11.2: The Institutional Design of Congress
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Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the role of Congress in the U.S. constitutional system
- Define bicameralism
- Explain gerrymandering and the apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives
- Discuss the three kinds of powers granted to Congress
The origins of the U.S. Constitution and the convention that brought it into existence are rooted in failure—the failure of the Articles of Confederation. After only a handful of years, the states of the union decided that the Articles were simply unworkable. In order to save the young republic, a convention was called, and delegates were sent to assemble and revise the Articles. From the discussions and compromises in this convention emerged Congress in the form we recognize today. In this section, we will explore the debates and compromises that brought about the bicameral (two-chamber) Congress, made up of a House of Representatives and Senate. We will also explore the goals of bicameralism and how it functions. Finally, we will look at the different ways seats are apportioned in the two chambers.
The Great Compromise and the Basics of Bicameralism
Only a few years after the adoption of the Articles of Confederation, the republican experiment seemed on the verge of failure. States deep in debt were printing increasingly worthless paper currency, many were mired in interstate trade battles with each other, and in western Massachusetts, a small group of Revolutionary War veterans angry over the prospect of losing their farms broke into armed open revolt against the state, in what came to be known as Shays’ Rebellion. The conclusion many reached was that the Articles of Confederation were simply not strong enough to keep the young republic together. In the spring of 1787, a convention was called, and delegates from all the states (except Rhode Island, which boycotted the convention) were sent to Philadelphia to hammer out a solution to this central problem.
The meeting these delegates convened became known as the Constitutional Convention of 1787. Although its prescribed purpose was to revise the Articles of Confederation, a number of delegates charted a path toward disposing of the Articles entirely. Under the Articles, the national legislature had been made up of a single chamber composed of an equal number of delegates from each of the states. Large states, like Virginia, felt it would be unfair to continue with this style of legislative institution. As a result, Virginia’s delegates proposed a plan that called for bicameralism, or the division of legislators into two separate assemblies. In this proposed two-chamber Congress, states with larger populations would have more representatives in each chamber. Predictably, smaller states like New Jersey were unhappy with this proposal. In response, they issued their own plan, which called for a single-chamber Congress with equal representation and more state authority (Figure 11.2).
The storm of debate over how to allocate power between large and small states was eventually calmed by a third proposal. The Connecticut Compromise, also called the Great Compromise, proposed a bicameral congress with members apportioned differently in each house. The upper house, the Senate, was to have two members from each state. This soothed the fears of the small states. In the lower house, the House of Representatives, membership would be proportional to the population in each state. This measure protected the interests of the large states.
In the final draft of the U.S. Constitution, the bicameral Congress established by the convention of 1787 was given a number of powers and limitations. These are outlined in Article I ( Appendix B ). This article describes the minimum age of congresspersons (Section 2), requires that Congress meet at least once a year (Section 4), guarantees members’ pay (Section 6), and gives Congress the power to levy taxes, borrow money, and regulate commerce (Section 8). These powers and limitations were the Constitutional Convention’s response to the failings of the Articles of Confederation.
Although the basic design of the House and Senate resulted from a political deal between large and small states, the bicameral legislature established by the convention did not emerge from thin air. The concept had existed in Europe as far back as the medieval era. At that time, the two chambers of a legislature were divided based on class and designed to reflect different types of representation. The names of the two houses in the United Kingdom’s bicameral parliament still reflect this older distinction today: the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Likewise, those at the Constitutional Convention purposely structured the U.S. Senate differently from the House of Representatives in the hopes of encouraging different representative memberships in the two houses. Initially, for example, the power to elect senators was given to the state legislatures instead of to the voting public as it is now. The minimum age requirement is also lower for the House of Representatives: A person must be at least twenty-five years old to serve in the House, whereas one must be at least thirty to be a senator.
The bicameral system established at the Constitutional Convention and still followed today requires the two houses to pass identical bill s , or proposed items of legislation. This ensures that after all amending and modifying has occurred, the two houses ultimately reach an agreement about the legislation they send to the president. Passing the same bill in both houses is no easy feat, and this is by design. The framers intended there to be a complex and difficult process for legislation to become law. This challenge serves a number of important and related functions. First, the difficulty of passing legislation through both houses makes it less likely, though hardly impossible, that the Congress will act on fleeting instincts or without the necessary deliberation. Second, the bicameral system ensures that large-scale dramatic reform is exceptionally difficult to pass and that the status quo is more likely to win the day. This maintains a level of conservatism in government, something the landed elite at the convention preferred. Third, the bicameral system makes it difficult for a single faction or interest group to enact laws and restrictions that would unfairly favor it.
Link to Learning
The website of the U.S. Congress Visitor Center contains a number of interesting online exhibits and informational tidbits about the U.S. government’s “first branch” (so called because it is described in Article I of the Constitution).
Senate Representation and House Apportionment
The Constitution specifies that every state will have two senators who each serve a six-year term. Therefore, with fifty states in the Union, there are currently one hundred seats in the U.S. Senate. Senators were originally appointed by state legislatures, but in 1913, the Seventeenth Amendment was approved, which allowed for senators to be elected by popular vote in each state. Seats in the House of Representatives are distributed among the states based on each state’s population and each member of the House is elected by voters in a specific congressional district. Each state is guaranteed at least one seat in the House (Table 11.1).
| The 114th Congress | ||
|---|---|---|
| House of Representatives | Senate | |
| Total Number of Members | 435 | 100 |
| Number of Members per State | 1 or more, based on population | 2 |
| Length of Term of Office | 2 years | 6 years |
| Minimum Age Requirement | 25 | 30 |
Congressional apportionment today is achieved through the equal proportions method , which uses a mathematical formula to allocate seats based on U.S. Census Bureau population data, gathered every ten years as required by the Constitution. At the close of the first U.S. Congress in 1791, there were sixty-five representatives, each representing approximately thirty thousand citizens. Then, as the territory of the United States expanded, sometimes by leaps and bounds, the population requirement for each new district increased as well. Adjustments were made, but the roster of the House of Representatives continued to grow until it reached 435 members after the 1910 census. Ten years later, following the 1920 census and with urbanization changing populations across the country, Congress failed to reapportion membership because it became deadlocked on the issue. In 1929, an agreement was reached to permanently cap the number of seats in the House at 435.
Redistricting occurs every ten years, after the U.S. Census has established how many persons live in the United States and where. The boundaries of legislative districts are redrawn as needed to maintain similar numbers of voters in each while still maintaining a total number of 435 districts. Because local areas can see their population grow as well as decline over time, these adjustments in district boundaries are typically needed after ten years have passed. Currently, there are seven states with only one representative (Alaska, Delaware, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Vermont, and Wyoming), whereas the most populous state, California, has a total of fifty-three congressional districts (Figure 11.3).
The stalemate in the 1920s wasn’t the first time reapportionment in the House resulted in controversy (or the last). The first incident took place before any apportionment had even occurred, while the process was being discussed at the Constitutional Convention. Representatives from large slave-owning states believed their slaves should be counted as part of the total population. States with few or no slaves predictably argued against this. The compromise eventually reached allowed for each slave (who could not vote) to count as three-fifths of a person for purposes of congressional representation. Following the abolition of slavery and the end of Reconstruction, the former slave states in the South took a number of steps to prevent former slaves and their children from voting. Yet because these former slaves were now free persons, they were counted fully toward the states’ congressional representation.
Attempts at African American disenfranchisement continued until the civil rights struggle of the 1960s finally brought about the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The act cleared several final hurdles to voter registration and voting for African Americans. Following its adoption, many Democrats led the charge to create congressional districts that would enhance the power of African American voters. The idea was to create majority-minority districts within states, districts in which African Americans became the majority and thus gained the electoral power to send representatives to Congress.
While the strangely drawn districts succeeded in their stated goals, nearly quintupling the number of African American representatives in Congress in just over two decades, they have frustrated others who claim they are merely a new form of an old practice, gerrymandering. Gerrymandering is the manipulation of legislative district boundaries as a way of favoring a particular candidate. The term combines the word salamander, a reference to the strange shape of these districts, with the name of Massachusetts governor Elbridge Gerry, who in 1812, signed a redistricting plan designed to benefit his party. Despite the questionable ethics behind gerrymandering, the practice is legal, and both major parties have used it to their benefit. It is only when political redistricting appears to dilute the votes of racial minorities that gerrymandering efforts can be challenged under the Voting Rights Act (Figure 11.4). Other forms of gerrymandering are frequently employed in states where a dominant party seeks to maintain that domination. As we saw in the chapter on political parties, gerrymandering can be a tactic to draw district lines in a way that creates “safe seats” for a particular political party. In states like Maryland, these are safe seats for Democrats. In states like Louisiana, they are safe seats for Republicans.
Finding a Middle Ground
Racial Gerrymandering and the Paradox of Minority Representation
In Ohio, one skirts the shoreline of Lake Erie like a snake. In Louisiana, one meanders across the southern part of the state from the eastern shore of Lake Ponchartrain, through much of New Orleans and north along the Mississippi River to Baton Rouge. And in Illinois, another wraps around the city of Chicago and its suburbs in a wandering line that, when seen on a map, looks like the mouth of a large, bearded alligator attempting to drink from Lake Michigan.
These aren’t geographical features or large infrastructure projects. Rather, they are racially gerrymandered congressional districts. Their strange shapes are the product of careful district restructuring organized around the goal of enhancing the votes of minority groups. The alligator-mouth District 4 in Illinois, for example, was drawn to bring a number of geographically autonomous Latino groups in Illinois together in the same congressional district.
While the strategy of creating majority-minority districts has been a success for minorities’ representation in Congress, its long-term effect has revealed a disturbing paradox: Congress as a whole has become less enthusiastic about minority-specific issues. How is this possible? The problem is that by creating districts with high percentages of minority constituents, strategists have made the other districts less diverse. The representatives in those districts are under very little pressure to consider the interests of minority groups. As a result, they typically do not. 2
What changes might help correct this problem? Are majority-minority districts no longer an effective strategy for increasing minority representation in Congress? Are there better ways to achieve a higher level of minority representation?
Congressional Powers
The authority to introduce and pass legislation is a very strong power. But it is only one of the many that Congress possesses. In general, congressional powers can be divided into three types: enumerated, implied, and inherent. An enumerated power is a power explicitly stated in the Constitution. An implied power is one not specifically detailed in the Constitution but inferred as necessary to achieve the objectives of the national government. And an inherent power, while not enumerated or implied, must be assumed to exist as a direct result of the country’s existence. In this section, we will learn about each type of power and the foundations of legitimacy they claim. We will also learn about the way the different branches of government have historically appropriated powers not previously granted to them and the way congressional power has recently suffered in this process.
Article I, Section 8, of the U.S. Constitution details the enumerated powers of the legislature. These include the power to levy and collect taxes, declare war, raise an army and navy, coin money, borrow money, regulate commerce among the states and with foreign nations, establish federal courts and bankruptcy rules, establish rules for immigration and naturalization, and issue patents and copyrights. Other powers, such as the ability of Congress to override a presidential veto with a two-thirds vote of both houses, are found elsewhere in the Constitution (Article II, Section 7, in the case of the veto override). The first of these enumerated powers, to levy taxes, is quite possibly the most important power Congress possesses. Without it, most of the others, whether enumerated, implied, or inherent, would be largely theoretical. The power to levy and collect taxes, along with the appropriations power, gives Congress what is typically referred to as “the power of the purse” (Figure 11.5). This means Congress controls the money.
Some enumerated powers invested in the Congress were included specifically to serve as checks on the other powerful branches of government. These include Congress’s sole power to introduce legislation, the Senate’s final say on many presidential nominations and treaties signed by the president, and the House’s ability to impeach or formally accuse the president or other federal officials of wrongdoing (the first step in removing the person from office; the second step, trial and removal, takes place in the U.S. Senate). Each of these powers also grants Congress oversight of the actions of the president and his or her administration—that is, the right to review and monitor other bodies such as the executive branch. The fact that Congress has the sole power to introduce legislation effectively limits the power of the president to develop the same laws he or she is empowered to enforce. The Senate’s exclusive power to give final approval for many of the president’s nominees, including cabinet members and judicial appointments, compels the president to consider the needs and desires of Congress when selecting top government officials. Finally, removing a president from office who has been elected by the entire country should never be done lightly. Giving this responsibility to a large deliberative body of elected officials ensures it will occur only very rarely.
Despite the fact that the Constitution outlines specific enumerated powers, most of the actions Congress takes on a day-to-day basis are not actually included in this list. The reason is that the Constitution not only gives Congress the power to make laws but also gives it some general direction as to what those laws should accomplish. The “necessary and proper cause” directs Congress “to make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.” Laws that regulate banks, establish a minimum wage, and allow for the construction and maintenance of interstate highways are all possible because of the implied powers granted by the necessary and proper clause. Today, the overwhelming portion of Congress’s work is tied to the necessary and proper clause.
Finally, Congress’s inherent powers are unlike either the enumerated or the implied powers. Inherent powers are not only not mentioned in the Constitution, but they do not even have a convenient clause in the Constitution to provide for them. Instead, they are powers Congress has determined it must assume if the government is going to work at all. The general assumption is that these powers were deemed so essential to any functioning government that the framers saw no need to spell them out. Such powers include the power to control borders of the state, the power to expand the territory of the state, and the power to defend itself from internal revolution or coups. These powers are not granted to the Congress, or to any other branch of the government for that matter, but they exist because the country exists.
Finding a Middle Ground
Understanding the Limits of Congress’s Power to Regulate
One of the most important constitutional anchors for Congress’s implicit power to regulate all manner of activities within the states is the short clause in Article I, Section 8, which says Congress is empowered to “to regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with Indian Tribes.” The Supreme Court’s broad interpretation of this so-called commerce clause has greatly expanded the power and reach of Congress over the centuries.
From the earliest days of the republic until the end of the nineteenth century, the Supreme Court consistently handed down decisions that effectively broadened the Congress’s power to regulate interstate and intrastate commerce. 3 The growing country, the demands of its expanding economy, and the way changes in technology and transportation contributed to the shrinking of space between the states demanded that Congress be able to function as a regulator. For a short period in the 1930s when federal authority was expanded to combat the Great Depression, the Court began to interpret the commerce clause far more narrowly. But after this interlude, the court’s interpretation swung in an even-broader direction. This change proved particularly important in the 1960s, when Congress rolled back racial segregation throughout much of the South and beyond, and in the 1970s, as federal environmental regulations and programs took root.
But in United States v. Lopez , a decision issued in 1995, the Court changed course again and, for the first time in half a century, struck down a law as an unconstitutional overstepping of the commerce clause. 4 Five years later, the Court did it again, convincing many that the country may be witnessing the beginning of a rollback in Congress’s power to regulate in the states. When the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (also known as the ACA, or Obamacare) came before the Supreme Court in 2012, many believed the Court would strike it down. Instead, the justices took the novel approach of upholding the law based on the Congress’s enumerated power to tax, rather than the commerce clause. The decision was a shock to many. 5 And, by not upholding the law on the basis of the commerce clause, the Court left open the possibility that it would continue to pursue a narrower interpretation of the clause.
What are the advantages of the Supreme Court’s broad interpretation of the commerce clause? How do you think this interpretation affects the balance of power between the branches of government? Why are some people concerned that the Court’s view of the clause could change?
In the twentieth century, the modern tussle over power between the Congress and the president really began. There are two primary reasons this struggle emerged. First, as the country grew larger and more complex, the need for the government to assert its regulatory power grew. The executive branch, because of its hierarchical organization with the president at the top, is naturally seen as a more smoothly run governmental machine than the cumbersome Congress. This gives the president advantages in the struggle for power and indeed gives Congress an incentive to delegate authority to the president on processes, such as trade agreements and national monument designations, that would be difficult for the legislature to carry out. The second reason has to do with the president’s powers as commander-in-chief in the realm of foreign policy.
The twin disasters of the Great Depression in the 1930s and World War II, which lasted until the mid-1940s, provided President Franklin D. Roosevelt with a powerful platform from which to expand presidential power. His popularity and his ability to be elected four times allowed him to greatly overshadow Congress. As a result, Congress attempted to restrain the power of the presidency by proposing the Twenty-Second Amendment to the Constitution, which limited a president to only two full terms in office. 8 Although this limitation is a significant one, it has not held back the tendency for the presidency to assume increased power.
In the decades following World War II, the United States entered the Cold War, a seemingly endless conflict with the Soviet Union without actual war, and therefore a period that allowed the presidency to assert more authority, especially in foreign affairs. In an exercise of this increased power, in the 1950s, President Harry Truman effectively went around an enumerated power of Congress by sending troops into battle in Korea without a congressional declaration of war (Figure 11.6). By the time of the Kennedy administration in the 1960s, the presidency had assumed nearly all responsibility for creating foreign policy, effectively shutting Congress out.
Following the twin scandals of Vietnam and Watergate in the early 1970s, Congress attempted to assert itself as a coequal branch, even in creating foreign policy, but could not hold back the trend. The War Powers Resolution (covered in the foreign policy chapter) was intended to strengthen congressional war powers but ended up clarifying presidential authority in the first sixty days of a military conflict. The war on terrorism after 9/11 has also strengthened the president’s hand. Today, the seemingly endless bickering between the president and the Congress is a reminder of the ongoing struggle for power between the branches, and indeed between the parties, in Washington, DC. Presidential use of executive orders on domestic policy, and executive agreements on foreign policy, allowed in areas in which Congress has delegated authority to the president, have furthered this trend. When used, they replace legislation and treaties. 9


