8.4: Rehabilitation
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- Alison S. Burke, David Carter, Brian Fedorek, Tiffany Morey, Lore Rutz-Burri, & Shanell Sanchez
- Southern Oregon University via OpenOregon
Although not as old as some of the older ideologies, rehabilitation is not brand new. Additionally, it is the only one of the four main ideologies that most accurately attempts to address all three goals of corrections, which are:
- Punish the offender
- Protect Society
- Rehabilitate the offender.
Certainly, all four ideologies address the first two goals, punishment, and societal protection. However, the goal of rehabilitating the offender is either silent, or not addressed in retribution, deterrence, or incapacitation. This does come as a cost. As we will talk about in more detail when covering prisons and jails, there is a great paradox that is happening in our society when we heavily rely on jails and prisons. Most offenders will come out of institutions (roughly 95% of all people who enter prisons are released), and little is done to change them while they are there. This is mostly due to our attitudes towards offenders, the policies that are necessarily placed on individuals while they are locked up, and the institutions themselves. And yet, there is the expectation that these individual leaving prisons will not commit crimes in the future.
The question here is this – what have we done to change them so that they are not reoffending? Without the incorporation of some form of rehabilitation, the answer is fairly clear… Nothing. Yet, we expect it.
Rehabilitation has taken on different forms through its history in the United States. We have considered individuals out of touch with God, and so offenders needed to be penitent, in order to get right with God. One of America’s earliest prisons was designed with this in mind. The Eastern State Penitentiary, opening in 1829, included outside reflection yards; so that offenders could look up to God for penance.
To see more of this prison, visit https://www.easternstate.org/ .
Reformatories were another example of how rehabilitation was viewed in the past. The reform movement tried to rehabilitate the offender through more humane treatment, to include basic education, religious services, work experience, and general reform efforts. This was done in an effort to reform individuals, thus allowing them to come back to society. The Elmira Reformatory was one of the earliest efforts of the reform ideal, and many prisons built in the United States were based on this prison. Below is a picture of Elmira.
Other attempts at rehabilitation included more medical approaches. In the past, offenders were viewed as sick, and in need of medical cures. This medical approach, while greatly reduced, is still used in some areas today. For example, the chemical castration of certain offenders does still occur. For example HB 2543, in Oklahoma, in September of 2018, focuses on the mandated use of medroxyprogesterone acetate as a treatment, and is required before appropriate release of convicted sex offenders.
Rehabilitation, as an ideology has had critics. This is in large part due to how it is perceived. Many have voiced an objection, as it is seen as being “soft” on offenders. This is also how it has been discounted when coupled with the fear of crime. Several examples are presented as to its ineffectiveness, and weakness to the problem of crime. Probably the most notable example of the ineffectiveness of rehabilitation came in the 1970s. In 1974, Robert Martinson provided support for many that were clambering to demonstrate that the ideas of rehabilitation were ineffective. In a review of over 230 programs, Martinson concluded that “With few and isolated exceptions, the rehabilitative efforts that have been undertaken so far have had no appreciative effect on recidivism” (Martinson, 1974, p. 25). [1] This was the spark that many needed to turn toward the more punitive ideologies that we have so far discussed. However, it did help some to ask more detailed questions about why rehabilitation was not working. Additionally, it helped researchers to ask more critical questions about measurement, how to more properly evaluate rehabilitation and to understand the difference of what does not work versus what does work for offenders. These principles of effective intervention become the cornerstone of modern rehabilitation.
Understanding Risk and Needs in Rehabilitation
Today’s rehabilitative efforts do still carry punishment and societal protection as goals, but the focus of rehabilitation is on the changing of offenders behaviors so that they are not committing crimes in the future. This is done by understanding what are the items that make offenders at risk for offending. Additionally, based on the levels of risk items, some offenders are at higher risk for offending than other offenders. This includes items like prior criminal history, antisocial attitudes, antisocial (pro-criminal) friends, a lack of education, family or marital problems, a lack of job stability, substance abuse, and personality characteristics (mental health and antisocial personality). Collectively these are considered as risk factors for offending (re-offending). While we can change the number of priors someone already has, all of these other items can be addressed. These are considered as criminogenic needs. Criminogenic needs are items that when changed, can lower an individual’s risk of offending. This is a core component of Paul Gendreau’s (1996) principles of effective intervention, and are at the heart of most modern effective rehabilitation programs. [2] Additionally, thousands of offenders have been assessed on these items, which has helped to develop evidence-based rehabilitation practices. These are efforts that are based on empirical data about offenders. When these criminogenic needs are addressed, higher-risk offenders demonstrate positive reductions in their risk to offend.
Over the last 40 years, efforts to change these characteristics, in order to reduce offending have been varied. One of the most useful approaches to changing the antisocial attitudes and behaviors of offenders has come in the form of behavioral and cognitive behavioral change efforts. Cognitive behavioral change for offenders is based on the concepts that the behaviors that one exhibit can be changed by changing the thinking patterns behind (before) the behaviors are exhibited. That is (criminal) behavior is based on cognition, values, and beliefs that are learned vicariously through the interactions and observations of others. It is especially relevant since we are receiving individuals from prison, where these ideas, peers, values, and beliefs may dominate the institution. For a more detailed explanation, please see https://www.apa.org/ptsd-guideline/patients-and-families/cognitive-behavioral.pdf .
Today, evidence-based rehabilitative efforts are now used as benchmarks when establishing programs that are seen as effective, versus ones that show little to no (or even negative) results. Rehabilitation programs that follow these principles of effective intervention are showing that they can achieve these three goals of corrections (punishment, societal protection, and offender change). In fact, the U.S. Federal Government has a section of the National Institute of Justice devoted to these evidence-based practices, and what programs are seen as effective, promising, and not effective. This site is called “CrimeSolutions,” and can be visited at https://www.crimesolutions.gov/ . This resource provides invaluable information for individuals making decisions on what works for offenders and is based on empirical studies of hundreds of different approaches.
- Martinson, R. (1974). What works? Questions and answers about prison reform. Public Interest 35, 22-54. ↵
- Gendreau, P. (1996). Principles of effective intervention with offenders. Choosing correctional options that work: Defining the demand and evaluating the supply , 117-130, Alan T Harland, ed. -- See NCJ-158983) https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=158988 ↵


16.1: Introduction
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Objective
After completing this section, you should be able to identify electrophilic substitution as the single most important reaction of aromatic compounds.
Key Terms
Make certain that you can define, and use in context, the key terms below.
- acylation
- alkylation
- electrophilic substitution
- halogenation
- hydroxylation
- nitration
- sulfonation
Study Notes
In this chapter, you will study all of the reactions shown in the Reaction Type table. In addition to these five reaction types, we also add a sixth common electrophilic substitution known as hydroxylation.
It is important that you recognize the similarities between these reactions to minimize the amount you must memorize.
The six pi electrons obey Huckel's rule so benzene is especially stable. This means that the aromatic ring want to be retained during reactions. Because of this benzene does not undergo addition like other unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Benzene can undergo electrophilic aromatic substitution because aromaticity is maintained.
Other Examples of Electophilic Aromatic Substitution
Many other substitution reactions of benzene have been observed, the five most useful are listed below (chlorination and bromination are the most common halogenation reactions). Since the reagents and conditions employed in these reactions are electrophilic, these reactions are commonly referred to as Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution . The catalysts and co-reagents serve to generate the strong electrophilic species needed to effect the initial step of the substitution. The specific electrophile believed to function in each type of reaction is listed in the right hand column.
| Reaction Type | Typical Equation | Electrophile E (+) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Halogenation: | C 6 H 6 |
+ Cl
2
&
heat
FeCl 3 catalyst |
—— > |
C
6
H
5
Cl + HCl
Chlorobenzene |
Cl (+) or Br (+) |
| Nitration: | C 6 H 6 |
+ HNO
3
&
heat
H 2 SO 4 catalyst |
—— > |
C
6
H
5
NO
2
+ H
2
O
Nitrobenzene |
NO 2 (+) |
| Sulfonation: | C 6 H 6 |
+ H
2
SO
4
+ SO
3
& heat |
—— > |
C
6
H
5
SO
3
H + H
2
O
Benzenesulfonic acid |
SO 3 H (+) |
|
Alkylation:
Friedel-Crafts |
C 6 H 6 |
+ R-Cl &
heat
AlCl 3 catalyst |
—— > |
C
6
H
5
-R + HCl
An Arene |
R (+) |
|
Acylation:
Friedel-Crafts |
C 6 H 6 |
+ RCOCl &
heat
AlCl 3 catalyst |
—— > |
C
6
H
5
COR + HCl
An Aryl Ketone |
RCO (+) |


Chapter 1: Review of Intro Financial Accounting
- Complete Review Lab 1.1 to review adjusting entries.
- Complete Review Lab 1.2 to review merchandising transactions.
- Complete Review Lab 1.3 to review inventory costing methods.
- Complete Review Lab 1.4 to review bank reconciliations.
- Complete Review Lab 1.5 to review receivables transactions.
- Complete Review Lab 1.6 to review transactions related to long-lived assets.
- Complete Review Lab 1.7 to review current and long-term liabilities.
- Complete Review Lab 1.8 to review the statement of cash flows.
