1.4: Stakeholder Concepts
Who are stakeholders in your water supply?
While you might immediately think of your water utility, city or county agencies, you are also a stakeholder in the water supply. You are a resident and you use the water in some fashion (e.g., drinking, cooking, cleaning yourself and clothes, irrigating, and swimming).
How much interest do you have in the water supply? And how much power do you wield in critical discussions about water?
Learning Objectives
After reading this section, you should be able to:
- Identify and classify stakeholders
- Differentiate among stakeholders according to the level of interest and the level of power
Stakeholders are people with a “stake” in an idea or project. These could be people who are financially related to the idea or project, interested in the environmental impacts, or just plain curious. In many nationwide issues, like the presidential election, health insurance, or gasoline prices, all residents of the United States have a “stake.” Some issues are much more regional, such as water supply issues or air pollution issues, in which residents in a smaller geographic area have a stake while some issues, such as health care, are nationwide issues
Stakeholders are typically classified as internal or external. An internal stakeholder is a person within an organization, such as a staff person or board member, while an external stakeholder is outside an organization. For example, suppose that staff at a water agency was considering changing the rules for a turf grass removal program, commonly called "Cash for Grass," in order to stop rebating artificial turf. Here is a table of the internal and external stakeholders who have a “stake” in this proposal to remove artificial turf from the Cash for Grass program:
|
Internal Stakeholders |
External Stakeholders |
|
Staff at the water agency |
Residents in the area |
|
Management at the water agency |
Landscapers (who install plant material) |
|
Board members at the water agency |
Contractors (who install artificial turf) |
Why is it important to identify stakeholders and categorize them? As you work in the water industry, you will find that reaching out, listening to, and working with stakeholder groups is critical to your success. In the example above, what would happen if staff didn't reach out to contractors who install artificial turf? It's possible that they would become very angry because a potential source of income (installation of artificial turf for rebates) has been taken away from them. They might make phone calls to managers and board members. They might attend board meetings to speak and protest during public comment. Their anger might have been moderated if staff had reached out ahead of time to explain the reason for the rule change and offer some alternative strategies to move ahead.
Let's take another example from the water industry. Let's say the customer service manager decided to implement a new software program that sent work orders to field representatives. The customer service manager bought the software with her own manager's approval, but chose not to introduce customer service and field staff to the new product. Instead, the customer service manager rolled out the product at a meeting after the software was purchased. How do you think the staff felt? They may have had valid concerns about the software, but the entire purchase was presented to them like a done deal. The customer service manager should have identified her stakeholders, including internal stakeholders like customer service and field staff, ahead of time.
Stakeholders are people very specifically interested in an idea or concept whether it's artificial turf or work order software. Stakeholders are specific to the locale as well as the concept. For example, the City of Beverly Hills developed a cultural plan, which included an extensive list of stakeholder groups: residents, businesses, chamber of commerce, entertainment industry, faith-based communities, fashion community, financial sector, gay community, homeowners associations, Iranian community, lawyers associations, media, private galleries, restaurants, senior community, service clubs, and the tourist industry, including hotels and visitors.
A cultural plan for a different city would have different stakeholder groups and, a stakeholder list for a different issue in the same city would have different stakeholders. Let’s look at what would happen if we looked at a different issue, like water supply reliability, and identify internal and external stakeholders in Beverly Hills. Stakeholders who were added to the list are in blue text. Many of the stakeholder groups that were interested in a cultural plan do not appear below because they may not be interested in water supply reliability.
|
Internal Stakeholders for Water Supply Plan |
External Stakeholders for Water Supply Plan |
|
City of Beverly Hills staff |
Residents |
|
City of Beverly Hills management |
Businesses |
|
Beverly Hills City Manager |
Chamber of Commerce |
|
Beverly Hills City Council |
Environmental Groups |
|
Metropolitan Water District (wholesale supplier of water) |
Homeowners’ Associations (HOAs) |
|
|
Large Residential Users (A Top 100 List) |
|
Media |
|
|
Restaurants |
|
|
Tourism & Hotel Industry |
|
|
Visitors |
The list is by no means all-inclusive, but shows that there are some groups that will be constant in an area because they are powerful (HOAs, tourism & hotel industry, and restaurants) and some groups that are specific to an issue (e.g., Environmental Groups and Top 100 water users). This list is shorter and more focused on where the water is used.
Once you have identified your stakeholders, you can arrange them according to their level of interest and power.
In terms of water issues, most of the public, most of the time, unfortunately, has a relatively low level of interest and low level of power, which would classify them as Apathetics. But come drought time? You will have a much higher level of interest for most people and they will shift from the Apathetics to the Defenders. They may not have a high level of power, but their interest in water supply reliability is much higher.
Not everyone who is powerful is interested in all issues. For water supply, there are frequently groups that simply do not perceive water supply to be an issue, and choose to focus their energy elsewhere. They would be considered Latents (“latent” means that the interest is lying dormant, but could be expressed with the right circumstances). A Latent stakeholder might become more interested in water supply reliability if he/she were involved in a development that needed water, if there was a drought, or if there were mandatory watering schedules or penalties that affected his/her interests.
One of the most important issues in water supply management in the state of California is the challenge of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Bay Delta. Formed by the confluence of the Sacramento and the San Joaquin Rivers, the Bay Delta, south of Sacramento is the source of continual stakeholder challenges. Who are the stakeholders in the Bay Delta? At first, it seems obvious: there are residents and farmers who live and work in the Delta. While they are the most visible stakeholders, the water supply for much of Southern California flows through the Delta so Central Valley farmers and Southern Californians are also stakeholders (most Southern Californians would be Latents though until a crisis arises). Likewise, Northern Californians are stakeholders, because this is water that is leaving their area. Frequently discussions about the Bay Delta are framed around the strong interest and immense amounts of power that Southern California wields and the high interest, but low amounts of power that the farmers in the Bay Delta hold. We will discuss more about the Bay Delta in the section on the State Water Project.
You've learned about the importance of involving stakeholders and that stakeholders can be classified as internal or external and in terms of power and influence as well as interest. In Part Two of this text, you'll look at four major surface water development projects in terms of stakeholders.
Try It!
- Identify a water-related issue in your area. Try typing into Google "water issues" and the name of the community. Who are the stakeholders? Classify them as internal or external. Classify each stakeholder on a grid in terms of their interest and power.
- In the water-related issue you chose above, what are ways (other than the drought) to increase the level of interest of stakeholders in the issue?
- Add the stakeholders in the conservation program rule change scenario to a chart in terms of interest and power. Who has both a lot of interest and a lot of power? Who has neither interest nor power?
Key Terms
Stakeholders—People or organizations with a “stake” in an idea or concept


7.8: SUM Data
Learning Outcomes
- Use AutoSum button.
One of the main uses for Excel is to organize and manipulate numerical data. Often you may wish to add up all the numbers in a column or row. Excel has formulas and commands to automatically add your data, and the easiest way to use this feature is the AutoSum button.
- Once your numbers are organized in either a row or column, click on the cell where you would like the total sum to display. In the screenshot below this was A13.
- Click on the AutoSum button from the Editing group of the ribbon.
- Excel will highlight the cells that it is adding up and will apply the SUM formula.
- Hit Enter to accept the highlighted cells and see the total value of your data.
Note that it is possible to SUM several columns (or rows) at once. Select all the cells you wish to display a SUM and click AutoSum. Excel will individually add up the columns.
The AutoSum option can be found in two areas:
- It is contained in the Editing group of the ribbon, as shown in the first example above.
- It can also be found under the Formulas tab.
Contributors and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- SUM Data in Excel. Authored by : Shelli Carter. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


19.4: Chapter Summary
Planning health education should be taken seriously using a multidisciplinary approach. Planning principles include completing a community health needs assessment to identify a community’s strengths, resources, and needs. Planning requires consideration of the community’s interests to obtain buy-in and participation. Additional factors to consider in planning should include using evidence-based teaching materials and considering the target population’s health literacy, different abilities, and culture. Cultural sensitivity should be the foundation for planned interventions to ensure they meet the needs of the community in question while respecting its culture.
The next step of community health education is to develop a health education plan. Learning theories should be the foundation for this process as they provide insight into different learning methods and help nurses and the team understand how people learn and how this can be applied to developing health education plans. Nurses should consider the client’s experiences, perspectives, needs, and developmental level. Socioeconomic considerations and literacy level should be evaluated to create and disseminate appropriate information in an accessible way. To create a safe and meaningful environment for all participants, cultural sensitivity should underscore each of these considerations. Widely accepted learning theories include behaviorism, social cognitive learning theory, constructivism, humanism, adult learning theory, and connectivism. Defining the client is imperative in developing health education. Clients can be defined at the individual, family, community, or population level. All curricular components should be supported by evidence-based materials.
After identifying the community’s needs and developing a health education plan, the last step in the process is planning health education activities to be implemented. Steps for planning health education interventions include identifying learning needs, establishing goals and objectives, selecting appropriate education methods, designing and implementing the educational program, evaluating the educational process and effects of the program, and determining if revisions to the plan are needed. Effective team communication is critical to successful implementation of educational activities. Teams should work to identify possible communication barriers and rectify them promptly to achieve their goals.


