2.2: Informative Speaking
Learning Objectives
- Define and identify informative speeches.
- Explain and analyze the general criteria for a good informative speech.
- Describe and list the major categories of informative speeches.
- Describe and explain the special considerations to be given in the informative speech-making process.
- Apply informative speech-related knowledge and skills into the development, presentation, and assessment of informative speeches.
“I cannot tell the truth about anything unless I confess being a student, growing and learning something new every day. The more I learn, the clearer my view of the world becomes.”
–Sonia Sanchez https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonia_Sanchez
The inspiring quote above from Sonia Sanchez, a US-American poet, playwright, professor, and activist who emerged out of the Black Arts Movement in the 1960’s ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Arts_Movement ), beautifully captures how we as a species and individuals may strive to develop and build knowledge/skills throughout our lifetime for a better self and a better world—by recognizing our own limitations as human beings and by learning something new every single day.
Do you know the main source and driving force of this daily process of renewing ourselves? It is the information that intrigues, captivates, enlightens, and/or educates us; the information that we consume and share through informative speaking.
As you read this chapter, you will see many Wikipedia links/articles embedded throughout its texts and passages. While these Wikipedia links/articles are included to help you explore as you wish additional context to the subjects and concepts discussed, please be advised that there are limitations to these links/articles and they should be used only as a starting point for you to conduct more in-depth research elsewhere. A detailed discussion on Wikipedia’s strengths and limitations as well as the proper and ethical ways to use Wikipedia links/articles can be found later in this chapter.
What is informative speaking or an informative speech?
The main goals of informative speaking or an informative speech are to describe , demonstrate , and/or explain certain information to our audience members by telling , teaching , instructing , updating , and/or notifying them as a reporter and/or educator .
The main goals of informative speaking or an informative speech are categorically different from the main goals of persuasive speaking or a persuasive speech which are to convince , compel , and/or influence our audience members by challenging , changing , urging , imploring , and/or affirming them as a champion and/or advocate . Refer to the chapter “Speaking to Persuade/Advocacy” for information on persuasive speaking.
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A key element of informative speaking or an informative speech is neutrality . Informative speakers should be fair and balanced without choosing a side or taking a stance while imparting information. They should also let audience members come to their own conclusions about the information imparted without trying to influence them.
For example, when giving an informative speech on the Korean popular music (K-Pop) group BTS ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/BTS ), an informative speaker should strive to present it neutrally by including both positive and negative information found in research about BTS rather than sharing only favorable information about them from the perspective of an adoring fan (e.g., a BTS ARMY https://time.com/5912998/bts-army/ ).
Similarly, when developing an informative speech on caffeine, an informative speaker might want to discuss the effects of caffeine found in research neutrally (both positive and negative) rather than focusing only on either the dangers or the benefits of caffeine.
In addition, neutrality relates to the way in which a statement is made. For example, your friend A in a conversation makes the following statement:
“The film Roma [ https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_(2018_film) ] directed by Mexican director Alfonso Cuarón is wonderful; you should see it!”
Here, A is not neutral nor speaking informatively since the statement is a persuasive one that expresses A’s positive assessment of the film and A’s clear intention to influence you. Let’s say later you tell your friend B that, “According to A, the film Roma is wonderful, and I should see it!” Here, you are speaking informatively since your statement neutrally describes the content of a previous persuasive statement from A; whether Roma is a wonderful film and whether you should see it are debatable and a matter of personal opinion, but what you share with B about A’s statement is undoubtedly factual, neutral, and informative.
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At this point you might wonder—since neutrality is a key element of informative speaking, does that mean you can’t discuss controversial topics?
No, it doesn’t. No matter how controversial a topic is, there are ways to talk about it neutrally as an informative speech.
For example, we all know that abortion is a very controversial topic/issue over which we are still debating as a country and as a society. Can one develop an informative speech under the general topic of abortion? It certainly can be done as long as neutrality is observed and maintained.
A speech on how abortion laws have evolved in the United States and/or internationally over the years can be an informative speech, as long as it is designed to neutrally demonstrate and explain the who, what, when, where, why, and how (i.e., The Six W’s The “6 W’s” Method – Public Speaking & Speech Resources – Library at Windward Community College (hawaii.edu) ) associated with abortion law changes without arguing whether these changes are good or bad, right or wrong, ethical or unethical.
Similarly, a speech on the two major camps currently involved in the abortion debates and their respective main arguments can be an informative speech, as long as both sides are presented neutrally without arguing whether one particular side and its key arguments are better or worse, right or wrong, ethical or unethical.
Some might argue that it is impossible to be absolutely objective and neutral as an informative speaker since the way we think and the way we speak are all influenced by our own unique experiences and subjective perceptions—in a way, we are already being subjective and biased by simply selecting the points we want to include in our presentation, however neutral they might be, and interpreting the information based on our own frame of reference.
Having said that, just because we don’t have access to an absolutely germ-free or virus-free environment for a surgery doesn’t mean that we should perform it without even sanitizing or disinfecting the instruments; there are things we can still do to make the surgery safer. Similarly, while it might be impossible for us to attain absolute neutrality as an informative speaker, we can still strive to make our information and presentation as neutral as possible.
Criteria for a Good Informative Speech
If neutrality is the key to make a statement/speech an informative one, what are the criteria for an informative speech to be considered good? They can be summed up as the CIA’s of a good informative speech ; an informative speech must be clear , interesting , and accurate all at once to be good.
Be Clear.
“In a world deluged by irrelevant information, clarity is power.”
–Yuval Noah Harari, an Israeli public intellectual , historian, and professor https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuval_Noah_Harari
In order for our audience to be able to understand us when listening to our informative speeches, we as informative speakers must treat our information and presentation with care and make them as clear as possible.
Other than making sure that our informative speeches are clearly presented through the use of structured organization, visual aids, clear language, and effective nonverbal delivery (e.g., gestures, volume, articulation, and fluency), all of which are discussed in more detail in other chapters of this textbook, here are three additional guidelines we should pay special attention to as informative speakers:
Make our information more concrete and less abstract.
Abstract information tends to be more vague, ambiguous, and/or undefined; it is thus harder to process for any audience. The more abstract our information is, the harder it will be for our audience to listen to, grasp, and retain. Therefore, it is up to us as informative speakers to make any information we would like to impart in our presentation as concrete as possible.
How? By defining, describing and illustrating abstract information through the use of examples that our audience already has the frame of reference to understand.
For example, reciprocity as a concept, as an ethical principle, moral virtue, and/or social norm can be rather abstract for our audience to process. According to the Webster-Merriam Dictionary, “reciprocity” is defined as “the quality or state of being reciprocal: mutual dependence, action, or influence.”
In his book The Art of Public Speaking , Steven Lucas defines frame of reference as “the sum of a person’s knowledge, experience, goals, values, and attitudes. No two people can have exactly the same frame of reference.” As previously discussed in the chapter entitled “The Importance of Public Speaking,” in order for there to be mutual understanding and shared meaning between the sender and the receiver in a communication process, their sender’s frame of reference needs to overlap with the receiver’s frame of reference.
To make it more concrete, we may want to tap into our audience’s frame of reference and define/describe reciprocity by comparing it with, and highlighting its similarities to, other abstract concepts already known to our audience such as:
- Karma
- “What comes around goes around.”
- “As you sow, so shall you reap.”
- The Golden Rule: “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you (treat others the way you want to be treated).
Other than using comparisons to highlight reciprocity’s similarities to more well-known abstract concepts, we can also make it more concrete by contrasting it with, and highlighting its differences from, other abstract concepts already known to our audience such as:
- “It’s my way or the highway.”
- one-sided love/crush or unrequited love/crush, and/or
- narcissism/narcissistic personality disorder (NPA).
Another way to make it more concrete is to tap into our audience’s frame of reference and illustrate reciprocity by using concrete and relatable examples such as:
Example 1: A volunteer working in at a street fair for a non-profit organization whose mission is to improve the COVID-19 vaccination rates for underserved/minoritized communities offers free gifts and a $100 vaccination incentive to unvaccinated fair attendees with the hope that that they will return the favor by getting themselves fully vaccinated.
Example 2: Student A is a native speaker of English and is in the process of learning how to speak Spanish more fluently. Student B is a native speaker of Spanish and is in the process of learning how to speak English more fluently. Through a language exchange program, they have been meeting regularly to discuss current events by using only Spanish during the first half of the meeting and only English during the second half.
Make our information more accessible, more user-friendly, and less technical.
Technical information tends to be more incomprehensible, unrelatable, alienating, and/or challenging. The more technical our information is, the harder it will be for our audience to listen to, grasp, and retain. Therefore, it is up to us as informative speakers to choose a subject matter that is not too technical and explain it in a more accessible and user-friendly language.
How can we make our information more accessible and user friendly? By avoiding jargon and by using examples and analogies that our audience already has the frame of reference to understand.
According to the Webster-Merriam Dictionary, “jargon” is defined as “the technical terminology or characteristic idiom of a special activity or group.” Consisting mostly of unfamiliar terms, abstract words, non-existent words, acronyms, abbreviations, and/or euphemism, jargon is the language of special expressions that are used by a particular profession or group and are difficult for others to understand.
For example, a computer motherboard as a subject matter might be rather technical for our listeners, especially those who are not computer savvy, to comprehend and feel eager to learn. Instead of using jargon such as CPU Socket, DRAM Memories Slots, and PCI Slots to discuss its main components, an informative speaker might want to use the human body as an analogy to describe/illustrate a motherboard and its various components.
More specifically, a motherboard is like our nervous system—it is where all computer parts are connected to each other and through which all electrical signals are conducted.
A hard drive on a motherboard is like the hippocampus region of our brain dealing with long-term memory—it is where all programs, files, and data are stored.
