2.1.5: Drug Policy and the War on Illegal Drugs
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Learning Objectives
- Explain whether the DARE program is effective.
- Outline the goals and examples of a harm reduction approach to drug use.
- List the problems arising from the current legal war on illegal drugs.
For many decades, the United States has used several strategies to try to deal with drugs. These strategies generally fall into four categories: treatment, prevention, harm reduction, and, for certain drugs, criminalization and the use of the criminal justice system, or, as we will call it, the war on illegal drugs. We now turn to these strategies.
Treatment
Treatment programs are intended for people who already are using drugs, perceive they have a drug problem, and want to reduce or eliminate their drug use. This strategy is probably familiar to most readers, even if they have not used drugs themselves or at least have not had the benefit of a treatment program. Treatment programs often involve a group setting, but many drug users also receive individual treatment from a psychiatrist, psychologist, or drug counselor. Perhaps the most famous treatment program is Alcoholics Anonymous, a program that involves alcoholics meeting in a group setting, acknowledging their drinking problem and its effects on family members and other loved ones, and listening to each other talk about their situations. Other group settings are residential settings, sometimes called detox units . In these settings, people check themselves into an institution and stay there for several weeks until they and the professionals who treat them are satisfied. Perhaps the most famous residential treatment program is the Betty Ford Center in Rancho Mirage, California; this center was established by and named after an acknowledged alcoholic who was the wife of President Gerald Ford.
The Betty Ford Center is a residential detox unit for people with alcohol and other drug problems. Image courtesy of Betty Ford Center, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:BETTYFORD.jpg .
In addition to or in conjunction with group treatment programs, individual treatment for drug addiction may involve the use of “good” drugs designed to help wean addicts off the drug to which they are addicted. For example, nicotine gum, patches, and other products are designed to help cigarette smokers stop smoking.
The various forms of treatment can be very effective for some addicts and less effective or not effective at all for other addicts; most treatment programs have a high failure rate (Goode, 2012). A sociological perspective suggests that however effective treatment might be for some people, the origins of drug use ultimately lie in the larger society—its social structure, social interaction, and the drug culture—and that these roots must be addressed for serious reductions in drug use to occur.
Prevention
Because it is always best to try to prevent a problem before it begins, an important strategy to deal with drug use involves prevention. The major prevention strategies involve drug education or drug testing (Faupel et al., 2010). Many education-based prevention programs focus on children and adolescents. This focus reflects the fact that use of most drugs begins during adolescence, and that if adolescents do not begin using drugs during this period of their lives, they are much less likely to do so when they become adults. Some education strategies follow what is called an informational model : they involve public-service advertising, the distribution of drug pamphlets in medical offices, and other such efforts. Several studies question the effectiveness of strategies based on this model (Faupel et al., 2010).
Other education programs take place in the secondary school system and on college campuses. The most famous such program is almost certainly DARE (Drug Abuse Resistance Education), which involves police officers speaking to middle-school children. DARE programs have been carried out in more than 7,000 schools across the nation. However, several studies find that DARE programs do not generally reduce subsequent drug use among the children who attend them compared to children who do not attend them (Faupel et al., 2010).
Drug testing is very common in today’s society, and you may well have been required to have a drug test as part of an application for a job, involvement in a school sport, or other activity. At least half of US workplaces now perform required drug tests. Drug testing is expensive, and many critics say it is not cost-effective in view of the low prevalence of illegal drug use in the United States (Faupel et al., 2010).
Harm Reduction
A third strategy involves harm reduction. As this term implies, this strategy attempts to minimize the harm caused by drugs. It recognizes that many people will use drugs despite efforts to prevent or persuade them from doing so and despite any punishment they might receive for using illegal drugs. Our nation is currently using a harm reduction approach with regard to alcohol and tobacco. It recognizes that tens of millions of people use these products, and designated-driving programs and other efforts try to minimize the considerable harm these two drugs cause.
A specific harm reduction strategy with regard to illegal drugs is the provision of clean, sterile needles for people who inject themselves with heroin, cocaine/crack, or other drugs. Many of these users share needles, and this sharing spreads HIV, hepatitis, and other diseases. If they have a supply to sterile needles, the reasoning goes, the transmission of these diseases will be reduced even if use of the drugs with the aid of the needles does not reduce. Critics say the provision of sterile needles in effect says that drug use is OK and may even encourage drug use. Proponents reply that needle-based drug use will occur whether or not sterile needles are provided, and that the provision of sterile needles does more good than harm. Other nations have adopted this type of harm reduction much more extensively than the United States.
Another harm reduction strategy involves the use of drug courts, which began in the 1990s and now number more than 2,500 across the United States. In these courts, drug offenders who have been arrested and found guilty are sentenced to drug treatment and counseling rather than to jail or prison. Evaluation studies show that the courts save much money compared to imprisoning drug offenders and that they are more effective than imprisonment in reducing the offenders’ drug habit (Stinchcomb, 2010).
People Making a Difference
Law Enforcement against Prohibition
Law Enforcement Against Prohibition (LEAP) is an organization of current and former police and other criminal justice professionals, including prosecutors, judges, and FBI agents, who advocate for the legalization of illegal drugs. Because many of these professionals were on the front lines in the war against drugs and often put their lives in danger, their views about drug policy cannot be dismissed lightly.
One of their members is MacKenzie Allen, a 65-year-old deputy sheriff who worked in Los Angeles and Seattle, including time as an undercover agent who bought illegal drugs and made countless arrests for drug offenses. Although Allen strongly disapproves of drug use, his many years in law enforcement led him to realize that the drug problem is best understood as a public health problem, not a legal problem. He notes that the United States has lowered cigarette use through public education and without outlawing cigarettes. “Can you imagine the mayhem had we outlawed cigarettes?” he writes. “Can you envision the ‘cigarette cartels’ and the bloodbath that would follow? Yet, thanks to a public awareness campaign we’ve made a huge dent in tobacco use without arresting a single cigarette smoker.”
Allen adds that most of the problems associated with illegal drug use are actually the result of the laws against drugs. These laws create a huge illegal market, much of it involving violent cartels, he says, that promises strong profits for the manufacturers and sellers of illegal drugs. He is also critical of other aspects of the war on drugs:
If the colloquial definition of insanity is doing the same thing over and over, expecting a different result, what does that say about our “War on Drugs”? We’ve been pursuing this strategy for forty years. It has cost a trillion taxpayer dollars, thousands of lives (both law enforcement and civilians) and destroyed hundreds of thousands more by incarceration. Moreover, it undermines the safety of our communities by overcrowding our jails and prisons, forcing them to give early release to truly violent offenders.