4: Linear Functions
Recall that a function is a relation that assigns to every element in the domain exactly one element in the range. Linear functions are a specific type of function that can be used to model many real-world applications, such as plant growth over time. In this chapter, we will explore linear functions, their graphs, and how to relate them to data.
-
- 4.0: Introduction to Linear Functions
- Imagine placing a plant in the ground one day and finding that it has doubled its height just a few days later. Although it may seem incredible, this can happen with certain types of bamboo species. These members of the grass family are the fastest-growing plants in the world. One species of bamboo has been observed to grow nearly 1.5 inches every hour. A constant rate of change, such as the growth cycle of this bamboo plant, is a linear function.
-
- 4.1: Linear Functions
- The ordered pairs given by a linear function represent points on a line. Linear functions can be represented in words, function notation, tabular form, and graphical form. The rate of change of a linear function is also known as the slope. An equation in the slope-intercept form of a line includes the slope and the initial value of the function. The initial value, or y-intercept, is the output value when the input of a linear function is zero.
-
- 4.2: Modeling with Linear Functions
- We can use the same problem strategies that we would use for any type of function. When modeling and solving a problem, identify the variables and look for key values, including the slope and y-intercept. Draw a diagram, where appropriate. Check for reasonableness of the answer. Linear models may be built by identifying or calculating the slope and using the y-intercept. The x-intercept may be found by setting y=0, which is setting the expression mx+b equal to 0.
-
- 4.3: Fitting Linear Models to Data
- Scatter plots show the relationship between two sets of data. Scatter plots may represent linear or non-linear models. The line of best fit may be estimated or calculated, using a calculator or statistical software. Interpolation can be used to predict values inside the domain and range of the data, whereas extrapolation can be used to predict values outside the domain and range of the data. The correlation coefficient, r , indicates the degree of linear relationship between data.


8.1: Introduction to Attracting the Best Employees
What you’ll learn to do: Explain how retailers can attract the best employees
In a good economy with low unemployment, the challenge of finding the best employees becomes even more important. Retail has been a historically low-paying industry, so attracting great talent may involve non-monetary incentives such as great work hours, an inviting company culture or other creative perks.
Defining clearly what is needed for a particular position, then recruiting, interviewing and hiring, is another task of the human resources department. HR will work with department managers to clearly outline the skill set required for each position.
Contributors and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Introduction to Attracting the Best Employees. Authored by : Freedom Learning Group. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
CC licensed content, Specific attribution
- Untitled. Authored by : Kouadio Kevin Yoboua. Provided by : Unsplash. Located at : https://unsplash.com/photos/nuvtfH-p1H8 . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved . License Terms : Unsplash License


1.10: Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Review of The Monk
Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Review of The Monk
Jeanette A. Laredo
The horrible and the preternatural have usually seized on the popular taste, at the rise and decline of literature. Most powerful stimulants, they can never be required except by the torpor of an unawakened, or the languor of an exhausted, appetite. The same phaenomenon, therefore, which we hail as a favourable omen in the belles lettres of Germany, impresses a degree of gloom in the compositions of our countrymen. We trust, however, that satiety will banish what good sense should have prevented; and that, wearied with fiends, incomprehensible characters, with shrieks, murders, and subterraneous dungeons, the public will learn, by the multitude of the manufacturers, with how little expense of thought or imagination this species of composition is manufactured. But, cheaply as we estimate romances in general, we acknowledge, in the work before us, the offspring of no common genius. The tale is similar to that of “Santon Barsista” in the Guardian. Ambrosio, a monk, surnamed the Man of Holiness, proud of his own undeviating rectitude, and severe to the faults of others, is successfully assailed by the tempter of mankind, and seduced to the perpetration of rape and murder, and finally precipitated into a contract in which he consigns his soul to everlasting perdition.
The larger part of the three volumes is occupied by the under plot, which, however, is skilfully and closely connected with the main story, and is sub-servient to its development. The tale of the bleeding nun is truly terrific; and we could not easily recollect a bolder or more happy conception than that of the burning cross on the forehead of the wandering Jew (a mysterious character, which, though copied as to its more prominent features from Schiller’s incomprehensible Armenian, does, nevertheless, display great vigour of fancy). But the character of Matilda, the chief agent in the seduction of Antonio [sic Ambrosio], appears to us to be the author’s master-piece. It is, indeed, exquisitely imagined, and as exquisitely supported. The whole work is distinguished by the variety and impressiveness of its incidents; and the author everywhere discovers an imagination rich, powerful, and fervid. Such are the excellencies;–the errors and defects are more numerous, and (we are sorry to add) of greater importance.
All events are levelled into one common mass, and become almost equally probable, where the order of nature may be changed wherever the author’s purposes demand it. No address is requisite to the accomplishment of any design; and no pleasure therefore can be received from the perception of “difficulty surmounted”. The writer may make us wonder, but he cannot surprise us. For the same reasons a romance is incapable of exemplifying a moral truth. No proud man, for instance, will be made less proud by being told that Lucifer once seduced a presumptuous monk. Incredulus odit. Or even if, believing the story, he should deem his virtue less secure, he would yet acquire no lessons of prudence, no feelings of humility. Human prudence can oppose no sufficient shield to the power and cunning of supernatural beings; and the privilege of being proud might be fairly conceded to him who could rise superior to all earthly temptations, and whom the strength of the spiritual world alone would be adequate to overwhelm. So falling, he would fall with glory, and might reasonably welcome his defeat with the haughty emotions of a conqueror. As far, therefore, as the story is concerned, the praise which a romance can claim, is simply that of having given pleasure during its perusal; and so many are the calamities of life, that he who has done this, has not written uselessly. The children of sickness and of solitude shall thank him. To this praise, however, our author has not entitled himself.
The sufferings which he describes are so frightful and intolerable, that we break with abruptness from the delusion, and indignantly suspect the man of a species of brutality, who could find a pleasure in wantonly imagining them; and the abominations which he pourtrays with no hurrying pencil, are such as the observation of character by no means demanded, such as ‘no observation of character can justify, because no good man would willingly suffer them to pass, however transiently, through his own mind.’ The merit of a novellist is in proportion (not simply to the effect, but) to the “pleasurable” effect which he produces. Situations of torment, and images of naked horror, are easily conceived; and a writer in whose works they abound, deserves our gratitude almost equally with him who should drag us by way of sport through a military hospital, or force us to sit at the dissecting-table of a natural philosopher. To trace the nice boundaries, beyond which terror and sympathy are deserted by the pleasurable emotions,–to reach those limits, yet never to pass them, “hic labor, hic opus eat”. Figures that shock the imagination, and narratives that mangle the feelings, rarely discover “genius”, and always betray a low and vulgar “taste”. Nor has our author indicated less ignorance of the human heart in the management of the principal character.
The wisdom and goodness of providence have ordered that the tendency of vicious actions to deprave the heart of the perpetrator, should diminish in proportion to the greatness of his temptations. Now, in addition to constitutional warmth and irresistible opportunity, the monk is impelled to incontinence by friendship, by compassion, by gratitude, by all that is amiable, and all that is estimable; yet in a few weeks after his first frailty, the man who had been described as possessing much general humanity, a keen and vigorous understanding, with habits of the most exalted piety, degenerates into an uglier fiend than the gloomy imagination of Dante would have ventured to picture. Again, the monk is described as feeling and acting under the influence of an appetite which could not co-exist with his other emotions. The romance-writer possesses an unlimited power over situations; but he must scrupulously make his characters act in congruity with them. Let him work “physical” wonders only, and we will be content to “dream” with him for a while; but the first “moral” miracle which he attempts, he disgusts and awakens us. Thus our judgment remains unoffended, when, announced by thunders and earthquakes, the spirit appears to Ambrosio involved in blue fires that increase the cold of the cavern; and we acquiesce in the power of the silver myrtle which made gates and doors fly open at its touch, and charmed every eye into sleep.
But when a mortal, fresh from the impression of that terrible appearance, and in the act of evincing for the first time the witching force of this myrtle, is represented as being at the same moment agitated by so fleeting an appetite as that of lust, our own feelings convince us that this is not improbable, but impossible; not preternatural, but contrary to nature. The extent of the powers that may exist, we can never ascertain; and therefore we feel no great difficulty in yielding a temporary belief to any, the strangest, situation of “things”. But that situation once conceived, how beings like ourselves would feel and act in it, our own feelings sufficiently instruct us; and we instantly reject the clumsy fiction that does not harmonise with them. These are the two “principal” mistakes in “judgment”, which the author has fallen into; but we cannot wholly pass over the frequent incongruity of his style with his subjects. It is gaudy where it should have been severely simple; and too often the mind is offended by phrases the most trite and colloquial, where it demands and had expected a sternness and solemnity of diction.
A more grievous fault remains, a fault for which no literary excellence can atone, a fault which all other excellence does but aggravate, as adding subtlety to a poison by the elegance of its preparation. Mildness of censure would here be criminally misplaced, and silence would make us accomplices. Not without reluctance then, but in full conviction that we are performing a duty, we declare it to be our opinion, that the Monk is a romance, which if a parent saw in the hands of a son or daughter, he might reasonably turn pale. The temptations of Ambrosio are described with a libidinous minuteness, which, we sincerely hope, will receive its best and only adequate censure from the offended conscience of the author himself. The shameless harlotry of Matilda, and the trembling innocence of Antonia, are seized with equal avidity, as vehicles of the most voluptuous images; and though the tale is indeed a tale of horror, yet the most painful impression which the work left on our minds was that of great acquirements and splendid genius employed to furnish a “mormo” for children, a poison for youth, and a provocative for the debauchee. Tales of enchantments and witchcraft can never be “useful”: our author has contrived to make them “pernicious”, by blending, with an irreverent negligence, all that is most awfully true in religion with all that is most ridiculously absurd in superstition. He takes frequent occasion, indeed, to manifest his sovereign contempt for the latter, both in his own person, and (most incongruously) in that of his principal characters; and that his respect for the “former” is not excessive, we are forced to conclude from the treatment which its inspired writings receive from him. Ambrosio discovers Antonia reading–
‘He examined the book which she had been reading, and had now placed upon the table. It was the Bible.
“How!” said the friar to himself,” Antonia reads the Bible, and is still so ignorant?”
‘But, upon a further inspection, he found that Elvira had made exactly the same remark. That prudent mother, while she admired the beauties of the sacred writings, was convinced that, unrestricted, no reading more improper could be permitted a young woman. Many of the narratives can only tend to excite ideas the worst calculated for a female breast: every thing is called plainly and roundly by its name; and the “annals of a brothel would scarcely furnish a greater choice of indecent expressions”. Yet this is the book which young women are recommended to study, which is put into the hands of children, able to comprehend little more than those passages of which they had better remain ignorant, and which but too “frequently inculcates the first rudiments of vice”, and gives the first alarm to the still sleeping passions. Of this was Elvira so fully convinced, that she would have preferred putting into her daughter’s hands “Amadis de Gaul,” or “The Valiant Champion, Tirante the White”; and “would sooner have authorised her studying the lewd exploits of Don Galaor, or the lascivious jokes of the Damsel Plazer di mi vida”.’
Vol. II, p. 247.
The impiety of this falsehood can be equal led only by its impudence. This is indeed as if a Corinthian harlot, clad from head to foot in the transparent thinness of the Coan vest, should affect to view with prudish horror the naked knee of a Spartan matron! If it be possible that the author of these blasphemies is a Christian, should he not have reflexed that the only passage in the scriptures [“Ezekiel” XXIII], which could give a “shadow” of plausibility to the “weakest” of these expressions, is represented as being spoken by the Almighty himself? But if he be an infidel, he has acted consistently enough with that character, in his endeavours first to influence the fleshly appetites, and then to pour contempt on the only book which would be adequate to the task of recalming them. We believe it not absolutely impossible that a mind may be so deeply depraved by the habit of reading lewd and voluptuous tales, as to use even the Bible in conjuring up the spirit of uncleanness. The most innocent expressions might become the first link in the chain of association, when a man’s soul had been so poisoned; and we believe it not absolutely impossible that he might extract pollution from the word of purity, and, in a literal sense, “turn the grace of God into wantonness”.
We have been induced to pay particular attention to this work, from the unusual success which it has experienced. It certainly possesses much real merit in addition to its meretricious attractions. Nor must it be forgotten that the author is a man of rank and fortune. Yes! the author of the Monk signs himself a LEGISLATOR! We stare and tremble.
The poetry interspersed through the volumes is, in general, far above mediocrity. We shall present our readers with the following exquisitely tender elegy, which, we may venture to prophesy, will melt and delight the heart, when ghosts and hobgoblins shall be found only in the lumber-garret of a circulating library.
The Exile
‘Farewell, oh native Spain! farewell for ever!
These banished eyes shall view thy coasts no more:
A mournful presage tells my heart, that never
Gonzalvo’s steps again shall press thy shore.
Hushed are the winds; while soft the vessel sailing
With gentle motion plows the unruffled main,
I feel my bosom’s boasted courage failing,
And curse the waves which bear me far from Spain.
I see it yet! Beneath yon blue clear heaven
Still do the spires, so well-beloved, appear.
From yonder craggy point the gale of even
Still wafts my native accents to mine ear.
Propped on some moss-crowned rock, and gaily singing,
There in the sun his nets the fisher dries;
Oft have I heard the plaintive ballad, bringing
Scenes of past joys before my sorrowing eyes.
AHD! happy swain! he waits the accustomed hour,
When twilight-gloom obscures the closing sky;
Then gladly seeks his loved paternal bower,
And shares the feast his native fields supply.
Friendship and Love, his cottage guests, receive him
With honest welcome and with smile sincere:
No threatening woes of present joys bereave him;
No sigh his bosom owns, his cheek no tear.
Ah! happy swain! such bliss to me denying,
Fortune thy lot with envy bids me view;
Me, who, from home and Spain an exile flying,
Bid all I value, all I love, adieu.
No more mine ear shall list the well-known ditty
Sung by some mountain-girl, who tends her goats,
Some village-swain imploring amorous pity,
Or shepherd chanting wild his rustic notes.
No more my arms a parent’s fond embraces,
No more my heart domestic calm must know;
Far from these joys, with sighs which memory traces,
To sultry skies and distant climes I go.
Where Indian suns engender new diseases,
Where snakes and tigers breed, I bend my way,
To brave the feverish thirst no art appeases,
The yellow plague, and madding blaze of day.
But not to feel slow pangs consume my liver,
To die by piece-meal in the bloom of age,
My boiling blood drank by insatiate fever,
And brain delirious with the day-star’s rage,
Can make me know such grief, as thus to sever
With many a bitter sigh, dear land! from thee;
To feel this heart must dote on thee for ever,
And feel that all thy joys are torn from me!
Ah me! how oft will fancy’s spelIs, in slumber,
Recall my native country to my mind!
How oft regret will bid me sadly number
Each lost delight, and dear friend left behind!
Wild Murcia’s vales and loved romantic bowers,
The river on whose banks a child I played,
My castle’s antient halls, its frowning towers,
Each much-regretted wood, and well-known glade;
Dreams of the land where all my wishes centre,
Thy scenes, which I am doomed no more to know,
Full oft shall memory trace, my soul’s tormentor,
And turn each pleasure past to present woe.
But, lo! the sun beneath the waves retires;
Night speeds apace her empire to restore!
Clouds from my sight obscure the village-spires,
Now seen but faintly, and now seen no more.
Oh, breathe not, winds! Still be the water’s motion!
Sleep, sleep, my bark, in silence on the main!
So, when to-morrow’s light shall gild the ocean,
Once more mine eyes shall see the coast of Spain.
Vain is the wish! My last petition scorning
Fresh blows the gale, and high the billows swell:
Far shall we be before the break of morning:
Oh! then, for ever, native Spain, farewell!’


