9.4: Batteries and Fuel Cells
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Because galvanic cells can be self-contained and portable, they can be used as batteries and fuel cells. A battery (storage cell) is a galvanic cell (or a series of galvanic cells) that contains all the reactants needed to produce electricity. In contrast, a fuel cell is a galvanic cell that requires a constant external supply of one or more reactants to generate electricity. In this section, we describe the chemistry behind some of the more common types of batteries and fuel cells.
Batteries
There are two basic kinds of batteries: disposable, or primary, batteries, in which the electrode reactions are effectively irreversible and which cannot be recharged; and rechargeable, or secondary, batteries, which form an insoluble product that adheres to the electrodes. These batteries can be recharged by applying an electrical potential in the reverse direction. The recharging process temporarily converts a rechargeable battery from a galvanic cell to an electrolytic cell.
Batteries are cleverly engineered devices that are based on the same fundamental laws as galvanic cells. The major difference between batteries and the galvanic cells we have previously described is that commercial batteries use solids or pastes rather than solutions as reactants to maximize the electrical output per unit mass. The use of highly concentrated or solid reactants has another beneficial effect: the concentrations of the reactants and the products do not change greatly as the battery is discharged; consequently, the output voltage remains remarkably constant during the discharge process. This behavior is in contrast to that of the Zn/Cu cell, whose output decreases logarithmically as the reaction proceeds (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). When a battery consists of more than one galvanic cell, the cells are usually connected in series—that is, with the positive (+) terminal of one cell connected to the negative (−) terminal of the next, and so forth. The overall voltage of the battery is therefore the sum of the voltages of the individual cells.
The major difference between batteries and the galvanic cells is that commercial typically batteries use solids or pastes rather than solutions as reactants to maximize the electrical output per unit mass. An obvious exception is the standard car battery which used solution phase chemistry.
Leclanché Dry Cell
The dry cell, by far the most common type of battery, is used in flashlights, electronic devices such as the Walkman and Game Boy, and many other devices. Although the dry cell was patented in 1866 by the French chemist Georges Leclanché and more than 5 billion such cells are sold every year, the details of its electrode chemistry are still not completely understood. In spite of its name, the Leclanché dry cell is actually a “wet cell”: the electrolyte is an acidic water-based paste containing \(MnO_2\), \(NH_4Cl\), \(ZnCl_2\), graphite, and starch (part (a) in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). The half-reactions at the anode and the cathode can be summarized as follows:
- cathode (reduction):
\[\ce{2MnO2(s) + 2NH^{+}4(aq) + 2e^{−} -> Mn2O3(s) + 2NH3(aq) + H2O(l)} \nonumber \]
- anode (oxidation):
\[\ce{Zn(s) -> Zn^{2+}(aq) + 2e^{−}} \nonumber \]
The \(\ce{Zn^{2+}}\) ions formed by the oxidation of \(\ce{Zn(s)}\) at the anode react with \(\ce{NH_3}\) formed at the cathode and \(\ce{Cl^{−}}\) ions present in solution, so the overall cell reaction is as follows:
- overall reaction:
\[\ce{2MnO2(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) + Zn(s) -> Mn2O3(s) + Zn(NH3)2Cl2(s) + H2O(l)} \label{Eq3} \]
The dry cell produces about 1.55 V and is inexpensive to manufacture. It is not, however, very efficient in producing electrical energy because only the relatively small fraction of the \(\ce{MnO2}\) that is near the cathode is actually reduced and only a small fraction of the zinc cathode is actually consumed as the cell discharges. In addition, dry cells have a limited shelf life because the \(\ce{Zn}\) anode reacts spontaneously with \(\ce{NH4Cl}\) in the electrolyte, causing the case to corrode and allowing the contents to leak out.
The alkaline battery is essentially a Leclanché cell adapted to operate under alkaline, or basic, conditions. The half-reactions that occur in an alkaline battery are as follows:
- cathode (reduction)
\[\ce{2MnO2(s) + H2O(l) + 2e^{−} -> Mn2O3(s) + 2OH^{−}(aq)} \nonumber \]
- anode (oxidation):
\[\ce{Zn(s) + 2OH^{−}(aq) -> ZnO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e^{−}} \nonumber \]
- overall reaction:
\[\ce{Zn(s) + 2MnO2(s) -> ZnO(s) + Mn2O3(s)} \nonumber \]
This battery also produces about 1.5 V, but it has a longer shelf life and more constant output voltage as the cell is discharged than the Leclanché dry cell. Although the alkaline battery is more expensive to produce than the Leclanché dry cell, the improved performance makes this battery more cost-effective.
Button Batteries
Although some of the small button batteries used to power watches, calculators, and cameras are miniature alkaline cells, most are based on a completely different chemistry. In these "button" batteries, the anode is a zinc–mercury amalgam rather than pure zinc, and the cathode uses either \(\ce{HgO}\) or \(\ce{Ag2O}\) as the oxidant rather than \(\ce{MnO2}\) in Figure \(\PageIndex{1b}\)).
The cathode, anode and overall reactions and cell output for these two types of button batteries are as follows (two half-reactions occur at the anode, but the overall oxidation half-reaction is shown):
- cathode (mercury battery): \[\ce{HgO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e^{−} -> Hg(l) + 2OH^{−}(aq)} \nonumber \]
- Anode (mercury battery): \[\ce{Zn + 2OH^{−} -> ZnO + H2O + 2e^{−}} \nonumber \]
- overall reaction (mercury battery): \[\ce{Zn(s) + 2HgO(s) -> 2Hg(l) + ZnO(s)} \nonumber \] with \(E_{cell} = 1.35 \,V\).
- cathode reaction (silver battery): \[\ce{Ag2O(s) + H2O(l) + 2e^{−} -> 2Ag(s) + 2OH^{−}(aq)} \nonumber \]
- anode (silver battery): \[\ce{Zn + 2OH^{−} -> ZnO + H2O + 2e^{−}} \nonumber \]
- Overall reaction (silver battery): \[\ce{Zn(s) + 2Ag2O(s) -> 2Ag(s) + ZnO(s)} \nonumber \] with \(E_{cell} = 1.6 \,V\).
The major advantages of the mercury and silver cells are their reliability and their high output-to-mass ratio. These factors make them ideal for applications where small size is crucial, as in cameras and hearing aids. The disadvantages are the expense and the environmental problems caused by the disposal of heavy metals, such as \(\ce{Hg}\) and \(\ce{Ag}\).
Lithium–Iodine Battery
None of the batteries described above is actually “dry.” They all contain small amounts of liquid water, which adds significant mass and causes potential corrosion problems. Consequently, substantial effort has been expended to develop water-free batteries. One of the few commercially successful water-free batteries is the lithium–iodine battery . The anode is lithium metal, and the cathode is a solid complex of \(I_2\). Separating them is a layer of solid \(LiI\), which acts as the electrolyte by allowing the diffusion of Li + ions. The electrode reactions are as follows:
- cathode (reduction):
\[I_{2(s)} + 2e^− \rightarrow {2I^-}_{(LiI)}\label{Eq11} \]
- anode (oxidation):
\[2Li_{(s)} \rightarrow 2Li^+_{(LiI)} + 2e^− \label{Eq12} \]
- overall:
\[2Li_{(s)}+ I_{2(s)} \rightarrow 2LiI_{(s)} \label{Eq12a} \]
with \(E_{cell} = 3.5 \, V\)
As shown in part (c) in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\), a typical lithium–iodine battery consists of two cells separated by a nickel metal mesh that collects charge from the anode. Because of the high internal resistance caused by the solid electrolyte, only a low current can be drawn. Nonetheless, such batteries have proven to be long-lived (up to 10 yr) and reliable. They are therefore used in applications where frequent replacement is difficult or undesirable, such as in cardiac pacemakers and other medical implants and in computers for memory protection. These batteries are also used in security transmitters and smoke alarms. Other batteries based on lithium anodes and solid electrolytes are under development, using \(TiS_2\), for example, for the cathode.
Dry cells, button batteries, and lithium–iodine batteries are disposable and cannot be recharged once they are discharged. Rechargeable batteries, in contrast, offer significant economic and environmental advantages because they can be recharged and discharged numerous times. As a result, manufacturing and disposal costs drop dramatically for a given number of hours of battery usage. Two common rechargeable batteries are the nickel–cadmium battery and the lead–acid battery, which we describe next.
Nickel–Cadmium (NiCad) Battery
The nickel–cadmium , or NiCad, battery is used in small electrical appliances and devices like drills, portable vacuum cleaners, and AM/FM digital tuners. It is a water-based cell with a cadmium anode and a highly oxidized nickel cathode that is usually described as the nickel(III) oxo-hydroxide, NiO(OH). As shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\), the design maximizes the surface area of the electrodes and minimizes the distance between them, which decreases internal resistance and makes a rather high discharge current possible.
The electrode reactions during the discharge of a \(NiCad\) battery are as follows:
- cathode (reduction):
\[2NiO(OH)_{(s)} + 2H_2O_{(l)} + 2e^− \rightarrow 2Ni(OH)_{2(s)} + 2OH^-_{(aq)} \label{Eq13} \]
- anode (oxidation):
\[Cd_{(s)} + 2OH^-_{(aq)} \rightarrow Cd(OH)_{2(s)} + 2e^- \label{Eq14} \]
- overall:
\[Cd_{(s)} + 2NiO(OH)_{(s)} + 2H_2O_{(l)} \rightarrow Cd(OH)_{2(s)} + 2Ni(OH)_{2(s)} \label{Eq15} \]
\(E_{cell} = 1.4 V\)
Because the products of the discharge half-reactions are solids that adhere to the electrodes [Cd(OH) 2 and 2Ni(OH) 2 ], the overall reaction is readily reversed when the cell is recharged. Although NiCad cells are lightweight, rechargeable, and high capacity, they have certain disadvantages. For example, they tend to lose capacity quickly if not allowed to discharge fully before recharging, they do not store well for long periods when fully charged, and they present significant environmental and disposal problems because of the toxicity of cadmium.
A variation on the NiCad battery is the nickel–metal hydride battery (NiMH) used in hybrid automobiles, wireless communication devices, and mobile computing. The overall chemical equation for this type of battery is as follows:
\[NiO(OH)_{(s)} + MH \rightarrow Ni(OH)_{2(s)} + M_{(s)} \label{Eq16} \]
The NiMH battery has a 30%–40% improvement in capacity over the NiCad battery; it is more environmentally friendly so storage, transportation, and disposal are not subject to environmental control; and it is not as sensitive to recharging memory. It is, however, subject to a 50% greater self-discharge rate, a limited service life, and higher maintenance, and it is more expensive than the NiCad battery.
Directive 2006/66/EC of the European Union prohibits the placing on the market of portable batteries that contain more than 0.002% of cadmium by weight. The aim of this directive was to improve "the environmental performance of batteries and accumulators"
Lead–Acid (Lead Storage) Battery
The lead–acid battery is used to provide the starting power in virtually every automobile and marine engine on the market. Marine and car batteries typically consist of multiple cells connected in series. The total voltage generated by the battery is the potential per cell (E° cell ) times the number of cells.
As shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\), the anode of each cell in a lead storage battery is a plate or grid of spongy lead metal, and the cathode is a similar grid containing powdered lead dioxide (\(PbO_2\)). The electrolyte is usually an approximately 37% solution (by mass) of sulfuric acid in water, with a density of 1.28 g/mL (about 4.5 M \(H_2SO_4\)). Because the redox active species are solids, there is no need to separate the electrodes. The electrode reactions in each cell during discharge are as follows:
- cathode (reduction):
\[PbO_{2(s)} + HSO ^−_{4(aq)} + 3H^+_{(aq)} + 2e^− \rightarrow PbSO_{4(s)} + 2H_2O_{(l)} \label{Eq17} \]
with \(E^°_{cathode} = 1.685 \; V\)
- anode (oxidation):
\[Pb_{(s)} + HSO^−_{4(aq)} \rightarrow PbSO_{4(s) }+ H^+_{(aq)} + 2e^−\label{Eq18} \]
with \(E^°_{anode} = −0.356 \; V\)
- overall:
\[Pb_{(s)} + PbO_{2(s)} + 2HSO^−_{4(aq)} + 2H^+_{(aq)} \rightarrow 2PbSO_{4(s)} + 2H_2O_{(l)} \label{Eq19} \]
and \(E^°_{cell} = 2.041 \; V\)
As the cell is discharged, a powder of \(PbSO_4\) forms on the electrodes. Moreover, sulfuric acid is consumed and water is produced, decreasing the density of the electrolyte and providing a convenient way of monitoring the status of a battery by simply measuring the density of the electrolyte. This is often done with the use of a hydrometer.
A hydrometer can be used to test the specific gravity of each cell as a measure of its state of charge (www.youtube.com/watch?v=SRcOqfL6GqQ).
When an external voltage in excess of 2.04 V per cell is applied to a lead–acid battery, the electrode reactions reverse, and \(PbSO_4\) is converted back to metallic lead and \(PbO_2\). If the battery is recharged too vigorously, however, electrolysis of water can occur:
\[ 2H_2O_{(l)} \rightarrow 2H_{2(g)} +O_{2 (g)} \label{EqX} \]
This results in the evolution of potentially explosive hydrogen gas. The gas bubbles formed in this way can dislodge some of the \(PbSO_4\) or \(PbO_2\) particles from the grids, allowing them to fall to the bottom of the cell, where they can build up and cause an internal short circuit. Thus the recharging process must be carefully monitored to optimize the life of the battery. With proper care, however, a lead–acid battery can be discharged and recharged thousands of times. In automobiles, the alternator supplies the electric current that causes the discharge reaction to reverse.
Fuel Cells
A fuel cell is a galvanic cell that requires a constant external supply of reactants because the products of the reaction are continuously removed. Unlike a battery, it does not store chemical or electrical energy; a fuel cell allows electrical energy to be extracted directly from a chemical reaction. In principle, this should be a more efficient process than, for example, burning the fuel to drive an internal combustion engine that turns a generator, which is typically less than 40% efficient, and in fact, the efficiency of a fuel cell is generally between 40% and 60%. Unfortunately, significant cost and reliability problems have hindered the wide-scale adoption of fuel cells. In practice, their use has been restricted to applications in which mass may be a significant cost factor, such as US manned space vehicles.
These space vehicles use a hydrogen/oxygen fuel cell that requires a continuous input of H 2 (g) and O 2 (g), as illustrated in Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\). The electrode reactions are as follows:
- cathode (reduction):
\[O_{2(g)} + 4H^+ + 4e^− \rightarrow 2H_2O_{(g)} \label{Eq20} \]
- anode (oxidation):
\[2H_{2(g)} \rightarrow 4H^+ + 4e^− \label{Eq21} \]
- overall:
\[2H_{2(g)} + O_{2(g)} \rightarrow 2H_2O_{(g)} \label{Eq22} \]
The overall reaction represents an essentially pollution-free conversion of hydrogen and oxygen to water, which in space vehicles is then collected and used. Although this type of fuel cell should produce 1.23 V under standard conditions, in practice the device achieves only about 0.9 V. One of the major barriers to achieving greater efficiency is the fact that the four-electron reduction of \(O_2 (g)\) at the cathode is intrinsically rather slow, which limits current that can be achieved. All major automobile manufacturers have major research programs involving fuel cells: one of the most important goals is the development of a better catalyst for the reduction of \(O_2 (g)\).
Summary
Commercial batteries are galvanic cells that use solids or pastes as reactants to maximize the electrical output per unit mass. A battery is a contained unit that produces electricity, whereas a fuel cell is a galvanic cell that requires a constant external supply of one or more reactants to generate electricity. One type of battery is the Leclanché dry cell, which contains an electrolyte in an acidic water-based paste. This battery is called an alkaline battery when adapted to operate under alkaline conditions. Button batteries have a high output-to-mass ratio; lithium–iodine batteries consist of a solid electrolyte; the nickel–cadmium (NiCad) battery is rechargeable; and the lead–acid battery, which is also rechargeable, does not require the electrodes to be in separate compartments. A fuel cell requires an external supply of reactants as the products of the reaction are continuously removed. In a fuel cell, energy is not stored; electrical energy is provided by a chemical reaction.


