, or supplements for your eyes? |
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Ear
Have you had any trouble hearing? If so, do you wear hearing aids? Have you had any symptoms like ringing in the ears, drainage from the ears, or ear pain? Do you ever feel dizzy, off-balance, or like the room is spinning? Have you ever been diagnosed with an ear condition such as an infection, tinnitus, or vertigo? Are you currently using any medications, ear drops, or supplements for your ears? |
Life Span Considerations
Pediatric
When collecting subjective data from children, information is also obtained from parents and/or legal guardians. Children aged 2-24 months commonly experience ear infections. Vision impairments may become apparent in school-aged children when they have difficulty seeing the board from their seats. Additional subjective data may be obtained by asking these questions:
- Have you or your child’s teachers noticed your child experiencing any problems seeing or hearing?
- Has your child experienced frequent ear infections or had tubes placed in their ears? If so, have you noticed any effects on their language development?
Older Adults
The aging adult experiences a general slowing in nerve conduction. Vision, hearing, fine coordination, and balance may also become impaired. Older adults may experience presbyopia (decreased near vision), presbycusis (hearing loss), cataracts, macular degeneration, or glaucoma. They may also experience feelings of dizziness or feeling off-balance, which can result in falls. Read more about these conditions in the “Eye and Ear Basic Concepts” section earlier in this chapter.
Objective Assessment
A routine assessment of the eyes and ears by registered nurses in inpatient and outpatient settings typically includes external inspection of eyes and ears for signs of a medical condition, as well as screening for vision and hearing problems. A vision screening test, whispered voice hearing test, and assessment of pupillary response are often included in the physical exam based on the setting. [1] Additional assessments may be performed if the patient’s status warrants assessment of the cranial nerves.
Inspection
Eyes
Begin the assessment by inspecting the eyes. The sclera should be white and the conjunctiva should be pink. There should not be any drainage from the eyes. The patient should demonstrate behavioral cues indicating effective vision during the assessment.
Ears
Inspect the ears. There should not be any drainage from the ears or evidence of cerumen impaction. The patient should demonstrate behavioral cues indicating effective hearing.
Vision Tests
See more information about procedures for assessing vision in the “Eye and Ear Basic Concepts” section earlier in this chapter. Assess far vision using the Snellen eye chart. In outpatient settings, near vision may be assessed using a prepared card or a newspaper. Color vision may be assessed using a book containing Ishihara plates.
Hearing Test
Nurses perform a basic hearing assessment during conversation with the patient. For example, the following patient cues during normal conversation can indicate hearing loss:
- Lip-reads or watches your face and lips closely rather than your eyes
- Leans forward or appears to strain to hear what you are saying
- Moves head in a position to catch sounds with the better ear
- Misunderstands your questions or frequently asks you to repeat
- Uses an inappropriately loud voice
- Demonstrates garbled speech or distorted vowel sounds [2]
Whisper Test
The whispered voice test is an effective screening test used to detect hearing impairment if performed accurately. Complete the following steps to accurately perform this test: [3]
- Stand at arm’s length behind the seated patient to prevent lip reading.
- Test each ear individually. The patient should be instructed to occlude the non-tested ear with their finger.
- Exhale before whispering and use as quiet a voice as possible.
- Whisper a combination of numbers and letters (for example, 4-K-2), and then ask the patient to repeat the sequence.
- If the patient responds correctly, their hearing is considered normal; if the patient responds incorrectly, the test is repeated using a different number/letter combination.
- The patient is considered to have passed the screening test if they repeat at least three out of a possible six numbers or letters correctly.
- The other ear is assessed similarly with a different combination of numbers and letters.
Pupillary Response, Extra-ocular Movement, and Cranial Nerves
When a patient is suspected of experiencing a neurological disease or injury, their pupils are assessed to ensure they are bilaterally equal, round, and responsive to light and accommodation (PERRLA). Extraocular movement and other cranial nerves may also be assessed that affect vision, hearing, and balance. For more information about how to assess PERRLA, extraocular eye movement, and other cranial nerves, go to the “Assessing Cranial Nerves” section in the “Neurological Assessment” chapter.
