4.3: Prewriting for Literature Essays
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- Heather Ringo & Athena Kashyap
- City College of San Francisco via ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative
Reading
The first step in writing a literary analysis essay is actually completing the reading. Sometimes the professor will give you a prompt before you read. If this is the case, look for material which relates to the prompt as you read. If the professor did not give you a prompt, look for any material in the assigned reading that piques your interest or relates to class discussions. Highlight or underline any moments in the reading which stick out to you: something you don't understand, something that relates to a topic you care about, or something weird or surprising. Keeping track of patterns, themes, or literary devices is a great way to engage with a work of literature and prepare for a future discussion or essay.
Completing the Reading
One time, I was talking with my sister-in-law about her experience in nursing school. Whereas her brother had barely achieved Cs in college, she somehow maintained a 4.0, even though she was simultaneously working and caring for her two young daughters.
"What is your secret to success?" I asked.
"Actually doing the assigned readings," she laughed, "most of my peers didn't. And it showed."
As a college professor who teaches reading-heavy classes, this is not a shock to me. After all, most students taking the required writing and literature courses do not wish to become English majors. They sometimes see their literature class as a means to an end: at best, a stepping stone towards their future career; at worst, a time-suck of hoops to jump through. Also, because of today's gig economy, many students are juggling multiple jobs in addition to multiple college classes. This makes it tempting for students to want to skip the readings and just read SparkNotes or have ChatGPT summarize the literature for them. Truth be told, students who pursue this method, depending on their BSing skills, might be able to pass a literature class. But for the vast majority of students, this popular high school tactic will not work at the college level. More importantly, it means students miss out on many of the exciting benefits of diving deep into analysis, discussion, and engaging with the text. Plus, there might be consequences when SparkNotes or ChatGPT gives you incorrect answers, your instructor asks you not to use these sources, or you plagiarize by using ideas from these sources without credit.
Of course, I want my students to fall in love with the written word. I want my passion for literature to be contagious, to light students' hearts and minds on fire with a hunger for the beauty of syntax and diction and literary devices. But I also completely understand that students have limited time. Therefore, I recommend prioritizing the writing process by reading attentively so writers can make the most efficient use of their time. In the long run, while it might seem like skipping the readings saves time, completing the readings is actually the best way for students to optimize their time. This is because a strong essay depends on a deep understanding of the literature. If the class features examinations, these almost always test students on whether they completed and understand the readings. Finally, class will be more fun for students if they understand what their peers are talking about in class discussion, and what their professor is talking about during lectures.
Students who complete the readings and annotate as they go will find it much easier to flip back through their notes to find relevant quotations and information. Successful students often break the readings into small, manageable chunks of twenty to thirty minutes at a time. This helps their brains absorb the information better and retain information for writing and tests.
Students skipping reading often end up performing more work when it comes to writing an essay because they will spend so much time looking up text summaries on the internet (which may or may not be accurate or align with the intricacies of the assignment directions). They will also have to go back and re-read the text to find quotations that fit their prompt. Their essays may not succeed because they do not fulfill the in-depth analysis required by the assignments.
So, long story short: even the most practically-minded, time-crunched students would do well to perform the readings. And, while in pursuit of success, a previously literature-averse student might find themselves liking reading more than they thought they would. Just like watching a favorite movie or show, reading a good book can be fun and relaxing!
Active versus Passive Reading
Many students, when first reading academic material, read it like they would a timeline of Facebook or Instagram posts: not fully attentive, skimming over the material in search of something interesting or for what they think are "answers" on a test. Or they might read literature with full attention, but read without questioning or engaging with the material. The difference between a student who is successful in a literature class and a student who is not successful is often that the successful student participates in active reading.
|
Actions |
Passive Reading |
Active Reading |
|---|---|---|
|
Engagement Level |
Skimming or not giving the reading undivided attention; reading for "gist" rather than substance |
Reading closely, annotating, analyzing, and reflecting as you read; reading deeply for understanding |
|
Tools |
Just the book |
Book, writing utensils, highlighters, sticky notes, reading journal |
|
Number of Times Read |
Once (or *gasp* not at all!) |
Read three or more times:
|
Annotating
In a literature class, students encounter a lot of literature, written by many different authors. Annotating, or taking notes on the assigned literature as you read, is a way to have a conversation with the reading. This helps you better absorb the material and engage with the text on a deeper level. There are several annotation methods. These are like tools in a student's learning utility belt. Try them all out to discover which tools or combinations of tools help you learn best!
Margin Notes & Highlighting
One of the best ways to interact with a text is to write notes as you read. Underlining and/or highlighting relevant passages, yes, but also responding to the text in the margins. For instance, if a character I love makes a bad choice (like Sydney Carton in Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities ), I will write, "Nooooo, Sydney Carton, don't sacrifice yourself for Lucie's sake!" This helps me remember the events of the plot. Many students also find it helpful to summarize each chapter or section of the literature as they read it. For example, a student said it was helpful for them to draw a picture representing every stanza of "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud" by William Wordsworth to help them understand what was being said. Other ideas include:
- Circling unfamiliar words
- Writing questions in the margins
- Color-coded highlighting to track various literary devices (i.e., blue for metaphors, pink for symbolism, and so forth)
Sticky Notes
For students who would like to sell their textbooks back to the bookstore, writing notes in the margins might not be a practical choice, as it may devalue the textbook or the bookstore may refuse to take it back. For these students, I recommend using sticky notes instead. If sticky notes are cost-prohibitive, most colleges have plenty of scrap paper students can use as bookmarks to stick between pages. This is also an eco-friendly way to re-use paper!
Reading Journal
Another option many students find helpful is keeping a reading journal. Students can write notes in their journals as they read. This helps students keep track of readings and materials in a chronological fashion. Just like when annotating the text directly or upon sticky notes, the most effective use of a reading journal, for learning purposes, is going to be active engagement with the text rather than passive absorption. That is, try to summarize the plot of what you read every time you read. Also, ask questions about the text. If you can record quotes and paraphrase along with in-text parenthetical citations (i.e., the page number where you found the material), this will optimize your time because you already have quotes ready to go when you write an essay!
Example of an Annotated Passage
Using the guidelines above, let's consider this excerpt from a scholarly article by Jacob Michael Leland, "'Yes, That is a Roll of Bills in My Pocket': The Economy of Masculinity in The Sun Also Rises."
A great deal of critical attention has been paid to masculine agency and its displacement in Ernest Hemingway's fiction. The story is familiar by now: the Hemingway hero loses some version of his maleness to the first World War and he replaces it with a tool—in Upper Michigan, a fishing rod or a pocket knife; in Africa, a hunting rifle—a new object that emblematizes his mastery over his surroundings and whose status as a fetishized commodity and Freudian symbolic significance is something less than subtle. In The Sun Also Rises , this pattern repeats itself, but with important differences that arise from the novel's cosmopolitan European setting. Mastery over the elements, here, has more to do with economic agency and control over social relationships than with nature and survival. The stakes are different, too; in the modern European city, the Hemingway hero recovers not only masculinity but also American identity in social and sexual interaction. (37)
In researching The Sun Also Rises for a project, Ling Ti found Leland's article. What follows is her annotated copy of the above excerpt:
As you can see, this writer highlighted words that seemed important to understanding the text. She included questions in the margins to help her understand the reading. She also provided definitions for terms she did not know, presumably looking them up as she read. Finally, she wrote a brief summary of her reading, also known as a reflection.
Reflecting on Assigned Literature
Studies show reflecting on reading is one of the best ways to learn. This is called metacognition, or thinking about thinking. It is a way to keep track of the knowledge you have learned as you go. Students who reflect on their reading and learning tend to, as a whole, perform better on essays and examinations. So how can you take advantage of this skill?
If you have a prompt, choose a prompt and read through the assigned literature again, noting any quotes which may relate to the assigned topic. It is recommended at this point that you keep track of your observations in a document: either on a computer (Word, Google Docs) or on a physical piece of paper. Write down any quotations along with page numbers (fiction, nonfiction), line numbers (poem), or act, scene, line numbers (drama). This way, you have all potential evidence in one place, and it makes for easy in-text citations when it comes to knitting the evidence together to form an essay. In fact, it is highly recommended that students start an informal Works Cited page to keep track of every source consulted. This makes it much easier to avoid plagiarism by practicing ethical citation habits. For more information about citations, please see the Citations and Formatting Chapter.
Start with a hypothesis or focus but be willing to refine, adjust, or completely discard it if new evidence refutes it. An essay is not a stagnant piece, but a living, breathing thought experiment. Many students feel reluctant to change their thesis or major parts of their essays because they are afraid it means the previous writing was wasted. As a professional writer, editor, and scholar, I want to clue students in on a secret:
There is no such thing as wasted writing.
Even writing that does not end up in the final draft is worthwhile because it is a chance to experiment with ideas. It helps students find a path toward stronger ideas. Just like a gardener might allow branches of a tree to grow to see which ones bear flowers and fruit and then prune the weak, unproductive branches to make the plant stronger and more beautiful, so too must a writer be willing to cut out branches of reasoning which no longer serve the essay. But before you know which ideas or thoughts are worth pursuing, you first have to give them space to grow. You never know what idea branches might prove fruitful!