13.5: Practical Considerations - Capacitors
Capacitor Working Voltage
Working voltage : Since capacitors are nothing more than two conductors separated by an insulator (the dielectric), you must pay attention to the maximum voltage allowed across it. If too much voltage is applied, the “breakdown” rating of the dielectric material may be exceeded, resulting in the capacitor internally short-circuiting.
Capacitor Polarity
Polarity : Some capacitors are manufactured so they can only tolerate applied voltage in one polarity but not the other. This is due to their construction: the dielectric is a microscopically thin layer of insulation deposited on one of the plates by a DC voltage during manufacture. These are called electrolytic capacitors, and their polarity is clearly marked.
Reversing voltage polarity to an electrolytic capacitor may result in the destruction of that super-thin dielectric layer, thus ruining the device. However, the thinness of that dielectric permits extremely high values of capacitance in a relatively small package size. For the same reason, electrolytic capacitors tend to be low in voltage rating as compared with other types of capacitor construction.
Capacitor Equivalent Circuit
Equivalent circuit: Since the plates in a capacitor have some resistance, and since no dielectric is a perfect insulator, there is no such thing as a “perfect” capacitor.
Capacitor Physical Size
Physical Size : For most applications in electronics, minimum size is the goal for component engineering. The smaller components can be made, the more circuitry can be built into a smaller package, and usually weight is saved as well. With capacitors, there are two major limiting factors to the minimum size of a unit: working voltage and capacitance. And these two factors tend to be in opposition to each other. For any given choice in dielectric materials, the only way to increase the voltage rating of a capacitor is to increase the thickness of the dielectric. However, as we have seen, this has the effect of decreasing capacitance. Capacitance can be brought back up by increasing plate area. but this makes for a larger unit. This is why you cannot judge a capacitor’s rating in Farads simply by size. A capacitor of any given size may be relatively high in capacitance and low in working voltage, vice versa, or some compromise between the two extremes. Take the following two photographs for example:
This is a fairly large capacitor in physical size, but it has quite a low capacitance value: only 2 µF. However, its working voltage is quite high: 2000 volts! If this capacitor were re-engineered to have a thinner layer of dielectric between its plates, at least a hundredfold increase in capacitance might be achievable, but at a cost of significantly lowering its working voltage. Compare the above photograph with the one below. The capacitor shown in the lower picture is an electrolytic unit, similar in size to the one above, but with very different values of capacitance and working voltage:
The thinner dielectric layer gives it a much greater capacitance (20,000 µF) and a drastically reduced working voltage (35 volts continuous, 45 volts intermittent).
Samples of Different Capacitor Types
Here are some samples of different capacitor types, all smaller than the units shown previously:
The electrolytic and tantalum capacitors are polarized (polarity sensitive), and are always labeled as such. The electrolytic units have their negative (-) leads distinguished by arrow symbols on their cases. Some polarized capacitors have their polarity designated by marking the positive terminal. The large, 20,000 µF electrolytic unit shown in the upright position has its positive (+) terminal labeled with a “plus” mark. Ceramic, mylar, plastic film, and air capacitors do not have polarity markings, because those types are nonpolarized (they are not polarity sensitive).
Capacitors are very common components in electronic circuits. Take a close look at the following photograph—every component marked with a “C” designation on the printed circuit board is a capacitor:
Some of the capacitors shown on this circuit board are standard electrolytic: C 30 (top of board, center) and C 36 (left side, 1/3 from the top). Some others are a special kind of electrolytic capacitor called tantalum , because this is the type of metal used to make the plates. Tantalum capacitors have relatively high capacitance for their physical size. The following capacitors on the circuit board shown above are tantalum: C 14 (just to the lower-left of C 30 ), C 19 (directly below R 10 , which is below C 30 ), C 24 (lower-left corner of board), and C 22 (lower-right).
Examples of even smaller capacitors can be seen in this photograph:
The capacitors on this circuit board are “surface mount devices” as are all the resistors, for reasons of saving space. Following component labeling convention, the capacitors can be identified by labels beginning with the letter “C”.