Another LEAP member is Joseph D. McNamara, the former police chief of San Jose, California. McNamara also criticizes the violence resulting from the laws against drugs. “Like an increasing number of law enforcers,” he writes specifically about marijuana, “I have learned that most bad things about marijuana—especially the violence made inevitable by an obscenely profitable black market—are caused by the prohibition, not by the plant.” He continues, “Al Capone and his rivals made machine-gun battles a staple of 1920s city street life when they fought to control the illegal alcohol market. No one today shoots up the local neighborhood to compete in the beer market…How much did the [Mexican] cartels make last year dealing in Budweiser, Corona or Dos Equis? Legalization would seriously cripple their operations.”
As these statements indicate, the legal war on drugs has had many costs. It is difficult to know what to do about illegal drugs, but in bringing these costs to the attention of elected officials and the American public, Law Enforcement Against Prohibition is making a difference. For further information about LEAP, visit copssaylegalizedrugs.com.
Sources: Allen, 2001; Law Enforcement Against Prohibition, 2011; McNamara, 2010Allen, M. (2011, February 23). Why this cop asked the President about legalizing drugs. Huffington Post . Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/mackenzie-allen/why-this-cop-asked-the-pr_b_827338.html ; Law Enforcement Against Prohibition. (2011). Ending the Drug War: A Dream Deferred . Medford, MA: Author; McNamara, J. D. (2010, July 25). Legalize pot, former San Jose police chief says. San Francisco Chronicle . Retrieved from http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2010/07/25/IN1K1EGQRJ.DTL .
The War on Illegal Drugs
The most controversial drug strategy involves the criminalization of many drugs and the use of the police and the rest of the criminal justice system to apprehend and punish the users, manufacturers, and sellers of illegal drugs. As the brief history of drug use at the beginning of this chapter indicated, the United States has banned certain drugs since the late nineteenth century, and it accelerated this effort during the 1970s and 1980s as concern grew about heroin, crack, and other drugs.
In judging the war on illegal drugs, two considerations should be kept in mind (Meier & Geis, 2007).Meier, R. F., & Geis, G. (2007). Criminal justice and moral issues . New York, NY: Oxford University Press. One consideration is the philosophical question of the extent to which the government in a free society should outlaw behaviors that may be harmful even if people (let’s assume we are talking about legal adults) want to engage in them. Americans do all kinds of things that may harm themselves and that may directly or indirectly harm other people. For example, many Americans eat high amounts of candy, ice cream, potato chips, hamburgers, and other “fat food” that causes obesity, great harm to individual health, premature death and bereavement, and tens of billions of dollars in health costs and lost productivity annually. Although obesity almost certainly causes more harm overall than illegal drugs, no one is about to say that the use of “fat food” should be banned or restricted, although some schools and workplaces have removed candy and soda machines. Americans also engage in many other activities that can be very harmful, including downhill skiing, contact sports, skydiving, and any number of other activities, but no one is about to say that we should be prohibited from engaging in these efforts. Where is the logic, then, in allowing all these behaviors and in not allowing the use of certain drugs? A philosophical argument can be made that all drug use should, in fact, be allowed in a free society (Husak, 2002),Husak, D. (2002). Legalize this! The case for decriminalizing drugs . New York, NY: Verso Books. and perhaps this is an issue that you and your classmates will want to discuss.
The second consideration is the social science question of whether laws against drugs do more good than harm, or more harm than good. In a rational society, if a law or policy does more good than harm, then we should have the law or policy. However, if it does more harm than good, however much good it might do, then we should not have it, because the harm outweighs the good.
In considering this issue, critics of drug laws say they do much more harm than good, and they often cite Prohibition as an example of this dynamic. Prohibition was repealed because our society decided it was doing much more harm than good and was thus a “triumphant failure,” as one author has called this period of our history (Okrent, 2011, p. 67).Okrent, D. (2011). Last call: The rise and fall of prohibition . New York, NY: Scribner. Prohibition caused several harms: (1) the rise of organized crime to earn illegal profits from the manufacture, distribution, and sale of alcohol; (2) the violence and murder among organized crime gangs that fought each other over drug “turf”; (3) the wounding and death of innocent bystanders from gunfights between organized crime gangs; (4) the wounding and murder of police officers who enforced Prohibition; (5) rampant corruption among police officers and political officials who took money from organized crime to ignore violations of Prohibition; and (6) the expenditure of much time, money, and energy by the criminal justice system to enforce Prohibition.
Prohibition did reduce drinking and the violence associated with drinking. But some scholars say that the organized crime violence caused by Prohibition was so common and deadly that the homicide rate grew during Prohibition rather than lessening (Jensen, 2000),Jensen, G. F. (2000). Prohibition, alcohol, and murder: Untangling counterveiling mechanisms. Homicide Studies, 4 , 18–36. though other scholars dispute this finding (Owens, 2011).Owens, E. G. (2011, October 2). The (not so) roaring ‘20s. New York Times , p. SR12.  Because alcohol was no longer regulated, illegal alcohol often contained, by accident or design, dangerous substances. As an example, 15,000 people in the Midwest became sick with a severe neurological problem after drinking an illegal alcohol laced with a paint thinner chemical (Genzlinger, 2011).Genzlinger, N. (2011, October 1). Bellying up to the time when America went dry. New York Times , p. C1.
Critics of today’s war on illegal drugs say that it has reproduced the same problems that Prohibition produced. Among these problems are the following:
- Drug gangs and individual drug sellers engage in deadly fights with each other and also kill or wound police officers and other law enforcement personnel who fight the war on drugs.
- Many innocent bystanders, including children, are wounded or killed by stray bullets.
- Many police officers take bribes to ignore drug law violations and/or sell drugs confiscated from dealers.
- The criminal justice system and other agencies spend much time, money, and energy in the war against illegal drugs, just as they did during Prohibition. Enforcing drug laws costs about $50 billion annually (McVay, n.d.).McVay, D. A. (n.d.). Drug War Facts (6th ed.). Retrieved from http://www.drugwarfacts.org/cms . Police and other law enforcement personnel make more than 1.6 million arrests for drug offenses annually, including about 850,000 arrests for marijuana possession (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2011).Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2011). Crime in the United States, 2010 . Washington, DC: Author. Some 500,000 people are in prison or jail for drug offenses.