13.6: Downsizing
- Describe the effects of downsizing
Downsizing
Downsizing is when a company terminates a number of employees at the same time. Downsizing occurs for a number of reasons, most often to save money. Termination as a result of downsizing is unique in the sense that the employee is not responsible for their termination. Traditionally, employees are terminated for their conduct, behavior, or breach of contract. However, in a downsizing situation, termination is not prompted by employee behavior but instead is a business decision made to cut costs.
Reasons to Downsize
Before we can understand the effects of downsizing, we need to first better understand the reasons behind downsizing. Companies downsize for a variety of reasons including less than stellar economic conditions, a company merger or acquisition, or when a product or service is cut. Let’s learn more about each reason.
Tough Economic Conditions
When economic conditions are poor, sales and profitability can suffer. When sales and profitability are down, some companies may need to make drastic cuts in order to stay in the green. In some situations, downsizing is a good option for cutting costs.
Merger or Acquisition
When two companies merge together, the companies need to restructure in order to meet their new needs. Restructuring may include eliminating certain roles altogether or reducing the workforce in certain departments. Companies that acquire another company may also downsize in order to meet the new needs of the company.
The End of a Product or Service
If a company is well staffed for a particular product or service that is then discontinued, they may need to downsize since there is no longer a need for such a large staff.
Another term associated with downsizing is streamlining or rightsizing. While downsizing and rightsizing essentially mean the same thing, there are a few nuances used to differentiate between the two. First, rightsizing is considered a restructuring of an organization which may include layoffs, whereas downsizing is specifically intended to reduce the size of an organization. In addition, the term “rightsizing” sounds more appealing than “downsizing.” Therefore, companies may use the term rightsizing to sugarcoat impending layoffs. Regardless of whether or not a company refers to it as downsizing or rightsizing, each term effects organizations in similar ways.
Is Downsizing Effective?
Do you believe downsizing is effective? Do you think the short-term benefits of downsizing are worth the long-lasting impact it can have on an organization? While the financial benefits of cutting costs is clear, the impact large layoffs have on the workforce is sometimes less than desirable. Some argue that downsizing has more negative consequences than positive ones. In fact, researchers from Auburn University, Baylor University, and the University of Tennessee, Chattanooga conducted research to determine if there was a correlation between companies that downsized and companies that filed for bankruptcy. Their research found that downsizing firms were twice as likely to declare bankruptcy than those who did not downsize [1] . This study confirms how important it is to weigh all of the options before making a decision. It is vital for companies to compare possible short-term consequence with possible long-term consequences before deciding whether or not to downsize. Unfortunately, there is no easy answer or black and white solution. Each organization is unique and needs to consider downsizing within the perimeters of their current situation.
Sources
Doyle, Alison. “ What Is Downsizing? ” The Balance Careers. The Balance Careers, June 25, 2019.
-
Zorn, Michelle L., Patricia Norman, Frank C. Butler, and Manjot Bhussar. “
If You Think Downsizing Might Save Your Company, Think Again
.”
Harvard Business Review
, April 26, 2017. ↵
Contributors and Attributions
- Downsizing vs Rightsizing. Authored by : Freedom Learning Group. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Authored by : geralt. Provided by : Pixabay. Located at : pixabay.com/illustrations/termination-employee-workers-110299/. License : CC0: No Rights Reserved . License Terms : Pixabay License
- One dollar bill by the wall. Authored by : NeONBRAND. Provided by : Unsplash. Located at : https://unsplash.com/photos/JW6r_0CPYec . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved . License Terms : Unsplash License
- Office. Provided by : pxhere. Located at : pxhere.com/en/photo/1371282. License : CC0: No Rights Reserved


