26.3: Acellular Pathogenic Diseases of the Nervous System
- Identify the most common acellular pathogens that can cause infections of the nervous system
- Compare the major characteristics of specific viral diseases affecting the nervous system
A number of different viruses and subviral particles can cause diseases that affect the nervous system. Viral diseases tend to be more common than bacterial infections of the nervous system today. Fortunately, viral infections are generally milder than their bacterial counterparts and often spontaneously resolve. Some of the more important acellular pathogens of the nervous system are described in this section.
Viral Meningitis
Although it is much more common than bacterial meningitis, viral meningitis is typically less severe. Many different viruses can lead to meningitis as a sequela of the primary infection, including those that cause herpes, influenza, measles, and mumps. Most cases of viral meningitis spontaneously resolve, but severe cases do occur.
Arboviral Encephalitis
Several types of insect-borne viruses can cause encephalitis. Collectively, these viruses are referred to as arboviruses (because they are ar thropod- bo rne), and the diseases they cause are described as arboviral encephalitis. Most arboviruses are endemic to specific geographical regions. Arborviral encephalitis diseases found in the United States include eastern equine encephalitis (EEE), western equine encephalitis (WEE), St. Louis encephalitis, and West Nile encephalitis (WNE). Expansion of arboviruses beyond their endemic regions sometimes occurs, generally as a result of environmental changes that are favorable to the virus or its vector. Increased travel of infected humans, animals, or vectors has also allowed arboviruses to spread into new regions.
In most cases, arboviral infections are asymptomatic or lead to a mild disease. However, when symptoms do occur, they include high fever, chills, headaches, vomiting, diarrhea, and restlessness. In elderly patients, severe arboviral encephalitis can rapidly lead to convulsions, coma, and death.
Mosquitoes are the most common biological vectors for arboviruses, which tend to be enveloped ssRNA viruses. Thus, prevention of arboviral infections is best achieved by avoiding mosquitoes—using insect repellent, wearing long pants and sleeves, sleeping in well-screened rooms, using bed nets, etc.
Diagnosis of arboviral encephalitis is based on clinical symptoms and serologic testing of serum or CSF. There are no antiviral drugs to treat any of these arboviral diseases, so treatment consists of supportive care and management of symptoms.
Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) is caused by eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV), which can cause severe disease in horses and humans. Birds are reservoirs for EEEV with accidental transmission to horses and humans by Aedes , Coquillettidia , and Culex species of mosquitoes. Neither horses nor humans serve as reservoirs. EEE is most common in US Gulf Coast and Atlantic states. EEE is one of the more severe mosquito-transmitted diseases in the United States, but fortunately, it is a very rare disease in the United States (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). 1 2
Western equine encephalitis (WEE) is caused by western equine encephalitis virus (WEEV). WEEV is usually transmitted to horses and humans by the Culex tarsalis mosquitoes and, in the past decade, has caused very few cases of encephalitis in humans in the United States. In humans, WEE symptoms are less severe than EEE and include fever, chills, and vomiting, with a mortality rate of 3–4%. Like EEEV, birds are the natural reservoir for WEEV. Periodically, for indeterminate reasons, epidemics in human cases have occurred in North America in the past. The largest on record was in 1941, with more than 3400 cases. 3
St. Louis encephalitis (SLE), caused by St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV), is a rare form of encephalitis with symptoms occurring in fewer than 1% of infected patients. The natural reservoirs for SLEV are birds. SLEV is most often found in the Ohio-Mississippi River basin of the central United States and was named after a severe outbreak in Missouri in 1934. The worst outbreak of St. Louis encephalitis occurred in 1975, with over 2000 cases reported. 4 Humans become infected when bitten by C. tarsalis , C. quinquefasciatus , or C. pipiens mosquitoes carrying SLEV. Most patients are asymptomatic, but in a small number of individuals, symptoms range from mild flu-like syndromes to fatal encephalitis. The overall mortality rate for symptomatic patients is 5–15%. 5
Japanese encephalitis, caused by Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), is the leading cause of vaccine-preventable encephalitis in humans and is endemic to some of the most populous countries in the world, including China, India, Japan, and all of Southeast Asia. JEV is transmitted to humans by Culex mosquitoes, usually the species C. tritaeniorhynchus . The biological reservoirs for JEV include pigs and wading birds. Most patients with JEV infections are asymptomatic, with symptoms occurring in fewer than 1% of infected individuals. However, about 25% of those who do develop encephalitis die, and among those who recover, 30–50% have psychiatric, neurologic, or cognitive impairment. 6 Fortunately, there is an effective vaccine that can prevent infection with JEV. The CDC recommends this vaccine for travelers who expect to spend more than one month in endemic areas.
As the name suggests, West Nile virus (WNV) and its associated disease, West Nile encephalitis (WNE), did not originate in North America. Until 1999, it was endemic in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia; however, the first US cases were identified in New York in 1999, and by 2004, the virus had spread across the entire continental United States. Over 35,000 cases, including 1400 deaths, were confirmed in the five-year period between 1999 and 2004. WNV infection remains reportable to the CDC.
WNV is transmitted to humans by Culex mosquitoes from its natural reservoir, infected birds, with 70–80% of infected patients experiencing no symptoms. Most symptomatic cases involve only mild, flu-like symptoms, but fewer than 1% of infected people develop severe and sometimes fatal encephalitis or meningitis. The mortality rate in WNV patients who develop neurological disease is about 10%. More information about West Nile virus can be found in Modes of Disease Transmission .
This interactive map identifies cases of several arboviral diseases in humans and reservoir species by state and year for the United States.
- Why is it unlikely that arboviral encephalitis viruses will be eradicated in the future?
- Which is the most common form of viral encephalitis in the United States?
Levofloxacin is a quinolone antibiotic that is often prescribed to treat bacterial infections of the respiratory tract, including pneumonia and bronchitis. But after taking the medication for a week, David returned to his physician sicker than before. He claimed that the antibiotic had no effect on his earlier symptoms. In addition, he now was experiencing headaches, a stiff neck, and difficulty focusing at work. He also showed the doctor a rash that had developed on his arms over the past week. His doctor, more concerned now, began to ask about David's activities over the past two weeks.
David explained that he had been recently working on a project to disassemble an old barn. His doctor collected sputum samples and scrapings from David’s rash for cultures. A spinal tap was also performed to examine David’s CSF. Microscopic examination of his CSF revealed encapsulated yeast cells. Based on this result, the doctor prescribed a new antimicrobial therapy using amphotericin B and flucytosine.
- Why was the original treatment ineffective?
- Why is the presence of a capsule clinically important?