33.5: Why is this America?
“This is America” is both a statement and the name of a song by Childish Gambino aka Donald Glover. If you are within my generation, you have most likely heard the song if not read/watched videos interpreting the meaning and subliminal messages behind both the lyrics and the music video. When it first came out, it blew up on social media because it was a full-on, no-punches-pulled interpretation of America today and especially the treatment of the African American communities. It is still a very controversial song since it was a celebrity highlighting the deep-seated inequalities and racism within America than many choose to ignore. The song broke the image of America, the land of the free, and revealed the shattered truth of our country.
This relates back to early American literature in multiple ways with the most blatant one being a reference to Jim Crow, a racist caricature of a slave that catered to black stereotypes at the time.
This was later used to name the Jim Crow laws which were racial segregation laws that varied locally from state to state within the south. Glover brings up Jim Crow at the start of the song. Within the music video he walks up to a man with a sack over his head, takes the position Jim Crow has in the caricature and shoots the man in the head.
He then goes onto do jerky dance movements similar to those in minstrel shows, a type of popular entertainment in the early 1800s. These shows mocked black people within America and employed blackface (the practice of white people putting paint or soot on their face to appear as if they were black). Sometimes there was an all-black cast who worked under someone who was white, for similar reasons to why slave narratives had to be introduced/certified by someone who was white.
 Racism occurs within everyday life and the treatment of minorities. Even through slavery is abolished, white America stills “rules” and puts down minorities. We cash out on stereotypes in movies, books and even everyday life.
Racial inequality is also shown through the subliminal message within the age of the cars in the music video. It contrasts to most other music videos, especially within the same genre, that use the newest and flashiest cars today. These cars are from the seventies and eighties, all run-down and some are just abandoned in the background, with trash and belongings hanging out the window.
Another instance within the song that proves my point is the lyrics:
“You just a big dawg, yeah
I kenneled him in the backyard
No proper life to a dog
For a big dog”
In slave narrative and other texts about slavery, enslaved people are often referred to as property, dogs/animals and even furniture. While we could look at this snippet as Glover talking about actual dogs, he specifically used the spelling ‘dawg.’ This brings attention to the fact that he is talking about putting a man in the backyard and treating him as if he was a dog just like a slave-owner would do.
I think the biggest statement and connection to early American literature is actually the last four minutes of the song when Glover is running from an angry mob, a horrified look on his face. This perhaps references the terror and mobs that followed runaway slaves and any black man after the Emancipation Proclamation when the south was in an uproar and even for long after that. The specific image is of a black man running from a lynch mob is repeated over and over within American literature.
In the background of the music video, we can see black people getting shot, beaten and brutalized. The fact that this happens in the background suggests that this violence is minimized and pushed aside in American society. This is similar to what happens in early American literature where the suffering of slaves and even freed slaves is only briefly touched upon. Even in Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, this brutality occurs so often that it sometimes seems to be happening in the background. It makes one think of the normalization and pervasiveness of racial violence both then and now.
Lastly there is the connection between the authors of early American literature, especially slave narratives, and Glover. While written in a different time and context, slave narratives critiqued the brutality of slavery and highlighted the humanity of enslaved blacks. Glover is doing the same thing just in a different age and on a different platform. He is a young black artist who is calling attention to the racial inequalities and the violence falling on the black community through his forms of media as an actor, singer, and writer. Through all these connections and references, it is clear that the ties to early American literature still stand strong and help the authors of today bring emphasis to their own platforms and purpose.