See Table \(\PageIndex{2}\) for a comparison of expected versus unexpected findings when assessing the eyes and ears.
| Assessment | Expected Findings | Unexpected New Findings (Document and notify provider) |
|---|---|---|
| Inspection |
Eyes
Sclera are white. Lens is clear. Conjunctiva are pink. Eyelids do not have redness, swelling, lumps, or discharge. No drainage is present from the eyes. Patient displays behavioral cues of effective vision. Eyes appear appropriately placed in orbits. Ears No drainage or cerumen is present in the ear canals. Conversation includes behavioral cues of effective hearing. During the whispered voice test, the patient correctly reports at least three out of a possible six numbers for both ears. Patient demonstrates good balance and a coordinated gait. |
Eyes
Yellow sclera may indicate liver dysfunction. Cloudy lens indicates cataracts. Red conjunctiva or drainage can indicate conjunctivitis. Redness or crusting on the eyelids can indicate blepharitis. A tender lump on the eye can indicate a stye. Patient displays behavioral cues indicating vision loss that is not already corrected with glasses or contacts. Sunken eyes can indicate dehydration. Ears Purulent drainage is present in ear canal. Cerumen impaction is present. Conversation indicates behavioral cues of uncorrected hearing loss. During the whispered voice test, the patient reports fewer than three out of a possible six numbers or letters correctly for both ears. Patient demonstrates poor balance or an uncoordinated gait. |
| *CRITICAL CONDITIONS to report immediately | New and sudden problems such as vision loss, blurred vision, eye pain, red eye, ear pain, vertigo, poor balance, or gait change |
- Giddens, J. (2007). A survey of physical examination techniques performed by RNs: Lessons for nursing education. Journal of Nursing Education, 46 (2), 83-87. ↵
- Jarvis, C. (2015). Physical examination and health assessment (7th ed.). Saunders. p. 330. ↵
- Pirozzo, S., Papinczak, T., & Glasziou, P. (2003). Whispered voice test for screening for hearing impairment in adults and children: Systematic review. BMJ (Clinical research ed.), 327 (7421), 967. doi.org/10.1136/bmj.327.7421.967↵


3.9: Reading- Capitalism in the US
Capitalism in the US
Democratic capitalism is a political, economic, and social system with a market-based economy that is largely based on a democratic political system.
KEY points
- The United States is often seen as having a democratic capitalist political-economic system.
- The three pillars of democratic capitalism include economic incentives throughfree markets, fiscal responsibility, and a liberal moral-cultural system that encourages pluralism.
- Some commentators argue that, although economic growth under capitalism has led to democratization in the past, it may not do so in the future; for example, authoritarian regimes have been able to manage economic growth without making concessions to greater political freedom.
- Proponents of capitalism have argued that indices of economic freedom correlate strongly with higher income, life expectancy, and standards of living.
- Democratic Peace Theory states that capitalist democracies rarely make war with each other, and have little internal conflict. However, critics argue that this may have nothing to do with the capitalist nature of the states, and more to do with the democratic nature instead.
Terms
- Capitalism : A socio-economic system based on the abstraction of resources into the form of privately-owned money, wealth, and goods, with economic decisions made largely through the operation of a market unregulated by the state
- Tripartite : In three parts.
- Polity: An organizational structure of the government of a state, church, etc.
- Pluralism: A social system based on mutual respect for each other’s cultures among various groups that make up a society, wherein subordinate groups do not have to forsake their lifestyle and traditions, but, rather, can express their culture and participate in the larger society free of prejudice.
Examples
- Singapore’s de facto one-party system has been described as an example of an authoritarian capitalist system that other authoritarian governments may follow. However, polls have recently suggested that the ruling PAP party is suffering declines in popularity, suggesting that increasing material gains may not make up for a lack of political freedoms. The Singaporean government has introduced limited political concessions, suggesting that authoritarian capitalist systems may transition to democracy in time.
Democratic Capitalism and the US
The United States is often seen as having a democratic capitalist political-economic system. Democratic capitalism, also known as capitalist democracy, is a political, economic, and social system and ideology based on a tripartite arrangement of a market-based economy that is based predominantly on a democratic polity. The three pillars include economic incentives through free markets, fiscal responsibility, and a liberal moral-cultural system, which encourages pluralism.
In the United States, both the Democratic and Republican Parties subscribe to this (little “d” and “r”) democratic-republican philosophy. Most liberals and conservatives generally support some form of democratic capitalism in their economic practices. The ideology of “democratic capitalism” has been in existence since medieval times. It is based firmly on the principles of liberalism, which include liberty and equality. Some of its earliest promoters include many of the American founding fathers and subsequent Jeffersonians.
This economic system supports a capitalist, free-market economy subject to control by a democratic political system that is supported by the majority. It stands in contrast to authoritarian capitalism by limiting the influence of special interest groups, including corporate lobbyists, on politics. Some argue that the United States has become more authoritarian in recent decades.