Zika Virus Infection
Zika virus infection is an emerging arboviral disease associated with human illness in Africa, Southeast Asia, and South and Central America; however, its range is expanding as a result of the widespread range of its mosquito vector. The first cases originating in the United States were reported in 2016.The Zika virus was initially described in 1947 from monkeys in the Zika Forest of Uganda through a network that monitored yellow fever. It was not considered a serious human pathogen until the first large-scale outbreaks occurred in Micronesia in 2007; 7 however, the virus has gained notoriety over the past decade, as it has emerged as a cause of symptoms similar to other arboviral infections that include fever, skin rashes, conjunctivitis, muscle and joint pain, malaise, and headache. Mosquitoes of the Aedes genus are the primary vectors, although the virus can also be transmitted sexually, from mother to baby during pregnancy, or through a blood transfusion.
Most Zika virus infections result in mild symptoms such as fever, a slight rash, or conjunctivitis. However, infections in pregnant women can adversely affect the developing fetus. Reports in 2015 indicate fetal infections can result in brain damage, including a serious birth defect called microcephaly, in which the infant is born with an abnormally small head (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). 8
Diagnosis of Zika is primarily based on clinical symptoms. However, the FDA recently authorized the use of a Zika virus RNA assay, Trioplex RT-PCR, and Zika MAC-ELISA to test patient blood and urine to confirm Zika virus disease. There are currently no antiviral treatments or vaccines for Zika virus, and treatment is limited to supportive care.
- What are the signs and symptoms of Zika virus infection in adults?
- Why is Zika virus infection considered a serious public health threat?
Rabies
Rabies is a deadly zoonotic disease that has been known since antiquity. The disease is caused by rabies virus (RV), a member of the family Rhabdoviridae, and is primarily transmitted through the bite of an infected mammal. Rhabdoviridae are enveloped RNA viruses that have a distinctive bullet shape (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)); they were first studied by Louis Pasteur, who obtained rabies virus from rabid dogs and cultivated the virus in rabbits. He successfully prepared a rabies vaccine using dried nerve tissues from infected animals. This vaccine was used to first treat an infected human in 1885.
The most common reservoirs in the United States are wild animals such as raccoons (30.2% of all animal cases during 2014), bats (29.1%), skunks (26.3%), and foxes (4.1%); collectively, these animals were responsible for a total of 92.6% of animal rabies cases in the United States in 2014. The remaining 7.4% of cases that year were in domesticated animals such as dogs, cats, horses, mules, sheep, goats, and llamas. 9 While there are typically only one or two human cases per year in the United States, rabies still causes tens of thousands of human deaths per year worldwide, primarily in Asia and Africa.
The low incidence of rabies in the United States is primarily a result of the widespread vaccination of dogs and cats. An oral vaccine is also used to protect wild animals, such as raccoons and foxes, from infection. Oral vaccine programs tend to focus on geographic areas where rabies is endemic. 10 The oral vaccine is usually delivered in a package of bait that is dropped by airplane, although baiting in urban areas is done by hand to maximize safety. 11 Many countries require a quarantine or proof of rabies vaccination for domestic pets being brought into the country. These procedures are especially strict in island nations where rabies is not yet present, such as Australia.
The incubation period for rabies can be lengthy, ranging from several weeks or months to over a year. As the virus replicates, it moves from the site of the bite into motor and sensory axons of peripheral nerves and spreads from nerve to nerve using a process called retrograde transport, eventually making its way to the CNS through the spinal ganglia. Once rabies virus reaches the brain, the infection leads to encephalitis caused by the disruption of normal neurotransmitter function, resulting in the symptoms associated with rabies. The virions act in the synaptic spaces as competitors with a variety of neurotransmitters for acetylcholine, GABA, and glycine receptors. Thus, the action of rabies virus is neurotoxic rather than cytotoxic. After the rabies virus infects the brain, it can continue to spread through other neuronal pathways, traveling out of the CNS to tissues such as the salivary glands, where the virus can be released. As a result, as the disease progresses the virus can be found in many other tissues, including the salivary glands, taste buds, nasal cavity, and tears.
The early symptoms of rabies include discomfort at the site of the bite, fever, and headache. Once the virus reaches the brain and later symptoms appear, the disease is always fatal. Terminal rabies cases can end in one of two ways: either furious or paralytic rabies. Individuals with furious rabies become very agitated and hyperactive. Hydrophobia (a fear of water) is common in patients with furious rabies, which is caused by muscular spasms in the throat when swallowing or thinking about water. Excess salivation and a desire to bite can lead to foaming of the mouth. These behaviors serve to enhance the likelihood of viral transmission, although contact with infected secretions like saliva or tears alone is sufficient for infection. The disease culminates after just a few days with terror and confusion, followed by cardiovascular and respiratory arrest. In contrast, individuals with paralytic rabies generally follow a longer course of disease. The muscles at the site of infection become paralyzed. Over a period of time, the paralysis slowly spreads throughout the body. This paralytic form of disease culminates in coma and death.
Before present-day diagnostic methods were available, rabies diagnosis was made using a clinical case history and histopathological examination of biopsy or autopsy tissues, looking for the presence of Negri bodies. We now know these histologic changes cannot be used to confirm a rabies diagnosis. There are no tests that can detect rabies virus in humans at the time of the bite or shortly thereafter. Once the virus has begun to replicate (but before clinical symptoms occur), the virus can be detected using an immunofluorescence test on cutaneous nerves found at the base of hair follicles. Saliva can also be tested for viral genetic material by reverse transcription followed by polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Even when these tests are performed, most suspected infections are treated as positive in the absence of contravening evidence. It is better that patients undergo unnecessary therapy because of a false-positiveresult, rather than die as the result of a false-negative result.
Human rabies infections are treated by immunization with multiple doses of an attenuated vaccine to develop active immunity in the patient (see the Clinical Focus feature in the chapter on Acellular Pathogens ). Vaccination of an already-infected individual has the potential to work because of the slow progress of the disease, which allows time for the patient’s immune system to develop antibodies against the virus. Patients may also be treated with human rabies immune globulin (antibodies to the rabies virus) to encourage passive immunity. These antibodies will neutralize any free viral particles. Although the rabies infection progresses slowly in peripheral tissues, patients are not normally able to mount a protective immune response on their own.
- How does the bite from an infected animal transmit rabies?
- What is the goal of wildlife vaccination programs for rabies?
- How is rabies treated in a human?
Poliomyelitis
Poliomyelitis (polio), caused by poliovirus, is a primarily intestinal disease that, in a small percentage of cases, proceeds to the nervous system, causing paralysis and, potentially, death. Poliovirus is highly contagious, with transmission occurring by the fecal-oral route or by aerosol or droplet transmission. Approximately 72% of all poliovirus infections are asymptomatic; another 25% result only in mild intestinal disease, producing nausea, fever, and headache. 12 However, even in the absence of symptoms, patients infected with the virus can shed it in feces and oral secretions, potentially transmitting the virus to others. In about one case in every 200, the poliovirus affects cells in the CNS. 13
After it enters through the mouth, initial replication of poliovirus occurs at the site of implantation in the pharynx and gastrointestinal tract. As the infection progresses, poliovirus is usually present in the throat and in the stool before the onset of symptoms. One week after the onset of symptoms, there is less poliovirus in the throat, but for several weeks, poliovirus continues to be excreted in the stool. Poliovirus invades local lymphoid tissue, enters the bloodstream, and then may infect cells of the CNS. Replication of poliovirus in motor neurons of the anterior horn cells in the spinal cord, brain stem, or motor cortex results in cell destruction and leads to flaccid paralysis. In severe cases, this can involve the respiratory system, leading to death. Patients with impaired respiratory function are treated using positive-pressure ventilation systems. In the past, patients were sometimes confined to Emerson respirators, also known as iron lungs (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)).