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18.7: Thinking about the material
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Reflect and research
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Explain how the capacitance can increase when a dielectric material is used.
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Explain how a corona ring works.
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Which shapes of electrodes are most common? Why?
To try at home
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Try to release a static discharge from your finger to some metal object. Measure the distance between your finger and the metal object at the time of the discharge. Knowing the breakdown voltage of air, what was the potential difference between your finger and the metal object just before the discharge?
To try in the lab
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Propose an experiment to measure the point at which various substances experience electric breakdown.
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Propose an experiment to measure the vacuum permittivity constant (
\(\epsilon_0\)
).)


9.10: Carbon Dioxide and pH
Oxygen and carbon dioxide are involved in the same biological processes in the ocean, but in opposite ways; photosynthesis consumes CO 2 and produces O 2 , while respiration and decomposition consume O 2 and produce CO 2 . Therefore it should not be surprising that oceanic CO 2 profiles are essentially the opposite of dissolved oxygen profiles (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). At the surface, photosynthesis consumes CO 2 so CO 2 levels remain relatively low. In addition, organisms that utilize carbonate in their shells are common near the surface, further reducing the amount of dissolved CO 2 .
In deeper water, CO 2 concentration increases as respiration exceeds photosynthesis, and decomposition of organic matter adds additional CO 2 to the water. As with oxygen, there is often more CO 2 at depth because cold bottom water holds more dissolved gases, and high pressures increase solubility. Deep water in the Pacific contains more CO 2 than the Atlantic as the Pacific water is older and has accumulated more CO 2 from the respiration of benthic organisms.
But the behavior of carbon dioxide in the ocean is more complex than the figure above would suggest. When CO 2 gas dissolves in the ocean, it interacts with the water to produce a number of different compounds according to the reaction below:
CO 2 + H 2 O ↔ H 2 CO 3 ↔ H + + HCO 3 – ↔ 2H + + CO 3 2-
CO 2 reacts with water to produce carbonic acid (H 2 CO 3 ), which then dissociates into bicarbonate (HCO 3 – ) and hydrogen ions (H + ). The bicarbonate ions can further dissociate into carbonate (CO 3 2- ) and additional hydrogen ions (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)).
Most of the CO 2 dissolving or produced in the ocean is quickly converted to bicarbonate. Bicarbonate accounts for about 92% of the CO 2 dissolved in the ocean, and carbonate represents around 7%, so only about 1% remains as CO 2 , and little gets absorbed back into the air. The rapid conversion of CO 2 into other forms prevents it from reaching equilibrium with the atmosphere, and in this way, water can hold 50-60 times as much CO 2 and its derivatives as the air.
CO 2 and pH
The equation above also illustrates carbon dioxide’s role as a buffer, regulating the pH of the ocean. Recall that pH reflects the acidity or basicity of a solution. The pH scale runs from 0-14, with 0 indicating a very strong acid, and 14 representing highly basic conditions. A solution with a pH of 7 is considered neutral, as is the case for pure water. The pH value is calculated as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration according to the equation:
pH = -log 10 [H + ]
Therefore, a high concentration of H + ions leads to a low pH and acidic condition, while a low H + concentration indicates a high pH and basic conditions. It should also be noted that pH is described on a logarithmic scale, so every one point change on the pH scale actually represents an order of magnitude (10 x) change in solution strength. So a pH of 6 is 10 times more acidic than a pH of 7, and a pH of 5 is 100 times (10 x 10) more acidic than a pH of 7.
Carbon dioxide and the other carbon compounds listed above play an important role in buffering the pH of the ocean. Currently, the average pH for the global ocean is about 8.1, meaning seawater is slightly basic. Because most of the inorganic carbon dissolved in the ocean exists in the form of bicarbonate, bicarbonate can respond to disturbances in pH by releasing or incorporating hydrogen ions into the various carbon compounds. If pH rises (low [H + ]), bicarbonate may dissociate into carbonate, and release more H + ions, thus lowering pH. Conversely, if pH gets too low (high [H + ]), bicarbonate and carbonate may incorporate some of those H + ions and produce bicarbonate, carbonic acid, or CO 2 to remove H + ions and raise the pH. By shuttling H + ions back and forth between the various compounds in this equation, the pH of the ocean is regulated and conditions remain favorable for life.


9.5: Academic Integrity- Why Does It Matter So Much?
Student code of conduct
Academic institutions understand and values the hard work and effort you put into earning your degree. It is that understanding that makes the faculty and administration committed to ensuring that your degree has value when you enter the career of your choice. It also ensures that your future employer knows that you are honest, ethical, and competent in your skills. These standards apply to scholars at all levels, and as a student, you are now part of the scholarly community and must abide by the policies that apply to all scholars.
This commitment by your college or university is non-negotiable and every institution will have an academic integrity policy on their website. If you are unsure of the academic integrety policy at your college or university, you can use Google to search for your institution's name and "academic integrity policy" to find it. Faculty, students, administrators, and classified staff share responsibility for ensuring academic honesty in your college community. It is important for you as a student to understand the policies. There are some sample statements below, please read them and reflect on the similarities between a community college and two universities.
Sample Student Codes of Conduct Statements
Bakersfield College: Any test, paper, or assignment submitted that bears BC students' name is presumed to be the own original work that has not previously been submitted for credit in another course unless you obtain prior written approval to do so from the instructor.
Valdosta State University: All students are expected to do their own work and to uphold a high standard of academic ethics. Any violations of this policy may result in the academic penalties outlined in the syllabus and may also be referred to Student Affairs for further disciplinary action. In addition “no student shall engage in plagiarism, which is presenting the words or ideas of another person as if they were the student’s own.” Content generated by an Artificial Intelligence third-party service or site (AI-generated content) without proper citation is another form of plagiarism.
Boston University: For students, the Code establishes an environment of integrity and professionalism that helps to assure each individual receives appropriate recognition for their work. The ethical decisions that students face in an academic environment are similar to those they will encounter routinely in the professional world they will enter upon graduation or where they are currently employed. The Code allows faculty to conduct a fair and accurate evaluation of student performance and to maintain a supportive and just learning environment. Academic integrity is a critical component of such an environment, giving faculty the freedom to extend their role as educators to include serving as mentors and colleagues as well as instructors.
Specifically, policies on Academic Integrity prohibit students from engaging in the following behaviors:
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Cheating on an examination or an assignment
, which could include:
- copying the work of another; allowing someone to copy; engaging in written, oral, or any other means of communication with another; giving aid to or seeking aid from another when not permitted by the instructor;
- using material during an examination or when completing an assignment that is not authorized by the person giving the examination or making the work assignment, including, but not limited to, electronic or digital devices such as calculators, cell phones, camera phones, scanner pens, palms, or flash drives, etc.;
- taking or attempting to take an examination for another, or allowing another to take or attempt to take an examination for you;
- using, obtaining, or attempting to obtain by any means the whole or any part of an examination or work assignment that is not provided for your use by your instructor;
- any act designed to give an unfair advantage to a student or the attempt to commit such an act.
- Plagiarism , meaning the unacknowledged incorporation of someone else’s work in anything that is offered for credit.
- Collusion , meaning working with another student on homework or other assignments that are offered for credit when the faculty member hasn’t given permission to do so.
Each class you attend will have a syllabus that outlines the expectations of your work as a student in that professor’s course. Every syllabus should have a statement regarding the expectations for academic integrity in that specific course. It is important for you to read this policy and to ask clarifying questions of your professor. Some faculty members will encourage working with others to problem solve homework, whereas some faculty members have strict policies against discussing homework with other students. Each course will be different, and it is your responsibility to be certain you know and abide by the policies in each of your classes.
Unfortunately, as a student in higher education, you may face obstacles that provide challenges to your academic integrity. Many students find they are pressured by a friend who hasn’t prepared appropriately for class to share their assignments. Others find themselves stressed due to procrastination, and still others are pressured to maintain the highest grades and so make the decision to cheat, plagiarize, or collude to overcome those obstacles. What you must understand is that the consequences of cheating, plagiarizing, and colluding far outweigh any temporary benefit you may receive.
Activity – Academic Integrity Case studies
Academic Integrity Case Studies
Discuss the following case studies with a classmate or your professor.
Case Study A
A student is in a class that is held in a computer lab. All the tests are computer-based. In preparation for the midterm examination, the professor gives several old versions of her tests for the students to use for practice/study material. One student responds to all of the practice tests in electronic format and saves them on his desktop.
The midterm exam date rolls around and the professor indicates that the test will be open book. When the exam is passed out the student realizes that it is identical to one of the practice tests that the professor distributed for study material. The student pulls up a folder on his desktop marked Study Test Responses and copies and pastes his answers from his practice test directly to his examination.
Has the student committed academic dishonesty?
What would your response be if you knew that the student was a part of a study group and that they answered the practice test questions as a group?
What if the student and another student who was a part of the group both used the “group responses” in their examination?
Case Study B
A student submits a paper on the “History of Nursing.” The student cites all her sources in a references page and does an in-text citation for any direct quotes. One section of the student’s paper is below:
According to Wikipedia, “Nursing comes in various forms in every culture, although the definition of the term and the practice of nursing has changed greatly over time.” One of the oldest definitions of the word from the English language is a woman who is hired to suckle and generally care for a young child. Later, this developed into the concept of looking after someone, not just meaning a woman looking after a child. Nursing has developed into this later definition, although the concept of nourishing in the broadest sense refers to present-day nursing and the promotion of quality of life.
When the professor goes to check the student’s sources she stumbles upon this Wikipedia article:
Nursing comes in various forms in every culture, although the definition of the term and the practice of nursing has changed greatly over time. The oldest sense of the word in the English language is a woman employed to suckle and/or generally care for a younger child. The former being known as a wet nurse and the latter being known as a dry nurse.[1] In the 15th century, this developed into the idea of looking after or advising another, not necessarily meaning a woman looking after a child.[1] Nursing has continued to develop in this latter sense, although the idea of nourishing in the broadest sense refers in modern nursing to promoting quality of life.
Has the student plagiarized?
Why or why not?


