7.1: Student Diversity
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- SUNY Oneonta via LumenLearning
When you envision your future classroom full of students, what does it look like? How does it sound? What do your students have in common? How do they differ? Reflecting on these questions is valuable. Hopefully, you will come to understand that you are not going to be teaching a class of students, as much as a collection of individuals, each with their own strengths, talents, weaknesses, personalities and needs. There are many ways in which your future students may differ. The following is a brief overview of some of the myriad factors that will make your students unique and, in some cases, challenging.
As defined by the National Education Association ( www.nea.org , n.d.), diversity is “the sum of the ways that people are both alike and different” (para. 1). The NEA goes on to list a variety of dimensions that are included in diversity. Some of these are: “race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, language, culture, religion, mental and physical ability, class and immigration status” (para. 1, www.nea.org , n.d.). It is such diversity that creates both richness and challenge within a classroom. The variety of students in one’s classroom provide many opportunities for learning and growth for everyone in that community. Concurrently, such diversity brings with it many related challenges such as the need for differentiated learning techniques to meet the needs of every student. Individual perspectives relating to diversity can provide the fuel for bullying and harassment of students. And these are just two potential issues; there are many more.
Reflect on the Following:
What does each of these mean to you? Where do you fit in each of these categories? What was your school like regarding diversity on these levels? Is anything missing?
Activity (The Regents of the University of Michigan, 2016) www.crlt.umich.edu/print/355
You might identify your own attitudes toward diversity by remembering certain pivotal moments in your life. Ask yourself the following questions:
- Recall the incident in which you first became aware of differences. What was your reaction? Were you the focus of attention or were others? How did that affect how you reacted to the situation?
- What are the “messages” that you learned about various “minorities” or “majorities” when you were a child? At home? In school? Have your views changed considerably since then? Why or why not?
- Recall an experience in which your own difference put you in an uncomfortable position vis-à-vis the people directly around you. What was that difference? How did it affect you?
- How do your memories of differences affect you today? How do they (or might they) affect your teaching?
Another term we hear used a lot regarding today’s classrooms is multicultural. When you think of the word culture, what comes to mind? The word means different things to different people. Culture is a very all-encompassing concept and includes the many things that combine to make one community or group different from another, such as their: values, clothing, religion, holidays, traditions, language, music, literature, beliefs and expectations (Alsubaie, 2015; Perso, 2012). If we look at culture that way, it is clear that everyone is coming from their own unique cultural experience, including students and teachers. The culture of the teacher and the students in one classroom will affect the education process found there (Alsubaie, 2015). It is, therefore, very important to seek to understand both your own background and cultural beliefs and those of your students. As stated by Alsubaie (2015) “teachers who learn more about their students’ backgrounds, cultures and experiences will feel more capable and efficient in their work as teachers” (p. 88). The more aware you become of your own personal set of beliefs, values and expectations, and even of your own biases, the better able you will be to seek to understand your future students.
Contributors and Attributions
- Foundations of Education. Authored by : SUNY Oneonta Education Department. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Photo of Children. Authored by : Terry Dawson. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/11561948@N00/1244936886 . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike


15.11: Reading- Business Presentations
Introduction
If you think about presenting a business plan in a classroom setting, the situation is admittedly a bit staged. You are not presenting business recommendations to coworkers who will evaluate them, critique them, and come together around a revised version of your work. Sadly the classroom environment cannot simulate that experience. In spite of this limitation, it is worth sharing some pointers for good business presentations, which may come in handy down the road when you get a chance to do the real thing. Also, there’s no substitute for practice—which your marketing plan presentation will certainly provide.
A good business presentation should drive action.
The biggest difference between a business presentation and presentations in other settings is that you are trying to achieve specific business objectives in your job. You are not graded on presenting well. You are graded on achieving your objectives. Others in the audience also have objectives that they hope to achieve. Are those objectives the same? Possibly yes, possibly no. Your presentation should result in someone taking action that supports your business objectives.
Start your presentation by asking yourself, “What am I hoping to get this audience do as a result of my presentation?” If the answer is that you hope they will understand something better, why? Just as marketers want their target customers to respond to a specific call to action, you want to get your audience to do something that supports your objectives.
A good business presentation is short and focused.
In preparation for a business presentation, you will probably work and think and do a lot of research. There is a temptation to share everything you’ve collected and learned with your coworkers. This is generally a bad idea. The research you’ve done is the groundwork for understanding what should happen next. Your job as a presenter is to give people only the most relevant and important information to get them to where you are. Consider each point that builds your case, and ask yourself, “If I leave this out will they still understand why this makes sense?” Eliminate anything that isn’t critical.
Most business people quickly lose interest in presentations, so use your time wisely, and try to stick to the key points. Once you lose an audience, it’s difficult to get them back, and they may miss your call to action—or worse, not care.
Begin with recommendations and then support them.
If someone has to leave your presentation for another meeting, you don’t want them to miss the grand unveiling of your main point. Start with the recommendation. Follow with a streamlined, logical path that supports the recommendation. You might have fifty slides of supporting information and data that justify your thinking, but don’t present them! It’s much better to include them in an appendix. If someone asks about the competitive landscape in a new market that you have considered, you can always pull up the slide that includes that information from the appendix. If you’re sure that a slide is central to your case, move it to the back and use it if needed.
Use your presentation as an opportunity to learn and collaborate.
For a very small number of presentations, it’s important for you to be the expert and have all the answers. Much more commonly, though, your role is to work with a broader team to achieve results. Others in the room will have more expertise than you in a given subject. That’s a good thing. Once they understand your ideas, they can help you shape them and improve them. Be confident enough to present the fact that you are unsure about something, and ask for input. When a business presentation is really excellent, everyone in the room leaves feeling like they have something to contribute and are a part of the solution ahead.
Contributors and Attributions
- Business Presentations. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Imagine Cup 2012 - Day 4 Finalist Presentations. Provided by : ImagineCup. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/imaginecup/7534287902/ . License : CC BY: Attribution


13.3: Examples of Skeletal Terms Easily Defined By Their Word Components
Here are examples of common medical terms related to the skeletal system that can be easily defined by breaking the terms into their word components.
Arthrocentesis
- Break down the medical term into word components: Arthr / o / centesis
- Label the word components: Arthr = WR; o = CV; centesis = S
- Define the word components: Arthr = joint; centesis = surgical puncture to aspirate fluid
- Create a final definition of the medical term: A surgical puncture to aspirate fluid from a joint
Osteomyelitis
- Break down the medical term into word components: Oste / o / myel / itis
- Label the word components: Oste = WR; o = CV; myel = WR; itis = S
- Define the word components: Oste = bone; myel = bone marrow; itis = inflammation
- Create a final definition of the medical term: Inflammation of bone and bone marrow
Vertebroplasty
- Break down the medical term into word components: Vertebr / o / plasty
- Label the word components: Vertebr = WR; o = CV; plasty = S
- Define the word components: Vertebr = vertebral column; plasty = surgical repair
- Create a final definition of the medical term: Surgical repair of the vertebral column
Interactive Learning Activity: Practice defining and pronouncing skeletal system medical terms by breaking them down into word parts.
Query \(\PageIndex{1}\)
You can also print these flashcard activities as a Chapter 13 Student Companion Worksheet and check your answers with this Answer Key .


9: Artifact Correction with Independent Component Analysis
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Learning Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn to:
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Conceptualize artifact correction in terms of the overarching goal of your research and the specific problems that artifacts pose when you try to reach that goal
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Decompose the EEG into a set of independent components (ICs), identify ICs that represent artifacts, and reconstruct the EEG without the artifactual ICs
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Apply special preprocessing steps to obtain optimal ICs
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Evaluate the effectiveness of the artifact correction procedure in terms of both data quality and confounds
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Intelligently choose which ICs should be removed from your data
This chapter explains how to use independent component analysis (ICA) to correct certain kinds of artifacts (especially blinks and eye movements). ICA-based artifact correction is a real godsend for experiments in which artifact rejection would throw out too many trials. And it can improve the data quality for other experiments by allowing you to include most or all of the trials in your averaged ERPs.
However, ICA-based artifact correction massively changes your data. Every single data point is impacted. And if done improperly, ICA can make your data worse and lead to incorrect conclusions. It’s a bit like using
backburn
to deal with a wildfire (i.e., starting a controlled fire to eliminate the fuel for the wildfire). If you’re not careful, it can get out of control and damage what you were trying to save. You really need to know what you’re doing with ICA to get the best results and avoid getting burned.
Before I wrote this chapter, I did a lot of reading to make sure I was up to date and that the strategies described in this chapter would reflect the current state of the art. I also spent a lot of time applying ICA to the ERP CORE data and carefully assessing the results. The Makeig group at UCSD are still the world’s experts at ICA-based artifact correction, so much of what I write in this chapter is based on their recommendations.
EEGLAB’s ICA documentation
is an excellent resource, especially the videos created by Arnaud Delorme. The page of informal advice from Makoto Miyakoshi (called
Makoto’s Preprocessing Pipeline
) is also extremely useful. I recommend that you read these sources after reading the present chapter. I also recommend reading the general overview of artifact correction near the end of Chapter 6 of Luck (2014), along with the
online supplement
to that chapter.
As you read this chapter, keep in mind that the ultimate goal of artifact correction is the same as the ultimate goal of artifact detection, which is to accurately answer the scientific question that the experiment was designed to address. In addition, you should keep in mind the three main problems that we need to address in artifact rejection and correction: reduced statistical power as a result of increased noise, systematic confounds, and sensory input problems.