Direct detection of the poliovirus from the throat or feces can be achieved using reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) or genomic sequencing to identify the genotype of the poliovirus infecting the patient. Serological tests can be used to determine whether the patient has been previously vaccinated. There are no therapeutic measures for polio; treatment is limited to various supportive measures. These include pain relievers, rest, heat therapy to ease muscle spasms, physical therapy and corrective braces if necessary to help with walking, and mechanical ventilation to assist with breathing if necessary.
Two different vaccines were introduced in the 1950s that have led to the dramatic decrease in polio worldwide (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)). The Salk vaccine is an inactivated polio virus that was first introduced in 1955. This vaccine is delivered by intramuscular injection. The Sabin vaccine is an oral polio vaccine that contains an attenuated virus; it was licensed for use in 1962. There are three serotypes of poliovirus that cause disease in humans; both the Salk and the Sabin vaccines are effective against all three.
Attenuated viruses from the Sabin vaccine are shed in the feces of immunized individuals and thus have the potential to infect nonimmunized individuals. By the late 1990s, the few polio cases originating in the United States could be traced back to the Sabin vaccine. In these cases, mutations of the attenuated virus following vaccination likely allowed the microbe to revert to a virulent form. For this reason, the United States switched exclusively to the Salk vaccine in 2000. Because the Salk vaccine contains an inactivated virus, there is no risk of transmission to others (see Vaccines ). Currently four doses of the vaccine are recommended for children: at 2, 4, and 6–18 months of age, and at 4–6 years of age.
In 1988, WHO launched the Global Polio Eradication Initiative with the goal of eradicating polio worldwide through immunization. That goal is now close to being realized. Polio is now endemic in only a few countries, including Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Nigeria, where vaccination efforts have been disrupted by military conflict or political instability.
In the years after World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union entered a period known as the Cold War. Although there was no armed conflict, the two super powers were diplomatically and economically isolated from each other, as represented by the so-called Iron Curtain between the Soviet Union and the rest of the world. After 1950, migration or travel outside of the Soviet Union was exceedingly difficult, and it was equally difficult for foreigners to enter the Soviet Union. The United States also placed strict limits on Soviets entering the country. During the Eisenhower administration, only 20 graduate students from the Soviet Union were allowed to come to study in the United States per year.
Yet even the Iron Curtain was no match for polio. The Salk vaccine became widely available in the West in 1955, and by the time the Sabin vaccine was ready for clinical trials, most of the susceptible population in the United States and Canada had already been vaccinated against polio. Sabin needed to look elsewhere for study participants. At the height of the Cold War, Mikhail Chumakov was allowed to come to the United States to study Sabin’s work. Likewise, Sabin, an American microbiologist, was allowed to travel to the Soviet Union to begin clinical trials. Chumakov organized Soviet-based production and managed the experimental trials to test the new vaccine in the Soviet Union. By 1959, over ten million Soviet children had been safely treated with Sabin’s vaccine.
As a result of a global vaccination campaign with the Sabin vaccine, the overall incidence of polio has dropped dramatically. Today, polio has been nearly eliminated around the world and is only rarely seen in the United States. Perhaps one day soon, polio will become the third microbial disease to be eradicated from the general population [small pox and rinderpest (the cause of cattle plague) being the first two].
- How is poliovirus transmitted?
- Compare the pros and cons of each of the two polio vaccines.
Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies
Acellular infectious agents called prions are responsible for a group of related diseases known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) that occurs in humans and other animals (see Viroids, Virusoids, and Prions ).  These diseases have a slow onset; symptoms may not become apparent until after an incubation period of years and perhaps decades, but death usually occurs within months to a few years after the first symptoms appear.
TSEs in animals include scrapie, a disease in sheep that has been known since the 1700s, and chronic wasting disease, a disease of deer and elk in the United States and Canada. Mad cow disease is seen in cattle and can be transmitted to humans through the consumption of infected nerve tissues. Human prion diseases include Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and kuru, a rare disease endemic to Papua New Guinea.
Prions are infectious proteinaceous particles that are not viruses and do not contain nucleic acid. They are typically transmitted by exposure to and ingestion of infected nervous system tissues, tissue transplants, blood transfusions, or contaminated fomites. Prion proteins are normally found in a healthy brain tissue in a form called PrP C . However, if this protein is misfolded into a denatured form (PrP Sc ), it can cause disease. Although the exact function of PrP C is not currently understood, the protein folds into mostly alpha helices and binds copper. The rogue protein, on the other hand, folds predominantly into beta-pleated sheets and is resistant to proteolysis. In addition, PrP Sc can induce PrP C to become misfolded and produce more rogue protein (Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\)).
As PrP Sc accumulates, it aggregates and forms fibrils within nerve cells. These protein complexes ultimately cause the cells to die. As a consequence, brain tissues of infected individuals form masses of neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaques that give the brain a spongy appearance, which is why these diseases are called spongiform encephalopathy ( Figure 6.4.3 ). Damage to brain tissue results in a variety of neurological symptoms. Most commonly, affected individuals suffer from memory loss, personality changes, blurred vision, uncoordinated movements, and insomnia. These symptoms gradually worsen over time and culminate in coma and death.
The gold standard for diagnosing TSE is the histological examination of brain biopsies for the presence of characteristic amyloid plaques, vacuoles, and prion proteins. Great care must be taken by clinicians when handling suspected prion-infected materials to avoid becoming infected themselves. Other tissue assays search for the presence of the 14-3-3 protein, a marker for prion diseases like Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. New assays, like RT-QuIC (real-time quaking-induced conversion), offer new hope to effectively detect the abnormal prion proteins in tissues earlier in the course of infection. Prion diseases cannot be cured. However, some medications may help slow their progress. Medical support is focused on keeping patients as comfortable as possible despite progressive and debilitating symptoms.
Because prion-contaminated materials are potential sources of infection for clinical scientists and physicians, both the World Health Organization and CDC provide information to inform, educate and minimize the risk of infections due to prions.
- Do prions reproduce in the conventional sense?
- What is the connection between prions and the removal of animal byproducts from the food of farm animals?
Serious consequences are the common thread among these neurological diseases. Several cause debilitating paralysis, and some, such as Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and rabies, are always or nearly always fatal. Since few drugs are available to combat these infections, vector control and vaccination are critical for prevention and containment. Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\) summarizes some important viral and prion infections of the nervous system.