6: The Normal Distribution
In this chapter, you will study the normal distribution, the standard normal distribution, and applications associated with them. The normal distribution has two parameters (two numerical descriptive measures), the mean (μ) and the standard deviation (σ).
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- 6.1: Prelude to The Normal Distribution
- The normal, a continuous distribution, is the most important of all the distributions. It is widely used and even more widely abused. Its graph is bell-shaped. In this chapter, you will study the normal distribution, the standard normal distribution, and applications associated with them. The normal distribution has two parameters (two numerical descriptive measures), the mean (μ) and the standard deviation (σ).
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- 6.2: The Standard Normal Distribution
- A z-score is a standardized value. Its distribution is the standard normal, Z∼N(0,1). The mean of the z-scores is zero and the standard deviation is one. If y is the z-score for a value x from the normal distribution N(μ,σ) then z tells you how many standard deviations x is above (greater than) or below (less than) μ.
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- 6.3: Using the Normal Distribution
- The normal distribution, which is continuous, is the most important of all the probability distributions. Its graph is bell-shaped. This bell-shaped curve is used in almost all disciplines. Since it is a continuous distribution, the total area under the curve is one. The parameters of the normal are the mean μ and the standard deviation σ. A special normal distribution, called the standard normal distribution is the distribution of z-scores. Its mean is zero, and its standard deviation is one.
Contributors and Attributions
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Barbara Illowsky and Susan Dean (De Anza College) with many other contributing authors. Content produced by OpenStax College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license. Download for free at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>.


2.3: Chairs (Kubbestols)
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Chair (
Kubbestol
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Norwegian-American Maker unknown, c. mid-1800s Wood, paint Little Norway Collection, Gift of Raymond & Margaret Vicker Charitable Trust MHAHS 2014.073.0003 |
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Chair, child-sized (
Kubbestol
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Norwegian-American Maker unknown, c. mid-1800s; decoration attributed to Per Lysne, c.1927 Wood, paint Little Norway Collection Gift of Raymond & Margaret Vicker Charitable Trust MHAHS 2014.073.0009 |
The kubbestol is a traditional Norwegian chair carved from a single section of a green log, or kubbe. It is first hollowed out and carved to shape the chair’s back. Then, after allowing the log to cure for several months, a piece of wood is cut and fitted into the hollow to form the seat where the chair back begins. The full circumference of the log is almost always left intact, with the trunk base used as a sturdy chair seat support, in lieu of legs. The diminutive size of the smaller chair displayed here is particularly unusual.
Kubbestols were traditionally set aside for the head of the household. But due to their large size and weight, they were not considered a necessity for immigration. These kubbestols were almost certainly made here in Wisconsin by recently settled immigrants.
For a complete essay on the child-sized kubbestol, click here.


24.0: Prelude to Fungi
The word fungus comes from the Latin word for mushrooms. Indeed, the familiar mushroom is a reproductive structure used by many types of fungi. However, there are also many fungi species that don't produce mushrooms at all. Being eukaryotes, a typical fungal cell contains a true nucleus and many membrane-bound organelles. The kingdom Fungi includes an enormous variety of living organisms collectively referred to as Eucomycota, or true Fungi. While scientists have identified about 100,000 species of fungi, this is only a fraction of the 1.5 million species of fungus likely present on Earth. Edible mushrooms, yeasts, black mold, and the producer of the antibiotic penicillin, Penicillium notatum , are all members of the kingdom Fungi, which belongs to the domain Eukarya.
Fungi, once considered plant-like organisms, are more closely related to animals than plants. Fungi are not capable of photosynthesis: they are heterotrophic because they use complex organic compounds as sources of energy and carbon. Some fungal organisms multiply only asexually, whereas others undergo both asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction with alternation of generations. Most fungi produce a large number of spores , which are haploid cells that can undergo mitosis to form multicellular, haploid individuals. Like bacteria, fungi play an essential role in ecosystems because they are decomposers and participate in the cycling of nutrients by breaking down organic materials to simple molecules.
Fungi often interact with other organisms, forming beneficial or mutualistic associations. For example most terrestrial plants form symbiotic relationships with fungi. The roots of the plant connect with the underground parts of the fungus forming mycorrhizae . Through mycorrhizae, the fungus and plant exchange nutrients and water, greatly aiding the survival of both species Alternatively, lichens are an association between a fungus and its photosynthetic partner (usually an alga). Fungi also cause serious infections in plants and animals. For example, Dutch elm disease, which is caused by the fungus Ophiostoma ulmi , is a particularly devastating type of fungal infestation that destroys many native species of elm ( Ulmus sp.) by infecting the tree’s vascular system. The elm bark beetle acts as a vector, transmitting the disease from tree to tree. Accidentally introduced in the 1900s, the fungus decimated elm trees across the continent. Many European and Asiatic elms are less susceptible to Dutch elm disease than American elms.
In humans, fungal infections are generally considered challenging to treat. Unlike bacteria, fungi do not respond to traditional antibiotic therapy, since they are eukaryotes. Fungal infections may prove deadly for individuals with compromised immune systems.
Fungi have many commercial applications. The food industry uses yeasts in baking, brewing, and cheese and wine making. Many industrial compounds are byproducts of fungal fermentation. Fungi are the source of many commercial enzymes and antibiotics.
Glossary
- spore
- a haploid cell that can undergo mitosis to form a multicellular, haploid individua
- mycorrhizae
- a mutualistic relationship between a plant and a fungus. Mycorrhizae are connections between fungal hyphae, which provide soil minerals to the plant, and plant roots, which provide carbohydrates to the fungus