1.4.1: Radical Expressions
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Simplify expressions with roots
- Estimate and approximate roots
- Simplify variable expressions with roots
Before you get started, take this readiness quiz.
1. Simplify
a. \((−9)^{2}\)
b. \(-9^{2}\)
2. Round \(3.846\) to the nearest hundredth.
3. Simplify
a. \(x^{3} \cdot x^{3}\)
b. \(y^{2} \cdot y^{2}\)
In this section we deal with radical expressions of index \(2\) called square roots.
Simplify Expressions with Roots
In Foundations, we briefly looked at square roots. Remember that when a real number \(n\) is multiplied by itself, we write \(n^{2}\) and read it '\(n\) squared’. This number is called the square of \(n\), and \(n\) is called the square root . For example,
\(13^{2}\) is read "\(13\) squared"
\(169\) is called the square of \(13\), since \(13^{2}=169\)
\(13\) is called a square root of \(169\)
Square
If \(n^{2}=m\), then \(m\) is the square of \(n\).
Square Root
If \(n^{2}=m\), then \(n\) is a square root of \(m\).
In words,
a square root of \(m\) is a number whose square is \(m\).
Notice \((−13)^{2} = 169\) also, so \(−13\) is also a square root of \(169\). Therefore, both \(13\) and \(−13\) are square roots of \(169\).
So, every positive number has two square roots—one positive and one negative. What if we only wanted the positive square root of a positive number? We use a radical sign , and write, \(\sqrt{m}\), which denotes the positive square root of \(m\). The non-negative square root is also called the principal square root . This is the square root approximated by using the root symbol of your calculator!
We also use the radical sign for the square root of zero. Because \(0^{2}=0, \sqrt{0}=0\). Notice that zero has only one square root.
\(\sqrt{m}\) is read " the square root of \(m\). "
If \(n^{2}=m\), then \(n=\sqrt{m}\), for \(n\geq 0\).
We know that every positive number has two square roots and the radical sign indicates the positive one. We write \(\sqrt{169}=13\). If we want to find the negative square root of a number, we place a negative in front of the radical sign. For example, \(-\sqrt{169}=-13\).
Simplify:
a. \(\sqrt{144}\)
b. \(-\sqrt{289}\)
- Solution
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a.
\(\sqrt{144}\)
Since \(12^{2}=144\), and \(12\geq 0\)
\(12\)
b.
\(-\sqrt{289}\)
Since \(17^{2}=289\), \(17\geq 0\), and the negative is in front of the radical sign.
\(-17\)
Simplify:
a. \(-\sqrt{64}\)
b. \(\sqrt{225}\)
- Answer
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a. \(-8\)
b. \(15\)
Simplify:
a. \(\sqrt{100}\)
b. \(-\sqrt{121}\)
- Answer
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a. \(10\)
b. \(-11\)
Can we simplify \(\sqrt{-49}\)? Is there a number whose square is \(-49\)?
\((\)___\( )^{2}=-49\)
Any positive number squared is positive. Any negative number squared is positive. There is no real number equal to \(\sqrt{-49}\). The square root of a negative number is not a real number.
Simplify:
a. \(\sqrt{-196}\)
b. \(-\sqrt{64}\)
- Solution
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a.
\(\sqrt{-196}\)
There is no real number whose square is \(-196\).
\(\sqrt{-196}\) is not a real number.
b.
\(-\sqrt{64}\)
The negative is in front of the radical.
\(-8\)
Simplify:
a. \(\sqrt{-169}\)
b. \(-\sqrt{81}\)
- Answer
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a. not a real number
b. \(-9\)
Simplify:
a. \(-\sqrt{49}\)
b. \(\sqrt{-121}\)
- Answer
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a. \(-7\)
b. not a real number
Properties of \(\sqrt{a}\)
When
- \(a \geq 0\), then \(\sqrt{a}\) is a real number.
- \(a<0\), then \(\sqrt{a}\) is not a real number.
Simplify Variable Expressions with Square Roots
Note, for example,
\[\sqrt{4^2}=\sqrt{16}=4\nonumber\]
but,
\[\sqrt{(-4)^2}=\sqrt{16}=4,\nonumber\]
So that the result is positive.
How can we make sure the square root of \(−5\) squared is \(5\)? We can use the absolute value. \(|−5|=5\): \[\sqrt{a^{2}}=|a|.\] This guarantees the principal root is positive.
Note that the 'root button' and the 'square button' are the same on most calculators and if \(a\) is positive, applying the square button and then the root button (or vice versa) will result in the return of \(a\).
We have
\(\sqrt{a^{2}}=|a|\)
Simplify \(\sqrt{x^{2}}\).
- Solution
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We use the absolute value to be sure to get the positive root.
\(\sqrt{x^{2}}=|x|\)
Simplify \(\sqrt{b^{2}}\).
- Answer
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\(|b|\)
What about square roots of higher powers of variables? The power property of exponents says \(\left(a^{m}\right)^{n}=a^{m \cdot n}\). So if we square \(a^{m}\), the exponent will become \(2m\).
\(\left(a^{m}\right)^{2}=a^{2 m}\)
Looking now at the square root.
\(\sqrt{a^{2 m}}=\sqrt{\left(a^{m}\right)^{2}}\)
Since \(2\) is even, \(\sqrt[2]{x^{2}}=|x|\). So
\[\sqrt{a^{2 m}}=\left|a^{m}\right|.\]
We apply this concept in the next example.
Simplify:
a. \(\sqrt{x^{6}}\)
b. \(\sqrt{y^{16}}\)
- Solution
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a.
\(\sqrt{x^{6}}\)
Since \(\left(x^{3}\right)^{2}=x^{6}\), this is equal to
\(\sqrt{\left(x^{3}\right)^{2}}.\)
Since \(\sqrt{a^{2}}=|a|\), this is equal to
\(\left|x^{3}\right|\)
b.
\(\sqrt{y^{16}}\)
Since \(\left(y^{8}\right)^{2}=y^{16}\), this is equal to
\(\sqrt{\left(y^{8}\right)^{2}}.\)
Since \(\sqrt{a^{2}}=|a|\), this is equal to
\(y^{8}\)
In this case the absolute value sign is not needed as \(y^{8}\) is positive.
Simplify:
a. \(\sqrt{y^{18}}\)
b. \(\sqrt{z^{12}}\)
- Answer
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a. \(|y^{9}|\)
b. \(z^{6}\)
Simplify:
a. \(\sqrt{m^{4}}\)
b. \(\sqrt{b^{10}}\)
- Answer
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a. \(m^{2}\)
b. \(|b^{5}|\)
Note that if the variables are positive, then the exponent gets halved which is the same action you would do to simplify \(( )^{\frac12}\) if rational exponents followed the same rules as integer exponents. For example, if \(x\) is non-negative,
\(\sqrt{x^{6}}=(x^6)^\frac12=x^{6\cdot\dfrac12}=x^3.\)
We will treat this in greater detail a little later in this chapter.
In the next example, we now have a coefficient in front of the variable. The concept \(\sqrt{a^{2 m}}=\left|a^{m}\right|\) works in much the same way.
\(\sqrt{16 r^{22}}=4\left|r^{11}\right|\) because \(\left(4 r^{11}\right)^{2}=16 r^{22}\).
But notice \(\sqrt{25 u^{8}}=5 u^{4}\) and no absolute value sign is needed as \(u^{4}\) is always non-negative.
Simplify:
a. \(\sqrt{16 n^{2}}\)
b. \(-\sqrt{81 c^{2}}\)
- Solution
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a.
\(\sqrt{16 n^{2}}\)
Since \((4 n)^{2}=16 n^{2}\), this is equal to
\(\sqrt{(4 n)^{2}}.\)
Since \(\sqrt{a^{2}}=|a|\), this is equal to
\(4|n|.\)
b.
\(-\sqrt{81 c^{2}}\)
Since \((9 c)^{2}=81 c^{2}\), this is equal to
\(-\sqrt{(9 c)^{2}}.\)
Since \(\sqrt{a^{2}}=|a|\), this is then equal to
\(-9|c|.\)
Simplify:
a. \(\sqrt{64 x^{2}}\)
b. \(-\sqrt{100 p^{2}}\)
- Answer
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a. \(8|x|\)
b. \(-10|p|\)
Simplify:
a. \(\sqrt{169 y^{2}}\)
b. \(-\sqrt{121 y^{2}}\)
- Answer
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a. \(13|y|\)
b. \(-11|y|\)
The next examples have two variables.
Simplify:
a. \(\sqrt{36 x^{2} y^{2}}\)
b. \(\sqrt{121 a^{6} b^{8}}\)
- Solution
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a.
\(\sqrt{36 x^{2} y^{2}}\)
Since \((6 x y)^{2}=36 x^{2} y^{2}\)
\(\sqrt{(6 x y)^{2}}\)
Take the square root.
\(6|xy|\)
b.
\(\sqrt{121 a^{6} b^{8}}\)
Since \(\left(11 a^{3} b^{4}\right)^{2}=121 a^{6} b^{8}\)
\(\sqrt{\left(11 a^{3} b^{4}\right)^{2}}\)
Take the square root.
\(11\left|a^{3}\right| b^{4}\)
Simplify:
a. \(\sqrt{100 a^{2} b^{2}}\)
b. \(\sqrt{144 p^{12} q^{20}}\)
- Answer
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a. \(10|ab|\)
b. \(12p^{6}q^{10}\)
Simplify:
a. \(\sqrt{225 m^{2} n^{2}}\)
b. \(\sqrt{169 x^{10} y^{14}}\)
- Answer
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a. \(15|mn|\)
b. \(13\left|x^{5} y^{7}\right|\)
- What is a square root?
- Explain why \(\sqrt{9}=3\).
- What happens if we square a square root?
- What is the index? Radicand?
Simplify \(\sqrt{81a^4b^6}\).
Key Concepts
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Square Root Notation
- \(\sqrt{m}\) is read ‘the square root of \(m\)’
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If \(n^{2}=m\), then \(n=\sqrt{m}\), for \(n≥0\).
Figure 8.1.1 - The square root of \(m\), \(\sqrt{m}\), is a positive number whose square is \(m\).
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Properties of \(\sqrt{a}\)
- \(a≥0\), then \(\sqrt{a}\) is a real number
- \(a<0\), then \(\sqrt{a}\) is not a real number
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Simplifying Odd and Even Roots
- \(\sqrt{a^{2}}=|a|\). We must use the absolute value signs when we take a square root of an expression with a variable in the radical.