The Relationship between Democracy and Capitalism
The relationship between democracy and capitalism is a contentious area in theory and among popular political movements. The extension of universal adult male suffrage in 19 th century Britain occurred alongside the development of industrial capitalism. Since democracy became widespread at the same time as capitalism, many theorists have been led to posit a causal relationship between them. In the 20 th century, however, according to some authors, capitalism also accompanied a variety of political formations quite distinct from liberal democracies, including fascist regimes, absolute monarchies, and single-party states.
While some argue that capitalist development leads to the emergence of democracy, others dispute this claim. Some commentators argue that, although economic growth under capitalism has led to democratization in the past, it may not do so in the future. For example, authoritarian regimes have been able to manage economic growth without making concessions to greater political freedom. States that have highly capitalistic economic systems have thrived under authoritarian or oppressive political systems. Examples include:
- Singapore, which maintains a highly open market economy and attracts lots of foreign investment, does not protect civil liberties such as freedom of speech and expression.
- The private (capitalist) sector in the People’s Republic of China has grown exponentially and thrived since its inception, despite having an authoritarian government.
- Augusto Pinochet’s rule in Chile led to economic growth by using authoritarian means to create a safe environment for investment and capitalism.
GLOSSARY
ConflictA clash or disagreement, often violent, between two opposing groups or individuals.
Corporate
An incorporated entity is a separate legal entity that has been incorporated through a legislative or registration process established through legislation.
Economic system
An economic system is the combination of the various agencies, entities (or even sectors as described by some authors) that provide the economic structure that defines the social community.
Economy
Collective focus of the study of money, currency and trade, and the efficient use of resources. The system of production and distribution and consumption. The overall measure of a currency system; as the national economy.
Free Market
Any economic market in which trade is unregulated; an economic system free from government intervention.
Incentive
Something that motivates, rouses, or encourages. It is used to motivate individuals (often, employees) for better performance by providing financial or other types of rewards. An anticipated reward or aversive event available in the environment. Something that motivates an individual to perform an action.
Interest
The price paid for obtaining, or price received for providing, money or goods in a credit transaction, calculated as a fraction of the amount or value of what was borrowed. A great attention and concern from someone or something; intellectual curiosity.
Investment
The placement or expenditure of capital in expectation of deriving income or profit from its use.
Lead
Potential opportunity for a sale or transaction, a potential customer.
Manage
To handle or control a situation or job.
Market
A group of potential customers for one’s product. One of the many varieties of systems, institutions, procedures, social relations and infrastructures whereby parties engage in exchange.
Proponents
An individual(s) who advocates or supports a particular stance on an issue.
Standard
Something used as a measure for comparative evaluations. A level of quality or attainment.
System
A whole composed of relationships among the members. The part of the universe being studied, arbitrarily defined to any size desired.
Transition
The process of change from one form, state, style, or place to another. A word or phrase connecting one part of a discourse to another.
- Boundless Business. Authored by : Boundless. Provided by : Boundless. Located at : https://www.boundless.com/business/textbooks/boundless-business-textbook/economics-and-business-2/businesses-under-capitalist-systems-28/capitalism-in-the-us-154-7826/ . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Image of Scatter Plot PRC GDP. Authored by : Intsokzen. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Prc1952-2005gdp.gif . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


12.1.1: Components of an Information System
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The Components of Information Systems
As I stated earlier, I spend the first day of my information systems class discussing exactly what the term means. Many students understand that an information system has something to do with databases or spreadsheets. Others mention computers and e-commerce. And they are all right, at least in part: information systems are made up of different components that work together to provide value to an organization.
The first way I describe information systems to students is to tell them that they are made up of five components: hardware, software, data, people, and process. The first three, fitting under the category technology , are generally what most students think of when asked to define information systems. But the last two, people and process, are really what separate the idea of information systems from more technical fields, such as computer science. In order to fully understand information systems, students must understand how all of these components work together to bring value to an organization.
Technology
Technology can be thought of as the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes. From the invention of the wheel to the harnessing of electricity for artificial lighting, technology is a part of our lives in so many ways that we tend to take it for granted. As discussed before, the first three components of information systems – hardware, software, and data – all fall under the category of technology. Each of these will get its own chapter and a much lengthier discussion, but we will take a moment here to introduce them so we can get a full understanding of what an information system is.
Hardware
Information systems hardware is the part of an information system you can touch – the physical components of the technology. Computers, keyboards, disk drives, iPads, and flash drives are all examples of information systems hardware. We will spend some time going over these components and how they all work together in chapter 2.