- The drug war has focused disproportionately on African Americans and Latinos and greatly increased their numbers who have gone to jail or prison. Even though illegal drug use is more common among whites than among blacks, the arrest rate for drug offenses is ten times higher for African Americans than the rate for whites (Blow, 2011).Blow, C. M. (2011, June 11). Drug bust. New York Times , p. A21. Partly because of the drug war, about one-third of young African American men have prison records.
- Most of the 17,000 annual deaths from illegal drug use stem from the fact that the drugs are illegal. Because they are illegal, they may contain dangerous substances that can be fatal, just as in Prohibition. In addition, some illegal drug users overdose because they underestimate the purity of a drug.
One of the harms associated with the war on drugs is that police officers die in the line of duty when they are killed by drug sellers or users.
© Thinkstock
Because of all these problems, drug law critics say, the United States should legalize marijuana, the most benign illegal drug, and seriously consider legalizing some or all other illegal drugs.
Proponents of the drug war reply that if drugs were legalized or decriminalized (still against the law, but violations would be treated like traffic offenses), many more people would use the newly legal drugs, and the problems these drugs cause would increase. Responding to this argument, drug law critics say it is not at all certain that drug use would increase if drugs were legalized. To support their view, they cite two pieces of evidence.
First, illegal drugs are relatively easy to obtain and use without fear of arrest. If people have decided not to use illegal drugs now, it is unlikely they will use them if the drugs were legalized. Support for this argument comes from national data on high school seniors (Johnston, O’Malley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2011).Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2011). Monitoring the future. National results on adolescent drug use: Overview of key findings, 2010 Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research. In 2010, 82 percent of seniors said they could easily obtain marijuana, and 35.5 percent said they could easily obtain cocaine. Despite these numbers, only 35 percent had used marijuana in the past year, and only 3 percent had used cocaine in the past year.
Second, marijuana use in the United States decreased in the 1970s and 1980s after several states decriminalized it. As we noted earlier, marijuana use also declined in the Netherlands after they decriminalized the drug in the 1970s. Moreover, even though use of marijuana is legal in the Netherlands, its rate of marijuana use is no higher than the rate of marijuana use in the United States (Drug Policy Alliance, 2012).Drug Policy Alliance. (2012). Drug policy around the world: The Netherlands. Retrieved from http://www.drugpolicy.org/facts/drug-facts/marijuana-facts#medical . In another international comparison, Portugal decriminalized possession of all drugs in 2001; after it did so, teenage drug use declined (see Note 7.28 "Lessons from Other Societies" ).
At this point, it is impossible to know how much, if at all, the use of illegal drugs would rise if they were legalized. Critics of the drug war say that even if the use of drugs did rise, the benefits of legalizing or decriminalizing them would still outweigh the disadvantages (Feiling, 2010).
Lessons from Other Societies
What Happened after the Netherlands and Portugal Decriminalized Drugs?
As the United States ponders its drug policy, the experience of the Netherlands and Portugal provides some provocative lessons.
The Netherlands decriminalized drugs in 1976. Under the Netherlands’ policy, although criminal penalties remain for possessing hard drugs (cocaine, heroin, etc.) and large quantities of marijuana, drug users are not normally arrested for possessing drugs, but they must receive drug treatment if they are arrested for another reason. Drug sellers are not normally arrested for selling small amounts of drugs, but they may be arrested for selling them in large. Marijuana use in the Netherlands dropped in the immediate years after it was decriminalized. Although it increased somewhat since then, as in some other nations, it remains much lower than the US rate. According to the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 23 percent of Dutch residents ages 15–64 have used cannabis at least once in their lives, compared to 40 percent of Americans ages 12 and older (2005 figures). Dutch use of cocaine and heroin also remains much lower than American use. Reflecting the Netherlands’ experience, most of the nations in Western Europe have also decriminalized marijuana possession and use, and their rates of marijuana use also remain lower than the US rate.
In 2001, Portugal became the first European nation to remove all criminal penalties for drug possession. Portugal took this step because it reasoned that fear of arrest keeps drug addicts from seeking help and because it recognized that drug treatment costs far less than imprisonment. Anyone convicted of drug possession is sent for drug treatment, but the person may refuse treatment without any penalty.
In the first five years after Portugal decriminalized all drug possession, teenaged illegal drug use declined, new HIV infections from sharing needles declined, and the prison population also declined. Meanwhile, the number of drug addicts receiving treatment increased by 41 percent. A researcher who reported these trends commented, “Judging by every metric, decriminalization in Portugal has been a resounding success. It has enabled the Portuguese government to manage and control the drug problem far better than virtually every other Western country does.” A Portuguese drug official agreed, “The impact [of drugs] in the life of families and our society is much lower than it was before decriminalization,” and noted that police are now freer to spend more time and energy on high-level dealers. Adult drug use in Portugal has risen slightly since 2001, but so has adult drug use in other European nations that did not decriminalize drugs. Portugal’s increase has not been higher than these other nations’ increase.
Although the Netherlands, Portugal, and other Western European nations certainly differ from the United States in many ways, their experience strongly suggests that decriminalization of drugs may cause much more good than harm. If so, the United States has important lessons to learn from their experiences.
Sources: Hughes & Stevens, 2010; Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2008; Reinarman & Hendrien, 2004; Szaalavitz, 2009; Tracey & Jahromi, 2010Hughes, C. E., & Stevens, A. (2010). What can we learn from the Portuguese decriminalization of illicit drugs? British Journal of Criminology, 50 (6), 999–1022; Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs. (2008). FAQ drugs: A guide to drug policy. Retrieved from http://www.minbuza.nl ; Reinarman, C., Cohen, P. D. A., & Hendrien, K. L. (2004). The limited relevance of drug policy: Cannabis in Amsterdam and in San Francisco. American Journal of Public Health, 94 , 836–842; Szaalavitz, M. (2009, April 20). Drugs in Portugal: Did decriminalization work? Time . Retrieved from http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1893946,1893900.html ; Tracey, M., & Jahromi, N. (2010, December 15). Importing the Portuguese model of drug reform. The Nation . Retrieved from http://www.thenation.com/article/157124/importing-portuguese-model-drug-reform .