3.5: Types of External Emails
- Identify various types of external emails
Some of the most common types of external emails in business communication are requests, direct claims, complaints and adjustments. Business letters could be used for any or all of these categories, but email is usually the preferred method of conveying these messages.
Requests
Request messages should should have direct subject lines: for example, “Available for Conference January 5?” Provide details of the request in the body of the message, “Would you please get back to us on your availability to speak at our conference January 5? We have your talk featured to be given in the large conference room at the beginning of the conference at 9:00 a.m.” Close your message with a call to action and an appreciation, “Your presentation was the hit of the conference last year, and everyone is looking forward to your participation again. Please respond to us by December 9 so that we can finalize the invitations.”
Here is an example of an external request message:
ABC Software
To: Mike Scott
CC: Western Sales Team
Subject: Exclusive Event: Executive Summit On Business Agility
Dear Mike,
Senior leaders like you know that delivering faster is critical to adapt to rapidly shifting customer expectations, competitive shifts, and regulatory changes. If you’re facing these challenges, then most likely, so are your peers.
We thought you’d be interested in attending ABCs upcoming “Executive Summit on Business Agility” on June 15, where senior executives can engage with peers and co-create fresh ideas to solve their toughest business challenges.
- Have meaningful, face-to-face interactions with other F500 senior leaders.
- Learn directly from executives who are tackling similar blockers.
- Participate in facilitated, expert-led discussions on how to architect your whole business system for speed, steering, and opportunity.
Please include this invitation code ES25V on the Request to Attend form. As an additional benefit of participating in the Executive Summit, enjoy a complimentary pass to the ABC-ON!™ business agility conference, June 15–17—in Phoenix, Arizona at the AAA 4-Diamond JW Marriott Phoenix Desert Ridge Resort where we will have Josh Jones, Dan Atware, and Jalissa O’Neill, as our distinguished keynote speakers.
To create a valuable exchange of ideas, this event is limited to 50 attendees. The event is filling up fast, so please respond within the next few days.
Best regards,
Dan Smith
Senior VP/ Sales
ABC Software
Claims
For a claim message, it is also best to state the major point as soon as possible. Use the subject line to express your reason for sending the message. For example, “Return Label for Order #123456.” Then in the body of the message, immediately provide the details or justification for your request, “Please send a return label as soon as possible for my order #123456. The order, which I placed with your company on March 2, was for jeans with a 32′ inseam and I received a 36′ inseam instead.” For the closing, give an appreciation and re-state the desired action, “I will look forward to receiving the return label in the next few business days. Thank you for your quick response.”
Complaints
Complaint messages are similar to request and claim messages. Get to the point right away in the subject line, justify and explain in the body of the message, and end with a clear description of your desired outcome.
October 15, 2017
To: General Manager Best Eastern Hotels
From: Sheila Eastman
Subject: Erroneous Charge on My Stay October 4
Dear Mr. Smith,
Upon receipt of my hotel bill from my stay on October 4, I noticed I had been mistakenly charged for a room service meal. I did not have room service during my brief stay and would expect an immediate credit in the amount of $64.73 to my credit card account.
Thank you for your prompt attention to this matter.
Best regards,
Sheila Eastman
Adjustments
An adjustment message should begin with an immediate reference to the prior correspondence. As with all of the email messages we have discussed in this section, the main point should be stated right away. Also, the body of the message should provide details regarding how the request is being handled. Closing should be a positive statement referring to the good news of the adjustment.
October 16, 2017
To: Sheila Eastmen
From: Brian Smith
Subject: Your Credit for the error on your October 4 bill
Dear Ms. Eastmen,
Thank you for your message of October 15 requesting a credit for a mistaken charge to your bill. After a quick review, you are quite correct about the error in your bill. A credit of $64.73 has been issued to your credit card company and should be reflected in your next statement.
On behalf of Best Eastern Hotels, we sincerely apologize and hope that our prompt response to your request restores your faith in our company.
Sincerely,
Brian Smith
General Manager
Best Eastern Hotels
Contributors and Attributions
- Types of External Emails. Authored by : Robert Danielson. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