Contributors and Attributions
- Adapted from "Reading Like a Professional" in Writing and Literature: Composition as Inquiry, Learning, Thinking, and Communication by Dr. Tanya Long Bennett of the University of North Georgia, CC BY-SA 4.0


1.20: Motet
It is often the case throughout history that musical innovation begins in a single genre then spreads to others. This is the case in the Renaissance with the motet. For understandable reasons, composers were more willing to try out newer compositional styles in the genre of the motet than they were in the mass. For example, the older cantus firmus technique that arose in the Middle Ages was used in masses for much longer than in motets. In motets, composers moved away from the cantus firms and favored freer, more expressive techniques (including imitative and homophonic textures) far earlier than in the mass. Over time these newer styles eventually spread to other genres including the mass.
In classical music, a motet is a highly varied choral musical composition. The motet was one of the pre-eminent polyphonic forms of Renaissance music.
According to Margaret Bent, “a piece of music in several parts with words” is as precise a definition of the motet as will serve from the 13th to the late 16th century and beyond. This is close to one of the earliest descriptions we have, that of the late 13th-century theorist Johannes de Grocheo, who believed that the motet was “not to be celebrated in the presence of common people, because they do not notice its subtlety, nor are they delighted in hearing it, but in the presence of the educated and of those who are seeking out subtleties in the arts.”
Etymology
In the early twentieth century, it was generally believed the name came from the Latin movere , (“to move”), though a derivation from the French mot (“word” or “phrase”), had also been suggested. The Medieval Latin for “motet” is motectum , and the Italian mottetto was also used. If the word is from Latin, the name describes the movement of the different voices against one another. Today, however, the French etymology is favoured by reference books, as the word “motet” in thirteenth-century French had the sense of “little word.”
Medieval Motets
The earliest motets arose in the thirteenth century from the organum tradition exemplified in the Notre Dame school of Léonin and Pérotin. The motet probably arose from the addition of text to the long melismatic passages of organum. The motet took a definite rhythm from the words of the verse, and as such appeared as a brief rhythmic interlude in the middle of the longer, more chantlike organum.
The practice of discant over a cantus firmus marked the beginnings of counterpoint in Western music. From these first motets arose a medieval tradition of secular motets. These were two or three part compositions in which several different texts, sometimes in different vernacular languages, were sung simultaneously over a Latin cantus firmus that once again was usually adapted from a passage of Gregorian chant. It is suspected that, for the sake of intelligibility, in performance the cantus firmus and one or another of the vocal lines were performed on instruments. Among the trouvères, Robert de Reins La Chievre and Richart de Fournival composed motets.
Renaissance Motets
The motet was preserved in the transition from medieval to Renaissance music, but the character of the composition was entirely changed. While it grew out of the medieval motet, the Renaissance composers of the motet generally abandoned the use of a repeated figure as a cantus firmus . Instead, the Renaissance motet is a polyphonic musical setting, sometimes in imitative counterpoint, for chorus, of a Latin text, usually sacred, not specifically connected to the liturgy of a given day, and therefore suitable for use in any service. The texts of antiphons were frequently used as motet texts. This is the sort of composition that is most familiarly designated by the term “motet,” and the Renaissance period marked the flowering of the form.
In essence, these motets were sacred madrigals. The relationship between the two forms is most obvious in the composers who concentrated on sacred music, especially Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, whose “motets” setting texts from the Canticum Canticorum , the biblical “Song of Solomon,” are among the most lush and madrigal-like of Palestrina’s compositions, while his “madrigals” that set poems of Petrarch in praise of the Blessed Virgin Mary would not be out of place in church. The language of the text was the decisive feature: if it’s Latin, it’s a motet; if the vernacular, a madrigal. Religious compositions in vernacular languages were often called madrigali spirituali , “spiritual madrigals.”
In the latter part of the sixteenth century, Giovanni Gabrieli and other composers developed a new style, the polychoral motet, in which two or more choirs of singers (or instruments) alternated. This style of motet was sometimes called the Venetian motet to distinguish it from the Netherlands or Flemish motet written elsewhere.
Contributors and Attributions
- Motet. Provided by : Wikpedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Motet . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


2.2: What is Competitive Advantage
Competitive Advantage
What does it mean when a company has a competitive advantage? What are the factors that play into it? While there are entire courses and many different opinions on this topic, let’s go with one of the most accepted definitions, developed by Michael Porter in his book Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance. A company is said to have a competitive advantage over its rivals when it is able to sustain profits that exceed average for the industry. According to Porter, there are two primary methods for obtaining competitive advantage: cost advantage and differentiation advantage.
One of the ways that information systems participated in competitive advantage is through integrating the supply chain electronically. This is primarily done through a process called electronic data interchange, or EDI. EDI can be thought of as the computer-to-computer exchange of business documents in a standard electronic format between business partners. By integrating suppliers and distributors via EDI, a company can vastly reduce the resources required to manage the relevant information. Instead of manually ordering supplies, the company can simply place an order via the computer and the next time the order process runs, it is ordered.
Using Information Systems for Competitive Advantage
Now that we have an understanding of competitive advantage and some of the ways that IT may be used to help organizations gain it, we will turn our attention to some specific examples. A strategic information system is an information system that is designed specifically to implement an organizational strategy meant to provide a competitive advantage. These sorts of systems began popping up in the 1980s, as noted in a paper by Charles Wiseman entitled “Creating Competitive Weapons From Information Systems.” [4]
Specifically, a strategic information system is one that attempts to do one or more of the following:
- deliver a product or a service at a lower cost;
- deliver a product or service that is differentiated;
- help an organization focus on a specific market segment;
- enable innovation.
Following are some examples of information systems that fall into this category.
Collaborative Systems
As organizations began to implement networking technologies, information systems emerged that allowed employees to begin collaborating in different ways. These systems allowed users to brainstorm ideas together without the necessity of physical, face-to-face meetings. Utilizing tools such as discussion boards, document sharing, and video, these systems made it possible for ideas to be shared in new ways and the thought processes behind these ideas to be documented.
Broadly speaking, any software that allows multiple users to interact on a document or topic could be considered collaborative. Electronic mail, a shared Word document, social networks, and discussion boards would fall into this broad definition. However, many software tools have been created that are designed specifically for collaborative purposes. These tools offer a broad spectrum of collaborative functions. Here is just a short list of some collaborative tools available for businesses today:
- Google Drive . Google Drive offers a suite of office applications (such as a word processor, spreadsheet, drawing, presentation) that can be shared between individuals. Multiple users can edit the documents at the same time and threaded comments are available.
- Microsoft SharePoint . SharePoint integrates with Microsoft Office and allows for collaboration using tools most office workers are familiar with. SharePoint was covered in more detail in chapter 5.
- Cisco WebEx . WebEx is a business communications platform that combines video and audio communications and allows participants to interact with each other’s computer desktops. WebEx also provides a shared whiteboard and the capability for text-based chat to be going on during the sessions, along with many other features. Mobile editions of WebEx allow for full participation using smartphones and tablets.
- Atlassian Confluence . Confluence provides an all-in-one project-management application that allows users to collaborate on documents and communicate progress. The mobile edition of Confluence allows the project members to stay connected throughout the project.
- IBM Lotus Notes/Domino . One of the first true “groupware” collaboration tools, Lotus Notes (and its web-based cousin, Domino) provides a full suite of collaboration software, including integrated e-mail.


7.4: Gaps
Empirical evidence suggests that gaps cluster, in both nucleotide and protein sequences. Clustering is usually modeled by different penalties for gap opening \(\left(g_{o}\right)\) and gap extension \(\left(g_{e}\right)\) , with \(g_{o}<g_{e}<0\) . For example, the default scoring scheme for the widely used BLASTN software is \(+1\) for a nucleotide match, \(-3\) for a nucleotide mismatch, \(-5\) for a gap opening, and \(-2\) for a gap extension.
Having two types of gaps (opening and extension) complicates the dynamic programming algorithm. When an indel is added to an existing alignment, the scoring increment depends on whether the indel is a gap opening or a gap extension. For example, the extended alignment
\[\begin{array}{ll} \mathrm{AB} & \mathrm{AB}- \\[4pt] 11 & \text { to } & 111 \\[4pt] \mathrm{ab} & & \mathrm{abc} \end{array} \nonumber \]
adds a gap opening penalty \(g_{o}\) to the score, whereas
\[\begin{array}{ll} \text { A- } & \text { A- } \\[4pt] \text { II to } & \text { ||| } \\[4pt] \text { ab } & & \text { abc } \end{array} \nonumber \]
adds a gap extension penalty \(g_{e}\) to the score. The score increment depends not only on the current aligning pair, but also on the previously aligned pair.
The final aligning pair of a sequence of length \(i\) with a sequence of length \(j\) can be one of three possibilities (top:bottom): (1) \(a_{i}: b_{j} ;\) (2) \(a_{i}:-;(3)-: b_{j}\) . Only for (1) is the score increment \(S\left(a_{i}, b_{j}\right)\) unambiguous. For (2) or (3), the score increment depends on the presence or absence of indels in the previously aligned characters. For instance, for alignments ending with \(a_{i}:-\) , the previously aligned character pair could be one of (i) \(a_{i-1}: b_{j}\) , (ii) \(-: b_{j}\) , (iii) \(a_{i-1}:-\) . If the previous aligned character pair was (i) or (ii), the score increment would be the gap opening penalty \(g_{o}\) ; if it was (iii), the score increment would be the gap extension penalty \(g_{e}\) .
