4.1: Charles II and the Restoration Colonies
When Charles II ascended the throne in 1660, English subjects on both sides of the Atlantic celebrated the restoration of the English monarchy after a decade of living without a king as a result of the English Civil Wars. Charles II lost little time in strengthening England’s global power. From the 1660s to the 1680s, Charles II added more possessions to England’s North American holdings by establishing the Restoration colonies of New York and New Jersey (taking these areas from the Dutch) as well as Pennsylvania and the Carolinas. In order to reap the greatest economic benefit from England’s overseas possessions, Charles II enacted the mercantilist Navigation Acts, although many colonial merchants ignored them because enforcement remained lax.
CHARLES II
The chronicle of Charles II begins with his father, Charles I. Charles I ascended the English throne in 1625 and soon married a French Catholic princess, Henrietta Maria, who was not well liked by English Protestants because she openly practiced Catholicism during her husband’s reign. The most outspoken Protestants, the Puritans, had a strong voice in Parliament in the 1620s, and they strongly opposed the king’s marriage and his ties to Catholicism. When Parliament tried to contest his edicts, including the king’s efforts to impose taxes without Parliament’s consent, Charles I suspended Parliament in 1629 and ruled without one for the next eleven years.
The ensuing struggle between the king and Parliament led to the outbreak of war. The English Civil War lasted from 1642 to 1649 and pitted the king and his Royalist supporters against Oliver Cromwell and his Parliamentary forces. After years of fighting, the Parliamentary forces gained the upper hand, and in 1649, they charged Charles I with treason and beheaded him. The monarchy was dissolved, and England became a republic: a state without a king. Oliver Cromwell headed the new English Commonwealth, and the period known as the English interregnum, or the time between kings, began.
Though Cromwell enjoyed widespread popularity at first, over time he appeared to many in England to be taking on the powers of a military dictator. Dissatisfaction with Cromwell grew. When he died in 1658 and control passed to his son Richard, who lacked the political skills of his father, a majority of the English people feared an alternate hereditary monarchy in the making. They had had enough and asked Charles II to be king. In 1660, they welcomed the son of the executed king Charles I back to the throne to resume the English monarchy and bring the interregnum to an end (Figure 4.1.2). The return of Charles II is known as the Restoration.
Charles II was committed to expanding England’s overseas possessions. His policies in the 1660s through the 1680s established and supported the Restoration colonies: the Carolinas, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania. All the Restoration colonies started as proprietary colonies, that is, the king gave each colony to a trusted individual, family, or group.
THE CAROLINAS
Charles II hoped to establish English control of the area between Virginia and Spanish Florida. To that end, he issued a royal charter in 1663 to eight trusted and loyal supporters, each of whom was to be a feudal-style proprietor of a region of the province of Carolina.
These proprietors did not relocate to the colonies, however. Instead, English plantation owners from the tiny Caribbean island of Barbados, already a well-established English sugar colony fueled by slave labor, migrated to the southern part of Carolina to settle there. In 1670, they established Charles Town (later Charleston), named in honor of Charles II, at the junction of the Ashley and Cooper Rivers (Figure 4.1.3). As the settlement around Charles Town grew, it began to produce livestock for export to the West Indies. In the northern part of Carolina, settlers turned sap from pine trees into turpentine used to waterproof wooden ships. Political disagreements between settlers in the northern and southern parts of Carolina escalated in the 1710s through the 1720s and led to the creation, in 1729, of two colonies, North and South Carolina. The southern part of Carolina had been producing rice and indigo (a plant that yields a dark blue dye used by English royalty) since the 1700s, and South Carolina continued to depend on these main crops. North Carolina continued to produce items for ships, especially turpentine and tar, and its population increased as Virginians moved there to expand their tobacco holdings. Tobacco was the primary export of both Virginia and North Carolina, which also traded in deerskins and slaves from Africa.
Slavery developed quickly in the Carolinas, largely because so many of the early migrants came from Barbados, where slavery was well established. By the end of the 1600s, a very wealthy class of rice planters who relied on slaves had attained dominance in the southern part of the Carolinas, especially around Charles Town. By 1715, South Carolina had a black majority because of the number of slaves in the colony. The legal basis for slavery was established in the early 1700s as the Carolinas began to pass slave laws based on the Barbados slave codes of the late 1600s. These laws reduced Africans to the status of property to be bought and sold as other commodities.
Visit the Charleston Museum’s interactive exhibit The Walled City to learn more about the history of Charleston.
As in other areas of English settlement, native peoples in the Carolinas suffered tremendously from the introduction of European diseases. Despite the effects of disease, Indians in the area endured and, following the pattern elsewhere in the colonies, grew dependent on European goods. Local Yamasee and Creek tribes built up a trade deficit with the English, trading deerskins and captive slaves for European guns. English settlers exacerbated tensions with local Indian tribes, especially the Yamasee, by expanding their rice and tobacco fields into Indian lands. Worse still, English traders took native women captive as payment for debts.
The outrages committed by traders, combined with the seemingly unstoppable expansion of English settlement onto native land, led to the outbreak of the Yamasee War (1715–1718), an effort by a coalition of local tribes to drive away the European invaders. This native effort to force the newcomers back across the Atlantic nearly succeeded in annihilating the Carolina colonies. Only when the Cherokee allied themselves with the English did the coalition’s goal of eliminating the English from the region falter. The Yamasee War demonstrates the key role native peoples played in shaping the outcome of colonial struggles and, perhaps most important, the disunity that existed between different native groups.
NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY
Charles II also set his sights on the Dutch colony of New Netherland. The English takeover of New Netherland originated in the imperial rivalry between the Dutch and the English. During the Anglo-Dutch wars of the 1650s and 1660s, the two powers attempted to gain commercial advantages in the Atlantic World. During the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1664–1667), English forces gained control of the Dutch fur trading colony of New Netherland, and in 1664, Charles II gave this colony (including present-day New Jersey) to his brother James, Duke of York (later James II). The colony and city were renamed New York in his honor. The Dutch in New York chafed under English rule. In 1673, during the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–1674), the Dutch recaptured the colony. However, at the end of the conflict, the English had regained control (Figure 4.1.4).
The Duke of York had no desire to govern locally or listen to the wishes of local colonists. It wasn’t until 1683, therefore, almost 20 years after the English took control of the colony, that colonists were able to convene a local representative legislature. The assembly’s 1683 Charter of Liberties and Privileges set out the traditional rights of Englishmen, like the right to trial by jury and the right to representative government.
The English continued the Dutch patroonship system, granting large estates to a favored few families. The largest of these estates, at 160,000 acres, was given to Robert Livingston in 1686. The Livingstons and the other manorial families who controlled the Hudson River Valley formed a formidable political and economic force. Eighteenth-century New York City, meanwhile, contained a variety of people and religions—as well as Dutch and English people, it held French Protestants (Huguenots), Jews, Puritans, Quakers, Anglicans, and a large population of slaves. As they did in other zones of colonization, native peoples played a key role in shaping the history of colonial New York. After decades of war in the 1600s, the powerful Five Nations of the Iroquois, composed of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca, successfully pursued a policy of neutrality with both the English and, to the north, the French in Canada during the first half of the 1700s. This native policy meant that the Iroquois continued to live in their own villages under their own government while enjoying the benefits of trade with both the French and the English.
PENNSYLVANIA
The Restoration colonies also included Pennsylvania, which became the geographic center of British colonial America. Pennsylvania (which means “Penn’s Woods” in Latin) was created in 1681, when Charles II bestowed the largest proprietary colony in the Americas on William Penn (Figure 4.1.5) to settle the large debt he owed the Penn family. William Penn’s father, Admiral William Penn, had served the English crown by helping take Jamaica from the Spanish in 1655. The king personally owed the Admiral money as well.
Like early settlers of the New England colonies, Pennsylvania’s first colonists migrated mostly for religious reasons. William Penn himself was a Quaker, a member of a new Protestant denomination called the Society of Friends. George Fox had founded the Society of Friends in England in the late 1640s, having grown dissatisfied with Puritanism and the idea of predestination. Rather, Fox and his followers stressed that everyone had an “inner light” inside him or her, a spark of divinity. They gained the name Quakers because they were said to quake when the inner light moved them. Quakers rejected the idea of worldly rank, believing instead in a new and radical form of social equality. Their speech reflected this belief in that they addressed all others as equals, using “thee” and “thou” rather than terms like “your lordship” or “my lady” that were customary for privileged individuals of the hereditary elite.