26.3: Intrapartum Fetal Death
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Define the causes of intrapartum fetal deaths
- Identify ways to debrief with fellow coworkers and providers after an intrapartum fetal death
- Identify the nurse’s role in supporting a family with grief after an intrapartum fetal death
An antepartum fetal death is a death that occurs before the onset of labor. An intrapartum fetal death (IPFD) occurs after 20 weeks of gestation and after the onset of labor but before birth (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2022; McNamara, Meaney, & O’Donoghue, 2018). Globally, 1.3 million IPFDs occur each year (McNamara, O’Donoghue, & Green, 2018). When an intrapartum fetal death occurs, all health-care providers, nurses, and staff are affected. In this section the causes and treatment of IPFD, support of families, and debriefing for nurses and providers during this stressful life event will be reviewed.
Causes of Intrapartum Fetal Deaths
Risk factors associated with IPFD include prior cesarean birth, multiparity, lack of obstetric ultrasound and prenatal care, delay in decision making for escalation in care, birth weight of less than 2,500 g, advanced maternal age, chronic medical diseases ( hypertension , diabetes ), congenital anomalies , and obstetric complications (preeclampsia, gestational diabetes) (Komboigo et al., 2023; Shanker et al., 2020). IPFD occurred most often between 33 and 37 weeks’ gestation (Shanker et al., 2020). Causes of IPFD can be congenital malformations, cord prolapse, diabetes, infection s, antepartum hemorrhage , and preeclampsia (Shanker et al., 2020). Table 26.2 shows a percentage breakdown of different causes. Chapter 12 Pregnancy at Risk and Chapter 19 Complications of Labor and Birth provide more information on the causes of IPFD.
| Causes of IPFD | Percentage of Total (%) |
|---|---|
| Unknown | 53.27 |
| Infection | 20.95 |
| Hypertensive disorder | 15.77 |
| Placental abruption | 10.19 |
| Cord accident | 5.56 |
| Fetal growth restriction | 5.57 |
| Congenital anomalies | 4.04 |
Reduction in IPFD can be seen with routine use of nonstress tests, early and timely interventions during the intrapartum period, and increased antenatal visits (Shanker et al., 2020). Intermittent auscultation (IA) during labor is appropriate for low-risk pregnant persons; however, continuous electronic fetal monitoring (CEFM) is required for high-risk pregnant patients and can reduce the incidence of IPFD. Nurses and health-care providers must be proficient in reading EFM strips, and most hospitals require nurses to become certified in EFM. An article by Chiweza et al. (2022) noted that approximately 40 percent of IPFD could be prevented by careful, quality antepartum and intrapartum monitoring with subsequent rapid operative birth.
Obstetric nurses should also be trained in intrauterine resuscitation and emergency protocols for intrapartum events such as shoulder dystocia and prolapsed cord. All staff should participate in emergency drills to understand the equipment available to them and be familiar with recognizing and responding to emergencies. (See 25.3 Newborn Resuscitation for more information.)
Debriefing for Nurses and Providers
Emotions felt by health-care providers and nurses during an intrapartum loss are similar to emotions described by parents of a stillborn infant: guilt, shock , anger, sadness, and fear (McNamara, Meaney, & O’Donoghue, 2018). Nurses can experience posttraumatic stress disorder, and health-care providers can sometimes leave obstetrics because of the emotional trauma and self-blame. In McNamara, Meaney, & O’Donoghue’s 2018 study of physicians after an intrapartum loss, only four of 10 providers were given emotional or collegial support. They noted a “blame culture,” in which some providers openly blamed another provider. This study found that debriefing with all involved was important for everyone’s emotional health and healing.
Nurses must remain emotionally strong and professional while caring for a couple dealing with perinatal loss. However, nurses can feel ill equipped and inadequate in these situations. Some nurses will complain of headache, insomnia, and physical tension after caring for bereaved patients (Willis, 2019). When surveyed, nurses dealing with patients experiencing perinatal loss stated support from their colleagues was most helpful, but found they needed more managerial support (Willis, 2019). Debriefing after a perinatal loss allows nurses to express their emotions and feelings while accepting support and understanding from their coworkers (Willis, 2019).
Debriefing after a Perinatal Loss
Nurses and health-care providers must practice self-care to provide safe, appropriate care to their patients. The following are steps for debriefing after the perinatal loss of an intrapartum death:
- Introduction: The person leading the debriefing introduces the rules of the debriefing and the importance of confidentiality. “We are here to discuss and debrief the care of Ms. Smith. We must maintain confidentiality regarding the patient and the information our colleagues share.”
- Fact gathering: Each nurse describes the event.
- Reflection: The person leading the debriefing facilitates the discussion of their feelings regarding the event in a nonjudgmental manner.
- Support: The person leading the debriefing discusses what happened, the positives and negatives of the care and activities surrounding the event; points out the opportunities to learn from the event; and helps nurses feel closure surrounding the event.
- Follow-up: The person leading the debriefing assesses those who might need additional counseling or support and refers them for help.
Supporting the Birthing Person, Their Partner, Support Persons, and Family
Grieving birthing persons, their partners, support persons, and family members need time to talk about their feelings without hearing advice or platitudes. Nurses can encourage friends and family to surround the birthing person and their partner with support. Nurses can educate the family that people can grieve in different ways, and the birthing person and their partner should be supported in the way that is best for them. The nurse should determine if a person of faith is desired to perform any rituals for the newborn and family. The nurse can directly contact the chaplain or the social worker or bereavement committee (per facility policy) to help arrange for a chaplain or spiritual leader to provide for the spiritual needs of the family.
Most birthing persons and their partner want to see and hold their infant. Allow them time to be with the infant, take pictures, and honor the infant’s life. Prepare the birthing person and their partners for how the infant will look; some infants will have peeling skin or deformities. Allow other support persons and family members to see and hold the infant as indicated.
When supporting the birthing person, their partner, and other family, AVOID saying the following:
- referring to the baby as “it”
- pretending the stillbirth did not happen
- suggesting the parents can get pregnant again
- discussing faith or “God’s will”
- suggesting the parents be thankful for the children they already have
( How to support family or friends after a stillbirth , n.d.)
Friends and family desire to support their loved ones after a pregnancy loss; however, most people are at a loss for words. This video provides the voices of parents who have experienced loss and their suggestions on how to discuss the loss.
Cooling Cots
Many birthing persons and their partner desire to spend as much time as they can with their newborn; however, as deterioration of the body begins, the newborn must be taken to the morgue to cool and preserve the body.  Cooling cots are mats placed in the crib that keep the infant cool, preserving the body for 2 to 3 days and allowing the newborn to remain at the bedside. This gives the birthing person and their partner time to plan a religious ceremony or funeral. It also provides time for extended family to travel from out of town. Allowing the family time to make memories with the newborn is important for the grieving process.
The body of a stillborn infant can be at the bedside for only a short time until it begins to break down. Cooling cots keep the body cool to give families more time with their infant. This article and video tell the story of one family and their experience using the cooling cot after the loss of their child.
Infant Memory Boxes
Creating memories of the infant is an important part of the grieving process. Nurses can help by creating a memory box and inserting footprints and handprints, a lock of hair, pictures, the baby’s measurements, an outfit, and a blanket.  If the birthing person and their partner are not ready to see these items or take them home, many hospitals will store the box until they feel ready to accept it.
Newborn Photographs
Another way to create memories for the birthing person, their partner, and the family is by taking newborn and family photographs. The nurse can assist with this by contacting organizations that provide this service. Organizations such as Now I Lay Me Down to Sleep provide photographers trained in handling stillborn infants who volunteer their time to create memories for grieving families. Again, if the birthing person and their partner are not ready to accept these pictures, the nurse can place them in the memory box until the birthing person and their partner are ready.
Arranging for Transport to a Funeral Home
If the birthing person and their partner have decided to have a funeral and burial and they are ready to transport the newborn to the funeral home, the nurse or social worker will contact the funeral home chosen by the parents. Many labor and delivery units have a list of funeral homes experienced in dealing with stillborn infants. Some funeral homes provide free burial or cremation for the baby. The hospital chaplain, social worker, or bereavement committee (when available) can help the family make choices for a ceremony or celebration of the infant.
Trauma Possible at the Next Birth
After a perinatal loss, the birthing person and their partner can experience grief, depression, anxiety, and PTSD during a subsequent pregnancy. Studies have shown that birthing persons and their partners can feel uncertainty, guilt, continued grief, and fear of recurrent loss; these feelings can lead to an inability to bond with and attach to the new infant (Donegan et al., 2023). Pregnant persons with a previous perinatal loss fear that anxiety would negatively affect the pregnancy. This study also noted that persons with a previous perinatal loss desired more frequent fetal monitoring and individualized care. Persons with a perinatal loss can possibly need specialized support and care that emphasizes emotional recovery, peer support, and reassurance during subsequent pregnancies (Donegan et al., 2023).
Antenatal care for subsequent pregnancies usually includes more frequent prenatal visits and ultrasound exams (Wojcieszek et al., 2019). Pregnant patients with a previous intrapartum fetal loss may also be offered labor induction or elective cesarean birth (Wojcieszek et al., 2019). Health-care providers should use shared decision making regarding the timing and route of birth for subsequent pregnancies after a loss. Anticipatory guidance should be provided regarding possible trauma if birthing in the same facility.
Lactation after Infant Death
Nurses should provide anticipatory guidance regarding lactation after a loss. Most patients are not prepared to lactate after a stillbirth; however, lactation can occur 2 to 3 days after birth. A handout and online information for those who will experience lactation after an infant death (LAID) have been researched and found to be helpful for patients (Table 26.3). This information allows for anticipatory guidance on lactation after loss, acknowledges the complex emotions surrounding lactation, helps decrease physical side effects of poorly managed lactation, and provides shared decision making regarding all options for managing milk, such as donation or prevention of further lactation (Carroll et al., 2020).
| Goal | Interventions |
|---|---|
| Acknowledgment of milk and lactation after stillbirth or infant death | Acknowledge that lactation can occur; that strong emotions can be related to lactation; and that frozen milk can be donated, kept as a memento, or discarded. |
| Breast changes associated with lactation | Explain breast engorgement and milk leakage. |
| Advice on alleviation of symptoms of engorgement, infection, pain, or leakage | Discuss nonpharmacologic and pharmacologic ways to relieve symptoms. Explain signs of infection/mastitis. |
| Description of all lactation suppression options | Advise techniques for milk suppression. Explain that some parents have found that lactation suppression is helpful after a loss. Provide options for what to do with saved milk (donate, keep as memento, or discard). Use pharmacologic suppression only with the guidance of a health-care provider. |
| Description of sustained lactation options | Advise on techniques for milk expression, with the option of donating or not donating milk. Explain that some parents find solace in expressing milk. |
| Description of milk donation options | Explain the process of milk donation, how milk banks use milk, and the screening process for donation. Provide resources for local milk banks. Discuss the hazards of informal sharing of milk. Explain that the process of donation helps some parents with grieving. |
| Recognition that additional bereavement and lactation support may be needed | Provide resources, websites, and support groups, along with health-care professionals who can advise the parents. |
Milk banks collect donated breast milk to be used for infants in need, especially premature infants. Milk banks screen the breast milk, pasteurize it, and test it for any infections that could be passed along to another infant. Milk banks can accept donated milk from a person after a fetal death. The Human Milk Bank Association of North America provides information on donation after fetal death.
Postpartum Depression and Anxiety
Patients experiencing a stillbirth have higher incidences of postpartum depression (PPD), anxiety, PTSD, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) (Lewkowitz et al., 2022; Westby et al., 2022). Research has noted that patients experience more PPD when their partner will not discuss the loss of the infant (Lewkowitz et al., 2022). After a stillbirth, unmarried patients experienced more PPD than married patients (Westby et al., 2022). Research also notes an increased risk for PPD in patients who felt a lack of emotional support during the birth and those who did not feel that they were able to spend enough time with the infant after the birth (Westby et al., 2022).


5.10: Summary
5.1 Contraception: The Nurse’s Role
Contraceptive education and access empower persons to plan for education, create a career, become healthy prior to pregnancy, and choose when to start a family. The nurse aids in this process by providing education on different methods of contraception that are individualized, safe, and affordable. A history and physical exam is performed. Contraindications, side effects, and effectiveness of different methods are discussed, and shared decision making concludes with the person choosing a method they are confident in using.
5.2 Natural Methods of Contraception
Natural methods of contraception are one way for a person to take control of their sexual health and their fertility. The cost of FAM, coitus interruptus, or abstinence is minimal to zero, and there is no need to obtain a prescription. However, the risk of pregnancy with these methods, except for abstinence, is higher than with pharmacologic methods. Both partners need to agree to use any of these methods, and it takes planning and self-control. A bonus of FAM is that when the individual/couple decides to conceive, they are aware of when they are most likely to be ovulating. FAM offer no protection against sexually transmitted infections.
5.3 Barrier Methods of Contraception
Barrier methods of contraception provide protection from pregnancy and STIs. These methods can empower people to be in control of their sexuality and fertility. Some barrier methods are cost-effective and do not need a prescription and health-care visit. The nurse can help educate persons on each barrier method, stressing the importance of using that method with each act of intercourse.
5.4 Short-Acting Reversible Hormonal Methods of Contraception
Choosing a hormonal contraceptive method for pregnancy prevention or menstruation management is a very big decision. The nurse can be an active member in the health-care team providing evidence-based education, using informed decision making, and performing high-level assessments to ensure patient safety throughout the process. All hormonal contraceptive options should be discussed, including mechanism of action, side effects, adverse effects, effectiveness, education on use, and contraindications to aid in decision making. Hormonal contraceptives do not protect against sexually transmitted infections.
5.5 Long-Acting Reversible Contraception
LARCs are the most effective contraception choices available. There are many benefits, including pregnancy prevention, menstrual relief, cancer prevention, and relief from symptoms associated with migraines or other issues that worsen around menses. Although uncommon, there are complications associated with LARC placement and use, and nurses provide education about these complications. LARCs do not protect against sexually transmitted infections. Additionally, nurses teach about the side effects after placement, including what is expected and not expected, when to call the office, when to go to the emergency department, and when to return for follow-up visits.
5.6 Emergency Contraception
Emergency contraception can be used to prevent pregnancy when contraception was not used or failed. There are oral EC options, one being over the counter, as well as an intrauterine contraceptive option that also offers long term contraception. EC is unique because it is used after sex, rather than before, to prevent a pregnancy. Having this type of contraception can empower people to take control of their sexual health. The nurse is a key health partner providing education and advocating for the person. The nurse can teach about EC options, timing of EC, its side effects, and what is expected and not expected. The nurse also encourages persons to have a form of EC available at all times.
5.7 Sterilization
Permanent sterilization is one of the most effective contraceptive methods. Female sterilization can be performed in the hospital after birth or at a later date as an outpatient procedure most often under general anesthesia. Male sterilization is performed under local anesthesia and is completed in an outpatient setting. Both procedures are safe and permanent. The nurse can provide education about permanent sterilization to patients to ensure they are fully aware of the permanence of their contraceptive decision.
5.8 Induced Abortion
Abortion care is a sensitive topic. Anticipatory guidance from the nurse to the patient about what to expect is essential. The person deciding to have a medically induced abortion needs to understand that this is a 48- to 72-hour procedure and that follow-up will be necessary to be sure all products of conceptions have been expelled. Additionally, the person needs to understand that they may experience intense nausea, cramping, bleeding, and will experience passage of tissue so that they are prepared to deal with the discomfort and sight of blood and tissue contents.