To remove the ambiguity that occurs with a single dynamic matrix, we need to compute three dynamic matrices simultaneously, with matrix elements denoted by \(T(i, j), T_{-}(i, j)\) and \(T^{-}(i, j)\) , corresponding to the three types of aligning pairs. The recursion relations are
\[T(i, j)=\max \left\{\begin{array}{l} T(i-1, j-1)+S\left(a_{i}, b_{j}\right) \\[4pt] T_{-}(i-1, j-1)+S\left(a_{i}, b_{j}\right) \\[4pt] T^{-}(i-1, j-1)+S\left(a_{i}, b_{j}\right) \end{array}\right. \nonumber \]
(2) \(a_{i}:-\)
\[T_{-}(i, j)=\max \left\{\begin{array}{l} T(i-1, j)+g_{o} \\[4pt] T_{-}(i-1, j)+g_{e} \\[4pt] T^{-}(i-1, j)+g_{o} \end{array}\right. \nonumber \]
(3) \(-: b_{j}\)
\[T^{-}(i, j)=\max \left\{\begin{array}{l} T(i, j-1)+g_{o} \\[4pt] T_{-}(i, j-1)+g_{o} \\[4pt] T^{-}(i, j-1)+g_{e} \end{array}\right. \nonumber \]
To align a sequence of length \(n\) with a sequence of length \(m\) , the best alignment score is the maximum of the scores obtained from the three dynamic matrices:
\[T_{\text {opt }}(n, m)=\max \left\{\begin{array}{l} T(n, m), \\[4pt] T_{-}(n, m), \\[4pt] T^{-}(n, m) . \end{array}\right. \nonumber \]
The traceback algorithm to find the best alignment proceeds as before by starting with the matrix element corresponding to the best alignment score, \(T_{\mathrm{opt}}(n, m)\) , and tracing back to the matrix element that determined this score. The optimum alignment is then built up from last-to-first as before, but now switching may occur between the three dynamic matrices.


8.2: Understanding Bias
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Bias
Bias means presenting facts and arguments in a way that consciously favours one side or other in an argument. Is bias bad or wrong?
No! Everyone who argues strongly for something is biased. So it’s not enough, when you are doing a language analysis, to merely spot some bias and say…”This writer is biased” or “This speaker is biased.”
Let’s begin by reading a biased text.
Hypocrites gather to feed off Daniel’s tragic death
The death of two-year-old Daniel Valerio at the hands of his step-father brought outrage from the media.
Daniel suffered repeated beatings before the final attack by Paul Alton, who was sentenced in Melbourne in February to 22 years jail.
Rupert Murdoch’s Herald-Sun launched a campaign which included a public meeting of hundreds of readers. Time magazine put Daniel on its front cover. The Herald-Sun summed up their message:
The community has a duty to protect our children from abuse – if necessary by laws that some people regard as possibly harsh or unnecessary.
But laws – like making it compulsory for doctors and others to report suspected abuse – cannot stop the violence.
Last year, 30 children were murdered across Australia. Babies under one are more likely to be killed than any other social group.
Daniel’s murder was not a horrific exception but the product of a society that sends some of its members over the edge into despairing violence.
The origin of these tragedies lies in the enormous pressures on families, especially working class families.
The media and politicians wring their hands over a million unemployed. But they ignore the impact that having no job, or a stressful poorly paid job, can have.
Child abuse can happen in wealthy families. But generally it is linked to poverty.
A survey in 1980 of “maltreating families” showed that 56.5 per cent were living in poverty and debt. A further 20 per cent expressed extreme anxiety about finances.
A study in Queensland found that all the children who died from abuse came from working class families.
Police records show that school holidays – especially Xmas – are peak times for family violence. “The sad fact is that when families are together for longer than usual, there tends to be more violence”, said one Victorian police officer.
Most people get by. Family life may get tense, but not violent.
But a minority cannot cope and lash out at the nearest vulnerable person to hand – an elderly person, a woman, or a child.
Compulsory reporting of child abuse puts the blame on the individual parents rather than the system that drives them to this kind of despair.
Neither is it a solution. Daniel was seen by 21 professionals before he was killed. Nonetheless, the Victorian Liberal government has agreed to bring it in.
Their hypocrisy is breathtaking.
This is the same government that is sacking 250 fire-fighters, a move that will lead to more deaths.
A real challenge to the basis of domestic violence means a challenge to poverty.
Yet which side were the media on when Labor cut the under-18 dole, or when Jeff Kennett[1] added $30 a week to the cost of sending a child to kindergarten?
To really minimise family violence, we need a fight for every job and against every cutback.
– by David Glanz, The Socialist , April 1993
There are good and bad aspects of bias.
-
It is good to be open about one’s bias. For example, the article about Daniel Valerio’s tragic death is written for
The
Socialist
newspaper. Clearly socialists will have a bias against arguments that blame only the individual for a crime when it could be argued that many other factors in society contributed to the crime and need to be changed. Focusing on the individual, from the socialist’s point of view, gets “the system” off the hook when crimes happen. The socialist’s main reason for writing is to criticise the capitalist system. So David Glanz is not pretending to not be biased, because he has published his article in a partisan[2] newspaper.
-
Here are some ways to be open about your bias, but still be naughty.
- (a) Deliberately avoid mentioning any of the opposing arguments.
- (b) Deliberately avoid mentioning relevant facts or information that would undermine your own case.
- (c) Get into hyperbole.
- (d) Make too much use of emotive language.
- (e) Misuse or distort statistics.
- (f) Use negative adjectives when talking about people you disagree with, but use positive adjectives when talking about people you agree with.
- Can you find examples of any of these “naughty” ways to be biased in Glaz’s article?
-
Here are some ways to be open about your bias, but still be naughty.
- You mustn’t assume that because a person writes with a particular bias he/she is not being sincere, or that he/she has not really thought the issue through. The person is not just stating what he/she thinks, he/she is trying to persuade you about something.
Bias can result from the way you have organised your experiences in your own mind. You have lumped some experiences into the ‘good’ box and some experiences into the ‘bad’ box. Just about everybody does this[3]. The way you have assembled and valued experiences in your mind is called your Weltanschauung (Velt-arn-shao-oong). If through your own experience, plus good thinking about those experiences, you have a better understanding of something, your bias is indeed a good thing.
For example, if you have been a traffic policeman, and have seen lots of disasters due to speed and alcohol, it is not ‘wrong’ for you to biased against fast cars and drinking at parties and pubs. Your bias is due to your better understanding of the issue, but you still have to argue logically .
Really naughty bias
4. If you pretend to be objective, to not take sides, but actually use techniques that tend to support one side of an argument, in that case you are being naughty. There are subtle ways to do this.
(a) If the support for one side of the argument is mainly at the top of the article, and the reasons to support the opposite side of the issue are mainly at the bottom end of the article; that might be subtle bias – especially if it was written by a journalist. Journalists are taught that many readers only read the first few paragraphs of an article before moving on to reading another article, so whatever is in the first few paragraphs will be what sticks in the reader’s mind.
(b) Quotes from real people are stronger emotionally than just statements by the writer. This is especially true if the person being quoted is an ‘authority’ on the subject, or a ‘celebrity’. So if one side of the issue is being supported by lots of quotes, and the other side isn’t, that is a subtle form of bias.
(c) If when one person is quoted as saying X, but the very next sentence makes that quote sound silly or irrational, that is a subtle form of bias too.
Common sense tells us that if someone is making money out of something, he/she will be biased in favour of it.
For example, a person who makes money out of building nuclear reactors in Europe or China could be expected to support a change in policy in Australia towards developing nuclear energy.
A manufacturer of cigarettes is unlikely to be in favour of health warnings on cigarette packets or bans on smoking in pubs.
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)
Nonetheless, logically speaking, we cannot just assume a person who is making money out of something will always take sides with whomever or whatever will make him/her more money.
We have to listen to the arguments as they come up. Assuming someone is biased is not logically okay. You have to show that someone is biased and use evidence to support your assertion that he/she is biased.
References
[1] Jeff Kennett was the leader of the Liberal party in Victoria at that time.
[2] When you are a partisan you have taken sides in an argument, or a battle, or a war.
[3] Learning critical thinking (which is what you are learning in Year 11 and 12 English) is aimed at getting you to do more, and better, thinking than that.


1.4: Module 4- User Coordinate System – Part 1
Module 4: User Coordinate System – Part 1
Learning Outcomes
When you have completed this module, you will be able to:
- Describe the User Coordinate System and the User Construction Plane.
- Apply the UCSMAN command.
- Draw 3D models using the User Coordinate System located at the World or at the predefined orthographic UCS locations only.
IMPORTANT – PLEASE READ BEFORE COMPLETING THIS MODULE
AutoCAD 2015 has a bug using the LINE command in 3D. The LINE command works properly when either the World or Top is the current UCS. When any other UCS is the current UCS, the cursor of the LINE command will display the new line in the wrong location. It locates the line in the correct location after you execute the LINE command. It displays correctly when snapping to existing objects and only appears wrong when using coordinates or drawing lines freehand.
A good workaround is to use the PLINE command rather than the LINE command, as it works correctly. After you complete the PLINE command, you can explode the pline to create a line object.
This bug is only in AutoCAD 2015. The LINE command in AutoCAD 2016, 2017 and 2018 works in all UCS locations.
The User Coordinate System
The User Coordinate System (UCS) is the coordinate system used to construct 3D models. It can be located at the WCS or at any location or orientation in 3D space. Being able to locate and orientate the UCS anywhere in 3D space is the secret of 3D modeling.
The User Construction Plane
If you draw an imaginary line from the X axis to the Y axis on the user coordinate system, it forms a imaginary triangular plane as shown in Figure 4-1. When you locate the UCS onto the 3D model, as shown in Figure 4-2, you can see this imaginary triangular plane laying on the surface. Next, picture the plane expanded to fill the whole surface it is located on. See Figure 4-3. This surface is called the User Construction Plane (UCP).