4.1: Naming Cycloalkanes
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Objectives
After completing this section, you should be able to:
- Name a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkane, given its Kekulé structure, shorthand structure or condensed structure.
- Draw the Kekulé, shorthand or condensed structure for a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkane, given its IUPAC name.
Key Terms
Make certain that you can define, and use in context, the key terms below.
- cycloalkane
Study Notes
Provided that you have mastered the IUPAC system for naming alkanes, you should find that the nomenclature of cycloalkanes does not present any particular difficulties.
Many organic compounds found in nature contain rings of carbon atoms. These compounds are known as cycloalkanes . Cycloalkanes only contain carbon-hydrogen bonds and carbon-carbon single bonds. The simplest examples of this class consist of a single, un-substituted carbon ring, and these form a homologous series similar to the unbranched alkanes.
Like alkanes, cycloalkane molecules are often drawn as skeletal structures in which each intersection between two lines is assumed to have a carbon atom with its corresponding number of hydrogens. Cyclohexane, one of the most common cycloalkanes is shown below as an example.
Cyclic hydrocarbons have the prefix "cyclo-". The IUPAC names, molecular formulas, and skeleton structures of the cycloalkanes with 3 to 10 carbons are given in Table \(\PageIndex{1}\). Note that the general formula for a cycloalkane composed of \(\ce{n}\) carbons is \(\ce{C_{n}H_{2n}}\), and not \(\ce{C_{n}H_{2n+2}}\) as for alkanes. Although a cycloalkane has two fewer hydrogens than the equivalent alkane, each carbon is bonded to four other atoms so are still considered to be saturated with hydrogen.
| Cycloalkane | Molecular Formula | Skeleton Structure |
|---|---|---|
| Cyclopropane | C 3 H 6 | |
| Cyclobutane | C 4 H 8 | |
| Cyclopentane | C 5 H 10 | |
| Cyclohexane | C 6 H 12 | |
| Cycloheptane | C 7 H 14 | |
| Cyclooctane | C 8 H 16 | |
| Cyclononane | C 9 H 18 | |
| Cyclodecane | C 10 H 20 |
IUPAC Rules for Nomenclature
The naming of substituted cycloalkanes follows the same basic steps used in naming alkanes.
- Determine the parent chain.
- Number the substituents of the ring beginning at one substituent so that the nearest substituent is numbered the lowest possible. If there are multiple choices that are still the same, go to the next substituent and give it the lowest number possible.
- Name the substituents and place them in alphabetical order.
More specific rules for naming substituted cycloalkanes with examples are given below.
- Determine the cycloalkane to use as the parent. If there is an alkyl straight chain that has a greater number of carbons than the cycloalkane, then the alkyl chain must be used as the primary parent chain. Cycloalkanes substituents have an ending "-yl". If there are two cycloalkanes in the molecule, use the cycloalkane with the higher number of carbons as the parent.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)
The longest straight chain contains 10 carbons, compared with cyclopropane, which only contains 3 carbons. The parent chain in this molecule is decane and cyclopropane is a substituent. The name of this molecule is 3-cyclopropyl-6-methyldecane.
Example \(\PageIndex{2}\)
Name the cycloalkane structure.
Solution
There are two different cycloalkanes in this molecule. Because it contains more carbons, the cyclopentane ring will be named as the parent chain. The smaller ring, cyclobutane, is named as a substituent on the parent chain. The name of this molecule is cyclobutylcyclopentane.
- When there is only one substituent on the ring, the ring carbon attached to the substituent is automatically carbon #1. Indicating the number of the carbon with the substituent in the name is optional.
Example \(\PageIndex{3}\)
| 1-chlorocyclobutane or cholorocyclobutane | 1-propylcyclohexane or propylcyclohexane |
- If there are multiple substituents on the ring, number the carbons of the cycloalkane so that the carbons with substituents have the lowest possible number. A carbon with multiple substituents should have a lower number than a carbon with only one substituent or functional group. One way to make sure that the lowest number possible is assigned is to number the carbons so that when the numbers corresponding to the substituents are added, their sum is the lowest possible.
- When naming the cycloalkane, the substituents must be placed in alphabetical order. Remember the prefixes di-, tri-, etc. , are not used for alphabetization.
Example \(\PageIndex{4}\)
In this example, the ethyl or the methyl subsistent could be attached to carbon one. The ethyl group attachment is assigned carbon 1 because ethyl comes before methyl alphabetically. After assigning carbon 1 the cyclohexane ring can be numbered going clockwise or counterclockwise. When looking at the numbers produced going clockwise produces lower first substituent numbers (1,3) than when numbered counterclockwise (1,5). So the correct name is 1-ethyl-3-methylcyclohexane.
Example \(\PageIndex{5}\)
Name the following structure using IUPAC rules.
Solution
Remember when dealing with cycloalkanes with more than two substituents, finding the lowest possible 2nd substituent numbering takes precedence. Consider a numbering system with each substituent attachment point as being carbon one. Compare them and whichever produces the lowest first point of difference will be correct.
The first structure would have 1,4 for the relationship between the first two groups. The next structure would have 1,3. The final 2 structures both have 1,2 so those are preferable to the first two. Now we have to determine which is better between the final 2 structures. The 3rd substituent on structure 3 would be at the 5 position leading to 1,2,5 while in the final structure the 3rd methyl group is on carbon 4 leading to 1,2,4. This follows the rules of giving the lowest numbers at the first point of difference.
The correct name for the molecule is 4-Bromo-1,2-dimethylcyclohexane.
Example \(\PageIndex{6}\)
2- b romo-1- c hloro-3- m ethylcyclopentane
Notice that "b" of bromo alphabetically precedes the "m" of methyl. Also, notice that the chlorine attachment point is assigned carbon 1 because it comes first alphabetically and the overall sum of numbers would be the same if the methyl attachment carbon was assigned as 1 and the chlorine attachment as 3.
Example \(\PageIndex{7}\)
(2-bromo-1,1-dimethylcyclohexane)
Although "di" alphabetically precedes "f", "di" is not used in determining the alphabetical order.
Example \(\PageIndex{8}\)
2- f luoro-1,1,-di m ethylcyclohexane NOT 1,1-dimethyl-2-fluorocyclohexane also 2- f luoro-1,1,-di m ethylcyclohexane NOT 1-fluoro-2,2-dimethylcyclohexane (as that would give a larger number to the first point of difference)
Although "di" alphabetically precedes "f", "di" is not used in determining the alphabetical order of the substituents. Notice that the attachment point of the two methyl groups is assigned carbon 1 despite the fact that fluorine comes first alphabetically. This is because this assignment allows for a lower overall numbering of substituents, so assigning alphabetical priority is not necessary.
Polycyclic Compounds
Hydrocarbons having more than one ring are common, and are referred to as bicyclic (two rings), tricyclic (three rings) and in general, polycyclic compounds . The molecular formulas of such compounds have H/C ratios that decrease with the number of rings. In general, for a hydrocarbon composed of \(n\) carbon atoms associated with \(m\) rings the formula is: \(\ce{C_{n}H_{2n + 2 - 2m}}\). The structural relationship of rings in a polycyclic compound can vary. They may be separate and independent, or they may share one or two common atoms. Some examples of these possible arrangements are shown in the following table.
| Isolated Rings | Spiro Rings | Fused Rings | Bridged Rings |
|---|---|---|---|
| No common atoms | One common atom | One common bond | Two common atoms |
Polycyclic compounds, like cholesterol shown below, are biologically important and typically have common names accepted by IUPAC. However, the common names do not generally follow the basic IUPAC nomenclature rules, and will not be covered here.
Cholesterol (polycyclic)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Give the IUPAC names for the following cycloalkane structures.
- Answer
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- 1,3-Dimethylcyclohexane
- 2-Cyclopropylbutane
- 1-Ethyl-3-methylcyclooctane
- 1-Bromo-3-methylcyclobutane
- 1,2,4-Triethylcycloheptane
- 1-Chloro-2,4-dimethylcyclopentane
Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\)
Draw the structures for the IUPAC names below.
- 2,3-dicyclopropylpentane
- 1,2,3-triethylcyclopentane
- 3-cyclobutyl-2-methylhexane
- 2-bromo-1-chloro-4-methylcyclohexane
- 1-bromo-5-propylcyclododecane
- Answer
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7.2: Examples
Examples:
- A city’s sanitary sewer budget for the year is $350,000. The budget has been divided into five categories: Personnel, contractual, power, benefits and insurance, and equipment. Based on the pie chart, which category has the larger proportion of the budget been allocated to? Which category has the least allocation? Which two categories have similar allocations? What dollar amount has been allocated for power?
Solution
We can visually see that the largest part of the pie is allocated to personnel at 43% and the smallest part of the pie is allocated to equipment at 1%. The two pieces of the pie that are similar in size are for contractual and benefits and insurance which represent 22% and 20% respectively. It is also important to note that these percentages are based on the $350,000 budget. Hence the amount of money allocated for power is 14% of $350,000 or .14($35,000) = $4900.
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Using the bar graph below, answer the following questions:
- What general information is provided in the bar graph?
- Which year had the most liters of treated water?
- Which year had the least liters of treated water?
- In which year was 8,000,000,000 liters of water treated?
- The amount of treated water increased between which years?
- The amount of treated water decreased between which years?
- Which years had approximately the same number of treated liters of water?
Solution
- What general information is provided in the bar graph? The number of liters of water treated each year between 1998 and 2012
- Which year had the most liters of treated water? 2009
- Which year had the least liters of treated water? 1998
- In which year was 8,000,000,000 liters of water treated? 2006
- The amount of treated water increased between which years? 1998-2009
- The amount of treated water decreased between which years? 2009-2011
- Which years had approximately the same number of treated liters of water? 2008 and 2011
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Using the line graph below, answer the following questions:
- What general information is provided in the line graph?
- The number of gallons of water in the pool appear to increase, decrease, or remain the same as the number of gallons of Sodium HypoChlorite increases?
- How many gallons of Sodium HypoChlorite are needed to shock 25,000 gallons of water?
- How many gallons of water can 4 gallons of Sodium HypoChlorite shock?
- What is the maximum point on the graph and what does it represent?
Solution
- What general information is provided in the line graph? The number of gallons of Sodium HypoChlorite (a type of chlorine) that are needed to shock a certain number of gallons of water in a swimming pool.
- The number of gallons of water in the pool appear to increase, decrease, or remain the same as the number of gallons of Sodium HypoChlorite increases? Since the line graph is going up from left to right, the number of gallons of water in the pool is increasing as the number of gallons of Sodium HypoChlorite used increases.
- How many gallons of Sodium HypoChlorite are needed to shock 25,000 gallons of water? Reading the vertical axis, we can find 25,000 gallons of water, move to the right to find the point on the graph and read the corresponding number on the horizontal axis, which is 3 gallons of Sodium HypoChlorite.
- How many gallons of water can 4 gallons of Sodium HypoChlorite shock? Reading the horizontal axis, we can find 4 gallons of Sodium HypoChlorite, go up the graph to find the point on the graph and read the corresponding number on the vertical axis, which is 35,000 gallons of water.
- What is the maximum point on the graph and what does it represent? The highest point on the graph is at (5, 50000). Note: the horizontal number is written first in a point and the vertical axis number is written second. This point means we need 5 gallons of Sodium HypoChlorite to shock 50,000 gallons of swimming pool water.