1.1.10: Activity Coefficient- Two Neutral Solutes- Solute + Trace Solute i
A given solution is prepared using n1 moles of water(\(\lambda\)) together with \(n_{i}\) and \(n_{j}\) moles of neutral solutes \(i\) and \(j\) respectively at temperature \(\mathrm{T}\) and pressure \(p\) (which is close to the standard pressure \(p^{0}\)). The mass of water is \(\mathrm{n}_{1} \, \mathrm{M}_{1}\) where \(\mathrm{M}_{1}\) is the molar mass of water. Hence the molalities of solutes \(i\) and \(j\) are \(\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{i}} \left(=\mathrm{n}_{\mathrm{i}} / \mathrm{n}_{1} \, \mathrm{M}_{1}\right)\) and \( \mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}}\left(=\mathrm{n}_{\mathrm{j}} / \mathrm{n}_{1} \, \mathrm{M}_{1}\right)\) respectively. The chemical potential of water in the aqueous solution \(\mu_{1}(\mathrm{aq})\) is related to the molality of solutes using equation (a) where \(\phi\) is the practical osmotic coefficient and \(\mu_{1}^{*}(\lambda)\) is the chemical potential water(\(\lambda\)) at the same \(\mathrm{T}\) and \(p\).
\[\mu_{1}(\mathrm{aq})=\mu_{1}^{*}(\lambda)-\phi \, \mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \mathrm{M}_{1} \,\left(\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{i}}+\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}}\right) \nonumber \]
The chemical potentials of the two solutes, \(\mu_{\mathrm{i}}(\mathrm{aq})\) and \(\mu_{\mathrm{j}}(\mathrm{aq})\), are related to \(\mathrm{m}_{i}\) and \(\mathrm{m}_{j}\) together with corresponding activity coefficients, \(\gamma_{i}\) and \(\gamma_{j}\) using equations (b) and (c).
\[\mu_{\mathrm{i}}(\mathrm{aq})=\mu_{\mathrm{i}}^{0}(\mathrm{aq})+\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{i}} \, \gamma_{\mathrm{i}} / \mathrm{m}^{0}\right) \nonumber \]
\[\mu_{\mathrm{j}}(\mathrm{aq})=\mu_{\mathrm{j}}^{0}(\mathrm{aq})+\mathrm{R} \, \mathrm{T} \, \ln \left(\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}} \, \gamma_{\mathrm{j}} / \mathrm{m}^{0}\right) \nonumber \]
Here \(\mu_{i}^{0}(\mathrm{aq})\) is the reference chemical potential for solute \(i\) in a solution where \(\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}}=0 \mathrm{~mol} \mathrm{~kg}{ }^{-1}\), \(\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{i}}=1 \mathrm{~mol} \mathrm{~kg}\) and \(\gamma_{i} = 1\). A similar definition operates for solute \(j\). For the mixed solution at all \(\mathrm{T}\) and \(p\),
\[\operatorname{limit}\left(\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{i}} \rightarrow 0 ; \mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}} \rightarrow 0\right) \gamma_{\mathrm{i}}=1 \nonumber \]
\[\operatorname{limit}\left(\mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{i}} \rightarrow 0 ; \mathrm{m}_{\mathrm{j}} \rightarrow 0\right) \gamma_{\mathrm{j}}=1 \nonumber \]
In these terms, the thermodynamic properties of solute \(i\) are not ideal as a consequence of \(i-i\), \(j-j\) and \(i-j\) solute-solute interactions. A similar comment concerns the thermodynamic properties of solute \(j\). With increase in molalities \(\mathrm{m}_{i}\) and \(\mathrm{m}_{j}\), so the extent to which the thermodynamic properties deviate from ideal increases; i.e. for solute \(j\), \(\gamma_{j} \neq 1\) and for solute \(i\), \(\gamma{i} \neq 1\). Such deviations can be understood in terms of \(i-i\), \(j-j\), and \(i-j\) solute-solute interactions.
In some applications of this analysis, solute \(i\) is present in trace amounts and so \(\gamma_{i}\) in the absence of solute \(j\) would be close to unity. However as the molality of solute \(j\) is increased, the thermodynamic properties of solute \(i\) deviate increasingly from ideal as a result of solute \(i\) \(\rightleftarrows\) solute \(j\) interactions. This feature can be described [1,2] quantitatively using equation \((\mathrm{f})\) where \(\beta_{1}, \beta_{2} \ldots\) describe the role of pairwise i-j , triplet \(i-j-j \ldots \ldots\) solute-solute interactions.
\[\ln \left(\gamma_{i}\right)=\beta_{1} \,\left(m_{j} / m^{0}\right)+\beta_{2} \,\left(m_{j} / m^{0}\right)^{2}+\ldots \ldots \nonumber \]
Depending on the signs of the \(\beta\) - coefficients , added solute \(j\) can either stabilise or destabilise solute-\(i\); i.e. either lower or raise \(\mu_{i}(a q)\) relative to that in a solution having ideal thermodynamic properties.
Footnotes
[1] Based on an analysis suggested by C. Wagner, Thermodynamics of Alloys, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1952, pages 19-22.
[2] As quoted by G. N. Lewis and M. Randall, Thermodynamics, 2nd edn., revised by K. S. Pitzer and L Brewer, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1961, page 562.


7.1: Is it still the "three Rs"?
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Krista Olah
Learning Objectives
- recognize and understand the concepts of the original R's
- grasp the basic concepts of writing
- understand the differences between phonics and whole language
- decide if a piece of work is plagiarized
Introduction
Back in the 1800's, Sir William Curtis an alderman later dubbed Lord Mayor of London made a toast to the Board of Education(Sir William) about "reading, 'riting and 'rithmetic"(American Heritage). It is unknown if he pronounced the words inaccurately on purpose due to illiteracy or if he was trying to be ironic. Either way, the phrase was found intriguing and used by others. However, there are more subjects in today's schools, more and different jobs that involve technology and other medias than there was in the 1800's, so it's smart to say that the 'Three R's' have changed or expanded from just reading, writing, and arithmetic. Because of this teaching has changed as a whole, instead of focusing on teaching the original 'Three R's' we are now teaching multiple subjects.
Original Three R's
When Sir William Curtis introduced the 'Three R's', it was from then on assumed that reading, writing, and arithmetic would be the basis of education. One had to master these three subjects before he, and sometimes she, could move on in life and be successful. From there he could go into a profession and learn other subjects such as science, history, literature, etc. In modern times we are taught first how to count, recite the alphabet and recognize it. Afterwards, we expand to applying this knowledge into reading literature, studying history, investigating science, and others. From there we choose different electives to study more in depth leading us to our chosen careers.
Students should be able to absorb the 'Three R's' knowledge and use it. Basically being able to recite, recognize, and write letters' then form them into words. Finally, these words can become sentences, paragraphs, papers. Students also need to know how to count and calculate. From there they can solve mathematical problems that can help with medical, scientific, and technological breakthroughs. However there are certain rules and steps they need to follow in order to do these things properly.
Reading
The ongoing debate on how to teach to read is whether to use phonics, pronouncing the word by each syllable, or whole language, emphasizing the use and recognition of words in everyday context (whole language). The debate is whether to stress technique and mastery, phonics, or meaning and context, whole language (Roy). There are three sides to this, those supporting phonics, those in favor of whole language, and some who believe that reading should involve both ideas. "Research evidence also shows that a balanced approach works better for children learning to read" (Early).
Writing
Writing follows precise rules such as grammar, punctuation, capitalization, and spelling.
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Grammar includes:
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- Person, Place or Thing
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Subject, verbs and their agreement
- Fluffy and Babydoll are my pets.
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Pronouns
- I, You, He, She, It, We, They
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Adjectives
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Describe Nouns
- "sweet apple"; "ugly color"
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Describe Nouns
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Adverbs
- revise any word except for nouns and pronouns
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answers how, when, where
- "swam quickly"
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Punctuation includes:
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- Periods, Quotation Marks, Question Marks, Exclamation Points
- Colons, Parenthesis
- And many more
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Along with the writing rules, there is also a legal rule. Plagiarism, the use of one's words or ideas as your own without crediting them, in education betrays trust in the student and teacher, creates liars and dishonest people. Plagiarism is also theft, if caught you could face charges from failing the paper being arrested, having a record, and paying a fine. However, some may not realize that they are plagiarizing. Here are some tips on how to avoid it, always give credit when (Overview):
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- another person's ideas, opinions, or theories are used
- facts, statistics, graphics, drawings, music, etc.,is used and did not come from the government
- quoting
- paraphrasing
- giving a fact that is not common knowledge
Arithmetic
Math is important because we use it in everyday routines, such as(Importance):
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- Problem solving
- Budgeting money
- Time management
- Calculating tips and tax
- Memorizing phone numbers and locker combinations
- Estimating distances or weight
Fourth R and Beyond
In today's classrooms reading, writing, and arithmetic are still the basis for learning everyday subjects such as math, literature, history and science. However, knowledge in the classroom does not stop there but continues on into saving the environment, forming relationships, and expanding the creative side of your brain. If you were to go out into the world today and ask people what they thought the "Three R's' were you might be told multiple different things such as Relief, Recovery and Reform from the Great Depression; or Revenue, cost Reduction, and Regulations from a businessman (Three Rs). Although, these 'Three R's' do not relate to education another set does and that is reduce, recycle and reuse (Waste Hierarchy).
Reduce, Recycle, Reuse
It may not seem to be a part of education; however, teachers are always trying to teach their students to conserve and be a part of repairing the environment. Some schools, such as Southeastern Elementary in Chesapeake, Virginia, will have each grade level plant at least one tree every year. The students are being taught how to use scissors correctly and are praised when they waste as little paper as necessary. Teachers even come up with art ideas such as using old scraps of paper to form a collage.
Relationship
Teachers today want their students not only to be successful in technology and knowledge, but to be able to go out in the world and form a relationship with friends, family, boss, co-workers, future children, and future husband/wife.
Rhythm
Music is a part of everyday life. People listen to it in their car, at home, in movies, while trying to relax, at concerts, and much more. Music is a stress reliever and helps increase energy. Music cannot be made without rhythm. As a fourth R, Rhythm can also be used to help memorize a poem, or make a story interesting like in the movie "Renaissance Man".
Art
Art, Fine Art, is important because it brings knowledge to your brain, senses, and emotions, basically educating your soul. Art teaches many things such as observing reality, making judgments,understanding the human conditions, expressing values, training the mind, and uniting reason and emotion(Fourth R).
Some educators believe that one or more of the above should be added on to the 'Three R's'.
To Answer the Question
In my opinion, the basics of learning reside in the original "Three R's", however as time goes on we expand our knowledge. Since we are expanding our knowledge there are more lessons being taught. Some of these lessons have SOL's, Standards of Learning tests (state of Virginia)such as a being able to read the amount of liquid in a tube whereas others do not such as Recycle, Reduce and Reuse. Just like in the debate of phonic and whole language, it is the combination of all these things and more that make up education.
Reference List
Importance of Math Education. (2008, ). Retrieved September 21, 2008,
Harris, Kevin, . Collected Quotes from Albert Einstein. (1995, ). Retrieved September 21, 2008,
Learn to Read at Starfall. (2007). Retrieved September 28, 2008, from http://www.starfall.com/
NIEHS Kids Page—Recycling. Retrieved September 28, 2008, from http://kids.niehs.nih.gov/recycle.htm
Overview: How to Recognize Plagiarism; Indiana University Bloomington School of Education. (2005, June 21). Retrieved September 21, 2008, f
- from www.indiana.edu/~istd/overview.html
Roy, Kaustuv, . (2005). On Sense and Nonsense: Looking Beyond. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 39. Retrieved September 21, 2008,
Sir William Curtis 17 (2008, January 19). Retrieved September 21, 2008, from http://web.archive.org/web/20070429140050/http://members.cox.net/ggthomp/williamcurtis1752.html
- Ammer, Christine.
The Fourth "R" in Education: Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, and Art. (1998, ). Retrieved September 21, 2008,
- from www.artsreformation.com/a001/ay-arts-education.html
(Ed.) (1997). Three R's. In The American Heritage® Dictionary of Idioms (Vol. Third, pp. 656). : Houghton Mifflin Reference Books. :Retrieved September 21, 2008,
(Ed.)Three R's. In Wikipedia (Vol. , pp. )Retrieved September 21, 2008, from http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Rs
(Ed.)Waste Hierarchy. In Wikipedia (Vol. , pp. )Retrieved September 21, 2008, from http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_hierarchy
whole language. (n.d.). The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Retrieved October 5, 2008,
- from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/whole language
Xue, Yange, . (2004). Early Literacy Instruction and Learning. American Educational Research Journal, 41. Retrieved September 21, 2008,


