3.2: Media, Society, Culture and You
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"Society not only continues to exist by transmission, by communication, but it may fairly be said to exist in transmission, in communication." — John Dewey in Democracy and Education , 1916
The purpose of this chapter is to define media, society, and culture broadly. Additionally, the term "communication" is defined in its many forms.
The Role of Mass Media in Society
More than one hundred years ago , John Dewey wrote in Democracy and Education that society is not only supported by various forms of communication but also enveloped in communication. Dewey reiterated what philosophers and scholars had noted for centuries: small groups, larger communities and vast institutions — all the things that make up a society — function in relation to how communication flows within and between groups.
There are different forms of communication. At the broadest level, communication is an exchange of meaning between people using symbols. The most common symbols we use are verbal and written words, but there are also many forms of nonverbal communication such as American Sign Language. What sign language, verbal communication and written communication have in common is the use of abstract symbols to convey meaning. Whether you say "thank you" in face-to-face communication, send someone a card with the words "thank you" written on it, or use nonverbal cues to express thanks , the meaning is the same.
Interpersonal communication generally refers to the exchange of meaning between two or more people on a personal, often one-on-one, level. Interpersonal communication can be verbal or nonverbal. Most often, it happens in face-to-face settings. It differs from mass communication , which involves sharing meaning through symbolic messages to a wide audience from one source to many receivers. Sometimes, particularly in computer-mediated communication , messages conveyed using computers, it can be difficult to tell the difference between interpersonal communication and mass communication because individuals can send messages intended only for other individuals that might quickly reach large numbers of people. Social media platforms are often structured in ways that allow interpersonal messages to "go viral" and become mass messages whether the original sender intended to address a mass audience or not.
It is not the type of message that determines interpersonal or mass communication. It is the way the message is distributed and the relationships between sender and receiver(s). This text will continue to grapple with the overlap of interpersonal communication and mass communication structures on networked communication platforms, but first, another form of communication commonly studied in academic settings should be introduced.
Organizational communication is the symbolic exchange of messages carrying specific meaning for members belonging to formal organizations. In practical terms, it is the internal communication that helps governments, businesses, schools, and hospitals to run.
People working together in organizations get usually things done by communicating directly with one another or in small groups. Organizations cannot function without communication. Organizational communication effectiveness can influence the success or failure of businesses and other social institutions. Thus, communication does not merely happen within organizations; it is an essential part of the way they are structured. Organizational communication is a separate field of study, introduced well in this YouTube video .
Successful communication, whether intended for personal use, for use within an organization, or for a wide audience, can help people to understand each other and to get things done.
If good organizational communication is necessary for groups to function with a formal purpose, mass communication is essential for societies to function. Societies are made up of formal organizations of various sizes. Usually, the larger the group, the more complex its communication structures.
Communication structure refers to a combination of information and communication technologies (ICTs), guidelines for using those technologies, and professional workers dedicated to managing information and messages. In the mass communication field, communication structures are more than computers and transmission networks. The guidelines for using networks to create and distribute messages for mass consumption are a matter of corporate policy as well as law.
It has been noted that a society is made up of small groups, larger communities, and vast institutions. A more complete definition of the term comes from the field of sociology. A society is a very large group of people organized into institutions held together over time through formalized relationships. Nations, for example, are made up of formal institutions organized by law. Governments of different size, economic institutions, educational institutions, and others all come together to form a society.
By comparison, culture — the knowledge, beliefs, and practices of groups large and small — is not necessarily formalized. Culture is necessary for enjoying and making sense of the human experience, but there are few formalized rules governing culture.
Mass communication influences both society and culture. Different societies have different media systems, and the way they are set up by law influences how the society works. Different forms of communication, including messages in the mass media, give shape and structure to society. Additionally, mass media outlets can spread cultural knowledge and artistic works around the globe. People exercise cultural preferences when it comes to consuming media, but mass media corporations often decide which stories to tell and which to promote, particularly when it comes to forms of mass media that are costly to produce such as major motion pictures, major video game releases and global news products.
More than any other, the field of mass communication transmits culture.
The Mass Media Dynamic
The mass media system is an institution itself. What sets it apart is its potential to influence the thinking of massive numbers of individuals. In fact, the ideas exchanged in organizational communication and interpersonal communication are often established, reinforced or negated by messages in the mass media. This is what it means for societies "to exist in transmission, in communication." Different types of communication influence each other.
But the mass media are also shaped and influenced by social groups and institutions. This is the nature of the mass media dynamic.
Individuals and groups in society influence what mass media organizations produce through their creativity on the input side and their consumption habits on the output side. It is not accurate to say that society exists within the mass media or under mass media "control." Social structures are too powerful for mass media to completely govern how they operate. But neither is it accurate to say that the mass media are contained within societies. Many mass media products transcend social structures to influence multiple societies, and even in societies that heavily censor their mass media the news of scandals and corruption can get out. The mass media and society are bound together and shape each other.
Almost everything you read, see, and hear is framed within a mass media context; however, mere familiarity is no guarantee of success. Products in the mass media that fail to resonate with audiences do not last long, even if they seem in tune with current tastes and trends.
The Mass Communication Origin Story
In his book, John notes how, in the early 20th century, the mass media were beginning to connect large institutions in new ways. The production of mass media messages accelerated with the development of the telegraph and the popular newspaper. The spread of telegraph technology that began in the mid-1800s continued through the early 1900s to network the globe with a nearly instantaneous information transmission system. Much of the growth of newspapers occurred as a result of improvements in telegraph technology.
Thus, a primary function of the global mass communication system is to save time. People have a need to understand what is going on in the world, and they desire entertainment. Global electronic telecommunication networks collapse space by transmitting messages in much less time than the older, physical delivery systems.
The dynamic between society and mass media that is so prevalent today developed throughout the 20th century. Starting near the end of the 1800s, communication flows began to move at electronic speeds. More people knew about more things than ever before, but scholars are quick to point out that communication is not synonymous with understanding.
Dewey wanted to focus on educating people so that they could live and work well in societies heavily shaped by global telecommunication networks. For him, education was the meaning of life and the global information and communication system needed to be molded into an educational tool. Many of us still hold out hope for Dewey’s educational goals, but as ICTs have advanced over the past century or two, it has become clear that the mere existence of global mass communication networks does not ensure that societies will learn to coexist and thrive.
This can be difficult for people to acknowledge. Shortly after the widespread dissemination of the telegraph , the radio , broadcast television , and public internet access, some form of communication utopia was imagined or even expected. The telegraph collapsed space. Radio enabled instantaneous mass communication. Television brought live images from one side of the globe to the other for even larger mass audiences, and internet access gave individuals the power to be information senders, not just receivers. At each step hope and imagination flourished, but social and cultural clashes persisted. Communication systems can be used as weapons. The evolution of mass communication tools is the story of increased capacity to do the same good and evil things people have always done in societies and between them.
Looking beyond technological utopianism — the idea that new technologies (particularly ICTs) will lead to greater social understanding and better conditions for the global population — we are left with a tedious but massively meaningful project. We must find ways to coexist with other societies even as we are constantly aware of our differences and of possible threats that may have existed before but now are much easier to see.
Perhaps if we are to make the best of our digital global communication network, it would help to track the evolution of different forms of mass communication. This text very briefly touched on the continuum from telegraph to widespread internet adoption, but the first mass medium was ink on paper.
The First Mass Medium
The first global medium, besides the spoken word, was neither the internet nor the telegraph. In fact, it was not a mass medium at all. It was paper. Via trade routes, messages in the form of letters moved around the world in a matter of weeks or months. It was global communication, but it was slow.
The development of a global telegraph network made it possible for messages to spread in minutes. When the telegraph was wed to mass-consumed newspapers, the world saw the rise of fast, global, mass communication that had the power to potentially influence large groups of people at once.
Books transmitted messages widely and inspired literacy, but they did not establish a channel for consistent, timely communication meant for mass audiences. After the Gutenberg printing press was developed around 1440, the Gutenberg Bible was slowly mass-produced and disseminated around the Western world. It opened up access to sacred texts that had been bound up for centuries by large institutions like the Roman Catholic Church, and its dissemination helped fuel the Protestant Reformation. Still, it was an outlier. Most other books, even those that were mass-produced from around the 1500s to the 1800s were not disseminated as widely as the Gutenberg Bible. They were simply too expensive.
Nevertheless, mass literacy slowly paved the way for mass newspaper readership to emerge in the 20th century. After the telegraph was invented and developed for wide-scale use and after the cost of printing newspapers dropped, publishers could share news from around the globe with mass audiences. The newspaper, specifically the penny press, was the first mass medium.
What distinguished the penny press was affordability. These papers were published in tabloid format, which used small-sized pages and was cheaper to produce. Penny papers were written for and read by working-class audiences starting in about the 1830s. They covered all manner of current events. Soon, major institutions such as political parties and unions developed their own papers to cover the topics that suited their agendas and to promote the cultural values that they held dear.