KEY TAKEAWAYS
- To deal with drugs, the United States has used several strategies, including treatment, prevention, harm reduction, and the legal war on illegal drugs.
- According to its critics, the war on illegal drugs has done much more harm than good and in this respect is repeating the example of Prohibition.
FOR YOUR REVIEW
- Do you think the United States should make sterile needles and syringes freely available to people who are addicted to drugs that are injected? Why or why not?
- Do you agree or disagree that the war on illegal drugs is doing more harm than good? Explain your answer.


9.10: Estimate the Difference between Population Proportions (1 of 3)
Learning Objectives
- Recognize when to use a hypothesis test or a confidence interval to compare two population proportions or to investigate a treatment effect for a categorical variable.
- Construct a confidence interval to estimate the difference between two population proportions (or the size of a treatment effect) when conditions are met. Interpret the confidence interval in context.
In “Distributions of Differences in Sample Proportions,” we used simulation to observe the behavior of the differences in sample proportions when we randomly select many, many samples. From the simulation, we developed a normal probability model to describe the sampling distribution of sample differences. With this model, we are now ready to do inference about a difference in population proportions (or about a treatment effect.)
When our goal is to estimate a difference between two population proportions (or the size of a treatment effect), we select two independent random samples and use the difference in sample proportions as an estimate. Of course, random samples vary, so we want to include a statement about the amount of error that may be present. Because the differences in sample proportions vary in a predictable way, we can also make a probability statement about how confident we are in the process that we used to estimate the difference between the population proportions. You may recognize that what we are describing is a confidence interval.
In Inference for One Proportion , we calculated confidence intervals to estimate a single population proportion. In this section, “Estimate the Difference between Population Proportions,” we learn to calculate a confidence interval to estimate the difference between two population proportions. If the data comes from an experiment, we estimate the size of the treatment effect.
Confidence Interval for a Difference in Two Population Proportions: the Basics
Every confidence interval has this form:
To estimate a difference in population proportions (or a treatment effect), the statistic is a difference in sample proportions, so the confidence interval is
When we select two random samples and calculate the difference in the sample proportions, we do not know the exact amount of error for this particular pair of samples. We therefore use the standard error as a typical amount of error and calculate the margin of error from the standard error, as we did in Inference for One Proportion .
If a normal model is a good fit for the sampling distribution, we can use it to make probability statements that describe our confidence in the interval. More specifically, we use the normal model to describe our confidence that the difference in population proportions lies within a given margin of error of the difference in sample proportions. For example, we can state that we are 95% confident that the difference in population proportions is contained in the following interval:
Try It
Nuclear Power
The following problem is based on a report, “Opposition to Nuclear Power Rises amid Japanese Crisis,” by the Pew Research Center (March 21, 2011).
After the nuclear reactor accidents in Japan during the spring of 2011, there was a shift in public support for expanded use of nuclear power in the United States. A few months before the accident, 47% of a random sample of 1,004 U.S. adults supported expanded use of nuclear power. After the nuclear accident in Japan, 39% of a different random sample of 1,004 U.S. adults favored expanded use.
What Does 95% Confident Really Mean?
95% confident comes from a normal model of the sampling distribution.
To review this idea in the context of differences in sample proportions, let’s start with a picture to help us visualize a confidence interval and its relationship to the sampling distribution. The following normal model represents the sampling distribution.
In the diagram, notice the sample difference. In the sampling distribution, we can see that the error in this sample difference is less than the margin of error. We know this because the distance between the sample difference and the population difference is shorter than the length of the margin of error (abbreviated MOE in the figure). When we create a confidence interval with this sample difference, we mark a distance equal to a margin of error on either side of the sample difference. Notice that this interval contains the population difference, which makes sense because the distance between the population difference and the sample difference has not changed.
So where does the “95%” come from? If the normal model is a good fit for the sampling distribution, then the empirical rule applies. The empirical rule says that 95% of the values in a normal distribution fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean. So 95% of the sample differences are within 2 standard errors of the mean difference. Remember that the mean difference is the difference in population proportions. Now consider the confidence interval centered at a sample difference. From the empirical rule, it follows that 95% of the confidence intervals, with a margin of error equal to 2 standard errors, will contain the population difference.
Following is another illustration of 95% confidence, a concept that is often misinterpreted. This diagram helps us remember the correct interpretation. If we construct confidence intervals with a margin of error equal to 2 standard errors, then 95% confidence means that in the long run, 95% of these confidence intervals will contain the population difference, and 5% of the time, the interval we calculate will not contain it. We show one of these less common intervals with a red dot at the sample difference.
Of course, in reality, we don’t know the difference in population proportions. (This is the why we want to estimate it with a confidence interval!) So, in reality, we will not be able to determine if a specific confidence interval does or does not contain the true difference in population proportions. This is why we state a level of confidence. For a specific interval, we say we are 95% confident that the interval contains the true difference in population proportions.
Example
Correct and Incorrect Interpretations of 95% Confidence
Recall our earlier example about the change in public opinion after the nuclear accident in Japan. We concluded, “We are 95% confident that there was a 4% to 12% drop in support for the expanded use of nuclear power in the United States after the nuclear accident in Japan.”
Here are some accurate ways to describe the phrase “95% confident” for this confidence interval:
- There is a 95% chance that poll results from two random samples will give a confidence interval that contains the true change in public support for the expanded use of nuclear power in the United States after the nuclear accident in Japan
- 95% of the time, this method produces an interval that covers the true difference in the proportions of the U.S. adult population supporting expanded use of nuclear power in the United States before and after the nuclear accident in Japan.
Here are some incorrect interpretations:
- There is a 95% chance that the true difference in public opinion (before and after the nuclear accident in Japan) is between 4% and 12%.
- There is a 95% chance that there was a 4% to 12% drop in support for the expanded use of nuclear power in the United States after the nuclear accident in Japan.
What do you notice? In the correct interpretations, the 95% is a probability statement about the random event of sampling. So statements like “95% chance that two random samples give a confidence interval” and “95% of the time, this method produces an interval” describe the chance that confidence intervals, in the long run, contain the difference in population proportions.