Key Concepts and Summary
- Viral meningitis is more common and generally less severe than bacterial menigitis. It can result from secondary sequelae of many viruses or be caused by infections of arboviruses.
- Various types of arboviral encephalitis are concentrated in particular geographic locations throughout the world. These mosquito-borne viral infections of the nervous system are typically mild, but they can be life-threatening in some cases.
- Zika virus is an emerging arboviral infection with generally mild symptoms in most individuals, but infections of pregnant women can cause the birth defect microcephaly.
- Polio is typically a mild intestinal infection but can be damaging or fatal if it progresses to a neurological disease.
- Rabies is nearly always fatal when untreated and remains a significant problem worldwide.
- Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies such as Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and kuru are caused by prions. These diseases are untreatable and ultimately fatal. Similar prion diseases are found in animals.
Footnotes
- 1 US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus Disease Cases and Deaths Reported to CDC by Year and Clinical Presentation, 2004–2013,” 2014. www.cdc.gov/EasternEquineEnce..._2004-2013.pdf.
- 2 US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Eastern Equine Encephalitis, Symptoms & Treatment, 2016,” Accessed June 29, 2016. https://www.cdc.gov/easternequineenc.../symptoms.html .
- 3 US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Western Equine Encephalitis—United States and Canada, 1987,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 36, no. 39 (1987): 655.
- 4 US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Saint Louis encephalitis, Epidemiology & Geographic Distribution,” Accessed June 30, 2016. http://www.cdc.gov/sle/technical/epi.html .
- 5 US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Saint Louis encephalitis, Symptoms and Treatment,” Accessed June 30, 2016. http://www.cdc.gov/sle/technical/symptoms.html .
- 6 US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Japanese Encephalitis, Symptoms and Treatment,” Accessed June 30, 2016. www.cdc.gov/japaneseencephali...oms/index.html.
- 7 Sikka, Veronica, Vijay Kumar Chattu, Raaj K. Popli, Sagar C. Galwankar, Dhanashree Kelkar, Stanley G. Sawicki, Stanislaw P. Stawicki, and Thomas J. Papadimos, “The Emergence of Zika Virus as a Global Health Security Threat: A Review and a Consensus Statement of the INDUSEM Joint Working Group (JWG),” Journal of Global Infectious Diseases 8, no. 1 (2016): 3.
- 8 Mlakar, Jernej, Misa Korva, Nataša Tul, Mara Popović, Mateja Poljšak-Prijatelj, Jerica Mraz, Marko Kolenc et al., “Zika Virus Associated with Microcephaly,” New England Journal of Medicine 374, no. 10 (2016): 951-8.
- 9 US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Rabies, Wild Animals,” 2016. Accessed September 13, 2016. www.cdc.gov/rabies/location/u...d_animals.html.
- 10 Slate, Dennis, Charles E. Rupprecht, Jane A. Rooney, Dennis Donovan, Donald H. Lein, and Richard B. Chipman, “Status of Oral Rabies Vaccination in Wild Carnivores in the United States,” Virus Research 111, no. 1 (2005): 68-76.
- 11 Finnegan, Christopher J., Sharon M. Brookes, Nicholas Johnson, Jemma Smith, Karen L. Mansfield, Victoria L. Keene, Lorraine M. McElhinney, and Anthony R. Fooks, “Rabies in North America and Europe,” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 95, no. 1 (2002): 9-13. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1279140/.
- 12 US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Global Health – Polio,” 2014. Accessed June 30, 2016. http://www.cdc.gov/polio/about/index.htm .
- 13 US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Global Health – Polio,” 2014. Accessed June 30, 2016. http://www.cdc.gov/polio/about/index.htm .


8.4: Functions of Mass Communication
-
- Last updated
- Save as PDF
Mass communication doesn’t exist for a single purpose. With its evolution, more and more uses have developed and the role it plays in our lives has increased greatly. Wright characterizes seven functions of mass communication that offer insight into its role in our lives.
- Surveillance . The first function of mass communication is to serve as the eyes and ears for those seeking information about the world. The internet, televisions, and newspapers are the main sources for finding out what’s going around you. Society relies on mass communication for news and information about our daily lives, it reports the weather, current issues, the latest celebrity gossip and even start times for games. Do you remember the Boston Marathon Bombing that happened in 2013? How did you hear about it? Thanks to the internet and smart phones instant access to information is at the users fingertips. News apps have made mass communication surveillance instantly accessible by sending notifications to smartphones with the latest news.
- Correlation . Correlation addresses how the media presents facts that we use to move through the world. The information received through mass communication is not objective and without bias. People ironically state “it must be true if it’s on the internet.” However, we don’t think that in generations past people must have without a doubt stated it “has to be true” because it was on the radio. This statement begs the question, how credible are the media? Can we consume media without questioning motive and agenda? Someone selects, arranges, interprets, edits, and critiques the information used in the media. If you ask anyone who works for a major reality TV show if what we see if a fair representation of what really happens, the person would probably tell you “no.”
- Sensationalization . There is an old saying in the news industry “if it bleeds, it leads,” which highlights the idea of Sensationalization. Sensationalization is when the media puts forward the most sensational messages to titillate consumers. Elliot observes, “Media managers think in terms of consumers rather than citizens. Good journalism sells, but unfortunately, bad journalism sells as well. And, bad journalism-stories that simply repeat government claims or that reinforce what the public wants to hear instead of offering independent reporting -is cheaper and easier to produce” (35).
- Entertainment . Media outlets such as People Magazine, TMZ, and entertainment blogs such as Perez Hilton keep us up to date on the daily comings and goings of our favorite celebrities. We use technology to watch sports, go to the movies, play video games, watch YouTube videos, and listen to iPods on a daily basis. Most mass communication simultaneously entertains and informs. People often turn to media during our leisure time to provide an escape from boredom and relief from the predictability of our everyday lives. We rely on media to take us places we could not afford to go or imagine, acquaints us with bits of culture, and make us laugh, think or cry. Entertainment can have the secondary effect of providing companionship and/or catharsis through the media we consume.
- Transmission . Mass media is a vehicle to transmit cultural norms, values, rules, and habits. Consider how you learned about what’s fashionable in clothes or music. Mass media plays a significant role in the socialization process. We look for role models to display appropriate cultural norms, but all too often, not recognizing their inappropriate or stereotypical behavior. Mainstream society starts shopping, dressing, smelling, walking, and talking like the person in the music video, commercial, or movies. Why would soft drink companies pay Kim Kardashian or Taylor Swift millions of dollars to sell their products? Have you ever bought a pair of shoes or changed your hairstyle because of something you encountered in the media? Obviously, culture, age, type of media, and other cultural variables factor into how mass communication influences how we learn and perceive our culture.