Mass Media Growth and Consolidation
As mass production of all sorts of manufactured goods grew during the 20th century, so did advertising budgets and the concept of brands. Brand advertising became fuel for the mass media, and as profitability rose, newspapers were bought up and organized into chains throughout the 20th century. Many newspapers grew their audience as they merged.
Partisan papers gave way to a brand of news that strived for objectivity. The profit motive mostly drove the change. To attract a mass audience, newspapers had to represent various points of view. This pushed some of the most opinionated citizens, particularly strong advocates for workers, to the fringes of mass discourse. Some advocates developed alternative media offerings. Others went mostly unheard or plied their craft directly in politics.
At the same, throughout much of the 20th century, the journalism workforce became more professionalized. Professional norms , that is the written and unwritten rules guiding behavior decided on by people in a given field, evolved. Many full-time, paid professional journalists stressed and continue to stress the need to remain detached from the people they cover so that journalists can maintain the practice and appearance of objectivity. Journalists emphasized objectivity in order to remain autonomous and to be perceived as truthful. The norm of objective reporting still strongly influences news coverage in newspapers as well as on most mainstream radio and television news networks.
That being said, the practice of maintaining objectivity is being called into question in our current hyper-partisan political media environment. Other strategies for demonstrating truthfulness require journalists to be transparent about how they do their work, about who owns their media outlets, and about what investments and personal views they may have.
At the heart of the ethical discussion for professional journalists is a sort of battle between the need to be autonomous to cover news accurately with minimal bias and the need to be socially responsible. Social responsibility in the study of journalism ethics is a specific concept referring to the need for media organizations to be responsible for the possible repercussions of the news they produce. The debate goes on even as more and more platforms for mass communication are developed.
Beyond advancements in ink-on-paper newspapers (including the development of color offset printing), technological developments have contributed to the diversification of mass media products. Photography evolved throughout the 20th century as did motion picture film, radio and television technology. Other mass media presented challenges and competition for newspapers. Still, newspapers were quite a profitable business. They grew to their greatest readership levels in the middle-to-late 20th century, and their value was at its high point around the turn of the 21st century. Then came the internet.
Stewing in our Own Juices
With the rise of global computer networks, particularly high-speed broadband and mobile communication technologies, individuals gained the ability to publish their own work and to comment on mass media messages more easily than ever before. If mass communication in the 20th century was best characterized as a one-to-many system where publishers and broadcasters reached waiting audiences, the mass media made possible by digital information networks in the twenty-first have taken on a many-to-many format.
For example, YouTube has millions of producers who themselves are also consumers. None of the social media giants such as Facebook, YouTube, Instagram, Qzone and Weibo (in China), Twitter, Reddit, or Pinterest is primarily known for producing content. Instead, they provide platforms for users to submit their own content and to share what mass media news and entertainment companies produce. The result is that the process of deciding what people should be interested in is much more decentralized in the digital network mass media environment than it was in the days of an analog one-to-many mass media system.
The process of making meaning in society — that is, the process of telling many smaller stories that add up to a narrative shared by mass audiences — is now much more collaborative than it was in the 20th century because more people are consuming news on networked platforms than through the channels managed by gatekeepers . A mass media gatekeeper is someone, professional or not, who decides what information to share with mass audiences and what information to leave out.
Fiction or non-fiction, every story leaves something out, and the same is true for shows made up of several stories, such as news broadcasts and heavily edited reality television. Gatekeepers select what mass audiences see, and then edit or disregard the rest. The power of gatekeepers may be diminished in networks where people can decide for themselves what topics they care most about, but there is still an important gatekeeping function in the mass media since much of what is ultimately shared on social media platforms originates in the offices and studios of major media corporations.
On social media platforms, media consumers have the ability to add their input and criticism, and this is an important function for users. Not only do we have a say as audience members in the content we would like to see, read and hear, but we also have an important role to play in society as voting citizens holding their elected officials accountable.
If social media platforms were only filled with mass media content, individual user comments, and their own homegrown content, digitally networked communication would be complex enough, but there are other forces at work. Rogue individuals, hacker networks, and botnets — computers programmed to create false social media accounts, websites, and other digital properties — can contribute content alongside messages produced by professionals and legitimate online community members. False presences on social media channels can amplify hate and misinformation and can stoke animosity between groups in a hyper-partisan media age.
Around the world, societies have democratized mass communication, but in many ways, agreeing on a shared narrative or even a shared list of facts is more difficult than ever. Users create filter bubbles for themselves where they mostly hear the voices and information that they want to hear. This has the potential to create opposing worldviews where users with different viewpoints not only have differing opinions, but they also have in mind completely different sets of facts creating different images about what is happening in the world and how society should operate.
When users feel the need to defend their filtered worldviews, it is quite harmful to society.
De-massification
The infiltration of bots on common platforms is one issue challenging people working in good faith to produce accurate and entertaining content and to make meaning in the mass media. De-massification is another. Professionals working on mass-market media products now must fight to hold onto mass audiences. De-massification signifies the breakdown of mass media audiences. As the amount of information being produced and the number of channels on which news and other content can be disseminated grows exponentially, ready-made audiences are in decline.
In the future, it is anticipated that audiences, or fan bases, must be built rather than tapped into. One path to growing audiences in digital networks is to take an extreme point of view. Producers of news and entertainment information on the right and left of the political spectrum often rail against mainstream media as they promote points of view which are more or less biased. This kind of polarization along with the tendency of social media platforms to allow and even encourage people to organize along political lines likely contributes to de-massification as people organize into factions.
The future of some mass communication channels as regular providers of shared meaning for very large audiences is in question. That said, claims that any specific medium is "dead" are overblown. For example, newspaper readership, advertising revenue, and employment numbers have been declining for about 25 years, but as of 2018, there are still more than 30 million newspaper subscribers. Mass audiences are shrinking and shifting, but they can still be developed.
Convergence
As mass audiences are breaking up and voices from the fringe are garnering outsized influence, the various types of media (audio, video, text, animation and the industries they are tied to) have come together on global computer and mobile network platforms in a process called convergence .
It is as though all media content is being tossed into a huge stew, one that surrounds and composes societies and cultures, and within this stew of information, people are re-organizing themselves according to the cultural and social concerns they hold most dear.
According to one hypothesis, in a society dominated by digital communication networks, people gather around the information they recognize and want to believe because making sense of the vast amount of information now available is impossible.
This text covers several mass media channels including social media, film, radio, television, music recording and podcasting, digital gaming, news, advertising, public relations and propaganda because these are still viable industries even as the content they produce appears more and more often on converged media platforms.
What we see emerging in networked spaces is a single mass media channel with a spectrum of possible text, photo, audio, video, graphic and game elements; however, the sites of professional production still mostly identify as one particular industry (such as radio and recorded music, film, television, cable television, advertising, PR, digital advertising or social media). Some of these are "legacy" media that have existed as analog industries prior to convergence, while others originated in digital media environments.
For the foreseeable future, we should expect legacy media producers to continue to hold formidable power as elements of larger media conglomerates, which acquired many media companies as a result of industry deregulation. We should also expect audiences to continue to fragment and digital media start-ups trying to build audiences out of fragmented communities to be common even if they are difficult to sustain.
What this means for social structures and for cultural production is disruption, limited perhaps by legacy media traditions and corporate power.
Melding Theories
The world of mass media has witnessed the convergence of media content on digital platforms, the ability of individuals to engage in one-to-many communication as though they were major broadcasters, and the emergence of structures that allow for many-to-many communication. These developments force us to rethink how separate interpersonal, organizational and mass communication truly are.
From a theoretical standpoint, these are well-established approaches to thinking about communication, but in practice, certain messages might fit into multiple categories. For example, a YouTube video made for a few friends might reach millions if it goes viral. Is it interpersonal communication, mass communication or both? Viral videos and memes spread to vast numbers of people but might start out as in-jokes between internet friends or trolls. The message’s original meaning is often lost in this process. In a networked society, it can be difficult to differentiate between interpersonal and mass communication. For our purposes, it will be helpful to consider the message creator’s intent.
As a user, it is essential to realize the possibility that interpersonal messages may be shared widely. As professionals, it also helps to realize that you cannot force a message to go viral, although most social media platforms now engage in various kinds of paid promotion where brands and influential users can pay to have their content spread more widely more quickly.
We must also understand that advertisers treat digital communication platforms much the same way whether they appear to users to be interpersonal or mass media environments. Users can be targeted down to the individual on either type of platform, and advertisers (with the help of platform creators), can access mass audiences, even when users are intending only to participate on a platform for purposes of interpersonal communication.
Scholars are still working to define how these platforms mix aspects of interpersonal and mass communication. Here is one takeaway: If you are not paying to use a platform like Facebook, Twitter, YouTube (Google), Instagram, or Snapchat, you are the product. It is your attention that is being sold to advertisers.
The Big Picture
Society functions when the mass media work well, and we tend not to think about the technologies or the professionals who make it all possible. Interpersonal communication can function with or without a massive technological apparatus. It is more convenient, though, to be able to text each another. When interpersonal communication breaks down, we have problems in our relationships. When organizational communication breaks down, it creates problems for groups and companies. But when mass communication breaks down, society breaks down.