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14: Social and Emotional Development in Middle Adulthood (Ages 30 to 59)
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14.0: What Does Psychology Say?
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The page discusses middle adulthood as a period characterized by numerous roles and responsibilities across various aspects of life such as home, work, and community. It presents a scenario of a woman named Lisha juggling her busy life tasks, reflecting typical experiences in this life stage. The text raises questions about the development of family life, variables promoting well-being, the concept of the "sandwich generation," and the potential for a midlife crisis.
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14.1: Development of Self, Personality, and Identity in Middle Adulthood
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This page explores the development of self during middle adulthood, emphasizing theories like Erikson???s psychosocial development, Levinson???s Seasons of Life, and Valliant???s theory of successful aging. It examines the role of generativity and stagnation, how personality changes or remains stable, and the impact of historical context on personality development. The concept of a midlife crisis is discussed, with findings suggesting generativity in adulthood is linked to positive growth.
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14.2: Contexts- Love and Romance in Middle Adulthood
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This section focuses on the psychosocial and romantic development in middle adulthood, highlighting the importance of secure attachment and factors influencing love, marriage, and divorce. It discusses how adult attachment styles mirror Erikson's theory and impact relationships with romantic partners, parents, and children. The text examines causes influencing marital satisfaction, changing dynamics in contemporary marriages, and shifts in divorce rates.
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14.3: Households and Parenting in Middle Adulthood
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This page discusses different household structures and their dynamics, focusing on single, multigenerational, blended, and LGBTQ+ family households. It addresses challenges in midlife parenting and the impacts on social connections. The page highlights the changing roles and relationships in adult life, offering insights into maintaining family cohesion and managing stress.
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14.4: Transitions in Caregiving Roles in Middle Adulthood
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This section explores the dynamics and challenges faced by the "sandwich generation," individuals who care for both their children and aging parents. It discusses the stress and role strain experienced, with women often bearing a disproportionate burden of care. The text also delves into the transition of launching children into adulthood, the empty nest phase, and becoming grandparents.
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14.5: A Successful Middle Adulthood
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This section focuses on middle adulthood and how various factors contribute to life satisfaction during this period.


2.18: Tympanic Temperature
The normal tympanic temperature is usually 0.3–0.6°C higher than an oral temperature (OER #1). It is accurate because the tympanic membrane shares the same vascular artery that perfuses the hypothalamus (OER #1). A tympanic thermometer is shown in Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4: Tympanic thermometer
Technique
Remove the tympanic thermometer from the casing and place a probe cover (from the box) on the thermometer tip without touching the probe cover with your hands. Only touch the edge of the probe cover (if needed), to maintain clean technique. Turn the device on. Ask the client to keep head still. For an adult or older child, gently pull the helix up and back to visualize the ear canal. For an infant or younger child (under 3), gently pull the lobe down. The probe is inserted just inside the opening of the ear. Never force the thermometer into the ear and do not occlude the ear canal (OER #1). Only the tip of the probe is inserted in the opening – this is important to prevent damage to the ear canal. Activate the device; it will beep within a few seconds to signal it is done. Discard the probe cover in the garbage (without touching the cover) and place the device back into the holder. See Figure 2.5 of a tympanic temperature being taken.
Figure 2.5: Tympanic temperature being taken
Technique Tips
The technique of pulling the helix up and back (adult) or the lobe down (child under 3) is used to straighten the ear canal so the light can reflect on the tympanic membrane. If this is not correctly done, the reading may not be accurate. The probe tip is gently inserted into the opening to prevent damage to the ear canal. The ear canal is a sensitive and a highly innervated part of the body, so it is important not to force the tympanic probe into the ear.
What should the healthcare provider consider?
The tympanic temperature method is a quick and minimally invasive way to take temperature. Although research has proven the accuracy of this method, some pediatric institutions prefer the accuracy of the rectal temperature. The Canadian Pediatric Society found equal evidence for and against the use of tympanic temperature route (Leduc & Woods, 2017). It concluded that tympanic temperature is one option for use with children, but suggested using rectal temperature for children younger than two, particularly when accuracy is vital. The tympanic temperature is not measured when a client has a suspected ear infection. It is important to check your agency policy regarding tympanic temperature.
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Part of this content was adapted from OER #1 (as noted in brackets above):
© 2015 British Columbia Institute of Technology (BCIT). Clinical Procedures for Safer Patient Care by Glynda Rees Doyle and Jodie Anita McCutcheon, British Columbia Institute of Technology. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted. Download this book for free at http://open.bccampus.ca