On the other hand, a motherboard’s DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory) slots are like the Prefrontal Cortex of our brain dealing with short-term memory—it is a holding area of files and instructions that are to be used and then forgotten about; the more DRAM our computer has, the better and faster it can multi-task and perform.
A CPU (Central Processing Unit) chip on a motherboard is like our spinal cord—it is responsible for processing instructions (commands) received from the hard drive (brain).
Avoid overestimating what our audience knows.
A huge part of audience analysis and adaptation as an informative speaker is to properly gauge how much our audience already knows about our topic (see the chapter entitled “Andiene Analysis” for more details). If we overestimate what our audience knows and impart information completely outside of their frame of reference (see diagram below), they will feel totally lost and find our information frustratingly unclear.
Let’s say you collect and trade sneakers as a hobby. After brainstorming a few possible topics for your informative speech, you decided to build on what you already know and develop an informative speech on the co-culture of sneaker collecting (or sneakerheads https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Sneaker_collecting ).
Assuming that all your audience members either have heard of or already know something about this particular co-culture, you focused your presentation on the major brand identities, trading platforms, as well as potential benefits and risk factors associated with collecting sneakers while using lingo (similar to jargon discussed earlier on page 6) such as Bred, Hypebeast, Grail, and DS/Deadstock ( https://www.farfetch.com/style-guide/how-to/sneaker-terms-urban-dictionary/ ) commonly used by sneakerheads throughout your presentation without any explanations. It turns out that many of your audience members have never even heard of this co-culture called sneakerheads and thus have no frame of reference to clearly understand/follow your information/presentation. This outcome is very unfortunate and is something an informative speaker should strive to avoid.
Be Interesting.
“That is what learning is. You suddenly understand something you’ve understood all your life, but in a new way.”
- Doris Lessing, a British-Zimbabwean novelist who was awarded the 2007 Nobel Prize in Literature https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Doris_Lessing
Other than making sure that our informative speeches are interestingly presented through the use of visual aids, vivid language, and effective nonverbal delivery (e.g., gestures, facial expressions, and vocal varieties), all of which are discussed in more detail in other chapters of this textbook, here are four additional guidelines we should pay special attention to as informative speakers: In order for our audience to be able to not only clearly understand us but also learn something relatable and new from us when listening to our informative speeches, we as informative speakers must treat our information and presentation with love and make them as interesting as possible.
Always bring something new to the table.
Nothing motivates our audience members to listen to and engage with our informative speeches more than the anticipation that our information might educate and enrich them in such a way that they transform themselves. It thus behooves us as informative speakers to avoid the same old, same old and always bring something new to the table when we present our information. The last thing we want is for our audience members to find our information and presentation boring, predictable, uninspiring, and a waste of their time.
Information-wise, we as informative speakers should find creative and innovative ways to open eyes, provoke thoughts, and expand horizons every step of the way, including selecting a suitable topic, locating credible supporting materials through research, organizing information in the speech body, as well as designing effective speech introduction and conclusion.
Certain informative speech topics (e.g., cigarettes, condoms, marijuana, or recycling) are so commonplace and overused that they have become rather clichéd. As informative speakers, we might want to consider taking our audience on a journey less travelled by others with our presentation and staying away from these overused topics. This does not mean that it is impossible to create a good informative speech on one of these overused topics; it just means that an overused topic especially needs creativity and innovation to keep its information interesting.
For example, if you want to develop a cigarette-related informative speech, instead of focusing your presentation on well-known common-sense facts (e.g., its ingredients and health effects), you might want to bring less-known facts and cutting-edge technologies and/or new developments and phenomena in the tobacco industry to your audience’s attention.
Even with an informative topic that is not too commonplace or overused, there are also ways for us as informative speakers to make it even more interesting by finding through our research and including in our presentation some topic-related historical, political, economic, social, and/or cultural discoveries, perspectives, insights, analyses, and applications that are new to our audience.
For example, if you want to develop a Carnival-related informative speech, instead of focusing your presentation only on the usual suspects (e.g., its masks, costumes, music, and dance), you might want to offer your audience some fresh new perspectives on Carnival as well (e.g., why/how it takes on very different forms around the world or even just among different islands in the Caribbean? What are the impacts of colonialism and imperialism on the celebration of Carnivals in different countries? How Carnival culture has manifested itself in popular culture?)
Presentation-wise, an informative speaker may keep an audience interested by using the following nonverbal strategies (all of which are discussed in detail in other chapters):
-
- Use vocal varieties in pitch, volume, tone, pace, pause, intensity, inflection, and accent.
- Employ engaging gestures, facial expression, and eye contact.
- Provide dynamic presentation aids such as overhead projection, slides, electronic whiteboards, video conferencing, and multimedia tools.
Avoid underestimating what our audience knows.
Whereas overestimating what our audience knows as an informative speaker and imparting information outside of their frame of reference , as discussed earlier on page 7, will make our information unclear and hard to comprehend, underestimating what our audience knows and imparting information completely inside of their frame of reference (see diagram below) will make our information uninteresting and uninspiring. In this instance, while our audience might be able to easily and readily understand every single piece of information imparted in our presentation, they will find our speech boring, redundant, unsatisfying, and a waste of their time.
Let’s say you enjoy and spend a lot of time on social media. After brainstorming a few possible topics for your informative speech, you decided to build on what you already know and develop an informative speech on one of the major social media platforms called X.
Assuming that all your audience members either have never heard of or know very little about this particular social media platform, you include in your presentation only basic information on its history, users, and major features. It turns out that most of your audience members are avid users of X themselves; they feel disappointed by the rudimentary information provided in the presentation and wish they had learned something new from it. This outcome is very unfortunate and is something an informative speaker should strive to avoid.
Relate the subject and information of our speech directly to our audience
One major challenge for us as informative speakers to recognize and overcome is that what is interesting to us may not be interesting to everybody. Rather than developing and presenting an informative speech that only we find interesting, we must take it upon ourselves to make our speech something our audience members will find interesting as well by relating its subject and information directly to them; the more our audience members find our speech relatable, the more interesting it is to them.
For example, if you plan to develop and present an informative speech on the five pillars of Islam ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam ), in addition to defining, describing, and explaining them from a Muslim perspective, you might want to consider comparing and contrasting them with concepts/perspectives from other major religions and/or other non-religious ethical principles around the world to which your non-Muslim audience can easily relate.
More specifically, when developing an informative speech on the five pillars of Islam, you might want to consider comparing and contrasting:
- the pillar of Shahada (profession of faith) with confirmation ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation ) and adult baptism ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Believer%27s_baptism ) in Christianity;
- the pillar Salah (prayer) with other forms and practices of prayer in Hinduism ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Prayer_in_Hinduism ) and in the Jewish religion ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_prayer );
- the pillar Zakat (obligatory charity) with the practice of dana (alms-giving) in Hinduism and Buddhism ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Dāna );
- the pillar Sawm (fasting) with ta’anit, a fasting practice in Judaism ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%27anit );
- the pillar Hajj (pilgrimage) with the practice of Buddhist pilgrimage ( https://www.britannica.com/topic/Buddhism/Buddhist-pilgrimage ).
In so doing, you as an informative speaker not only can fascinate a Muslim audience who does not know about the similarities and differences between the five pillars of Islam and other religious and/or non-religious ethical principles, you can also fascinate a non-Muslim audience who finds the subject and information of your speech relatable, interesting, and eye-opening.
Humanize our information
As an audience, nothing bores us to tears and/or puts us to sleep faster than listening to a string of dry facts and statistics that mean nothing or very little to us, no matter how important they are. A good informative speech is one that not only enlightens and educates us, but also keeps us engaged and entertained with its information and presentation. It is thus our job as informative speakers to make any information included in our presentation as engaging, relatable, and interesting to our audience as possible by humanizing and dramatizing it when we can.
For example, if you want to develop and present an informative speech on the internment of Japanese Americans in the U.S. during World War II ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans ), instead of filling your presentation only with a laundry list of internment camp locations, number and names of Japanese American internees in each camp, and/or where in the U.S. from which each camp’s Japanese American internees were forcibly relocated, you might want to consider featuring/highlighting in your speech powerful quotes, vivid personal accounts, and/or emotional reflections from camp survivors and their children.
Similarly, you might want to also consider humanizing and dramatizing the Japanese American internment related information by comparing and contrasting it with information related to other internment camps around the world in different historical eras with which your audience has personal and emotional connections. In so doing, you have enlivened your presentation as an informative speaker and your audience will be more likely to enjoy your speech without feeling bored by, indifferent towards, and/or apathetic to the information presented.
So far, we have discussed why being clear and being interesting are both integral to a good informative speech as well as the various practices and additional guidelines we as informative speakers can follow to be clearer and be more interesting. A very helpful way to conceptualize how we may develop, research, and organize the content of our informative speeches so that they will be both clear and interesting to our audience is illustrated in the diagram below. It shows that we as informative speakers should first tap into something that is clear to our audience members (and for which they already have the frame of reference) before taking them with us on an eye-opening, thought-provoking, and horizon-expanding journey to an uncharted territory where our information is new and interesting to them (and for which they don’t already have the frame of reference). This means that not only will our audience members find our informative speech presentation both clear and interesting at the same time, their frame of reference will also be enlarged as a result of listening to our presentation.
Be Accurate.
“I was brought up to believe that the only thing worth doing was to add to the sum of accurate information in the world.”
- Margaret Mead, a US-American cultural anthropologist and writer Margaret Mead – Wikipedia
While meeting both criteria of being clear and being interesting is crucial to a good informative speech, there is one more equally important criterium for a good informative speech—be accurate. No matter how clear and interesting an informative speech is, it will not be considered good unless it is accurate as well. We as informative speakers thus must treat our information and presentation with integrity and make them as accurate as possible.