The easiest method of drawing 3D models is to locate and orientate the user construction plane to lie on the surface you currently want to insert or modify object(s) on. Relocate the location of the UCS and continue your model construction until you complete the model. You can use the Z axis to copy the object(s) and draw at a depth parallel to the UCP.
By relocating and orientating the UCS to different locations, you can draw or modify objects on any surface you want. Figure 4-4 shows the user construction plane located on the right side of the model and Figure 4-5 shows it located on the inclined surface.
In this module, all model construction will be drawn in the with the UCS located at the World or in one of the preset orthographic locations only. In Module 5, locating the UCS anywhere in model space will be taught.
AutoCAD Command: UCSMAN
The UCSMAN command is used to locate, orientate, and manage the UCS.
Shortcut: none
WORK ALONG: Moving the UCS to the Preset Locations
Step 1
Using the NEW command, start a new drawing using the template: 3D Layout English .
Step 2
Save and name the drawing: AutoCAD 3D Workalong 04-1 . Save it in the folder: CAD Courses/AutoCAD 3D/Lab Exercises
Step 3
Set the current UCS to World. Enter the UNITS command. In the Units dialogue box, set the Insertion Units to Inches. Using the INSERT command, insert the block: AutoCAD 3D Lab 01-1 at the coordinates 0,0,0. Explode the block.
Step 4
Set the current view to SE Isometric. Your wireframe model should appear as shown in the figure. (Figure Step 4)
Step 5
Enter the UCSMAN command. It will open the UCS dialogue box. Enable the Settings tab and ensure that the settings in the dialogue box matches the figure. (Figure Step 5)
Step 6
Enable the Orthographic UCS’s tab. Select Front and then click the Set Current button. (Figure Step 6)
Step 7
The wireframe model should now appear as shown in the figure. Notice how the XY axis lies on the front plane of the model. (Figure Step 7)
Step 8
Using either the UCS II toolbar or the Home tab ribbon. (Figure Step 8A and 8B)
Step 9
Set the current UCS location to Right and the UCS icon will move onto the right side of the model. Note that the XY plane is now located on the right side plane of the wireframe model. (Figure Step 9A and 9B)
Step 10
Click the UCS command icon as shown in the figures. With osnap enabled, snap to the end of the line. Note that the UCS icon has now moved to the end of the line that you just selected but it remains located on the right side plane. (Figure Step 10A, 10B, 10C, and 10D)
Step 11
Click Top from the pull-down list. The UCS icon will move onto the top plane of the model. In this case, it locates itself on the WCS. (Figure Step 11)
Step 12
Using the UCS command, move the UCS to corner as shown in the figure. Ensure that you snap to the end of the line. Note how the name of the UCS will display ‘ Unnamed ‘. (Figure Step 12)
Step 13
Click World from the pull-down list. The UCS icon will move onto the WCS. (Figure Step 13)
Step 14
Save and close the drawing.
WORK ALONG: Drawing 3D Wireframe Models Using the UCS
Step 1
Using the NEW command, start a new drawing using the template: 3D Layout English .
Step 2
Save and name the drawing: AutoCAD 3D Workalong 04-2 . (Figure Step 2A and 2B)
Step 3
Ensure that the current UCS is set to World and the current view is set to SE Isometric.
Step 4
Set layer: Model as the current layer.
Step 5
Using the LINE command, draw the lines to outline the Top view. (Figure Step 5)
Step 6
Copy all of the lines 3 units in the positive Z direction. (Figure Step 6)
Step 7
Using the 3DFORBIT command, orbit the model slightly. (Figure Step 7)
Step 8
Using the LINE command, draw the 6 vertical lines. Ensure that you enable object snap and snap to endpoints of the existing lines. (Figure Step 8)
Step 9
Set the current UCS to Right and then locate the icon by snapping to the corner of the model as shown in the figure. (Figure Step 9)
Step 10
Draw the necessary construction lines using the OFFSET command. Change their layer to layer: Construction. Draw the arc and the circle. (Figure Step 10)
Step 11
Copy the arc and the circle in the negative Z direction. (Figure Step 11)
Step 12
Trim or delete necessary lines. (Figure Step 12)
Step 13
Set the current UCS to Front and then locate it to the corner as shown in the figure. (Figure Step 13)
Step 14
Draw the necessary construction lines using the OFFSET command. Change their layer to layer: Construction . Draw the object lines as shown in the figure. (Figure Step 14)
Step 15
Copy the lines in the negative Z direction and add the necessary object lines. (Figure Step 15)
Step 16
Trim or delete the necessary lines and freeze layer: Construction to complete the wireframe model. (Figure Step 16)
Step 17
Change the current view to SE Isometric. (Figure Step 17)
Step 18
Set the current UCS to World. (Figure Step 18)
Step 19
Enter the UNITS command. In the Units dialogue box, set the Insertion Units to Inches.
Insert the key: AutoCAD 3D Workalong 04-2 . It will overlay the model with a magenta wireframe model. (Figure Step 19)
USER TIP: It is best to display the UCS icon at its origin point when you are constructing 3D wireframe models. See the Settings tab in the UCS dialogue box shown below.If the model is zoomed to fill the Graphic window, the UCS icon will appear to be located off the origin point. It actually is not, it simply cannot display where it should. To correct, zoom out to make the model display smaller and the icon will automatically display at the UCS origin.
MUST KNOW: The coordinate location X0Y0Z0 is always referenced to the origin of the UCS. If the UCS is located at the WCS, its origin is the absoluteX0Y0Z0. If the UCS is at any other location, the coordinates location X0Y0Z0 is the relative X0Y0Z0. To work with absolute coordinates, the UCS must be located at the WCS. Use the UCS II toolbar or the UCS dialogue box and change the UCS location to World. When the UCS is at the WCS, the icon will display a small square.
Another way to work with absolute coordinates is to place an asterisk (*) preceding the coordinate value. i.e.
@*4,0,0 specifies a point four units in the X direction of the last point entered relative to the absolute X0Y0Z0 or the WCS.
@4,0,0 specifies a point four units in the X direction of the last point entered relative to the current UCS. *0,0,0 specifies absolute X0Y0Z0 of the WCS regardless of the current location of the UCS.
Key Principles
Key Principles in Module 4
- The User Coordinate System (UCS) is the coordinate system used to construct 3D It can be located at the WCS or at any location or orientation in 3D space. Being able to locate and orientate the UCS anywhere is the secret of 3D modeling.
- Another way to work with absolute coordinates is to place an asterisk (*) preceding the coordinate i.e.
@*4,0,0 specifies a point four units in the X direction of the last point entered relative to the absolute X0Y0Z0 or the WCS.
*0,0,0 specifies absolute X0Y0Z0 of the WCS regardless of the current location of the UCS.
Lab Exercise 4-1
Time allowed: 40 minutes.
| Drawing Name | Template | Units |
|---|---|---|
| AutoCAD 3D Lab 04-1 | 3D Layout English | Inches |
Step 1
Save and name the drawing: AutoCAD 3D Lab 04-1 as shown above.
Step 2
Draw all construction objects on layer: Construction and all model objects on layer: Model .
Step 3
Start your model with the current view in SE Isometric. If required, orbit it slightly with 3DFORBIT to help your line of sight.
Step 4
Draw a wireframe model of the object. (Figure Step 4A and 4B)
Step 5
When complete, freeze layer: Construction .
Step 6
Enter the UNITS command. In the Units dialogue box, set the Insertion Units to Inches.
Step 7
Change the current UCS to World and check the model with the key.
Hint 1
Lab Exercise 4-2
Time allowed: 40 minutes.
| Drawing Name | Template | Units |
|---|---|---|
| AutoCAD 3D Lab 04-2 | 3D Layout Metric | Millimeters |
Step 1
Save and name the drawing: AutoCAD 3D Lab 04-2 , as shown above.
Step 2
Draw all construction objects on layer: Construction and all model objects on layer: Model .
Step 3
Start your model with the current view in SE Isometric. If required, orbit it slightly with 3DFORBIT to help your line of sight.
Step 4
Draw a wireframe model of the object. (Figure Step 4A, 4B, and 4C)
Step 5
When complete, freeze layer: Construction .
Step 6
Enter the UNITS command. In the Units dialogue box, set the Insertion Units to Millimeters.
Step 7
Change the current UCS to World and check the model with the key.
Hint 1
Lab Exercise 4-3
Time allowed: 40 minutes.
| Drawing Name | Template | Units |
|---|---|---|
| AutoCAD 3D Lab 04-3 | 3D Layout English | Inches |
Step 1
Save and name the drawing: AutoCAD 3D Lab 04-3 , as shown above.
Step 2
Draw all construction objects on layer: Construction and all model objects on layer: Model.
Step 3
Start your model with the current view in SE Isometric. If required, orbit it slightly with 3DFORBIT to help your line of sight.
Step 4
Draw a wireframe model of the object. (Figure Step 4A, 4B, and 4C)
Step 5
When complete, freeze layer: Construction .
Step 6
Enter the UNITS command. In the Units dialogue box, set the Insertion Units to Inches.
Step 7
Change the current UCS to World and check the model with the key.


6.4: Preparing a Resumé
A resumé (pronounced reh/zoo/may) is a summary of your skills, training, and experience. Its primary purpose is to interest the employer in you as a potential employee. A well-written, carefully planned resumé will help get you an interview that may lead to a job offer. It may be included with a letter of application, attached to an application form, or handed to a prospective employer when you are interviewed. Copies of your resumé may also be given to instructors, friends, or family members who have agreed to help you in your search.