In the wrong interpretations, the phrase “95% chance” is a probability statement about the specific interval 4% to 12%. Since we already found the confidence interval, there is no random event in this description, so we cannot make a probability statement about a single specific interval. For this reason, we use the phrase “95% confident” when we are describing a single interval from a specific study.
Contributors and Attributions
- Concepts in Statistics. Provided by : Open Learning Initiative. Located at : http://oli.cmu.edu . License : CC BY: Attribution


Adapted from:
http://www.oercommons.org/courses/how-language-works-the-cognitive-science-of-linguistics/view
© 2006. Indiana University and Michael Gasser.
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation.
URL: www.indiana.edu/~hlw/PhonProcess/wild.html
Edition 3.0; 2011-08-30
If you’ve listened carefully to your own pronunciation of English words since you started learning about speech sounds, you might have noticed that the pronunciation that’s transcribed doesn’t always correspond to the way you sometimes say the words and that your pronunciation varies with the situation.
In Unit 2.3, we already saw that the conventions characterizing a particular dialect can change depending on the context the language is used in. What’s appropriate in one context may not be in another. This applies to pronunciation, as well as to vocabulary and grammar.
The dimension we will be concerned with here is sometimes referred to in terms of how “careful” the speech is. The “care” referred is care on the part of the Speaker. To what extent does the Speaker make an effort to accurately produce each of the segments and suprasegmental features of the words? To make sense of this idea, we will have to assume that each word in a dialect has a “careful” pronunciation, that is, how the word would sound if produced in isolation or with some emphasis within a sentence and in a relatively formal setting. In general, as the word gets less emphasis and the setting gets more casual, we find a tendency for Speakers to deviate from the careful pronunciation. These deviations are Speaker-oriented; that is, they can all be seen as making the pronunciation easier in one way or another; they are simplifications. Simplification is possible because in the casual situations where it is most common, the Hearer knows the Speaker well and is better able to predict what the Speaker is saying than a stranger would be. In this unit, we will look at some examples of the simplifications that occur in casual English. We will see that they can often be described in terms of the articulatory processes that we talked about in Units 3.5 and 3.6.
Syllable Stress and Vowels
Before we look at the simplifications that happen in English as speech becomes more casual, we need to look at some basic features of English phonology.
First, in English, as in many languages in which stress plays a major role, there are significant differences between stressed and unstressed syllables. Stressed syllables permit all of the possible vowel segments, whereas the vowels in unstressed syllables are most commonly produced as [ə], [ɨ], or [ɪ]. We can observe these differences most clearly when we look at how the pronunciation of a syllable changes when it becomes stressed or unstressed. Consider the second syllables in the following related pairs of words:
melody, melodic
repeat, repetition
In
melodic
the second syllable is stressed, and the vowel is pronounced [ɑ]. In
melody
it is unstressed, and the vowel is pronounced [ə]. In the second pair, the second syllable of
repeat
is stressed and the vowel is [i], but when the second syllable is unstressed, as in
repetition
, the vowel is [ə].
Syllable Stress and Alveolar Stops
When a word contains a [t] or [d] in the onset of an unstressed syllable, very often the tongue makes only brief contact with the alveolar ridge, so that instead of a plosive, only a very brief flap [ɾ] is produced. In the following pairs of words, compare the second consonant.
metal, metallic
medal, medallion
In both
metal
and
medal
, the first syllable is stressed and the second is unstressed. Both words are pronounced as [mɛɾl̩]. But in
metallic
and
medallion
, the second syllable is stressed. In the onset of a stressed syllable, the segments are pronounced as [t
h
] and [d], respectively.
Simplifications within Words
When a verb that ends in a vowel takes an affix that begins with a vowel, like in
trying
, or
showing
, the vowel in the second syllable might disappear in casual speech. Likewise, if the past-tense affix
-ed
or the plural
-s
is added to a word that ends in a cluster of consonants, then some of those consonants might disappear. Some examples are given below:
|
|
careful speech
|
casual speech
|
|
trying
|
[tɹajɪŋ]
|
[tɹaɪŋ] or [tɹaɪn]
|
|
showing
|
[ʃowɪŋ]
|
[ʃoʊŋ] or [ʃoʊn]
|
|
asked
|
[æskt]
|
[æst]
|
|
thanked
|
[θæŋkt]
|
[θæŋt]
|
|
fifths
|
[fɪfθs]
|
[fɪθs]
|
If a word contains the same consonant twice, with only an unstressed vowel in between, the vowel and second consonant are often deleted, as in these examples:
|
|
careful speech
|
casual speech
|
|
probably
|
[pɹɑbəbli]
|
[pɹɑbli]
|
|
necessary
|
[nɛsəsɛri]
|
[nɛsɛri]
|
|
mirror
|
[miɹəɹ]
|
[miɹ]
|
Simplifications across Word Boundaries
Other possible simplifications may occur across the boundaries between words. Consider what happens when an alveolar consonant ends up before a [j], as in two places in the following sentence.
Wri
te y
our name on thi
s
y
ellow sheet.
Speaking carefully, most people would pronounce the two parts shown in bold as [tj] and[sj]. But when we speed up and allow ourselves to simplify, these may become [tʃ] and [ʃ]. This is an example of assimilation (for more examples, see Unit 3.5). The alveolar and palatal consonants combine to yield single consonants that are at the postalveolar place of articulation, in between the original places.
Simplifications of Frequent Phrases
If a set of words occur together very frequently, then they can be easily predicted by the hearer, so they are good candidates for simplification by the speaker.
|
careful speech
|
casual speech
|
|
would have
|
[wʊdə]
|
|
going to
|
[gʊnə]
|
|
got to
|
[gɑɾə]
|
|
want to
|
[wɑnə]
|
|
have to
|
[hæftə]
|
|
supposed to
|
[spostə]
|
|
I’m going to
|
[æŋgʊnə] or [æmʊnə]
|
|
What did you think?
|
[wʌdʒə θɪŋk]
|
|
How have you been?
|
[hawvjə bɪn]
|
|
I don’t know
|
[ædəno]
|
Let’s summarize what we found for simplified speech in English. First, how likely a word or sequence of words is to be simplified depends on at least on these factors.
-
how frequent the form is,
-
how little information the form carries,
-
how casual the situation is.
Second, the simplifications that occur involve assimilation; the reduction of vowels, often to [ə]; the merging of sequences of the same consonant; the deletion of [ə] and of some initial or final consonants. Many of these processes are general processes in the language. In some cases, however, the simplifications are conventions associated with particular words and must be learned separately.