Other than making sure that our informative speeches are accurately presented through the use of proper citations, accurate language, and credible supporting materials (e.g., examples, statistics, and testimonies), all of which are discussed in more detail in other chapters of this textbook, here are two additional guidelines we should pay special attention to as informative speakers:
Avoid making things up and/or spreading disinformation.
Words have real consequences. Throughout human history, especially in recent decades with the advance of internet, information technology, and social media, we have seen many examples of:
- hoax : a falsehood intentionally fabricated to masquerade as the truth ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoax ),
- disinformation : false information that is spread intentionally to deceive ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinformation ),
- misinformation : false or misleading information unintentionally presented as fact ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Misinformation ),
- fake news : false or misleading information presented as news ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Fake_news ),
- conspiracy theory : an explanation for an event or situation that invokes a sinister conspiracy by powerful groups when the are other more probable explanations ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Conspiracy_theory ), and/or
- deepfake : are synthetic media in which person A’s face or body has been digitally altered so that Person A appears to be Person B instead ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Deepfake ).
Many of these incidents have caused serious and even deadly harms to not only individuals but also their communities. It is thus our ethical imperative as informative speakers to be truthful with the information we share in our presentations; we must not make things up and pass them on as facts, nor should we spread disinformation by sharing false information with the intention to deceive and mislead others.
Imagine that you have selected for yourself an informative speech topic on how to perform a CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) but failed to conduct any research before the presentation. During your presentation, you shared with your audience CPR steps that are completely made-up and without any validity or factual basis. Five years later, one of your audience’s loved ones encountered an emergency situation that calls for a CPR, and he/she performed the made-up CPR steps as instructed by you and caused his/her loved one’s death as a result. While you might not be legally responsible for this unfortunate death, you surely are ethically responsible for it on some level.
Check things through and avoid spreading misinformation.
Another ethical imperative for us as informative speakers is to avoid spreading false information unintentionally by checking things through and conducting sufficient research to ensure the accuracy, authenticity, and validity of the information we share in our presentations. We may do so by using a variety of sources when conducting our research so that we can get more well-rounded and less biased information that include several voices, viewpoints, and perspectives (see the chapter on research methods and skills for more details).
For example, you have seen many Wikipedia links/articles embedded throughout this chapter to help you understand and explore various subjects and concepts. To use these links/articles properly and ethically, you must know their strengths and limitations first:
Strengths
- Wikipedia provides free access to information on millions of topics to anyone with Internet capabilities.
- Wikipedia links/articles are constantly updated.
- Sources used by Wikipedia content contributors are cited; they allow further investigation into any topic.
Limitations
- Wikipedia links/articles are not considered scholarly credible and should not be cited for academic purposes since their content is written by unknown contributors (anyone can create, edit, or delete the information on Wikipedia articles).
- Wikipedia links/articles are works-in-progress with constant changes to their information.
- Wikipedia links/articles are sometimes vandalized.
Based on the aforementioned strengths and limitations, these Wikipedia links/articles should be used only as a starting point for you to conduct more in-depth research elsewhere; they are meant to be the beginning rather than the end of your exploration and research on these subjects and concepts.
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Different Categories of Informative Speeches
There are many categories of informative speeches in which we as informative speakers may develop our presentations. The seven different informative speech categories outlined below are not meant to be an exhaustive and comprehensive list; they are major informative speech categories arranged in an acronym SPECIAL to help us brainstorm, choose, and develop suitable topics for our informative speech presentations.
Space/Place
A presentation focusing on certain specific aspects of a space or place, especially a lesser-known one or lesser-known information about a well-known one, be it fictional or real, existing in the past, present, or future, located on planet earth or somewhere else in the universe, is suitable for an informative speech as long as it is presented in a neutral manner.
For instance, a neutral presentation on the various aspects of:
- the community roles of the barbershop and beauty salon for Black Americans in the United States ( The Community Roles of the Barber Shop and Beauty Salon | National Museum of African American History and Culture (si.edu) ),
- the mythical paradise called Shangri-La ( Shangri-La – Wikipedia ),
- the Mare Tranquillitatis or Sea of Tranquility on the Moon ( Mare Tranquillitatis – Wikipedia ), and
- the Korean Demilitarized Zone ( Korean Demilitarized Zone – Wikipedia ( United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus – Wikipedia )
are examples of an informative speech in the Space/Place category.
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Process/Procedure
A presentation focusing on certain specific aspects of a sequential, step-by-step, process or procedure, especially a lesser-known one or lesser-known information about a well-known one, be it fictional or real, existing in the past, present, or future, is suitable for an informative speech as long as it is presented in a neutral manner. Informative speakers often present this type of informative speech as either a “how-to” speech or a demonstration speech.
For instance, a neutral presentation on the various aspects of:
- how to make the Puerto Rican dish called Mofongo ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mofongo ),
- the development or distribution process for COVID-19 vaccine ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine ),
- how to overcome the fear of public speaking ( https://zapier.com/blog/public-speaking-tips/ ), and
- how to ace an interview: 5 tips from a Harvard career advisor ( https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DHDrj0_bMQ0 )
are examples of an informative speech in the Process/Procedure category.
Event/History
A presentation focusing on certain specific aspects of an event or history, especially a lesser-known one or lesser-known information about a well-known one, be it fictional or real, happening in the past, present, or future, is suitable for an informative speech as long as it is presented in a neutral manner.
For instance, a neutral presentation on the various aspects of:
- the Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921 ( https://www.tulsahistory.org/exhibit/1921-tulsa-race-massacre/ ),
- the Zoo Suit Riots of 1943 ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoot_Suit_Riots ),
- the 2021 U.S. Capitol attack ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_United_States_Capitol_attack ), and
- the gender-fluid history of the Philippines ( https://www.ted.com/talks/france_villarta_the_gender_fluid_history_of_the_philippines?language=en )
are examples of an informative speech in the Event/History category.
Concept/Idea
A presentation focusing on certain specific aspects of an intangible and abstract concept or idea, especially a lesser-known one or lesser-known information about a well-known one, be it an ideology, theory, philosophy, principle, doctrine, or school of thoughts, fictional or real, existing in the past, present, or future, is suitable for an informative speech as long as it is presented in a neutral manner.
For instance, a neutral presentation on the various aspects of:
- the critical race theory ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_race_theory ),
- the trickle-down theory ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Trickle-down_economics ),
- the intersectionality concept ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersectionality ), and
- the principles of shamanism ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanism )
are examples of an informative speech in the Concept/Idea category.
Institution/Movement
A presentation focusing on certain specific aspects of a human-organized and human-developed institution or movement, especially a lesser-known one or lesser-known information about a well-known one, be it fictional or real, existing in the past, present, or future, is suitable for an informative speech as long as it is presented in a neutral manner.
For instance, a neutral presentation on the various aspects of:
- the World Health Organization ( World Health Organization – Wikipedia ),
- the Chinese multinational technology company Alibaba ( Alibaba Group – Wikipedia ),
- the Arab Spring movement ( Arab Spring – Wikipedia ), and
- the African Union ( African Union – Wikipedia )
are examples of an informative speech in the Institution/Movement category.
Artifact/Object
Whereas a concept/idea is something that is intangible and abstract, an artifact or object is something that is tangible and concrete. A presentation focusing on certain specific aspects of an artifact/object, especially a lesser-known one or lesser-known information about a well-known one, be it fictional or real, existing in the past, present, or future, is suitable for an informative speech as long as it is presented in a neutral manner.
For instance, a neutral presentation on the various aspects of:
- the Tibetan prayer wheel ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Prayer_wheel ),
- the headwrap called do-rag or durag ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Do-rag ),
- the musical instrument didgeridoo ( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Didgeridoo ), and
- the traditional African masks( https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_African_masks )
are examples of an informative speech in the Artifact/Object category.
Living Being
Whereas an artifact/object is something that is inanimate, a Living Being is something/someone that possesses the characteristics of being alive. A presentation focusing on certain specific aspects of a Living Being, especially a lesser-known one or lesser-known information about a well-known one, be it a plant, animal (including a person or a group of people), insect, fungus/yeast, bacterium, or amoeba, fictional or real, living in the past, present, or future, is suitable for an informative speech as long as it is presented in a neutral manner.
For instance, a neutral presentation on the various aspects of:
- the Uyghur ethnic group ( Uyghurs – Wikipedia ),
- the U.S. American writer and civil rights activist James Baldwin ( James Baldwin – Wikipedia ),
- how fungi recognize (and infect) plants ( How fungi recognize (and infect) plants | Mennat El Ghalid – YouTube ), and
- the Amazon Rainforest ( Amazon rainforest – Wikipedia )
are examples of an informative speech in the Living Being category.
Special Consideration to Be Given in the Informative Speech-Making Process
“The single story creates stereotypes, and the problem with stereotypes is not that they are untrue, but that they are incomplete. They make one story become the only story.”
–Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, a Nigerian writer who was awarded the MacArthur Genius Grant in 2008 https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimamanda_Ngozi_Adichie
As the saying goes, history is written by the victors. This means that those who are in positions of power and dominance, be they based on race, ethnicity, national origin, gender, religion, sexual orientation, or any of the other major identity markers, have the ability to dictate, censor, control, distort, and/or erase histories as they see fit to maintain and perpetuate their own wealth, power, privilege, and dominance.
This also means that in order for our community/society/world to change its course for the better and become a more equitable, inclusive, and just one, histories of those who have long been marginalized must be actively uncovered/recovered, publicly acknowledged, widely made visible, and systematically preserved. Our textbook’s earlier chapter entitled “Questioning and Decentering the History of Public Speaking” is written with this same goal in mind—to challenge the mainstream, Eurocentric, narrative about public speaking and to shed light on other lesser-known histories about, and cultural perspective on, public speaking.