6.2: Operationalization
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Once a theoretical construct is defined, exactly how do we measure it? Operationalization refers to the process of developing indicators or items for measuring these constructs. For instance, if an unobservable theoretical construct such as socioeconomic status is defined as the level of family income, it can be operationalized using an indicator that asks respondents the question: what is your annual family income? Given the high level of subjectivity and imprecision inherent in social science constructs, we tend to measure most of those constructs (except a few demographic constructs such as age, gender, education, and income) using multiple indicators. This process allows us to examine the closeness amongst these indicators as an assessment of their accuracy (reliability).
Indicators operate at the empirical level, in contrast to constructs, which are conceptualized at the theoretical level. The combination of indicators at the empirical level representing a given construct is called a variable . As noted in a previous chapter, variables may be independent, dependent, mediating, or moderating, depending on how they are employed in a research study. Also each indicator may have several attributes (or levels) and each attribute represent a value . For instance, a “gender” variable may have two attributes: male or female. Likewise, a customer satisfaction scale may be constructed to represent five attributes: “strongly dissatisfied”, “somewhat dissatisfied”, “neutral”, “somewhat satisfied” and “strongly satisfied”. Values of attributes may be quantitative (numeric) or qualitative (nonnumeric). Quantitative data can be analyzed using quantitative data analysis techniques, such as regression or structural equation modeling, while qualitative data require qualitative data analysis techniques, such as coding. Note that many variables in social science research are qualitative, even when represented in a quantitative manner. For instance, we can create a customer satisfaction indicator with five attributes: strongly dissatisfied, somewhat dissatisfied, neutral, somewhat satisfied, and strongly satisfied, and assign numbers 1 through 5 respectively for these five attributes, so that we can use sophisticated statistical tools for quantitative data analysis. However, note that the numbers are only labels associated with respondents’ personal evaluation of their own satisfaction, and the underlying variable (satisfaction) is still qualitative even though we represented it in a quantitative manner.
Indicators may be reflective or formative. A reflective indicator is a measure that “reflects” an underlying construct. For example, if religiosity is defined as a construct that measures how religious a person is, then attending religious services may be a reflective indicator of religiosity. A formative indicator is a measure that “forms” or contributes to an underlying construct. Such indicators may represent different dimensions of the construct of interest. For instance, if religiosity is defined as composing of a belief dimension, a devotional dimension, and a ritual dimension, then indicators chosen to measure each of these different dimensions will be considered formative indicators. Unidimensional constructs are measured using reflective indicators (even though multiple reflective indicators may be used for measuring abstruse constructs such as self-esteem), while multidimensional constructs are measured as a formative combination of the multiple dimensions, even though each of the underlying dimensions may be measured using one or more reflective indicators.


3.2.1: Counting with Indistinguishable Objects - Optional Material
Learning Objectives
- Develop and use counting methods with at least some indistinguishable objects in a situation
Counting Situation with Indistinguishable Objects
In the previous counting examples, we were dealing with counting the number of outcomes that can occur when working with distinct objects: the objects were all different from each other in the selection. We now address a situation where some of the objects are the same (indistinguishable).
Consider the possible ways we can arrange five coins, two of which are indistinguishable gold (\(G)\) coins and three are indistinguishable silver (\(S)\) coins (we compare this with our Example \(\PageIndex{2.1}\) in which all five coins were distinguishable). Our previous work demonstrated that five distinguishable coins can be arranged in \(5!\) \(=120\) ways. However, in the case of indistinguishable coins, an order of GSSGS would be counted multiple times using our factorial counting approach. Using our same reasoning and computation adjustment in developing a combination count , we adjust the size of the total ordered count of \(5!\) by scaling down by the number of ways the two gold coins could be placed (there are \(2!\) such ways) and the number of ways the three silver coins could be placed (there are \(3!\) such ways). There are \( \frac{5!}{2! \cdot 3!}\) \(= \frac{120}{12}\) \(=10 \) ways we can arrange two indistinguishable gold coins with three indistinguishable silver coins. We might list all ten possibilities to verify our computational reasoning.
In this case of just two groups of indistinguishable objects, we might notice that this computation is technically the same as our combination method \( \sideset{_{5}}{_{2}}C \) \(=\frac{5!}{2! \cdot (5-2)!}.\) If we have two types of indistinguishable objects in our collection of five, with two being of one type, the remaining three must be of the other kind. In this situation, counting the number of ways we can select objects from among five with the order not mattering (i.e., a combination) is the same as counting the number of ways we can place two indistinguishable gold coins among five positions. The situations sound different, but the counting is the same.
Now, we can generalize beyond having two indistinguishable objects with the new counting method called the Permutation Rule with Some Objects Indistinguishable . In general, if there are \(n\) objects to order where all \(n\)-objects are among precisely one of the \(k\)-indistinguishable groups of \(n_1\) alike, \(n_2\) alike,\( \ldots\), \(n_k\) alike, then the number of recognizable different sequences (or permutations) of all \(n\) objects can be determined by\[ \nonumber \frac{n!}{n_{1}!\cdot n_{2}! \cdots n_{k}!}.\]Suppose we have ten coins, five of which are gold, two are silver, and three are copper. How many ways can these ten coins be arranged, given that each of the coins within the three metal groups is indistinguishable from the other? Using our recently developed counting strategy, we have \( \frac{10!}{5!\cdot 2! \cdot 3!}\) \(=\frac{3,628,800}{120 \cdot 2 \cdot 6}\) \(=2,520\) different distinguishable arrangements of these coins. Remember, in this calculation, we are taking all possible ordered arrangements as if we could tell the difference in the tens coins and scaling down using division by the number of arrangements each specific group can take.
Determine the number of outcomes for each of these situations.
- Ben was born on \(10/20/2004.\) He wishes to use these \(8\) digits of his birth date to form a security code for a door lock. How many different door locks can he make from his birth date digits?
- Answer
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We notice that Ben has only four distinguishable digits in his \(8\)-digit birth date, namely zeros, ones, twos, and fours. We also notice there are \(4\) zeros, \(1\) one, \(2\) twos, and \(1\) four in that date. To make an \(8\)-digit code by different arrangements of these digits from his birth date, we count by computing \( \frac{8!}{4! \cdot 1! \cdot 2! \cdot 1!}\) \(=\frac{40,320}{24 \cdot 1 \cdot 2 \cdot 1}\) \(=840\) different codes. We notice that there are not very many different possibilities. If someone knew Ben was using the digits of his birth date, a computer program could quickly produce and possibly apply \(840\) codes to breach his security.
- Mikala tosses a fair coin \(9\) times. What is the probability that her \(9\) tosses will yield exactly \(3\) heads and \(6\) tails?
- Answer
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First, we notice we are asked a probability question with a fair coin. We use the classical method to determine this probability since each outcome is equally likely; we must determine the total number of outcomes possible and the number of those outcomes that match our desired event description. When a coin is tossed \(9\) times, we know by our simple multiplication rule that there are \(2 \cdot 2 \cdots 2\) \(= 2^{9}\) \(= 512\) different outcomes in the ordered sample space. However, the tosses that involve \(3\) heads and \(6\) tails can happen in multiple ways, such as HHTTTHTTT or TTTHHHTTT. We must count the number of ways we can sequence \(3\) heads among the \(9\) positions (notice this is the same as asking for the number of ways we can sequence \(6\) tails among the \(9\) positions since the coin can only land either on heads or tails. There is no third indistinguishable outcome group). The three heads in any position cannot be distinguished and the six tails cannot be distinguished, so there are \( \frac{9!}{3! \cdot 6!}\) \(=\frac{362,880}{6 \cdot 720}\) \(=84\) ways to have \(9\) tosses that results in \(3\) heads and \(6\) tails. Mikala has the probability of \( \frac{84}{512}\) \(\approx 16.41\%\) of such an outcome. Again, we note that in this situation of "two-indistinguishable groups among all \(n\) trials", we could have computed our combination count \(\sideset{_{9}}{_{3}}C \) or \(\sideset{_{9}}{_{6}}C \) and received the same count of \(84.\)
- Lanee has twelve cows to use in a study to compare three different diets, \(\text{A},\) \(\text{B},\) and \(\text{C}.\) Each of the diets is to be used on four of the cows. How many ways can the diets be assigned to the twelve cows?
- Answer
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We might first notice that a possible assignment of the diets to an ordering of the twelve cows could be:\[ \nonumber \text{A B C A B C A B C A B C}.\]A different assignment could be:\[ \nonumber \text{A A B B C C C C B B A A}.\]By these two examples, we see that a count of the number of ways in which we can assign the letters to twelve positions (representing the cows) will answer the question. There are \( \frac{12!}{4! \cdot 4! \cdot 4!}\) \(=\frac{479,001,600}{24 \cdot 24 \cdot 24}\) \(=34,650\) ways Lanee might assign the diets.
As a side note, some will call this the method of Distinguishable Permutations because we are counting the number of arrangements that can be distinguished from each other. If you have some indistinguishable objects, as we discussed above, some of the orders are not distinguishable due to some of the objects being indistinguishable. We only want to count distinguishable orderings, hence the terminology Distinguishable Permutations.