1.3.2: Calorimetry- Isobaric- General Operation
Calorimetry, particularly isobaric calorimetry, is a key technique in chemical thermodynamics, for studying the properties of liquid mixtures and solutions. Numerous designs for calorimeters have been published. [1,2] The operation of a classic calorimeter involves two key steps.
Step 1. Known amounts of two liquids (e.g. solvent and solution) are mixed in a thermally insulated reaction vessel at constant pressure. The rise in temperature is recorded.
Step 2. A known electric current is passed for a recorded length of time through an electric resistance in the reaction vessel to produce a comparable rise in temperature.
By proportion the required amount of energy to produce the measured rise in temperature in step 1 is obtained. [Complications emerge by the need to take account of spontaneous cooling in both steps when the temperature of the calorimeter exceeds ambient temperature; cf. Newton’s Law of Cooling.]
Another type of isobaric calorimeter involves injecting aliquots of one liquid (solution or solvent) into sample cell containing another liquid, recording the rise in temperature accompanying injection of each aliquot. The calorimeter is again calibrated electrically.
Footnotes
[1] M. L. McGlashan, Chemical Thermodynamics, Academic Press, London, 1979, chapter 4.


5.6: Differentiating Between Financial and Managerial Accounting
Learning Outcomes
- Compare and contrast financial accounting and managerial accounting
There will be no numbers to crunch in this module at all ! That sounds kind of odd in an accounting course, doesn’t it? Well, let’s first watch Tony discuss what managerial accounting is:
You can download a transcript for the video “MA Module 1, Video 1, Intro to Managerial Accounting” here .
Now, with that information, how is managerial accounting different from financial accounting? Well, if you remember from the first modules in this course, financial accounting focuses on recording transactions as they occur. So, for example, when you buy something, you record the payable, then you pay the bill. Another example might be, you provided services for a customer. You invoice the customer, await payment, and then deposit the check when it arrives. So essentially, you are recording activities in a historical way. They have happened already.
Now, another big difference is that financial accounting is done for people outside of the company. A bank may want to see your financial statements in order to lend you money. A vendor may want to see your financial statements to extend you credit. The IRS also needs your financial information to access taxes when you file your tax return.
Managerial accounting on the other hand, is done to provide information to managers within the organization. It is used for planning, controlling and decision making. Companies are not required to do the tasks of managerial accounting. You can also do reporting in a segment type of system. This means looking at just one product, one manufacturing line or one segment of your service. These reports don’t need to cover the entire operation of the business, and they do not need to follow generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). You can prepare your reports from a managerial accounting perspective in whatever way is helpful for decision making.
Summary
So here is the basic overview of how financial accounting differs from managerial accounting.
In small companies, one accountant may be responsible for financial and managerial accounting processes, while larger companies will have multiple people in each role. Because managerial reporting is not required, it can sometimes get put on the back burner at smaller companies who don’t see the importance. As you will see in further modules, the importance of managerial accounting can’t be overstated. Planning and decision making are important in the long term profitability of the company!
Practice Questions


8.3: Assignment- The “Big Mac” Index
ASSIGNMENT: The “Big Mac” Index
The Big Mac Index explained as a way to measure “PPP” or Purchasing Power Parity across the globe.
What is the “Big Mac” Index?
One suggested method of predicting exchange rate movements is that the rate between two currencies should naturally adjust so that a sample basket of goods and services should cost the same in both currencies Purchasing power parity.
In the Big Mac Index, the basket in question is a single Big Mac burger as sold by the McDonald’s fast food restaurant chain. The Big Mac was chosen because it is available to a common specification in many countries around the world as local McDonald’s franchisees at least in theory have significant responsibility for negotiating input prices. For these reasons, the index enables a comparison between many countries’ currencies.
The Big Mac PPP exchange rate between two countries is obtained by dividing the price of a Big Mac in one country (in its currency) by the price of a Big Mac in another country (in its currency). This value is then compared with the actual exchange rate; if it is lower, then the first currency is under-valued (according to PPP theory) compared with the second, and conversely, if it is higher, then the first currency is over-valued.
ASSIGNMENT:
- Watch the Video: “The Big Mac Index” (8:38)
- Follow the LINK to the current Big Mac Index: The ECONOMIST’S “BIG MAC” INDEX This Index is located on the Economist Magazine’s website. This is an interactive site, so you can click onto the map and see how much the Big Mac will cost in various countries. This also gives you information about whether the currency of that country is under- or over-valued.
- Go to the Internet and Google NEWS for “Exchange Rates and International Trade” (or similar search terms). See example below.
- Select a news item relating to Exchange Rates and International Trade. Be sure to copy the LINK to the news item or article that you select. You will need to include this in your initial discussion board posting.
Discussion Board: Exchange Rates and International Trade:
-
Make your initial Discussion Board Posting (125 – 150 words).
In this post you should include/answer/address the following:
- BRIEFLY explain your news item to the class
- Include the LINK to your news item so your classmates and I can read the full story. (You do NOT need to attach a copy of the item, just include the link)
- What are the challenges that currency exchange rates pose to doing business in a global market?
- How can business use exchange rates to their advantage in conducting business globally?
- Respond to at least TWO of your classmates (50 – 75 words, each).
- International Business. Authored by : Linda Williams. Provided by : Tidewater Community College. Located at : http://www.tcc.edu . Project : Z Degree Project. License : CC BY: Attribution
- The Big Mac Index METAL Film 1.04. Authored by : METAL maths & DeSTRESS stats. Provided by : metalmathproject . Located at : http://youtu.be/6F9xIj1YDxo . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube license


41.3.10: Chapter 11
Case Study
1.
c.
This is concerning because this drug has the potential to exacerbate dysrhythmias.
2.
a.
This drug is a cholinergic blocker (anticholinergic). According to the Beers Criteria®, these drugs should not be used in those over the age of 60 years and with a history of BPH that causes urinary retention. This could worsen from the anticholinergic.
Review Questions
1.
b.
The nurse is evaluating the therapeutic effectiveness of the drugs. The client being able to perform more activities of daily living indicates the drugs are working.
2.
b.
Because the client cannot swallow well, this drug is the best to meet their needs. It is available in a patch form and is administered transdermally.