The English crown persecuted Quakers in England, and colonial governments were equally harsh; Massachusetts even executed several early Quakers who had gone to proselytize there. To avoid such persecution, Quakers and their families at first created a community on the sugar island of Barbados. Soon after its founding, however, Pennsylvania became the destination of choice. Quakers flocked to Pennsylvania as well as New Jersey, where they could preach and practice their religion in peace. Unlike New England, whose official religion was Puritanism, Pennsylvania did not establish an official church. Indeed, the colony allowed a degree of religious tolerance found nowhere else in English America. To help encourage immigration to his colony, Penn promised fifty acres of land to people who agreed to come to Pennsylvania and completed their term of service. Not surprisingly, those seeking a better life came in large numbers, so much so that Pennsylvania relied on indentured servants more than any other colony.
One of the primary tenets of Quakerism is pacifism, leading William Penn to establish friendly relationships with local native peoples. He formed a covenant of friendship with the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) tribe, buying their land for a fair price instead of taking it by force. In 1701, he also signed a treaty with the Susquehannocks to avoid war. Unlike other colonies, Pennsylvania did not experience war on the frontier with native peoples during its early history.
As an important port city, Philadelphia grew rapidly. Quaker merchants there established contacts throughout the Atlantic world and participated in the thriving African slave trade. Some Quakers, who were deeply troubled by the contradiction between their belief in the “inner light” and the practice of slavery, rejected the practice and engaged in efforts to abolish it altogether. Philadelphia also acted as a magnet for immigrants, who came not only from England, but from all over Europe by the hundreds of thousands. The city, and indeed all of Pennsylvania, appeared to be the best country for poor men and women, many of whom arrived as servants and dreamed of owning land. A very few, like the fortunate Benjamin Franklin, a runaway from Puritan Boston, did extraordinarily well. Other immigrant groups in the colony, most notably Germans and Scotch-Irish (families from Scotland and England who had first lived in Ireland before moving to British America), greatly improved their lot in Pennsylvania. Of course, Africans imported into the colony to labor for white masters fared far worse.
The American Weekly Mercury , published by William Bradford, was Philadelphia’s first newspaper. This advertisement from “John Wilson, Goaler ” (jailer) offers a reward for anyone capturing several men who escaped from the jail.
BROKE out of the Common Goal of Philadelphia, the 15th of this Instant February, 1721, the following Persons :
John Palmer, also Plumly, alias Paine, Servant to Joseph Jones, run away and was lately taken up at New-York. He is fully described in the American Mercury, Novem. 23, 1721. He has a Cinnamon coloured Coat on, a middle sized fresh coloured Man.
Daniel Oughtopay, A Dutchman, aged about 24 Years, Servant to Dr. Johnston in Amboy. He is a thin Spare man, grey Drugget Waistcoat and Breeches and a light-coloured Coat on.
Ebenezor Mallary, a New-England, aged about 24 Years, is a middle-sized thin Man, having on a Snuff colour’d Coat, and ordinary Ticking Waistcoat and Breeches. He has dark brown strait Hair.
Matthew Dulany, an Irish Man, down-look’d Swarthy Complexion, and has on an Olive-coloured Cloth Coat and Waistcoat with Cloth Buttons.
John Flemming, an Irish Lad, aged about 18, belonging to Mr. Miranda, Merchant in this City. He has no Coat, a grey Drugget Waistcoat, and a narrow brim’d Hat on.
John Corbet, a Shropshire Man, a Runaway Servant from Alexander Faulkner of Maryland, broke out on the 12th Instant. He has got a double-breasted Sailor’s Jacket on lined with red Bays, pretends to be a Sailor, and once taught School at Josephs Collings’s in the Jerseys.
Whoever takes up and secures all, or any One of these Felons, shall have a Pistole Reward for each of them and reasonable Charges, paid them by John Wilson, Goaler
—Advertisement from the American Weekly Mercury , 1722
What do the descriptions of the men tell you about life in colonial Philadelphia?
Browse a number of issues of the American Weekly Mercury that were digitized by New Jersey’s Stockton University. Read through several to get a remarkable flavor of life in early eighteenth-century Philadelphia.
THE NAVIGATION ACTS
Creating wealth for the Empire remained a primary goal, and in the second half of the seventeenth century, especially during the Restoration, England attempted to gain better control of trade with the American colonies. The mercantilist policies by which it tried to achieve this control are known as the Navigation Acts.
The 1651 Navigation Ordnance, a product of Cromwell’s England, required that only English ships carry goods between England and the colonies, and that the captain and three-fourths of the crew had to be English. The ordnance further listed “enumerated articles” that could be transported only to England or to English colonies, including the most lucrative commodities like sugar and tobacco as well as indigo, rice, molasses, and naval stores such as turpentine. All were valuable goods not produced in England or in demand by the British navy. After ascending the throne, Charles II approved the 1660 Navigation Act, which restated the 1651 act to ensure a monopoly on imports from the colonies.
Other Navigation Acts included the 1663 Staple Act and the 1673 Plantation Duties Act. The Staple Act barred colonists from importing goods that had not been made in England, creating a profitable monopoly for English exporters and manufacturers. The Plantation Duties Act taxed enumerated articles exported from one colony to another, a measure aimed principally at New Englanders, who transported great quantities of molasses from the West Indies, including smuggled molasses from French-held islands, to make into rum.
In 1675, Charles II organized the Lords of Trade and Plantation, commonly known as the Lords of Trade, an administrative body intended to create stronger ties between the colonial governments and the crown. However, the 1696 Navigation Act created the Board of Trade, replacing the Lords of Trade. This act, meant to strengthen enforcement of customs laws, also established vice-admiralty courts where the crown could prosecute customs violators without a jury. Under this act, customs officials were empowered with warrants known as “writs of assistance” to board and search vessels suspected of containing smuggled goods.
Despite the Navigation Acts, however, Great Britain exercised lax control over the English colonies during most of the eighteenth century because of the policies of Prime Minister Robert Walpole. During his long term (1721–1742), Walpole governed according to his belief that commerce flourished best when it was not encumbered with restrictions. Historians have described this lack of strict enforcement of the Navigation Acts as salutary neglect. In addition, nothing prevented colonists from building their own fleet of ships to engage in trade. New England especially benefited from both salutary neglect and a vibrant maritime culture made possible by the scores of trading vessels built in the northern colonies. The case of the 1733 Molasses Act illustrates the weaknesses of British mercantilist policy. The 1733 act placed a sixpence-per-gallon duty on raw sugar, rum, and molasses from Britain’s competitors, the French and the Dutch, in order to give an advantage to British West Indian producers. Because the British did not enforce the 1733 law, however, New England mariners routinely smuggled these items from the French and Dutch West Indies more cheaply than they could buy them on English islands.
Section Summary
After the English Civil War and interregnum, England began to fashion a stronger and larger empire in North America. In addition to wresting control of New York and New Jersey from the Dutch, Charles II established the Carolinas and Pennsylvania as proprietary colonies. Each of these colonies added immensely to the Empire, supplying goods not produced in England, such as rice and indigo. The Restoration colonies also contributed to the rise in population in English America as many thousands of Europeans made their way to the colonies. Their numbers were further augmented by the forced migration of African slaves. Starting in 1651, England pursued mercantilist policies through a series of Navigation Acts designed to make the most of England’s overseas possessions. Nonetheless, without proper enforcement of Parliament’s acts and with nothing to prevent colonial traders from commanding their own fleets of ships, the Navigation Acts did not control trade as intended.
Review Questions
To what does the term “Restoration” refer?
the restoration of New York to English power
the restoration of Catholicism as the official religion of England
the restoration of Charles II to the English throne
the restoration of Parliamentary power in England
C
What was the predominant religion in Pennsylvania?
Quakerism
Puritanism
Catholicism
Protestantism
A
What sorts of labor systems were used in the Restoration colonies?
Since the proprietors of the Carolina colonies were absent, English planters from Barbados moved in and gained political power, establishing slave labor as the predominant form of labor. In Pennsylvania, where prospective servants were offered a bounty of fifty acres of land for emigrating and finishing their term of labor, indentured servitude abounded.
Glossary
- English interregnum
- the period from 1649 to 1660 when England had no king
- Navigation Acts
- a series of English mercantilist laws enacted between 1651 and 1696 in order to control trade with the colonies
- proprietary colonies
- colonies granted by the king to a trusted individual, family, or group
- Restoration colonies
- the colonies King Charles II established or supported during the Restoration (the Carolinas, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania)
- salutary neglect
- the laxness with which the English crown enforced the Navigation Acts in the eighteenth century


7.5: How can we prepare all students for life after high school?