Similarly, when it comes to information, those who are in positions of power and dominance tend to use it, intentionally or unintentionally, to maintain and perpetuate their own wealth, power, privilege, and dominance; not only do they have much greater access to receive and share information, the information they receive and share is also considered by most to be of much greater value and influence. Therefore, while we as informative speakers may freely choose any topics in the aforementioned major categories (i.e., SPECIAL: Space/Place, Process/Procedure, Event/History, Concept/idea, Institution/Movement, Artifact/Object, and Living Being) on which to develop our presentations, to help our community/society/world evolve into a more equitable, inclusive, and just one, I encourage everyone to disrupt and enrich dominant, mainstream public discourse by choosing topics related to communities, be they based on race, ethnicity, national origin, gender, religion, sexual orientation, or any of the other major identity markers, that have been historically marginalized, underrepresented, and/or underserved.
In so doing, we may avoid the danger of a single story discussed in Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s aforementioned inspiring quote on page 19 and in her celebrated TED talks here ( https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D9Ihs241zeg ) and collectively make lesser-known histories, experiences, perspectives, and voices more visible, acknowledged, and valued.
Summary
We have discussed in this chapter why neutrality is key to informative speaking/speeches, how being clear , interesting , and accurate all at once (i.e., the CIA’s of a good informative speech ) makes any informative speeches good, and the major categories (i.e., the acronym SPECIAL ) on which we can develop our presentations as an informative speaker. It’s now time for us to apply the knowledge, strategies, guidelines, and special considerations that we’ve learned from this chapter to practice as we develop and present our informative speech presentations.
Remember Ms. Sanchez’s inspiring quote in the beginning of the chapter “I cannot tell the truth about anything unless I confess being a student, growing and learning something new every day. The more I learn, the clearer my view of the world becomes”? Your informative speech presentations for this course are not merely assignments/exercises for points/grades; rather, they are powerful vehicles to help your audience grow/evolve and see the world more clearly. Take full advantage of them and make our community/society/world a better place with your informative speech presentations!
Class Activities
Watch the following youtube clips:
- The Danger of a Single Story
- How Fungi Recognize (and Infect) Plants
- The Gender-Fluid History of the Philippines
- How to Ace an Interview: 5 Tips from a Harvard Career Advisor
After reviewing these clips, reflect on the following questions:
- Are these presentations considered more informative or persuasive (e.g., are they neutral in their content and presentation)? If so why and if not why not?
- If these presentations are more informative than persuasive, do you consider them good informative speeches (e.g., are they clear, interesting, and accurate all at once)? If so why and if not why not?
- If these presentations are more informative than persuasive, which major informative speech category or categories (i.e., SPECIAL: Space/Place, Process/Procedure, Event/History, Concept/Idea, Institution/Movement, Artifact/Object, and Living Being) do they each fall under?
- If these presentations are more informative than persuasive, do you think they help disrupt and enrich dominant, mainstream public discourse by sharing information related to communities, be they based on race, ethnicity, national origin, gender, religion, sexual orientation, or any of the other major identity markers, that have been historically marginalized, underrepresented, and/or underserved? If so why and if not why not?
For more information about the author of this Chapter, please visit Professor Vincent (Tzu-Wen) Cheng’s faculty page here .
The original version of this chapter contained H5P content. You may want to remove or replace this element.
Works Cited
Lucas, Steven. “Speaking to Inform.” The Art of Public Speaking , 13th. ed., McGraw-Hill Education, New York, NY, 2019, pp. 268–289.
“Public Speaking & Speech Resources: The ‘6 W’s’ Method.” Windward Community College Library, 4 Jan. 2022, https://library.wcc.hawaii.edu/c.php...5279&p=3073195 .
“Reciprocity Definition & Meaning.” Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster , https://www.merriam-webster.com/dict...ry/reciprocity .
“Jargon Definition & Meaning.” Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster , https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/jargon .
“Wikipedia: Strengths and Weaknesses.” LibGuides , https://pitt.libguides.com/Wikipedia/prosandcons .
HarvardExtension. “How to Ace an Interview: 5 Tips from a Harvard Career Advisor.” YouTube , 27 Mar. 2013, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DHDrj0_bMQ0 .
Villarta, France. “The Gender-Fluid History of the Philippines.” TED , https://www.ted.com/talks/france_vil...es?language=en .
TEDtalksDirector. “How Fungi Recognize (and Infect) Plants | Mennat El Ghalid.” YouTube , 19 Apr. 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qpfq3xCdAu4 .
TEDtalksDirector. “The Danger of a Single Story | Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie.” YouTube , 7 Oct. 2009, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D9Ihs241zeg .


6.1: Introduction
The Basic Statistical Model
In the basic statistical model, we have a population of objects of interest. The objects could be persons, families, computer chips, acres of corn. In addition, we have various measurements or variables defined on the objects. We select a sample from the population and record the variables of interest for each object in the sample. Here are a few examples based on the data sets in this project:
- In the M&M data, the objects are bags of M&Ms of a specified size. The variables recorded for a bag of M&Ms are net weight and the counts for red, green, blue, orange, yellow, and brown candies.
- In the cicada data, the objects are cicadas from the middle Tennessee area. The variables recorded for a cicada are body weight, wing length, wing width, body length, gender, and species.
- In Fisher's iris data, the objects are irises. The variables recorded for an iris are petal length, petal width, sepal length, sepal width, and type.
- In the Polio data set, the objects are children. Although many variables were probably recorded for a child, the two crucial variables, both binary, were whether or not the child was vaccinated, and whether or not the child contracted Polio within a certain time period.
- In the Challenger data sets, the objects are Space Shuttle launches. The variables recorded are temperature at the time of launch and various measures of O-ring erosion of the solid rocket boosters.
- In Michelson's data set, the objects are beams of light and the variable recorded is speed.
- In Pearson's data set, the objects are father-son pairs. The variables are the height of the father and the height of the son.
- In Snow's data set, the objects are persons who died of cholera. The variables record the address of the person.
- In one of the SAT data sets, the objects are states and the variables are participation rate, average SAT Math score and average SAT Verbal score.
Thus, the observed outcome of a statistical experiment (the data) has the form \(\bs{x} = (x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n)\) where \(x_i\) is the vector of measurements for the \(i\)th object chosen from the population. The set \(S\) of possible values of \(\bs{x}\) (before the experiment is conducted) is called the sample space . It is literally the space of samples. Thus, although the outcome of a statistical experiment can have quite a complicated structure (a vector of vectors), the hallmark of mathematical abstraction is the ability to gray out the features that are not relevant at any particular time, to treat a complex structure as a single object. This we do with the outcome \(\bs{x}\) of the experiment.
The techniques of statistics have been enormously successful; these techniques are widely used in just about every subject that deals with quantification—the natural sciences, the social sciences, law, and medicine. On the other hand, statistics has a legalistic quality and a great deal of terminology and jargon that can make the subject a bit intimidating at first. In the rest of this section, we begin discussing some of this terminology.
The Empirical Distribution
Suppose again that the data have the form \(\bs{x} = (x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n)\) where \(x_i\) is the vector of measurements for the \(i\)th object chosen. The empirical distribution associated with \(\bs{x}\) is the probability distribution that places probability \(1/n\) at each \(x_i\). Thus, if the values are distinct, the empirical distribution is the discrete uniform distribution on \(\{x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n\}\). More generally, if \(x\) occurs \(k\) times in the data, then the empirical distribution assigns probability \(k / n\) to \(x\). Thus, every finite data set defines a probability distribution.
Statistics
Technically, a statistic \(w = w(\bs{x})\) is an observable function of the outcome \(\bs{x}\) of the experiment. That is, a statistic is a computable function defined on the sample space \(S\). The term observable means that the function should not contain any unknown quantities, because we need to be able to compute the value \(w\) of the statistic from the observed data \(\bs{x}\). As with the data \(\bs{x}\), a statistic \(w\) may have a complicated structure; typically, \(w\) is vector valued. Indeed, the outcome \(\bs{x}\) of the experiment is itself is a statistic; all other statistics are derived from \(\bs{x}\).
Statistics \(u\) and \(v\) are equivalent if there exists a one-to-one function \(r\) from the range of \(u\) onto the range of \(v\) such that \(v = r(u)\). Equivalent statistics give equivalent information about \(\bs{x}\).
Statistics \(u\) and \(v\) are equivalent if and only if the following condition holds: for any \(\bs{x} \in S\) and \(\bs{y} \in S\), \(u(\bs{x}) = u(\bs{y})\) if and only if \(v(\bs{x}) = v(\bs{y})\).
Equivalence really is an equivalence relation on the collection of statistics for a given statistical experiment. That is, if \(u\), \(v\), and \(w\) are arbitrary statistics then
- \(u\) is equivalent to \(u\) (the reflexive property ).
- If \(u\) is equivalent to \(v\) then \(v\) is equivalent to \(u\) (the symmetric property ).
- If \(u\) is equivalent to \(v\) and \(v\) is equivalent to \(w\) then \(u\) is equivalent to \(w\) (the transitive property ).
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
There are two broad branches of statistics. The term descriptive statistics refers to methods for summarizing and displaying the observed data \(\bs{x}\). As the name suggests, the methods of descriptive statistics usually involve computing various statistics (in the technical sense) that give useful information about the data: measures of center and spread, measures of association, and so forth. In the context of descriptive statistics, the term parameter refers to a characteristic of the entire population.