7.15: Magnetic Energy
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Consider a structure exhibiting inductance; i.e., one that is able to store energy in a magnetic field in response to an applied current. This structure could be a coil, or it could be one of a variety of inductive structures that are not explicitly intended to be an inductor; for example, a coaxial transmission line. When current is applied, the current-bearing elements of the structure exert forces on each other. Since these elements are not normally free to move, we may interpret this force as potential energy stored in the magnetic field associated with the current (Section 7.12).
We now want to know how much energy is stored in this field. The answer to this question has relevance in several engineering applications. One issue is that any system that includes inductance is using some fraction of the energy delivered by the power supply to energize this inductance. In many electronic systems – in power systems in particular – inductors are periodically energized and de-energized at a regular rate. Since power is energy per unit time, this consumes power. Therefore, energy storage in inductors contributes to the power consumption of electrical systems.
The stored energy is most easily determined using circuit theory concepts. First, we note that the electrical potential difference \(v(t)\) (units of V) across an inductor is related to the current \(i(t)\) (units of A) through the inductor as follows (Section 7.12): \[v(t) = L\frac{d}{dt}i(t) \nonumber \] where \(L\) (units of H) is the inductance. The instantaneous power associated with the device is \[p(t) = v(t)i(t) \nonumber \] Energy (units of J) is power (units of J/s) integrated over time. Let \(W_m\) be the energy stored in the inductor. At some time \(t_0\) in the past, \(i(t_0)=0\) and \(W_m=0\). As current is applied, \(W_m\) increases monotonically. At the present time \(t\), \(i(t)=I\). Thus, the present value of the magnetic energy is: \[W_m = \int_{t_0}^{t_0+t} p(\tau) d\tau \nonumber \] Now evaluating this integral using the relationships established above:
\begin{aligned}
W_{m} &=\int_{t_{0}}^{t+t_{0}} v(\tau) i(\tau) d \tau \\
&=\int_{t_{0}}^{t+t_{0}}\left[L \frac{d}{d \tau} i(\tau)\right] i(\tau) d \tau \\
&=L \int_{t_{0}}^{t+t_{0}}\left[\frac{d}{d \tau} i(\tau)\right] i(\tau) d \tau
\end{aligned}
Changing the variable of integration from \(\tau\) (and \(d\tau\)) to \(i\) (and \(di\)) we have
\begin{aligned}
W_{m} &=L \int_{t_{0}}^{t+t_{0}} \frac{d i}{d \tau} i d \tau \\
&=L \int_{0}^{I} i d i
\end{aligned}
Evaluating the integral we obtain the desired expression \[\boxed{ W_m = \frac{1}{2}LI^2 } \label{m0127_eWm} \]
The energy stored in an inductor in response to a steady current \(I\) is Equation \ref{m0127_eWm}. This energy increases in proportion to inductance and in proportion to the square of current.
The long straight coil (Section 7.13) is representative of a large number of practical applications, so it is useful to interpret the above findings in terms of this structure in particular. For this structure we found \[L = \frac{\mu N^2 A}{l} \nonumber \] where \(\mu\) is the permeability, \(N\) is the number of windings, \(A\) is cross-sectional area, and \(l\) is length. The magnetic field intensity inside this structure is related to \(I\) by (Section 7.6): \[H = \frac{NI}{l} \nonumber \] Substituting these expressions into Equation \ref{m0127_eWm}, we obtain
\begin{aligned}
W_{m} &=\frac{1}{2}\left[\frac{\mu N^{2} A}{l}\right]\left[\frac{H l}{N}\right]^{2} \\
&=\frac{1}{2} \mu H^{2} A l
\end{aligned}
Recall that the magnetic field inside a long coil is approximately uniform. Therefore, the density of energy stored inside the coil is approximately uniform. Noting that the product \(Al\) is the volume inside the coil, we find that this energy density is \(W_m/Al\); thus: \[w_m = \frac{1}{2} \mu H^2 \label{m0127_eED} \] which has the expected units of energy per unit volume (J/m\(^3\)).
The above expression provides an alternative method to compute the total magnetostatic energy in any structure. Within a mathematical volume \({\mathcal V}\), the total magnetostatic energy is simply the integral of the energy density over \({\mathcal V}\); i.e., \[W_m = \int_{\mathcal V} w_m~dv \nonumber \] This works even if the magnetic field and the permeability vary with position. Substituting Equation \ref{m0127_eED} we obtain: \[\boxed{ W_m = \frac{1}{2} \int_{\mathcal V} \mu H^2 dv } \label{m0127_eEDV} \] Summarizing:
The energy stored by the magnetic field present within any defined volume is given by Equation \ref{m0127_eEDV}.
It’s worth noting that this energy increases with the permeability of the medium, which makes sense since inductance is proportional to permeability.
Finally, we reiterate that although we arrived at this result using the example of the long straight coil, Equations \ref{m0127_eED} and \ref{m0127_eEDV} are completely general.


27.9.8: Practice
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Review Questions
Answer the following statements as either true or false:
- Procedural programming and object-oriented programming cannot be done with the same compiler/IDE.
- Object-oriented programming encapsulates data and functions.
Answers:
- false
- true
Short Answer
- Describe the fundamental differences between procedural (modular structured) programming and object-oriented programming.
Activities
Complete the following activities using your selected programming language. Use separate functions for input, each type of processing, and output. Avoid global variables by passing parameters and returning results. Create test data to validate the accuracy of each program. Add comments at the top of the program and include references to any resources used.
- Review MathsIsFun: Area of Plane Shapes . Create a program that asks the user what shape they would like to calculate the area for. Use if/else conditional statements to determine their selection and then gather the appropriate input and calculate and display the area of the shape. Perform all area calculations using a ShapeArea class that has separate methods to calculate and return the area for different shapes. Include data validation in the class and error handling in the main program.
- Create a program that asks the user how old they are in years. Then ask the user if they would like to know how old they are in months, days, hours, or seconds. Use if/else conditional statements to display their approximate age in the selected timeframe. Perform all calculations using an AgeConverter class that accepts the age in years during initialization and has separate properties and methods to calculate and return the age in months, days, hours, and seconds. Include data validation in the class and error handling in the main program.
- Review Wikipedia: Zeller’s congruence. Create a program that asks the user for their birthday (year, month, and day) and then calculate and display the day of the week on which they were born. Use if/else conditional statements to convert the numeric day of the week to the correct string representation (Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, etc.). Perform all calculations using a DayOfWeek class that accepts the year, month, and day during initialization and has separate properties and methods to calculate and return the day of week as a number, as an abbreviated string (Mon, Tue, etc.), and as a full string (Monday, Tuesday, etc.). Include data validation in the class and error handling in the main program.
References
- cnx.org: Programming Fundamentals – A Modular Structured Approach using C++
- Wikiversity: Computer Programming


11.2.3: Evolution of Viruses
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- Boundless
- Boundless
Learning Objectives
- Describe the difficulties in determining the origin of viruses
Evolution of Viruses
Although biologists have accumulated a significant amount of knowledge about how present-day viruses evolve, much less is known about how viruses originated in the first place. When exploring the evolutionary history of most organisms, scientists can look at fossil records and similar historic evidence. However, viruses do not fossilize, so researchers must conjecture by investigating how today’s viruses evolve and by using biochemical and genetic information to create speculative virus histories.
While most findings agree that viruses don’t have a single common ancestor, scholars have yet to find one hypothesis about virus origins that is fully accepted in the field. One possible hypothesis, called devolution or the regressive hypothesis, proposes to explain the origin of viruses by suggesting that viruses evolved from free-living cells. However, many components of how this process might have occurred are a mystery. A second hypothesis (called escapist or the progressive hypothesis) accounts for viruses having either an RNA or a DNA genome and suggests that viruses originated from RNA and DNA molecules that escaped from a host cell. A third hypothesis posits a system of self-replication similar to that of other self-replicating molecules, probably evolving alongside the cells they rely on as hosts; studies of some plant pathogens support this hypothesis.
As technology advances, scientists may develop and refine further hypotheses to explain the origin of viruses. The emerging field called virus molecular systematics attempts to do just that through comparisons of sequenced genetic material. These researchers hope to one day better understand the origin of viruses, a discovery that could lead to advances in the treatments for the ailments they produce.
Key Points
- Scientists agree that viruses don’t have a single common ancestor, but have yet to agree on a single hypothesis about virus origins.
- The devolution or the regressive hypothesis suggests that viruses evolved from free-living cells.
- The escapist or the progressive hypothesis suggests that viruses originated from RNA and DNA molecules that escaped from a host cell.
- The self-replicating hypothesis posits a system of self-replication that most probably involves evolution alongside the host cells.
Key Terms
- self-replicating : able to generate a copy of itself
- devolution : degeneration (as opposed to evolution)


9.2: Galileo, Newton, and Einstein
Only historical judgment liberates the spirit from the pressure of the past; it maintains its neutrality and seeks only to furnish light.
-Benedetto Croce
Galileo and Newton viewed motion as properly described with respect to a rigid Euclidean reference frame that extends through all space and endures for all time. This supposed reference frame stands high above the battles of matter and energy. Within this ideal space of Galileo and Newton there acts a mysterious force of gravity, an interloper from the world of physics, a foreign influence not described by geometry.
Newton: One global frame. Einstein: Many local frames.
In contrast, Einstein says that there exists no mysterious "force of gravity," only the structure of spacetime itself. Climb into an unpowered spaceship, he says, and see for yourself that there is no gravity there. Physics is locally gravity-free (Chapter 2). Every free particle moves in a straight line at uniform speed. In a free-float (inertial) frame, physics looks simple. But such a frame rates as free-float in only a limited region of spacetime (Section 2.3) - a fact emphasized here by repeated use of the word "local" in describing a free-float frame.
Complications arise in describing the relation between (1) the direction of motion of a particle in one local frame and (2) the direction of motion of the same particle as observed from a nearby local frame. Any difference between the two directions is described in terms of the "curvature of spacetime," Einstein tells us. The existence of this curvature destroys the possibility of describing motion with respect to a single ideal Euclidean reference frame that pervades all space.
How did the views of Galileo, Newton, and Einstein develop? And what is the concrete substance of the strange phrase "curvature of spacetime"?