Resumés and cover letters are essential tools for finding jobs. You can use these tools to sell a potential employer on your skills and abilities. In the past, resumés were used only in professional and management level jobs. However, today most employers require a resumé. Even when one is not required, a well-prepared resumé can help you get a job.
Parts of a Resumé
There are a variety of formats you can use to present your resumé. However, no matter which format you choose, all resumés usually contain the following (Figure 20):
Name, address, email, and phone number
Your name, address, email, and phone number should be given on your resumé so that you can be easily contacted for an interview or possible employment. Make sure you leave a number where messages may be left for you. Do not leave your current work number, as your present employer may not appreciate personal calls during work time.
Employment objective
The employment objective identifies the type of position you are seeking. If you are looking for a range of different jobs, leave the objective out or tailor each resumé to the situation. You could also include your employment objective in the cover letter.
Avoid using specific job titles. Be concise and specific. Concentrate on the job you are seeking right now, not 10 years from now. For example, you might say “a challenging position as a First Cook or Chef de Partie.” Do not include vague, self-gratifying statements such as “so I might become a better person.”
Education
Show educational qualifications, starting with the most recent and most relevant. There is no need to give the name of your secondary school if you have completed college or university. Identify any relevant training courses you have taken in high school or outside of a formal training institution if they are relevant to the work you are seeking. Take your cues from the job advertisement or the information you received from your contacts. For example, you might include first aid training if the job is in a remote camp.
Areas of knowledge and experience
Identify your skills and experience in past jobs and volunteer experiences. Keep the statements brief and to the point. Focus on the needs of the employer. Include your accomplishments from community activities and hobbies only if they are relevant to the job. If you are applying to a catering company, the statement “planned and catered a banquet for the regional soccer championship (100 guests)” would be relevant. An employer is not likely interested in whether you are a fly-tying expert. Be honest and be sure that you can back up every statement. Do not claim skills in any area in which you do not have practical experience, and don’t overstate your experience. Don’t claim to have managed the kitchen or created the menu if you have only assisted in these tasks.
 The following provides a list of verbs associated with different types of skills:
Creative and technical
- adjusted
- altered
- arranged
- changed
- created
- demonstrated
- designed
- developed
- devised
- formulated
- generated
- improvised
- invented
- modified
- originated
- performed
- prepared
- produced
- predicted
- restructured
- simplified
Working with people
- aided
- assisted
- advised
- advocated
- conferred
- consulted
- collaborated
- counselled
- encouraged
- facilitated
- guided
- helped
- interpreted
- interviewed
- implemented
- informed
- mentored
- recommended
- referred
- reassured
- served
- shared
- suggested
- supported
- trained
Communication
- advised
- commented
- communicated
- interpreted
- outlined
- promoted
- presented
- spoke
- summarized
- translated
- wrote
Business or administrative
- administered
- advised
- analyzed
- authorized
- budgeted
- deliberated
- designated
- developed
- distributed
- drafted
- hired
- investigated
- implemented
- recorded
- managed
- marketed
- monitored
- organized
- planned
- proposed
- purchased
- recommended
- reported
- scheduled
- selected
Analytical
- analyzed
- assessed
- appraised
- combined
- compared
- concluded
- contrasted
- deduced
- determined
- inferred
- interpreted
- evaluated
- monitored
- reviewed
Leadership
- assigned
- coordinated
- delegated
- evaluated
- led
- motivated
- negotiated
- persuaded
- supervised
- supported
Achieving results
- adapted
- attained
- completed
- contributed
- decreased
- increased
- doubled/tripled
- eliminated
- established
- expanded
- implemented
- improved
- introduced
- maintained
- multiplied
- opened
- proposed
- provided
- realized
- recommended
- reduced
- revised
- revitalized
- risked
- saved
- simplified
- sold
- solved
- stimulated
- streamlined
- structured
- submitted
- succeeded
- unified
- upgraded
Professional activities
You should list any related activities, such as membership in professional or trade associations or volunteering that relates to your application. Be sure to list any responsibilities that you held in these positions as often these activities are great ways to demonstrate experience you have not gained in your work experience.
References
References may be listed in your resumé or they can be listed on a separate sheet. You should have at least three references lined up when you apply for jobs. Be sure to get each person’s permission to use her or him as a reference. Supply the reference with a copy of your resumé and a copy of the job ad or posting so that he or she can speak knowledgeably about you when contacted. Have the person’s full name, title, position, company name, address, and phone number for each reference.
The most important factor to keep in mind when choosing references is that the person has a favourable opinion of you. The person should also have a title that shows responsibility, especially responsibility relevant to the position you are seeking. If your reference is someone the potential employer likes and respects, so much the better.
Do not use a relative, especially one with the same last name. Do not use anyone who shares your address as a reference. Make sure that the people you select can communicate well orally and in writing. Always make sure that your references are people with whom you have had recent contact with. A good borderline is within the last two to three years. Try and keep in touch with your references by an email or phone conversation so that if they are called to give an opinion on you, firstly, they remember you, and secondly, they have recent knowledge of what you might be doing currently.
Chronological and Functional Resumé Formats
Chronological resumés list your experience and education from the most recent to the least recent. Under each position or employer, you should list the skills and experience gained at that employer. This style of resumé highlights a steady employment record. It emphasizes growth and development in employment history. However, it can expose drawbacks such as gaps in employment, frequent job changes, lack of related experience, or lack of career progression. This type of resumé is suitable if your most recent employment is directly relevant to the job for which you are applying. Below are examples of chronological resumés.
Suzanne Chung
345 Any Street
Anytown, B.C.
V0X 1R0
(250) 555-1234
<EMAIL_ADDRESS>Job Objective
To obtain a position as a sous-chef in a full-service restaurant
Experience
2009 to present
First Cook
Pleasant Stay Hotel
345 Seaview St.
Anytown, B.C.
V0X 2T7
- Prepared breakfasts, lunches, and dinners in a busy hotel coffee shop
- Prepared banquets for up to 300 people
- Supervised meal preparation in pub kitchen
- Operated cold kitchen and pastry station for main hotel dining room
- Assumed duties of sous-chef during vacations
2006–2009
Apprentice Cook
Mountainview Resort
Box 197
Resorttown, B.C.
V0S 2T0
- Prepared menu items under supervision of First Cook
- Prepared banquet menu items
- Sliced and served meats at banquets and buffets
- Prepared pastries, cakes, and desserts
2004–2006
Kitchen helper and dishwasher (part-time)
Valley Resort
Box 181
Resorttown, B.C.
V0S 2T0
- Assisted with preparation of salads, soups, and other menu items
- Scrubbed pots and assisted dishwasher
- Cleaned kitchen equipment and work stations
Education
2014
Selkirk College
HSP 321: Food and Beverage Cost Control
2006–2009
Camosun College
Attained Cook Certificate of Qualification with an Interprovincial endorsement
Professional Activities
Active Member of the Anytown chapter of the Canadian Culinary Federation, currently responsible for planning student culinary competitions
Member, BC Restaurant and Food Service Association
References
Available on request
***
David Peterson
1655 Frederick Street
Anytown, B.C.
V0X 1R0
(604) 587-3301
<EMAIL_ADDRESS>Job Objective
To obtain a position as a First Cook
Experience
2012–2014
Apprentice Cook
Freddy’s Restaurants
Kelowna, B.C.
- Prepared menu items under supervision of First Cook
- Prepared banquet menu items
- Sliced and served meats at banquets and buffets
- Prepared pastries, cakes and desserts
2010–2012
Kitchen helper
Valley Resort
Box 181
Resorttown, B.C.
V0S 2T0
- Assisted with preparation of salads, soups and other menu items
- Scrubbed pots and assisted dishwasher
- Cleaned kitchen equipment and work stations
2009–2010
Crew chief
McDonald’s Restaurants
Resorttown, B.C.
V0S 2T0
- Supervised crew
- Assessed inventory
- Prepared food and served customers
- Calculate wastage and promotional product sales
Education
2012–2015
Okanagan College, Kelowna, B.C.
Completing Professional Cook 3 Technical Training in May 2015
Will qualify for Professional Cook 3 Certificate of Qualification with an Interprovincial Red Seal endorsement
Professional Activities
Volunteer Camp Cook, Anytown Summer Camp for disadvantaged children, 2013
Junior Member of the Anytown chapter of the Canadian Culinary Federation, currently assisting with preparations for the Food Show
References
Available on request
***
A functional resumé shown below is a good way to display your most relevant skills and accomplishments. Under the heading “Experience” or “Skills and Accomplishments,” you list your capabilities under broad headings such as supervision, food and beverage cost control, menu planning, an so on. Under each heading, list all of the skills you have related to that topic without regard to where you acquired that skill. Your previous positions and employers are briefly listed under the heading “Work History.”
This resumé format minimizes drawbacks such as gaps in employment and lack of directly related experience. It is most useful when you have acquired a broad range of skills relevant to the job through many different employers. It can also be useful if your job titles did not adequately reflect the duties performed. It is harder to prepare a functional resumé. Functional resumés can be confusing to read if not well written.
ANGELO GUCCI
345 Princeton Street
(604) 587-8762
Anytown, B.C.