The deeper and more useful branch of statistics is known as inferential statistics . Our point of view in this branch is that the statistical experiment (before it is conducted) is a random experiment with a probability measure \(\P\) on an underlying sample space. Thus, the outcome \(\bs{x}\) of the experiment is an observed value of a random variable \(\bs{X}\) defined on this probability space, with the distribution of \(\bs{X}\) not completely known to us. Our goal is to draw inferences about the distribution of \(\bs{X}\) from the observed value \(\bs{x}\). Thus, in a sense, inferential statistics is the dual of probability. In probability, we try to predict the value of \(\bs{X}\) assuming complete knowledge of the distribution. In statistics, by contrast, we observe the value of \(\bs{x}\) of the random variable \(\bs{X}\) and try to infer information about the underlying distribution of \(\bs{X}\). In inferential statistics, a statistic (a function of \(\bs{X}\)) is itself a random variable with a distribution of its own. On the other hand, the term parameter refers to a characteristic of the distribution of \(\bs{X}\). Often the inferential problem is to use various statistics to estimate or test hypotheses about a parameter. Another way to think of inferential statistics is that we are trying to infer from the empirical distribution associated with the observed data \(\bs{x}\) to the true distribution associated with \(\bs{X}\).
There are two basic types of random experiments in the general area of inferential statistics. A designed experiment , as the name suggests, is carefully designed to study a particular inferential question. The experimenter has considerable control over how the objects are selected, what variables are to be recorded for these objects, and the values of certain of the variables. In an observational study , by contrast, the researcher has little control over these factors. Often the researcher is simply given the data set and asked to make sense out of it. For example, the Polio field trials were designed experiments to study the effectiveness of the Salk vaccine. The researchers had considerable control over how the children were selected, and how the children were assigned to the treatment and control groups. By contrast, the Challenger data sets used to explore the relationship between temperature and O-ring erosion are observational studies. Of course, just because an experiment is designed does not mean that it is well designed.
Difficulties
A number of difficulties can arise when trying to explore an inferential question. Often, problems arise because of confounding variables , which are variables that (as the name suggests) interfere with our understanding of the inferential question. In the first Polio field trial design, for example, age and parental consent are two confounding variables that interfere with the determination of the effectiveness of the vaccine. The entire point of the Berkeley admissions data, to give another example, is to illustrate how a confounding variable ( department ) can create a spurious correlation between two other variables ( gender and admissions status ). When we correct for the interference caused by a confounding variable, we say that we have controlled for the variable.
Problems also frequently arise because of measurement errors . Some variables are inherently difficult to measure, and systematic bias in the measurements can interfere with our understanding of the inferential question. The first Polio field trial design again provides a good example. Knowledge of the vaccination status of the children led to systematic bias by doctors attempting to diagnose polio in these children. Measurement errors are sometimes caused by hidden confounding variables.
Confounding variables and measurement errors abound in political polling, where the inferential question is who will win an election. How do confounding variables such as race, income, age, and gender (to name just a few) influence how a person will vote? How do we know that a person will vote for whom she says she will, or if she will vote at all (measurement errors)? The Literary Digest poll in the 1936 presidential election and the professional polls in the 1948 presidential election illustrate these problems.
Confouding variables, measurement errors and other causes often lead to selection bias , which means that the sample does not represent the population with respect to the inferential question at hand. Often randomization is used to overcome the effects of confounding variables and measurement errors.
Random Samples
The most common and important special case of the inferential statistical model occurs when the observation variable
\[ \bs{X} = (X_1, X_2, \ldots, X_n) \]
is a sequence of independent and identically distributed random variables. Again, in the standard sampling model, \(X_i\) is itself a vector of measurements for the \(i\)th object in the sample, and thus, we think of \((X_1, X_2, \ldots, X_n)\) as independent copies of an underlying measurement vector \(X\). In this case, \((X_1, X_2, \ldots, X_n)\) is said to be a random sample of size \(n\) from the distribution of \(X\).
Variables
The mathematical operations that make sense for variable in a statistical experiment depend on the type and level of measurement of the variable.
Type
Recall that a real variable \(x\) is continuous if the possible values form an interval of real numbers. For example, the weight variable in the M&M data set, and the length and width variables in Fisher's iris data are continuous. In contrast, a discrete variable is one whose set of possible values forms a discrete set. For example, the counting variables in the M&M data set, the type variable in Fisher's iris data, and the denomination and suit variables in the card experiment are discrete. Continuous variables represent quantities that can, in theory, be measured to any degree of accuracy. In practice, of course, measuring devices have limited accuracy so data collected from a continuous variable are necessarily discrete. That is, there is only a finite (but perhaps very large) set of possible values that can actually be measured. So, the distinction between a discrete and continuous variable is based on what is theoretically possible, not what is actually measured. Some additional examples may help:
- A person's age is usually given in years. However, one can imagine age being given in months, or weeks, or even (if the time of birth is known to a sufficient accuracy) in seconds. Age, whether of devices or persons, is usually considered to be a continuous variable.
- The price of an item is usually given (in the US) in dollars and cents, and of course, the smallest monetary object in circulation is the penny ($0.01). However, taxes are sometimes given in mills ($0.001), and one can imagine smaller divisions of a dollar, even if there are no coins to represent these divisions. Measures of wealth are usually thought of as continuous variables.
- On the other hand, the number of persons in a car at the time of an accident is a fundamentally discrete variable.
Levels of Measurement
A real variable \(x\) is also distinguished by its level of measurement .
Qualitative variables simply encode types or names , and thus few mathematical operations make sense, even if numbers are used for the encoding. Such variables have the nominal level of measurement . For example, the type variable in Fisher's iris data is qualitative. Gender, a common variable in many studies of persons and animals, is also qualitative. Qualitative variables are almost always discrete; it's hard to imagine a continuous infinity of names.
A variable for which only order is meaningful is said to have the ordinal level of measurement; differences are not meaningful even if numbers are used for the encoding. For example, in many card games, the suits are ranked, so the suit variable has the ordinal level of measurement. For another example, consider the standard 5-point scale (terrible, bad, average, good, excellent) used to rank teachers, movies, restaurants etc.
A quantitative variable for which difference , but not ratios are meaningful is said to have the interval level of measurement. Equivalently, a variable at this level has a relative, rather than absolute, zero value. Typical examples are temperature (in Fahrenheit or Celsius) or time (clock or calendar).
Finally, a quantitative variable for which ratios are meaningful is said to have the ratio level of measurement. A variable at this level has an absolute zero value. The count and weight variables in the M&M data set, and the length and width variables in Fisher's iris data are examples.
Subsamples
In the basic statistical model, subsamples corresponding to some of the variables can be constructed by filtering with respect to other variables. This is particularly common when the filtering variables are qualitative. Consider the cicada data for example. We might be interested in the quantitative variables body weight, body length, wing width, and wing length by species , that is, separately for species 0, 1, and 2. Or, we might be interested in these quantitative variables by gender , that is separately for males and females.
Exercises
Study Michelson's experiment to measure the velocity of light.
- Is this a designed experiment or an observational study?
- Classify the velocity of light variable in terms of type and level of measurement.
- Discuss possible confounding variables and problems with measurement errors.
Answer
- Designed experiment
- Continuous, interval. The level of measurement is only interval because the recorded variable is the speed of light in \(\text{km} / \text{hr}\) minus \(299\,000\) (to make the numbers simpler). The actual speed in \(\text{km} / \text{hr}\) is a continuous, ratio variable.
Study Cavendish's experiment to measure the density of the earth.
- Is this a designed experiment or an observational study?
- Classify the density of earth variable in terms of type and level of measurement.
- Discuss possible confounding variables and problems with measurement errors.
Answer
- Designed experiment
- Continuous, ratio.
Study Short's experiment to measure the parallax of the sun.
- Is this a designed experiment or an observational study?
- Classify the parallax of the sun variable in terms of type and level of measurement.
- Discuss possible confounding variables and problems with measurement errors.
Answer
- Observational study
- Continuous, ratio.
In the M&M data, classify each variable in terms of type and level of measurement.
Answer
Each color count variable: discrete, ratio; Net weight: continuous, ratio
In the Cicada data, classify each variable in terms of type and level of measurement.
Answer
Body weight, wing length, wing width, body length: continuous, ratio. Gender, type: discrete, nominal
In Fisher's iris data, classify each variable in terms of type and level of measurement.
Answer
Petal width, petal length, sepal width, sepal length: continuous, ratio. Type: discrete, nominal
Study the Challenger experiment to explore the relationship between temperature and O-ring erosion.
- Is this a designed experiment or an observational study?
- Classify each variable in terms of type and level of measurement.
- Discuss possible confounding variables and problems with measurement errors.
Answer
- Observational study
- Temperature: continuous, interval; Erosion: continuous, ratio; Damage index: discrete, ordinal
In the Vietnam draft data, classify each variable in terms of type and level of measurement.
Answer
Birth month: discrete, interval; Birth day: discrete, interval
In the two SAT data sets, classify each variable in terms of type and level of measurement.
Answer
SAT math and verbal scores: probably continuous, ratio; State: discrete, nominal; Year: discrete, interval
Study the Literary Digest experiment to to predict the outcome of the 1936 presidential election.
- Is this a designed experiment or an observational study?
- Classify each variable in terms of type and level of measurement.
- Discuss possible confounding variables and problems with measurement errors.
Answer
- designed experiment, although poorly designed
- State: discrete, nominal; Electoral votes: discrete, ratio; Landon count: discrete, ratio; Roosevelt count: discrete, ratio
Study the 1948 polls to predict the outcome of the presidential election between Truman and Dewey. Are these designed experiments or an observational studies?
Answer
Designed experiments, but poorly designed
Study Pearson's experiment to explore the relationship between heights of fathers and heights of sons.
- Is this a designed experiment or an observational study?