Software
Software is a set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do. Software is not tangible – it cannot be touched. When programmers create software programs, what they are really doing is simply typing out lists of instructions that tell the hardware what to do. There are several categories of software, with the two main categories being operating-system software, which makes the hardware usable, and application software, which does something useful. Examples of operating systems include Microsoft Windows on a personal computer and Google’s Android on a mobile phone. Examples of application software are Microsoft Excel and Angry Birds. Software will be explored more thoroughly in chapter 3.
Data
The third component is data. You can think of data as a collection of facts. For example, your street address, the city you live in, and your phone number are all pieces of data. Like software, data is also intangible. By themselves, pieces of data are not really very useful. But aggregated, indexed, and organized together into a database, data can become a powerful tool for businesses. In fact, all of the definitions presented at the beginning of this chapter focused on how information systems manage data. Organizations collect all kinds of data and use it to make decisions. These decisions can then be analyzed as to their effectiveness and the organization can be improved. Chapter 4 will focus on data and databases, and their uses in organizations.
Networking Communication: A Fourth Technology Piece?
Besides the components of hardware, software, and data, which have long been considered the core technology of information systems, it has been suggested that one other component should be added: communication. An information system can exist without the ability to communicate – the first personal computers were stand-alone machines that did not access the Internet. However, in today’s hyper-connected world, it is an extremely rare computer that does not connect to another device or to a network. Technically, the networking communication component is made up of hardware and software, but it is such a core feature of today’s information systems that it has become its own category. We will be covering networking in chapter 5.
People
When thinking about information systems, it is easy to get focused on the technology components and forget that we must look beyond these tools to fully understand how they integrate into an organization. A focus on the people involved in information systems is the next step. From the front-line help-desk workers, to systems analysts, to programmers, all the way up to the chief information officer (CIO), the people involved with information systems are an essential element that must not be overlooked. The people component will be covered in chapter 9.
Process
The last component of information systems is process. A process is a series of steps undertaken to achieve a desired outcome or goal. Information systems are becoming more and more integrated with organizational processes, bringing more productivity and better control to those processes. But simply automating activities using technology is not enough – businesses looking to effectively utilize information systems do more. Using technology to manage and improve processes, both within a company and externally with suppliers and customers, is the ultimate goal. Technology buzzwords such as “business process reengineering,” “business process management,” and “enterprise resource planning” all have to do with the continued improvement of these business procedures and the integration of technology with them. Businesses hoping to gain an advantage over their competitors are highly focused on this component of information systems. We will discuss processes in chapter 8.


9.8: Putting It Together- Management
Synthesis
Ship captains, jugglers, parking lots . . . Why have we used so many different analogies to describe managers and management? Because all of them are appropriate given the diversity of roles and responsibilities that managers have on any given day. They must truly possess a broad range of skills in order to react, adapt, plan, and change course swiftly to stay ahead of changes inside and outside of the organization. Perhaps the best way to sum it up is that managers and leaders need to be prepared because . . .
Summary
Managers
Managers wear many hats and must bring with them an entire toolkit of skills—ranging from interpersonal to technical skills—in order to reach organizational goals and objectives effectively. Without the proper skill set, managers can find themselves unable to gain the trust and support of those around them, making their job more difficult and, in some cases, impossible.
Management Theory
Although the world of business has changed tremendously over time, the four functions of management—planning, organizing, leading, and controlling—originally identified by Fayol in the early 1900s still hold. What has changed is where and how managers perform these four primary functions.
Planning
Planning within a business ranges from the big picture to the very granular, from the organization’s foundational plan (its mission) and set of strategic plans to its daily operations plans. Each one builds upon the other, and without a well-developed set of plans that management can implement, an organization will likely drift from one venture or problem to another without ever really achieving success.
Organizing
The structure of an organization can have a tremendous impact on the organization’s ability to react to both internal and external forces. Organizational structure also determines the managers’ span of control, communication channels, and operational responsibilities. The organization should be structured in such a way that it reflects the company’s mission and supports its customer and product/services goals to the greatest advantage.
Leading
From autocratic to laissez-faire, leadership styles run the entire spectrum. Some of the most effective leaders are those who can adopt different styles to fit the situation at hand.
Controlling
The control function of management has two aims: to make order out of chaos and to evaluate whether the company’s efforts and resources are being maximized. Remember that the “control function” doesn’t give management license to be manipulative or autocratic. Instead it refers to the importance of control through evaluation , since evaluation is the key to knowing whether a company is producing the desired results or not.