1: Essential Ideas of Chemistry
Most everything you do and encounter during your day involves chemistry. Making coffee, cooking eggs, and toasting bread involve chemistry. The products you use—like soap and shampoo, the fabrics you wear, the electronics that keep you connected to your world, the gasoline that propels your car—all of these and more involve chemical substances and processes. Whether you are aware or not, chemistry is part of your everyday world. In this course, you will learn many of the essential principles underlying the chemistry of modern-day life.
For Chapter 1 you MUST know:
- The names and symbols for elements 1-18. (ie: know that sodium is Na AND Na is sodium)
- The SI Base units, the measured property, and the symbol
- The SI Prefixes, their abbreviation, and their meaning (M, k, m, u, n, p)
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- 1.1: Introduction to Chemistry
- Chemistry is a very universal and dynamically-changing subject to be confined to a fixed definition; it might be better to think of chemistry more as a point of view that places its major focus on the structure and properties of substances— particular kinds of matter— and especially on the changes they undergo.
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- 1.2: Chemistry in Context
- Chemistry deals with the composition, structure, and properties of matter, and the ways by which various forms of matter may be interconverted. Thus, it occupies a central place in the study and practice of science and technology. Chemists use the scientific method to perform experiments, pose hypotheses, and formulate laws and develop theories, so that they can better understand the behavior of the natural world. To do so, they operate in the macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic domains.
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- 1.3: Phases and Classification of Matter
- Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. The basic building block of matter is the atom, the smallest unit of an element that can enter into combinations with atoms of the same or other elements. In many substances, atoms are combined into molecules. On earth, matter commonly exists in three states: solids, of fixed shape and volume; liquids, of variable shape but fixed volume; and gases, of variable shape and volume.
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- 1.4: Physical and Chemical Properties
- All substances have distinct physical and chemical properties, and may undergo physical or chemical changes. Physical properties, such as hardness and boiling point, and physical changes, such as melting or freezing, do not involve a change in the composition of matter. Chemical properties, such flammability and acidity, and chemical changes, such as rusting, involve production of matter that differs from that present beforehand.
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- 1.5: Measurements
- Measurements provide quantitative information that is critical in studying and practicing chemistry. Each measurement has an amount, a unit for comparison, and an uncertainty. Measurements can be represented in either decimal or scientific notation. Scientists primarily use the SI (International System) or metric systems. We use base SI units such as meters, seconds, and kilograms, as well as derived units, such as liters (for volume) and g/cm3 (for density).
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- 1.6: Measurement Uncertainty, Accuracy, and Precision
- Quantities can be exact or measured. Measured quantities have an associated uncertainty that is represented by the number of significant figures in the measurement. The uncertainty of a calculated value depends on the uncertainties in the values used in the calculation and is reflected in how the value is rounded. Measured values can be accurate (close to the true value) and/or precise (showing little variation when measured repeatedly).
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- 1.7: Mathematical Treatment of Measurement Results
- Measurements are made using a variety of units. It is often useful or necessary to convert a measured quantity from one unit into another. These conversions are accomplished using unit conversion factors, which are derived by simple applications of a mathematical approach called the factor-label method or dimensional analysis. This strategy is also employed to calculate sought quantities using measured quantities and appropriate mathematical relations.


9.1: Childhood Trauma
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You can now see how many factors combine to create each unique student that you will teach, as well as how challenging it can be to meet the needs of such a variety of learners. Another issue of which new teachers should be aware is that of childhood trauma. While there is enough information on this topic to fill its own textbook, having a brief overview of the information will be beneficial to your understanding of working with a diverse array of students.
What is trauma?
According to the Child Welfare Information Gateway (2014), trauma is “an emotional response to an intense event that threatens or causes harm. This harm can be physical or emotional, real or perceived, and it can threaten a child or someone close to him or her. Trauma can be a result of a single event, or it can result from exposure to multiple events over time” (p. 2). There are many events that might possibly cause trauma. These include, but are not limited to physical, emotional or sexual abuse, neglect, effects of poverty, being separated from your loved ones, bullying, domestic or community violence through which harm to a loved one or pet has been witnessed, accidents, natural disasters, and behavior that is unpredictable dur to addiction or mental illness (Child Information Gateway, 2014, p. 2). A traumatic experience is very often overwhelming to the individual, extremely painful or frightening, and include a loss of control and the inability to regulate one’s emotions. It is vital to remember that a traumatic experience overwhelms one’s ability to cope and that this can be different for each person. Therefore, due to a variety of factors (such as resilience) what might be traumatic to one student might not be to another. Again, this is not a “one size fits all” scenario. Each student is an individual.
How Trauma Affects the Brain
There is no shortage of information regarding how trauma affects brain development, but very basically, “when a stressful experience (such as being abused, neglected, or bullied) overwhelms the child’s natural ability to cope” this can cause a “flight, fight or freeze” response. This response results in changes in the body, including an accelerated heart rate and higher blood pressure. This also results in changes in how the brain “perceives and responds to the world”. The result of this can be that the “trauma interferes with normal development and can have long lasting effects” (above information from Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2014, p. 2).
How Trauma Affects Learning and Classroom Environment
What is the likelihood that you will have students in your classroom who are dealing with trauma related incidents? According to the National Child Traumatic Stress Network (n.d.), More than two-thirds of children reported at least one traumatic event by the age of sixteen. I would say that your chances are quite good that you will encounter students facing these issues.
A variety of learning related tasks are affected by trauma. Students who have experienced trauma may have difficulty regulating emotions. They may have impaired cognitive functions. The ability or organize material sequentially may be difficult. Transitions may be problematic. Problem solving might be hard. They may be self-protective, easily frustrated, and have inconsistent moods. This is just a brief non-inclusive list of some of the ways in which your classroom could be impacted by students with a background of child trauma.
Maslow vs. Blooms
In a previous chapter, you learned about Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning, which guides teachers in the creation of excellent learning experiences. In psychology, you may have heard about Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs (represented below).
Look this over carefully. Now go back and look at Bloom’s Taxonomy?
Reflection: Can you see any issue with trying to do both at the same time? Which should come first? What does the above depiction say to you about your students and your classroom?
Read the following and then think about how this might play out in your future classroom.
- At the base of the pyramid are all of the physiological needs that are necessary for survival. These are followed by basic needs for security and safety, the need to be loved and to have a sense of belonging, and the need to have self-worth and confidence. The top tier of the pyramid is self-actualization, which is a need that essentially equates to achieving one’s full potential, and it can only be realized when needs lower on the pyramid have been met. According to Maslow (1943), one must satisfy lower-level needs before addressing those needs that occur higher in the pyramid. So, for example, if someone is struggling to find enough food to meet his nutritional requirements, it is quite unlikely that he would spend an inordinate amount of time thinking about whether others viewed him as a good person or not. Instead, all of his energies would be geared toward finding something to eat.
Trauma Informed Practice
Some students can exhibit difficult behaviors because of their backgrounds while some will not. All of them need to be understood and supported. According to the Substance Abuse for Mental Health Administration (2014), the components of trauma-informed care consist of the creation of a safe environment, supporting and teaching emotional regulation and building relationships and connectedness. Knowing your student is vital. Trying to understand your students’ triggers is also of key importance. Remember always that they are not trying to push your buttons (We Are Teachers Staff, 2018). Their behaviors are often reactions to being triggered by something (such as a loud noise or yelling). The primary function of the triggered response is to help the child achieve safety in the face of perceived danger. Seek first to understand the child’s behavior and change your thinking from “what is wrong with this student?” to “what has this student been through?” (Bashant, 2016).
If relationship building, support, understanding and the creation of a safe environment are key to working with your students, what doesn’t work is equally apparent. Sadly, it is often the first thing educators turn to when these behaviors appear. The research is clear that punishment of this behavior not only does not work, it is highly detrimental to the student. According to NEA Today (2016), because traumatic experiences directly shape your students’ brains, the disruptive behavior that is witnessed and often punished isn’t willful disobedience or defiance, but a subconscious effort to self-protect. Their altered brains are screaming: Flight! Flee! Freeze! Their goal is to be safe. Respond in ways that help to make your students feel connected and safe first, and then revisit possible consequences for any broken rules.
Starr Commonweath Chief Clinical Officer, Dr. Caelan Soma (2018) offered these tips for understanding and working with students who have experienced trauma.
- They are not trying to push your buttons.
- They worry about what is going to happen next.

- Trauma does not always have to be associated with violence
- You don’t need to know how the trauma was caused to be able to help.
- They need to feel that they are good at something and that they can have a positive influence on the world.
- There is a direct connection between stress and learning.
- Self-regulation is a challenge.
- You can ask kids directly what you can do to help them make it through the day.
- Be supportive of students with trauma even when they are outside of your classroom.
(for more information, the link to the above article is located in the teacher references section).
There are numerous videos, books, and articles regarding trauma informed best practices. At the end of this chapter, there is a link to the National Child Traumatic Stress Networks Child Trauma Toolkit for Educators. This free and easy to download resource has numerous tips and suggestions for teachers.
Social Emotional Learning
Social emotional learning (SEL) has become part of many states’ educational missions, including New York. SEL can be defined as “the process through which children, youth, and adults acquire and effectively apply the knowledge, attitudes, and skills necessary to understand and manage emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel and show empathy for other, establish and maintain positive relationships and make responsible decisions” (Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning, 2015, para. 1 as cited in NYSED, 2018) p. 6). Five core social emotional competencies were created as a framework for SEL (Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL) 2017). These are:
According to the New York State Education Department (2018) “extensive research indicates that effective mastery of social emotional competencies is associated with greater well-being and better school performance; whereas the lack of competency in these areas can lead to a variety of personal, social and academic issues” (p. 6). Because of this, New York State Education Department development social emotional learning benchmarks to serve as a guide for educators in the state. The goals of the SEL benchmarks for New York State schools are:
- Develop self-awareness and self-management skills essential to success in school and in life.
- Use social awareness and interpersonal skills to establish and maintain positive relationships.
- Demonstrate ethical decision-making skills and responsible behaviors in personal, school, and community contexts. (NYSED.gov, 2018).
To learn more about NYSED’s position on SEL, you can find the document online (see resources link at the end of the chapter).
The goal of introducing SEL into the daily activities on a school is, in part, foster a more positive school climate. Additionally, SEL can help children gain skills needed to succeed in school, in the workplace and in life (www.cfcchildren.org). According to CASEL, SEL works, and leads to increased academic achievement and improved behavior (casel.org, 2018).
Building Relationships
Over the course of your education to become a teacher you will most likely hear a lot about the value of forming good relationships with your students. It may sound like a “no-brainer”, but its importance cannot be overstated. According to the Room 241 Team (Concordia University Portland, 2018), “…for children who have been affected by trauma, strong connections are vital. Rich relationships with teachers help children form the foundations of resilience” (para. 3). Venet (2018) echoed the value of relationship building as part of the delicate balancing act of working with trauma-affected students. The author stated that “…students who have experienced trauma, start by flipping traditional classroom paradigm: Relationships have to come before content…” (para. 6). The more you know and understand your students, the better.
Connell (2016) suggested ten ways that a teacher can build relationships with their students:
- Greet each student every day with both a hello and a good-bye.
- Use letters and questionnaires to help you find out about your students.
- Get parent input if you can.
- Appeal to your students’ interests.
- Speak to students with respect.
- Attend outside activities.
- Let students inside your world (with appropriate boundaries, of course).
- Let your students have a voice.
- Be real.
- Trust that they will all do great things.
This teacher from North Carolina has a unique way of beginning each class: (USA Today, Moments that Give us Hope (2017).
As you move forward in your education, be sure to always remember the importance of listening. So many students are not listened to at home. People are distracted. Do your best to have your students feel heard and valued. It can make all the difference in the world.
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: pb.libretexts.org/foundationsofeducation/?p=142
-America’s Promise Alliance, 2015
Summary
Every year teachers will meet new groups of students. Every class will be a unique combination of individuals. They will vary by many factors related to diversity. They will have different temperaments and learning styles. Their motivation levels won’t all be the same. Some will have experienced many childhood traumas, while some will have experienced few or none. Their experience and maturity in relation to social emotional learning will differ as well. However, one thing will remain constant. Your students will do best in a positive environment where mutual respect is fostered. Strong teacher-student relationships are the cornerstone of these classrooms. Having knowledge about yourself, child development and differentiated instruction will help you to have a greater understanding of your students. You will be learning this as you move forward in your education. What you cannot be taught is to care about forging these relationships in the first place. That must already be a part of who you are.
Additional Resources:
- 10 Things About Childhood Trauma Every Teacher Needs to Know (STARR Commonwealth)
- A great resource for teachers regarding trauma is the National Child Traumatic Stress Network Child Trauma Toolkit for Educators which can be found and downloaded here:
- NYSED Social Emotional Benchmarks:
- NYSED Social Emotional Learning Information:
- A great article on trauma informed practices and SEL:
One of the first studies on trauma informed practices in public school was covered in a full-length documentary entitled: Paper Tigers. It can be rented on numerous sites, including You Tube here:
Contributors and Attributions
- Motivation. Authored by : OpenStax College. Located at : http://cnx.org/contents/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:MLADqXMi@5/Motivation . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Foundations of Education. Authored by : SUNY Oneonta Education Department. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Maslow's Hierarchy. Authored by : J. Finkelstein. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs.svg . License : CC BY: Attribution