- Classify each variable in terms of type and level of measurement.
- Discuss possible confounding variables.
Answer
- Observational study
- height of the father: continuous ratio; height of the son: continuous ratio
Study the Polio field trials.
- Are these designed experiments or observational studies?
- Identify the essential variables and classify each in terms of type and level of measurement.
- Discuss possible confounding variables and problems with measurement errors.
Answer
- designed experiments
- vacination status: discrete, nominal; Polio status: discrete, nominal
Identify the parameters in each of the following:
- Buffon's Coin Experiment
- Buffon's Needle Experiment
- the Bernoulli trials model
- the Poisson model
Answer
- radius of the coin
- length of the needle
- probability of success
- rate of arrivals
Note the parameters for each of the following families of special distributions:
- the normal distribution
- the gamma distribution
- the beta distribution
- the Pareto distribution
- the Weibull distribution
Answer
- mean \(\mu\) and standard deviation \(\sigma\)
- shape parameter \(k\) and scale parameter \(b\)
- left parameter \(a\) and right parameter \(b\)
- shape parameter \(a\) and scale parameter \(b\)
- shape parameter \(k\) and scale parameter \(b\)
During World War II, the Allies recorded the serial numbers of captured German tanks. Classify the underlying serial number variable by type and level of measurement.
Answer
discrete, ordinal.
For a discussion of how the serial numbers were used to estimate the total number of tanks, see the section on Order Statistics in the chapter on Finite Sampling Models.


13.3: Simple Dice Games
In this section, we will analyze several simple games played with dice— poker dice , chuck-a-luck , and high-low . The casino game craps is more complicated and is studied in the next section.
Poker Dice
Definition
The game of poker dice is a bit like standard poker, but played with dice instead of cards. In poker dice, 5 fair dice are rolled. We will record the outcome of our random experiment as the (ordered) sequence of scores: \[\bs{X} = (X_1, X_2, X_3, X_4, X_5)\] Thus, the sample space is \(S = \{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6\}^5\). Since the dice are fair, our basic modeling assumption is that \(\bs{X}\) is a sequence of independent random variables and each is uniformly distributed on \(\{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6\}\).
Equivalently, \(\bs{X}\) is uniformly distributed on \(S\): \[\P(\bs{X} \in A) = \frac{\#(A)}{\#(S)}, \quad A \subseteq S\]
In statistical terms, a poker dice hand is a random sample of size 5 drawn with replacement and with regard to order from the population \(D = \{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6\}\). For more on this topic, see the chapter on Finite Sampling Models. In particular, in this chapter you will learn that the result of Exercise 1 would not be true if we recorded the outcome of the poker dice experiment as an unordered set instead of an ordered sequence.
The Value of the Hand
The value \(V\) of the poker dice hand is a random variable with support set \(\{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6\}\). The values are defined as follows:
- None alike . Five distinct scores occur.
- One Pair . Four distinct scores occur; one score occurs twice and the other three scores occur once each.
- Two Pair . Three distinct scores occur; one score occurs twice and the other three scores occur once each.
- Three of a Kind . Three distinct scores occur; one score occurs three times and the other two scores occur once each.
- Full House . Two distinct scores occur; one score occurs three times and the other score occurs twice.
- Four of a king . Two distinct scores occur; one score occurs four times and the other score occurs once.
- Five of a kind . Once score occurs five times.
Run the poker dice experiment 10 times in single-step mode. For each outcome, note that the value of the random variable corresponds to the type of hand, as given above.
The Probability Density Function
Computing the probability density function of \(V\) is a good exercise in combinatorial probability. In the following exercises, we will need the two fundamental rules of combinatorics to count the number of dice sequences of a given type: the multiplication rule and the addition rule. We will also need some basic combinatorial structures, particularly combinations and permutations (with types of objects that are identical).
The number of different poker dice hands is \(\#(S) = 6^5 = 7776\).
\(\P(V = 0) = \frac{720}{7776} = 0.09259\).
Proof
Note that the dice scores form a permutation of size 5 from \(\{1, 2, 3, 4, 5\}\).
\(\P(V = 1) = \frac{3600}{7776} \approx 0.46296\).
Proof
The following steps form an algorithm for generating poker dice hands with one pair. The number of ways of performing each step is also given:
- Select the score that will appear twice: \(6\)
- Select the 3 scores that will appear once each: \(\binom{5}{3}\)
- Select a permutation of the 5 numbers in parts (a) and (b): \(\binom{5}{2, 1, 1, 1}\)
\(\P(V = 2) = \frac{1800}{7776} \approx 0.23148\).
Proof
The following steps form an algorithm for generating poker dice hands with two pair. The number of ways of performing each step is also given:
- Select two scores that will appear twice each: \(\binom{6}{2}\)
- Select the score that will appear once: \(4\)
- Select a permutation of the 5 numbers in parts (a) and (b): \(\binom{5}{2, 2, 1}\)
\(\P(V = 3) = \frac{1200}{7776} \approx 0.15432\).
Proof
The following steps form an algorithm for generating poker dice hands with three of a kind. The number of ways of performing each step is also given:
- Select the score that will appear 3 times: \(6\)
- Select the 2 scores that will appear once each: \(\binom{5}{2}\)
- Select a permutation of the 5 numbers in parts (a) and (b): \(\binom{5}{3, 1, 1}\)
\(\P(V = 4) = \frac{300}{7776} \approx 0.03858\).
Proof
The following steps form an algorithm for generating poker dice hands with a full house. The number of ways of performing each step is also given:
- Select the score that will appear 3 times: \(6\)
- Select the score that will appear twice: \(5\)
- Select a permutation of the 5 numbers in parts (a) and (b): \(\binom{5}{3, 2}\)
\(\P(V = 5) = \frac{150}{7776} = 0.01929\).
Proof
The following steps form an algorithm for generating poker dice hands with four of a kind. The number of ways of performing each step is also given:
- Select the score that will appear 4 times: \(6\)
- Select the score that will appear once: 5
- Select a permutation of the 5 numbers in parts (a) and (b): \(\binom{5}{4, 1}\)
\(\P(V = 6) = \frac{6}{7776} \approx 0.00077\).
Proof
There are 6 choices for the score that will appear 5 times.
Run the poker dice experiment 1000 times and compare the relative frequency function to the density function.
Find the probability of rolling a hand that has 3 of a kind or better.
Answer
0.2130
In the poker dice experiment, set the stop criterion to the value of \(V\) given below. Note the number of hands required.
- \(V = 3\)
- \(V = 4\)
- \(V = 5\)
- \(V = 6\)
Chuck-a-Luck
Chuck-a-luck is a popular carnival game, played with three dice. According to Richard Epstein, the original name was Sweat Cloth , and in British pubs, the game is known as Crown and Anchor (because the six sides of the dice are inscribed clubs, diamonds, hearts, spades, crown and anchor). The dice are over-sized and are kept in an hourglass-shaped cage known as the bird cage . The dice are rolled by spinning the bird cage.
Chuck-a-luck is very simple. The gambler selects an integer from 1 to 6, and then the three dice are rolled. If exactly \(k\) dice show the gambler's number, the payoff is \(k : 1\). As with poker dice, our basic mathematical assumption is that the dice are fair, and therefore the outcome vector \(\bs{X} = (X_1, X_2, X_3)\) is uniformly distributed on the sample space \(S = \{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6\}^3\).
Let \(Y\) denote the number of dice that show the gambler's number. Then \(Y\) has the binomial distribution with parameters \(n = 3\) and \(p = \frac{1}{6}\): \[\P(Y = k) = \binom{3}{k} \left(\frac{1}{6}\right)^k \left(\frac{5}{6}\right)^{3 - k}, \quad k \in \{0, 1, 2, 3\}\]
Let \(W\) denote the net winnings for a unit bet. Then
- \(W = - 1\) if \(Y = 0\)
- \(W = Y\) if \(Y \gt 0\)
The probability density function of \(W\) is given by
- \(\P(W = -1) = \frac{125}{216}\)
- \(\P(W = 1) = \frac{75}{216}\)
- \(\P(W = 2) = \frac{15}{216}\)
- \(\P(W = 3) = \frac{1}{216}\)
Run the chuck-a-luck experiment 1000 times and compare the empirical density function of \(W\) to the true probability density function.
The expected value and variance of \(W\) are
- \(\mathbb{E}(W) = -\frac{17}{216} \approx 0.0787\)
- \(\text{var}(W) = \frac{75815}{46656} \approx 1.239\)
Run the chuck-a-luck experiment 1000 times and compare the empirical mean and standard deviation of \(W\) to the true mean and standard deviation. Suppose you had bet $1 on each of the 1000 games. What would your net winnings be?
High-Low
In the game of high-low , a pair of fair dice are rolled. The outcome is
- high if the sum is 8, 9, 10, 11, or 12.
- low if the sum is 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6
- seven if the sum is 7
A player can bet on any of the three outcomes. The payoff for a bet of high or for a bet of low is \(1:1\). The payoff for a bet of seven is \(4:1\).
Let \(Z\) denote the outcome of a game of high-low. Find the probability density function of \(Z\).
Answer
\(\P(Z = h) = \frac{15}{36}\), \(\P(Z = l) = \frac{15}{36}\), \(\P(Z = s) = \frac{6}{36}\), where \(h\) denotes high, \(l\) denotes low, and \(s\) denotes seven.
Let \(W\) denote the net winnings for a unit bet. Find the expected value and variance of \(W\) for each of the three bets:
- high
- low
- seven
Answer
Let \(W\) denote the net winnings on a unit bet in high-low.