To be successful in Intermediate Financial Accounting, it is imperative for a student to have a strong foundational knowledge of all Introductory Financial Accounting concepts. The purpose of Lesson 1 is to help a student identify any weaknesses in their Intro Accounting knowledge. Lesson 1 consists of a series of labs intended to help a student identify any knowledge gaps. If a weakness comes to light, the student is encouraged to go back to that concept in Intro Accounting and review in detail. It is the student's responsibility to ensure they come into Intermediate Financial Accounting with the appropriate pre-requisite knowledge.
Each section will provide a link to the open Introduction to Financial Accounting textbook by Dauderis and Annand. You may also access the textbook by visiting http://lifa1.lyryx.com/open_introfa/?LESSONS . You can either view the lessons online, or you will find a Download link on the left side that will let you download a PDF or order a printed copy of that textbook. If you used this textbook in your Introductory Financial Accounting course then you may already have a copy of the textbook.


12.5.4: Wireless
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Wireless Networking
Today we are used to being able to access the Internet wherever we go. Our smartphones can access the Internet; Starbucks provides wireless “hotspots” for our laptops or iPads. These wireless technologies have made Internet access more convenient and have made devices such as tablets and laptops much more functional. Let’s examine a few of these wireless technologies.
Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is a technology that takes an Internet signal and converts it into radio waves. These radio waves can be picked up within a radius of approximately 65 feet by devices with a wireless adapter. Several Wi-Fi specifications have been developed over the years, starting with 802.11b (1999), followed by the 802.11g specification in 2003 and 802.11n in 2009. Each new specification improved the speed and range of Wi-Fi, allowing for more uses. One of the primary places where Wi-Fi is being used is in the home. Home users are purchasing Wi-Fi routers, connecting them to their broadband connections, and then connecting multiple devices via Wi-Fi.
Mobile Network
As the cellphone has evolved into the smartphone, the desire for Internet access on these devices has led to data networks being included as part of the mobile phone network. While Internet connections were technically available earlier, it was really with the release of the 3G networks in 2001 (2002 in the US) that smartphones and other cellular devices could access data from the Internet. This new capability drove the market for new and more powerful smartphones, such as the iPhone, introduced in 2007. In 2011, wireless carriers began offering 4G data speeds, giving the cellular networks the same speeds that customers were used to getting via their home connection.
Sidebar: Why Doesn’t My Cellphone Work When I Travel Abroad?
As mobile phone technologies have evolved, providers in different countries have chosen different communication standards for their mobile phone networks. In the US, both of the two competing standards exist: GSM (used by AT&T and T-Mobile) and CDMA (used by the other major carriers). Each standard has its pros and cons, but the bottom line is that phones using one standard cannot easily switch to the other. In the US, this is not a big deal because mobile networks exist to support both standards. But when you travel to other countries, you will find that most of them use GSM networks, with the one big exception being Japan, which has standardized on CDMA. It is possible for a mobile phone using one type of network to switch to the other type of network by switching out the SIM card, which controls your access to the mobile network. However, this will not work in all cases. If you are traveling abroad, it is always best to consult with your mobile provider to determine the best way to access a mobile network.
Bluetooth
While Bluetooth is not generally used to connect a device to the Internet, it is an important wireless technology that has enabled many functionalities that are used every day. When created in 1994 by Ericsson, it was intended to replace wired connections between devices. Today, it is the standard method for connecting nearby devices wirelessly. Bluetooth has a range of approximately 300 feet and consumes very little power, making it an excellent choice for a variety of purposes. Some applications of Bluetooth include: connecting a printer to a personal computer, connecting a mobile phone and headset, connecting a wireless keyboard and mouse to a computer, and connecting a remote for a presentation made on a personal computer.
VoIP
A growing class of data being transferred over the Internet is voice data. A protocol called v oice over IP , or VoIP, enables sounds to be converted to a digital format for transmission over the Internet and then re-created at the other end. By using many existing technologies and software, voice communication over the Internet is now available to anyone with a browser (think Skype, Google Hangouts). Beyond this, many companies are now offering VoIP-based telephone service for business and home use.


12.4: The Age of Reason (Excerpt)
from OF MISSIONS AND REVELATIONS
EVERY national church or religion has established itself by pretending some special mission from God, communicated to certain individuals. The Jews have their Moses; the Christians their Jesus Christ, their apostles and saints; and the Turks their Mahomet; as if the way to God was not open to every man alike.
Each of those churches shows certain books, which they call revelation, or the Word of God. The Jews say that their Word of God was given by God to Moses face to face; the Christians say, that their Word of God came by divine inspiration; and the Turks say, that their Word of God (the Koran) was brought by an angel from heaven. Each of those churches accuses the other of unbelief; and, for my own part, I disbelieve them all.
As it is necessary to affix right ideas to words, I will, before I proceed further into the subject, offer some observations on the word ‘revelation.’ Revelation when applied to religion, means something communicated immediately from God to man.
No one will deny or dispute the power of the Almighty to make such a communication if he pleases. But admitting, for the sake of a case, that something has been revealed to a certain person, and not revealed to any other person, it is revelation to that person only. When he tells it to a second person, a second to a third, a third to a fourth, and so on, it ceases to be a revelation to all those persons. It is revelation to the first person only, and hearsay to every other, and, consequently, they are not obliged to believe it…
It is curious to observe how the theory of what is called the Christian Church, sprung out of the tail of the heathen mythology. A direct incorporation took place in the first instance, by making the reputed founder to be celestially begotten. The trinity of gods that then followed was no other than a reduction of the former plurality, which was about twenty or thirty thousand. The statue of Mary succeeded the statue of Diana of Ephesus. The deification of heroes changed into the canonization of saints. The Mythologists had gods for everything; the Christian Mythologists had saints for everything. The church became as crowded with the one, as the pantheon had been with the other; and Rome was the place of both. The Christian theory is little else than the idolatry of the ancient mythologists, accommodated to the purposes of power and revenue; and it yet remains to reason and philosophy to abolish the amphibious fraud.
from CONCERNING THE CHARACTER OF JESUS CHRIST, AND HIS HISTORY
Jesus Christ wrote no account of himself, of his birth, parentage, or anything else. Not a line of what is called the New Testament is of his writing. The history of him is altogether the work of other people; and as to the account given of his resurrection and ascension, it was the necessary counterpart to the story of his birth. His historians, having brought him into the world in a supernatural manner, were obliged to take him out again in the same manner, or the first part of the story must have fallen to the ground..
But the resurrection of a dead person from the grave, and his ascension through the air, is a thing very different, as to the evidence it admits of, to the invisible conception of a child in the womb. The resurrection and ascension, supposing them to have taken place, admitted of public and ocular demonstration, like that of the ascension of a balloon, or the sun at noon day, to all Jerusalem at least. A thing which everybody is required to believe, requires that the proof and evidence of it should be equal to all, and universal; and as the public visibility of this last related act was the only evidence that could give sanction to the former part, the whole of it falls to the ground, because that evidence never was given. Instead of this, a small number of persons, not more than eight or nine, are introduced as proxies for the whole world, to say they saw it, and all the rest of the world are called upon to believe it. But it appears that Thomas did not believe the resurrection; and, as they say, would not believe without having ocular and manual demonstration himself. So neither will I; and the reason is equally as good for me, and for every other person, as for Thomas..
from CONCLUSION
Of all the systems of religion that ever were invented, there is none more derogatory to the Almighty, more unedifying to man, more repugnant to reason, and more contradictory in itself, than this thing called Christianity. Too absurd for belief, too impossible to convince, and too inconsistent for practice, it renders the heart torpid, or produces only atheists and fanatics. As an engine of power it serves the purpose of despotism; and as a means of wealth, the avarice of priests; but so far as respects the good of man in general, it leads to nothing here or hereafter…
It has been the scheme of the Christian church, and of all the other invented systems of religion, to hold man in ignorance of the Creator, as it is of Government to hold man in ignorance of his rights. The systems of the one are as false as those of the other, and are calculated for mutual support. The study of theology, as it stands in Christian churches, is the study of nothing; it is founded on nothing; it rests on no principles; it proceeds by no authorities; it has no data; it can demonstrate nothing; and it admits of no conclusion. Not any thing can be studied as a science, without our being in possession of the principles upon which it is founded; and as this is not the case with Christian theology, it is therefore the study of nothing.
Instead then, of studying theology, as is now done, out of the Bible and Testament, the meanings of which books are always controverted and the authenticity of which is disproved, it is necessary that we refer to the Bible of the creation. The principles we discover there are eternal and of divine origin; they are the foundation of all the science that exists in the world, and must be the foundation of theology…
I here close the subject. I have shown in all the foregoing parts of this work, that the Bible and Testament are impositions and forgeries; and I leave the evidence I have produced in proof of it, to be refuted, if any one can do it: and I leave the ideas that are suggested in the conclusion of the work, to rest on the mind of the reader; certain as I am, that when opinions are free, either in matters of government or religion, truth will finally and powerfully prevail.


6.2: How Agency Growth Transforms Agenting
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- Violaine Roussel
- University of California Press
The prevalent narrative of change in the agency world attributes to Michael Ovitz, through his success in building CAA into the most powerful agency of the 1980s and 1990s, the role of shaping and leading the reconfiguration of the system linking the main agencies to the major studios. Turning an agenting style into an organizational “culture,” the group of five young dissidents who left the reputable William Morris Agency to create CAA in 19754 ushered in new practices in the talent representation business. These new professional repertoires were attached to an organizational model: building teams of agents to attract high-end talent by exhibiting ostensible signs of power and importance (that is, notably, by staging relationships with other key players). At an organizational level, this strategy was intended to create a collaborative structure encouraging internal sharing of resources and assets, by contrast with the more individualistic and internally competitive model under which other agencies were organized. The success of their endeavor put Ovitz and his collaborators in a position to systematize “packaging” practices—that is, the assembling of key pieces that make up a project: in film, typically, assembling a star actor or a prominent director with a writer, other agencies’ clients, and possibly financiers who are willing to bring complementary funding, and selling them as a package to a studio—and often, because the stars desired by the studios were massively represented by CAA, to impose their conditions on the buyers.