16.3: Nutrition and Chronic Renal Illness
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
- 16.2.1 Discuss the impact of nutrition on chronic renal disorders.
- 16.2.2 Discuss the impact of nutrition on acute exacerbation of chronic renal disorders.
Urologic Illnesses
Many different urologic and renal illnesses are impacted by nutrition. Some of the more common urologic illnesses —illnesses that affect parts of the renal system other than the kidneys—that can be impacted by nutrition include overactive bladder, interstitial cystitis, benign prostatic hyperplasia, and bladder cancer. Each of these has different causes and different nutritional impact based on the pathophysiology of the disease.
Overactive Bladder
Overactive bladder (OAB) , affecting more than 33 million Americans, causes urinary incontinence and urinary urgency resulting from involuntary contraction of the detrusor muscle of the bladder (Mobley et al., 2020). Anticholinergic medications and beta-3 adrenoceptor agonists are prescribed to treat this condition (Mobley et al., 2020). Some individuals also take 2–4 g of sodium bicarbonate twice daily to alkalinize the urine and make it less irritating to the bladder (Mobley et al., 2020).
Nutritional considerations for urologic illness center around reducing symptoms and avoiding medication interactions. Anticholinergic drugs should not be taken with alcohol because this combination can increase the risk for respiratory depression, unconsciousness, and death (Cafasso, 2023). Alcohol also acts as a diuretic, so clients should avoid it to prevent increased urinary frequency (Stoppler, 2020). They should also avoid carbonated beverages because they contain substances that can irritate a sensitive bladder and increase symptoms. Another important nutritional modification is to eliminate caffeine. Coffee, tea, other caffeinated beverages such as energy drinks, and brown chocolate all contain an acid that acts as a bladder irritant and aggravates OAB symptoms (Mobley et al., 2020; Stoppler, 2020).
Citrus fruits, including oranges, grapefruits, lemons, limes, and clementines, are also acidic; they can alter the urine pH and contribute to urgency and incontinence, so clients should avoid or reduce consumption of them (Mobley et al., 2020; Stoppler, 2020). Pineapple, tomatoes, wasabi, chili, spicy salsa, and other spicy condiments are all acidic foods, as are cranberries; although cranberries are beneficial for avoiding UTIs, they contain irritants that exacerbate OAB (Mobley et al., 2020; Stoppler, 2020). Sugar, artificial sweeteners, honey, grapes, bananas, apples, peaches, plums, strawberries, raw onions, dairy products (especially sour cream and aged cheeses), prunes, ketchup, vinegar, soy sauce, and mayonnaise can all contribute to an increase in OAB symptoms (Mobley et al., 2020; Stoppler, 2020). Nocturia can be decreased if individuals restrict their fluids during the day, especially after 6 p.m. (Mobley et al., 2020).
Nurses can encourage clients to try food substitutions. Dill, rosemary, thyme, and garlic are great substitutes for the more irritating spices (Stoppler, 2020). White chocolate is recommended instead of regular chocolate because it contains no caffeine, but clients should be cautioned not to eat too much because it contains sugar. Peas and carrots, along with other high-fiber foods, are encouraged to keep bowel movements regular and prevent symptoms resulting from increased pressure on the pelvic floor from constipation (Stoppler, 2020). In addition to estrogen supplementation for women with OAB symptoms related to estrogen deficiency, these clients can benefit from consuming vegetables that contain phytoestrogens, such as yams and carrots (Mobley et al., 2020). These clients should also increase their intake of potassium, protein, and, especially, vitamin D, which works to reduce urinary urgency at the site of the detrusor muscle (Mobley et al., 2020).
Another significant change clients can make is a lifestyle change, not a nutritional one: Clients who use tobacco should stop, as its use is linked with OAB symptoms (Mobley et al., 2020).
Interstitial Cystitis
Interstitial cystitis, also known as chronic pelvic pain syndrome , causes pelvic pain and a persistent desire to urinate, as well as nocturia, urinary frequency, and voiding of only small amounts at a time (Mobley et al., 2020). These symptoms mimic those of UTI, but urine cultures will consistently show no infection. Pentosan polysulfate sodium, sodium bicarbonate with calcium glycerophosphate, and dimethyl sulfoxide have all been used to treat this condition, and dietary modifications to reduce bladder irritants can effectively supplement pharmacotherapy. Nurses should give the same nutritional recommendations to clients with interstitial cystitis as for those with OAB.
Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is an enlargement of the prostate gland, affecting men (19 million in the United States) as they age and as their testosterone levels decrease. Lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) include urinary frequency and urgency, a weak urine stream, the feeling of being unable to empty the bladder, postmicturition dribbling, and nocturia (Mobley et al., 2020). Nutrition has not been shown to directly affect testosterone levels, but evidence indicates that the Mediterranean diet can be helpful in decreasing LUTS (Mobley et al., 2020). The Mediterranean diet promotes daily consumption of plant-based foods to replace some meats and starches, and the replacement of unhealthy fats, such as butter and margarine, with healthier fats (Modglin, 2022). This diet is rich in olive oil, small amounts of fish and other seafood, and plant-based options.
Bladder Cancer
Bladder cancer is the seventh most common form of cancer diagnosed, with the highest incidence occurring in White men (Mobley et al., 2020). Tobacco use is the greatest risk factor for the disease. Eating a diet high in isothiocyanates, which are found in cruciferous vegetables such as cabbage and kale, and drinking tea have both been linked to a decreased risk for developing bladder cancer.
Renal Illnesses
Renal illnesses are those that impact the kidney or any portion of the kidney. Many diseases can affect the kidney, and although they may have different causes and initial signs and symptoms, they will also produce very similar signs and symptoms because the diseases all impact the same organ. Common renal illnesses that can be affected by nutrition include nephrolithiasis, CKD, and renal cancer.
Nephrolithiasis
Nephrolithiasis , commonly referred to as kidney stones, can occur as a single incident or as a chronic condition. Kidney stones can cause a wide range of issues, from extreme pain to kidney failure due to hydronephrosis if they block urine flow and are not treated in a timely manner. Nurses should instruct clients to drink at least 88 oz (2.5 L) of fluids daily to help prevent stone formation (Mobley et al., 2022). Fruit juices are also recommended because they contain citrate, which inhibits calcium oxalate and calcium phosphate stone formation (Dai & Pearle, 2022).
The type of nutritional modification required depends on the type of stone and its composition (Table 16.1).
| Stone Type | Composition | Food Modifications |
|---|---|---|
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Calcium stones
(oxalate or phosphate; 75% of stones) |
Calcium oxalate or calcium phosphate |
|
|
Uric stones
(up to 10% of stones) |
Uric acid |
|
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Struvite stones
(5%–15% of stones) |
Mixture of magnesium, ammonium, phosphate, and calcium carbonate |
|
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Cysteine stones
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Chronic Kidney Disease
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) affects more than 31 million Americans, but many remain undiagnosed because the early stages are relatively asymptomatic (Mobley et al., 2020). Many things can cause CKD, but the most common causes are diabetes types 1 and 2 and hypertension, conditions that need to be managed correctly to slow disease progression. Nutrition plays a very important role in the health of clients with CKD, even if they advance to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and require dialysis treatment or a renal transplant to sustain life.
The stage of CKD is determined by GFR levels, which indicate how well the kidneys are filtering wastes from the blood. (See Table 15.2 in Applying Clinical Judgment to Promote Nutrition for Renal Wellness.) Creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels are also monitored closely and change more as the kidneys progress toward failure.
Nutritional restrictions are vital for clients with CKD. Referral to a certified renal dietician can ensure that clients are properly educated and that their nutritional needs are individualized to improve their quality and length of life.
Foods high in calcium include cheese, yogurt, edamame, canned sardines, canned salmon, tofu, almonds, leafy green vegetables, and calcium-fortified foods. Foods high in magnesium include dark chocolate, avocados, nuts, legumes, tofu, seeds, whole grains, fatty fish, bananas, and leafy green vegetables.
Phosphorus should be restricted to less than 800–1000 mg/day, protein to 0.6–0.8 g/kg/day, and potassium to less than 2000 mg/day (Mobley et al., 2020). Protein should come from lean sources as much as possible, which are those that come from low-fat, high-protein foods such as eggs and skinless chicken.
For clients receiving dialysis treatments, strict fluid restriction is extremely important because gaining too much weight due to fluid retention in between treatments can cause serious side effects. The average fluid restriction for a client on dialysis is 32 oz daily (Fresenius Kidney Care, n.d.). Nurses should instruct clients that fluids are not just beverages and substances that are liquid at room temperature; this category also includes gelatin, ice cream, ice, ice chips, and soup.
Nurses should be sure clients are aware that when a low-sodium diet is required and sodium substitution is recommended, it is dangerous for them to use salt substitutes . These substitutes are made with potassium chloride , which can raise potassium to life-threatening levels. Instead, clients should check food labels for added sodium and flavor their food with herbs and other salt-free substitutes.
Renal Cancer
Renal cancer , or kidney cancer , occurs sporadically, but associations with aging, obesity, hypertension, smoking, acquired cystic kidney disease, and exposure to asbestos, cadmium, or petroleum have been observed (Mas Que Ideas Foundation, 2022). Most of the time, renal cancer is asymptomatic and found incidentally on an abdominal scan performed for other medical purposes; however, on occasion, a client may experience hematuria, an abdominal lump, or a symptom related to paraneoplastic syndrome, such as anemia, hypertension, weight loss, anorexia, or muscle wasting. Renal cancer will not necessarily cause immediate or automatic kidney failure.
Proper nutrition and nutritional modifications can help lower the risk for renal cancer, prevent adverse effects of cancer treatments and medications, support the highest level of renal function possible, and maintain a client's life expectancy after cancer remission.
Preventing renal cancer is the first priority. Eating grilled and pan-fried foods as well as red meats increases the risk, so nurses should instruct clients to restrict or avoid these (Richards, 2022). Increased intake of vegetables, with special emphasis on cruciferous vegetables, and foods containing vitamin C, such as citrus fruits, strawberries, bell peppers, tomatoes, and white potatoes, shows promise for decreasing the risk for developing renal cancer (Liao et al., 2022). High-fiber foods; foods rich in antioxidants such as vitamin E and selenium; and foods containing phytochemicals, such as whole grains, may also reduce the risk (Thompson, 2023). See Figure 16.3.
Nutritional changes can address adverse effects of cancer treatment. Many side effects of chemotherapy —such as nausea and vomiting, anorexia, diarrhea, constipation, flatus, bloating, weight loss, sore throat, gastrointestinal problems, dysphagia, heartburn, dry mouth, mouth sores, and changes in taste and smell—make it difficult for the individual to take in enough calories. Therefore, a nutrient-dense diet with sufficient calories, vitamins, and minerals to ensure proper nutrition is important (Richards, 2022; Thompson, 2023). It should include whole foods, such as fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, and limit foods high in salt and phosphorus (Richards, 2022). Fluid volume status should be monitored because decreased kidney function may necessitate fluid restriction (Richards, 2022). Nurses can suggest that clients with painful mouth sores avoid acidic or spicy foods, alcohol, and foods that are too hot or too cold, and instead eat foods that are soft and easy to chew (Thompson, 2023).
Because of the eating issues that chemotherapy can cause, clients may better tolerate smaller, more frequent meals and maybe even different food consistencies, such as soft, lightly mashed, or pureed foods (Richards, 2022). Brief periods of fasting may even be beneficial during chemotherapy treatment because fasting can generate environments in the body that make survival of cancer cells less likely and help normal cells resist the negative effects of chemotherapy. These periods should be very short, and the client should eat calorie-rich, nutrient-dense foods after fasting.
Another significant effect of chemotherapy is the risk for developing infection. Some nutritional precautions to lower this risk include avoiding unpasteurized juice and dairy products as well as raw fish and raw meat (Richards, 2022). Food preparation and storage are also important in infection prevention, so the nurse should educate the client on appropriate methods.
In maintenance, a plant-based diet may improve survival after renal cancer (Richards, 2022). Because chronic inflammation has been shown to play a major role in cancer, and fruits and vegetables have strong anti-inflammatory properties, fruits and fiber-rich vegetables may have protective effects against renal cancer and its reoccurrence (Thompson, 2023). Since whole grains are high in fiber and contain antioxidants such as selenium and vitamin E as well as phytochemicals, they are also important nutritionally and may help prevent the occurrence and reoccurrence of renal cancer.
Holistic Assessment of Cultural Considerations
Most long-term kidney disease management is focused on CKD. Care of CKD starts with nutritional restrictions and treatment of any comorbidities to prevent disease progression, as the main goal is to prevent the need for dialysis (Satellite Healthcare, 2022). Some religious beliefs involve more restrictions in nutritional allowances and prevent the acceptance of dialysis or transplants, making it even more important for these clients to slow progression as much as possible for as long as possible.
Nurses must be well versed in the nutritional and other care needs of these clients so they can properly educate them to holistically care for their disease as well as live within the confines of their religious and cultural beliefs. Treatment adherence, quality of life, and the self-care ability of clients with CKD and ESRD increase, and risks for complications decrease, when nurses are actively involved in clients’ comprehensive care.
Promotion of Food Security
Food security must be addressed in all age groups to ensure renal health. The National Kidney Foundation has many partnerships with other organizations that are working on initiatives to address food insecurity , especially for individuals with special nutritional needs due to renal issues.
Economic status and the accessibility of grocery stores can affect people’s ability to obtain food. At least 33.2% of low-income individuals live more than a mile from the nearest grocery store (Economic Research Service, 2022). Older adults and individuals with mobility issues may have to rely on others to bring them food and therefore have even more limited food options. Having insufficient ways to obtain food from grocery stores because of transportation issues may lead some people to buy more fast food regardless of their health needs, as fast-food restaurants are often more numerous and easily accessed than grocery stores.
Americans have access to a variety of government resources that can help them with food security issues. The Older Americans Act authorizes meal services and related services for those aged 60 and older, as well as their spouses, regardless of age. These services are provided in settings such as senior centers, churches, schools, and community centers, and meals can be delivered to individuals’ homes if they have limited mobility (USDA, 2020, pp. 129–130). The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) , commonly called food stamps, is a federally funded program that helps Americans with limited incomes obtain healthy foods and beverages during times of constrained resources (USDA, 2020, pp. 68, 90, 105, 120, 129). These same groups of people can take advantage of the Commodity Supplemental Food Program , which directly provides packaged food to older Americans with limited income via federally funded resources and distribution help from nonprofit organizations (USDA, 2020, p. 130). The Child and Adult Care Food Program is a federally funded program that provides reimbursement for food served to children and older adults cared for in after-school programs and day care centers, including adult day care (USDA, 2020, pp. 68, 90, 130). The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) provides specific healthy foods for women who are pregnant, breastfeeding, or postpartum and for children aged newborn to 5 years (USDA, 2020, pp. 68, 90, 120). The National School Lunch Program and the School Breakfast Program provide low-income children with breakfast and lunch on school days, accounting for two-thirds of their daily caloric needs for those days (USDA, 2020, p. 90).