- Mobilization . Mass communication functions to mobilize people during times of crisis (McQuail, 1994). Think back to the Boston Marathon Bombing. Regardless of your association to the incident, Americans felt the attack as a nation and people followed the news until they found the perpetrators. With instant access to media and information, we can collectively witness the same events taking place in real time somewhere else, thus mobilizing a large population of people around a particular event. The online community Reddit.com is a key example of the internet’s proactivity. While the FBI was investigating the bombing, the Reddit community was posting witness’s photos and trying to help identify the culprits. People felt they were making a difference.
- Validation . Mass communication functions to validate the status and norms of particular individuals, movements, organizations, or products. The validation of particular people or groups serves to enforce social norms (Lazarsfeld & Merton). If you think about most television dramas and sitcoms, who are the primary characters? What gender and ethnicity are the majority of the stars? What gender and ethnicity are those that play criminals or those considered abnormal? The media validates particular cultural norms while diminishing differences and variations from those norms. A great deal of criticism focuses on how certain groups are promoted, and others marginalized by how they are portrayed in mass media.
Given the power of the various functions of mass communication, we need to be reflective about its presence in our lives (McLuhan & Fiore). We will now turn our attention to the study of mass communication by looking at what mass communication scholars study, and how they study it.
Contributions and Affiliations
- Survey of Communication Study. Authored by : Scott T Paynton and Linda K Hahn. Provided by : Humboldt State University. Located at : https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Survey_of_Communication_Study . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Image of functions of media. Authored by : Spaynton. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Functions_of_media.png. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


9.3: The Third Remove
The morning being come, they prepared to go on their way.  A very wearisome and tedious day I had of it; what with my own wound, and my child’s being so exceeding sick, and in a lamentable condition with her wound. It may be easily judged what a poor feeble condition we were in, there being not the least crumb of refreshing that came within either of our mouths from Wednesday night to Saturday night, except only a little cold water. This day in the afternoon, about an hour by sun, we came to the place where they intended, viz. an Indian town, called Wenimesset, northward of Quabaug. When we were come, Oh the number of pagans (now merciless enemies) that there came about me, that I may say as David, “I had fainted, unless I had believed, etc” (Psalm 27.13). The next day was the Sabbath. I then remembered how careless I had been of God’s holy time; how many Sabbaths I had lost and misspent, and how evilly I had walked in God’s sight; which lay so close unto my spirit, that it was easy for me to see how righteous it was with God to cut off the thread of my life and cast me out of His presence forever. Yet the Lord still showed mercy to me, and upheld me; and as He wounded me with one hand, so he healed me with the other. This day there came to me one Robert Pepper (a man belonging to Roxbury) who was taken in Captain Beers’s fight, and had been now a considerable time with the Indians; and up with them almost as far as Albany, to see King Philip, as he told me, and was now very lately come into these parts. Hearing, I say, that I was in this Indian town, he obtained leave to come and see me. He told me he himself was wounded in the leg at Captain Beer’s fight; and was not able some time to go, but as they carried him, and as he took oaken leaves and laid to his wound, and through the blessing of God he was able to travel again. Then I took oaken leaves and laid to my side, and with the blessing of God it cured me also; yet before the cure was wrought, I may say, as it is in Psalm 38.5-6 “My wounds stink and are corrupt, I am troubled, I am bowed down greatly, I go mourning all the day long.” I sat much alone with a poor wounded child in my lap, which moaned night and day, having nothing to revive the body, or cheer the spirits of her, but instead of that, sometimes one Indian would come and tell me one hour that “your master will knock your child in the head,” and then a second, and then a third, “your master will quickly knock your child in the head.”
This was the comfort I had from them, miserable comforters are ye all, as he said. Thus nine days I sat upon my knees, with my babe in my lap, till my flesh was raw again; my child being even ready to depart this sorrowful world, they bade me carry it out to another wigwam (I suppose because they would not be troubled with such spectacles) whither I went with a very heavy heart, and down I sat with the picture of death in my lap. About two hours in the night, my sweet babe like a lamb departed this life on Feb. 18, 1675. It being about six years, and five months old. It was nine days from the first wounding, in this miserable condition, without any refreshing of one nature or other, except a little cold water. I cannot but take notice how at another time I could not bear to be in the room where any dead person was, but now the case is changed; I must and could lie down by my dead babe, side by side all the night after. I have thought since of the wonderful goodness of God to me in preserving me in the use of my reason and senses in that distressed time, that I did not use wicked and violent means to end my own miserable life. In the morning, when they understood that my child was dead they sent for me home to my master’s wigwam (by my master in this writing, must be understood Quinnapin, who was a Sagamore, and married King Philip’s wife’s sister; not that he first took me, but I was sold to him by another Narragansett Indian, who took me when first I came out of the garrison). I went to take up my dead child in my arms to carry it with me, but they bid me let it alone; there was no resisting, but go I must and leave it. When I had been at my master’s wigwam, I took the first opportunity I could get to go look after my dead child. When I came I asked them what they had done with it; then they told me it was upon the hill. Then they went and showed me where it was, where I saw the ground was newly digged, and there they told me they had buried it. There I left that child in the wilderness, and must commit it, and myself also in this wilderness condition, to Him who is above all. God having taken away this dear child, I went to see my daughter Mary, who was at this same Indian town, at a wigwam not very far off, though we had little liberty or opportunity to see one another. She was about ten years old, and taken from the door at first by a Praying Ind. and afterward sold for a gun. When I came in sight, she would fall aweeping; at which they were provoked, and would not let me come near her, but bade me be gone; which was a heart-cutting word to me. I had one child dead, another in the wilderness, I knew not where, the third they would not let me come near to: “Me (as he said) have ye bereaved of my Children, Joseph is not, and Simeon is not, and ye will take Benjamin also, all these things are against me.” I could not sit still in this condition, but kept walking from one place to another. And as I was going along, my heart was even overwhelmed with the thoughts of my condition, and that I should have children, and a nation which I knew not, ruled over them. Whereupon I earnestly entreated the Lord, that He would consider my low estate, and show me a token for good, and if it were His blessed will, some sign and hope of some relief. And indeed quickly the Lord answered, in some measure, my poor prayers; for as I was going up and down mourning and lamenting my condition, my son came to me, and asked me how I did. I had not seen him before, since the destruction of the town, and I knew not where he was, till I was informed by himself, that he was amongst a smaller parcel of Indians, whose place was about six miles off. With tears in his eyes, he asked me whether his sister Sarah was dead; and told me he had seen his sister Mary; and prayed me, that I would not be troubled in reference to himself. The occasion of his coming to see me at this time, was this: there was, as I said, about six miles from us, a small plantation of Indians, where it seems he had been during his captivity; and at this time, there were some forces of the Ind. gathered out of our company, and some also from them (among whom was my son’s master) to go to assault and burn Medfield. In this time of the absence of his master, his dame brought him to see me. I took this to be some gracious answer to my earnest and unfeigned desire. The next day, viz. to this, the Indians returned from Medfield, all the company, for those that belonged to the other small company, came through the town that now we were at. But before they came to us, Oh! the outrageous roaring and hooping that there was. They began their din about a mile before they came to us. By their noise and hooping they signified how many they had destroyed (which was at that time twenty-three). Those that were with us at home were gathered together as soon as they heard the hooping, and every time that the other went over their number, these at home gave a shout, that the very earth rung again. And thus they continued till those that had been upon the expedition were come up to the Sagamore’s wigwam; and then, Oh, the hideous insulting and triumphing that there was over some Englishmen’s scalps that they had taken (as their manner is) and brought with them. I cannot but take notice of the wonderful mercy of God to me in those afflictions, in sending me a Bible. One of the Indians that came from Medfield fight, had brought some plunder, came to me, and asked me, if I would have a Bible, he had got one in his basket. I was glad of it, and asked him, whether he thought the Indians would let me read? He answered, yes. So I took the Bible, and in that melancholy time, it came into my mind to read first the 28th chapter of Deuteronomy, which I did, and when I had read it, my dark heart wrought on this manner: that there was no mercy for me, that the blessings were gone, and the curses come in their room, and that I had lost my opportunity. But the Lord helped me still to go on reading till I came to Chap. 30, the seven first verses, where I found, there was mercy promised again, if we would return to Him by repentance; and though we were scattered from one end of the earth to the other, yet the Lord would gather us together, and turn all those curses upon our enemies. I do not desire to live to forget this Scripture, and what comfort it was to me.