But the story of how CAA changed the industry is only one piece of the puzzle. In fact, a more collective and systemic mechanism was in play. The modes of action and organization that made CAA successful circulated widely in the agency world and hybridized as they were appropriated in different contexts. All of the leading agencies transformed on a relational level. The new ways of agenting born from this pervasion and hybridization process (focused on packaging, “poaching” competitors’ clients, and so on) progressively became a professional norm in Big Hollywood. Veteran agents had to convert to new ways of doing the job that newcomers perceived as the norm. Those who launched new agencies in the early 1990s, UTA (1991) and Endeavor (1995) in particular, had the precedent of CAA in mind, but they had already distanced themselves from this model. The collective reorganizing of the agency business, in a favorable economic context in which studios had money to spend on hiring stars and developing projects, led to the constitution of a group of big agencies that had the critical mass of clients and agents to develop the practice of packaging. By the start of the 2000s, agents had negotiated unprecedented salaries for their star clients, and star power inseparably meant agency power. The balance of forces between studios and agencies, then in favor of the latter, was about to swing back.
At the same time, for agencies internally, growth translated into an increased division of labor—that is, both compartmentalization and specialization. Constituting new roles and areas of expertise inevitably generated institutional boundaries within the structure of the agencies: the departments by which agencies were traditionally organized—(talent or literary) motion pictures and television, music, theater, commercials, books—were subdivided or complemented by new divisions in charge of the uncharted territories. These emerged from media transformation (and the rise of new distribution platforms) and from the extension of the realm of entertainment to nonscripted/alternative television, gaming, branding, sports, and digital media. Talent has been redefined in the process, as agents nowadays represent reality television performers, chefs, web celebrities, as well as corporations and brands, as much as (and often more lucratively than) actors, directors, writers, or below-the-line personnel. 5 Developing such additional branches of activity not only equals increased specialization; it also implies the constitution of new areas of expertise, as new subprofessions and career paths emerge within the scope of talent representation. 6
It used to be a high level of specialization back in the days, in the 60s and 70s. At William Morris when I worked for them, I was in the music department, I wanted to get out of it, I wanted to move in the actor’s business . . . they said no. And I left. They were specialized.  We want hyphening agents!” Now, you are in reality business or in digital business, and these things really don’t cross over as much. That’s interesting. That creates more specialization, but not the old. (Talent agent, big agency, 2012)
Transformations in the economy of media—especially with the development of cable television and the subsequent opportunities in number and quality of projects, and then with the supplanting of DVDs by digital outlets for distribution—take the form of organizational dilemmas in the private bureaucracies that are the agencies. Agency leaders know that they must institutionalize the necessary circulation of their artists between complementary sectors, toward what they believe to be the most promising new areas. 7 For instance, the boundary between film and television has become permeable, and the symbolic hierarchy between the two has been rearranged in favor of the latter. At the same time, however, for the individual agent, crossing an artist over to a different media or area of practice without deferring to colleagues in the concerned department remains a risky subversion of organizational order, as the agent quoted below describes: “I started as a literary agent [representing writers and directors], and then I branched into talent [representing actors]. I’ve always been in the motion picture business. When I started representing actors in addition to my writer-directors, people were like “you’re doing both ?!” It’s like shocking, blasphemy. And now it’s not so unusual. I’m called a hybrid agent, and it’s what I love, I would not be happy to just be doing lit[erary] or just talent. I like both. They’re both very different, but they cross-pollinate each other” (agent, big agency, 2013). Moving (and transferring one’s skills) from one specialty to another is a challenge within the institutional structure of big agencies, whose functioning tends to reinforce the differentiation between departments (especially given the way agents are usually evaluated and compensated).
In sum, “being an agent” in Big Hollywood from the 2000s and thereafter takes on a different meaning. It involves practicing a highly specialized job, maintaining relationships with a small circle of predefined buyers regarding a given type of product or profile of client, in a quickly changing environment and in large corporate companies that have instituted a strict division of activity. It also means handling more clients, often over 150. Only top agents can preserve a managerial style of agenting by representing a few of the (rarefied) stars who still get very lucrative contracts from the studios. This transformation of agenting and agencies in Big Hollywood is directly related to the notable development of management companies in the past twenty years. Such changes are, in turn, consequential for artists and art-making: if agenting is a numbers game, the clients who are not generating enough revenue for the agency get forgotten; the projects into which agencies put effort and energy are also of a different type, as our next section will explain.
The development of large talent agencies into complex organizations has generated a new class of agency managers, who are at more of a distance from the practice of agenting and closer to other types of powerful business leaders, and whose professional value is no longer exclusively or primarily derived from their client list (and consequent ability to leave with star clients):
The major companies, each does something similar and each is engaged in things that are different. I think our core businesses are similar, but our emphasis may be different. Our sizes are different. Our method of capitalization is different. We have private equity partners in this company. . . . But the businesses are run, managed, and operated by professionals, each of whom has been in the business for an excess of twenty years. So there’s an experienced professional class of executives who run these firms but who are also agents. (Big agency manager, 2011)
The big agency world is a shrinking oligopoly. From the “Big 5” agencies (CAA, WMA, ICM, UTA, Endeavor), made “Big 4” by the WMA-Endeavor merger in 2009, two giants have emerged as a result of a concentration and diversification process: CAA and WME. The latter now surpasses its competitor in size, thanks to the 2.4-billion-dollar deal by which WME bought IMG, announced in December 2013. Combined, WME and IMG immediately totaled over 3,000 employees in cities around the world, compared with CAA’s 1,500. But the growth of these companies is better measured when one considers that, in the mid-1990s, CAA only had approximately 500 employees. Both CAA and WME have relatively recently partnered up with a private equity investor; 8 they could soon have an IPO and become a public company. These new investments—which bring fresh money into the agency system—establish a new power configuration. It comes with consequences that agents can anticipate, and which they describe as threatening the creative dimension of their professional identity:
If you are partially owned by an outside, nonentertainment company, they’re kicking the tires to see their return on investment, and they’re not always as knowledgeable as they need to be about really what’s going on, aside from just what the bottom line is. And so WME and CAA both have P&L statements that they have to really manage , and that means cutting clients, cutting agents, making choices not based necessarily on the artistry, but based on the bottom line. (Talent agent, big agency, 2013, her emphasis)
By contrast, the still privately owned agencies UTA and ICM work at repositioning their image as “artist-friendly” companies, while the industry press reveals that client representation was only 14 percent of WME’s revenue in 2013. 9 The gap separating Little from Big Hollywood grows wider as bigger entities focus less exclusively on representing artists. At the same time, the studios have also radically changed and become part of large media corporations. This evolution directly affects the types of projects made (or dismissed) and the relevant strategies for spotting and manufacturing “talent.” On the agency side, this process happens through the transformation of agenting work sometimes associated with the emergence of new types of positions.


18.2: Occurrence and Preparation of the Representative Metals
- Identify natural sources of representative metals
- Describe electrolytic and chemical reduction processes used to prepare these elements from natural sources
Because of their reactivity, we do not find most representative metals as free elements in nature. However, compounds that contain ions of most representative metals are abundant. In this section, we will consider the two common techniques used to isolate the metals from these compounds—electrolysis and chemical reduction.
These metals primarily occur in minerals, with lithium found in silicate or phosphate minerals, and sodium and potassium found in salt deposits from evaporation of ancient seas and in silicates. The alkaline earth metals occur as silicates and, with the exception of beryllium, as carbonates and sulfates. Beryllium occurs as the mineral beryl, Be 3 Al 2 Si 6 O 18 , which, with certain impurities, may be either the gemstone emerald or aquamarine. Magnesium is in seawater and, along with the heavier alkaline earth metals, occurs as silicates, carbonates, and sulfates. Aluminum occurs abundantly in many types of clay and in bauxite, an impure aluminum oxide hydroxide. The principle tin ore is the oxide cassiterite, SnO 2 , and the principle lead and thallium ores are the sulfides or the products of weathering of the sulfides. The remaining representative metals occur as impurities in zinc or aluminum ores.
Electrolysis
Ions of metals in of groups 1 and 2, along with aluminum, are very difficult to reduce; therefore, it is necessary to prepare these elements by electrolysis, an important process discussed in the chapter on electrochemistry. Briefly, electrolysis involves using electrical energy to drive unfavorable chemical reactions to completion; it is useful in the isolation of reactive metals in their pure forms. Sodium, aluminum, and magnesium are typical examples.