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By: Cassaundra Lewis
I. Introduction
Every year thousands of students graduate from high school and go on to college. Every year hundreds are not as successful. What can be done to assure that more high school students go on to college? What can we do to prepare students for life after high school? The United States has been debating these questions not only on state levels, but national as well. In this article I will discuss some of the benefits, hindrances, advances, and the content of vocational education and college preparation courses.
II. College Prep vs. Vocational Education
First we should define college preparation and vocational education. College preparation is a course or series of courses that help students adjust to many college-level requirements. William Tierney writes, “Important objectives of most programs are the smoothing of the transition from school to college, improvement of study habits, increase of general academic readiness, and expansion of academic options” (Increasing Access to College, 2002, pg 3). Vocational education is a course or series of courses that give students work related experience to express the nature of careers and help them learn skills that will assist towards careers in the future. According to Unger, “the basic purpose of vocational education is to get a job” (But What If…, 2006, pg 33). “In no other area has greater emphasis been placed upon the development of curricula that are relevant in terms of student and community needs and substantive outcomes.” (Curriculum Development, 1999, pg 3).
Note
Did You Know…?
Did you know…
Education for work began 4,000 years ago? According to Finch, “(the) earliest type of vocational education took the form of apprenticeship” (Curriculum Development, 1999, pg 4).
III. Main Targets of College Prep and Vocational Education
One of the main targets of college preparation courses are low-income students and minorities, who make up a very small percentage of students attending both two and four year colleges directly after high school (Preparing for College, 2005, pg 3). “Educational institutions, state and federal governments, and local communities have committed significant resources to the development of a wide array of outreach activities designed to identify and assist underrepresented students in their pathways to college” (Preparing for College, 2005, pg 1). Vocational education targets those who are even less likely to attend college immediately after high school. “Millions of students all over the world are not suited for and have no interest in traditional academic schooling—which is why alternative career education was developed: to teach students the skills they need to get a good job” (But What If…, 2006, pg 4). Both college prep and vocational education attempt to enlighten students about career choices and assist them with the transition from high school into the adult world.
IV. Positives and Negatives in College Preparation
According to Anne Lewis, of the Education Digest, “more students are taking upper-level math and science classes and more are enrolled in Advanced Placement classes” (College Prep, 2004, paragraph 1). By this, she means that more students are enrolled in classes to help them prepare for college. She goes on to state, unfortunately, “the likelihood of ninth-graders completing high school and enrolling in college by age 19 (…, having graduated from high school within four years and directly entered a higher education institution) has declined”(paragraph 2). Another major negative in college preparation is that the population targeted is not always the one assisted. Tierney writes, “Programs such as MESA, Upward Bound, AVID, (etc.)… are well intentioned, (but) minority students remain underrepresented on college campuses”(Preparing for College, 2005, pg 1).
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Did You Know…?
Did you know…
The National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education grades each state, on a scale of A to F, on ability to effectively prepare students for college? Seven states received an “A,” Connecticut, Colorado, Massachusetts (who scored the highest), Maryland, New Jersey, New York, and Utah. Louisiana and New Mexico were the only states to receive a “F”(College Prep, 2004, paragraph 7).
V. Positives and Negatives in Vocational Education
There are many benefits of vocational education. According to Unger, “Employers generally respect the credentials of graduates from vo-tech schools, which usually have strong job placement services and close ties with employers. Vo-tech students emerge stronger in academics as well, because students learn English, math, science, and other subjects in conjunction with their vocational education and, therefore, find these areas more interesting”(But What If…?, 2006, pg 20). Two negatives associated with vocational education are that, “Unfortunately, there are only about 325 vo-tech schools across the United States” and there is a rising inability to keep students interested (But What If…?, 2006, pg 20).
Note
Did You Know…?
Did you know…
“It’s easy to get into college, but not easy to finish and graduate? More than 40% of students who enroll in American colleges and universities quit without graduating” (But What If…, 2006, pg 3).
VI. Curriculum Content
What all is included in the curriculum for college preparation and vocational education? What factors help in considering whether or not a program should be added or subtracted? “Curriculum materials are resources that, if used properly, can assist an instructor in bringing about an intended desirable behavior change in individual students” (Curriculum Development, 1999, pg 208). Unfortunately, there is no fool proof way of being able to tell what is going to help and what isn’t. There are many things to take into consideration when choosing what programs to keep and eliminate (Increasing Access to College, 2002, pg 3). As far as college preparation is concerned, a lot of the learning occurs in advanced classes. Many different approaches are used, such as computer-based assessment and writing assessment. With vocational education, you must determine: What will the student want to study? What does the community need as far as work experience? What will motivate the students toward life after high school (Curriculum Development, 1999, pg 92)?
VII. My Personal Experience with College Preparation and Vocational Education
While I was in high school, I was fortunate enough to experience both college preparation and vocational education. In my opinion, college preparation did very much to help me familiarize myself with what college would actually be like. I attended all honors classes and college preparation meetings. During my time as a vocational education student, I had hands on job training and was able to get my license as a cosmetologist when I graduated from high school. Vocational education did just as much for me on an overall level as college preparation. I do understand that not everyone was as fortunate as I and may not have had the same type of support that I received. One contributing factor, that is very often overlooked, is the influence of home life on attending college directly after high school.
VIII. Conclusion
In conclusion, college preparation courses and vocational education courses are both designed to promote success in the community but use different avenues. College preparation is focused on getting students to college. Vocational education is focused on providing an alternative to a college education for those who might not be as interested capable. When used properly and effectively, these means of education can provide options after high school for all students.
IX. Resources
Law, C. J. (1994). Tech Prep Education: A Total Quality Approach. Lancaster, PA: Technomic Publishing Company.
Finch, C. R., Crunkilton, J. R. (1999). Curriculum Development in Vocational and Technical Education: Planning, Content, and Implementation (5th ed.). Boston: Viacom Company.
Walter, D. M. (1992). Tech Prep: Challenges and Opportunities For Community Colleges. Southern Association of Community, Junior, and Technical Colleges (SACJTC) Occasional Paper, 10, 3-8.
Lewis, A. C. (2004). College Prep. The Education Digest, 70, 69-70.
Tierney, W. G., Corwin, Z. B., and Colyar, J. E. (2005). Preparing for College: Nine Elements of Effective Outreach. New York: State University of New York Press.
Tierney, W. G., Hagedorn, L. S. (2002). Increasing Access to College: Extending Possibilities for All Students. New York: State University of New York Press.
Unger, H. G. (2006).  New York: Checkmark Books.


12.1: Viral Infections of the Respiratory Tract
- Identify the most common viruses that can cause infections of the upper and lower respiratory tract
- Compare the major characteristics of specific viral diseases of the respiratory tract
Viruses are the most frequent cause of respiratory tract infections. Unlike the bacterial pathogens, we have few effective therapies to combat viral respiratory infections. Fortunately, many of these diseases are mild and self-limiting. A few respiratory infections manifest their primary symptoms at other locations in the body.
The Common Cold
Influenza
Key Concepts and Summary
- Viruses cause respiratory tract infections more frequently than bacteria, and most viral infections lead to mild symptoms.
- The common cold can be caused by more than 200 viruses, typically rhinoviruses, coronaviruses, and adenoviruses, transmitted by direct contact, aerosols, or environmental surfaces.
- Due to its ability to rapidly mutate through antigenic drift and antigenic shift , influenza remains an important threat to human health. Two new influenza vaccines are developed annually.


13: Community Organizing and Health Promotion Programming Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 99049 Erin Calderone Glendale Community College Learning Objectives Define important fundamental concepts in community/public health. Outline the process of community organizing and health promotion programming. 13.1: Introduction 13.2: Behavioral Change Theories and Models 13.3: Theory of Planned Behavior 13.4: Health Belief Model 13.5: Social Cognitive Theory 13.6: Self-Determination Theory 13.7: Transtheoretical Model (Stages of Change) 13.8: The Social-Ecological Model 13.9: Community Intervention Models 13.10: Health Promotion Program Planning 13.10.1: Generalized Model 13.10.2: Needs Assessment 13.10.3: Goals, Objectives, and Activities 13.10.4: Implementation 13.10.5: Evaluation 13.11: Mobilizing Action through Planning and Partnerships (MAPP) 13.12: PRECEDE-PROCEED Model 13.13: Case Studies 13.14: Case Study 1Wins Fitness 13.15: Case Study 2- Our Choice/Nuestra Opción- The Imperial County, California, Childhood Obesity Research Demonstration Study (CA-CORD) 13.16: Summary 13.17: References


1.7: Walking Stick
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Walking Stick
Irish Maker attributed to Michael Casey, c.1850 Wood (blackthorn) Gift of Veronica (Sally) & Demi McGinley MHAHS 2004.062.0006 |
A shillelagh (pronounced shi-LAY-lee) is sometimes a walking stick, but it is always also a club. When needs arose, a whack from the knob end could pack quite a punch! Shillelaghs have a history in Ireland going back hundreds of years. Receiving one was part of a young man’s transition into adulthood and he would continue to carry it as part of being a man. Male immigrants leaving Ireland often brought their shillelaghs with them to America. Like the shamrock, the shillelagh has become closely associated with Ireland and Irish-American identity. This one, made and owned by Michael Casey, is a reminder of the many immigrant groups that settled in the Blue Mounds area.