V0X 1R0
(
<EMAIL_ADDRESS>)
OBJECTIVE
To gain a position as an Executive Chef in a full-service hotel
EXPERIENCE
Menu planning
- Prepared banquet menus for a variety of functions
- Participated in creation of new menus for coffee shop, dining room, pub, and room service
- Developed standard recipes and procedures for new menu items
- Conducted yield tests
- Revised menus based on popularity and profitability of menu items
Food and beverage cost control
- Maintained inventory control procedures
- Purchased and received goods
- Developed purchase specifications for goods
- Used recipe management software to cost menu items
- Analyzed sales history information to project sales volumes and expense levels
- Used a computerized inventory management system to maintain stock levels and reduce waste.
Supervision of staff
- Selected and oriented new staff
- Trained apprentice cooks
- Prepared work schedules for kitchen and dining room staff
- Evaluated staff performance and provided constructive criticism
Food preparation
- Prepared high-quality menu items in Broiler/Grill, Cold Kitchen, Fry, Soup, and Pastry stations of a large hotel kitchen
- Gold Medal prize winner at Okanagan Chefs Association culinary competition in 2013 and 2014
WORK HISTORY
2005 to present
Sous-Chef
Crest Hotel
Anytown, B.C.
V0X 1R0
2002–2005
Sous-Chef
Tigh-na-mara Fishing Lodge and Resort
Canim Lake, B.C.
V0X 1R0
1999–2002
First Cook
Freddy’s Restaurants
Kelowna, B.C.
V0X 1R0
1996–1999
Apprentice Cook
Spruce Meadows Country Club
Mission, B.C.
V0X 1R0
EDUCATION
2014
Chef de Cuisine certificate
2011–2012
Tourism Supervisory Development Program: Food & Beverage Option
Okanagan College
1999
Cook Certificate of Qualification with an Interprovincial endorsement
Vancouver Community College
1995–1996
Professional Cook Certificate
Northern Lights College
Completed all three levels of the program with an A average
2014
In-house training on Squirrel Food and Beverage and Inventory Management packages
PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES
Active Member of the Anytown chapter of the Canadian Culinary Federation, currently Membership Chairperson
Member, BC Restaurant and Food Service Association
REFERENCES
Available on request
***
Tips on Preparing a Resumé
There are several websites that offer free templates for building different styles of resumés. It is important that the presentation is professional and well laid out.
When preparing your resumé, keep the following points in mind:
- Use good quality 8.5″ x 11″ stationery in white or cream for print copies
- Use perfect grammar, spelling, and punctuation; check and recheck your resumé
- Use ample margins and white space to enhance the appearance and readability of your resumé
- Limit your resumé to two pages
- Label the second page with your name and page number as well in case the two pages get separated
- Staple your resumé pages together
- Print the resumé using a good quality printer
- Be clear and concise
- Be accurate; the employer may check on what you have written
- Be consistent in your format and style
- Be positive in tone; focus on results and accomplishments
- Tailor the resumé to the employer’s requirements
- Be complete; make sure that you include company names; do not abbreviate
- Use headings and paragraphing to organize the content
- Avoid company jargon when presenting accomplishments; they may not be readily understood
Media Attributions
- Resume by go2HR. Used with permission


10.1: Developing a Pay Structure
- Describe various methods of developing a pay structure
Developing a pay structure involves evaluating jobs and establishing associated salary ranges and grades based on market data and the company’s compensation policy. The relative value of different roles is based on factors including responsibility, experience and education, key skills, effort/impact, and working conditions. A well-designed and transparent pay structure should help an organization attract and retain talent be perceived as fair and equitable.
The steps involved in developing a pay structure are outlined below:
- Conduct a job analysis. As discussed in Module 5: Workforce Planning , a job analysis involves identifying the essential tasks and responsibilities of a job, including knowledge skills and abilities.
- Conduct a job evaluation. Determine the relevance and value of the job to the organization. This involves comparing or evaluating roles based on criteria such as the required education and experience, skills, effort, level of responsibility or authority and potential revenue impact. In order to avoid introducing bias, the role should be evaluated based on the job criteria, not a specific employee in that role.
-
Determine the basis for your pay structure.
Use one or both of the following methods to do so:
- Market Pricing (or benchmarking). Setting a salary range based on market data. Note that job titles and descriptions aren’t necessarily consistent across companies and industries. When conducting research, consider job details or descriptions to select appropriate salary benchmarks.
- Pay grades. Establishing salary ranges for job groups. Pay grades are salary ranges established for groups of jobs with a similar value to the organization. For example, multiple sales roles may be included in the same grade if they require the same education, experience, skills and responsibility. In practice, then, the salaries of every sales person in the same grade would fall between the minimum and maximum of the range.
It’s common to use benchmarking to establish pay grades and then fine-tune from there. Websites such as Glassdoor, Salary.com and PayScale provide minimum, midpoint, and maximum salaries that can form the basis for a pay range. Additional sources of market salary data include the following:
- The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) , which reports data by area and occupation
- O*NET OnLine , which provides occupational search and forecasting combined with BLS data
HR firms, career websites and industry and trade associations also conduct and publish salary surveys and provide related services. For example, CareerBuilder has a Supply & Demand Portal that provides compensation rates for specific positions.
Pay grades can be based on market prices, as mentioned above, or actual salaries or a combination of the two methods. For example, you could use market data to establish the salary range for a specific pay grade and use actual salaries to determine the midpoint in the range. To establish pay grades based solely on actual salaries, create groups based on levels in the organizational hierarchy. For example, managers and vice presidents would be two separate pay grades. Multiple roles with similar organizational value, requirements and salaries can be included in the same group. The midpoint of the average of the salaries in a group can form the midpoint of the range. The minimum and maximum of a range can be calculated from the midpoint or relative to a lower and higher grade to form a logical progression.


4.13: Sex-Linkage- An Exception to Mendel’s First Law
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- Last updated
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- Ying Liu
- City College of San Francisco
In the previous chapter we introduced sex chromosomes and autosomes. For loci on autosomes, the alleles follow the normal Mendelian pattern of inheritance. However, for loci on the sex chromosomes this is mostly not true, because most of the loci on the typical X-chromosome are absent from the Y-chromosome, even though they act as a homologous pair during meiosis. Instead, they will follow a sex-linked pattern of inheritance.
X-Linked Genes: the white gene in Drosophila melanogaster
A well-studied sex-linked gene is the white gene on the X chromosome of Drosophila melanogaster . Normally flies have red eyes but flies with a mutant allele of this gene called white - ( w - ) have white eyes because the red pigments are absent. Because this mutation is recessive to the wild type w + allele females that are heterozygous have normal red eyes. Female flies that are homozygous for the mutant allele have white eyes. Because there is no white gene on the Y chromosome, male flies can only be hemizygous for the wild type allele or the mutant allele.
A researcher may not know beforehand whether a novel mutation is sex-linked. The definitive method to test for sex-linkage is reciprocal crosses (Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\)). This means to cross a male and a female that have different phenotypes, and then conduct a second set of crosses, in which the phenotypes are reversed relative to the sex of the parents in the first cross. For example, if you were to set up reciprocal crosses with flies from pure-breeding w + and w - strains the results would be as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\). Whenever reciprocal crosses give different results in the F1 and F2 and whenever the male and female offspring have different phenotypes the usual explanation is sex-linkage. Remember, if the locus were autosomal the F1 and F2 progeny would be different from either of these crosses.
A similar pattern of sex-linked inheritance is seen for X-chromosome loci in other species with an XX-XY sex chromosome system, including mammals and humans. The ZZ-ZW system is similar, but reversed (see below).
Sex Determination in animals.

For example in humans and other mammals XY embryos develop as males while XX embryos become females. This difference in development is due to the presence of only a single gene , the TDF-Y gene, on the Y-chromosome. Its presence and expression dictates that the sex of the individual will be male. Its absence results in a female phenotype.
 In this system it is the ratio of autosome chromosome sets (A) relative to the number of X-chromosomes (X) that determines the sex. Individuals with two autosome sets and two X-chromosomes (2A:2X) will develop as females, while those with only one X-chromosome (2A:1X) will develop as males. The presence/absence of the Y-chromosome and its genes are not significant.
In other species of animals the number of chromosome sets can determine sex. For example the haploid-diploid system is used in bees, ants, and wasps. Typically haploids are male and diploids are female.
In other species, the environment can determine an individuals sex. In alligators (and some other reptiles) the temperature of development dictates the sex, while in many reef fish, the population sex ratio can cause some individuals to change sex.
Dosage Compensation for Loci on Sex Chromosomes.
Mammals and Drosophila both have XX - XY sex determination systems. However, because these systems evolved independently they work differently with regard to compensating for the difference in gene dosage (and sex determination – see above). Remember, in most cases the sex chromosomes act as a homologous pair even though the Y-chromosome has lost most of the loci when compared to the X-chromosome. Typically, the X and the Y chromosomes were once similar but, for unclear reasons, the Y chromosomes have degenerated, slowly mutating and loosing its loci. In modern day mammals the Y chromosomes have very few genes left while the X chromosomes remain as they were. This is a general feature of all organisms that use chromosome based sex determination systems. Chromosomes found in both sexes (the X or the Z) have retained their genes while the chromosome found in only one sex (the Y or the W) have lost most of their genes. In either case there is a gene dosage difference between the sexes: e.g. XX females have two doses of X-chromosome genes while XY males only have one. This gene dosage needs to be compensated in a process called dosage compensation . There are two major mechanisms.
In Drosophila and many other insects, to make up for the males only having a single X chromosome the genes on it are expressed at twice the normal rate. This mechanism of dosage compensation restores a balance between proteins encoded by X-linked genes and those made by autosomal genes .
In mammals a different mechanism is used, called X-chromosome inactivation .