Cultural Production
There is another way of looking at the mass media that needs to be mentioned after looking in some depth at the structural changes going on in and around the field of mass communication. Mass media channels are also huge engines of cultural production. That is, they make the entertainment that helps us define who we are as large and small groups of people. To quote from Dead Poets Society : " We read and write poetry because we are members of the human race, and the human race is filled with passion. Medicine, law, business, engineering, these are noble pursuits and necessary to sustain life. But poetry, beauty, romance, love, these are what we stay alive for." If you replace "reading and writing poetry" with "creating culture," you get a sense of the importance of cultural production. We can define culture as a collection of our knowledge, beliefs and practices. In practice, culture it how we express ourselves and enjoy life’s experiences.
In media, there are three main types of cultural works, those associated with "high" culture, popular culture, and folk culture. (Some scholars discuss "low" culture, but it is argued here that "low culture" is just another way of describing the low end of pop culture.)
High culture is arguably the best cultural material a society has to offer. Economic class often comes into play in defining what is "high culture" and what is not.
Pop culture is the vast array of cultural products that appeal to the masses.
Folk culture refers to cultural products borne out of everyday life identifiable because they usually have practical uses as well as artistic value. It is often associated with prehistoric cultures, but that is because the folk culture, pop culture and high culture of prehistoric peoples were often one and the same. Their best art may also have been an everyday object like a bowl or a basket or a doll or a mask. Don’t confuse prehistoric art with modern folk art.
Modern folk art has the specific quality of trying to capture what is both beautiful and useful in everyday life.
Folk music tends to rely on "traditional" sounds and instruments. Topically, it focuses on the value of everyday existence. Folk music is often built around narratives that carry morals much the same way fairy tales do. Fairy tales are probably the best example of folk literature.
So much of the interpretation and the value of cultural production is culturally relative. This means that an object or work’s value is determined by perceptions of people in different cultural groups.
In modern society, mass media often drive our perceptions. It is important to recognize that different cultures have different moral values and to acknowledge that some practices should be universally abhorred and stopped, even if they are partially or wholly accepted in other cultures.
The relationship between culture and mass media is complex; it is difficult to distinguish modern culture from how it appears in the various mass media. Culture in the developed world is spread through mass media channels. Just as society forms and is formed in part by messages in the mass media, so it goes with culture. Cultural products and their popularity can influence which media channels people prefer. Conversely, changes in media and ICTs can lead to changes in how we produce culture.
When we discuss digital culture in the next section, we will continue to break down different levels of culture and the relationship between cultural forms and mass communication in the networked communication age. To begin to understand the mass media, their role in society and how they shape culture and are shaped by cultural preferences, it helps to think about how the mass media may influence you.


1.3: Words of Wisdom- The Student Experience
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Kristen Mruk
Kristen Mruk
When thinking about college, what comes to mind? Perhaps stereotypical images or misconceptions of college life, a friend or sibling’s story, or scenes from popular movies?
In popular culture, some movies depict college life as a party atmosphere in which students binge drink and waste their parents’ money to have a good time without consequence. Films including National Lampoon’s Animal House and Van Wilder as well as Accepted , to name a few, portray the student experience as a blatant disregard for education coupled with excessive drunken buffoonery. However, my party experience illustrates a side to college that is not generally in the limelight.
During my first weeks in college, I felt disconnected from the campus and feared that I would not make friends or find my niche. I was commuting from my family’s home and wanted to do more on campus than just go to and from class. I was enrolled in a First-Year Experience (FYE) course that was intended to provide a framework for a successful undergraduate career and beyond. In the class, we learned about student support services on campus (tutoring, personal wellness, academic advisement, etc.) as well as personal success skills (time and financial management, values exploration, etc.).
Being a new student, and a commuter, I was overwhelmed by the amount of new information, new territory, campus culture, and unfamiliar processes. I asked my FYE instructor after class one day if there was something I could do to feel more connected to campus. She opened my eyes to a side of college that I was missing—this was my invitation to the party .
My FYE instructor promptly led me to her office, introduced me to the staff, and explained the variety of involvement opportunities available through her office. I was amazed that there was so much to do on campus! Because of that meeting, I decided to apply for a job in the Student Union working at the information desk. This position was a catalyst for all of the additional parties I would be invited to throughout my time as an undergraduate student. With so many possibilities, I had to be diligent in prioritizing my time and energy.
What My Friends Think I Do
Friends knew me to be much like the girl in the meme above. I was juggling extracurricular activities and two jobs all while maintaining a full course load. I had to be proactive and diligent to coordinate activities and assignments and make sure I had the time to do it all. Finding a system was a trial and error process, but ultimately I found a method that worked for me. I was an undergraduate student when apps didn’t exist and Facebook was just becoming popular, so my organizational system included a planner, a pen, and a lot of highlighters. Whatever that organizational system looks like for you does not matter as long as you use it.
There are a variety of organizational methods and tools you can use to stay on track with all aspects of your life as a student. Some of those are featured in the State University of New York (SUNY) blog: http://blog.suny.edu/tag/apps
What My Parents Think I Do
It may be difficult to discuss your studies and educational experience with a parent or someone that has a significant interest in your academic achievement. This was the case for me; I was the first kid in my house to enroll in college, and my parents were under the impression that grades would be sent home like they were in high school. During the New Student Orientation program, my Mom learned about FERPA (Federal Educational Rights and Privacy Act) and what that meant for my grades. “FERPA gives parents certain rights with respect to their children’s education records. These rights transfer to the student when he or she reaches the age of 18 or attends a school beyond the high school level.” In essence, parents cannot access grades or other restricted academic information unless you provide it to them ( www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/f...ex.html?src=ft ).
I was fortunate enough to have my parents’ financial support toward tuition, so they felt entitled to reviewing my grades at the end of each semester. I did not want to give them direct access to my grade report by filing a FERPA waiver, so after much deliberation, I agreed to share my grades once released at the semester’s end. If their standards were not met, there would have to be a conversation about repercussions.
In the fall of my sophomore year I took my first online course—Introduction to Computers and Statistics. All of the lectures and assignments were available online at anytime and exams were administered in a computer lab on campus. I thought having the ability to view lectures on my own time would be more conducive to my schedule as I was becoming more involved on campus. For the first few weeks of classes I watched the lectures regularly and did the assignments on time. Slowly but surely I found myself prioritizing my time differently, ultimately putting my online class on the back burner, because (I told myself) the work could be done anytime! By the end of the semester I realized that I was going to fail the class.  First, I discovered that I needed the routine and accountability of an in-person class to ensure my participation in the material. Second, I was responsible for the grades I received. I probably could have come up with a million excuses for why I didn’t watch the lectures or do the assignments, but the reality was I just didn’t do it. I did not seek my professor’s help during their office hours when I started to fall behind, I did not go to the tutoring center on campus to get extra help, and I did not reach out to my classmates to form study groups.
Although the F that I received will never disappear from my transcript, it is an important reminder of the gruesome conversation I had with my parents and the feeling of failure in the pit of my stomach. Needless to say, that was the only online course I took during my collegiate career, but it was absolutely worth the lessons learned.
 There are people and resources on campus for you to utilize so you can earn the grade you want.
 Go see them during office hours, ask them questions about the material and get extra help if you need it. The caveat here is that you cannot wait until the last week of the semester to visit your professors to get help. Tears and pleading will not help you at the eleventh hour.
Another resource to utilize can be found in the campus learning center. I frequented my campus’ writing center for assistance with papers and research projects. Initially, I was scared to be critiqued, thinking my work would be perceived as inadequate. The first time I took a paper there, I recall standing outside the door for about ten minutes thinking of an excuse not to go in. Thankfully I saw a classmate walk in and I followed suit. The experience was less dramatic than I imagined it to be; no one ripped my paper to shreds and told me that I would never graduate. Instead I sat with an upper-class student who coached me through some pointers and suggestions for improvement. Thanks to that first visit, I received an A- on the paper!
What I Would Like to Do
I thought I knew exactly what I wanted to do when I started college, but that changed three times by the time I graduated. Initially I started as an International Business major but ended up receiving a degree in Communication and continued on to graduate school. My greatest advice to you is to embrace feelings of uncertainty (if you have them) with regard to your academic, career, or life goals. Stop into the Career Services office on your campus to identify what it is that you really want to do when you graduate or to confirm your affinity to a career path. Make an appointment to see a counselor if you need to vent or get a new perspective. Do an internship in your field; this can give you a first-hand impression of what your life might look like in that role.
When I chose International Business, I did not do so as an informed student. I enjoyed and excelled in my business courses in high school and I had hopes of traveling the world, so International Business seemed to fit the bill. Little did I know, the major required a lot of accounting and economics which, as it turned out, were not my forte. Thinking this is what I wanted, I wasted time pursuing a major I didn’t enjoy and academic courses I struggled through.
So I took a different approach. I began speaking to the professionals around me that had jobs that appealed to me: Student Unions/Activities, Leadership, Orientation, Alumni, etc. I found out I could have a similar career, and I would enjoy the required studies along the way. Making that discovery provided direction and purpose in my major and extracurricular activities. I felt like everything was falling into place.