1.4: Relevance of Scholarly Writing to the Nursing Profession
Scholarly writing is a form of communication and a necessary skill that is important to the nurse’s role as a clinician, professional, a leader, a scholar, an educator, and an advocate. As a student, developing skills in scholarly writing will help prepare you for your nursing role.
Types of scholarly writing that you may be involved in as a nurse are:
- Social awareness and advocacy campaigns in which you share knowledge and bring awareness to an issue or a new policy.
- Educating and influencing people and communities. The power of writing provides a means for nurses to state their position and influence others. Nurses are involved in crafting policy ideas to influence stakeholders and government bodies on public health issues.
- Best practice guidelines, standards of practice, and policies and procedures to inform nursing practice.
- Research grants and manuscripts for publication.
- Reflective practice, which is a professional expectation for nurses to demonstrate their commitment to life-long learning and continuing competence by reflecting on their practice (College of Nurses of Ontario, 2018).
Nurses may engage in scholarly writing in ways that differ from other disciplines . For example:
- As noted above, nurses engage in many forms of scholarly writing, so you should be prepared to tailor the style of writing to your audience and your objectives.
- In nursing and other health-related fields, you must incorporate evidence to support your statements.
- It is important that you draw from scholarly sources, such as peer-reviewed journals, as opposed to magazines or books.
- You need to be clear and concise, with a logical flow in your writing from point A to B.
- Scholarly writing allows you develop your capacity as a communicator, a skill that transcends domains of professional and personal life.
References
College of Nurses of Ontario (2018, October). QA Program. Retrieved from https://www.cno.org/en/myqa/


15.5: Offered Services
- Categorize services offered by retailers as basic or luxury
Customer service, including complimentary services offered, is one way that retailers differentiate themselves in a crowded marketplace. According to a 2011 survey conducted by Harris Interactive, 86% consumers indicated they would pay more for a better customer experience and 89% switched to a competitor following a poor customer experience. [1]
Looking forward, customer experience consulting firm, Walker, projects that by 2020 customer experience will become the key brand differentiator, outweighing both price and product. [2] And, unlike when companies compete on price – sometimes categorized as “a race to the bottom” – customer service can be a source of enduring brand and business value.
Nordstrom—a brand synonymous with customer service—is a case in point. Nordstrom has been cultivating customer service excellence for over 115 years and author Robert Spector has translated that experience and expertise into three, highly rated (4+/5 on Amazon) The Nordstrom Way books. As noted in the publishers write-up on The Nordstrom Way to Customer Service Excellence ’s back cover: Nordstrom is “one of only five companies” to be ranked on Fortune’s “Best Companies to Work For” and “Most Admired” list every year the surveys have been conducted. While bragging rights are great, revenue is what keeps a business in business. While 9/11 and the Great Recession took a toll on many retailers, Nordstrom’s focus on both internal and external customers paid off. According to Wiley, Nordstrom never experienced a quarterly loss during the recent economic downturn. [3]
In a Shopify blog post, author Humayun Khan notes that one of the ways Nordstrom delivers exceptional service is by eliminating customer’s “pain points.” For example, rather than pointing a customer to a particular brand, product or department, a Nordstrom salesperson will walk you there. [4] That level of attention is the difference between basic and exceptional or luxury service.
Apple’s Genius Bar, the free in-store technical services team available to troubleshoot Apple devices, is another example of exceptional customer service that serves as a market differentiator and builds brand loyalty. Luxury product – $1,000 for the current iPhone X, before factoring in cases and other accessories – luxury service.
Of course, not every consumer is a Nordstrom or Apple customer. Some customers just want—and they just want to pay for—the basics. McFIT, the largest fitness center chain in Europe, [5] serves that market with a just-the-essentials gym with a “Simply look good” tagline. [6] In order to keep membership fees low, there are no premium services such as fitness classes, saunas and swimming pools. [7] McFIT has also launched fitness studios at very low budget and premium price points, offering a range of fitness experiences.
While customer service level expertise and service offerings vary, it is important to understand that customers have expectations of a basic level of service. For example, accurate pricing and labeling are basic expectations. Having products in stock—in particular when a retailer’s website indicates stock on hand—is a basic service expectation. Grocery stores with self-check options are outliers; in general, accurate billing/checking—including removal of any security devices—is a minimum customer expectation.
Understanding your customer’s expectations, and how to meet (and exceed) them is key to understanding your customer’s value proposition and deliver a relevant level of service.
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http://www.oracle.com/us/products/applications/cust-exp-impact-report-epss-1560493.pdf
↵
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https://www.superoffice.com/blog/customer-experience-statistics/
↵
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https://www.amazon.com/Nordstrom-Way-Customer-Service-Excellence/dp/1118076672/ref=pd_lpo_sbs_14_t_1?_encoding=UTF8&psc=1&refRID=W7JBC26B0BA74AXB6KFP
↵
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https://www.shopify.com/retail/119531651-how-nordstrom-made-its-brand-synonymous-with-customer-service-and-how-you-can-too
↵
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https://www.welltodoglobal.com/germanys-largest-fitness-operator-mcfit-launches-new-european-concept/
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McFit
↵
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https://www.whataventure.com/business-model-inspiration/basic-or-luxury
↵
Contributors and Attributions
- Offered Services. Authored by : Nina Burokas. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Genius Bar Image. Authored by : mastermaq. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/mastermaq/2640396692 . License : CC BY: Attribution


14.S: Genomics and Systems Biology (Summary)
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- Ying Liu
- City College of San Francisco
- Genomics and related technologies differ from other techniques of molecular biology largely because of their scale; they allow many different genes (or gene products) to be studied in parallel.
- DNA sequencing can be applied to either a single gene, or in the case of genomics, to a large number of genes.
- Most DNA sequencing relies on the incorporation of dye-labeled terminator molecules, which create products that differ in length and end in a known nucleotide. The products can then be separated based on length, and the identity of the last based in each fragment can be determined based on fluorescence.
- Next-generation sequencing technologies have further reduced costs of sequencing, through miniaturization and parallelization.
- Physical maps are ordered sets of clones containing overlapping pieces of DNA, which together represent large pieces of chromosomes.
- Whole genomes may be sequenced using either a clone-by-clone approach, which required a physical map, or by a shotgun approach, in which small fragments are randomly sequenced.
- Genome analysis does not end after sequence acquisition; various features of the genome including genes (and their introns, exons, etc.) must be identified through a process called annotation.
- Functional genomics techniques including microarray analysis correlate transcript abundance with particular tissue samples. Genes whose transcripts are highly abundant under certain biological conditions may cause or respond to that condition.
Key Terms
|
genome genomics proteomics transcriptomics ddNTP terminator nucleotide capillary electrophoresis chromatogram next-generation sequencing |
Ilumina physical map BAC clone-by-clone sequencing whole genome shotgun genome annotation functional genomics microarray |


11.1: Proofreading for Correct Standard English
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As you probably know, writing according to the conventions of standard professional or academic English will help you maintain credibility with readers in academic or professional settings. That doesn’t mean that you need to write perfectly without a single error; no one does. But as you can imagine, being able to write mostly correct Standard English will likely be a significant advantage in your working life. A résumé, an email inquiring about a job, a nurse’s notes on a patient, a police report, a complaint--all need to be in Standard English. Being able to write Standard English will also allow you to have more of a voice in our democracy when you write to a politician or post on social media to express your opinion.
Let’s not deny that there is inherent unfairness built into this expectation. Learning the grammar of Standard English is more work if we grew up speaking African American Vernacular English (AAVE) or Spanglish or another of the rich and beautiful dialects of English spoken in working-class communities and communities of color across America. Those who grew up speaking another language entirely will of course have to work yet harder. Meanwhile, those whose families who speak something similar to standard English will be able to write it with much less effort. None of that is fair, and the unfairness aligns with historical patterns of who has it easy and who has it harder in America.
Let’s be clear, though. College does not demand that we give up speaking our own language or dialect. Most English teachers no longer assert that Standard English is superior. The National Council of Teachers of English made a public declaration of "Students’ Right to Their Own Language" in 1974. They wrote that “A nation proud of its diverse heritage and its cultural and racial variety will preserve its heritage of dialects...The claim that any one dialect is unacceptable amounts to an attempt of one social group to exert its dominance over another.” They write, “We affirm the students' right to their own patterns and varieties of language -- the dialects of their nurture or whatever dialects in which they find their own identity and style.”
Still, even if much of the time we choose not to speak or write Standard English, it remains a crucial tool. Mainstream audiences will probably not consider our arguments credible in professional or academic settings unless we write in Standard English. Once we feel comfortable writing in this way, we can take pride in being able to code-switch at will. Ideally, we can enjoy our flexibility and heightened awareness of language. And we can choose to maintain a sense of pride and identity in relation to our home way of speaking.