3.
c.
This client is experiencing neuroleptic malignant syndrome.
4.
c.
This drug can be used to manage relapses in clinically isolated syndrome (CIS), primary progressive (PPMS), relapsing-remitting (RRMS), and secondary progressive (SPMS).
5.
a.
Insomnia occurs with this drug because it metabolizes to methamphetamine and amphetamine, causing stimulation. If taken too late in the day, sleep could be disrupted.
6.
c.
This drug can exacerbate tuberculosis. If a tuberculin skin test and chest radiograph (x-ray) are positive, the client must be treated for TB before starting the prescribed drug.
7.
b.
High-protein meals will interfere with levodopa absorption and entrance into the brain.
8.
d.
This drug causes euphoria, which can diminish impulse control.
9.
c.
Benztropine is an anticholinergic. One of the adverse effects of this classification is the potential to increase intraocular pressure; therefore, it should be avoided in clients with glaucoma.
10.
a.
These block dopamine receptors in the striatum, resulting in diminished therapeutic effects of levodopa and augmented Parkinsonian symptoms.


3.14: Therapeutic Communication Techniques
Table 1 gives an overview of therapeutic communication techniques and provides examples of each technique [ 10 , 13 ].
| General area of issue | Therapeutic communication techniques | Rationale | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| To obtain information | Make broad opening remarks | This gives the patient the freedom to choose what he/she wishes to talk about | “Please tell me more about yourself” |
| Use open-ended questions | This type of question allows the patient to talk about his/her views about the subject. In this way, what the patient sees as important, what his/her intellectual capacity is and how well-orientated he/she is, becomes clear. This encourages the patient to say more and does not limit answers to a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ |
“How did you experience the pain?”
“You say you felt dizzy, and then…” “Tell me more about that” |
|
| Share observations and thoughts | This shows that you are aware of what is happening to the patient and encourages him/her to talk about it | “You seem to be upset” | |
| Confrontation | This entails confronting the patient with an observation you have made and assess his/her reaction to it. This technique is useful when verbal and non-verbal communication do not match | “You say that your ankle is very painful, but you do not react when I bend the ankle. How is it possible?” | |
| Reflection | This means that you repeat what the patient said in the same or different words. This shows you are involved in what the patient is saying and that he/she should talk more about a specific point, or explain further |
Patient: “It is sore”.
Nurse: “Very painful?” |
|
| Encourage description | This is used to obtain more information about patient’s views and feelings | “Tell me how it happened” | |
| Validate what is being said | This is to make sure that you understand the patient correctly | “Do I understand you correctly when you say…” | |
| Offer your presence | The nurse offers his/her attention and interest without making demands | “I will be with you until they come to fetch you for the operation in theater” | |
| Summarizing | By organizing and checking what the patient has said, especially after a detailed discussion. This technique is used to indicate that a specific part of the discussion is coming to an end and that if the patient wishes to say any more, she should do so | “You went for a walk and then you felt the sharp chest pains, which radiated down your arm” | |
| Use of interpretation | Draw a conclusion from the information you have gathered and discuss it with your patient to see whether it is true. The patient can then disagree with it, or confirm that your conclusions are true | “You must have been exhausted after walking a long distance from home to the hospital” | |
| To give support | Supportive remarks | Make supportive remarks to encourage the patient to participate in the conversation. Show that you are listening |
“Yes….”
“Mmmm…” “Go on, I am listening” |
| Appropriately touch the patient | Touch can assure the patient that the nurse cares and is present | Hold his/her hand. Consider the cultural belief and comfort of the patient before touching | |
| Paraphrasing | This conveys understanding of the patient’s basic message | “It sounds as though the most important problem is the diet” | |
| To assist in analysis and problem solving | Acknowledge the person | This promotes a sense of dignity | “Good morning Mr. Jones” |
| Sequencing | This helps the patient to see the connection between the parts of an occurrence. To effectively assess the patient’s needs, the nurse often needs to know the time frame within which symptom sand /or problems developed or occurred | “Did you experience this sharp pain before or after eating?” | |
| Ask for clarification | This helps the nurse to understand and the patient to communicate more clearly | “What do you mean by everybody?” | |
| Ask for alternatives | This stimulates creative thought and promotes finding solutions | “What else can you try?” | |
| Use of transition | This is used to guide the conversation to another subject, without losing the continuity of the conversation | “It seems to me that you have solved the problem of poor appetite, but I would like to hear more about your diabetes. How long have you been aware of this illness?” | |
| Comparison | Use of examples and comparisons to concrete objects. In this way, a vague or abstract concept can be more easily explained | “Does the pain feel like a sharp or a blunt object that hits you?” | |
| Use silence | This gives the patient the chance to think, and/or to his/her organize thoughts. Silence also give a nurse an opportunity to observe the patient. However, the nurse should avoid silences that last too long because they can make the patient anxious | ||
| To instruct the patient | Give information | This explains information and puts it at the patient’s disposal | “After the operation, you will have a drainage tube” |
| Orientate the patient towards reality | When the patient interprets something incorrectly, the nurse draws his/her attention to reality | “I am not your daughter, I am Nurse Jones” | |
| Query what the patient says | The patient’s observation is called into question without belittling him/her, or arguing about it | Are you sure about that?” | |
| Withhold social reward | Do not give social approval to wrong behavior so as not to encourage a repeat of the wrong behavior | Do not smile, nod or agree when the patient jeopardizes his/her recovery with wrong behavior | |
| Give social reward | Reward behavior that promotes health to encourage a repeat of the correct behavior | Nod is approval at a patient with a weight problem who declines to eat a heavy meal |
-Therapeutic communication techniques.


5.3: Lab Activities
A list of words is provided below that you are expected to identify, learn, and label on the models provided. Note that not all models will have some of the organs/structures, so be sure to find them on an alternate model. You must use all the words provided. Using the colored tape provided, write the number that corresponds to the organ/structure and place them on your model. When complete, notify your TA so they may check your work.
For each additional station, directions will be provided for the activity.
Station One: Are You a Super Taster?
- For this exercise, it is recommended that you use dark food coloring for maximum effect
- Using the spoon, use a small amount of the food coloring or powder on the tongue. Do NOT use a full spoon or pour a mound on the subject’s tongue!
- Paper squares will be provided which have a 1cm in diameter hole in them. Have the volunteer place the paper on their tongue and make sure that the hole aligns with the area highlighted by the food coloring.