What I Actually Do
I would like to pause for a moment and ask you to consider why you are in college? Why did you choose your institution? Have you declared a major yet? Why or why not? What are your plans post-graduation? By frequently reflecting in this way, you can assess whether or not your behaviors, affiliations, and activities align with your goals.
What you actually do with your student experience is completely up to you.  Remind yourself of the reasons why you are in college and make sure your time is spent on achieving your goals. There are resources and people on your campus available to help you. You have the control—use it wisely.
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Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom. Edited by Thomas Priester. Essay authored by Kristen Mruk. Located at: https://milnepublishing.geneseo.edu/...nt-experience/ License: CC BY: Attribution.


 You care about the claim the article is making. You want to know if it is true or false. You want to know if it represents a consensus viewpoint, or if it is the subject of much disagreement.
In this case, your best strategy may be to ignore the source that reached you and look for trusted reporting or analysis on the claim. If you get an article that says koalas have just been declared extinct from the Save the Koalas Foundation, your best bet might not be to investigate the source but to go out and find the best source you can on this topic, or, just as importantly, to scan multiple sources and see what the expert consensus seems to be. In these cases, we encourage you to “find other coverage” that better suits your needs — more trusted, more in-depth, or maybe just more varied. In lesson two we’ll show you some techniques to do this sort of thing very quickly.
Do you have to agree with the consensus once you find it? Absolutely not! But understanding the context and history of a claim will help you better evaluate it and form a starting point for future investigation.


2.2: Ethical and Legal Responsibilities of the Nursing Assistant
Ethical Responsibilities of the Nursing Assistant
Nursing assistants should treat all clients equally and with compassion and respect for their inherent dignity, worth, and unique attributes. They should promote clients’ rights and safety to assist in achieving the best possible health and functioning. Read more about resident rights in the box later in this section.
As a student or a newly employed nursing assistant, you may find yourself in circumstances where you observe unethical behaviors exhibited by other agency staff. Examples of unethical behavior to avoid are as follows [1] :
- Using a personal cell phone in patient care areas
- Not responding to call lights promptly when you are available to do so
- Ignoring the phone(s) assigned to you
- Using agency computers for personal use
- Avoiding clients because of their ethnicity, beliefs, demeanors, or other individual characteristics
- Avoiding work by sitting in empty patient rooms or the break room during on-time work hours
- Accepting gifts or gratuities from clients or their family members
- Sharing clients’ personal information with others who are not providing direct care
- Stealing items from clients or the health care agency
Governing Agencies
When you work as a nursing assistant, you are helping vulnerable populations. Vulnerable populations include patients who are children, older adults, minorities, socially disadvantaged, underinsured, or those with certain medical conditions. Members of vulnerable populations often have health conditions that are exacerbated by inadequate health care. [2] As a result, there are many governing agencies involved in the care of these clients to ensure their needs are met.
Federal agencies that regulate and provide guidelines for health care include the following:
- Centers for Medicare and Medicaid (CMS): The CMS provides health care funding for qualifying members. Medicare is health care funding available to anyone over the age of 65, as well as those who have a permanent disability or kidney failure. There are four types of coverage that Medicare provides: care in hospitals and nursing homes (Part A); medical appointments, services, and equipment (Part B); additional services provided by private companies (Part C); and prescription drug coverage (Part D). Medicaid is health care funding available for individuals with low incomes and is provided at both the federal and state level. Both Medicare and Medicaid may cover services for resident care based on each individual’s needs. [3] , [4]
- Centers for Disease Control (CDC): The CDC provides guidance for facilities related to infection and disease control. [5]
- Food and Drug Administration (FDA): The FDA protects public health by ensuring the safety of medications, biological products, medical devices, cosmetics, products that emit radiation, and the food supply. It also regulates tobacco products and helps the public get the accurate, science-based information they need to use medical products and foods to maintain and improve their health. [6]
- Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA): OSHA ensures safe and healthy working conditions for workers by setting and enforcing standards and by providing training, outreach, education, and assistance. [7]
Every state has a Department of Health Services (DHS) that works with local counties, health care providers, and community partners. The DHS provides services that aid and protect the state’s citizens, such as alcohol and drug abuse prevention programs, mental health programs, public health services, disability determination, implementation of long-term care, and regulation of state nursing homes, along with numerous other services.
Read more about Wisconsin’s Department of Health Services at the About the Department of Health Services (DHS) web page.
Federal Health Care Acts
In addition to government agencies, there are federal laws that directly affect health care. The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) required the creation of national standards to protect sensitive patient health information from being disclosed without the patient’s consent or knowledge. The HIPAA security rule requires the following:
- Ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of all protected health information (PHI)
- Detect and safeguard against anticipated threats to the security of the information
- Protect against anticipated impermissible uses or disclosures
- Certify compliance by their workforce
As a nursing assistant, this means that you must legally keep any information regarding the care of your clients confidential, including documentation, care plans, and shift reports. Refer to the “ Guidelines for Reporting ” subsection in Chapter 1 for more details about confidential reports.
Read more about HIPAA at the CDC’s Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) web page .
The Omnibus Reconciliation Act of 1987 (OBRA) set forth new provisions for Medicare and Medicaid related to new standards for care in the nursing home setting. One major provision was a requirement for nurse aide training. It required that new nurse aides train for a minimum of 75 hours and pass a competency evaluation and that each state records a registry for nurse aides who have passed the competency evaluation. It also focused on improving quality of life for residents in long-term care (LTC), focusing on patient-centered care and meeting the preferences of each individual in making decisions regarding their care. [8] Read more about long-term care settings in the “ Health Care Settings ” section of this chapter. During patient-centered care, an individual’s specific health needs and desired health outcomes are the driving forces behind all health care decisions. Patients are partners with the health care team members, and health care professionals treat patients not only from a clinical perspective, but also from an emotional, mental, spiritual, social, and financial perspective. [9]
The Older Americans Act (OAA) was passed in 1965 in response to concern by policymakers about a lack of community social services for older persons. The original legislation established authority for grants to states for community planning and social services, research and development projects, and personnel training in the field of aging. It also includes states’ Long-Term Care (LTC) Ombudsman programs that work to resolve problems related to the health, safety, welfare, and rights of individuals who live in LTC facilities, such as nursing homes, assisted living facilities, and other residential care communities. The OAA act requires the following of ombudsman programs [10] :
- Identify, investigate, and resolve complaints made by or on behalf of residents
- Provide information to residents about long-term services and supports
- Ensure that residents have regular and timely access to ombudsman services
- Represent the interests of residents to governmental agencies and seek administrative, legal, and other remedies to protect residents
- Analyze, comment on, and recommend changes in laws and regulations pertaining to the health, safety, welfare, and rights of residents
Resident Rights
As a health care regulator, the CMS ensures residents know and understand their rights and these rights are upheld. Resident rights are the most important aspect of providing care. It is essential for health care workers to protect the dignity of residents and enhance their quality of life. A concise list of resident rights that are protected in long-term care and other settings is described in the following box.
- Be treated with respect
- Participate in activities
- Be free from discrimination, restraints, abuse, and neglect
- Make complaints
- Receive proper medical care
- Make decisions regarding one’s care with the involvement of family and loved ones if desired
- Have one’s representative notified of care and complications
- Receive information about services and fees
- Manage one’s money
- Receive privacy and proper living arrangements
- Spend time with visitors
- Receive social services
- Be protected against unfair transfers or discharges
- Have the ability to leave the facility when health status allows, either temporarily or permanently
- Create or participate in groups
These guidelines should be at the forefront of your mind with any resident interaction. It is important for NAs to remember that it can be difficult for residents to accept being dependent on a caregiver for completing their ADLs. This feeling of dependency can cause them to lose self-esteem or even lead to depression. Refer back to the exercise in the “ Managing Clients’ and Family Members’ Stress ” subsection in Chapter 1 to recall how to empathize with residents. If a resident has a request, you should make accommodations to meet their needs as appropriate. If you are unsure how to meet their request, consult with your supervising nurse. The only reason a resident preference should not be granted would be due to safety or infection control concern. For example, if a resident wants to have a candle in their room, the risk of fire would not allow this request, but an alternative would be an electric candle. If a resident wanted to use a hair dryer but their roommate could possibly burn themselves due to altered safety awareness, the facility should work to find a secure place where the resident could use the hair dryer.
For more information, read the Your Rights and Protections as a Nursing Home Resident PDF .
Elder Abuse and Neglect
As discussed in the “Resident Rights” section, clients are to be free from abuse and neglect. Elder abuse is an intentional act, or failure to act, that causes or creates a risk of harm to someone age 60 or older. The abuse occurs at the hands of a caregiver or a person the older adult trusts. Neglect refers to a failure to provide care for oneself or to someone for whom you are enlisted to care. Review Table 2.2 for types of abuse and neglect and signs or symptoms that you should report to the nurse.