3.4: The Impact of Colonization
As Europeans moved beyond exploration and into colonization of the Americas, they brought changes to virtually every aspect of the land and its people, from trade and hunting to warfare and personal property. European goods, ideas, and diseases shaped the changing continent.
As Europeans established their colonies, their societies also became segmented and divided along religious and racial lines. Most people in these societies were not free; they labored as servants or slaves, doing the work required to produce wealth for others. By 1700, the American continent had become a place of stark contrasts between slavery and freedom, between the haves and the have-nots.
THE INSTITUTION OF SLAVERY
Everywhere in the American colonies, a crushing demand for labor existed to grow New World cash crops, especially sugar and tobacco. This need led Europeans to rely increasingly on Africans, and after 1600, the movement of Africans across the Atlantic accelerated. The English crown chartered the Royal African Company in 1672, giving the company a monopoly over the transport of African slaves to the English colonies. Over the next four decades, the company transported around 350,000 Africans from their homelands. By 1700, the tiny English sugar island of Barbados had a population of fifty thousand slaves, and the English had encoded the institution of chattel slavery into colonial law.
This new system of African slavery came slowly to the English colonists, who did not have slavery at home and preferred to use servant labor. Nevertheless, by the end of the seventeenth century, the English everywhere in America—and particularly in the Chesapeake Bay colonies—had come to rely on African slaves. While Africans had long practiced slavery among their own people, it had not been based on race. Africans enslaved other Africans as war captives, for crimes, and to settle debts; they generally used their slaves for domestic and small-scale agricultural work, not for growing cash crops on large plantations. Additionally, African slavery was often a temporary condition rather than a lifelong sentence, and, unlike New World slavery, it was typically not heritable (passed from a slave mother to her children).
The growing slave trade with Europeans had a profound impact on the people of West Africa, giving prominence to local chieftains and merchants who traded slaves for European textiles, alcohol, guns, tobacco, and food. Africans also charged Europeans for the right to trade in slaves and imposed taxes on slave purchases. Different African groups and kingdoms even staged large-scale raids on each other to meet the demand for slaves.
Once sold to traders, all slaves sent to America endured the hellish Middle Passage, the transatlantic crossing, which took one to two months. By 1625, more than 325,800 Africans had been shipped to the New World, though many thousands perished during the voyage. An astonishing number, some four million, were transported to the Caribbean between 1501 and 1830. When they reached their destination in America, Africans found themselves trapped in shockingly brutal slave societies. In the Chesapeake colonies, they faced a lifetime of harvesting and processing tobacco.
Everywhere, Africans resisted slavery, and running away was common. In Jamaica and elsewhere, runaway slaves created maroon communities, groups that resisted recapture and eked a living from the land, rebuilding their communities as best they could. When possible, they adhered to traditional ways, following spiritual leaders such as Vodun priests.
CHANGES TO INDIAN LIFE
While the Americas remained firmly under the control of native peoples in the first decades of European settlement, conflict increased as colonization spread and Europeans placed greater demands upon the native populations, including expecting them to convert to Christianity (either Catholicism or Protestantism). Throughout the seventeenth century, the still-powerful native peoples and confederacies that retained control of the land waged war against the invading Europeans, achieving a degree of success in their effort to drive the newcomers from the continent.
At the same time, European goods had begun to change Indian life radically. In the 1500s, some of the earliest objects Europeans introduced to Indians were glass beads, copper kettles, and metal utensils. Native people often adapted these items for their own use. For example, some cut up copper kettles and refashioned the metal for other uses, including jewelry that conferred status on the wearer, who was seen as connected to the new European source of raw materials.
As European settlements grew throughout the 1600s, European goods flooded native communities. Soon native people were using these items for the same purposes as the Europeans. For example, many native inhabitants abandoned their animal-skin clothing in favor of European textiles. Similarly, clay cookware gave way to metal cooking implements, and Indians found that European flint and steel made starting fires much easier (Figure 3.4.1).
The abundance of European goods gave rise to new artistic objects. For example, iron awls made the creation of shell beads among the native people of the Eastern Woodlands much easier, and the result was an astonishing increase in the production of wampum, shell beads used in ceremonies and as jewelry and currency. Native peoples had always placed goods in the graves of their departed, and this practice escalated with the arrival of European goods. Archaeologists have found enormous caches of European trade goods in the graves of Indians on the East Coast.
Native weapons changed dramatically as well, creating an arms race among the peoples living in European colonization zones. Indians refashioned European brassware into arrow points and turned axes used for chopping wood into weapons. The most prized piece of European weaponry to obtain was a musket, or light, long-barreled European gun. In order to trade with Europeans for these, native peoples intensified their harvesting of beaver, commercializing their traditional practice.
The influx of European materials made warfare more lethal and changed traditional patterns of authority among tribes. Formerly weaker groups, if they had access to European metal and weapons, suddenly gained the upper hand against once-dominant groups. The Algonquian, for instance, traded with the French for muskets and gained power against their enemies, the Iroquois. Eventually, native peoples also used their new weapons against the European colonizers who had provided them.
Explore the complexity of Indian-European relationships in the series of primary source documents on the National Humanities Center site.
ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES
The European presence in America spurred countless changes in the environment, setting into motion chains of events that affected native animals as well as people. The popularity of beaver-trimmed hats in Europe, coupled with Indians’ desire for European weapons, led to the overhunting of beaver in the Northeast. Soon, beavers were extinct in New England, New York, and other areas. With their loss came the loss of beaver ponds, which had served as habitats for fish as well as water sources for deer, moose, and other animals. Furthermore, Europeans introduced pigs, which they allowed to forage in forests and other wildlands. Pigs consumed the foods on which deer and other indigenous species depended, resulting in scarcity of the game native peoples had traditionally hunted.
European ideas about owning land as private property clashed with natives’ understanding of land use. Native peoples did not believe in private ownership of land; instead, they viewed land as a resource to be held in common for the benefit of the group. The European idea of usufruct—the right to common land use and enjoyment—comes close to the native understanding, but colonists did not practice usufruct widely in America. Colonizers established fields, fences, and other means of demarcating private property. Native peoples who moved seasonally to take advantage of natural resources now found areas off limits, claimed by colonizers because of their insistence on private-property rights.
The Introduction of Disease
Perhaps European colonization’s single greatest impact on the North American environment was the introduction of disease. Microbes to which native inhabitants had no immunity led to death everywhere Europeans settled. Along the New England coast between 1616 and 1618, epidemics claimed the lives of 75 percent of the native people. In the 1630s, half the Huron and Iroquois around the Great Lakes died of smallpox. As is often the case with disease, the very young and the very old were the most vulnerable and had the highest mortality rates. The loss of the older generation meant the loss of knowledge and tradition, while the death of children only compounded the trauma, creating devastating implications for future generations.
Some native peoples perceived disease as a weapon used by hostile spiritual forces, and they went to war to exorcise the disease from their midst. These “mourning wars” in eastern North America were designed to gain captives who would either be adopted (“requickened” as a replacement for a deceased loved one) or ritually tortured and executed to assuage the anger and grief caused by loss.
The Cultivation of Plants
European expansion in the Americas led to an unprecedented movement of plants across the Atlantic. A prime example is tobacco, which became a valuable export as the habit of smoking, previously unknown in Europe, took hold (Figure 3.4.2). Another example is sugar. Columbus brought sugarcane to the Caribbean on his second voyage in 1494, and thereafter a wide variety of other herbs, flowers, seeds, and roots made the transatlantic voyage.
Just as pharmaceutical companies today scour the natural world for new drugs, Europeans traveled to America to discover new medicines. The task of cataloging the new plants found there helped give birth to the science of botany. Early botanists included the English naturalist Sir Hans Sloane, who traveled to Jamaica in 1687 and there recorded hundreds of new plants (Figure 3.4.3). Sloane also helped popularize the drinking of chocolate, made from the cacao bean, in England.
Indians, who possessed a vast understanding of local New World plants and their properties, would have been a rich source of information for those European botanists seeking to find and catalog potentially useful plants. Enslaved Africans, who had a tradition of the use of medicinal plants in their native land, adapted to their new surroundings by learning the use of New World plants through experimentation or from the native inhabitants. Native peoples and Africans employed their knowledge effectively within their own communities. One notable example was the use of the peacock flower to induce abortions: Indian and enslaved African women living in oppressive colonial regimes are said to have used this herb to prevent the birth of children into slavery. Europeans distrusted medical knowledge that came from African or native sources, however, and thus lost the benefit of this source of information.
Section Summary
The development of the Atlantic slave trade forever changed the course of European settlement in the Americas. Other transatlantic travelers, including diseases, goods, plants, animals, and even ideas like the concept of private land ownership, further influenced life in America during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The exchange of pelts for European goods including copper kettles, knives, and guns played a significant role in changing the material cultures of native peoples. During the seventeenth century, native peoples grew increasingly dependent on European trade items. At the same time, many native inhabitants died of European diseases, while survivors adopted new ways of living with their new neighbors.
Review Questions
What was the Middle Passage?
the fabled sea route from Europe to the Far East
the land route from Europe to Africa
the transatlantic journey that African slaves made to America
the line between the northern and southern colonies
C
Which of the following is not an item Europeans introduced to Indians?
wampum
glass beads
copper kettles
metal tools
A
How did European muskets change life for native peoples in the Americas?
European guns started an arms race among Indian groups. Tribes with ties to Europeans had a distinct advantage in wars with other tribes because muskets were so much more effective than bows and arrows. Guns changed the balance of power among different groups and tribes and made combat more deadly.
Compare and contrast European and Indian views on property.
Indians didn’t have any concept of owning personal property and believed that land should be held in common, for use by a group. They used land as they needed, often moving from area to area to follow food sources at different times of year. Europeans saw land as something individuals could own, and they used fences and other markers to define their property.
Critical Thinking Questions
Compare and contrast life in the Spanish, French, Dutch, and English colonies, differentiating between the Chesapeake Bay and New England colonies. Who were the colonizers? What were their purposes in being there? How did they interact with their environments and the native inhabitants of the lands on which they settled?
Describe the attempts of the various European colonists to convert native peoples to their belief systems. How did these attempts compare to one another? What were the results of each effort?
How did chattel slavery differ from indentured servitude? How did the former system come to replace the latter? What were the results of this shift?
 Conversely, what impact did the New World’s native inhabitants, land, plants, and animals have on Europeans? How did the interaction of European and Indian societies, together, shape a world that was truly “new”?
Glossary
- maroon communities
- groups of runaway slaves who resisted recapture and eked a living from the land
- Middle Passage
- the perilous, often deadly transatlantic crossing of slave ships from the African coast to the New World
- musket
- a light, long-barreled European gun
- wampum
- shell beads used in ceremonies and as jewelry and currency