10.18: Material Cost Variance
Learning Outcomes
- Analyze the variance between expected material cost and actual material costs
So let’s head back to our Hupana Running Company and review their raw materials by cost and quantity to see where differences might occur, and how we calculate spending variances or quantity variances. Both are important and are used to calculate the overall spending variance.
You might want to revisit these video tutorials before we get started here!
Material variance can vary based on material quantity, material cost or both. Standard cost variance analysis for direct materials can be shown like this:
So we will use this chart to look at some different scenarios for Hupana Running Company. Our original direct materials budget calls for 10,250 units of raw materials at $2 per unit to meet our manufacturing requirements. So, we budgeted to spend $21,000 on our raw materials (we wanted a little beginning inventory for the new period!!). What happens if the price, quantity or both change?
When we talk about expected material costs and actual material costs we need to consider a couple of factors. First, there is the quantity of material that goes into each unit. Then there is the cost per unit of material. These two pieces of information are important to consider when analyzing the variance between expected and actual material costs.
Let’s go back to Hupana Running Company. Their direct material cost budget is as follows:
| Total | |
|---|---|
| Required production in pairs | 2050 |
| Units of raw material needed per pair | 5 |
| Units of raw material needed to meet production | 10250 |
| Plus desired ending raw material inventory | 500 |
| Total units of raw materials needed | 10750 |
| Less units in beginning raw material inventory | 250 |
| Units of raw materials to be purchased | 10500 |
| Cost of raw material per unit | $2 |
| Cost of raw material to be purchased | $21,000 |
Keeping the required production in pairs at 2050, What would happen if there was a ton of waste in production and we used 7.5 units of raw material per pair, instead of 5?
| Total | |
|---|---|
| Required production in pairs | 2050 |
| Units of raw material needed per pair | 7.5 |
| Units of raw material needed to meet production | 15375 |
| Plus desired ending raw material inventory | 500 |
| Total units of raw materials needed | 15875 |
| Less units beginning raw material inventory | 250 |
| Units of raw materials to be purchased | 15625 |
| Cost of raw material per unit | $2 |
| Cost of raw material to be purchased | $31,250 |
This results in a change in quantity of product, but the price remains the same. So using our chart from 10.2, we can calculate as follows:
- Actual quantity allowed for actual output at standard price = 10,500 × $2= $21,000
- Actual quantity of input at actual price = 15,625 × $2 = $31,250
So our spending variance is $10,250
We now have spent $31,250 on our raw materials, when we had budgeted $21,000. Waste, scrap, production issues or improper training could all have been at fault for this variance issue. This definitely needs to be reviewed.
So, what would happen if the cost per unit of input went down to $1.25, but our waste remained high?
Now we would still need to purchase 15,625 units, but at a cost of $1.25/unit so $19,531.25 would be our total spent on direct materials. Now the variances become more clear, right?
We purchased more units, but at a lower price. So we had a quantity variance and a price variance. There can be either a price variance or a quantity variance, but there can also be a combination that creates the spending variance.
Taking this information to management might be a bit uncomfortable if the first scenario happens, right? Do your homework before putting together your report. Check with your production manager and see if she can shed some light on the problem. But, in the second scenario, the lower price per unit compensates for the additional units used!
Whichever direction this takes, you may find your production department laying blame on the purchasing team for buying substandard product. The purchasing team might blame production for sloppy work! You may need to do some sleuthing to figure this one out!
Practice Questions


<IP_ADDRESS>: Meat Fibers and Tenderness Factors
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Under cross-sectional inspection, muscles from different parts of the animal’s body display bundles of fibers that appear as irregularly shaped polygons. The bundle size and thickness of the connective tissue septa determine the texture of the muscles: those with small bundles and thin septa have a fine texture, and those muscles with larger bundles and more connective tissue with thick septa have a coarser texture.
The finer the texture the more precision of movement from the muscle, such as tenderloin (Figure 7). The coarse-textured muscles, such as shanks and shoulders (Figure 8), are the heavy working muscles of the body that support the full weight of the animal and therefore require less precision of movement.
Science can help explain why some muscles on a beef animal are more tender than others. There are actually three types of skeletal muscle, known as twitch fibres , with differing speeds of movement and with different colours:


5.3: Reading- Continental Drift
The Continental Drift Idea
Find a map of the continents and cut each one out. Better yet, use a map where the edges of the continents show the continental shelf. That’s the true size and shape of a continent. Can you fit the pieces together? The easiest link is between the eastern Americas and western Africa and Europe, but the rest can fit together too (Figure 1).
Alfred Wegener proposed that the continents were once united into a single supercontinent named Pangaea, meaning all earth in ancient Greek. He suggested that Pangaea broke up long ago and that the continents then moved to their current positions. He called his hypothesis continental drift.
Evidence for Continental Drift
Besides the way the continents fit together, Wegener and his supporters collected a great deal of evidence for the continental drift hypothesis.
- Identical rocks, of the same type and age, are found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. Wegener said the rocks had formed side-by-side and that the land had since moved apart.
- Mountain ranges with the same rock types, structures, and ages are now on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean. The Appalachians of the eastern United States and Canada, for example, are just like mountain ranges in eastern Greenland, Ireland, Great Britain, and Norway (figure 2). Wegener concluded that they formed as a single mountain range that was separated as the continents drifted.
-
Ancient fossils of the same species of extinct plants and animals are found in rocks of the same age but are on continents that are now widely separated (figure 3). Wegener proposed that the organisms had lived side by side, but that the lands had moved apart after they were dead and fossilized. He suggested that the organisms would not have been able to travel across the oceans.
- Fossils of the seed fern Glossopteris were too heavy to be carried so far by wind.
- Mesosaurus was a swimming reptile but could only swim in fresh water.
- Cynognathus and Lystrosaurus were land reptiles and were unable to swim.
- Grooves and rock deposits left by ancient glaciers are found today on different continents very close to the equator. This would indicate that the glaciers either formed in the middle of the ocean and/or covered most of the Earth. Today glaciers only form on land and nearer the poles. Wegener thought that the glaciers were centered over the southern land mass close to the South Pole and the continents moved to their present positions later on.
- Coral reefs and coal-forming swamps are found in tropical and subtropical environments, but ancient coal seams and coral reefs are found in locations where it is much too cold today. Wegener suggested that these creatures were alive in warm climate zones and that the fossils and coal later had drifted to new locations on the continents.
Take a look at this animation showing that Earth’s climate belts remain in roughly the same position while the continents move and this animation showing how the continents split up .
Although Wegener’s evidence was sound, most geologists at the time rejected his hypothesis of continental drift. Why do you think they did not accept continental drift?
Scientists argued that there was no way to explain how solid continents could plow through solid oceanic crust. Wegener’s idea was nearly forgotten until technological advances presented even more evidence that the continents moved and gave scientists the tools to develop a mechanism for Wegener’s drifting continents.
Magnetic Polarity Evidence
Puzzling new evidence came in the 1950s from studies on the Earth’s magnetic history (figure 4). Scientists used magnetometers , devices capable of measuring the magnetic field intensity, to look at the magnetic properties of rocks in many locations.
Magnetite crystals are like tiny magnets that point to the north magnetic pole as they crystallize from magma. The crystals record both the direction and strength of the magnetic field at the time. The direction is known as the field’s magnetic polarity.
Magnetic Polarity on the Same Continent with Rocks of Different Ages
Geologists noted important things about the magnetic polarity of different aged rocks on the same continent:
- Magnetite crystals in fresh volcanic rocks point to the current magnetic north pole (figure 5) no matter what continent or where on the continent the rocks are located.
- Older rocks that are the same age and are located on the same continent point to the same location, but that location is not the current north magnetic pole.
- Older rock that are of different ages do not point to the same locations or to the current magnetic north pole.
In other words, although the magnetite crystals were pointing to the magnetic north pole, the location of the pole seemed to wander. Scientists were amazed to find that the north magnetic pole changed location through time (figure 6).
There are three possible explanations for this:
- The continents remained fixed and the north magnetic pole moved.
- The north magnetic pole stood still and the continents moved.
- Both the continents and the north pole moved.
Magnetic Polarity on Different Continents with Rocks of the Same Age
Geologists noted that for rocks of the same age but on different continents, the little magnets pointed to different magnetic north poles.
- 400-million-year-old magnetite in Europe pointed to a different north magnetic pole than the same-aged magnetite in North America.
- 250 million years ago, the north poles were also different for the two continents.
The scientists looked again at the three possible explanations. Only one can be correct. If the continents had remained fixed while the north magnetic pole moved, there must have been two separate north poles. Since there is only one north pole today, the only reasonable explanation is that the north magnetic pole has remained fixed but that the continents have moved.
To test this, geologists fitted the continents together as Wegener had done. It worked! There has only been one magnetic north pole and the continents have drifted (figure 7). They named the phenomenon of the magnetic pole that seemed to move but actually did not apparent polar wander.
This evidence for continental drift gave geologists renewed interest in understanding how continents could move about on the planet’s surface.
Lesson Summary
- In the early part of the 20th century, scientists began to put together evidence that the continents could move around on Earth’s surface.
- The evidence for continental drift included the fit of the continents; the distribution of ancient fossils, rocks, and mountain ranges; and the locations of ancient climatic zones.
- Although the evidence for continental drift was extremely strong, scientists rejected the idea because no mechanism for how solid continents could move around on the solid earth was developed.
- The discovery of apparent polar wander renewed scientists interest in continental drift.
Contributors and Attributions
- 6.2: Continental Drift. Provided by : CK-12. Located at : http://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Earth-Science-For-High-School/section/6.2/ . License : CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial


The United States of America is inhabited by many diverse people, including distinguishable generations of society's members based on age. Gerontology is the scientific study of the processes and phenomena of aging and growing old. Depending on the definition of being elderly, the government typically sets 65 to be the elderly years, the American Association of Retired Persons finds 55 to be the eligible age of membership, and many elderly define their 70's or 80's as the time they begin to feel elderly. Gerontology is multi-disciplinary with medical and biological scientists, social scientists, and even financial and economic scientists all studying the processes of aging from their disciplines point of view.
Social gerontology is the sociological subfield of gerontology which focuses on the nonphysical and social aspects of aging. Sociology focuses on the broad understanding of the elderly experience, their health, their emotional and social wellness, and their quality of life just to mention a few. How many elderly live in the US in 2008? Family Gerontology is the subfield that focuses on the family experiences of elderly persons.
Table \(\PageIndex{1}\): Numbers and Percent of United States Population Aged 65 and Over 2008
≤ 14 years of Age
15-64 Years old
US Elderly
Uniter States Total
61,146,753 (20.1%)
203,987,724 (67.1%)
38,690,169 (12.7%)
303,824,646 (100%)
The future growth of the US elderly population is immense in comparison to previous Census tabulations and growth rates. In Figure 1 below you see tremendous growth in the United States where the elderly now comprise only 1 in 8 members of US society, but will eventually in 2050 comprise 1 in 5. In Figure 2 below you can see that the oldest old--85 years and older is also growing rapidly. This means that in general more people are living longer. In fact there are more Centenarians than ever before. A centenarian is a living person who has had his or her 100 birthday. US Census counts indicated about 37,000 centenarians in 1990 and about 50,000 in 2000 (See Kestenbaum and Reneé, 2006 Retrieved from the Internet 19 July, 2008 from findarticles.com/p/articles/m...7/ai_n17183322).
In many societies the elderly are revered (especially Asian societies). Filial piety is the value, respect, and reverence of one's elderly which is often accompanied by caregiving and support of the elderly. Grandparents and even great-grandparents are valued and included in the home of the mother, father, and their children. These families are enriched by 3 and sometimes 4 generations of family members supporting the socialization of the younger members of the family. In Western countries, the elderly and their extended family are considered co-equals and mutually independent until circumstances necessitate assistance from children and other family members.
Understanding the Generations of Life
Life course is an ideal sequence of events and positions the average person is expected to experience as he/she matures and moves through life. Dependence and independence levels change over the life course. In Table \(\PageIndex{3}\) below, you can see that from birth to teen years, that children's' levels of dependence are relatively high and our levels of independence are relatively low. Newborns have little ability to nurture others, but as they are socialized and grow into their later-teen roles things change. By young adulthood, independence is a prime value which leads many to move out on their own and gain their own experiences (like most of you did).
Young adult's ability to nurture is moderate, but often dormant since most pursue avenues of preparation for their adult lives rather than immediately beginning their own families.
Married and cohabiting couples are much more independent and capable of nurturing and remain so throughout the grand-parenting years. As the life course progresses into later life, the oldest elderly begin to lose their independence as their health declines to the point that their resources lag behind the daily demands placed upon them. This is because all of us experience senescence. Senescence is the social, emotional, biological, intellectual, and spiritual processes associated with aging (
http://www.senescence.info/
).
Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\). Diagram of Dependence and Independence Over the Life Course.
Stage
Dependence or Independence Levels
Own Ability to Nurture
Birth to pre-school
Totally Dependent
Low!
Pre-school
Mostiy Dependent
Low!
School to pre-teen
Somewhat Dependent
Low!
Teen to young adult
Increasingly Independent
Moderate
Young adult
Moderately Independent
Moderate
Young Married
Mostly Independent
Somewhat Hight
Young Parents
Almost Independent
Hight
Parents
Independent
Hight
Grandparents
Extremely Independent
Hight
Great-Grandparents
Somewhat Independent
Moderate
(9) 2009 Ron J. Hammond
h.D.
For many in our modern societies, aging is feared, vilified, and surgically and cosmetically repaired. We do not like being “off our game” and senescence is viewed as a weakness. Yet, many elderly find their lives very satisfying. And they tend to report higher levels of self-esteem than do younger members of society. Because we tend to value youth, youthful appearance, and youthful-centered entertainment, biases appear in the US. There are in the United States many who hold deeply held biases and prejudices against the elderly. Ageism is the prejudice and discrimination against a person based on his/her chronological age.
Ageism is a unique form of bias. One may be prejudiced against another racial group, cultural or ethnic group, or religious group while never being at risk of becoming a member of that group. Ironically, ageist people are aging right now and will be until the day they die-they are essentially biased against their own future status.
For those who seek understanding of the elderly, there are three social theories that might help to understand the elderly and their later-life experiences. These are listed in order of their professional value by Gerontologists who study aging-related psychosocial issues.
Continuity theory claims that older adults maintain patterns in their later years which they had in their younger years. The elderly adapt to the many changes which accompany aging using a variety of effective personal strategies they developed earlier in their life.
For example, those who participated in outdoor activities in their younger years tend to continue to do so as older adults-although they tend to accommodate their health and fitness limitations as they deem appropriate.
Activity theory claims that the elderly benefit from high levels of activities, especially meaningful activities that help to replace lost life roles after retirement. The key to success in later-life is staying active and by doing so resist the social pressures that limit an older person's world. (Google Robert Havighurst and Aging).
Disengagement theory claims that as elderly people realize the inevitability of death and begin to systematically disengage from their previous youthful roles, society simultaneously prepares the pre-elderly and elderly to disengage from their roles. This was the first formal aging theory that fell short of credibility because the scientific data did not support its assumptions. There is quite a bit of support for Continuity and
Activity Theories (see The Encyclopedia of Aging online at www.medrounds.org/encyclopedi.../12/index.html).
To really understand the elderly today, you have to understand the larger social changes that have transpired over the last century. Around 1900, US elderly held a more cherished place in the hearts of younger family members. Most homes were intergenerational with grandparents, parents, and children all living in the same home and more often with kin on the wife's side being the social connection around which 3 generations would live (see Dorian Apple Sweetser, 1984 “Love and Work: Intergenerational Household Composition in the U. S. in 1900” Journal of Marriage and the Family, Vol. 46, No. 2 (May, 1984), pp. 289-293 retrieved on 18 June 2008 from www.jstor.org/stable/352460?seq=1).
In 2000, the US Census Bureau reported that there were 105.5 million households in the country (report C2KBR/01-8retrieved on 18 June 2008 from www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/c2kbr01-8.pdf). Table 2 reports that 3.7 percent or nearly 4 million households are multigenerational. This probably feels normal-not having older relatives live in your home. The point is that in years past elderly family members were considered a valuable asset with their wisdom and support of their children and grandchildren.
Theorizing Later Life
Modernization Theory claims that industrialization and modernization have lowered the power and influence which the elderly once had which has lead to much exclusion of elderly from community roles. Even though this theory is not as well established and is somewhat controversial, it has made a place in science for understanding how large-scale social forces have impacted the individual and collective lives of the elderly. In our modern societies, the economy has grown to a state that has created new levels of prosperity for most, the new technologies have outpaced the ability of the elderly to understand and use them, and the elderly are living much longer and are not essential to the economic survival of the family as was the case for millennia. Modernization can help us to understand why the elderly have become stigmatized and devalued over the last century.
Who make up the generations of our day? Look at Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\) below to see birth rates and generation labels for the United States. First notice the red and blue lines. The red represents the Crude Birth Rate, the numbers of births per 1,000 population in a given year. The Blue line represents the General Fertility Rate, the numbers of live births per 1,000 women aged 15-44. Both CBR and GBRs show a pattern of birth rates that were relatively high when the World-At-War Generation was born. Birth rates declined with the Great Depression until 1946 (the commencement of the Baby Boom). The Baby Boom represented a surge in birth rates that endured from 1946-1964 and declined to pre- Boom rates in 1965. Generation X or “Gen X” represents the children of the Baby Boomers which spilled into Generation Y or the “Millennials” which by most accounts are still being born.
The World-At-War Generation is slowly disappearing from the US population landscape.
On the 8th of June, 2008, the last living Veteran of World War I was honored by the White House and Congress. Frank W. Buckles fought in WWI and was held prisoner in Manila during World War II (see CNN, retrieved on 19 June, 2008 from www.cnn.com/2008/US/03/07/war.veteran/). Also the US Veterans Bureau reported that there were 2,911,900 WWII veterans as of 30 September 2007 with about 900 WWII veterans passing away each day. They also reported that 39.1 percent of all US veterans were aged 65 and older (See data sheet retrieved 19 June 2008 from www1.va.gov/vetdata/docs/4X6_...sharepoint.pdf).
The majority of the elderly today are women. If you consider the elderly as being divided into three life stages you can discern just how the elderly are comprised comparing males to females. The Young-old are 65-74 years, the Middle-old are 75-84 years, and the Old-old are 85+ years. In 2005 there were more females in all three ages, 65-74, 75-84, and 85+. This is because women, in most countries of the world, have a higher life expectancy than men. Life expectancy is the average numbers of years a person born today may expect to live.
The US Life expectancy today is about 80 for females and 75 for males (worldwide its 70 for females and 66 for males, see www.prb.org, 2007 Population Data Sheet , retrieved 19 June 2008). Life expectancies have increased dramatically over the last 50 years in the Western nations of Canada, United States, Australia, Japan, and Western Europe.
Overall men and women can expect to live longer than they did in the 1940s-1990s.
The sex ratio in the quote above which was 44 for persons 58 to 89 would be interpreted as 44 males per 100 females. From www.census.gov I found this quote about US elderly males and females:
“Perhaps no feature of the oldest old is as striking as their sex ratio (the number of males per 100 females), which was 39 in 1994 (982,000 males and 2.5 million females).   ”
The Baby Boomers represent 78.2 million US citizens as of 1 July 2005 (see www.census.gov/Press-Release/...ns/006105.html). This large cohort of society's member is moving on mass into the ranks of the elderly. A cohort is a group of people who share a statistical or demographic trait such as those born between 1946-1964. Nearly 8,000 Baby Boomers turned 60 each day in 2006. The US Census estimates that 57.8 million baby Boomers will be around in 2030 after they've all retired. One issue for gerontologist is the financial strain the Baby Boomers will place on the rest of society once they are retired. Most speculate that baby Boomers will not receive the same from the Social Security Administration benefits their parents and grandparents enjoyed.
The children of the Baby Boomers were called the Generation X children or the “Baby Bust” because they were born in post-Boom low fertility rate years. They were different from their parents. They grew up with the computer age and came to computer technology much like an immigrant comes to a new country. This cohort grew up in an economic state of greater posterity than did previous generations. Generation Y or Millennials are also called the “Internet Generation or Screenagers” because they grew up with TV, video games, cell phones, PDAs, and movie screens. Each generation is culturally distinct compared to the previous ones even though much still remains in common. There is a good chance that children of Generation Y parents will be better skilled than their parents with a technology that has not yet been invented. Such has been the case comparing the last three generations.
In Tables \(\PageIndex{2}\) and \(\PageIndex{3}\) below you see the increasing life expectancies in the US. The elderly of the future will be expected to live longer than any elderly in the history of the United States and world. Being born in the US affords the average member of society a longer life. In Table 3 below you can see that North American children are born with the higher life expectancies than other children around the world. By far, being born in Japan and Hong Kong would provide the absolute highest life expectancy at birth at 82 years for the total.
Table \(\PageIndex{2}\): United States Life Expectancies
Year
Total
Male
Female
1970
70.8
67.1
74.7
1980
73.7
70.0
77.4
1990
75.4
71.8
78.8
2000
77.0
74.3
79.7
2010
78.5
75.6
81.4
2015
79.2
76.2
82.2
Table \(\PageIndex{2}\): 2007 World and Regional Life Expectancies
Region
Total
Male
Female
World
68
66
70
Africa
53
52
54
N. America
78
70
81
L. America
73
70
76
Asia
68
67
70
Europe
75
71
79
Oceania
75
73
78
In fact all regions of the world are growing older. The developing countries are aging the fastest. Consider this screen capture and color map taken from the Population Reference Bureau World Population data Sheet 2007, Page 6.
Over the past half-century, both the worldwide drop in fertility and concurrent rise in life expectancy have led to the gradual aging of the world's population. Look at Table 4 below. Since 1950, the share of persons ages 65 and older has risen from 5 percent to 7 percent worldwide. As the map shows, Europe and Japan have led the way, with North America, Australia, and New Zealand close behind. However, older persons are now more than 5 percent of the inhabitants in many developing countries and by 2050 are expected to be 19 percent of Latin America's population and 18 percent of Asia's.
Table \(\PageIndex{4}\): Worldwide Percent of Persons Ages 65 and Older
Year
2007
2025
2050
World
7
10
16
Industrialized Countries
16
21
26
Developing Countries
6
9
15
Europe
16
21
28
North America
12
18
21
Oceania
10
15
19
Latin Am. and Caribbean
6
10
19
Asia
6
10
18
Africa
3
4
7
Challenges of Being Elderly and Single
As mentioned elderly women outlive elderly men. Widowhood occurs when one's spouse dies. Widows are surviving wives and widowers are surviving husbands. As a young college student you probably don't worry about ever being a widow or widower.
How we define death, both our own and the death of others is very much influenced by the cultural definition of death we incorporated into our own values while growing up.
Most of us a related to someone who died in the last 24 months. It's very common for college students about your age to have lost a great aunt/uncle, great grandparent, and even a grand parent. It's not so common for you to have lost you own parent or sibling.
Grief is the feeling of loss we experience after a death, disappointment, or tragedy. When you experience grief you are said to be in bereavement. Bereavement is the circumstances and conditions that accompany grief.
Dr. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross published her work as the stages of grief. These include, denial= “All is fine or it didn't happen,” anger=“why me?,” or, “I hate God for this,” bargaining="I'll be a better person if you (God) will just let him live,” depression=“all is lost or why try?,” and acceptance=”we'll be okay,” or, “we can get through this together” (see “On Death and Dying," 1973; Routledge Press). I've noticed that we all grieve when things disappoint us, when someone dies, or even when we break up with someone. I've seen my seniors grieve to a certain degree when they did not get into graduate school their first try. We all grieve and we all grieve in our own way. Studies show that most people experience denial, anger, bargaining, depression, or acceptance, but there exists some disagreement on the part about cycling through Kübler-Ross' stages in any order.
The study of aging would not be complete without focusing on family relationships and roles. Of the over 40,000,000 (millions) of elderly in the US, about 6 million still work for pay. About 7 million were taking adult education courses. About 21 million were married and about 13 million were widowed. Only 1, 400,000 lived in nursing homes.
About 32 million owned their homes. In the 65 plus age group there are only 73 men per 100 women (Data retrieved from US Census on 9 February, 2010 from www.census.gov/Press-Release/...ns/013384.html). These trends lead to some important family related issues that need to be discussed here.
Just how the future of elderly family relationships will be in coming decades is very difficult to predict. Many elderly live single (regardless of any wishes to the contrary).
The US Census Bureau reported that among 65+ ages there were 3,500,000 elderly single men with no spouse or partner and 10,400,000 elderly women with no spouse or partner (retrieved 10 Feb. 2010 from www.census.gov/population/www...lder_2008.html Table 14. Households by Type and Age of Householder 55 Years and Over: 2008). The sex imbalance among elderly single men and women is obvious. Although many single marrieds might enjoy an intimate relationship with a partner or spouse, the rewards and costs are different between men and women in these age ranges. It is true that their combined retirement incomes and living expenses might be increased together and therefore appealing to both.
Many widows have already been through something like this with their deceased husbands. Many divorcees and never marrieds have found their life patterns to be very established and difficult if not impossible to change. Thus, many elderly remain single and have friendships and intimacies without the long-term commitments that come with cohabiting or marrying again.
What do the trends for elderly unmarried in later life suggest to us? Quite simply more divorced and separated elderly are predicted. Figure 7 below shows the actual trends in increasing divorced elderly from 1963-2003. There are higher proportions of divorced and separated elderly now than in the past. This trend is not the same for widowhood. In other words there is only a slight increase in widowhood compared to a dramatic increase in being divorced or separated.
Another trend which is documented in Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\) below is the increasing numbers of those in the pre-elderly stages of life (ages 30-64). There are increased rates of divorcing and remaining divorced. The Baby Boomers were born between 1946-1964. They turn 65 between 2011-2029. This cohort in the US has the highest documented divorce rates of any age-related cohort ever studied in the United States (See Kreider, R.M., “Number, Timing, and Duration of Marriages and Divorces.” Figures 1a & 1b: Percent of Men and Women Ever Divorced, Among Those Ever Married by Selected Ages, for Selected Birth Cohorts:2001. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports: P70-97 Washington D.C.).
The numbers of elderly will nearly double by the time all the Baby Boomers reach 65 years in 2030. This leads to the conclusion that when the Baby Boomers reach age 65 ( beginning in the year 2011), the prevalence of divorced elderly will rise to an even higher level because of the sheer volume of divorced Baby Boomers who will also, for whatever reason, remain divorced into their later years.
Not all retirement years are created equally. Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\) shows the income comparisons of married versus divorced elderly males and females from 1994-2004. Notice that the highest median income levels were for married males. Divorced males had the next highest levels and divorced females (represented by the orange line) came in third.
Married females came in last, in part because this generation of elderly had a relatively high rate of traditional homemakers who have fewer Social Security retirement benefits than their husbands.
Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\) shows some of the quality of life differences found in the National Longitudinal Surveys-Mature Women data set (Yes, this is an example of secondary analysis research). Elderly divorced and widowed women were more likely to still be in the labor force than married ones. Married women had the lowest levels of reported unhappiness and rarely enjoying life. Feeling sad was similar among all categories.
Roles of Grandparents
The role of grandparent is a socially acceptable one in the US. It is admired by others, bragged about by grandparents, and more often than not appreciated by grandchildren.
Grandparents are given social approval by peers and society in general for being in that role. Grandparents also can be as actively or inactively involved as they desire. There are varying types of grandparental involvement and I've developed a few types just for comparison purposes here. Most US grandparents live in another household from their grandchildren. But, economic uncertainties and demographic changes with lower birth rates may contribute to the US returning to 3 or 4 generational households (see Pew Research Center: Social and demographic Trends Monday Feb. 11, 2008 “US Pop.