- Use a camera phone (or other devices), to take a closeup still photo of the circle.
- The papilla will contrast against the color of the food coloring. Count the number of the papilla in the circle and record it below.
- If there are between 0 and 5 papilla, then the subject is a “hypo-taster”. A hypo-taster is more tolerant of bitter tastes. If there are between 5 and 15 papillae, then the subject has average tasting capabilities. If there are more than 15 papillae found in this 1cm area, then the subject is a “hyper-taster”. A hyper-taster is more sensitive to bitter tastes. Determine whether the subject is a hypo-taster, average taster or hyper-taster and record it below next to “Tasting abilities”.
- Repeat with another group member.
Note: if your lab does not permit the use of food items in the lab, leave the room before conducting this experiment.
Subject #1: ____________________________
Number of taste buds: ___________________
Tasting abilities: ________________________
Subject #2: ____________________________
Number of taste buds: ___________________
Tasting abilities: ________________________
Station Two: Taste and Smell
Label the models of this station with the number that corresponds to the appropriate structure of the peripheral nervous system using the colored tape. When you are finished, ask your TA to check your labeling. Before leaving the station, remove all the labels you have placed on the model.
Note: For the following structures, be able to differentiate between left and right halves when applicable.
Tongue and Associated Structures
|
#1 lingual tonsils |
#4 fungiform papillae |
#7 circumvallate papillae |
|
#2 palatine tonsils |
#5 filiform papillae |
#8 taste bud |
|
#3 lingual papillae |
#6 foliate papillae |
#9 taste pore |
Taste Pathway
|
#10 facial nerve (CN VII) |
#12 vagus nerve (CN X) |
#14 primary gustatory area |
|
#11 glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) |
#13 thalamus |
|
Nose
|
#15 superior nasal conchae |
#19 middle nasal meatus |
#23 cribriform plate of ethmoid bone |
|
#16 middle nasal conchae |
#20 inferior nasal meatus |
#24 olfactory foramina |
|
#17 inferior nasal conchae |
#21 olfactory epithelium |
|
|
#18 superior nasal meatus |
#22 olfactory glands |
|
Olfactory Pathway
|
#25 olfactory epithelium |
#27 olfactory nerve (CN I) |
#29 olfactory tract |
|
#26 olfactory receptors |
#28 olfactory bulb |
#30 primary olfactory area of the cerebral cortex |
Station Three: Hearing
Label the models of this station with the number that corresponds to the appropriate structure of the peripheral nervous system using the colored tape. When you are finished, ask your TA to check your labeling. Before leaving the station, remove all the labels you have placed on the model.
Note: For the following structures, be able to differentiate between left and right halves when applicable.
Outer Ear
|
#1 auricle (pinna) |
#3 lobule |
#5 external auditory canal |
#7 tympanic membrane |
|
#2 helix |
#4 external auditory meatus |
#6 ceruminous glands |
|
Middle Ear
|
#8 auditory ossicles |
#10 incus |
#12 Eustachian tube |
#14 round window |
|
#9 malleus |
#11 stapes |
#13 oval window |
|
Inner Ear
|
#15 bony labyrinth |
#18 cochlea |
#21 utricle |
|
#16 semicircular canals |
#19 membranous labyrinth |
#22 saccule |
|
#17 vestibule |
#20 semicircular canals |
#23 organ of corti |
Auditory Pathway
|
#24 vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII) |
#25 primary auditory area of the cerebral cortex |
Station Four: Histology
Sketch the slides available for today’s lab and specify the magnitude at which you are observing/ sketching. Be sure to identify and label your sketch with the corresponding structures listed beneath each slide.
|
Retina
|
Tongue
|
Station Five: Eye Dissection
- First, determine the external surface features and structures of the cow eye. You should be able to identify: the sclera , or the white of the eye, the cornea, which is the semi-transparent layer covering the front part of the eye, and the optic nerve which protrudes from the posterior portion of the eye. There may be periorbital fat or external muscles still attached to the eye.

- Using a scalpel, cut through the sclera along the frontal plane. When you remove the top of the eye, the part containing the cornea, what will remain is the lens sitting on top of a jelly-like mass known as the vitreous humor , it maintains the shape of the eye.
- Remove the lens and note how its composition is hard and similar to that of a marble. Next, remove the vitreous humor and take note of the shiny, blue layer along the inside of the back half of the eye, this is the retina.
- Moving back to the front half of the eye, depending on your initial halving of the eye, you can remove the iris from the cornea. Now lay out the contents of the cow eye from the most anterior through to the posterior portion of the eye and examine the structures.
*If you are the last table to use this station, be sure to clean off the dissection kits in the lab sink.
Station Six: Vision
Label the models of this station with the number that corresponds to the appropriate structure of the peripheral nervous system using the colored tape. When you are finished, ask your TA to check your labeling. Before leaving the station, remove all the labels you have placed on the model.
Fibrous Tunic
|
#1 sclera |
#2 cornea |
Vascular Tunic
|
#3 iris |
#5 lens |
#7 ciliary body |
|
#4 pupil |
#6 choroid |
|
Neural Tunic
|
#8 retina |
#12 pigmented layer |
#16 bipolar cells |
|
#9 optic disc |
#13 neural layer |
#17 horizontal cells |
|
#10 macula lutea |
#14 rods |
#18 ganglion cells |
|
#11 fovea centralis |
#15 cones |
|
Visual Pathway
|
#20 optic nerve |
#22 optic tract |
|
#21 optic chiasm |
#23 primary visual area of the cerebral cortex |
Eye Interior
|
#24 anterior chamber |
#26 posterior chamber |
|
#25 aqueous humor |
#27 vitreous humor (body) |
Muscles of the Eye
|
#28 levator palpebrae superioris |
#30 inferior rectus |
#32 medial rectus |
#34 inferior oblique |
|
#29 superior rectus |
#31 lateral rectus |
#33 superior oblique |
|
Lacrimal Apparatus
|
#35 lacrimal gland |
#36 superior lacrimal canaliculi |
#38 lacrimal sac |
|
#36 lacrimal puncta |
#37 inferior lacrimal canaliculi |
#39 nasolacrimal duct |
Conjunctiva
|
#40 palpebral conjunctiva |
#41 bulbar conjunctiva |