Table 2.2 Types of Abuse and Signs or Symptoms to Report [12] , [13]
| Type of Abuse | Definition | Signs or Symptoms |
|---|---|---|
| Physical | Illness, pain, injury, functional impairment, distress, or death as a result of the intentional use of physical force. This includes acts such as hitting, kicking, pushing, slapping, and burning. | Bruising, fractures, burns, or any other unexplainable injury. The abused person may isolate themselves, withdraw from conversation, or change behavior when the abuser is present. |
| Sexual | Forced or unwanted sexual interaction of any kind. This may include unwanted sexual contact, penetration, or noncontact acts such as sexual harassment. | Injury to genital areas, rashes, infections, bleeding or discharge from genitals, torn clothing, and behavioral changes listed under “Physical” abuse “Signs or Symptoms.” |
| Emotional or Psychological | Verbal or nonverbal behaviors that inflict anguish, mental pain, fear, or distress on an older adult. Examples include humiliation or disrespect, verbal and nonverbal threats, control of one’s actions, harassment, or isolation from other loved ones. | Depression, anxiety, loss of self-confidence or motivation, or feelings of failure. |
| Financial | Illegal, unauthorized, or improper use of an older adult’s money, benefits, belongings, property, or assets for the benefit of someone other than the older adult. | Missing items; going without food, medications, or other necessities; or excessive use of cash if they cannot account for the spending. |
| Neglect | Failure to meet an older adult’s basic needs, including food, water, shelter, clothing, hygiene, and essential medical care. | Weight loss, skin breakdown, infection, confusion, hallucinations, dehydration, soiled linens and clothing, odors, or poor oral care. |
| Self-Neglect | Lack of self-care that threatens personal health and safety, including a failure to seek help for care. | See “Signs or Symptoms” listed under “Neglect.” |
Nursing assistants and other health care professionals are referred to as mandated reporters because they are required by state law to report suspected neglect or abuse of the elderly, vulnerable adults, and children. As a caregiver, you are required to report any signs or symptoms that are suspicious for abuse or neglect to the nurse. At the time of the finding, you must stay with the resident until you can ensure that no further abuse or neglect occurs, even if you are in a facility. If a resident reports any abuse, you are obligated to inform the nurse, charge nurse, or an administrator, regardless of the cognitive function of the person reporting so that an investigation can be performed.
The Survey Process
Each state’s Department of Health Services (DHS) conducts surveys of long-term care (LTC) facilities under the guidelines provided by the CMS. Standard surveys typically occur at least one time per year. During a survey , DHS employees observe care provided to residents, watch preparation and serving of food, review resident care plans and facility documentation, interview residents and families, and look at every aspect of the facility. The surveyors are ensuring that all aspects of residents’ physical, emotional, social, and spiritual needs are met. If you are a nurse aide being observed or interviewed, it is important to only provide facts. If you do not know the answer to a question, respond that you do not know the answer and explain that you will find an answer as soon as possible. You can offer things like, “I need to check my care plan for that information,” or “I would ask the nurse for clarification,” as appropriate to the question. [14]
If a problem or discrepancy is discovered during a survey, the facility receives a citation from the surveyors. At the end of the survey process, DHS will conduct an exit interview with the Administrator, Director of Nursing (DON), and other facility leadership. When residents are found to be at a high risk for adverse events, the surveyors will ask the facility to create a plan to correct the issues. DHS will make a return visit in a few weeks to follow up on the implementation.
DHS may also conduct a survey if they have received several complaints from residents or family members or if certain events occur such as elopement of a resident or an accident with a major injury. Elopement is defined as an event when a resident who is incapable of protecting themselves from harm is able to successfully leave the facility unsupervised and unnoticed and possibly enter into harm’s way. [15]
The results of a survey must be made available to the public. They must be posted at the entrance to the facility, along with information on how to contact the ombudsmen. They are also available electronically at medicare.gov.
Read ratings of nursing homes and survey results: Medicare.gov Provider Comparison Tool.
- Miller-Hoover, S. (2018). I said what? Professionalism for the CNA. RN.com. https://www.rn.com/featured-stories/professionalism-cna/#:~:text=Professional%20CNAs%20are%20responsible%2C%20trustworthy,and%20being%20a%20team%20player ↵
- Waisel, D. B. (2013). Vulnerable populations. Current Opinion in Anaesthesiology, 26 (2), 186-192. https://doi.org/10.1097/aco.0b013e32835e8c17 ↵
- Medicare.gov. U.S. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. https://www.medicare.gov/ ↵
- Medicaid.gov. U.S. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. https://www.medicaid.gov/ ↵
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021, September 24). About CDC 24-7. https://www.cdc.gov/about/default.htm ↵
- U.S. Food & Drug Administration. (2018, March 28). What we do. https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/what-we-do ↵
- Occupational Safety & Health Administration. (n.d.). About OSHA. United States Department of Labor. https://www.osha.gov/aboutosha ↵
- Kelly, M. (1989). The omnibus budget reconciliation act of 1987. A policy analysis. The Nursing Clinics of North America, 24 (3), 791-794. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2671955/ ↵
- NEJM Catalyst. (2017, January 1). What is patient-centered care? Massachusetts Medical Society. https://catalyst.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/CAT.17.0559 ↵
- Administration for Community Living. (2021, November 24). Long-term care ombudsman program. https://acl.gov/programs/Protecting-Rights-and-Preventing-Abuse/Long-term-Care-Ombudsman-Program ↵
- Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. (n.d.). Residents' rights & quality of care. https://www.cms.gov/nursing-homes/patients-caregivers/residents-rights-quality-care ↵
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021, June 2). Preventing elder abuse. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/elderabuse/fastfact.html ↵
- Washington State Department of Social and Health Services. (n.d.). Self-neglect . https://www.dshs.wa.gov/node/2444/#signs ↵
- Institute of Medicine (US), Committee on Nursing Home Regulation. (1986). Improving the quality of care in nursing homes. National Academies Press (US); 1986. 4, Monitoring nursing home performance. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK217555/ ↵
- Institute of Medicine (US), Committee on Nursing Home Regulation. (1986). Improving the quality of care in nursing homes. National Academies Press (US); 1986. 4, Monitoring nursing home performance. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK217555/ ↵


3.14: Key Differences Between Single Channel, Multi-Channel, and Omni-Channel Retailing
- Explain the main difference between multi-channel and omnichannel retailing
Think again about your own shopping behavior. Perhaps you’re frequently in-store to see the products in-person. Maybe you shop on-line, visiting the store or brand’s websites? Are you connected with retailers or brands on Facebook? Do you follow them on Twitter to learn about new items, special releases or sales? Have you checked on Instagram to find them? Do you participate in fan boards or blogs to track updates or read reviews?
It’s possible that many, if not all, of these activities are reflected in your shopping behavior. Many of these behaviors are very common, as shopper behavior has undergone radical change, supported by greater access to technology and heightened expectations around service and responsiveness.
Why then, with so many channels available, would a brand or retailer choose to engage in anything other than the multi-channel? Simply, there are certain advantages and disadvantages to each channel strategy. That is, not all firms have the need or are capable of managing the expense of maintaining multiple channels well, especially knowing consumers’ requirements for accessibility, consistency and service.
Single channel refers to a producer or retailer’s effort to reach customers through only one distribution option, regardless of whether it’s online, catalogue, mail-order, face-to-face selling or traditional retail. This approach reduces marketing investments and organizational complexity. However, the risk with this approach is missed selling opportunities as customers shop alternative channels. This is particularly risky, given how connected and empowered consumers are in the digital age. Weber Grills and Jacuzzi Hot Tubs are both examples of manufacturers that sell through established dealer distribution networks.
Multi-channel refers to a producer or retailer’s effort to combine and blend different distribution channels to accommodate where and how consumers make purchases, ensuring that producers and retailers will be present when the purchase decision is made. The objective is to make it easy for a consumer to buy in whatever way is most appropriate for them. Multi-channel marketing allows the firm to reach its prospective or current customers at the point of purchase in a channel of their liking. Most firms with which you interact are engaged in multi-channel marketing, if not omni-channel marketing.
A multi-channel marketing strategy needs to be supported by good organizational discipline and infrastructure. At the most basic level, firms with a multi-channel strategy must ensure that the details and prices of goods are consistent across channels. To be most effective, they should also be mindful of the contribution each channel delivers to the company’s revenue and profit. To do this, they would need to track marketing spend in each channel and review metrics like customer response, conversion rate and loyalty to get an accurate picture of return on investment.
As you can clearly see, moving from a single to multi-channel strategy requires increases in structural support, including systems, analytics, and capital, to ensure consistency in service. This intensifies further with an omni-channel strategy, given that it is an expansion of the multi-channel concept.
The emergence of digital technology, social media and mobile devices have led to significant changes in the retail environment, as firms leverage connectedness in an attempt to be present in all channels of interaction. The omni-channel concept not only recognizes the range of channels available to consumers to transact, but also considers the varied interactions in the shopping process that consumers have before, during, and after purchase. The omni-channel isn’t merely concerned with transactions, it also incorporates the needs, communications, and interactions between customer, brand, and retailer. Thus, it’s important that websites, e-mail campaigns, social media messaging, and physical stores all show consistent messages, offers, and products.