X-chromosome Inactivation in Mammals
In mammals the dosage compensation system operates in females, not males. In XX embryos one X in each cell is randomly chosen and marked for inactivation. From this point forward this chromosome will be inactive, hence its name X inactive (X i ). The other X chromosome, the X active (X a ), is unaffected. The X i is replicated during S phase and transmitted during mitosis the same as any other chromosome but most of its genes are never allowed to turn on. The chromosome appears as a condensed mass within interphase nuclei called the Barr body. With the inactivation of genes on one X-chromosome, females have the same number of functioning X-linked genes as males.
This random inactivation of one X-chromosome leads to a commonly observe phenomenon in cats. A familiar X-linked gene is the Orange gene ( O ) in cats. The O O allele encodes an enzyme that results in orange pigment for the hair. The O B allele causes the hairs to be black. The phenotypes of various genotypes of cats are shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{11}\). Note that the heterozygous females have an orange and black mottled phenotype known as tortoiseshell. This is due to patches of skin cells having different X-chromosomes inactivated. In each orange hair the X i chromosome carrying the O B allele is inactivated. The O O allele on the X a is functional and orange pigments are made.  Because the inactivation decision happens early during embryogenesis, the cells continue to divide to make large patches on the adult cat skin where one or the other X is inactivated.
The Orange gene in cats is a good demonstration of how the mammalian dosage compensation system affects gene expression. However, most X-linked genes do not produce such dramatic mosaic phenotypes in heterozygous females. A more typical example is the F8 gene in humans. It makes Factor VIII blood clotting proteins in liver cells. If a male is hemizygous for a mutant allele the result is hemophilia type A. Females homozygous for mutant alleles will also have hemophilia. Heterozygous females, those people who are F8 + / F8 - , do not have hemophilia because even though half of their liver cells do not make Factor VIII (because the X with the F8 + allele is inactive) the other 50% can (Figure \(\PageIndex{12}\)). Because some of their liver cells are exporting Factor VIII proteins into the blood stream they have the ability to form blood clots throughout their bodies. The genetic mosaicism in the cells of their bodies does not produce a visible mosaic phenotype.
Other Sex-Linked Genes – Z-linked genes
One last example is a Z-linked gene that influences feather colour in turkeys. Turkeys are birds, which use the ZZ-ZW sex chromosome system. The E allele makes the feathers bronze and the e allele makes the feathers brown (Figure \(\PageIndex{13}\)). Only male turkeys can be heterozygous for this locus, because they have two Z chromosomes. They are also uniformly bronze because the E allele is completely dominant to the e allele and birds use a dosage compensation system similar to Drosophila and not mammals. Reciprocal crosses between turkeys from pure-breeding bronze and brown breeds would reveal that this gene is in fact Z-linked.
Mechanisms of Sex Determination Systems
Sex is a phenotype. Typically, in most species, there are multiple characteristics, in addition to sex organs, that distinguish male from female individuals (although some species are normally hermaphrodites where both sex organs are present in the same individual). The morphology and physiology of male and females is a phenotype just like hair or eye colour or wing shape. The sex of an organism is part of its phenotype and can be genetically (or environmentally) determined.
For each species, the genetic determination relies on one of several gene or chromosome based mechanisms. See Figure \(\PageIndex{14}\) for a summary. There are, for other species, also a variety of environmental mechanisms, too (rearing temperature, social interactions, parthenogenesis ). Whatever the sex choice mechanism, however, there are two different means by which the cells of an organism carry out this decision: hormonal or cell-autonomous
Hormonal mechanism: With this system, used by mammals for example, including humans, the zygote initially develops into a sexually undifferentiated embryo that can become either sex. Then, depending on the sex choice of the genital ridge cells, they will grow and differentiate into male (testis) or female (ovary) gonads, which will then produce the appropriate hormones (e.g. testosterone or estrogen). This hormone will circulate throughout the body and cause all the other tissues to develop and differentiate accordingly, into a male or female phenotype for that individual.
A freemartin is a type of chimera found in cattle (and some other mammals). Externally it appears as a female but is infertile, and has masculinized behavior and non-functioning ovaries. The animal originates as a female (XX), but acquires male (XY) cells or tissues in utero by exchange of some cellular material from a male twin. The female reproductive development is altered by anti-Müllerian hormone from the male twin, acquired via vascular connections between placentas.
Cell-autonomous mechanism: With this system, used by many animals, including birds and insects, the zygote cell initially has a sex phenotype set at the cell level.  Each cell is autonomous with respect to its sex; there are no sex hormone cues to determine the sex expressed. This autonomy can lead to sexual gynandromorphs , which are mosaics that display both male and female characteristics in a mosaic fasion, typically split down the midline of the organism. These rare individuals are thought to be the result of an improper sex chromosome segregation that occurs in a cell very early in development so that one half of the individual has cells with a male chromosome set while the other half has cells with a female set. If the species is sexually dimorphic (external morphology easily distinguishs males from females) they are easily visible and are even sometimes seen in the wild. See Figure \(\PageIndex{15}\) for a local example. A search on the internet will bring up many more examples.
While gynandromorphs are seen in cell-autonomous species, such as insects and birds, they are not seen in hormonally determined species, such as mammals, because all the cells display the same sex phenotype caused by the circulating sex hormones. Sexual gynandromorphs appear to be absent in reptiles, amphibians, and fish indicating that they don’t use a cell-autonomous mechanism. Nevertheless, there are genetic mosaic individuals in these groups but they do not appear to involve sex determined traits, which is required for a true gynandromorph. They often involve mosaicism of alleles at a single gene locus that affect external morphology (e.g. color).
- A gynandromorph is an organism that made up of mosaic tissues of male and female genotypes and displays both male and female characteristics.
- A mosaic is an organism or a tissue that contains two or more types of genetically different cells derived from the same zygote.
- A chimera is a single organism composed of genetically distinct cells derived from different zygotes.


14.1: Permanent Magnets
Unlike electric charges (such as those observed when amber is rubbed against cloth), magnetic objects possessed two poles of opposite effect, denoted “north” and “south” after their self-orientation to the earth. As Peregrinus found, it was impossible to isolate one of these poles by itself by cutting a piece of lodestone in half: each resulting piece possessed its own pair of poles:
Like electric charges, there were only two types of poles to be found: north and south (by analogy, positive and negative). Just as with electric charges, same poles repel one another, while opposite poles attract. This force, like that caused by static electricity, extended itself invisibly over space, and could even pass through objects such as paper and wood with little effect upon strength.
The philosopher-scientist Rene Descartes noted that this invisible “field” could be mapped by placing a magnet underneath a flat piece of cloth or wood and sprinkling iron filings on top. The filings will align themselves with the magnetic field, “mapping” its shape. The result shows how the field continues unbroken from one pole of a magnet to the other:
As with any kind of field (electric, magnetic, gravitational), the total quantity, or effect, of the field is referred to as a flux , while the “push” causing the flux to form in space is called a force . Michael Faraday coined the term “tube” to refer to a string of magnetic flux in space (the term “line” is more commonly used now). Indeed, the measurement of magnetic field flux is often defined in terms of the number of flux lines, although it is doubtful that such fields exist in individual, discrete lines of constant value.
Modern theories of magnetism maintain that a magnetic field is produced by an electric charge in motion, and thus it is theorized that the magnetic field of a so-called “permanent” magnets such as lodestone is the result of electrons within the atoms of iron spinning uniformly in the same direction. Whether or not the electrons in a material’s atoms are subject to this kind of uniform spinning is dictated by the atomic structure of the material (not unlike how electrical conductivity is dictated by the electron binding in a material’s atoms). Thus, only certain types of substances react with magnetic fields, and even fewer have the ability to permanently sustain a magnetic field.
Iron is one of those types of substances that readily magnetizes. If a piece of iron is brought near a permanent magnet, the electrons within the atoms in the iron orient their spins to match the magnetic field force produced by the permanent magnet, and the iron becomes “magnetized.” The iron will magnetize in such a way as to incorporate the magnetic flux lines into its shape, which attracts it toward the permanent magnet, no matter which pole of the permanent magnet is offered to the iron:
The previously unmagnetized iron becomes magnetized as it is brought closer to the permanent magnet. No matter what pole of the permanent magnet is extended toward the iron, the iron will magnetize in such a way as to be attracted toward the magnet:
Referencing the natural magnetic properties of iron (Latin = “ferrum”), a ferromagnetic material is one that readily magnetizes (its constituent atoms easily orient their electron spins to conform to an external magnetic field force). All materials are magnetic to some degree, and those that are not considered ferromagnetic (easily magnetized) are classified as either paramagnetic (slightly magnetic) or diamagnetic (tend to exclude magnetic fields). Of the two, diamagnetic materials are the strangest. In the presence of an external magnetic field, they actually become slightly magnetized in the opposite direction, so as to repel the external field!
If a ferromagnetic material tends to retain its magnetization after an external field is removed, it is said to have good retentivity . This, of course, is a necessary quality for a permanent magnet.
Review
- Lodestone (also called Magnetite ) is a naturally-occurring “permanent” magnet mineral. By “permanent,” it is meant that the material maintains a magnetic field with no external help. The characteristic of any magnetic material to do so is called retentivity .
- Ferromagnetic materials are easily magnetized.
- Paramagnetic materials are magnetized with more difficulty.
- Diamagnetic materials actually tend to repel external magnetic fields by magnetizing in the opposite direction.