5.7: When to Use Apostrophes
- Demonstrate the standard uses of apostrophes to show possession
- Demonstrate the standard uses of apostrophes in contractions
With possessives, the apostrophe is used in combination with an s to indicate that a word literally or conceptually possesses what follows it. Singular words, whether or not they end in s , are made possessive by adding an apostrophe + s . For example:
- a student’s paper
- one hour’s passing
For plural words, we typically indicate possession simply by adding the apostrophe without an additional s . However, for a plural that does not end in an s (e.g., bacteria ), we would add an apostrophe + s . For example:
- Illinois’s law or Illinois’ law
- interviewees’ answers
- her professors’ office (an office shared by two of her professors; if it were just one professor, we would write her professor’s office )
Writers sometimes mistakenly add apostrophes to make words plural, but this is not how the apostrophe is used; the apostrophe is used to show possession or ownership.
This video explains how apostrophes are used to show possession.
https://lumenlearning.h5p.com/content/1290906726309870758/embed
Here’s a test you can use to determine whether an apostrophe is needed—we call it the “of” test. Try rewording the sentence and substituting the apostrophe with the word of .
| Using an Apostrophe | Using “of” test |
| my friend’s DVD | the DVD of my friend |
| Beth’s zombie plan | the zombie plan of Beth |
| James’s canned goods | the canned goods of James |
If you just mean to make a word plural, you should not add an apostrophe. Here is an example of incorrect usage:
- The student’s planned to buy their books but played Xbox instead.
Here, you would not use an apostrophe because there is no ownership being established. You can double-check this example and see that this use of the apostrophe would not pass the “of” test:
- The planned of the students just does not make sense.
The sentence above would not pass the test and should read as follows:
- The students planned to buy their books but played Xbox instead.
Plural Possessives
Making plural words possessive can be confusing at times because we so often add an s to a noun to make it plural. All of those s’s can be a little overwhelming, but the rules are pretty simple:
To make plural nouns that do not end in s possessive, add ’s .
- the children’s scary books
- the mice’s tiny tails
To make plural nouns that end in s possessive, add just the apostrophe.
- my cats’ treasures
- our zombie fortresses’ weaknesses
Now try applying these apostrophe rules yourself.
Contractions
A contraction is a shortened phrase. He will becomes he’ll , are not becomes aren’t , would have becomes would’ve , and it is becomes it’s . In all of these cases, the apostrophe stands in for the missing letters.
You may find yourself being steered away from using contractions in your papers. While you should follow your teacher’s preference, keep in mind that leaving out contractions can often make your words sound too formal and stilted.
Possessive pronouns vs. contractions
- your vs. you’re
- its vs. it’s
- their vs. they’re
All three of these pairs are the same kind of pair: a possessive pronoun and a contracted version of a pronoun + to be (you’re = you are; it’s = it is; they’re = they are). These are easy to mix up (especially its/it’s) because—as we’ve learned—an apostrophe + s indicates possession. The best way to use these correctly is to remember that possessive pronouns never have an apostrophe. Try replacing the word in question with the expanded version of the contraction and seeing how it sounds.
I think it’s going to rain → I think it is going to rain.
If the word can be replaced by two words ( it’s → it is ) then it is a contraction and it needs an apostrophe (because, remember, the apostrophe is there to replace the missing letters).
I don’t want to go to your play → I don’t want to go to you are play.
If the word cannot be replaced by two words ( your → you are ) then it does not need an apostrophe.
Acronyms and Numbers
In technical writing, acronyms and numbers are frequently pluralized with the addition of an apostrophe + s , but this is falling out of favor, and there is typically no need to put an apostrophe in front of the s . For example, SSTs (sea surface temperatures) is more acceptable than SST’s when your intention is simply to pluralize.
Ideally, with an acronym or number, use the apostrophe before the s only to show possession (i.e., “1860’s law”; “DEP’s testing”) or when confusion would otherwise result (“mind your p’s and q’s”).
You can also use an apostrophe to stand in for omitted numbers.
I was born in ’75, and I’m feeling old.
It’s important to note that the use of contractions and the use of apostrophes to stand in for omitted numbers are generally considered too informal for most academic writing. Some students wonder why they should bother learning these rules, then. The answer is that there are plenty of writing situations in which contractions are appropriate. It’s just that contractions are too informal for most of the formal papers you write for college and should be avoided in those situations.
https://h5p.cwr.olemiss.edu/h5p/embed/31
Work through these practice questions to ensure you are clear on the distinction between using an apostrophe to show possession or using it as a contraction.
https://lumenlearning.h5p.com/content/1290906739311587408/embed
Contributors and Attributions
- Revision and Adaptation. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
- Quotation Practice Activity. Provided by : University of Mississippi. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Apostrophe icon. Authored by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Style For Students Online . Authored by : Joe Schall. Provided by : The Pennsylvania State University. Located at : https://www.e-education.psu.edu/styleforstudents/ . Project : Penn State's College of Earth and Mineral Sciences' OER Initiative. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
- Excelsior OWL: Apostrophes . Provided by : Excelsior College. Located at : http://owl.excelsior.edu/grammar-essentials/punctuation/apostrophes/ . Project : Grammar Essentials. License : CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial


9.4E: Conics in Polar Coordinates (Exercises)
Section 9.4 Exercises
In problems 1–8, find the eccentricity and directrix, then identify the shape of the conic.
1. \(r = \dfrac{12}{1 + 3\cos (\theta )}\)
2. \(r = \dfrac{4}{1 - \sin (\theta )}\)
3. \(r = \dfrac{2}{4 - 3\sin (\theta )}\)
4. \(r = \dfrac{7}{2 - \cos (\theta )}\)
5. \(r = \dfrac{1}{5 - 5\cos (\theta )}\)
6. \(r = \dfrac{6}{3 + 8\cos (\theta )}\)
7. \(r = \dfrac{4}{7 + 2\cos (\theta )}\)
8. \(r = \dfrac{16}{4 + 3\sin (\theta )}\)
In problems 9–14, find a polar equation for a conic having a focus at the origin with the given characteristics.
9. Directrix \(x = -4\), eccentricity \(e = 5\).
10. Directrix \(y = -2\), eccentricity \(e = 3\).
11. Directrix \(y = 3\), eccentricity \(e = \dfrac{1}{3}\).
12. Directrix \(x = 5\), eccentricity \(e = \dfrac{3}{4}\).
13. Directrix \(y = -2\), eccentricity \(e = 1\).
14. Directrix \(x = -3\), eccentricity \(e = 1\).
In problems 15–20, sketch a graph of the conic. Use the graph to help you find important features and write a Cartesian equation for the conic.
15. \(r = \dfrac{9}{1 - 2\cos (\theta )}\)
16. \(r = \dfrac{4}{1 + 3\sin (\theta )}\)
17. \(r = \dfrac{12}{3 + \sin (\theta )}\)
18. \(r = \dfrac{15}{3 - 2\cos (\theta )}\)
19. \(r = \dfrac{6}{1 + \cos (\theta )}\)
20. \(r = \dfrac{4}{1 - \sin (\theta )}\)
21. At the beginning of the chapter, we defined an ellipse as the set of all points \(Q\) for which the sum of the distance from each focus to \(Q\) is constant. Mathematically, \(d\left( Q, F_1 \right) + d\left( Q, F_2 \right) = k\). It is not obvious that this definition and the one provided in this section involving the directrix are related. In this exercise, we will start with the definition from this section and attempt to derive the earlier formula from it.
a. Draw an ellipse with foci at \(\left( c,0 \right)\) and \(\left( - c,0 \right)\), vertices at \(\left( a,0 \right)\) and \(\left( - a,0 \right)\), and directrixes at \(x = p\) and \(x = - p\). Label the foci \(F_1\) and \(F_2\). Label the directrixes \(L_1\) and \(L_2\). Label some point \(\left( x,y \right)\) on the ellipse \(Q\).
b. Find formulas for \(d\left( Q,L_1 \right)\) and \(D\left( Q, L_2 \right)\) in terms of \(x\) and \(p\).
c. From the definition of a conic in this section, \(\dfrac{d\left( Q,F_1 \right)}{d\left( Q,L_1 \right)} = e\). Likewise, \(\dfrac{d\left( Q,F_2 \right)}{d\left( Q,L_2 \right)} = e\) as well. Use these ratios, with your answers from part (b) above, to find formulas for \(d\left( Q, F_1 \right)\) and \(D\left( Q, F_2 \right)\) in terms of \(e\), \(x\), and \(p\).
d. Show that the sum, \(d\left( Q, F_1 \right) + d\left( Q, F_2 \right)\), is constant. This establishes that the definitions are connected.
e. Let \(Q\) be a vertex. Find the distances \(d\left( Q, F_1 \right)\) and \(D\left( Q, F_2 \right)\) in terms of \(a\) and \(c\). Then combine this with your result from part (d) to find a formula for \(p\) in terms of \(a\) and \(e\).
f. Let \(Q\) be a vertex. Find the distances \(D\left( Q, L_2 \right)\) and \(D\left( Q, F_2 \right)\) in terms of \(a\), \(p\), and \(c\). Use the relationship \(\dfrac{d\left( Q, F_2 \right)}{d\left( Q, L_2 \right)} = e\), along with your result from part (e), to find a formula for \(e\) in terms of \(a\) and \(c\).
22. When we first looked at hyperbolas, we defined them as the set of all points Q for which the absolute value of the difference of the distances to two fixed points is constant. Mathematically, \(\left| d\left( Q, F_1 \right) - d\left( Q, F_2 \right) \right| = k\). Use a similar approach to the one in the last exercise to obtain this formula from the definition given in this section. Find a formula for \(e\) in terms of \(a\) and \(c\).
- Answer
-
1. \(e = 3\). Directrix: \(x = 4\). Hyperbola.
3. \(e = 3/4\). Directrix: \(y = -2/3\). Ellipse.
5. \(e = 1\). Directrix: \(x = -1/5\). Parabola.
7. \(e = 2/7\). Directrix: \(x. = 2\). Ellipse.
9. \(r = \dfrac{20}{1 - 5\cos(\theta)}\)
11. \(r = \dfrac{1}{1 + \dfrac{1}{3} \sin(\theta)}\), or \(r = \dfrac{3}{3 + \sin(\theta)}\)
13. \(r = \dfrac{2}{1 - \sin(\theta)}\)
15. Hyperbola. Vertices at (-9, 0) and (-3, 0) Center at (-6, 0). \(a = 3\), \(c = 6\), so \(b = \sqrt{27}\)
\(\dfrac{(x + 6)^2}{9} - \dfrac{y^2}{27} = 1\)
17. Ellipse. Vertices at (0, 3) and (0, -6). Center at (0, -1.5). \(a = 4.5\), \(c = 1.5\), \(b = \sqrt{18}\).
\(\dfrac{x^2}{18} + \dfrac{(y + 1.5)^2}{20.25} = 1\)
19. Parabola. Vertex at (3, 0). \(p = 3\).
\(y^2 = 12(x - 3)\)
21. a).
b). \(d(Q, L_1) = x -(-p) = x + p\), \(d(Q, L_2) = p - x\)
c). \(d(Q, F_1) = ed(Q, L_1) = e(x + p)\). \(d(Q, F_2) ed(Q, L_2) e(p - x)\)
d). \(d(Q, F_1) + d(Q, F_2) = e(x + p) + e(p - x) = 2ep\), a constant.
e). At \(Q = (a, 0)\), \(d(Q, F_1) = a - (-c) = a + c\), and \(d(Q, F_2) = a - c\), so \(d(Q, F_1) + d(Q, F_2) = (a + c) + (a - c) = 2a\).
Combining with the result above, \(2ep = 2a\), so \(p = \dfrac{a}{e}\)
f). \(d(Q, F_2) = a - c\), and \(d(Q, L_2) = p - a\)
\(\dfrac{d(Q, F_2}{Q, L_2} =e\), so \(\dfrac{a - c}{p - a} = e\).
\(a - c = e (p - a)\). Using the result from (e).
\(a - c = e(\dfrac{a}{e} - a)\)
\(a - c = a - ea\)
\(e = \dfrac{c}{a}\)