Michael Casey, like scores of other Irish immigrants, brought his shillelagh with him when he left Ireland. A shillelagh (pronounced shi-LAY-lee) is a type of walking stick and club particular to Ireland. Generally ranging from between three to four feet in length, shillelaghs are also sometimes called “knob-sticks” because of the large bulbous head on one end. Throughout their history, shillelaghs have variously been symbols of manhood, used in depictions to mock the Irish, and as emblems of Irish pride.
This specific shillelagh was made by Michael Casey himself, probably around 1850. To make it, Casey would have cut a section of the trunk with a limb extending from it from a blackthorn bush. Blackthorn is a species of European bush noteworthy for long, sharp thorns. The blackthorn limb formed the length of the cane, whereas the trunk became the knob at the top. Casey would have carved the section of trunk to make in rounded and comfortable to hold in the hand. To finish the shillelagh, Casey would have either smeared it with butter and hung it in a chimney, or buried it in a pile of manure for several weeks. These processes both serve to cure and strengthen the bark of the cane, which gives the shillelagh its characteristic black color. That Michael Casey left the thorns on the cane’s shaft suggests that he primarily used it as a walking stick. A shillelagh meant to be used as a weapon generally has these thorns cut off so that its user can wield it comfortably by the shaft.
The history of shillelaghs in Ireland spans several centuries, but they are poorly explained in much of the historical record. Use of clubs in Ireland appear in art and the literature at least as early as the seventh century. Whether these clubs are related to the traditions surrounding shillelaghs is unclear. The absence of shillelaghs in historical documents likely stems from their use primarily by members of the lower classes. Shillelaghs begin to appear frequently in historical sources during the late eighteenth century while Ireland was under British rule. During this time period and continuing through the nineteenth century, there are reports of shillelaghs being used in “factional fighting”. These fights occurred between gang-like groups or factions and often occurred at fairs and other social gatherings. These fights probably were somewhat recreational in nature, following certain rules and allowing participants the opportunity to demonstrate their skills. In this regard, shillelagh fights bear a resemblance to other combat sports, such as boxing. In any case, British authorities suppressed the practice and it gradually declined by the start of the twentieth century, with the last major fight taking place in Carrickmacross, Ireland in 1929.
Shillelaghs have taken on different symbolic meanings depending on place and time. In Ireland, itself, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, shillelaghs were given from fathers to sons as a rite of passage to manhood. The importance of the shillelagh is apparent by the way in which they retained the form of the club even when that was no longer their primary purpose. With the increase in immigration from Ireland to England and America as a result of the Potato Famine in the mid-nineteenth century, shillelaghs took on a negative connotation. Anti-Irish sentiment ran high in both countries. Exacerbated by religious differences, the English and Anglo-Americans stereotyped the Irish as backwards, belligerent people. Newspapers frequently printed caricatures of Irish men as drunk and wielding a shillelagh. As Irish immigrants gained stature within American society, they reclaimed the shillelagh as a positive symbol of Irish identity. Today it stands among shamrocks and Saint Patrick as emblems of Irish heritage and pride.
References
Hurley, John W. Shillelagh: The Irish Fighting Stick. Pipersville, PA: Caravat Press, 2007. https://books.google.com/books?id=Zr...gbs_navlinks_s
Kavanagh, Peter. “The Shillelagh: A Weapon of Honor.” American Mercury, May 1951. www.unz.org/Pub/AmMercury-195...00525?View=PDF


3.5: How to Be the Cell
Most simple, prokaryotic cell should perform several essential duties in order to survive. These are:
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Obtaining energy. In all living world, the energy is accumulated in the form of ATP molecules. To make ATP, there are three most common ways:
- Phototrophy
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Energy from the light of Sun.
- Organotrophy
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Energy from burning of organic molecules, either slow (fermentation), or fast (respiration).
- Lithotrophy
-
Energy from inorganic chemical reactions (“rocks”).
-
Obtaining building blocks (monomers which are using to built polymers like nucleic acids, proteins and polysaccharides). The principal monomer in the living world is glucose. From glucose, it is possible to chemically create everything else (of course, one must add nitrogen and phosphorous when needed). There are two principal ways to obtain monomers:
- Autotrophy
-
Make monomers from carbon dioxide.
- Heterotrophy
-
Take monomers from somebody else’s organic molecules.
There are six possible combinations of these above processes. For example, what we called “photosynthesis” is in fact photoautotrophy . Prokaryotes are famous because they have all six combinations at work.
-
Multiply. There are always three steps:
-
Duplicate DNA. As it is a double spiral, one must unwind it, and then build the antisymmetric copy of each chain in accordance with a simple complement rule—each nucleotide make hydrogen bond only with one nucleotide of other type:
A T T A G C C G - Split duplicated DNA.
- Split the rest of the cell.
Prokaryotic DNA is small and circular, optimized for the speedy duplication and division. Consequently, prokaryotes multiply with alarming speed.
-
Duplicate DNA. As it is a double spiral, one must unwind it, and then build the antisymmetric copy of each chain in accordance with a simple complement rule—each nucleotide make hydrogen bond only with one nucleotide of other type:
-
Make proteins. This process involves transcription ans translation. As proteins are “working machines” of the cell and DNA is an “instruction book”, there must be the way to transfer this information from DNA to proteins. It usually involves RNA which serves as temporary “blueprints” for proteins:
- DNA and RNA each contains four types of nucleotides, this is an alphabet.
- With help of enzymes, pieces of DNA responsible for one protein (gene) copied into RNA. Rules are almost the same as for DNA duplication above, but T from DNA is replaced in RNA with U.
- The sequence of nucleotides is a language in which every tree nucleotides mean one amino acid.
-
Ribosomes translate trios of nucleotides (triplets) into amino acids and make proteins. They do it in accordance with
genetic code
:
Genetic code. All amino acids designated with shortcuts.  To evolve, organisms must diversify first, natural selection works only if there is an initial diversity. There are two ways to diversify:
- Mutations which are simply mistakes in DNA. Majority of mutations are bad, and many are lethal. The probability to obtain useful mutation is comparable with probability to mend your cell phone using hammer.
- Recombinations are much safer, they increase diversity but unable to create novelties. In addition, recombinations serve also as a way to discard bad genes from the “gene pool” of population because from time to time, two or more bad genes meet together in one genotype and this combination becomes lethal.
Prokaryotes developed bacterial conjugation when two cell exchange parts of their DNA, this facilitates recombination. In bacterial world, recombination is possible not only within one population, but sometimes also between different species, this is called horizontal gene transfer .


7.3: Plan Nutritional Strategies to Impact Endocrine Wellness
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
- 7.2.1 Understand nutritional habits that optimize endocrine wellness.
- 7.2.2 Generate solutions to optimize endocrine wellness utilizing nutritional habits.
Planning Nutrition Goals
It is important to set nutritional goals with individuals with endocrine disorders as diet plays a crucial role in managing these conditions and promoting overall health and well-being. Research has shown that dietary modifications can significantly improve outcomes and reduce the risk for complications associated with various endocrine disorders, particularly diabetes. For example, research has shown that dietary interventions, including reducing simple carbohydrate and added sugar intake and increasing protein and fiber intake, can improve blood glucose control and reduce the risk for cardiovascular disease in individuals with type 2 diabetes (Gray & Threkeld, 2019).
The American Diabetes Association (2019) has identified a framework for nutrition therapy goals that reflect the importance of using a holistic approach to working with clients with diabetes. Their broad goals of nutrition therapy are to:
- Promote and support healthful eating patterns, emphasizing a variety of appropriately portioned nutrient-dense foods.