6.3: Putting It Together- Cost Behavior Patterns
Product costs, period costs, fixed costs and variable costs and all the combinations are so important to know as a manager. When the accounting department comes to you with a report that shows a higher product cost than budgeted, you will know where to look for discrepancies and ways to save on costs. Not knowing these terms would make analysis of your costs difficult.
In this module we looked at various ways to break down potential mixed costs. In the future, if you notice a correlation between a rise in services or production and a rise in a certain cost, you now have the tools to do an initial analysis and follow up with more details.
Understanding how various costs behave, and how you can manage those costs could mean the difference between a profitable company and an unprofitable one. So let’s move on now to learning how costs and volume analysis can help you manage effectively!


1.4: Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions
This chapter will describe how to symbolize chemical reactions using chemical equations, how to classify some common chemical reactions by identifying patterns of reactivity, and how to determine the quantitative relations between the amounts of substances involved in chemical reactions—that is, the reaction stoichiometry .
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- 1.4.1: Prelude to Stoichiometry
- This chapter will describe how to symbolize chemical reactions using chemical equations, how to classify some common chemical reactions by identifying patterns of reactivity, and how to determine the quantitative relations between the amounts of substances involved in chemical reactions—that is, the reaction stoichiometry.
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- 1.4.2: Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
- Chemical equations are symbolic representations of chemical and physical changes. Formulas for the substances undergoing the change (reactants) and substances generated by the change (products) are separated by an arrow and preceded by integer coefficients indicating their relative numbers. Balanced equations are those whose coefficients result in equal numbers of atoms for each element in the reactants and products.
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- 1.4.3: Classifying Chemical Reactions
- Chemical reactions are classified according to similar patterns of behavior. This section will help you to differentiate between the different types of reactions which we commonly see in CHE 101. You will also learn to write balanced equations for single and double replacement reactions.
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- 1.4.4: Reaction Stoichiometry
- A balanced chemical equation may be used to describe a reaction’s stoichiometry (the relationships between amounts of reactants and products). Coefficients from the equation are used to derive stoichiometric factors that subsequently may be used for computations relating reactant and product masses, molar amounts, and other quantitative properties.
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- 1.4.5: Reaction Yields
- When reactions are carried out using less-than-stoichiometric quantities of reactants, the amount of product generated will be determined by the limiting reactant. The amount of product generated by a chemical reaction is its actual yield, which is often less than the amount of product predicted by the stoichiometry of the balanced chemical equation representing the reaction (theoretical yield). The extent to which a reaction generates the theoretical amount is expressed as its percent yield.
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- 1.4.6: Quantitative Chemical Analysis
- The stoichiometry of chemical reactions may serve as the basis for quantitative chemical analysis methods. Titrations involve measuring the volume of a titrant solution required to completely react with a sample solution. This volume is then used to calculate the concentration of analyte in the sample using the stoichiometry of the titration reaction. Gravimetric analysis involves separating analytes from the sample, determining its mass, and then calculating its concentration.


4.2: Rounding
We have been using decimal numbers throughout our lives, but let’s take some time to formalize the language so we can learn how to round decimals appropriately.
Reading decimal numbers:
| Fraction | Decimal | Name |
|---|---|---|
| \(\dfrac{1}{10}\) | 0.1 | One-tenth |
| \(\dfrac{1}{100}\) | 0.01 | One-hundredth |
| \(\dfrac{1}{1000}\) | 0.001 | One-thousandth |
| \(\dfrac{1}{10000}\) | 0.0001 | One-ten-thousandth |
| \(\dfrac{1}{100000}\) | 0.00001 | One-hundred-thousandth |
The place values to the right of the decimal are given the following names:
Tenths, hundredths, thousandths, ten-thousandths, hundred-thousandths, millionths, etc.
As a result, we read 5.643 as “five and six-hundredth-forty-three- thousandths since the last digit after the decimal ends in the thousandths place.
Examples:
- 45.6 is read as “forty-five and six tenths”
- In the number 543.7892, the 8 is in which place value? Since the 8 is two digits after the decimal point, the place value is hundredths.
- 0.0143 is read as “one-hundred-forty-three ten-thousandths
For rounding decimals, to round to the nearest decimal place,
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Consider the number to the right of the desired rounding place value
- If the digit is less than 5 (4 or less), we truncate at the desired rounding place value, that is, we drop all the digits after the desired rounding place value
- If the digit is 5 or more, we round up by adding 1 to the desired rounding place value before dropping all the remaining digits to the right
Examples:
- Round 32.784 to the nearest hundredth.Since 8 is in the hundredths place, we consider the number immediately to the right (in the thousandths place), since 4 is less than 5, we drop all the digits after the hundredths place to obtain 32.78.
- Round 32.786 to the nearest hundredth.Since 8 is in the hundredths place, we consider the number immediately to the right (in the thousandths place), since 6 is more than 5, we add 1 to 8 (in the hundredths place, this is called rounding up) and we drop all the digits after the hundredths place to obtain 32.79.
- Round 6.48327 to the nearest thousandth.We start by consider the value of the digit immediately after the thousandths place, which is 2, since 2 is less than 5, we drop all the digits after the thousandths place to obtain 6.483 as the rounded number to the nearest thousandth.
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Round 6.4592 to the nearest
- Tenth \(\Rightarrow\) Since 5 immediately follows the tenths place, we round the 4 in the tenths place up one number to 5 (by adding 1 to 4) to obtain 6.5 as the rounded number to the tenths place.
- Hundredth \(\Rightarrow\) Since 9 immediately follows the hundredths place, we round the 5 in the hundredths place up to 6 to obtain 6.46 as the rounded number to the hundredths place.
- Thousandth \(\Rightarrow\) Since 2 immediately follows the thousandths place, we round the 5 in the hundredths place up to 6 to obtain 6.46 as the rounded number to the hundredths place.
- Round 6.4597 to the nearest thousandth (to three decimal places).Since the fourth digit is 5 or higher, we must round the third digit after the decimal up by adding 1, but if we add 1 to 9, we would get 10, so we think of 59 (the second and third places after the decimal and round it up by 1 to obtain 60, hence 6.4597 rounded to three decimal places or the nearest thousandth becomes 6.460. We must write the zero in the thousandth place in this case to show the rounding to three decimal places, without the zero on the end, the rounding would be incorrect.
Significant Figures
Significant figures are used to assure the accuracy of a calculation based on the numbers used within the calculation. When a problem doesn’t specify how to round an answer or it is not implied in its context (such as money), we use significant figures.
The following digits are considered significant:
- Digits between 1-9. Example: 875 would consist of three significant figures.
- Any zeros between non-zero digits. Example: 20.07 and 5608 would both consist of four significant figures.
- The trailing zeros in a decimal number are significant
The following digits represent ambiguous cases, so the best method to determine the significant figures is to convert the number to scientific notation:
- Any zeros in numbers that do not contain a decimal point. Example: 530,000 depending on the situation, this could represent two significant figures or six significant figures, so let’s convert it to scientific notation to obtain: \(5.3\ X\ {10}^4\) which would now represent two significant figures. In general, if the zeros are used to locate the decimal point, they are not significant figures, whereas if the zeros are being used for accuracy, they are included as significant figures.
The following digits are not significant:
- If a number is less than 1, the zeros that occur after the decimal point but before a non-zero digit. Example: 0.0075 would consist of two significant figures
When performing calculations, the number of significant figures of the final answer is equivalent to the fewest number of significant figures provided in the calculation.
Examples:
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State the number of significant figures in each of the following numbers
- 3.402 \(\Rightarrow\) 4 significant figures, the non-zero digits are counted since they are between 1-9 and the zero is counted since it is between two non-zero digits
- 0.000472 \(\Rightarrow\) 3 significant figures; this number is less than 1, so the zeros after the decimal point but before the non-zero digits do not count, so we only count the digits between 1-9
- \(8.0\ X\ {10}^4\) \(\Rightarrow\) 2 significant figures; we consider the decimal value (not the power of 10), the trailing zero counts since it is used to show accuracy of the number
- 452,000 \(\Rightarrow\) ambiguous case, 3 to 6 significant figures depending on the context of the number
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Round the following numbers to three significant figures
- 89.0146 \(\Rightarrow\) Since the zero after the decimal point is significant since it is between two non-zero digits, we round to the nearest tenth in this cased to obtain 89.0
- 0.005324 \(\Rightarrow\) Since this number is less than 1, the zeros immediately to the right of the decimal point are not significant, so to round to three significant figures, we round to the nearest hundred-thousandth to obtain 0.00532
- 872.58 \(\Rightarrow\) Since all the digits are significant, to round to three significant figures, we round to the nearest whole number (three digits from the left) to obtain 873.
- 8723.158 \(\Rightarrow\) Since all the digits are significant, to round to three significant figures, we round to the nearest ten (three digits from the left) to obtain 8720.
- 65,207 \(\Rightarrow\) Since all the digits are significant, to round to three significant figures, we round to the nearest hundred (three digits from the left) or 65,200.
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Based on the given calculations, state the number of significant figures of the answer, then perform the calculation and round it based on the significant figures
- \((4.5)(2.33)(6.232)\) \(\Rightarrow\) Two significant figures since 4.5 has the least number of significant figures.\[\left(4.5\right)\left(2.33\right)\left(6.232\right)=65.34252\,\,\, \text{which rounds to 65} \nonumber\]
- \(\frac{(2.543)(3.516)}{0.01}\) \(\Rightarrow\) One significant figure since 0.01 has the least number of significant figures. \[\frac{(2.543)(3.516)}{0.01}=\frac{8.941188}{0.01}=894.1188 \,\,\, \text{which rounds to 900}\nonumber \]