1: Vectors and the Geometry of Space
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- 1.3: The Dot Product
- The dot product essentially tells us how much of the force vector is applied in the direction of the motion vector. The dot product can also help us measure the angle formed by a pair of vectors and the position of a vector relative to the coordinate axes. It even provides a simple test to determine whether two vectors meet at a right angle.
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- 1.5: Equations of Lines and Planes in Space
- To write an equation for a line, we must know two points on the line, or we must know the direction of the line and at least one point through which the line passes. In two dimensions, we use the concept of slope to describe the orientation, or direction, of a line. In three dimensions, we describe the direction of a line using a vector parallel to the line. In this section, we examine how to use equations to describe lines and planes in space.
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- 1.6: Quadric Surfaces
- We have been exploring vectors and vector operations in three-dimensional space, and we have developed equations to describe lines, planes, and spheres. In this section, we use our knowledge of planes and spheres, which are examples of three-dimensional figures called surfaces, to explore a variety of other surfaces that can be graphed in a three-dimensional coordinate system.
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- 1.7: Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates
- The Cartesian coordinate system provides a straightforward way to describe the location of points in space. Some surfaces, however, can be difficult to model with equations based on the Cartesian system. As the name suggests, cylindrical coordinates are useful for dealing with problems involving cylinders. Similarly, spherical coordinates are useful for dealing with problems involving spheres.
Contributors
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Gilbert Strang (MIT) and Edwin “Jed” Herman (Harvey Mudd) with many contributing authors. This content by OpenStax is licensed with a CC-BY-SA-NC 4.0 license. Download for free at http://cnx.org .


9.7: Why It Matters- Onboarding, Training, and Developing Employees
Why learn about onboarding, employee training, and development and career management strategies?
World Economic Forum (WEF) Founder and Executive Chairman Klaus Schwab sets the stage for this module in the Preface to WEF’s Future of Jobs 2018 Report, observing that “the emerging contours of the new world of work in the Fourth Industrial Revolution are rapidly becoming a lived reality for millions of workers and companies around the world.” [1]
The skills gap has been headline news in the U.S. for years, with stakeholders blaming the educational system for students’ lack of basic skills and automation, globalization, and environmental factors accelerating job and skills obsolescence. In a Harvard Business Review interview, Deloitte vice chairman Cathy Benko noted that “We’re in the middle of a skills shift. A mere 20% of today’s workforce has the skills needed for 60% of the jobs that will be coming online within the next five to ten years.” [2]
According to PwC’s 2019 Talent Update, 79% of CEOs indicated that they viewed the current availability of skills as a threat to their business, up 23 percentage points from when the survey was first conducted in 2011. [3] The primary business impacts cited were:
- an inability to innovate effectively
- an unexpected increase in people costs
- quality standard and/or customer experience affects
- an inability to pursue a market opportunity
- missed growth targets
Business leaders have also begun to realize that their stop-gap attempts—for example, recruiting talent from industries that are further along the technology adoption curve or tapping gig economy workers with specific skills—don’t represent a viable long-term workforce strategy.
Given labor trends and the relentless acceleration of technology, CEOs are increasingly deciding to take matters in their own hands and build, rather than try to buy or lease, the skills they need for the future. This change is reflected in PwC survey data, with 46% of CEOs rating significant retraining/upskilling as the most important strategy to close their organization’s skills gap. For comparison, the remaining options—hiring from outside the industry, developing a pipeline from education, hiring from competitors and relying on contingent workers—were all below 20%.
The current trend toward building talent started with AT&T’s CEO Randall Stephenson, who implemented an ‘evolve, or else’ policy in 2013. Stephenson’s position was that employees need to be willing to retool to remain relevant—and employed. Interestingly, data indicates that Millenials view continuous learning not as a threat, but a benefit. Research conducted by online learning provider Udemy indicates that 73% of Millennials consider further education or training a given or requirement for career advancement. [4] Note, however, that Millennials also have a training expectation of employers: 42% rate learning and development as the most important job decision criteria after salary. And this is not only a Millennial characteristic. Workers broadly recognize the skills gap and the potential impact automation and AI will have on their jobs. Udemy’s research found that 84% of U.S. workers believe there is a skills gap, with 39% reporting that they are personally affected by it. [5] That perception also drives employment decisions: 51% indicated they would quit a job that didn’t provide necessary training.
Given market and resource realities, the critical challenge is how to build the workforce of the future. In this section, we’ll address that challenge, discussing onboarding, training and development and the associated impacts on engagement, retention and performance.
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"
The Future of Jobs Report 2018
." World Economic Forum, Centre for the New Economy and Society. Accessed July 17, 2019. ↵
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Harrell, Eben. "
The Solution to the Skills Gap Could Already Be Inside Your Company
." Harvard Business Review. September 27, 2016. Accessed July 17, 2019. ↵
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"
Talent Trends 2019: Upskilling for a Digital World
." PwC. Accessed July 17, 2019. ↵
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"Udemy in Depth: 2018 Millennials at Work Report." 2018. Accessed July 17, 2019. ↵
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"2018 Skills Gap Report." Udemy. Accessed July 17, 2019. ↵
Contributors and Attributions
- Tall skyscrapers in Calgary. Authored by : Samson Creative. Provided by : Unsplash. Located at : https://unsplash.com/photos/ZGjbiukp_-A . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved . License Terms : Unsplash License
- Untitled. Authored by : rawpixel. Provided by : Pixabay. Located at : pixabay.com/photos/computer-laptop-technology-office-3368242/. License : CC0: No Rights Reserved . License Terms : Pixabay License


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A friend recently heard that you won a pitching competition and she would like you to help her with her business pitch to investors. She started a company called “Fit for You,” a prosthetics company for children and adults that is using the latest materials and technology to help people live better lives. She has been in business for a year, and she uses lean methodology to innovate and create better products, but she needs capital to buy additional equipment to meet demand. She has determined that investors would be the best funding source for her needs. What should she focus on in a five-minute lean pitch to investors to secure the $120,000 for additional equipment?
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One of your friends has recently opened a 24-hour gym for women ages 18–45. She is excited about the opening but wants to ensure that she is providing the right services to her customers and is wondering whether she did enough research upfront to really figure it out. She comes to you for advice. What would you tell her?
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Take a look at the GEM page
http://www.gemconsortium.org/country-profiles
and click on the US link. Determine how the United States ranks in several measures on its profile. How does its entrepreneurial ecosystem compare to that of another country, such as Mexico or Canada?
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Your best friend is a kindergarten teacher who has decided to open a new learning center where toddlers and young children can play in an interactive environment to enhance their motor skills, cognitive development, and leadership skills. She is very excited about her new entrepreneurial experience, but has no idea about the challenges she may face as a young Hispanic woman in her 30s. She knows you have taken an entrepreneurship class before, so she asks for your help in figuring out where to find business resources and recommendations to overcome the challenges she may face. You are happy to help and you answer the following questions:
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What kind of overall advice would you give her? What groups and resources do you think she can tap into? What are some of the challenges she may face as a minority? How can she overcome them?
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You and a team of students from your university are interested in creating a virtual agent (chatbot) that can interact with humans online. You have noticed that small businesses could benefit from adding a chatbot to provide great customer service at all times of the day at a fraction of the cost. Your goal is to create chatbots for a few industries that are very customer-service intensive (realtors, restaurants, doctors’ offices, etc.), and you think you can come up with a product that can be sold to small- or medium-sized businesses. One of your team members who is a computer science major has already starting coding the first program, but you know very well that you will need lean planning to get your ideas down in writing and to pitch it to a few investors. Develop your 7Ps for one of the chatbots in bullet point format and include the target market, the positioning, and the business model that you would use to make money.
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You and your business partner have been in business for five years selling cellphones and other accessories. Recently, you noticed that the market is quite saturated, and your competition is very high. Your sales have been flat for the last year and a half, and no matter what promotions or cellphones you carry, you can’t seem to improve your sales. You also realize that the industry is mature and it will be difficult to make money unless something drastic changes. What kind of changes do you think you can implement to expand your business?