Now the Ind. began to talk of removing from this place, some one way, and some another. There were now besides myself nine English captives in this place (all of them children, except one woman). I got an opportunity to go and take my leave of them. They being to go one way, and I another, I asked them whether they were earnest with God for deliverance. They told me they did as they were able, and it was some comfort to me, that the Lord stirred up children to look to Him. The woman, viz. goodwife Joslin, told me she should never see me again, and that she could find in her heart to run away. I wished her not to run away by any means, for we were near thirty miles from any English town, and she very big with child, and had but one week to reckon, and another child in her arms, two years old, and bad rivers there were to go over, and we were feeble, with our poor and coarse entertainment. I had my Bible with me, I pulled it out, and asked her whether she would read. We opened the Bible and lighted on Psalm 27, in which Psalm we especially took notice of that, ver. ult., “Wait on the Lord, Be of good courage, and he shall strengthen thine Heart, wait I say on the Lord.”


Skip to main content
2: Functions of Multiple Variables and Partial Derivatives
-
-
Last updated
-
-
Save as PDF
-
-
-
2.1: Introduction to Functions of Multiple Variables
-
-
-
2.2: Functions of Multiple Variables
-
Our first step is to explain what a function of more than one variable is, starting with functions of two independent variables. This step includes identifying the domain and range of such functions and learning how to graph them.  These derivatives correspond to each of the independent variables and can be interpreted as instantaneous rates of change (that is, as slopes of a tangent line). Similarly, \(∂z/∂y\) represents the slope of the tangent line parallel to the y-axis. Now we consider the possibility of a tangent line parallel to neither axis.
-
-
-
2.8: Taylor Polynomials of Functions of Two Variables
-
-
-
-
2.9: Optimization of Functions of Several Variables
-
The application derivatives of a function of one variable is the determination of maximum and/or minimum values is also important for functions of two or more variables, but as we have seen in earlier sections of this chapter, the introduction of more independent variables leads to more possible outcomes for the calculations. The main ideas of finding critical points and using derivative tests are still valid, but new wrinkles appear when assessing the results.
-
-
-
2.10: Constrained Optimization
-
-
-
-
2.11: Lagrange Multipliers
-
Solving optimization problems for functions of two or more variables can be similar to solving such problems in single-variable calculus. However, techniques for dealing with multiple variables allow us to solve more varied optimization problems for which we need to deal with additional conditions or constraints. In this section, we examine one of the more common and useful methods for solving optimization problems with constraints.
-


9.7: References
Benjamin, A. (2017, March 13). Andrew Ference is excited about the new sustainability role. NHL.com. https://www.nhl.com/news/andrew-ference-flourishing-in-role-with-nhl-green-287680614 .
Blackistone, K. (2016, January 3). Why the NHL is getting involved in climate change efforts. Chicago Tribune. https://www.chicagotribune.com/2016/01/03/why-the-nhl-is-getting-involved-in-climate-change-efforts/ .
Bright, D. (2009). Appreciative inquiry and positive organizational scholarship: A philosophy of practice for turbulent times. OD Practitioner, 41 (3), 2–7.
Brown, K. & Eisenhardt, M. (1997). The art of continuous change: Linking complexity theory and time-paced evolution in relentlessly shifting organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 42 , 1–34.
Burnes, B. (2005). Complexity theories and organizational change. International Journal of Management Reviews, 7 (2), 73–90.
Cooperrider, D. (2008). The appreciative inquiry handbook: For leaders of change. Berrett-Kohler.
Cummings, T.G. & Worley, C. G. (2019). Organization development and change (11th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Dunn, E. (2018, February 24). The limitations of American restaurants’ no-tipping experience. The New Yorker . https://www.newyorker.com/culture/annals-of-gastronomy/the-limitations-of-american-restaurants-no-tipping-experiment .
Eisenbach, R., Watson, K., & Pillai, R. (1999). Transformational leadership in the context of organizational change. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 12 , 80-89.
Feldman, L. (2018, January 14). Danny Meyer on eliminating tipping: It takes a year to get the math right. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/lorenfeldman/2018/01/14/danny-meyer-on-eliminating-tipping-it-takes-a-year-to-get-the-math-right/?sh=f5ab837431f9 .
Green, M. (2018, March 28). NHL report finds that climate change hurts the sport. The Hill. https://thehill.com/policy/energy-environment/380648-national-hockey-league-report-finds-climate-change-hurts-the-sport/ .
Harvard University. (2018, May 16). Andrew Ference: Student spotlight. Harvard University Extension- Inside Insight. https://extension.harvard.edu/student-story/professional-hockey-player-andrew-ference/ .
Katz, D. & Kahn, R. L. (1978). The social psychology of organizations (2nd ed.). John Wiley and Sons; (1980), 3rd edition.
Schein, E. (1965). Organizational psychology. Prentice Hall.
Kotter, J. & Schlesinger, L. (1979) Choosing strategies for change. Harvard Business Review , 57 , 106–114.
Larkin, M. (2018, April 6). Kim Davis is the kind of leader the NHL needs in 2018: A hockey outsider. The Hockey News. https://thehockeynews.com/news/kim-davis-is-the-kind-of-leader-the-nhl-needs-in-2018-a-hockey-outsider .
Lewin, K. (2012). Field theory in social science . Harper & Row.
Kotter, J. (1996). Leading change. Harvard Business School Press.