2.14: Variables
Learning Objectives
- Define and identify variables
\(Two men dressed similarly, with the same haircut, and both wear round glasses take a selfie with each other." class="wp-image-830 alignright" height="223" width="298"<EMAIL_ADDRESS>/>Greg and Alex have the same birthday, but they were born in different years. This year Greg is
In the language of algebra, we say that Greg’s age and Alex’s age are variable and the three is a constant. The ages change, or vary, so age is a variable. The \(3\) years between them always stays the same, so the age difference is the constant.
In mathematics, letters of the alphabet are used to represent variables. Suppose we call Greg’s age \(g\). Then we could use \(g+3\) to represent Alex’s age. See the table below.
| Greg’s age | Alex’s age |
|---|---|
| \(12\) | \(15\) |
| \(20\) | \(23\) |
| \(35\) | \(38\) |
| \(g\) | \(g+3\) |
Letters are used to represent variables. Letters often used for variables are \(x,y,a,b,\text{ and }c\).
Variables and Constants
A variable is a letter that represents a number or quantity whose value may change (ex. \(x, y, z, a, t, k\) etc.).
A constant is a number whose value always stays the same.
EXAMPLE
Identify the variable(s) in each expression or equation
- \(x+2\)
- \(5-3y\)
- \(7+5b-z=9\)
[reveal-answer q=”114888″]Show Answer[/reveal-answer]
[hidden-answer a=”114888″]
Solution
- \(x\)
- \(y\)
- \(b\) and \(z\)
[/hidden-answer]
TRY IT
[ohm_question]156972[/ohm_question]
To write algebraically, we need some symbols as well as numbers and variables. There are several types of symbols we will be using. There are multiple symbols and phrases to represent the four basic arithmetic operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. We will summarize them here:
| Operation | Notation | Say: | The result is… |
|---|---|---|---|
| Addition | \(a+b\) | \(a\text{ plus }b\) | the sum of \(a\) and \(b\) |
| Subtraction | \(a-b\) | \(a\text{ minus }b\) | the difference of \(a\) and \(b\) |
| Multiplication | \(a\cdot b,\left(a\right)\left(b\right),\left(a\right)b,a\left(b\right)\) | \(a\text{ times }b\) | The product of \(a\) and \(b\) |
| Division | \(a\div b,a/b,\frac{a}{b},b\overline{)a}\) | \(a\) divided by \(b\) | The quotient of \(a\) and \(b\) |
In algebra, the cross symbol, \(\times\), is not used to show multiplication because that symbol may cause confusion. Does \(3xy\) mean \(3\times y\) (three times \(y\) ) or \(3\cdot x\cdot y\) (three times \(x\text{ times }y\) )? To make it clear, use • or parentheses for multiplication.
Grouping symbols in algebra are much like the commas, colons, and other punctuation marks in written language. They indicate which expressions are to be kept together and separate from other expressions. The table below lists three of the most commonly used grouping symbols in algebra.
| Common Grouping Symbols | |
|---|---|
| parentheses | ( ) |
| brackets | [ ] |
| braces | { } |
Here are some examples of expressions that include grouping symbols.
\(\begin{array}{cc}8\left(14 - 8\right)21 - 3\\\left[2+4\left(9 - 8\right)\right]\\24\div \left\{13 - 2\left[1\left(6 - 5\right)+4\right]\right\}\end{array}\)