The Preparation of Sodium
The most important method for the production of sodium is the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride; the set-up is a Downs cell , shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). The reaction involved in this process is:
\[\ce{2NaCl}(l)\:\mathrm{\underset{600\:°C}{\xrightarrow{electrolysis}}}\:\ce{2Na}(l)+\ce{Cl2}(g) \nonumber \]
The electrolysis cell contains molten sodium chloride (melting point 801 °C), to which calcium chloride has been added to lower the melting point to 600 °C (a colligative effect). The passage of a direct current through the cell causes the sodium ions to migrate to the negatively charged cathode and pick up electrons, reducing the ions to sodium metal. Chloride ions migrate to the positively charged anode, lose electrons, and undergo oxidation to chlorine gas. The overall cell reaction comes from adding the following reactions:
\[\begin{align}
&\textrm{at the cathode: }\ce{2Na+}+\ce{2e-}⟶\ce{2Na}(l)\\
&\textrm{at the anode: }\ce{2Cl-}⟶\ce{Cl2}(g)+\ce{2e-}\\
&\textrm{overall change: }\ce{2Na+}+\ce{2Cl-}⟶\ce{2Na}(l)+\ce{Cl2}(g)
\end{align} \nonumber \]
Separation of the molten sodium and chlorine prevents recombination. The liquid sodium, which is less dense than molten sodium chloride, floats to the surface and flows into a collector. The gaseous chlorine goes to storage tanks. Chlorine is also a valuable product.
The Preparation of Aluminum
The preparation of aluminum utilizes a process invented in 1886 by Charles M. Hall , who began to work on the problem while a student at Oberlin College in Ohio. Paul L. T. Héroult discovered the process independently a month or two later in France. In honor to the two inventors, this electrolysis cell is known as the Hall–Héroult cell . The Hall–Héroult cell is an electrolysis cell for the production of aluminum. Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) illustrates the Hall–Héroult cell.
The production of aluminum begins with the purification of bauxite, the most common source of aluminum. The reaction of bauxite, AlO(OH), with hot sodium hydroxide forms soluble sodium aluminate, while clay and other impurities remain undissolved:
\[\ce{AlO(OH)}(s)+\ce{NaOH}(aq)+\ce{H2O}(l)⟶\ce{Na[Al(OH)4]}(aq) \nonumber \]
After the removal of the impurities by filtration, the addition of acid to the aluminate leads to the reprecipitation of aluminum hydroxide:
\[\ce{Na[Al(OH)4]}(aq)+\ce{H3O+}(aq)⟶\ce{Al(OH)3}(s)+\ce{Na+}(aq)+\ce{2H2O}(l) \nonumber \]
The next step is to remove the precipitated aluminum hydroxide by filtration. Heating the hydroxide produces aluminum oxide, Al 2 O 3 , which dissolves in a molten mixture of cryolite, Na 3 AlF 6 , and calcium fluoride, CaF 2 . Electrolysis of this solution takes place in a cell like that shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\). Reduction of aluminum ions to the metal occurs at the cathode, while oxygen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide form at the anode.
The Preparation of Magnesium
Magnesium is the other metal that is isolated in large quantities by electrolysis. Seawater, which contains approximately 0.5% magnesium chloride, serves as the major source of magnesium. Addition of calcium hydroxide to seawater precipitates magnesium hydroxide. The addition of hydrochloric acid to magnesium hydroxide, followed by evaporation of the resultant aqueous solution, leaves pure magnesium chloride. The electrolysis of molten magnesium chloride forms liquid magnesium and chlorine gas:
\[\ce{MgCl2}(aq)+\ce{Ca(OH)2}(aq)⟶\ce{Mg(OH)2}(s)+\ce{CaCl2}(aq) \nonumber \]
\[\ce{Mg(OH)2}(s)+\ce{2HCl}(aq)⟶\ce{MgCl2}(aq)+\ce{2H2O}(l) \nonumber \]
\[\ce{MgCl2}(l)⟶\ce{Mg}(l)+\ce{Cl2}(g) \nonumber \]
Some production facilities have moved away from electrolysis completely. In the next section, we will see how the Pidgeon process leads to the chemical reduction of magnesium.
Chemical Reduction
It is possible to isolate many of the representative metals by chemical reduction using other elements as reducing agents. In general, chemical reduction is much less expensive than electrolysis, and for this reason, chemical reduction is the method of choice for the isolation of these elements. For example, it is possible to produce potassium, rubidium, and cesium by chemical reduction, as it is possible to reduce the molten chlorides of these metals with sodium metal. This may be surprising given that these metals are more reactive than sodium; however, the metals formed are more volatile than sodium and can be distilled for collection. The removal of the metal vapor leads to a shift in the equilibrium to produce more metal (via the Le Chatelier’s principle). The production of magnesium, zinc, and tin provide additional examples of chemical reduction.
The Preparation of Magnesium
The Pidgeon process involves the reaction of magnesium oxide with elemental silicon at high temperatures to form pure magnesium:
\[\ce{Si}(s)+\ce{2MgO}(s)\xrightarrow{Δ}\ce{SiO2}(s)+\ce{2Mg}(g) \nonumber \]
Although this reaction is unfavorable in terms of thermodynamics, the removal of the magnesium vapor produced takes advantage of Le Chatelier’s principle to continue the forward progress of the reaction. Over 75% of the world’s production of magnesium, primarily in China, comes from this process.
The Preparation of Zinc
Zinc ores usually contain zinc sulfide, zinc oxide, or zinc carbonate. After separation of these compounds from the ores, heating in air converts the ore to zinc oxide by one of the following reactions:
\[\ce{2ZnS}(s)+\ce{3O2}(g)\xrightarrow{Δ}\ce{2ZnO}(s)+\ce{2SO2}(g) \nonumber \]
\[\ce{ZnCO3}(s)\xrightarrow{Δ}\ce{ZnO}(s)+\ce{CO2}(g) \nonumber \]
Carbon, in the form of coal, reduces the zinc oxide to form zinc vapor:
\[\ce{ZnO}(s)+\ce{C}(s)⟶\ce{Zn}(g)+\ce{CO}(g) \nonumber \]
The zinc can be distilled (boiling point 907 °C) and condensed. This zinc contains impurities of cadmium (767 °C), iron (2862 °C), lead (1750 °C), and arsenic (613 °C). Careful redistillation produces pure zinc. Arsenic and cadmium are distilled from the zinc because they have lower boiling points. At higher temperatures, the zinc is distilled from the other impurities, mainly lead and iron.
The Preparation of Tin
The ready reduction of tin(IV) oxide by the hot coals of a campfire accounts for the knowledge of tin in the ancient world. In the modern process, the roasting of tin ores containing SnO 2 removes contaminants such as arsenic and sulfur as volatile oxides. Treatment of the remaining material with hydrochloric acid removes the oxides of other metals. Heating the purified ore with carbon at temperature above 1000 °C produces tin:
\[\ce{SnO2}(s)+\ce{2C}(s)\xrightarrow{Δ}\ce{Sn}(s)+\ce{2CO}(g) \nonumber \]
The molten tin collects at the bottom of the furnace and is drawn off and cast into blocks.
Summary
Because of their chemical reactivity, it is necessary to produce the representative metals in their pure forms by reduction from naturally occurring compounds. Electrolysis is important in the production of sodium, potassium, and aluminum. Chemical reduction is the primary method for the isolation of magnesium, zinc, and tin. Similar procedures are important for the other representative metals.
Glossary
- chemical reduction
- method of preparing a representative metal using a reducing agent
- Downs cell
- electrochemical cell used for the commercial preparation of metallic sodium (and chlorine) from molten sodium chloride
- Hall–Héroult cell
- electrolysis apparatus used to isolate pure aluminum metal from a solution of alumina in molten cryolite
- Pidgeon process
- chemical reduction process used to produce magnesium through the thermal reaction of magnesium oxide with silicon


29.6F: Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is caused by degeneration of upper and lower motor neurons, resulting in muscle weakness and atrophy.
- Describe amytrophic lateral sclerosis and its effect on the body
Key Points
- ALS is sometimes referred to as Lou Gehrig’s disease after the New York Yankees baseball player who was diagnosed with the disease in 1939.
- ALS is characterized by rapidly progressive weakness, muscle atrophy, muscle spasticity, difficulty speaking, difficulty swallowing, and decline in breathing ability. Most patients with ALS die of respiratory failure or pneumonia.
- For the majority of patients without a family history of the disease, there is no known cause for ALS. Familial ALS is a heritable condition that can be traced to the dysfunction of specific genes.
- Most people with ALS die of respiratory failure or pneumonia. The median survival time from onset to death is around 39 months, and only 4% survive longer than 10 years.
- In “respiratory onset” ALS, the intercostal muscles that support breathing are affected first.
- For the majority of patients without a family history of the disease, there is no known cause for ALS. Familial ALS is a heritable condition that can be traced to the dysfunction of specific genes.
Key Terms
- lateral : Pertaining to the left or right of the body; further from the midline.
- amyotrophic lateral sclerosis : A chronic, progressive disease characterized by degeneration of the central nervous system and the loss of voluntary muscle control.
EXAMPLES
An example of a gene mutated in some cases of familial ALS is superoxide dismutase, or SOD1, which is an enzyme that acts as a powerful antioxidant.
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also referred to as motor neuron disease in British English, is the most common form of the motor neuron diseases. The condition is sometimes called Lou Gehrig’s disease in the U.S., after the New York Yankees baseball player who was diagnosed with the disease in 1939. The disorder is characterized by rapidly progressive weakness, muscle atrophy and fasciculations, muscle spasticity, difficulty speaking (dysarthria), difficulty swallowing (dysphagia), and decline in breathing ability.
Symptoms of ALS
Coronal MRI of an ALS patient : MRI (parasagittal FLAIR) demonstrates increased T2 signal within the posterior part of the internal capsule and can be tracked to the subcortical white matter of the motor cortex, outlining the corticospinal tract), consistent with the clinical diagnosis of ALS.