Matousek, M. (2017, October 20). Danny Meyer banned tipping at his restaurants—but employees say it has led to lower pay and high turnover. Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.com/danny-meyers-no-tip-policy-struggles-2017-
Olson, E. & Eoyang, G (2001). Facilitating organization change: Lessons from complexity science. Pfeiffer.
Owen, H. (2008). Open space technology: A user’s guide (3rd ed.). Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Quinn, R. E. (2015). The positive organization: Breaking free from conventional cultures, constraints, and beliefs (1st ed.). Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Setter, C. J.& The Council for Six Sigma Certification. (2018). Six Sigma: A complete step-by-step guide. The Council for Six Sigma Certification.
Weber, M. (1958). From Max Weber: Essays in sociology . Oxford University Press.
Whitney, D., & Trosten-Bloom, A. (2010). The power of appreciative inquiry: A practical guide to positive change (2nd ed.). Berrett-Koehler.


7.1.3A: Sociological Theories of Deviance
-
- Last updated
- Save as PDF
Sociological theories of deviance are those that use social context and social pressures to explain deviance.
Learning Objectives
- Describe four different sociological approaches to deviance
Key Points
- Social strain typology, developed by Robert K. Merton, is based upon two criteria: (1) a person’s motivations or adherence to cultural goals; (2) a person’s belief in how to attain her goals.
- According to Merton, there are five types of deviance based upon these criteria: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism and rebellion.
- Structural functionalism argues that deviant behavior plays an active, constructive role in society by ultimately helping cohere different populations within a society.
- Conflict theory suggests that deviant behaviors result from social, political, or material inequalities in a social group.
- Labeling theory argues that people become deviant as a result of people forcing that identity upon them and then adopting the identity.
Key Terms
- conformity : the ideology of adhering to one standard or social uniformity
- typology : The systematic classification of the types of something according to their common characteristics.
- Retrospective labeling : Occurs when a deviant recognizes her acts as deviant prior to the primary deviance, while prospective labeling is when the deviant recognizes future acts as deviant.
The study of social deviance is the study of the violation of cultural norms in either formal or informal contexts. Social deviance is a phenomenon that has existed in all societies with norms. Sociological theories of deviance are those that use social context and social pressures to explain deviance.
Social Strain Typology
Four main sociological theories of deviance exist. The first is the social strain typology developed by American sociologist Robert K. Merton. Merton proposed a typology of deviant behavior, a classification scheme designed to facilitate understanding. Merton typology of deviance was based on two criteria: (1) a person’s motivations or adherence to cultural goals; (2) a person’s belief in how to attain her goals. According to Merton, there are five types of deviance based upon these criteria: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism and rebellion. Merton’s typology is fascinating because it suggests that people can turn to deviance in the pursuit of widely accepted social values and goals. For instance, individuals in the U.S. who sell illegal drugs have rejected the culturally acceptable means of making money, but they still share the widely accepted cultural value of making money. Thus, deviance can be the result of accepting one norm, but breaking another in order to pursue the first.
Structural Functionalism
The second main sociological explanation of deviance comes from structural functionalism. This approach argues that deviant behavior plays an active, constructive role in society by ultimately helping to cohere different populations within a particular society. Deviance helps to distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behavior. It draws lines and demarcates boundaries. This is an important function that affirms the cultural values and norms of a society for the members of that society. In addition to clarifying the moral boundaries of society, deviant behavior can also promote social unity by creating an “us-versus-them” mentality in relation to deviant individuals. Finally, deviance is actually seen as one means for society to change over time. Deviant behavior can imbalance the social equilibrium but—in the process of restoring balance—society will adjust norms. With changing norms in response to deviance, the deviant behavior can contribute to long-term social stability.
Conflict Theory
The third main sociological theory of deviance is conflict theory. Conflict theory suggests that deviant behaviors result from social, political, or material inequalities of a social group. In response to these inequalities, certain groups will act deviantly in order to change their circumstances, change the social structure that engendered their circumstances, or just to “act out” against their oppressors. An example of conflict theory would be the Occupy Wall Street movement that began in the fall of 2011. Angered at the extreme inequalities in wealth distribution in the United States, protesters began to organize more communal ways of living in Zucotti Park—near Wall Street in New York City—in order to protest the lavish means of life of those at the top of the socioeconomic ladder. The protesters were deviating from social norms of coherence in order to articulate grievances against the extremely wealthy. Their actions and perspectives demonstrate the use of conflict theory to explain social deviance.
Labeling Theory
The fourth main sociological theory of deviance is labeling theory. Labeling theory refers to the idea that individuals become deviant when a deviant label is applied to them; they adopt the label by exhibiting the behaviors, actions, and attitudes associated with the label. Labeling theory argues that people become deviant as a result of others forcing that identity upon them. This process works because of stigma; in applying a deviant label, one attaches a stigmatized identity to the labeled individual.
Labeling theory allows us to understand how past behaviors of a deviant-labeled individual are reinterpreted in accordance with their label. This process of recasting past actions in light of a current deviant identity is referred to as “retrospective labeling. ” A clear example of retrospective labeling is seen in how the perpetrators of the Columbine High School massacre were recast after the incident took place. Much of their behavior leading up to the school shootings has been reinterpreted in light of the deviant identity with which they were labeled as a result of the shootings.


9.3: Reading- Types of Volcanoes
A volcano is a vent through which molten rock and gas escape from a magma chamber. Volcanoes differ in many features such as height, shape, and slope steepness. Some volcanoes are tall cones and others are just cracks in the ground (figure 1). As you might expect, the shape of a volcano is related to the composition of its magma.
Composite Volcanoes
Composite volcanoes are made of felsic to intermediate rock. The viscosity of the lava means that eruptions at these volcanoes are often explosive (figure 2).
The viscous lava cannot travel far down the sides of the volcano before it solidifies, which creates the steep slopes of a composite volcano. Viscosity also causes some eruptions to explode as ash and small rocks. The volcano is constructed layer by layer, as ash and lava solidify, one upon the other (figure 3). The result is the classic cone shape of composite volcanoes.
Shield Volcanoes
Shield volcanoes get their name from their shape. Although shield volcanoes are not steep, they may be very large. Shield volcanoes are common at spreading centers or intraplate hot spots (figure 4).
The lava that creates shield volcanoes is fluid and flows easily. The spreading lava creates the shield shape. Shield volcanoes are built by many layers over time and the layers are usually of very similar composition. The low viscosity also means that shield eruptions are non-explosive.
This Volcanoes 101 video from National Geographic discusses where volcanoes are found and what their properties come from:
Cinder Cones
Cinder cones are the most common type of volcano. A cinder cone has a cone shape, but is much smaller than a composite volcano. Cinder cones rarely reach 300 meters in height but they have steep sides. Cinder cones grow rapidly, usually from a single eruption cycle (figure 5). Cinder cones are composed of small fragments of rock, such as pumice, piled on top of one another. The rock shoots up in the air and doesn’t fall far from the vent. The exact composition of a cinder cone depends on the composition of the lava ejected from the volcano. Cinder cones usually have a crater at the summit.