Further, given consumer expectations around accessibility, these channels must also be customer-centric in their service orientation. This requires having appropriate content and responsiveness for an array of possible consumer interactions. It requires that firms maintain multiple platforms through which consumers engage. For example, think of how expectations have changed around online presence. At one time having a company website with location addresses, phone numbers, operating hours and product descriptions was sufficient.
By comparison, consumers now expect company websites to have value-added content, like product information, ratings & reviews, recommendations, and troubleshooting tips. They expect high-resolution photography and video. And some consumers prefer to engage over a wide variety of other media like social networks, not just .com.
Consumers are able to supplement the information they get about products in advertising and in-store with information they search for themselves. They use technology to search independent sites for user reviews and product ratings, as well as for promotional offers. In this environment, manufacturers and retailers must have a service orientation to ensure that consumers can get what they want when they want it. This requires a tremendous amount of content, which needs to be sourced or created and curated.
In that same way, most consumers expect manufacturers and retailers to have e-commerce capabilities. This doesn’t just reflect a need to be able to complete transactions, but requires having a system robust enough to maintain current inventory information, collect and securely store payment information, record order details for accurate fulfillment, and initiate shipping.
It’s clear that the opportunity to be present in all channels of customer interaction carries incredibly high costs. System requirements increase, especially around business intelligence and customer relationship management. The breadth and depth of content expands, meaning that there’s a need for creative production and curation. There are related demands for analysis and customer service to ensure the customer experience. And, of course, there’s a need for security to ensure that consumer information is protected.
Technology has enabled consumers to search and shop across channels very easily. In response, manufacturers and retailers have developed their presence in alternative channels to capitalize upon all outlets. Yet, there are limits to how easily firms can pursue a multi- or omni-channel strategy. Not all firms have the need or resources to maintain multiple channels well. But, for those that can, managing multiple channels of interaction means that they must be present and engage consumers well at all points in the shopping process.
Contributors and Attributions
- Key Differences Between Single Channel, Multi-Channel, and Omni-Channel Retailing. Authored by : Patrick Williams. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


5.S: Stereochemistry at Tetrahedral Centers (Summary)
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Concepts & Vocabulary
5.1: Enantiomers and the Tetrahedral Carbon
- Every molecule is either chiral (not superimposable on its mirror image) or achiral (superimposable on its mirror image).
- Chiral molecules do not have a plane of symmetry, while achiral molecules have one or more planes of symmetry .
- Stereoisomers vary by spatial arrangement of atoms but have the same atom connectivity.
- Stereoisomers that are mirror images of one another but are not superimposable are called enantiomers .
5.2: The Reason for Handedness in Molecules - Chirality
- A Tetrahedral carbon atom bonded to four different substituents is an asymetric carbon (also called a stereocenter or chiral carbon), which typically leads to a chiral molecule (meso compounds are the exception in section 5.7).
- Enantiomers cause rotation of plane-polarized light in equal amounts in opposite directions. This is called optical activity. Clockwise rotation is called d extrorotatory (+) and counter-clockwise is called levorotatory (-).
- Specific rotation is the amount that a sample of a chemical rotates planne-polarized light. It can be used to calculate the purity of a mixture of enantiomers called the enantiomeric excess .
- Resolution is the separation of a mixture of enatiomers .
- Racemates are defined as a 50:50 mixture of enantiomers , resulting in a sample that is not optically active . The process of forming a racemic mixture is called racemization .
5.4: Pasteur's Discovery of Enantiomers
5.5: Sequence Rules for Specifying Configuration
- Use the CIP rules to determine the priority of each substituent attached to a chiral carbon to determine whether configuration is R or S . With the lowest priority group facing away from you, draw an arc connecting groups 1-2-3. If that arc is clockwise, the configuration is R . If counterclockwise, the configuration is S .
- Stereoisomers that are not mirror images of one another are called diastereomers .
- Diastereomers have two or more stereocenters . The configurations of the stereocenters cannot be inverse of each other (example R,R and S,S) because that defines a pair of enantiomers .
- Meso compounds are achiral but have chiral centers. This is caused by having an internal plane of symmetry that allows the two molecules to be superimposable on one another and be optically inactive .
5.8: Racemic Mixtures and the Resolution of Enantiomers
- Each component of a racemic mixture rotates plane polarized light an equal amount in opposite directions, so there is no optical activity .
- Racemic mixtures can be separated into the component enantiomers by reaction with a chiral reagent, which will form diastereomer intermediates of the molecules which can then be separated. Following separation the chiral reagent is removed to yield the two pure enantiomers .
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There are several categories of
isomers
with the largest distinction between:
- constitutional (structural) isomers that contain the same number of each atom but differ in connectivity
- stereoisomers that have all the same atoms with the same connectivity, but only differ in how the atoms are arranged three dimensionally
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In addition to the
diastereomers
and
enantiomers
that have been discussed at length in this chapter,
stereoisomers
can also be:
- cis/trans or E/Z isomers which differ by spatial arrangement around a double bond
- conformational isomers (conformers) which occur due to free rotation of sigma bonds
5.10: Chirality at Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur
- Nitrogen when bonded to three different atoms is chiral , however the lone pair of electrons moves freely between positions on the Nitrogen causing these molecules to become a racemic mixture.
- When bonded to four different atoms in quaternary ammonium salts, nitrogen atoms lead to chiral molecules.
- Organic phosphates with four different groups can also be chiral .
- When a carbon can be converted to a chiral center by changing only one of its attached groups, it is called prochiral .
- If a molecule has two hydrogens on the same atom and replacement of either one with deuterium would lead to enantiomers , the hydrogens are enantiotopic .
- Similarly if this replacement would lead to diastereomer molecules, the hydrogens are diastereotopic .
- If replacement of a hydrogen would not lead to a chiral center being created, they are termed homotopic .
Skills to Master
- Skill 5.1 Identify stereocenters in molecular structures.
- Skill 5.2 Identify whether two structures are identical (not meso), constitutional isomers, enantiomers, diastereomers or meso and identical.
- Skill 5.3 Explain how plane polarized light is used to show optical activity.
- Skill 5.4 Calculate specific rotation from experimental data.
- Skill 5.5 Calculate optical purity and enantiomeric excess from experimental data.
- Skill 5.6 Determine configuration of stereocenters as R or S.
- Skill 5.7 Draw the enantiomer and diastereomers of a given compound with one or more stereocenters.
- Skill 5.8 Identify planes of symmetry in meso compounds.
- Skill 5.9 Describe a process for separating a mixture of enantiomers.
- Skill 5.10 Explain why racemic mixtures are optically inactive.
- Skill 5.11 Explain the difference between constitutional and stereoisomers.
- Skill 5.12 Give an example of a chiral center that is not carbon.
Memorization Tasks
MT 5.1 Memorize the rules for determining R and S configuration.
MT 5.2 Memorize the types of isomers and how to identify them.


14.4.1: Pasteurization and Homogenization
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- BC Cook Articulation Committee
- BCcampus
Homogenization:
Homogenized milk is fresh milk in which the fat particles are so finely divided and emulsified mechanically that the milk fat cannot separate on standing.  As soon as the droplets form, milk proteins and emulsifiers form a protective film around each one, preventing the fat from reuniting. The tiny droplets stay suspended indefinitely, and milk fat no longer separates and rises to the top as a cream layer. In other words, homogenized dairy products are stable emulsions of fat droplets suspended in milk. It is also said that homogenized milk is more readily digestible.
Prior to the process of homogenization, milk had to be shaken prior to consumption to give it a desirable taste and consistency. This process, which became standard in the 19th century, is a completely mechanical process and does not use any chemicals or additives to achieve. The goal is to evenly distribute the fat that is naturally found in milk to create a homogenous mixture that will not separate when left to stand.
Image: Lizz Daniels, RDN, LD
Pasteurization:
Pasteurization of milk was developed in 1859 by the French chemist Louis Pasteur. This video is provides a brief overview of the history of development of the process in a humorous yet factual way:
Milk can be pasturized using a combination of either high or low temperatures with varying time controls. Given the growth of technology and market desires for milk that lasts longer there are two main types of pasteurization used today. Below is a outline of the two types which also include Ultra High Temperature (UHT).
The two main types of pasteurization used today are high-temperature, short-time (HTST, also known as “flash”) and higher-heat, shorter time (HHST). Ultra-high-temperature (UHT) processing is also used.
- High-temperature, short-time (HTST) pasteurization is done by heating milk to 161°F (72°C) for 15 seconds. Milk simply labeled “pasteurized” is usually treated with the HTST method.
- Higher-heat, shorter time (HHST) milk and milk products are pasteurized by applying heat continuously, generally above 212°F (100°C) for such time to extend the shelf life of the product under refrigerated conditions. This type of heat process can be used to produce dairy products with extended shelf life (ESL).