The disorder causes muscle weakness and atrophy throughout the body as a result of degeneration of the upper and lower motor neurons. Unable to function, the muscles weaken and atrophy. Affected individuals may ultimately lose the ability to initiate and control all voluntary movement, although bladder and bowel sphincters and the muscles responsible for eye movement are usually, but not always, spared. Cognitive function is generally spared for most patients although some (~5%) also have frontotemporal dementia. A higher proportion of patients (~30%–50%) also have more subtle cognitive changes that may go unnoticed but are revealed by detailed neuropsychological testing. Sensory nerves and the autonomic nervous system are generally unaffected meaning the majority of people with ALS will maintain sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. Bladder and bowel functions are also rarely affected by ALS.
The earliest symptoms of ALS are typically obvious weakness and/or muscle atrophy. Other presenting symptoms include muscle fasciculation (twitching), cramping, or stiffness of affected muscles; muscle weakness affecting an arm or a leg; and/or slurred and nasal speech. The parts of the body affected by early symptoms of ALS depend on which motor neurons in the body are damaged first. About 75% of people contracting the disease experience “limb onset” ALS (i.e., first symptoms in the arms or legs). Patients with the leg onset form may experience awkwardness when walking or running or notice that they are tripping or stumbling, often with a “dropped foot” which drags gently along the ground. Arm-onset patients may experience difficulty with tasks requiring manual dexterity such as buttoning a shirt, writing, or turning a key in a lock. Occasionally, the symptoms remain confined to one limb for a long period of time or for the whole length of the illness; this is known as monomelic amyotrophy.
Over time, patients experience increasing difficulty moving, swallowing (dysphagia), and speaking or forming words (dysarthria). Symptoms of upper motor neuron involvement include tight and stiff muscles (spasticity) and exaggerated reflexes (hyperreflexia) including an overactive gag reflex. Symptoms of lower motor neuron degeneration include muscle weakness and atrophy, muscle cramps, and fleeting twitches of muscles that can be seen under the skin (fasciculations). To be diagnosed with ALS, patients must have signs and symptoms of both upper and lower motor neuron damage that cannot be attributed to other causes.
Difficulty swallowing and chewing making eating normally very difficult and increase the risk of choking or aspirating food into the lungs. In later stages of the disease, aspiration pneumonia and maintaining a healthy weight can become a significant problem and may require insertion of a feeding tube. As the diaphragm and intercostal muscles (rib cage) that support breathing weaken, measures of lung function such as forced vital capacity and inspiratory pressure diminish. In respiratory onset ALS, this may occur before significant limb weakness is apparent. Most people with ALS die of respiratory failure or pneumonia. The median survival time from onset to death is around 39 months, and only 4% survive longer than 10 years. The best-known person with ALS, Stephen Hawking, has lived with the disease for more than 40 years, though his is an unusual case.
Causes and Treatments of ALS
For patients without a family history of the disease, which includes ~95% of cases, there is no known cause for ALS. Potential causes for which there is inconclusive evidence includes head trauma, military service, and participation in elite sports. Many other potential causes including chemical exposure, electromagnetic field exposure, occupation, physical trauma, and electric shock have been investigated but without consistent findings.
Riluzole (Rilutek) as of 2011 is the only treatment that has been found to improve survival, but only to a modest extent. It lengthens survival by several months, and may have a greater survival benefit for those with a bulbar onset. It also extends the time before a person needs ventilation support. Other treatments for ALS are designed to relieve symptoms and improve the quality of life for patients. This supportive care is best provided by multidisciplinary teams of health care professionals working with patients and caregivers to keep patients as mobile and comfortable as possible.
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8.E: Thermal Physics (Exercises)
Conceptual Questions
9.1: Temperature
1. What does it mean to say that two systems are in thermal equilibrium?
2. Give an example of a physical property that varies with temperature and describe how it is used to measure temperature.
3. When a cold alcohol thermometer is placed in a hot liquid, the column of alcohol goes down slightly before going up. Explain why.
4. If you add boiling water to a cup at room temperature, what would you expect the final equilibrium temperature of the unit to be? You will need to include the surroundings as part of the system. Consider the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
9.2: The Ideal Gas Law
5. Under what circumstances would you expect a gas to behave significantly differently than predicted by the ideal gas law?
6. A constant-volume gas thermometer contains a fixed amount of gas. What property of the gas is measured to indicate its temperature?
9.3: Heat
7. How is heat transfer related to temperature?
8. Describe a situation in which heat transfer occurs. What are the resulting forms of energy?
9. When heat transfers into a system, is the energy stored as heat? Explain briefly.
9.4: Heat Transfer Methods
10. What are the main methods of heat transfer from the hot core of Earth to its surface? From Earth’s surface to outer space?
11. When our bodies get too warm, they respond by sweating and increasing blood circulation to the surface to transfer thermal energy away from the core. What effect will this have on a person in a 40.0ºC hot tub?
12. Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) shows a cut-away drawing of a thermos bottle (also known as a Dewar flask), which is a device designed specifically to slow down all forms of heat transfer. Explain the functions of the various parts, such as the vacuum, the silvering of the walls, the thin-walled long glass neck, the rubber support, the air layer, and the stopper.
9.5: Temperature Change and Heat Capacity
13. What three factors affect the heat transfer that is necessary to change an object’s temperature?
14. The brakes in a car increase in temperature by \(\Delta T\) when bringing the car to rest from a speed \(v\). How much greater would \(\Delta T\) be if the car initially had twice the speed? You may assume the car to stop sufficiently fast so that no heat transfers out of the brakes.
9.6: Phase Change and Latent Heat
15. Heat transfer can cause temperature and phase changes. What else can cause these changes?
16. How does the latent heat of fusion of water help slow the decrease of air temperatures, perhaps preventing temperatures from falling significantly below \(0^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\), in the vicinity of large bodies of water?
17. What is the temperature of ice right after it is formed by freezing water?
18. If you place \(0^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\) ice into \(0^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\) water in an insulated container, what will happen? Will some ice melt, will more water freeze, or will neither take place?
19. What effect does condensation on a glass of ice water have on the rate at which the ice melts? Will the condensation speed up the melting process or slow it down?
20. In very humid climates where there are numerous bodies of water, such as in Florida, it is unusual for temperatures to rise above about 35ºC(95ºF). In deserts, however, temperatures can rise far above this. Explain how the evaporation of water helps limit high temperatures in humid climates.
21. In winters, it is often warmer in San Francisco than in nearby Sacramento, 150 km inland. In summers, it is nearly always hotter in Sacramento. Explain how the bodies of water surrounding San Francisco moderate its extreme temperatures.
22. Putting a lid on a boiling pot greatly reduces the heat transfer necessary to keep it boiling. Explain why.
23. Freeze-dried foods have been dehydrated in a vacuum. During the process, the food freezes and must be heated to facilitate dehydration. Explain both how the vacuum speeds up dehydration and why the food freezes as a result.
24. When still air cools by radiating at night, it is unusual for temperatures to fall below the dew point. Explain why.
25. In a physics classroom demonstration, an instructor inflates a balloon by mouth and then cools it in liquid nitrogen. When cold, the shrunken balloon has a small amount of light blue liquid in it, as well as some snow-like crystals. As it warms up, the liquid boils, and part of the crystals sublimate, with some crystals lingering for awhile and then producing a liquid. Identify the blue liquid and the two solids in the cold balloon. Justify your identifications using data from Table 9.6.1.
9.7: The First Law of Thermodynamics
26. Describe the photo of the tea kettle at the beginning of this section in terms of heat transfer, work done, and internal energy. How is heat being transferred? What is the work done and what is doing it? How does the kettle maintain its internal energy?
27. The first law of thermodynamics and the conservation of energy are clearly related. How do they differ in the types of energy considered?
28. Heat transfer \(Q\) and work done \(W\) are always energy in transit, whereas internal energy \(U\) is energy stored in a system. Give an example of each type of energy, and state specifically how it is either in transit or resides in a system.
29. How do heat transfer and internal energy differ? In particular, which can be stored as such in a system and which cannot?
30.
31. Give an explanation of how food energy (calories) can be viewed as molecular potential energy (consistent with the atomic and molecular definition of internal energy).
32. Identify the type of energy transferred to your body in each of the following as either internal energy, heat transfer, or doing work:
(a) basking in sunlight;
(b) eating food;
(c) riding an elevator to a higher floor.
9.8: The First Law of Thermodynamics and Heat Engine Processes
33. A great deal of effort, time, and money has been spent in the quest for the so-called perpetual-motion machine, which is defined as a hypothetical machine that operates or produces useful work indefinitely and/or a hypothetical machine that produces more work or energy than it consumes. Explain, in terms of heat engines and the first law of thermodynamics, why or why not such a machine is likely to be constructed.
34. One method of converting heat transfer into doing work is for heat transfer into a gas to take place, which expands, doing work on a piston, as shown in the figure below.
(a) Is the heat transfer converted directly to work in an isobaric process, or does it go through another form first? Explain your answer.
(b) What about in an isothermal process?
(c) What about in an adiabatic process (where heat transfer occurred prior to the adiabatic process)?
35. Would the previous question make any sense for an isochoric process? Explain your answer.
36. We ordinarily say that \(\Delta U=0\) for an isothermal process. Does this assume no phase change takes place? Explain your answer.