- Bet high: \(\E(W) = -\frac{1}{6}\), \(\var(W) = \frac{35}{36}\)
- Bet low: \(\E(W) = -\frac{1}{6}\), \(\var(W) = \frac{35}{36}\)
- Bet seven: \(\E(W) = -\frac{1}{6}\), \(\var(W) = \frac{7}{2}\)


2.4: Threaded Fasteners, Drivers, Pliers and Wrenches
Threaded Fasteners
Selecting the appropriate fastener for a particular application involves considering many factors to include: functionality, strength and durability, exposure to natural elements, and aesthetics.While most bolts and many screws are designed for the head to press firmly against flat surfaces of materials and parts, screws with tapered or bugle style heads are manufactured to be countersunk even with or below material surfaces. Screws, bolts and other threaded fastener accessories are normally made of brass; or mild, hardened or stainless steel; or plastics in some designed for lighter and cosmetic applications. In many cases, threaded fasteners are treated with processes such as galvanization, electroplated phosphate, or chemical primers such as zinc oxide.
Screws are taper tipped and threaded in a manner that helps wood, or other materials, draw together as the screw is inserted. They are used in place of nails when stronger joining power is needed. A screw makes its own thread pattern in the material.  Also the slots or drive types of screws are available in a wide variety (slotted, Phillips, Robertson, square, Pozidrive®, etc.).
Query \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Bolts are male threaded fasteners that require a female threaded counterpart (a “nut” or a threaded hole in a material) in order to secure themselves. Nuts and bolts allow for future disassembly and when used with flat and locking style washers, provide strong mechanical bonds and stability. These threaded fasteners are available in coarse and fine thread configurations which are recognized by the amount of threads per inch (tpi) in SAE fasteners and by pitch in metric fasteners. Cap head and stove type bolts are also rated by their hardness or shear strength. Various cast or embossed markings can be found on the head of these kinds of bolts, with each type of marking symbolizing a bolt’s capacity.
Specialty Anchors
Specialty anchors such as eye hooks, J-hooks for drywall, masonry, tile, wood, and other materials are available in both screw and bolt designs.
Tap and Die sets can be used to thread materials to accept another fastener. Taps are tools made to cut female threads while Dies are tools designed to cut male threads on round stock materials. It is important that the drilled hole size for tapping, or the diameter of the material to be threaded with a die, be of a specific size and tolerance so that the final threaded product fits properly. Taps and dies are also individually available in each machine fastener diameter and thread count.
Query \(\PageIndex{1}\)
All of the fasteners listed above require tool to tighten when assembling projects and loosen them when disassembly is required. Drivers, pliers and wrenches facilitate the assembly of items with threaded objects such as nuts, bolts, screws, plumbing and electrical fittings and pipes. Various styles of pliers can also be used to cut, bend, pull and crimp materials and mechanical fittings. While the proper selection of tools for particular fastener or fitting will result in easier and more rapid assembly and disassembly of projects, improper tool selection may result in material, parts, and tool damage, lost time, and possible injury.
Drivers
Query \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Pliers
Pliers are primarily used to grip objects that utilize leverage. Different configurations of the jaw are also used to grip, turn, pull, crimp and sometimes cut a variety of things. Many types are commonly identified by a manufacturer brand or model name and used by workers in multiple construction trades fields (Channellock® is a registered trademark for a manufacturer that makes numerous styles of tools, however tongue and groove pliers are commonly referred to as channel-lock pliers).
Query \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Wrenches
Wrenches can be used to turn bolts, nuts, or other hard to turn items. Wrenches provide excellent leverage compared to pliers, and most are designed to fit specific sized fasteners. The choice of an appropriate wrench depends upon the torque or leverage required to perform a function or the design of a fastener. The wrong choice of a wrench for a task can cause slipping of the wrench, damage materials and parts, and result in bodily injury. As nuts, bolts, and fasteners are offered in standardized fractional (SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) and metric (millimeter or mm.) sizes, most wrenches are designed to fit hexagonal (six-sided) or hex fasteners and mechanical fittings. Wrenches can be purchased either individually or in sets based on style or combinations of styles.
Query \(\PageIndex{1}\)
TOOL TIPS:
- Only use bits and sockets rated for impact use with impact drivers and impact wrenches. Non-impact tools are made of materials that can crack, break, or shatter when used with impact tools.
- Apply a penetrating oil according to manufacturer directions to rusted fasteners prior to trying to loosen them.
- “Stuck” or rusted nuts, bolts, and screws can sometimes be freed by striking them sharply on the head with a steel punch.
- Traditional fasteners turn in a clockwise direction to tighten and counter-clockwise to loosen. Fasteners of this design are also known as “right-hand” threaded fasteners.
- Specialty fasteners required for certain mechanical applications turn counter-clockwise to tighten and clockwise to loosen. These are also referred to as “left-hand” threaded fasteners.


1.12: Resources for Instructors
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Resources for Instructors
Jeanette A. Laredo
Slides
Writing Prompts
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Compare and contrast the Gothic characteristics of The Castle of Otranto with either Vathek or The Monk. What makes these works Gothic? How does either Vathek or The Monk use or reinterpret the Gothic conventions of Walpole’s seminal text?
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Even though Coleridge himself wrote the Gothic poem, Christabel, he completely trashes The Monk in his review: What does Coleridge’s review of the Monk reveal about the schism between Romanticism and the Gothic? Do you agree or disagree with Coleridge? Explain your viewpoint and support your opinion with relevant quotes.
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The female Gothic gets a bad rap for explaining the supernatural. Can a novel still be Gothic without something truly supernatural? Why do you think writers of the female Gothic chose to explain the supernatural elements of their novels? Give examples from texts we have read this week to support your point of view.
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Frankenstein
is a highly structured—some critics would say artificial—text. Why do you think might Shelley have chosen this type of structure? Consider these reference points: a) Epistolary novel; b) Layered narratives; c) multiple points of view. Give examples from the text to support your viewpoint.


6.4: Issuing Stock for Non-Cash Assets
Stock may be issued for assets other than cash, such as services rendered, land, equipment, vehicles, accounts receivable, and inventory. This is more common in small corporations than in larger ones. The journal entries are similar to those for issuing stock for cash. In this case, the value of either the stock or the asset must be known. The assumption is that both the asset and the stock have the same value.
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Issued 10,000 shares of $20 par common stock for land. The fair market value of the stock is $20 per share.
Account Debit Credit ▲ Land 200,000 (10,000 x $20) - Value of the land ▲ Common Stock 200,000 (10,000 x $20) - Stock issued at par value When issuing stock for non-cash assets, it is assumed the value of the asset (land) and the value of the stock are equal. Notice that the par value equals the issue price per share. The value of the stock can be calculated and the value of the land is set equal to that same amount.
▲ Land is an asset account that is increasing .
▲ Common Stock is a stockholders’ equity account that is increasing .
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Issued 10,000 shares of $20 par common stock for land. The fair market value of the stock is $25 per share.
Account Debit Credit ▲ Land 250,000 (10,000 x $25) - Value of the land ▲ Common Stock 200,000 (10,000 x $20) - Stock issued at par value ▲ Paid-in Capital in Excess of Par - Common Stock 50,000 (10,000 x $ 5) - Premium on the common stock issued The value of the stock ($25 per share) is given; the value of the land equals that of the stock. Remember, the Common Stock account can only be credited for the par value per share. The Paid-in Capital in Excess of Par - Common Stock account is used for the difference between the value of the land and the stock’s total par value.
▲ Land is an asset account that is increasing .
▲ Common Stock is a stockholders’ equity account that is increasing .
▲ Paid-in Capital in Excess of Par - Common Stock is a stockholders’ equity account that is increasing .
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Issued 10,000 shares of $20 par common stock for land. The fair market value of the land is $250,000.
Account Debit Credit ▲ Land 250,000 $250,000 - Value of the land ▲ Common Stock 200,000 (10,000 x $20) - Stock issued at par value ▲ Paid-in Capital in Excess of Par - Common Stock 50,000 $250,000 - 200,000 - Premium on the common stock issued The value of the land is given; the value of the stock equals that of the land. Remember, the Common Stock account can only be credited for the par value per share. The Paid-in Capital in Excess of Par - Common Stock account is usedfor the difference between the value of the land and the stock’s total par value.
▲ Land is an asset account that is increasing .
▲ Common Stock is a stockholders’ equity account that is increasing .
▲ Paid-in Capital in Excess of Par - Common Stock is a stockholders’ equity account that is increasing.
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Issued 1,000 shares of $10 par common stock for services provided by an attorney. The fair market value of the stock is $10 per share.
Account Debit Credit ▲ Organization Costs 10,000 (1,000 x $10) - Value of the services provided ▲ Common Stock 10,000 (1,000 x $10) - Stock issued at par value Organization Costs are expenses incurred to start a business, such as legal fees. This is an asset account. Sometimes the service providers are given stock rather than cash for their services. When issuing stock for non-cash assets, it is assumed the value of the asset (organization costs) and the value of the stock that is issued are equal. Notice that the par value equals the issue price per share.
▲ Organization Costs is an asset account that is increasing .
▲ Common Stock is a stockholders’ equity account that is increasing .
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Issued 1,000 shares of $10 par common stock for services provided by an engineer. The fair market value of the stock is $12 per share.
Account Debit Credit ▲ Organization Costs 12,000 (1,000 x $12) - Value of the land ▲ Common Stock 10,000 (1,000 x $10) - Stock issued at par value ▲ Paid-in Capital in Excess of Par - Common Stock 2,000 (1,000 x $ 2) - Premium on the common stock issued The market value per share of the stock, $12, is given. Therefore, the value of the organization costs can be calculated by multiplying the $12 times the number of shares issued. Remember, the Common Stock account can only be credited for the par value of $10 per share, so the Paid-in Capital in Excess of Par - Common Stock account is used for the $2 per share difference.