- Ultra-high-temperature (UHT) processing holds the milk at a temperature of 284°F (140°C) for four seconds. During UHT processing, milk is sterilized rather than pasteurized. This process allows milk or juice to be stored several months without refrigeration. The process is achieved by spraying the milk or juice through a nozzle into a chamber that is filled with high-temperature steam under pressure. After the temperature reaches 281°F (140°C) the fluid is cooled instantly in a vacuum chamber and packed in a pre-sterilized, airtight container. Milk labeled UHT has been treated in this way.
Please watch this short video on the two processes. Please note that this is a branded video and I do not endorse any particular product. This video however, is a clear and concise explanation of pasteurization:


3.4: Defense Mechanisms
When providing clients with stress management techniques and effective coping strategies, nurses must be aware of common defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms are reaction patterns used by individuals to protect themselves from anxiety that arises from stress and conflict. [1] Excessive use of defense mechanisms is associated with specific mental health disorders. With the exception of suppression, all other defense mechanisms are unconscious and out of the awareness of the individual. See Table 3.4 for a description of common defense mechanisms.
Table 3.4 Common Defense Mechanisms
| Defense Mechanisms | Definitions | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Conversion | Anxiety caused by repressed impulses and feelings are converted into a physical symptoms. [2] | An individual scheduled to see their therapist to discuss a past sexual assault experiences a severe headache and cancels the appointment. |
| Denial | Unpleasant thoughts, feelings, wishes, or events are ignored or excluded from conscious awareness to protect themselves from overwhelming worry or anxiety. [3] , [4] |
A client recently diagnosed with cancer states there was an error in diagnosis and they don’t have cancer.
Other examples include denial of a financial problem, an addiction, or a partner’s infidelity. |
| Dissociation | A feeling of being disconnected from a stressful or traumatic event – or feeling that the event is not really happening – to block out mental trauma and protect the mind from too much stress. [5] | A person experiencing physical abuse may feel as if they are floating above their bodies observing the situation. |
| Displacement | Unconscious transfer of one’s emotions or reaction from an original object to a less-threatening target to discharge tension. [6] | An individual who is angry with their partner kicks the family dog. An angry child breaks a toy or yells at a sibling instead of attacking their father. A frustrated employee criticizes their spouse instead of their boss. [7] |
| Introjection | Unconsciously incorporating the attitudes, values, and qualities of another person’s personality. [8] | A client talks and acts like one of the nurses they admire. |
| Projection | A process when one attributes their individual positive or negative characteristics, affects, and impulses to another person or group.  [10] |
| Rationalization | Logical reasons are given to justify unacceptable behavior to defend against feelings of guilt, maintain self-respect, and protect oneself from criticism. [11] | A client who is overextended on several credit cards rationalizes it is okay to buy more clothes to be in style when spending money that was set aside to pay for the monthly rent and utilities. A student caught cheating on a test rationalizes, “Everybody cheats.” |
| Reaction Formation | Unacceptable or threatening impulses are denied and consciously replaced with an opposite, acceptable impulse. [12] | A client who hates their mother writes in their journal that their mom is a wonderful mother. |
| Regression | A return to a prior, lower state of cognitive, emotional, or behavioral functioning when threatened with overwhelming external problems or internal conflicts. [13] | A child who was toilet trained reverts to wetting their pants after their parents’ divorce. |
| Repression | Painful experiences and unacceptable impulses are unconsciously excluded from consciousness as a protection against anxiety. [14] | A victim of incest indicates they have always hated their brother (the molester) but cannot remember why. |
| Splitting | Objects provoking anxiety and ambivalence are viewed as either all good or all bad. [15] | A client tells the nurse they are the most wonderful person in the world, but after the nurse enforces the unit rules with them, the client tells the nurse they are the worst person they have ever met. |
| Suppression | A conscious effort to keep disturbing thoughts and experiences out of mind or to control and inhibit the expression of unacceptable impulses and feelings. Suppression is similar to repression, but it is a conscious process. [16] , [17] | An individual has an impulse to tell their boss what they think about them and their unacceptable behavior, but the impulse is suppressed because of the need to keep the job. |
| Sublimation | Unacceptable sexual or aggressive drives are unconsciously channeled into socially acceptable modes of expression that indirectly provide some satisfaction for the original drives and protect individuals from anxiety induced by the original drive. [18] | An individual with an exhibitionistic impulse channels this impulse into creating dance choreography. A person with a voyeuristic urge completes scientific research and observes research subjects. An individual with an aggressive drive joins the football team. [19] |
| Symbolization | The substitution of a symbol for a repressed impulse, affect, or idea. [20] | A client unconsciously wears red clothing due a repressed impulse to physically harm someone. |
- American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Stressor. APA Dictionary of Psychology . https://dictionary.apa.org ↵
- American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Stressor. APA Dictionary of Psychology . https://dictionary.apa.org ↵
- American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Stressor. APA Dictionary of Psychology . https://dictionary.apa.org ↵
- Sissons, C. (2020, July 31). Defense mechanisms in psychology: What are they? MedicalNewsToday. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/defense-mechanisms ↵
- Sissons, C. (2020, July 31). Defense mechanisms in psychology: What are they? MedicalNewsToday. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/defense-mechanisms ↵
- American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Stressor. APA Dictionary of Psychology . https://dictionary.apa.org ↵
- American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Stressor. APA Dictionary of Psychology . https://dictionary.apa.org ↵
- American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Stressor. APA Dictionary of Psychology . https://dictionary.apa.org ↵
- American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Stressor. APA Dictionary of Psychology . https://dictionary.apa.org ↵
- American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Stressor. APA Dictionary of Psychology . https://dictionary.apa.org ↵
- American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Stressor. APA Dictionary of Psychology . https://dictionary.apa.org ↵
- American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Stressor. APA Dictionary of Psychology . https://dictionary.apa.org ↵
- American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Stressor. APA Dictionary of Psychology . https://dictionary.apa.org ↵
- American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Stressor. APA Dictionary of Psychology . https://dictionary.apa.org ↵
- American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Stressor. APA Dictionary of Psychology . https://dictionary.apa.org ↵
- American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Stressor. APA Dictionary of Psychology . https://dictionary.apa.org ↵
- Sissons, C. (2020, July 31). Defense mechanisms in psychology: What are they? MedicalNewsToday. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/defense-mechanisms ↵
- American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Stressor. APA Dictionary of Psychology . https://dictionary.apa.org ↵
- American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Stressor. APA Dictionary of Psychology . https://dictionary.apa.org ↵
- American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Stressor. APA Dictionary of Psychology . https://dictionary.apa.org ↵


10.4: Combatting Climate Change Through Ecosystem Conservation
Complex natural ecosystems play an important role in mitigating the destructive effects of climate change. Prominently, living plants sequester greenhouse gases from the atmosphere (Zarin et al., 2015); in contrast, their loss due to habitat loss increases greenhouse gas emissions (Section 6.1). Studies have also shown how ecosystems with high complexity (Betts et al. 2018) and species diversity (Mokany et al., 2014; Isbell et al., 2015) are better buffered against climate change. Lastly, by maintaining and restoring carbon-sequestering ecosystems, we also provide opportunities for climate-sensitive to persist despite the threat of climate change pace (Section 11.4).
One of the foremost initiatives aimed at combatting climate change through ecosystem conservation and restoration is known as the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+, http://www.un-redd.org ) program. Set up by the UN, REDD+ provides financial incentives to local communities and landowners that make conservation of carbon-sequestering ecosystems worth more than destroying them. Funding for REDD+ is obtained through carbon trading programs, in which individuals and organizations looking to offset their emissions buy carbon credits. The funds obtained through REDD+ are then invested in initiatives that promote ecological restoration and reduce local dependence of intact ecosystems by creating alternative income streams such as sustainable crop, timber, honey, milk, and meat production.
REDD+ provides financial incentives to local communities and landowners by making conservation of carbon-sequestering ecosystems worth more than destroying them.
The original aim of REDD+ was to safeguard primary old-growth forests, but the diversity of goals set out by REDD+ also include improving ecosystem connectivity, protecting threatened species, and preventing further loss and degradation of carbon-sequestering ecosystems other than forests. Africa has been a major beneficiary of this program. Since its inception in 2007, REDD+ projects have been funded in 27 Sub-Saharan African countries ( http://www.reddprojectsdatabase.org ), affording protection for over 1.6 million ha of forest (Panfil and Harvey, 2016), and providing opportunities for thousands of Africans who would not have had access to these funds otherwise.
Yet the future of these opportunities is not secure. Concerns exist regarding the effectiveness of REDD+ programs, much of which is based on problematic implementation, long-term funding security, lack of monitoring, and lack of concrete conservation goals (Phelps et al., 2011; Panfil and Harvey. 2015; Fletcher et al., 2016). For example, there are concerns that REDD+ programs can develop into a form of perverse subsidies, such as when native vegetation is cleared to establish plantations (Figure 10.12) with trees that have a high risk of becoming invasive (Lindenmayer et al., 2012). Similarly, there are concerns about the strong emphasis on forests, possibly at the expense of other important ecosystems and ecosystem services (Bond, 2016). Conservation biologists continue to be hopeful that REDD+, as with the range of approaches described in this chapter, will provide opportunities for land managers and scientists to successfully protect and restore biodiversity now and into the future.