37. The temperature of a rapidly expanding gas decreases. Explain why in terms of the first law of thermodynamics. (Hint: Consider whether the gas does work and whether heat transfer occurs rapidly into the gas through conduction.)
38. A real process may be nearly adiabatic if it occurs over a very short time. How does the short time span help the process to be adiabatic?
39. It is unlikely that a process can be isothermal unless it is a very slow process. Explain why. Is the same true for isobaric and isochoric processes? Explain your answer.
9.9: Introduction to the Second Law of Thermodynamics- Heat Engines and Their Efficiency
40. Imagine you are driving a car up Pike’s Peak in Colorado. To raise a car weighing 1000 kilograms a distance of 100 meters would require about a million joules. You could raise a car 12.5 kilometers with the energy in a gallon of gas.  But other considerations have to be taken into account. Explain, in terms of efficiency, what factors may keep you from realizing your ideal energy use on this trip.
41. Is a temperature difference necessary to operate a heat engine? State why or why not.
42. Definitions of efficiency vary depending on how energy is being converted. Compare the definitions of efficiency for the human body and heat engines. How does the definition of efficiency in each relate to the type of energy being converted into doing work?
43. Why—other than the fact that the second law of thermodynamics says reversible engines are the most efficient—should heat engines employing reversible processes be more efficient than those employing irreversible processes? Consider that dissipative mechanisms are one cause of irreversibility.
9.10: Carnot’s Perfect Heat Engine- The Second Law of Thermodynamics Restated
44. Think about the drinking bird at the beginning of this section ( Figure 9.10.1). Although the bird enjoys the theoretical maximum efficiency possible, if left to its own devices over time, the bird will cease “drinking.” What are some of the dissipative processes that might cause the bird’s motion to cease?
45. Can improved engineering and materials be employed in heat engines to reduce heat transfer into the environment? Can they eliminate heat transfer into the environment entirely?
46. Does the second law of thermodynamics alter the conservation of energy principle?
9.11: Applications of Thermodynamics- Heat Pumps and Refrigerators
47. Explain why heat pumps do not work as well in very cold climates as they do in milder ones. Is the same true of refrigerators?
48. In some Northern European nations, homes are being built without heating systems of any type. They are very well insulated and are kept warm by the body heat of the residents. However, when the residents are not at home, it is still warm in these houses. What is a possible explanation?
49. Why do refrigerators, air conditioners, and heat pumps operate most cost-effectively for cycles with a small difference between \(T_{\mathrm{h}}\) and \(T_{\mathrm{c}}\)? (Note that the temperatures of the cycle employed are crucial to its \(C O P\).)
50. Grocery store managers contend that there is less total energy consumption in the summer if the store is kept at a low temperature. Make arguments to support or refute this claim, taking into account that there are numerous refrigerators and freezers in the store.
51. Can you cool a kitchen by leaving the refrigerator door open?
9.12: Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics- Disorder and the Unavailability of Energy
52. Does a gas become more orderly when it liquefies? Does its entropy change? If so, does the entropy increase or decrease? Explain your answer.
53. Explain how water’s entropy can decrease when it freezes without violating the second law of thermodynamics. Specifically, explain what happens to the entropy of its surroundings.
54. Is a uniform-temperature gas more or less orderly than one with several different temperatures? Which is more structured? In which can heat transfer result in work done without heat transfer from another system?
55. Give an example of a spontaneous process in which a system becomes less ordered and energy becomes less available to do work. What happens to the system’s entropy in this process?
56. What is the change in entropy in an adiabatic process? Does this imply that adiabatic processes are reversible? Can a process be precisely adiabatic for a macroscopic system?
57. Does the entropy of a star increase or decrease as it radiates? Does the entropy of the space into which it radiates (which has a temperature of about 3 K) increase or decrease? What does this do to the entropy of the universe?
58. Explain why a building made of bricks has smaller entropy than the same bricks in a disorganized pile. Do this by considering the number of ways that each could be formed (the number of microstates in each macrostate).
9.13: Statistical Interpretation of Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics- The Underlying Explanation
59. Explain why a building made of bricks has smaller entropy than the same bricks in a disorganized pile. Do this by considering the number of ways that each could be formed (the number of microstates in each macrostate).
Problems & Exercises
9.1: Temperature
1. What is the Fahrenheit temperature of a person with a 39.0ºC fever?
Answer
102ºF
2. Frost damage to most plants occurs at temperatures of 28.0ºF or lower. What is this temperature on the Kelvin scale?
3. To conserve energy, room temperatures are kept at 68.0ºF in the winter and 78.0ºF in the summer. What are these temperatures on the Celsius scale?
Answer
20.0ºC and 25.6ºC
4. A tungsten light bulb filament may operate at 2900 K. What is its Fahrenheit temperature? What is this on the Celsius scale?
5. The surface temperature of the Sun is about 5750 K. What is this temperature on the Fahrenheit scale?
Answer
9890ºF
6. One of the hottest temperatures ever recorded on the surface of Earth was 134ºF in Death Valley, CA. What is this temperature in Celsius degrees? What is this temperature in Kelvin?
7. (a) Suppose a cold front blows into your locale and drops the temperature by 40.0 Fahrenheit degrees. How many degrees Celsius does the temperature decrease when there is a 40.0ºF decrease in temperature?
(b) Show that any change in temperature in Fahrenheit degrees is nine-fifths the change in Celsius degrees.
Answer
(a) 22.2ºC
(b) \(\begin{aligned}
\Delta T\left({ }^{\circ} \mathrm{F}\right) &=T_{2}\left({ }^{\circ} \mathrm{F}\right)-T_{1}\left({ }^{\circ} \mathrm{F}\right) \\
&=\frac{9}{5} T_{2}\left({ }^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\right)+32.0^{\circ}-\left(\frac{9}{5} T_{1}\left({ }^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\right)+32.0^{\circ}\right) \\
&=\frac{9}{5}\left(T_{2}\left({ }^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\right)-T_{1}\left({ }^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\right)\right)=\frac{9}{5} \Delta T\left({ }^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\right)
\end{aligned}\)
8. (a) At what temperature do the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales have the same numerical value?
(b) At what temperature do the Fahrenheit and Kelvin scales have the same numerical value?
9.2: The Ideal Gas Law
9. The gauge pressure in your car tires is \(2.50 \times 10^{5} \mathrm{~N} / \mathrm{m}^{2}\) at a temperature of 35.0ºC when you drive it onto a ferry boat to Alaska. What is their gauge pressure later, when their temperature has dropped to –40.0ºC?
Answer
1.62 atm
10. Convert an absolute pressure of \(7.00 \times 10^{5} \mathrm{~N} / \mathrm{m}^{2}\) to gauge pressure in \(\mathrm{lb} / \mathrm{in}^{2}\). (This value was stated to be just less than \(90.0 \ \mathrm{lb} / \mathrm{in}^{2}\) in Example 9.2.1 . Is it?)
11. Suppose a gas-filled incandescent light bulb is manufactured so that the gas inside the bulb is at atmospheric pressure when the bulb has a temperature of 20.0ºC.
(a) Find the gauge pressure inside such a bulb when it is hot, assuming its average temperature is 60.0ºC (an approximation) and neglecting any change in volume due to thermal expansion or gas leaks.
(b) The actual final pressure for the light bulb will be less than calculated in part (a) because the glass bulb will expand. What will the actual final pressure be, taking this into account? Is this a negligible difference?
Answer
(a) 0.136 atm
(b) 0.135 atm. The difference between this value and the value from part (a) is negligible.
12. Large helium-filled balloons are used to lift scientific equipment to high altitudes. (a) What is the pressure inside such a balloon if it starts out at sea level with a temperature of 10.0ºC and rises to an altitude where its volume is twenty times the original volume and its temperature is –50.0ºC? (b) What is the gauge pressure? (Assume atmospheric pressure is constant.)
13. In the text, it was shown that \(N / V=2.68 \times 10^{25} \mathrm{~m}^{-3}\) for gas at STP.
(a) Show that this quantity is equivalent to \(N / V=2.68 \times 10^{19} \mathrm{~cm}^{-3}\), as stated.
(b) About how many atoms are there in one \(\mu \mathrm{m}^{3}\) (a cubic micrometer) at STP?
(c) What does your answer to part (b) imply about the separation of atoms and molecules?
14. An airplane passenger has \(100 \mathrm{~cm}^{3}\) of air in his stomach just before the plane takes off from a sea-level airport. What volume will the air have at cruising altitude if cabin pressure drops to \(7.50 \times 10^{4} \mathrm{~N} / \mathrm{m}^{2}\)?
15. An expensive vacuum system can achieve a pressure as low as \(1.00 \times 10^{-7} \mathrm{~N} / \mathrm{m}^{2}\) at 20ºC. How many atoms are there in a cubic centimeter at this pressure and temperature?
16. The number density of gas atoms at a certain location in the space above our planet is about \(1.00 \times 10^{11} \mathrm{~m}^{-3}\), and the pressure is \(2.75 \times 10^{-10} \mathrm{~N} / \mathrm{m}^{2}\) in this space. What is the temperature there?
Answer
−73.9ºC
17. A bicycle tire has a pressure of \(7.00 \times 10^{5} \mathrm{~N} / \mathrm{m}^{2}\) at a temperature of 18.0ºC and contains 2.00 L of gas. What will its pressure be if you let out an amount of air that has a volume of 100 cm 3 at atmospheric pressure? Assume tire temperature and volume remain constant.