- Consider personal and cultural preferences, health literacy, willingness to change, and access to healthy foods.
- Not judge clients about their food choices so that their eating can continue to be enjoyable.
- Provide practical tools for developing good eating practices rather than focusing too much on a particular food item or food type.
Clients with diabetes should follow the prescribed diet which typically includes a limited number of calories and carbohydrates. General guidelines for meal planning with diabetes include (CDC, 2023b):
- Limiting added sugars and refined grains such as white bread, rice, and pasta
- Including more non-starchy vegetables
- Limiting intake of highly processed foods
Setting nutritional goals for clients with endocrine disorders can be difficult. Endocrine disorders are complex conditions that can seem overwhelming to the client to manage. In addition to considering the nutritional components of the diet, the nurse must consider cultural, socioeconomic, and psychological factors affecting food intake. The goal-setting process is only successful if it is collaborative. The nurse should encourage the client to explain how their family, culture, and beliefs influence how and what they eat. These influences should be incorporated into the goals set.
When setting nutritional goals, both short-term and long-term goals are needed. Short-term goals may be necessary to help stabilize and manage acute changes in hormone levels that have occurred. Short-term goals may require more stringent meal planning and food consumption that is not realistically sustainable over time. Long-term goals are necessary to help the client manage their condition on an ongoing basis. Ideally, these goals incorporate the changes needed to stabilize the client’s endocrine health in a realistic and practical manner. Table 7.4 lists common endocrine disorders and related nutritional goals.
| Endocrine Disorder or Lab Value | Nutritional Goals |
|---|---|
| Diabetes (high blood glucose) | Balance carbohydrate intake with insulin requirements, limit simple sugars and refined carbohydrates, increase fiber intake, promote weight management |
| Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) | Promote weight loss if overweight or obese, reduce intake of refined carbohydrates and sugars, increase intake of fiber and omega-3 fatty acids, monitor iron and vitamin D levels |
| Thyroid disorders (e.g., hypothyroidism) | Monitor iodine and selenium intake, limit consumption of goitrogens (e.g., soy, cabbage), increase intake of iron and vitamin B 12 , promote weight management |
| Cushing’s disease/syndrome | Limit sodium intake, increase potassium and calcium intake, promote weight management |
| Adrenal insufficiency | Ensure adequate protein and carbohydrate intake, monitor sodium intake, increase potassium and calcium intake |
| Hypoglycemia | Balance carbohydrate intake with insulin requirements, eat frequent small meals throughout the day, avoid skipping meals or fasting |
| Low iron | Increase iron-rich foods such as lean red meat, poultry, fish, beans, and fortified cereals |
| Low vitamin D | Increase intake of vitamin D-rich foods such as fatty fish, egg yolks, and fortified foods; consider supplementation if necessary |
| Low vitamin B 12 | Increase intake of vitamin B 12 -rich foods such as lean meat, fish, poultry, and fortified foods; consider supplementation if necessary |
| Low potassium | Increase intake of potassium-rich foods such as bananas, potatoes, tomatoes, spinach, and avocado |
| Low calcium | Increase intake of calcium-rich foods such as low-fat dairy, leafy greens, and fortified foods |
Adequate intake of vitamins and minerals is important for the endocrine system as they play a role in hormone synthesis, regulation, and metabolism (Hoffman & Sullivan, 2020; Kiani et al., 2022; Lewis, 2022; Shrimanker & Bhattarai, 2023). These include:
- Vitamin A is important for vision, immune function, and cell growth and differentiation. It also plays a role in regulating gene expression and hormone synthesis. Vitamin A is found in green, leafy vegetables and dairy products.
- B vitamins , including thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, biotin, folic acid, and cobalamin, are important for energy metabolism and neurotransmitter synthesis. Vitamin B is found many foods including leafy green vegetables, enriched grains, and cereals.
- Vitamin C is an antioxidant that helps protect against oxidative stress and inflammation. It also plays a role in collagen synthesis and wound healing and has been linked to improved insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism. Fruits and vegetables are important sources of Vitamin C.
- Vitamin D plays an essential role in calcium metabolism , which is critical for bone health. It also plays a role in regulating insulin secretion and glucose metabolism, and deficiency has been linked to an increased risk for type 2 diabetes. Sources for vitamin D include orange juice and dairy products fortified with vitamin D.
- Vitamin E is an antioxidant that helps protect against oxidative stress and inflammation, which are linked to the development of chronic diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer. Nuts and seeds are a key source of vitamin E.
- Calcium is important for bone health and muscle contraction, but it also plays a role in hormone secretion and metabolism. It is involved in the regulation of parathyroid hormone (PTH), which regulates calcium balance in the body. Dairy products are a primary source of calcium. For clients who do not eat dairy products, soy products and dark leafy green vegetables are also good sources of calcium.
- Chloride is an important electrolyte that plays a role in fluid balance and the regulation of pH. It is also involved in the production and secretion of gastric acid, which is important for digestion and the absorption of nutrients. It is found in food sources with salt.
- Magnesium is important for muscle and nerve function, but it also plays a role in hormone metabolism and signaling. It is involved in the regulation of PTH and insulin secretion, and deficiency has been linked to an increased risk for diabetes. Magnesium is found in whole grains and dark-green leafy vegetables.
- Phosphorus is important for bone health and mineralization, and it is a key component of hydroxyapatite, which is the mineral matrix of bones. Several hormones, including parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin, are involved in the regulation of phosphorus metabolism and bone mineralization. Also, involved in the regulation of glucose metabolism, and several hormones, including insulin and glucagon. Dairy products, meats, nuts, and whole grains are good sources of phosphorus.
- Potassium is an important electrolyte that is involved in muscle contraction and nerve function. It also plays a role in insulin secretion and glucose metabolism. Potassium is also found in leafy green vegetables as well as starchy vegetables.
- Sodium is an important electrolyte that plays a role in regulating blood pressure and fluid balance. It also plays a role in the regulation of hormone secretion, particularly in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) , which regulates blood pressure and fluid balance. Sodium is readily found in processed foods including chips, pizza, and sandwiches.
Hypoglycemia (a blood glucose level below 70 mg/dL) must be treated immediately to avoid serious complications. The 15-15 Rule can be used to treat mild hypoglycemia which occurs when blood glucose levels decrease to 55–69 mg/dL. Clients with blood glucose levels in this range should consume 15 g of carbohydrates and then recheck their blood glucose level after 15 minutes. Repeat these steps until their blood glucose is greater than 70 mg/dL. Examples of food items that have approximately 15 g of carbohydrates include:
- 4 oz of juice
- 1 tbsp of sugar, honey, or syrup
- Small portions of candy (hard candy, jellybeans, etc.)
Blood glucose levels that do not respond to these interventions require immediate attention at a health care facility (CDC, 2022b).
Identifying Challenges to Nutritional Goals
Developing and maintaining healthy eating practices can be difficult for any client. For the general population, a healthy diet involves eating nutrient-dense foods across all food groups while staying within calorie limits and minimizing intake of added sugars, saturated fat, and sodium (Departments of Agriculture and Health and Human Services, 2020). Meeting nutritional goals can be especially challenging for individuals with endocrine disorders as these conditions often require specific dietary modifications to manage these conditions.
For example, individuals with adrenal insufficiency may struggle with electrolyte balance and carbohydrate intake. Individuals with diabetes often struggle with carbohydrate intake and blood glucose management (American Diabetes Association, 2019). Additionally, there are different types of diabetes. Although the nutritional requirements for clients with diabetes are generally the same, clients with type 1 diabetes must take insulin to regulate their blood glucose levels. Clients with type 2 diabetes can manage their blood glucose levels through diet. Similarly named, but unrelated to diabetes is diabetes insipidus . Clients with this condition may be able to decrease urine output by eating a low-protein or a low-salt diet, but otherwise nutrition does not cause or prevent this condition (National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 2021).
Following any dietary recommendations depends on more than just understanding them. Clients must also have access and means to obtain and prepare nutritious foods. A client’s culture and norms can also affect dietary behaviors and subsequent health risks (Brown et al., 2022). The nurse should consider the client’s cultural background when recommending food choices. Asking the client about their favorite foods and foods that are typically served at family or community gatherings is one way to learn more about the client’s culture.