9.5.5: Hydrogenous Sediments
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As we saw in section 5.3 seawater contains many different dissolved substances. Occasionally chemical reactions occur that cause these substances to precipitate out as solid particles, which then accumulate as hydrogenous sediment . These reactions are usually triggered by a change in conditions, such as a change in temperature, pressure, or pH, which reduces the amount of a substance that can remain in a dissolved state. There is not a lot of hydrogenous sediment in the ocean compared to lithogenous or biogenous sediments, but there are some interesting forms.
Hydrothermal vents were discussed in section 4.11. Recall that in these systems, seawater percolates into the seafloor, where it becomes superheated by magma before being expelled by the vent. This superheated water contains many dissolved substances, and when it encounters the cold seawater after leaving the vent, these particles precipitate out, mostly as metal sulfides. These particles make up the “smoke” that flows from a vent, and may eventually settle on the bottom as hydrogenous sediment (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)).
Manganese nodules are rounded lumps of manganese and other metals that form on the seafloor, generally ranging between 3-10 cm in diameter, although they may sometimes reach up to 30 cm (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). The nodules form in a manner similar to pearls; there is a central object around which concentric layers are slowly deposited, causing the nodule to grow over time. The composition of the nodules can vary somewhat depending on their location and the conditions of their formation, but they are usually dominated by manganese- and iron oxides. They may also contain smaller amounts of other metals such as copper, nickel and cobalt. The precipitation of manganese nodules is one of the slowest geological processes known; they grow on the order of a few millimeters per million years. For that reason, they only form in areas where there are low rates of lithogenous or biogenous sediment accumulation, because any other sediment deposition would quickly cover the nodules and prevent further nodule growth. Therefore, manganese nodules are usually limited to areas in the central ocean, far from significant lithogenous or biogenous inputs, where they can sometimes accumulate in large numbers on the seafloor (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) right ). Because the nodules contain a number of commercially valuable metals, there has been significant interest in mining the nodules over the last several decades, although most of the efforts have thus far remained at the exploratory stage. A number of factors have prevented large-scale extraction of nodules, including the high costs of deep sea mining operations, political issues over mining rights, and environmental concerns surrounding the extraction of these non-renewable resources.
Evaporites are hydrogenous sediments that form when seawater evaporates, leaving the dissolved materials to precipitate into solids, particularly halite (salt, NaCl). In fact, the evaporation of seawater is the oldest form of salt production for human use, and is still carried out today. Large deposits of halite evaporites exist in a number of places, including under the Mediterranean Sea. Beginning around 6 million years ago, tectonic processes closed off the Mediterranean Sea from the Atlantic, and the warm climate evaporated so much water that the Mediterranean was almost completely dried out, leaving large deposits of salt in its place (an event known as the Messinian Salinity Crisis ). Eventually the Mediterranean re-flooded about 5.3 million years ago, and the halite deposits were covered by other sediments, but they still remain beneath the seafloor.
Oolites are small, rounded grains formed from concentric layers of precipitation of material around a suspended particle. They are usually composed of calcium carbonate, but they may also from from phosphates and other materials. Accumulation of oolites results in oolitic sand, which is found in its greatest abundance in the Bahamas (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)).
Methane hydrates are another type of hydrogenous deposit with a potential industrial application. All terrestrial erosion products include a small proportion of organic matter derived mostly from terrestrial plants. Tiny fragments of this material plus other organic matter from marine plants and animals accumulate in terrigenous sediments, especially within a few hundred kilometers of shore. As the sediments pile up, the deeper parts start to warm up (from geothermal heat), and bacteria get to work breaking down the contained organic matter. Because this is happening in the absence of oxygen (a.k.a. anaerobic conditions), the by-product of this metabolism is the gas methane (CH 4 ). Methane released by the bacteria slowly bubbles upward through the sediment toward the seafloor. At water depths of 500 m to 1,000 m, and at the low temperatures typical of the seafloor (close to 4°C), water and methane combine to create a substance known as methane hydrate. Within a few meters to hundreds of meters of the seafloor, the temperature is low enough for methane hydrate to be stable and hydrates accumulate within the sediment (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\) left ). Methane hydrate is flammable because when it is heated, the methane is released as a gas (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\) right ). The methane within seafloor sediments represents an enormous reservoir of fossil fuel energy. Although energy corporations and governments are anxious to develop ways to produce and sell this methane, anyone that understands the climate-change implications of its extraction and use can see that this would be folly.
*”Physical Geology” by Steven Earle used under a CC-BY 4.0 international license. Download this book for free at http://open.bccampus.ca


3.7: III Glossary
Allogeneic blood products: Blood products donated by other people.
Anemia: A hematological condition where there is a lack of healthy red blood cells and/or hemoglobin to carry adequate oxygen to the body’s tissues.
Autologous blood transfusion: A procedure in which blood is removed from the patient and returned to their circulation at a later time, instead of relying on blood donated by others (i.e., allogeneic blood).
Blood product: Any therapeutic substance derived from human blood, including whole blood and other blood components for transfusion, as well as plasma-derived medicinal products.
Dysfibrinogenemia: A coagulation (clotting) disorder characterized by abnormal fibrinogen.
Hemolysis: Red blood cell destruction.
Hypofibrinogenemia: A rare, autosomal dominant condition characterized by bleeding and obstetric problems such as abruption, postpartum hemorrhage, and recurrent pregnancy loss.
Microaggregate filter: A second-generation blood filter with a pore size of 20–40 µm that removes 75–90% of white cells, which is used to transfuse packed red cells.
Thrombocytopenia: Platelet deficiency causing bleeding, bruising, and slow blood clotting after injury.
Transfusion reactions: Adverse events that are directly related to the transfusion of blood products and may range from mild to severe with life-threatening effects. Transfusion reactions may be acute or delayed (i.e., up to days or weeks after the transfusion). Immune-related reactions are often due to a mismatch or incompatibility of the transfused blood product and the recipient’s blood type or Rh factor. Non-immunologic reactions are typically caused by the physical effects of the blood component or the transmission of a disease.