18. A high-pressure gas cylinder contains 50.0 L of toxic gas at a pressure of \(1.40 \times 10^{7} \mathrm{~N} / \mathrm{m}^{2}\) and a temperature of 25.0ºC. Its valve leaks after the cylinder is dropped. The cylinder is cooled to dry ice temperature (–78.5ºC) to reduce the leak rate and pressure so that it can be safely repaired.
(a) What is the final pressure in the tank, assuming a negligible amount of gas leaks while being cooled and that there is no phase change?
(b) What is the final pressure if one-tenth of the gas escapes?
(c) To what temperature must the tank be cooled to reduce the pressure to 1.00 atm (assuming the gas does not change phase and that there is no leakage during cooling)?
(d) Does cooling the tank appear to be a practical solution?
Answer
(a) 9.14×10 6 N/m 2
(b) 8.23×10 6 N/m 2
(c) 2.16 K
(d) No. The final temperature needed is much too low to be easily achieved for a large object.
19. (a) What is the gauge pressure in a 25.0ºC car tire containing 3.60 mol of gas in a 30.0 L volume?
(b) What will its gauge pressure be if you add 1.00 L of gas originally at atmospheric pressure and 25.0ºC? Assume the temperature returns to 25.0ºC and the volume remains constant.
9.10: Carnot’s Perfect Heat Engine- The Second Law of Thermodynamics Restated
20. A certain gasoline engine has an efficiency of 30.0%. What would the hot reservoir temperature be for a Carnot engine having that efficiency, if it operates with a cold reservoir temperature of \(200^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\)?
Solution
403ºC
21. A gas-cooled nuclear reactor operates between hot and cold reservoir temperatures of \(700^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\) and \(27.0^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\).
(a) What is the maximum efficiency of a heat engine operating between these temperatures?
(b) Find the ratio of this efficiency to the Carnot efficiency of a standard nuclear reactor (found in Example 9.10.1).
22. (a) What is the hot reservoir temperature of a Carnot engine that has an efficiency of 42.0% and a cold reservoir temperature of \(27.0^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\)?
(b) What must the hot reservoir temperature be for a real heat engine that achieves 0.700 of the maximum efficiency, but still has an efficiency of 42.0% (and a cold reservoir at \(27.0^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\))?
(c) Does your answer imply practical limits to the efficiency of car gasoline engines?
Solution
(a) 244ºC
(b) 477ºC
(c) Yes, since automobiles engines cannot get too hot without overheating, their efficiency is limited.
23. Steam locomotives have an efficiency of 17.0% and operate with a hot steam temperature of \(425^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\).
(a) What would the cold reservoir temperature be if this were a Carnot engine?
(b) What would the maximum efficiency of this steam engine be if its cold reservoir temperature were \(150^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\)?
24. Practical steam engines utilize \(450^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\) steam, which is later exhausted at \(270^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\).
(a) What is the maximum efficiency that such a heat engine can have?
(b) Since \(270^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\) steam is still quite hot, a second steam engine is sometimes operated using the exhaust of the first. What is the maximum efficiency of the second engine if its exhaust has a temperature of \(150^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\)?
(c) What is the overall efficiency of the two engines? (d) Show that this is the same efficiency as a single Carnot engine operating between \(450^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\) and \(150^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\). Explicitly show how you follow the steps in the Problem-Solving Strategies for Thermodynamics .
 A coal-fired electrical power station has an efficiency of 38%. The temperature of the steam leaving the boiler is \(550^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\). What percentage of the maximum efficiency does this station obtain? (Assume the temperature of the environment is \(20^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\).)
26. Would you be willing to financially back an inventor who is marketing a device that she claims has 25 kJ of heat transfer at 600 K, has heat transfer to the environment at 300 K, and does 12 kJ of work? Explain your answer.
Solution
The heat transfer to the cold reservoir is \(Q_{\mathrm{c}}=Q_{\mathrm{h}}-W=25 \mathrm{~kJ}-12 \mathrm{~kJ}=13 \mathrm{~kJ}\), so the efficiency is \(E f f=1-\frac{Q_{\mathrm{c}}}{Q_{\mathrm{h}}}=1-\frac{13 \mathrm{~kJ}}{25 \mathrm{~kJ}}=0.48\). The Carnot efficiency is \(E f f_{\mathrm{C}}=1-\frac{T_{\mathrm{c}}}{T_{\mathrm{h}}}=1-\frac{300 \mathrm{~K}}{600 \mathrm{~K}}=0.50\). The actual efficiency is 96% of the Carnot efficiency, which is much higher than the best-ever achieved of about 70%, so her scheme is likely to be fraudulent.
Unreasonable Results
27. (a) Suppose you want to design a steam engine that has heat transfer to the environment at 270ºC and has a Carnot efficiency of 0.800. What temperature of hot steam must you use?
(b) What is unreasonable about the temperature?
(c) Which premise is unreasonable?
Unreasonable Results
28. Calculate the cold reservoir temperature of a steam engine that uses hot steam at \(450^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\) and has a Carnot efficiency of 0.700.
(b) What is unreasonable about the temperature?
(c) Which premise is unreasonable?
Solution
(a) –56.3ºC
(b) The temperature is too cold for the output of a steam engine (the local environment). It is below the freezing point of water.
(c) The assumed efficiency is too high.
9.11: Applications of Thermodynamics- Heat Pumps and Refrigerators
29. What is the coefficient of performance of an ideal heat pump that has heat transfer from a cold temperature of −25.0ºC to a hot temperature of 40.0ºC?
Answer
4.82
30. Suppose you have an ideal refrigerator that cools an environment at −20.0ºC and has heat transfer to another environment at 50.0ºC. What is its coefficient of performance?
31. What is the best coefficient of performance possible for a hypothetical refrigerator that could make liquid nitrogen at −200ºC and has heat transfer to the environment at 35.0ºC?
Answer
0.311
32. In a very mild winter climate, a heat pump has heat transfer from an environment at 5.00ºC to one at 35.0ºC. What is the best possible coefficient of performance for these temperatures? Explicitly show how you follow the steps in the Problem-Solving Strategies for Thermodynamics .
33. (a) What is the best coefficient of performance for a heat pump that has a hot reservoir temperature of 50.0ºC and a cold reservoir temperature of −20.0ºC?
(b) How much heat transfer occurs into the warm environment if \(3.60 \times 10^{7} \mathrm{~J}\) of work (\(10.0 \mathrm{~kW} \cdot \mathrm{h}\)) is put into it?
(c) If the cost of this work input is \(10.0 \text { cents } / \mathrm{kW} \cdot \mathrm{h}\), how does its cost compare with the direct heat transfer achieved by burning natural gas at a cost of 85.0 cents per therm. (A therm is a common unit of energy for natural gas and equals \(1.055 \times 10^{8} \mathrm{~J}\).)
Answer
(a) 4.61
(b) \(1.66 \times 10^{8} \mathrm{~J} \text { or } 3.97 \times 10^{4} \mathrm{kcal}\)
(c) To transfer \(1.66 \times 10^{8} \mathrm{~J}\), heat pump costs $1.00, natural gas costs $1.34.
34. (a) What is the best coefficient of performance for a refrigerator that cools an environment at −30.0ºC and has heat transfer to another environment at 45.0ºC?
(b) How much work in joules must be done for a heat transfer of 4186 kJ from the cold environment?
(c) What is the cost of doing this if the work costs 10.0 cents per \(3.60 \times 10^{6} \mathrm{~J}\) (a kilowatt-hour)?
(d) How many kJ of heat transfer occurs into the warm environment?
(e) Discuss what type of refrigerator might operate between these temperatures.
35. Suppose you want to operate an ideal refrigerator with a cold temperature of −10.0ºC, and you would like it to have a coefficient of performance of 7.00. What is the hot reservoir temperature for such a refrigerator?
Answer
27.6ºC
36. An ideal heat pump is being considered for use in heating an environment with a temperature of 22.0ºC. What is the cold reservoir temperature if the pump is to have a coefficient of performance of 12.0?
37. A 4-ton air conditioner removes \(5.06 \times 10^{7} \mathrm{~J}\) (48,000 British thermal units) from a cold environment in 1.00 h.
(a) What energy input in joules is necessary to do this if the air conditioner has an energy efficiency rating (\(\text { EER }\)) of 12.0?
(b) What is the cost of doing this if the work costs 10.0 cents per \(3.60 \times 10^{6} \mathrm{~J}\) (one kilowatt-hour)?
(c) Discuss whether this cost seems realistic. Note that the energy efficiency rating (\(\text { EER }\)) of an air conditioner or refrigerator is defined to be the number of British thermal units of heat transfer from a cold environment per hour divided by the watts of power input.
Answer
(a) 1.44×10 7 J
(b) 40 cents
(c) This cost seems quite realistic; it says that running an air conditioner all day would cost $9.59 (if it ran continuously).
38. Show that the coefficients of performance of refrigerators and heat pumps are related by \(C O P_{\text {ref }}=C O P_{\text {hp }}-1\).
39. Start with the definitions of the \(C O P\)s and the conservation of energy relationship between \(Q_{\mathrm{h}}\), \(Q_{\mathrm{c}}\), and \(W\) .
9.13: Statistical Interpretation of Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics- The Underlying Explanation
40. Using Table 9.13.3, verify the contention that if you toss 100 coins each second, you can expect to get 100 heads or 100 tails once in 2×10 22 years; calculate the time to two-digit accuracy.