12.4: Production Planning
What you’ll learn to do: explain the components involved in planning and scheduling the production process
Production doesn’t happen by magic. Think about hosting a large party for your parents’ anniversary. The first thing you have to do is find a location that is large enough to accommodate all the people you will be inviting. Once you have identified the location, you then need to visit the site and decide how it will be laid out. Where should the tables and chairs go, where will you set up refreshments, and what about a gift table? Once you’ve decided on the layout, then you need to start making a list of the materials you’ll need for the party. This includes everything from plates, cups, and napkins to hiring a DJ and a caterer. Lastly, based on the number of guests, you’ll need to calculate how much of everything—food, drinks, etc.—to order.
Operations managers engage in similar planning, but they use different terminology to describe the different parts of the plan. In production planning, the components are facility location, facility layout, materials-requirement planning (MRP), and inventory control.
Learning Objectives
- Explain facility layout
- Explain just-in-time inventory control (JIT)
- Differentiate between Gantt charts, PERT, and the critical path method
Facility Location and Layout
Facility Location
Of all the pieces of the planning puzzle, facility location is the most strategic and critical. Once you build a new manufacturing facility, you have made a substantial investment of time, resources, and capital that can’t be changed for a long time. Selecting the wrong location can be disastrous. Some of the key factors that influence facility location are the following:
- Proximity to customers, suppliers, and skilled labor
- Environmental regulations
- Financial incentives offered by state and local development authorities
- Quality-of-life considerations
- Potential for future expansion
The next step, after planning the production process, is deciding on plant layout—how equipment, machinery, and people will be arranged to make the production process as efficient as possible.
Facility Layout
The primary aim of facility layout is to design a workflow that maximizes worker and production efficiency. Facility layout is complex because it must take into account the available space, the work processes, the delivery of components and parts, the final product, worker safety, and operational efficiency. A poorly laid-out production facility creates inefficiencies, increases costs, and leads to employee frustration and confusion.
The four most common types of facility layout are process, product, cellular, and fixed position.
Process Layout
A process layout aims to improve efficiency by arranging equipment according to its function. Ideally, the production line should be designed to eliminate waste in material flows, inventory handling, and management. In process layout, the work stations and machinery are not arranged according to the production sequence. Instead, there is an assembly of similar operations or similar machinery in each department (for example, a drill department, a paint department, etc.)
Product Layout
In a product layout , high-volume goods are produced efficiently by people, equipment, or departments arranged in an assembly line—that is, a series of workstations at which already-made parts are assembled.
In the following video, Jansen, a Swiss steel maker, describes how the company’s offices were designed to maximize the productivity and creativity of its engineers:
Cellular Layout
A cellular layout is a lean method of producing similar products using cells, or groups of team members, workstations, or equipment, to facilitate operations by eliminating set-up and unnecessary costs between operations. Cells might be designed for a specific process, part, or a complete product. The goal of cellular manufacturing is to move as quickly as possible and make a wide variety of similar products with as little waste as possible. This type of layout is well suited for single-piece and one-touch production methods. Because of increased speed and minimal handling of materials, cells can result in great cost and time savings and reduced inventory.
Fixed Position
It is easy to move marshmallow candies around the factory while you are making them, but what about airplanes or ships? For the production of large items, manufacturers use fixed-position layout in which the product stays in one place and the workers (and equipment) go to the product. To see an excellent example of fixed-position layout, watch the following video that shows how Boeing builds an airplane.
Materials Planning and Inventory Control
After the facility location has been selected and the best layout has been determined, the next stage in production planning is to determine our material requirements.
Material-Requirements Planning (MRP)
Material-requirements planning (MRP) is a production planning, scheduling, and inventory control system used to manage manufacturing processes. Most MRP systems are software-based, but it is possible to do MRP by hand, as well.
An MRP system is intended to meet the following objectives simultaneously:
- Ensure that materials are available for production and products are available for delivery to customers
- Maintain the lowest possible material and product levels in store
- Plan manufacturing activities, delivery schedules, and purchasing activities
Some manufacturing firms have moved beyond MRP systems and are now using enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems. ERP systems provides an integrated and continuously updated view of core business processes using shared databases maintained by a database management system. ERP systems track business resources—cash, raw materials, production capacity—and the status of business commitments—orders, purchase orders, and payroll. The applications that make up the system share data from and between various departments (e.g., manufacturing, purchasing, sales, accounting, etc.). ERP facilitates information flow between all business functions and manages connections to outside stakeholders.
Even with the implementation of highly integrated planning software, operations managers still need to plan for and control inventory.
Just-in-Time (JIT) Manufacturing
Just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing is strategy that companies employ to increase efficiency and decrease waste by receiving goods only when they are needed in the production process, thereby reducing inventory costs. In theory, a JIT system would have parts and materials arriving on the warehouse dock at the exact moment they are needed in the production process. To make this happen, manufacturers and suppliers must work together closely to prevent just-in-time from becoming just-isn’t-there. Operations managers must accurately forecast the need for materials, since even the slightest deviation can result in a slowdown of production.
Scheduling Tools
Izmailovo Hotel complex, Moscow, Russia
As you might expect, operations managers find that complex processes involve complex planning and scheduling. Consider the Izmailovo Hotel in Moscow shown in the photograph at the right. Built to house athletes during the 1980 Olympics, the complex has 7,500 guest rooms and is the largest hotel in the world. Think about cleaning all those rooms—in four thirty-story-high towers—or checking in the thousands of guests. No small operation! Although the Izmailovo doesn’t produce a tangible good, it relies on many of the same operations management principles used in manufacturing to stay in business. To increase operational efficiency in complex processes like those of running a giant hotel, operations managers use three common planning tools: Gantt charts, PERT, and the critical path method (CPM).
Gantt Charts
A Gantt chart is a timeline. Multiple projects can be added to the timeline with start and finish dates, and milestones and deadlines are also reflected. This chart is used to determine how long a project will take, the resources needed, and the order in which tasks need to be completed.
Let’s look at a Gantt chart for producing a birdhouse. Suppose the following activities are required to build and package each birdhouse:
- Determine which birdhouse the customer has ordered
- Trace pattern onto wood
- Cut the pieces of wood from the birdhouse pattern
- Assemble the pieces into a birdhouse
- Paint birdhouse
- Attach decorations to the birdhouse
- Prepare a shipping carton
- Pack birdhouse into shipping carton
- Prepare customer invoice
- Prepare packing slip and shipping label
- Deliver carton to shipping department
Below is the corresponding Gantt chart:
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). Gantt Chart
As you can see, the tasks on the list are displayed against time. On the left of the chart are all the tasks, and along the top is the time scale. A bar represents each work task; the position and length of the bar indicate the start date, duration, and end date of the task. At a glance, we can determine the following:
- What the various activities are
- When each activity begins and ends
- How long each activity lasts
- Where activities overlap with other ones, and by how much
- The start and end date of the whole project
PERT
Gantt charts are useful when the production process is simple and the activities are not interdependent. For more complex schedules, operations managers use PERT, which stands for “program evaluation and review technique.” This is a method of analyzing the tasks involved in completing a given project, especially the time needed to complete each task and to identify the minimum time needed to complete the total project. PERT was developed primarily to simplify the planning and scheduling of large and complex projects. The key to this technique is that it organizes activities in the most efficient sequence. It can also help managers determine the critical path, which is discussed below.
Critical Path Method (CPM)
The critical path method (CPM) is a step-by-step technique for process planning that identifies critical and noncritical tasks in order to prevent time-frame problems and process bottlenecks. The CPM is ideally suited to operations consisting of numerous activities that interact in a complex manner. It’s often used in conjunction with PERT.
The essential technique for using CPM is to construct a model of the project that includes the following:
- A list of all activities needed to complete the project
- The time that each activity will take to complete,
- The dependencies between the activities and,
- Logical end points such as milestones or deliverable items.
Using these values, CPM calculates the longest path of planned activities (expressed in time) to logical end points or to the end of the project, and the earliest and latest that each activity can start and finish without making the project longer. This process determines which activities are “critical” (i.e., on the longest path) and which can be delayed without extending the overall project duration. Take a look at Figure 2, below. What was the critical path in our construction of a birdhouse?
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\). Critical Path
Our critical path was the path that took the longest amount of time! This was sequence of activities that included the customer invoice and packing and shipping label (from the start to G to H), which totaled 180 minutes. The problem is that even if we were able to assemble and decorate the birdhouse faster, the birdhouse would just and wait for the paperwork to be completed. In other words, we can gain efficiency only by improving our performance in one or more of the activities along the critical path.
did you know...?
PERT was developed by the U.S. Navy. The Navy’s Special Projects Office devised this statistical technique for measuring and forecasting progress while they were designing the Polaris-Submarine weapon system and the Fleet Ballistic Missile capability.
CPM was first used for major skyscraper development in 1966 for the construction of the former World Trade Center Twin Towers in New York City. [1]
- Kerzner, Harold (2003). Project Management: A Systems Approach to Planning, Scheduling, and Controlling (8th ed.) ↵