22.3: The Peritoneum
The peritoneum, the serous membrane that forms the lining of the abdominal cavity, covers most of the intra-abdominal organs.
- Differentiate among the digestive organs and their location relative to the peritoneum
Key Points
- The peritoneum supports the abdominal organs and serves as a conduit for their blood and lymph vessels and nerves.
-
There are two layers of the peritoneum: the outer layer, called the parietal peritoneum, is attached to the abdominal wall; the inner layer, the visceral peritoneum, is wrapped around the internal organs that are located inside the intraperitoneal cavity.
The mesentery is the double layer of visceral peritoneum. - The potential space between these two layers, the peritoneal cavity, is filled with a small amount of slippery serous fluid that allows the two layers to slide freely over each other.
- The structures in the abdomen are classified as intraperitoneal, retroperitoneal, or infraperitoneal, depending on whether they are covered with visceral peritoneum and are attached by mesenteries.
- There are two main regions of the peritoneum connected by the epiploic foramen: the greater sac or general cavity of the abdomen, and the lesser sac or omental bursa.
- Intraperitoneal organs and retroperitoneal organs weave in and out of these membranes, and serve varying functions. Retroperitoneal structures tend to be more static than intraperitoneal ones.
Key Terms
- greater omentum : A large fold of visceral peritoneum that hangs down from the stomach.
- retroperitoneal : Located outside of the peritoneum.
- serous membrane : A thin membrane that secretes serum that lines an internal body cavity, such as the peritoneum, the pericardium, and the pleura.
- peritoneum : In mammals, the serous membrane that lines the cavity of the abdomen and that is folded over the viscera.
- intraperitoneal : Within the cavity of the peritoneum.
- mesentery : The membrane that attaches the intestines to the wall of the abdomen and maintains their position in the abdominal cavity to supply them with blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics.
EXAMPLES
In one form of dialysis, called peritoneal dialysis, a glucose solution is sent through a tube into the peritoneal cavity. The fluid is left there for a prescribed amount of time to absorb waste products, and then removed through the tube. This form of dialysis is effective because of the the high number of arteries and veins in the peritoneal cavity which, through the mechanism of diffusion, remove waste products from the blood.
The peritoneum is the serous membrane that forms the lining of the abdominal cavity or the coelom. It covers most of the intra-abdominal, or coelomic, organs. It is composed of a layer of mesothelial tissue, supported by a thin layer of connective tissue.
The peritoneum provides support and protection for the abdominal organs, and is the main conduit for the associated lymph vessels, nerves, and abdominal arteries and veins.
The abdominal cavity is the open space surrounded by the vertebrae, abdominal muscles, diaphragm, and pelvic floor. Remember not to confuse the abdominal cavity with the intraperitoneal space, which is located within the abdominal cavity and wrapped in peritoneum tissue. For example, a kidney is inside the abdominal cavity, but is retroperitoneal—located outside the peritoneum.
The peritoneum and the kidney : A sagittal section through the posterior abdominal wall, showing the kidney residing outside the peritoneum.
Although they ultimately form one continuous sheet, there are two layers of peritoneum and potential space between those layers.
- The outer layer, called the parietal peritoneum, is attached to the abdominal wall.
- The inner layer, the visceral peritoneum, is wrapped around the internal organs that are located inside the intraperitoneal cavity.
- The potential space between these two layers is the peritoneal cavity. It is filled with a small amount of slippery serous fluid that allows the two layers to slide freely over each other.
The term mesentery is often used to refer to a double layer of visceral peritoneum. There are generally blood vessels, nerves, and other structures between these layers. The space between the two layers is technically outside of the peritoneal sac, and thus not in the peritoneal cavity.
The Regions of the Peritoneum
There are two main regions of the peritoneum, connected by the epiploic foramen (also known as the omental foramen or foramen of Winslow). The first is the greater sac or general cavity of the abdomen. The second is the lesser sac or omental bursa.
The lesser sac is divided into two omenta: the gastrohepatic and the gastrocolic. The gastrohepatic omentum is attached to the lesser curvature of the stomach and the liver. The gastrocolic omentum hangs from the greater curve of the stomach and loops down in front of the intestines before curving upwards to attach to the transverse colon. Like a curtain of tissue, it is draped in front of the intestines to insulate and protect them.
Substructures of the peritoneum : This is a midsagittal, cross-section drawing of the epiploic foramen, the greater sac or general cavity (red), and the lesser sac or omental bursa (blue).
Abdomen Structures
The structures in the abdomen are classified as intraperitoneal, retroperitoneal, or infraperitoneal depending on whether they are covered with visceral peritoneum and are attached by mesenteries, such as the mensentery and mesocolon.
Intraperitoneal Structures
Intraperitoneal organs include the stomach, the first five centimeters and the fourth part of the the duodenum, the jejunum, the ileum, the cecum, the appendix, the transverse colon, the sigmoid colon, and the upper third of the rectum.
Other organs located in the intraperitoneal space are the liver, spleen, and the tail of the pancreas. In women, the uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries, and gonadal blood vessels are located in the intraperitoneum.
Retroperitoneal Structures
Retroperitoneal structures include the rest of the duodenum, the ascending colon, the descending colon, the middle third of the rectum, and the remainder of the pancreas. Other organs located in the retroperitoneal space are the kidneys, adrenal glands, proximal ureters, and renal vessels. Organs located below the peritoneum in the subperitoneal space include the lower third of the rectum and the urinary bladder.
Intraperitoneal Structures
Structures that are intraperitoneal are generally mobile, while those that are retroperitoneal are relatively fixed in their location. Some structures, such as the kidneys, are primarily retroperitoneal, while others such as the majority of the duodenum, are secondarily retroperitoneal, meaning that structure developed intraperitoneally, but lost its mesentery and thus became retroperitoneal.
Peritoneum : The peritoneum illustrated, indicated by blue.
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2.9.3: Phishing
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Phishing is a cyber-attack that uses disguised email as a weapon. The goal is to trick the email recipient into believing that the message is something they want or need — a request from their bank, for instance, or a note from someone in their company — and to click a link or download an attachment. What really distinguishes phishing is the form the message takes: the attackers masquerade as a trusted entity of some kind, often a real or plausibly real person, or a company the victim might do business with. It's one of the oldest types of cyberattacks, dating back to the 1990s, and it's still one of the most widespread and pernicious, with phishing messages and techniques becoming increasingly sophisticated. (Norton.com, n.d.)
While there are several paid-for and free applications that protect against viruses and malware, Windows has built-in applications to monitor the health of your PC and protect it against hostile threats.


30.10.1: Review Questions
Review Questions
What is the Copernican principle? Make a list of scientific discoveries that confirm it.
2.
Where in the solar system (and beyond) have scientists found evidence of organic molecules?
3.
Give a short history of the atoms that are now in your little finger, going back to the beginning of the universe.
4.
What is a biomarker? Give some possible examples of biomarkers we might look for beyond the solar system.
5.
Why are Mars and Europa the top targets for the study of astrobiology?
6.
Why is traveling between the stars (by creatures like us) difficult?
7.
What are the advantages to using radio waves for communication between civilizations that live around different stars? List as many as you can.
8.
What is the “cosmic haystack problem”? List as many of its components as you can think of.
9.
What is a habitable zone?
10.
Why is the simultaneous detection of methane and oxygen in an atmosphere a good indication of the existence of a biosphere on that planet?
11.
What are two characteristic properties of life that distinguish it from nonliving things?
12.
What are the three requirements that scientists believe an environment needs to supply life with in order to be considered habitable?
13.
Can you name five environmental conditions that, in their extremes, microbial life has been challenged by and has learned to survive on Earth?