Solution
It should happen twice in every 1.27×10
30
s or once in every 6.35×10
29
s
\(\begin{array}{ll}
\left(6.35 \times 10^{29} \mathrm{~s}\right)\left(\frac{1 \mathrm{~h}}{3600 \mathrm{~s}}\right) \left(\frac{1 \mathrm{~d}}{24 \mathrm{~h}}\right)\left(\frac{1 \mathrm{y}}{365.25 \mathrm{~d}}\right) \\
= 2.0 \times 10^{22} \mathrm{y}
\end{array}\)
41. What percent of the time will you get something in the range from 60 heads and 40 tails through 40 heads and 60 tails when tossing 100 coins? The total number of microstates in that range is 1.22×10 30 . (Consult Table 9.13.3.)
42. (a) If tossing 100 coins, how many ways (microstates) are there to get the three most likely macrostates of 49 heads and 51 tails, 50 heads and 50 tails, and 51 heads and 49 tails?
(b) What percent of the total possibilities is this? (Consult Table 9.13.3.)
Solution
(a) 3.0×10 29
(b) 24%
43. (a) What is the change in entropy if you start with 100 coins in the 45 heads and 55 tails macrostate, toss them, and get 51 heads and 49 tails?
(b) What if you get 75 heads and 25 tails?
(c) How much more likely is 51 heads and 49 tails than 75 heads and 25 tails?
(d) Does either outcome violate the second law of thermodynamics?
44. (a) What is the change in entropy if you start with 10 coins in the 5 heads and 5 tails macrostate, toss them, and get 2 heads and 8 tails?
(b) How much more likely is 5 heads and 5 tails than 2 heads and 8 tails? (Take the ratio of the number of microstates to find out.)
(c) If you were betting on 2 heads and 8 tails would you accept odds of 252 to 45? Explain why or why not.
Solution
(a) −2.38×10 –23 J/K
(b) 5.6 times more likely
(c) If you were betting on two heads and 8 tails, the odds of breaking even are 252 to 45, so on average you would break even. So, no, you wouldn’t bet on odds of 252 to 45.
| Macrostate | Number of Microstates (W) | |
|---|---|---|
| Heads | Tails | |
| 10 | 0 | 1 |
| 9 | 1 | 10 |
| 8 | 2 | 45 |
| 7 | 3 | 120 |
| 6 | 4 | 210 |
| 5 | 5 | 252 |
| 4 | 6 | 210 |
| 3 | 7 | 120 |
| 2 | 8 | 45 |
| 1 | 9 | 10 |
| 0 | 10 | 1 |
45. (a) If you toss 10 coins, what percent of the time will you get the three most likely macrostates (6 heads and 4 tails, 5 heads and 5 tails, 4 heads and 6 tails)?
(b) You can realistically toss 10 coins and count the number of heads and tails about twice a minute. At that rate, how long will it take on average to get either 10 heads and 0 tails or 0 heads and 10 tails?
46. (a) Construct a table showing the macrostates and all of the individual microstates for tossing 6 coins. (Use Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) as a guide.)
(b) How many macrostates are there?
(c) What is the total number of microstates?
(d) What percent chance is there of tossing 5 heads and 1 tail?
(e) How much more likely are you to toss 3 heads and 3 tails than 5 heads and 1 tail? (Take the ratio of the number of microstates to find out.)
Solution
(b) 7
(c) 64
(d) 9.38%
(e) 3.33 times more likely (20 to 6)
47. In an air conditioner, 12.65 MJ of heat transfer occurs from a cold environment in 1.00 h.
(a) What mass of ice melting would involve the same heat transfer?
(b) How many hours of operation would be equivalent to melting 900 kg of ice?
(c) If ice costs 20 cents per kg, do you think the air conditioner could be operated more cheaply than by simply using ice? Describe in detail how you evaluate the relative costs.


14.5: Narrowing the Topic
- Describe strategies for narrowing a topic for a research paper
Types of Research Papers
Most research assignments ask you to engage in one of two approaches:
- Explore and evaluate (present an analysis)
- Persuade (present an argument)
The sections below will give you more information about each approach. Your professor may allow you to choose between these strategies or may ask you to use only one. If you’re not sure which type you should use, be sure to ask!
Analytic Papers
In a paper that explores and evaluates, you may present a specific analysis of a literary text, examine how a historical figure came to his or her beliefs, or analyze how changes in a particular animal’s habitat have affected its breeding patterns.
Your purpose isn’t to rebut another critic’s reading of that text, challenge another writer’s analysis of that historical figure’s growth, or disprove another experimenter’s theorem. Instead, your focus is on researching and presenting your own analysis of a set of materials or experiments.
Examples of Analytical Questions
- In what way is Coleridge’s poem, “Rime of the Ancient Mariner,” an extended metaphor of colonial exploration?
- Why was Martin Luther King, Jr.’s stance against the Vietnam War late in his life so controversial in the civil rights movement?
- What methods are available to governments and zoos to ensure the preservation of endangered tigers?
Argumentative Papers
An argumentative paper takes a position on a debatable question. Here, you review the various arguments surrounding that question and present material arguing for a particular answer.
A good argument paper not only fairly and clearly presents the views of those with whom you disagree, but also points out where and how you believe those arguments are flawed.
In this paper, you need to show why your argument presents a stronger response to the question than the responses of others who might disagree with your position.
Examples of Argumentative Questions
- Should employers be allowed to monitor the content of their employees’ email and internet browsing?
- Should the U.S. government subsidize the development of ethanol-based biofuels?
Patience is critical to constructing and finishing a solid research paper. Give yourself time. In some cases, when you have a class project, a college research paper requires ten to fourteen weeks of work, but you may take a course requiring a research paper in a shorter time frame.
Click below to view the timeline for research papers over the course of eight weeks. Please note that some research papers are written in an even shorter time frame. If that’s the case for you, you’ll want to adjust your schedule accordingly.
Remember, even if you have a shorter time frame, you should not leave out the steps of a good process!
https://lumenlearning.h5p.com/content/1290978864315764088/embed
Narrowing the Topic
Suppose you want to write your research paper on World War II. The material written on World War II has filled whole libraries, so you obviously won’t be able to complete a research paper on all of WWII in just a few weeks or months.
First-level Narrowing
The first question to ask yourself is: “What aspect of WWII am I interested in understanding better?”
- Strategies?
- Weapons?
- Major characters?
- Specific battles?
Let’s say you want to understand more about WWII weapons. OK, what types of weapons were used in WWII?
Second-level Narrowing
You consult a couple of encyclopedia articles on WWII weapons and discover that the general categories of weapons at that time were tanks, artillery, and firearms.
Each of these categories includes several dozen to several hundred specific weapons.
Can you cover all of these in one paper? Sure, if you write a sentence on each one. But then you’re not really writing a research paper; you’re writing a list. You need to go deep, not wide. No one, including you, wants to read a paper that treats a great deal of material in a very superficial manner.
Third-level Narrowing
You continue to survey general information sources on WWII weapons. You read a little bit on each of the categories listed in the Second-Level Narrowing tab and decide that the one you are most interested in is artillery. OK, but what kind?
- Surface-to-air missiles (SAMS)?
- Machine guns?
- Anti-aircraft guns (Flaks)?
As you continue to poke around, you learn that air defense tactics and the various models of anti-aircraft guns were extremely critical in various battles, so you decide to focus on that.
Fourth-level Narrowing
Look at your previous terminology: “critical in various battles.” Do you think you’ll be able to do a paper on the role of anti-aircraft guns in all battles of WWII? No, you won’t. So the next logical step is to look at encyclopedias and websites to determine what were some of the major battles of WWII where the use of anti-aircraft guns were critical.
You remember hearing something about “the Blitz” of London, so you look that up and decide to focus on the role of anti-aircraft guns in defending London from German aerial attacks.
Even when you are early in the stages of your paper, just deciding on a topic, you’ll need to use outside sources to help you decide how to narrow your focus. At this stage, you should bookmark and save websites or sources you think will be useful later on, but the focus at this point will be gathering general information to see what jumps out to you as interesting or helpful. Below are some preliminary search tips:
- It is okay to start with Wikipedia as a reference, but do not use it as an official source. Look at the links and references at the bottom of the page for more ideas.
- Use “Ctrl+F” to find certain words within a webpage in order to jump to the sections of the article that interest you.
-
Use
Google Advanced Search
to be more specific in your search. You can also use tricks to be more specific within the main
Google Search Engine
:
- Use quotation marks to narrow your search from just tanks in WWII to “Tanks in WWII” or “Tanks” in “WWII”.
- Find specific types of websites by adding “site:.gov” or “site:.edu” or “site:.org”. You can also search for specific file types like “filetype:.pdf”.
- Click on “Search Tools” under the search bar in Google and select “Any time” to see a list of options for time periods to help limit your search. You can find information just in the past month or year, or even for a custom range.
This first stage of gathering information is sometimes called pre-research. Watch this video to learn more:
You can view the transcript for “Doing Some Background Checks on Your Research” here (download).
Contributors and Attributions
- Preliminary Search Tips. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Assignment Analysis and Narrowing Process. Provided by : Excelsior College Online Writing Lab. Located at : https://owl.excelsior.edu/research/narrowing-and-developing/narrowing-and-developing-narrowing-process/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Doing Background Checks on Your Research. Provided by : Imagine Easy Solutions. Located at : https://youtu.be/ocz7b0HeOaI . License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Standard YouTube License