30.4: Chapter Summary
Transitional care is as a process that supports clients as they move between different health care settings, ensuring continuity and safety. Factors contributing to poor transitions of care outcomes include communication breakdown, care fragmentation, limited health literacy, socioeconomic factors, and health disparities. Transitional care promotes seamless and well-coordinated care, reducing medication errors, preventing readmissions, and enhancing client engagement. By understanding the importance of effective care coordination and transitions, health care professionals can strive to optimize client outcomes and overall health care system performance.
Care transition models are frameworks designed to facilitate smooth transitions of care. Commonly used models include CTI, TCM, and BOOST. Each model aims to ensure that clients can receive appropriate and coordinated care during the transition process. Discharge planning helps ensure a smooth transition for a client from a hospital or other health care setting to their home or another facility. The IDEAL Discharge Planning guide engages clients and their families, emphasizing the importance of client-centered care, effective communication, and education.
CHNs play a crucial role in improving outcomes and safety during care transitions through the incorporation of evidence-based interventions. CHNs may use a variety of strategies to enhance safety and continuity of care for clients transitioning from behavioral health hospitalization to outpatient care, with each emphasizing the importance of a comprehensive and client-centered approach. CHNs contribute to enhanced quality through care coordination and transition management by promoting effective communication, client engagement, and seamless transitions. Utilizing electronic health, mobile health, and telehealth systems facilitates coordination and transitions of care. A collaborative approach in coordinating care with other health care professionals and concerned parties ensures comprehensive and coordinated client care.