A recent study determined that overall diet quality has improved in the United States (Orr et al., 2019). However, there are still disparities among socioeconomic groups. These health disparities can stem from lack of access to or means to obtain healthy foods. For example, clients may live in rural or inner-city areas that have few grocery stores and instead must purchase food primarily from convenience stores or fast-food restaurants. Clients with limited incomes may have to choose lesser quality food to ensure they can purchase enough food. Accordingly, differences in diet quality may also explain differences in diabetes health-related outcomes among socioeconomic groups (Orr et al., 2019). The relationship between overnutrition and socioeconomic status is complex, as individuals from lower socioeconomic groups may also develop obesity due to limited access to fresh and nutrient-dense food and easy availability of energy-dense food.
One example of a population-health based approach to reducing the risk for diabetes is the Traditional Foods Project . This was a 6-year cooperative project involving the CDC and 17 native U.S. tribal programs with the goals of supporting cultural traditions that could decrease the risk for type 2 diabetes among Native American and Alaska Native communities (CDC, 2022c). This project demonstrated how to incorporate culture and history into current day health interventions. Brochures with examples of the traditional food stories they documented can be found on their website .
Clients’ lifestyles also must be considered. Inadequate physical activity, poorly managed stress, and inadequate sleep can interfere with healthy eating patterns (Kesari & Noel, 2022). Skipping meals and eating late at night has been linked to hormone imbalances (Gherasim et al., 2020).
Eating disorders, mental illnesses, and unhealthy diet trends can also affect nutritional status and increase the risk for malnutrition. Alcohol and substance use are significant factors that can affect a client’s nutritional status. In addition to the physical damage caused by alcohol or substance use, the consumption of these substances can affect dietary habits. Intake of both can alter client’s appetites and potentially displace the consumption of nutrient-dense food. Frequently, overconsumption of alcohol or substances is associated with disrupted, sometimes chaotic lifestyles that can further impact nutritional intake (Mahboub et al., 2021).
It can be challenging for clients with diabetes to incorporate all the nutritional changes needed to manage their condition. To learn more about the principles of healthy eating with diabetes watch this video from the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.
Read the following clinical scenario and then answer the questions that follow. This case study is a follow-up to Case Study Part A.
After the initial health history and assessment, further testing is performed. Meena’s vital signs are:
| Vital Signs | Laboratory Results | |
|---|---|---|
| Temperature: | 97.6°F |
|
| Pulse: | 90 beats/min | |
| Respiratory rate: | 18 breaths/min | |
| Blood pressure: | 145/95 mm Hg |
Meena expresses a strong desire to improve her “hormone health” through lifestyle changes, particularly focusing on nutrition. However, she is feeling a little overwhelmed. Her diet recall includes foods with a lot of added sugar and salt. She tries to cook at home whenever possible to save money. When cooking at home she uses kosher or sea salt because she believes these types of salts “are healthier.” Her favorite dishes to prepare are Indian dishes she enjoyed with her family growing up. She is concerned she will no longer be able to enjoy these foods.
-
Recommend a low-protein, high-carbohydrate diet.
-
Encourage increased consumption of iodine-rich foods.
-
Advise her to avoid goitrogenic foods, such as cruciferous vegetables.
-
Promote a diet high in saturated fats and processed foods.
-
Initiate a sodium-controlled diet and educate Meena on sodium reduction strategies.
-
Provide instruction on calcium sources in her diet.
-
Encourage her to increase her fluid intake.
-
Initiate a low-carbohydrate diet and instruct Meena on how to obtain adequate protein in her diet.
Clients with diabetes may still be able to incorporate some of their favorite culture-specific foods into their diet. For example, leafy greens including collards, kale, and spinach are a traditional part of African American diets. Eating these foods can help control blood glucose levels (CDC, 2022a). The Latin American staple quinoa is a good source of fiber. Lastly, legumes and lentils, commonly used in African American, Hispanic, and Latin dishes, can also help manage cholesterol and glucose levels.


Learning Objectives
-
Understand how to set yourself up for successful participation in class.
-
List guidelines for effectively asking and answering questions in class.
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Explain strategies for effective learning if your learning style is different from your instructor’s teaching style.
We’ve already discussed the many benefits of participating in class as a form of actively engaging in learning. Not everyone naturally feels comfortable participating. Following some general guidelines makes it easier.
Guidelines for Participating in Classes
Smaller classes generally favor discussion, but often instructors in large lecture classes also make some room for participation.
A concern or fear about speaking in public is one of the most common fears. If you feel afraid to speak out in class, take comfort from the fact that many others do as well—and that anyone can learn how to speak in class without much difficulty. Class participation is actually an impromptu, informal type of public speaking, and the same principles will get you through both: preparing and communicating.
-
Set yourself up for success by coming to class fully prepared. Complete reading assignments. Review your notes on the reading and previous class to get yourself in the right mind-set. If there is something you don’t understand well, start formulating your question now.
-
Sit in the front with a good view of the instructor, board or screen, and other visual aids. In a lecture hall, this will help you hear better, pay better attention, and make a good impression on the instructor. Don’t sit with friends—socializing isn’t what you’re there for.
-
Remember that your body language communicates as much as anything you say. Sit up and look alert, with a pleasant expression on your face, and make good eye contact with the instructor. Show some enthusiasm.
-
Pay attention to the instructor’s body language, which can communicate much more than just his or her words. How the instructor moves and gestures, and the looks on his or her face, will add meaning to the words—and will also cue you when it’s a good time to ask a question or stay silent.
-
Take good notes, but don’t write obsessively—and never page through your textbook (or browse on a laptop). Don’t eat or play with your cell phone. Except when writing brief notes, keep your eyes on the instructor.
-
Follow class protocol for making comments and asking questions. In a small class, the instructor may encourage students to ask questions at any time, while in some large lecture classes the instructor may ask for questions at the end of the lecture. In this case, jot your questions in your notes so that you don’t forget them later.
-
Don’t say or ask anything just to try to impress your instructor. Most instructors have been teaching long enough to immediately recognize insincere flattery—and the impression this makes is just the opposite of what you want.
-
It’s fine to disagree with your instructor when you ask or answer a question. Many instructors invite challenges. Before speaking up, however, be sure you can explain why you disagree and give supporting evidence or reasons. Be respectful.
-
When your instructor asks a question to the class:
-
Raise your hand and make eye contact, but don’t call out or wave your hand all around trying to catch his or her attention.
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Before speaking, take a moment to gather your thoughts and take a deep breath. Don’t just blurt it out—speak calmly and clearly.
-
When your instructor asks you a question directly:
-
Be honest and admit it if you don’t know the answer or are not sure. Don’t try to fake it or make excuses. With a question that involves a reasoned opinion more than a fact, it’s fine to explain why you haven’t decided yet, such as when weighing two opposing ideas or actions; your comment may stimulate further discussion.
 Instructors seldom want a yes or no answer. Give your answer and provide reasons or evidence in support.
-
When you want to ask the instructor a question:
-
Don’t ever feel a question is “stupid.” If you have been paying attention in class and have done the reading and you still don’t understand something, you have every right to ask.
-
Ask at the appropriate time. Don’t interrupt the instructor or jump ahead and ask a question about something the instructor may be starting to explain. Wait for a natural pause and a good moment to ask. On the other hand, unless the instructor asks students to hold all question until the end of class, don’t let too much time go by, or you may forget the question or its relevance to the topic.
-
Don’t ask just because you weren’t paying attention. If you drift off during the first half of class and then realize in the second half that you don’t really understand what the instructor is talking about now, don’t ask a question about something that was already covered.
-
Don’t ask a question that is really a complaint. You may be thinking, “Why would so-and-so believe that? That’s just crazy!” Take a moment to think about what you might gain from asking the question. It’s better to say, “I’m having some difficulty understanding what so-and-so is saying here. What evidence did he use to argue for that position?”
-
Avoid dominating a discussion. It may be appropriate in some cases to make a follow-up comment after the instructor answers your question, but don’t try to turn the class into a one-on-one conversation between you and the instructor.


26.3: Angiosperms
Skills to Develop
- Explain why angiosperms are the dominant form of plant life in most terrestrial ecosystems
- Describe the main parts of a flower and their purpose
- Detail the life cycle of an angiosperm
- Discuss the two main groups of flowering plants
From their humble and still obscure beginning during the early Jurassic period, the angiosperms—or flowering plants—have evolved to dominate most terrestrial ecosystems (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). With more than 250,000 species, the angiosperm phylum (Anthophyta) is second only to insects in terms of diversification.
The success of angiosperms is due to two novel reproductive structures: flowers and fruit. The function of the flower is to ensure pollination. Flowers also provide protection for the ovule and developing embryo inside a receptacle. The function of the fruit is seed dispersal. They also protect the developing seed. Different fruit structures or tissues on fruit—such as sweet flesh, wings, parachutes, or spines that grab—reflect the dispersal strategies that help spread seeds.