▲ Organization Costs is an asset account that is increasing .
▲ Common Stock is a stockholders’ equity account that is increasing .
▲ Paid-in Capital in Excess of Par - Common Stock is a stockholders’ equity account that is increasing .


14.1: Chapter Introduction
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Yoga and Buddhism are vast subjects, spanning many thousands of years, and they are amazing philosophies. But, are they philosophy or religion? They both certainly have significant religious overtones, and are considered to be religions by many people. Actually, however, they are styles of life that developed in order to help people be more in tune with their religion and with God. Yoga, which means unity, was a practice that developed within the Hindu religion to help Hindus achieve unity with God. So it developed as a practice in one’s daily life that led to religious fulfillment. The Buddha was a Yogi, and did not consider himself to be different than other people. His followers, however, have so fervently held to his teachings that the practice of Buddhism is often viewed as a religion, and over time it became mixed with religious stories and myths, as people tried to fit Buddhism into their traditional culture.
We will look at Yoga and Buddhism as lifestyles, which lead individuals toward a healthy psychological development. We will not be able to avoid the obvious religious and metaphysical overtones, nor should we try. It will actually be quite interesting to compare Yoga and Buddhism to the lifestyle philosophies of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (which cover at least the traditional religions of most American students), since Judaism, Christianity, and Islam certainly have no shortage of guidelines for living one’s daily life in the service of God. Indeed, Alice Bailey (1927), who has offered an inspiring commentary on the earliest teachings on Yoga, suggests that in order for students to have a complete picture of the fulfillment of the soul they need to have read three books: the Yoga Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita , the philosophy of which will be covered briefly in this chapter, and the New Testament , covered in the next chapter.
Before beginning this chapter and the next one, however, it should be noted that there are many translations of the classic books on Yoga and Buddhism and terminology varies from translation to translation. One must simply accept this, since the only alternative is for each one of us to learn all of the languages in which these books were written. In this chapter, we will only be exploring the basic concepts of these different perspectives on human nature and intentional personality development.
Toward the end of each section we will take a look at how Yoga and Buddhism have influenced America and Western psychology. Quite a lot has been written on this topic, including works by some of the most famous personality theorists (Freud, Jung, Fromm, James, etc.). However, only recently has there been sufficient interest in the field of personality for these discussions to start becoming more common. Since religion and spirituality are an important aspect of positive psychology, which is itself a rapidly growing force in psychology, it is likely that knowledge of the overlap between Yoga, Buddhism, and other spiritual aspects of human nature and personality theory will continue to grow.


12.6: Editing Focus- Integrating Sources and Quotations
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Apply citation conventions systematically in your work, understanding the concepts of intellectual property that motivate documentation conventions.
- Compose texts that integrate the writer’s ideas with those from appropriate sources.
Direct quotations are most effective when you integrate them smoothly into the flow of your paper. You can do this by introducing the source and reason for the quotation in a phrase or sentence. Readers should be able to follow your meaning easily and to understand the relevance of the quotation immediately.
Introduce Quotations
Because readers need to know who is speaking, introduce quoted material with a signal phrase (sometimes called an attributory phrase). A signal phrase is a word or group of words that introduces borrowed or quoted material and informs readers of the source and purpose of the quotation. If the source is well-known, the name alone will be enough of a signal phrase. For example, a first-year student wrote, “Henry David Thoreau asserts in Walden, ‘The mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation’” (5).
If your paper focuses on the published work itself, introduce a quotation with the work’s title rather than the author’s name, as long as the reference is clear—for example, “ Walden sets forth one individual’s antidote against the ‘lives of quiet desperation’ led by the working class in mid-nineteenth-century America” (Thoreau 5). If either the author or the source is not well-known, introduce the quotation with a brief explanation to give readers enough context to understand the quotation—for example, “Mary Catherine Bateson, daughter of renown anthropologist Margaret Mead, has become, in her own right, a student of modem civilization.”
Select the Right Signal Phrase
Signal phrases ( https://openstax.org/r/signalphrases ) tell readers that the words or ideas that follow come from another source. Signal phrases often contain a verb that indicates the tone or intention of the author. To avoid monotony, vary the placement and words of the signal phrases you use. Note the differences, both slight and significant, in the following signal words and phrases as you integrate some of them into your draft:
| acknowledges | denies | points out |
| admits | emphasizes | refutes |
| agrees | endorses | reports |
| argues | follows up | reveals |
| asserts | grants | says |
| believes | illustrates | shows |
| claims | implies | states |
| comments | insists | suggests |
| concedes | maintains | thinks |
| concludes | notes | writes |
| declares | observes |
Quote Smoothly and Correctly
A direct quotation repeats an author’s or speaker’s exact words. Slight changes in wording are permitted, but these changes must be clearly marked.  Because using quotations that are too long can imply that you have little to say for yourself, use only the part of the quotation needed to make your point. Quotations should support your points, not say them for you.
To shorten a quotation to include only the most important information, integrate it smoothly and correctly into the body of your paragraph to provide minimal disruption for readers. Unless the source quoted is itself the topic of the paper (as in a literary interpretation), limit brief quotations to no more than two per page and long quotations to no more than one every three pages. The following examples illustrate both correct and incorrect use of quoted material.
Original Passage
According to one film critic, the plot is exciting, but most of the dialogue “has the energy and impact of day-old gruel, without sugar, spice, or raisins.” In fact, if I had to judge the film on dialogue alone, I’d say, “Save your money.” Most of the characters alternate between a low and intermittent mumble, like a distant helicopter with engine trouble, and garbled whoops, as though speaking in tongues. Perhaps this is the director’s way of trying to mask a cornucopia of cliché-ridden, monosyllabic utterances, which, I agree, are not worth audience. attention. Much of the acting is no better. However, some notable exceptions eclipse all the negatives of the script and the bit-part actors.
Omit or Substitute Words Judiciously
Cutting words for the sake of brevity is often useful, but do not distort meaning. Indicate omitted words by using ellipsis points (three dots within a sentence, four to indicate a complete sentence is being omitted). Use brackets ([ ]) to indicate any changes or additions.
Distorted Quotation
"The plot is exciting . . . the dialogue has . . . energy and impact."
The critic’s words are taken out of context. Negatives are removed, as are the critic’s dismissive comments about the film and the exceptions to the opinion.
Accurate Quotation
“The plot is exciting, but most of the dialogue ‘has the energy and impact of day-old gruel. . . .’ However, some notable exceptions eclipse all the negatives of the script.”
Quotation Marks for Short Quotations
Embed brief quotations in the main body of your paper, and enclose them in quotation marks. The previous examples in this section are brief and would be embedded within paragraphs as normal sentences. According to MLA style guidelines, a brief prose quotation consists of four or fewer typed lines; a brief poetry quotation consists of three or fewer typed lines.
Block Format for Long Quotations
Set quotations of more than four lines in block format. Block quotations are indented but spaced the same as the normal text. Format block quotations as follows:
- Introduce the quotation in the last line of normal text with a sentence that ends with a colon.
- Indent one half inch, and then begin the quotation.
- Do not use quotation marks, as the indentation signals direct quotation.
- Include the page number, in parentheses, after the end punctuation.
For example, this student writing on Thoreau used a block quotation from Walden to describe the scenery in the author’s own words:
The scenery of Walden is on a humble scale, and, though very beautiful, does not approach to grandeur, nor can it much concern one who has not long frequented it or lived by its shore; yet this pond is so remarkable for its depth and purity as to merit a particular description. It is a clear and deep green well, half a mile long and a mile and three quarters in circumference, and contains about sixty-one and a half acres; a perennial spring in the midst of pine and oak woods, without any visible inlet or outlet except by the clouds and evaporation (195).
Explain and Clarify Quotations
Sometimes you will need to explain a quotation’s relevance or meaning in the context of your discussion. For example, one student wrote, “In A Sand County Almanac , author Aldo Leopold invites modern urban readers to confront what they lose by living in the city and mentions the resulting ‘spiritual dangers’: ‘supposing that breakfast comes from the grocery and . . . heat comes from the furnace’ (6). Leopold sees city-dwellers as self-centered children, blissfully but dangerously unaware of how their basic needs are met.”
If you need to clarify what a word or reference means, write your definition or explanation and enclose it within square brackets.
Adjust for Clarity and Accuracy
A passage containing a quotation must follow all the rules of grammatical sentence structure: tenses should be consistent, verbs and subjects should agree, and so on. If the form of the quotation doesn’t quite fit the grammar of your own sentences, you can either quote less of the original source, change your sentences, or make a slight alteration in the quotation. For example, you might write, “Leopold writes that city dwellers assume ‘breakfast comes from the grocery’” or “Leopold writes that city dwellers ‘[suppose] that breakfast comes from the grocery.’” For more information on using quotations, see Editing Focus: Quotations and Quotations.
When to Quote
Reserve direct quotations for cases in which you cannot express ideas better yourself or when the exact words offer the strongest support for your ideas. Use quotations when the original words are especially precise, clear, powerful, or vivid, but ensure they do not substitute for your own thoughts.
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Precise.
Use quotations when the words are important in themselves or when the author makes fine but important distinctions.
“Government, even in its best state, is but a necessary evil: in its worst state, an intolerable one.”—Thomas Paine - Clear. Use quotations when the author’s ideas are complex and difficult to paraphrase. “Paragraphs tell readers how writers want to be read.”—William Blake
- Powerful. Use quotations when the words are especially authoritative and memorable. “You shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free.”—John 8:32, King James Version
- Vivid. Use quotations when the language is lively and colorful, when it reveals something of the author’s or speaker’s character. “A person who won’t read has no advantage over one who can’t read.”—Mark Twain