Mark all symbols on the skirt pieces. Skirt Video #1
Serge the side seams and back seam of skirt front and back pieces.
Sew darts on skirt front and skirt back pieces. Skirt Video #2
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Insert invisible zipper in center back.
Sew the back seam from bottom of zipper and bottom edge. Press open.
Sew sides seams together. Press open. Skirt Video #2
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Fuse interfacing to Facing. Skirt Video #3
Serge the unnotched edge of the facing.
Sew notched side of the facing to skirt matching symbols.
Press seam up into the waistband.
Edgestitch facing. Skirt Video #3
Fold facing over right side of zipper.
Stitch close to zipper teeth the width of the facing.
Repeat on the other side. Skirt Video #3
Using a hook and eye, place the hook side on the inside left side of the facing a the edge. Hand stitch the hook in place.
Place eye on the opposite side. Hand stitch the eye in place. Skirt Video #3
Using the flat part (eye), place it on the outside right side of the waistband. Place it where the hook side lays flat with the zipper closed. Hand stitch the eye in place.
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Serge around the hem of the skirt.
Turn hem to inside of the skirt at the desired length.
Press in place and pin if necessary. Skirt Video #4
Hem the skirt using the blind catch stitch.
Press. Skirt Video #4
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12.3D: DNA Analysis Using Genetic Probes and PCR
- Describe how genetic probes can be used to detect unique nucleotide sequences within the DNA or RNA or a microorganism
Genetic probes are based on the detection of unique nucleotide sequences with the DNA or RNA of a microorganism. Once such a unique nucleotide sequence, which may represent a portion of a virulence gene or of chromosomal DNA, is found, it is isolated and inserted into a cloning vector ( plasmid ), which is then transformed into Escherichia coli to produce multiple copies of the probe. The sequence is then reisolated from plasmids and labeled with an isotope or substrate for diagnostic use. Hybridization of the sequence with a complementary sequence of DNA or RNA, follows cleavage of the double-stranded DNA of the microorganism in the specimen. The use of molecular technology in the diagnoses of infectious diseases has been further enhanced by the introduction of gene amplication techniques, such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in which DNA polymerase is able to copy a strand of DNA by elongating complementary strands of DNA that have been initiated from a pair of closely spaced oligonucleotide primers. This approach has had major applications in the detection of infections due to microorganisms that are difficult to culture (e.g., the human immunodeficiency virus), or that have not as yet been successfully cultured (e.g., the Whipple’s disease bacillus).
It is well established that genotyping of pathogenic isolates provides valuable support for the investigation of suspected outbreaks, the detection of unsuspected transmission, the tracing of infectious agents within a community, and the identification of possible sources of infection for newly diagnosed cases. At the national or international level, fingerprinting allows strains from different geographic areas to be compared, and the movement of individual strains to be tracked. Fingerprinting technique requires high-quality genomic DNA, which is not only difficult to prepare but also requires culturing of the organism, resulting in a long turnaround time. In addition, fingerprint interpretation and matching can be complicated and require sophisticated computer software for large-scale analysis.
In contrast, nucleic acid amplification-based assays do not require culturing of the organisms, allowing the analysis of samples in real time. In many PCR-based typing assays, the target DNA of interest is amplified and labeled by PCR, and the labeled products are hybridized to an array of immobilized diagnostic probes. This method has been successfully used for the detection of mutations in drug resistance genes of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and for Mycobacterium species identification. Spoligotyping, a reverse dot blot assay that detects the presence of a series of unique spacers in the direct repeat (DR) locus, meets the need for a simple and rapid method by which to distinguish M. tuberculosis complex strains. However, spoligotyping has significantly less discriminatory power than fingerprinting.
Key Points
- Hybridization can identify a bacterial species by analyzing segments of its DNA.
- Genetic probes are small fragments of DNA or RNA that are complementary to the specific sequences of DNA from a particular microbe.
- This approach is most useful in the detection of infections due to microorganisms that are difficult to culture.
Key Terms
- polymerase chain reaction : A technique in molecular biology for creating multiple copies of DNA from a sample; used in genetic fingerprinting etc.


4.2.5G: Religion
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Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that relate humanity to spirituality and moral values.
Learning Objectives
- Explain how people come to be socialized in terms of religion and how parental influence is a key factor in religiosity
Key Points
- Sociology of religion is the study of the beliefs, practices, and organizational forms of religion using the tools and methods of the discipline of sociology.
- Agents of socialization differ in effects across religious traditions. Some believe religion is like an ethnic or cultural category, making it less likely for the individuals to break from religious affiliations and be more socialized in this setting.
- Belief in God is attributable to a combination of the above factors, but is also informed by a discussion of socialization. The biggest predictor of adult religiosity is parental religiosity; if a person’s parents were religious when he was a child, he is likely to be religious when he grows up.
- In their thesis, Altemeyer and Hunsberger found some interesting cases where secular people converted to religion, and religious people became secular.
Key Terms
- parental religiosity : The biggest predictor of adult religiosity is parental religiosity; if a person’s parents were religious when he was a child, he is likely to be religious when he grows up.
- agents of socialization : Agents of socialization, or institutions that can impress social norms upon an individual, include the family, religion, peer groups, economic systems, legal systems, penal systems, language, and the media.
- sociology of religion : Sociology of religion is the study of the beliefs, practices, and organizational forms of religion using the tools and methods of the discipline of sociology.
- religion : an organized collection of belief systems, cultural systems, and world views that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values
Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values. Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions, and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to explain the origin of life or the universe. They tend to derive morality, ethics, religious laws, or a preferred lifestyle from their ideas about the cosmos and human nature.
Sociology of religion is the study of the beliefs, practices, and organizational forms of religion, using the tools and methods of the discipline of sociology. This objective investigation may include the use of both quantitative methods (surveys, polls, demographic, and census analysis) and qualitative approaches, such as participant observation, interviewing, and analysis of archival, historical, and documentary materials.
Agents of socialization differ in effects across religious traditions. Some believe religion is like an ethnic or cultural category, making it less likely for the individuals to break from religious affiliations and be more socialized in this setting. Parental religious participation is the most influential part of religious socialization–more so than religious peers or religious beliefs. For example, children raised in religious homes are more likely to have some degree of religiosity in their lives. They are also likely to raise their own children with religion and to participate in religious ceremonies, such as baptisms and weddings.
Belief in God is attributable to a combination of the above factors but is also informed by a discussion of socialization. The biggest predictor of adult religiosity is parental religiosity; if a person’s parents were religious when he was a child, he is likely to be religious when he grows up. Children are socialized into religion by their parents and their peers and, as a result, they tend to stay in religions. Alternatively, children raised in secular homes tend not to convert to religion. This is the underlying premise of Altemeyer and Hunsberger’s main thesis–they found some interesting cases where just the opposite seemed to happen. Secular people converted to religion and religious people became secular. Despite these rare exceptions, the process of socialization is certainly a significant factor in the continued existence of religion.


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7.9.1: Current Rates in the U.S. Edit section
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Mortality:
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Approximately 695,000 Americans died from CVD in 2021- which is nearly 20% of the deaths recorded (CDC, 2023).
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Although CVD are the leading cause of death for all racial and ethnic groups, the highest percentages of deaths caused by CVD are found in Black Americans (22.6%) (CDC, 2023).
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Morbidity:
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It is estimated that 5% of American adults currently have coronary artery disease (CDC, 2023).
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Someone in the U.S. has a heart attack about every 40 seconds (CDC, 2023).
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According to data from NHANES between 2017 and 2020, the prevalence of hypertension, coronary heart disease, heart failure, and stroke combined reached 48.6% of the adult population (
>
20 years of age) in the U.S. (Connie W. Tsao et al., 2023)


Chapter 11: Labor in Lagos – Alternative Global Networks
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Just as Hollywood production frequently departs the greater Los Angeles area for less expensive shooting locations worldwide, Hollywood studios have also expanded their interests globally, investing in everything from Bollywood studios to telenovela-producing corporations.¹ In this sense, the Los Angeles-based film and television industry is indeed a multilevel “global Hollywood,” as Miller and his colleagues convincingly illustrate in their so-titled book.² Accordingly, the individuals who make up global Hollywood’s workforce are both geographically diverse (in “runaway production” locations from New Orleans to Prague) and industrially diverse, working on domestic film and television productions as well as major international projects.
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11.1: Introduction
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Overview of the goals of the chapter: to examine how the deliberate pursuit of informality that characterizes Nollywood shapes issues of precarity with local labor.
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11.2: The Context – Nollywood the Place
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The decentralized nature of Nollywood, and the proposal of two places that might be considered the location of Nollywood: Lagos and Alaba Market, both known for having a generally informal and undocumented culture.
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11.3: Implications of Opaque Distribution
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Labor implications of the informal nature of Nollywood distribution, including the high level of power held by marketers, the dominance of guilds rather than unions, and the inability of government regulation to improve labor conditions.
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11.4: Precarity, Repeat Collaboration, and Industry Entry
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Examination of the factors contributing to the precarity of work in Nollywood for a non-marketer: short project durations that require workers to quickly find their next job, lack of recourse to collective bargaining or legal protection, and the heavy reliance on preexisting personal connections to break into the industry.
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11.5: Conclusion
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Ways in which the informality that characterizes everyday life in Nigeria is ingrained in Nollywood, as well as efforts from creatives in the film industry, government, and foreign interests to limit this informality.
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11.6: Notes
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