Flowers
Flowers are modified leaves, or sporophylls, organized around a central stalk. Although they vary greatly in appearance, all flowers contain the same structures: sepals, petals, carpels, and stamens. The peduncle attaches the flower to the plant. A whorl of sepals (collectively called the calyx ) is located at the base of the peduncle and encloses the unopened floral bud. Sepals are usually photosynthetic organs, although there are some exceptions. For example, the corolla in lilies and tulips consists of three sepals and three petals that look virtually identical. Petals , collectively the corolla , are located inside the whorl of sepals and often display vivid colors to attract pollinators. Flowers pollinated by wind are usually small, feathery, and visually inconspicuous. Sepals and petals together form the perianth . The sexual organs (carpels and stamens) are located at the center of the flower.
As illustrated in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\), styles, stigmas, and ovules constitute the female organ: the gynoecium or carpel . Flower structure is very diverse, and carpels may be singular, multiple, or fused. Multiple fused carpels comprise a pistil . The megaspores and the female gametophytes are produced and protected by the thick tissues of the carpel. A long, thin structure called a style leads from the sticky stigma , where pollen is deposited, to the ovary , enclosed in the carpel. The ovary houses one or more ovules, each of which will develop into a seed upon fertilization. The male reproductive organs, the stamens (collectively called the androecium), surround the central carpel. Stamens are composed of a thin stalk called a filament and a sac-like structure called the anther. The filament supports the anther , where the microspores are produced by meiosis and develop into pollen grains.
Fruit
As the seed develops, the walls of the ovary thicken and form the fruit. The seed forms in an ovary, which also enlarges as the seeds grow. In botany, a fertilized and fully grown, ripened ovary is a fruit. Many foods commonly called vegetables are actually fruit. Eggplants, zucchini, string beans, and bell peppers are all technically fruit because they contain seeds and are derived from the thick ovary tissue. Acorns are nuts, and winged maple whirligigs (whose botanical name is samara) are also fruit. Botanists classify fruit into more than two dozen different categories, only a few of which are actually fleshy and sweet.
Mature fruit can be fleshy or dry. Fleshy fruit include the familiar berries, peaches, apples, grapes, and tomatoes. Rice, wheat, and nuts are examples of dry fruit. Another distinction is that not all fruits are derived from the ovary. For instance, strawberries are derived from the receptacle and apples from the pericarp, or hypanthium. Some fruits are derived from separate ovaries in a single flower, such as the raspberry. Other fruits, such as the pineapple, form from clusters of flowers. Additionally, some fruits, like watermelon and orange, have rinds. Regardless of how they are formed, fruits are an agent of seed dispersal. The variety of shapes and characteristics reflect the mode of dispersal. Wind carries the light dry fruit of trees and dandelions. Water transports floating coconuts. Some fruits attract herbivores with color or perfume, or as food. Once eaten, tough, undigested seeds are dispersed through the herbivore’s feces. Other fruits have burs and hooks to cling to fur and hitch rides on animals.
The Life Cycle of an Angiosperm
The adult, or sporophyte, phase is the main phase of an angiosperm’s life cycle (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). Like gymnosperms, angiosperms are heterosporous. Therefore, they generate microspores, which will generate pollen grains as the male gametophytes, and megaspores, which will form an ovule that contains female gametophytes. Inside the anthers’ microsporangia, male gametophytes divide by meiosis to generate haploid microspores, which, in turn, undergo mitosis and give rise to pollen grains. Each pollen grain contains two cells: one generative cell that will divide into two sperm and a second cell that will become the pollen tube cell.
Art Connection
If a flower lacked a megasporangium, what type of gamete would not form? If the flower lacked a microsporangium, what type of gamete would not form?
The ovule, sheltered within the ovary of the carpel, contains the megasporangium protected by two layers of integuments and the ovary wall. Within each megasporangium, a megasporocyte undergoes meiosis, generating four megaspores—three small and one large. Only the large megaspore survives; it produces the female gametophyte, referred to as the embryo sac. The megaspore divides three times to form an eight-cell stage. Four of these cells migrate to each pole of the embryo sac; two come to the equator, and will eventually fuse to form a 2 n polar nucleus; the three cells away from the egg form antipodals, and the two cells closest to the egg become the synergids.
The mature embryo sac contains one egg cell, two synergids or “helper” cells, three antipodal cells, and two polar nuclei in a central cell. When a pollen grain reaches the stigma, a pollen tube extends from the grain, grows down the style, and enters through the micropyle: an opening in the integuments of the ovule. The two sperm cells are deposited in the embryo sac.
A double fertilization event then occurs. One sperm and the egg combine, forming a diploid zygote—the future embryo. The other sperm fuses with the 2 n polar nuclei, forming a triploid cell that will develop into the endosperm, which is tissue that serves as a food reserve. The zygote develops into an embryo with a radicle, or small root, and one (monocot) or two (dicot) leaf-like organs called cotyledons . This difference in the number of embryonic leaves is the basis for the two major groups of angiosperms: the monocots and the eudicots. Seed food reserves are stored outside the embryo, in the form of complex carbohydrates, lipids or proteins. The cotyledons serve as conduits to transmit the broken-down food reserves from their storage site inside the seed to the developing embryo. The seed consists of a toughened layer of integuments forming the coat, the endosperm with food reserves, and at the center, the well-protected embryo.
Most flowers are monoecious or bisexual, which means that they carry both stamens and carpels; only a few species self-pollinate. Monoecious flowers are also known as “perfect” flowers because they contain both types of sex organs (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). Both anatomical and environmental barriers promote cross-pollination mediated by a physical agent (wind or water), or an animal, such as an insect or bird. Cross-pollination increases genetic diversity in a species.
Diversity of Angiosperms
Angiosperms are classified in a single phylum: the Anthophyta . Modern angiosperms appear to be a monophyletic group, which means that they originate from a single ancestor. Flowering plants are divided into two major groups, according to the structure of the cotyledons, pollen grains, and other structures. Monocots include grasses and lilies, and eudicots or dicots form a polyphyletic group. Basal angiosperms are a group of plants that are believed to have branched off before the separation into monocots and eudicots because they exhibit traits from both groups. They are categorized separately in many classification schemes. The Magnoliidae (magnolia trees, laurels, and water lilies) and the Piperaceae (peppers) belong to the basal angiosperm group.
Basal Angiosperms
The Magnoliidae are represented by the magnolias: tall trees bearing large, fragrant flowers that have many parts and are considered archaic (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)d). Laurel trees produce fragrant leaves and small, inconspicuous flowers. The Laurales grow mostly in warmer climates and are small trees and shrubs. Familiar plants in this group include the bay laurel, cinnamon, spice bush (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)a), and avocado tree. The Nymphaeales are comprised of the water lilies, lotus (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)c), and similar plants; all species thrive in freshwater biomes, and have leaves that float on the water surface or grow underwater. Water lilies are particularly prized by gardeners, and have graced ponds and pools for thousands of years. The Piperales are a group of herbs, shrubs, and small trees that grow in the tropical climates. They have small flowers without petals that are tightly arranged in long spikes. Many species are the source of prized fragrance or spices, for example the berries of Piper nigrum (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)b) are the familiar black peppercorns that are used to flavor many dishes.
Monocots
Plants in the monocot group are primarily identified as such by the presence of a single cotyledon in the seedling. Other anatomical features shared by monocots include veins that run parallel to the length of the leaves, and flower parts that are arranged in a three- or six-fold symmetry. True woody tissue is rarely found in monocots. In palm trees, vascular and parenchyma tissues produced by the primary and secondary thickening meristems form the trunk. The pollen from the first angiosperms was monosulcate, containing a single furrow or pore through the outer layer. This feature is still seen in the modern monocots. Vascular tissue of the stem is not arranged in any particular pattern. The root system is mostly adventitious and unusually positioned, with no major tap root. The monocots include familiar plants such as the true lilies (which are at the origin of their alternate name of Liliopsida), orchids, grasses, and palms. Many important crops are monocots, such as rice and other cereals, corn, sugar cane, and tropical fruits like bananas and pineapples (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)).