13.6: Tumor Suppressor Genes
More than 30 genes are classified as tumor suppressors . The normal functions of these genes include repair of DNA, induction of programmed cell death ( apoptosis ) and prevention of abnormal cell division. In contrast to proto-oncogenes, in tumor suppressors it is loss-of-function mutations that contribute to the progression of cancer. This means that tumor suppressor mutations tend to be recessive, and thus both alleles must be mutated in order to allow abnormal growth to proceed. It is perhaps not surprising that mutations in tumor suppressor genes, are more likely than oncogenes to be inherited. An example is the tumor suppressor gene, BRCA1 , which is involved in DNA-repair. Inherited mutations in BRCA1 increase a woman’s lifetime risk of breast cancer by up to seven times, although these heritable mutations account for only about 10% of breast cancer. Thus, sporadic rather than inherited mutations are the most common sources of both oncogenes and disabled tumor suppressor genes.
An important tumor suppressor gene is a transcription factor named p53 . Other proteins in the cell sense DNA damage, or abnormalities in the cell cycle and activate p53 through several mechanisms including phosphorylation (attachment of phosphate to specific site on the protein) and transport into the nucleus. In its active form, p53 induces the transcription of genes with several different types of tumor suppressing functions, including DNA repair, cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis. Over 50% of human tumors contain mutations in p53. People who inherit only one function copy of p53 have a greatly increased incidence of early onset cancer. However, as with the other cancer related genes we have discussed, most mutations in p53 are sporadic, rather than inherited. Mutation of p53, through formation of pyrimidine dimers in the genes following exposure to UV light, has been causally linked to squamous cell and basal cell carcinomas (but not melanomas, highlighting the variety and complexities of mechanisms that can cause cancer).


 This introduction explains some approaches.
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2: Paleolithic
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Paleolithic art is dominated by the surviving cave art in regions of Spain and France. The early humans were nomadic and the sculptural figures had to be portable. Female figurines with similar exaggerated parts of the body are found across Europe.
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3: Neolithic
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The Neolithic Period still presents challenges since writing is not available. We experience growing communities building towns, domesticating animals and plants, and migrating to areas where large civilizations will appear. The art and architecture play a vital part in helping to understand these prehistoric ancestors.
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4: Ancient Near East
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The Ancient Near East is often referred to as the cradle of civilization. The Epic of Gilgamesh comes from Sumer and is the first story to be recorded and passed on through writing. This volatile region was rich in resources and grew at a pace that eventually overwhelmed those same resources leading to a collapse of the culture. The art and architecture tell the story of these people, their lives, their concerns, and the gods and goddesses they worshipped and feared.
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5: Ancient Egypt
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Ancient Egypt art includes some of the most monumental works ever created. The fact that the civilization was very stable due to its proximity to the Nile and a defensible region enabled an enduring art style that lasted almost 3,000 years. The Armarna Period is one exception that provides a departure from the traditionally formulaic art of earlier and later periods.
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6: Aegean
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The Aegean includes the fascinating and technologically advanced Minoans, the Neolithic communities in the Cyclades and the powerful Mycenaeans. This region, with active volcanoes at that time, was decimated by earthquakes that weakened and eventually doomed the Minoan civilization and culture. One positive result of the ensuing volcanic eruptions was preservation of many of the frescoes and ceramics.
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7: Ancient Greece
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The meteoric rise of the Athenians can be attributed to the creative loan practices for olive farmers and a new political system called democracy. Tremendous strides in science, math, medicine, and the arts can be attributed to the Athenians. New standards and styles in pottery, sculpture, and architecture led to the Greco-Roman model still used today in Western civilizations.
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8: Etruscans
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The Etruscans developed several city-states in Italy. The cities were conquered one by one by the Romans, and in doing so the Romans assimilated much of the Etruscan technologies. They were skilled at detailed bronze casting, and had their own unique culture, style, and burial practices.
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9: Ancient Roman
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The Romans conquer the Greeks and inherit a more cultured heritage with many talented artists and scholars. They use the Greek artists to fashion both Republican and Imperial images for their empire. Using a special formula for concrete, they build on a massive scale in Rome and throughout their vast empire.
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10: Early Christian
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Early Christian imagery centered around Christ as the Good Shepherd. Once Christianity becomes accepted as the religion of the Roman Empire, Christian sculpture, iconography, and architecture rapidly develop. A split in the church creates both Roman and Eastern Orthodox factions.
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11: Early Medieval
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After the fall of the Roman Empire, Christianity will be tested for the next several hundred years. Threats from invading peoples such as the Vikings, Visigoths, and Ostrogoths kept Christian Europe on edge.The Byzantine Empire was not as successful managing the region as the Roman Empire before it. Charlemagne is a major figure of the time who helps stabilize Christian Europe. Monastic communities produce the greatest art of the period in the form of detailed illuminated books and manuscripts.
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12: Islamic Art
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Islamic art merges existing Jewish and Christian forms to produce an evolutionary style with an emphasis on decorative geometric patterning. The Alhambra and other building programs surpassed the Medieval Christian towns and cities of that time. Travelers were amazed at the great Morrish palaces and cities of light built in Spain. An emphasis on design and intricate patterns rather than images of religious figures or leaders was common. The exception was princely gifts and storytelling on cerami
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13: Romanesque
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Romanesque art was created in the tradition of the Roman Empire, although often inferior. The formula for concrete was lost so the buildings had to be constructed using masonry skills. Thick-walled churches provided structural support and were adored with biblical stories carved in stone. Much of what was produced was an evolution of Roman forms to suit Christianity.
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14: Gothic
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Gothic is a most fascinating art movement that quickly made the Romanesque style seem boring and obsolete. So much so, that some newly built churches were quickly renovated in the new Gothic Style! The Gothic Style began in a suburb of northern Paris as a vision of Abbot Suger (1081 – 13 January 1151), who was a French abbot, statesman, and historian. He was one of the earliest patrons of Gothic architecture, and is widely credited with popularizing the style.


6.1: NMR of Dynamic Systems- An Overview
The study of conformational and chemical equilibrium is an important part of understanding chemical species in solution. NMR is one of the most useful and easiest to use tools for such kinds of work. Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) The study of conformational and chemical equilibrium is an important part of understanding chemical species in solution. NMR is one of the most useful and easiest to use tools for such kinds of work.
Chemical equilibrium is defined as the state in which both reactants and products (of a chemical reaction) are present at concentrations which have no further tendency to change with time. Such a state results when the forward reaction proceeds at the same rate (i.e., K a in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) b) as the reverse reaction (i.e., K d in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) b). The reaction rates of the forward and reverse reactions are generally not zero but, being equal, there are no net changes in the concentrations of the reactant and product. This process is called dynamic equilibrium.
Conformational isomerism is a form of stereoisomerism in which the isomers can be interconverted exclusively by rotations about formally single bonds. Conformational isomers are distinct from the other classes of stereoisomers for which interconversion necessarily involves breaking and reforming of chemical bonds. The rotational barrier, or barrier to rotation, is the activation energy required to interconvert rotamers. The equilibrium population of different conformers follows a Boltzmann distribution.
If we consider a simple system (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\))as an example of how to study conformational equilibrium. In this system, the two methyl groups (one is in red, the other blue) will exchange with each other through the rotation of the C-N bond. When the speed of the rotation is fast (faster than the NMR timescale of about 10 -5 s), NMR can no longer recognize the difference of the two methyl groups, which results in an average peak in the NMR spectrum (as is shown in the red spectrum in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)).Conversely, when the speed of the rotation is slowed by cooling (to -50 °C) the two conformations have lifetimes significantly longer that they are observable in the NMR spectrum (as is shown by the dark blue spectrum in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). The changes that occur to this spectrum with varying temperature is shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\), where it is clearly seen the change of the NMR spectrum with the decreasing of temperature.
Based upon the above, it should be clear that the presence of an average or separate peaks can be used as an indicator of the speed of the rotation. As such this technique is useful in probing systems such as molecular motors. One of the most fundamental problems is to confirm that the motor is really rotating, while the other is to determine the rotation speed of the motors. In this area, the dynamic NMR measurements is an ideal technique. For example, we can take a look at the molecular motor shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\). This molecular motor is composed of two rigid conjugated parts, which are not in the same plane. The rotation of the C-N bond will change the conformation of the molecule, which can be shown by the variation of the peaks of the two methyl groups in NMR spectrum. For the control of the rotation speed of this particular molecule motor, the researchers added additional functionality. When the nitrogen in the aromatic ring is not protonated the repulsion between the nitrogen and the oxygen atoms is larger which prohibits the rotation of the five member ring, which separates the peaks of the two methyl groups from each other. However, when the nitrogen is protonated, the rotation barrier greatly decreases because of the formation of a more stable coplanar transition state during the rotation process. Therefore, the speed of the rotation of the rotor dramatically increases to make the two methyl groups unrecognizable by NMR spectrometry to get an average peak. The result of the NMR spectrum versus the addition of the acid is shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\), which can visually tell that the rotation speed is changing.