Eudicots
Eudicots, or true dicots, are characterized by the presence of two cotyledons in the developing shoot. Veins form a network in leaves, and flower parts come in four, five, or many whorls. Vascular tissue forms a ring in the stem; in monocots, vascular tissue is scattered in the stem. Eudicots can be herbaceous (like grasses), or produce woody tissues. Most eudicots produce pollen that is trisulcate or triporate, with three furrows or pores. The root system is usually anchored by one main root developed from the embryonic radicle. Eudicots comprise two-thirds of all flowering plants. The major differences between monocots and eudicots are summarized in the table below. Many species exhibit characteristics that belong to either group; as such, the classification of a plant as a monocot or a eudicot is not always clearly evident.
| Characteristic | Monocot | Eudicot |
|---|---|---|
| Cotyledon | One | Two |
| Veins in Leaves | Parallel | Network (branched) |
| Stem Vascular Tissue | Scattered | Arranged in ring pattern |
| Roots | Network of adventitious roots | Tap root with many lateral roots |
| Pollen | Monosulcate | Trisulcate |
| Flower Parts | Three or multiple of three | Four, five, multiple of four or five and whorls |
Summary
Angiosperms are the dominant form of plant life in most terrestrial ecosystems, comprising about 90 percent of all plant species. Most crops and ornamental plants are angiosperms. Their success comes from two innovative structures that protect reproduction from variability in the environment: the flower and the fruit. Flowers were derived from modified leaves. The main parts of a flower are the sepals and petals, which protect the reproductive parts: the stamens and the carpels. The stamens produce the male gametes in pollen grains. The carpels contain the female gametes (the eggs inside the ovules), which are within the ovary of a carpel. The walls of the ovary thicken after fertilization, ripening into fruit that ensures dispersal by wind, water, or animals.
The angiosperm life cycle is dominated by the sporophyte stage. Double fertilization is an event unique to angiosperms. One sperm in the pollen fertilizes the egg, forming a diploid zygote, while the other combines with the two polar nuclei, forming a triploid cell that develops into a food storage tissue called the endosperm. Flowering plants are divided into two main groups, the monocots and eudicots, according to the number of cotyledons in the seedlings. Basal angiosperms belong to an older lineage than monocots and eudicots.
Art Connections
Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): If a flower lacked a megasporangium, what type of gamete would not form? If the flower lacked a microsporangium, what type of gamete would not form?
- Answer
-
Without a megasporangium, an egg would not form; without a microsporangium, pollen would not form.
Glossary
- anther
- sac-like structure at the tip of the stamen in which pollen grains are produced
- Anthophyta
- phylum to which angiosperms belong
- basal angiosperms
- a group of plants that probably branched off before the separation of monocots and eudicots
- calyx
- whorl of sepals
- carpel
- single unit of the pistil
- corolla
- collection of petals
- cotyledon
- primitive leaf that develop in the zygote; monocots have one cotyledon, and dicots have two cotyledons
- dicot
- (also, eudicot) related group of angiosperms whose embryos possess two cotyledons
- filament
- thin stalk that links the anther to the base of the flower
- gynoecium
- (also, carpel) structure that constitute the female reproductive organ
- herbaceous
- grass-like plant noticeable by the absence of woody tissue
- monocot
- related group of angiosperms that produce embryos with one cotyledon and pollen with a single ridge
- ovary
- chamber that contains and protects the ovule or female megasporangium
- perianth
- part of the plant consisting of the calyx (sepals) and corolla (petals)
- petal
- modified leaf interior to the sepals; colorful petals attract animal pollinators
- pistil
- fused group of carpels
- sepal
- modified leaf that encloses the bud; outermost structure of a flower
- stamen
- structure that contains the male reproductive organs
- stigma
- uppermost structure of the carpel where pollen is deposited
- style
- long, thin structure that links the stigma to the ovary


1.22: Catalase Test
The student will:
- Use aseptic techniques in the safe inoculation of various forms of media.
- Follow oral and written instructions and manage time in the lab efficiently.
- Apply correct terminology regarding microbiological techniques, instruments, microbial growth, and biochemical testing when making observations.
- Make accurate observations and appropriate interpretations of biochemical test results and use them in the identification of potentially disease causing microbes.
When an organism uses O2 in respiration, sometimes poisonous hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, is created. There are three ways this is known to occur.
- FADH 2 , carrying electrons from the Krebs cycle, can transfer electrons to O 2 skipping the electron transport system (ETS) and producing H 2 O 2 .
- Flavoproteins, usually the initial electron carriers in the ETS, can transfer electrons directly to O 2 bypassing the rest of the ETS. The incompletely reduced oxygen forms H 2 O 2 .
- In the last step of the ETS, an incomplete reduction can produce the superoxide radical O – which is then converted to H 2 O 2 by the enzyme superoxide dismutase.
Organisms that produce H2O2 also produce the enzyme catalase which breaks H 2 O 2 down into molecular oxygen and water.
H 2 O 2 + catalase = H 2 O + ½O 2
To test for the presence of catalase, hydrogen peroxide is dropped onto a mass of cells. If catalase is present, bubbles of O 2 form immediately. The reagent can be dropped directly onto cells growing on the surface of a medium. However, you will perform the “slide test,” where cells are first placed on a clean surface and then the reagent is added.
When performing the “slide test” you will use toothpicks to transfer cells to a clean surface. The order of steps is important! Many transfer instruments are composed of metals. Some metals can act as inorganic catalysts and facilitate the same reaction as the catalase enzyme does. If the hydrogen peroxide makes contact with the metal, you could see bubbles because of the interaction of the metal and the H 2 O 2 . This may produce a false positive result. While reading below, think about how the procedure (specific materials used, the order of steps) helps guard against a false positive in this regard.
Materials per student:
- H 2 O 2
- Sterile tooth picks
- slides
Cultures
Fresh overnight plate cultures
Procedure Lab 1
- Remove the lid of the culture. Aseptically, use a sterile toothpick to transfer a visible amount of growth from the parent culture to the slide.
- Discard the toothpick immediately into the disposal container on the bench.
- In the same way, transfer each organism to the slide using a fresh sterile toothpick each time. Take care to keep each sample well away from the other samples on the inside of the plate.
- Gently add 2 drops of H 2 O 2 solution onto each mass of cells. Take care to keep the reagent from one area rolling into an adjacent area.
- Place the lid on the plate to contain any aerosols produced by bubbling.
- Watch for bubbles.
- Record your data. For observations, briefly describe what you see, “bubbles” or “no bubbles.” Under result, indicate a positive or negative result. Under interpretation, think about what the result tells you about the biochemistry of the organism. The organism “makes catalase” or the organism “does not make catalase.”.


7.15D: Pathogenicity Islands
- Describe pathogenicity islands
Pathogenicity islands (PAIs) are a distinct class of genomic islands acquired by microorganisms through horizontal gene transfer. They are incorporated in the genome of pathogenic organisms, but are usually absent from those nonpathogenic organisms of the same or closely related species. These mobile genetic elements may range from 10-200 kb and encode genes which contribute to the virulence of the respective pathogen. Typical examples are adherence factors, toxins, iron uptake systems, invasion factors, and secretion systems. Pathogenicity islands are discrete genetic units flanked by direct repeats, insertion sequences or tRNA genes, which act as sites for recombination into the DNA. Cryptic mobility genes may also be present, indicating the provenance as transduction. One species of bacteria may have more than one PAI (i.e. Salmonella has at least 5). They are transferred through horizontal gene transfer events such as transfer by a plasmid, phage, or conjugative transposon.
Pathogenicity islands carry genes encoding one or more virulence factors, including, but not limited to, adhesins, toxins, or invasins. They may be located on a bacterial chromosome or may be transferred within a plasmid. The GC-content of pathogenicity islands often differs from that of the rest of the genome, potentially aiding in their detection within a given DNA sequence. PAIs are flanked by direct repeats; the sequence of bases at two ends of the inserted sequence is the same. They carry functional genes, such as integrases, transposases, or part of insertion sequences, to enable insertion into host DNA. PAIs are often associated with tRNA genes, which target sites for this integration event. They can be transferred as a single unit to new bacterial cells, thus conferring virulence to formerly benign strains.
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- OpenStax College, Biology. October 23, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44560/latest/?collection=col11448/latest . License : CC BY: Attribution
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Key Points
- A host may have more than one pathogenicity island.
- Pathogenicity islands are transferred horizontally, through plasmids or transposons.
- The addition of a pathogenicity island to a non-invasive species can make the non-invasive species pathogenic.
Key Terms
- horizontal gene transfer : The transfer of genetic material from one organism to another one that is not its offspring; especially common among bacteria.
- transposon : A segment of DNA that can move to a different position within a genome.
- integrase : Any enzyme that integrates viral DNA into that of an infected cell.