Cinder cones are often found near larger volcanoes (figure 6).
Lesson Summary
- Composite, shield, cinder cones, and supervolcanoes are the main types of volcanoes.
- Composite volcanoes are tall, steep cones that produce explosive eruptions.
- Shield volcanoes form very large, gently sloped mounds from effusive eruptions.
- Cinder cones are the smallest volcanoes and result from accumulation of many small fragments of ejected material.
- An explosive eruption may create a caldera, a large hole into which the mountain collapses.
Contributors and Attributions
- 8.3: Types of Volcanoes. Provided by : CK-12. Located at : http://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Earth-Science-For-High-School/section/8.3/ . License : CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial


4.4: Working as a Part of a Team
The goal of restaurant and food service establishments is to provide high-quality meals and excellent service to customers while staying within food and labour costs so that the operation can make a profit. This goal can only be achieved with the cooperation and support of all of the staff. Just as a football franchise only succeeds when the players and staff form a cohesive team, so too does a restaurant succeed only when the staff forms a working team.
Teams invariably outperform individuals if they are working effectively. When groups come together to solve a problem, they come up with more creative and flexible solutions than could individuals. In a restaurant, excellent food and service is always a team effort. If the meal is not well prepared or if the service is poor, the customer may not enjoy the dining experience. All members of the team have a role in making the customers experience memorable.
Cooks often think only of the team in the kitchen. The kitchen staff members may think of themselves as a team (“us”) allied against the front of house staff (“them”). The kitchen staff on other shifts, management, and other components of the operation may also be considered “them.” This is not productive in a well-functioning restaurant. The staff may believe that if only “they” were more understanding, worked harder, or knew what it was really like, “we” could do the best job. Of course, this same thinking is prevalent in the other groups except in reverse.
The flaw with this thinking is that it pits one group against the other. It contributes to poor customer service. Petty jealousies and conflicts can lead to various schemes to get the better of the other group. This is an immature way of looking at your workplace and unfortunately the customer will suffer. Being part of a team means being respectful to all other members for their particular role and duties. When the entire group sees itself as having a common set of goals to achieve, and each member of the team understands his or her contribution to the overall team effort, the best results are achieved.
Characteristics of effective working groups
Groups that work effectively have the following characteristics:
- Group members share a sense of purpose or common goals that each member is willing to work toward. Members feel that they played a role in determining these goals and the methods used to achieve them. When a task is accomplished or the demands of the situation change, the group can change its focus or direction to meet the new goals.
- The group is concerned not only with the task, but also with its own processes and operating procedures. The group periodically evaluates its performance.
- The group members use one another as a resource. The group willingly accepts the influence and leadership of members whose resources are relevant to the immediate task. Roles are balanced and shared to ensure that the tasks are accomplished and that group cohesion and morale are enhanced.
- Communication is clear and direct. Group members continually try to listen to and clarify what is being said and show interest in what others say and feel. Differences of opinion are encouraged and freely expressed.
- The group focuses on problem solving rather than expending energy on competitive struggles or interpersonal issues. The group is willing to deal with conflict and focus on it until it is resolved or managed in a way that does not reduce the effectiveness of the group and its members. Confrontation is accepted as a challenge to examine one’s behaviour or ideas. It is not viewed as an uncaring personal attack.
- Mistakes are seen as sources of learning rather than reasons for punishment. This encourages creativity and risk taking.
- The group has a clear set of expectations and standards for the behaviour of group members.
- Developing a climate of trust underlies all of these elements. In order to trust one another, individuals in a group must understand and get to know one another.
Stages of group development
Groups go through a set of predictable stages of development. In 1965, Bruce Tuckman, who carried out research on group dynamics, identified the four stages as forming (getting to know each other); storming (initial confrontation as group members identify their differences); norming (coming together to work for the benefit of the team); and performing (working well together with a process to deal with any differences of opinion and reassessing to look for opportunities for improvement). (Tuckman, 1965)
- Forming: When a group is first formed, individuals wait and see what is going on. They are unsure of their role and concerned about how they will fit in. They want to belong to the group, feel accepted, and find out what the task is. If you think for a moment, you will probably remember feeling like this on your first day of work. The supervisor or leader can help at this stage by providing a comfortable and structured environment. Ensure that each person is introduced and there is an opportunity to get to know one another. Be clear about goals and expectations.
- Storming: During the confrontation stage, individuals in a group begin to struggle to establish their place in the group. They may challenge the leadership of the group or the group boundaries. They may also, for the first time, express disagreement or impatience with the task or group process. At first, the leader may wonder why the group, which seemed to be working well, now seems to be in trouble. This stage is healthy because group members feel comfortable and trusting enough to air conflicts which previously had been kept hidden. The supervisor needs to provide time to deal with issues as they arise and avoid the temptation to “put the lid on” the conflict. Healthy dissent leads to better problem solving and better cooperation. If you prevent conflict from being expressed, it may continue to fester under the surface, causing greater problems later on.
- Norming: At the working stage, groups have developed methods of dealing with task and process and can work effectively together. People become more tolerant of differences in the group and encourage self-expression. The group can accept and build on one another’s strengths, sharing tasks in the most productive way.
- Performing: During maturity, the group continues to cooperate to resolve issues and accomplish objectives. The group can stagnate and become less effective if new challenges and opportunities do not arise. Perhaps you have worked in a restaurant where the entire working group has been together for a couple of years. The group works together well, but unless there are new challenges, such as a new menu or an expansion, the situation can become boring. When group members are bored and unchallenged, their performance may decline and conflicts between members may start to dominate the working of the group.
During reassessment, members examine their performance and working processes. They begin to provide honest feedback which is not always positive and begin to share ideas that might create conflict. As a result of this examination, the group can continue to develop its effectiveness.
Work groups are constantly being formed and reformed as new staff members join and others leave. New members of the team have the same needs as new groups. Because the team has a different membership, the whole group may revert to an earlier stage of development. This is especially true if the new team member has a position of authority over other members. A good leader always watches for signs that the group needs more structure or a new challenge.
This sense of teamwork is not something that just happens; it is created through good communication, leadership, caring for individuals as people, and an understanding of group process.
Roles of group members
Members of a work group fall into two categories. Initiators are the people who speak up first and generate ideas. They contribute their knowledge of relevant information and experience and give opinions. Responders listen and respond to suggestions they have heard. They evaluate information, criticize proposals, and ask questions. They play an important role in developing the ideas put forward by initiators.
As the group process continues, members switch back and forth between the roles. Both roles are important for group function. Groups need a balance between these roles. If there is only idea generation, the result will be a contentious, unruly group that is too divided to make up its mind. If there is too much emphasis on criticism of contributions and evaluation of ideas, the group may not come up with any new and innovative ideas to try. Maintaining a balance is the role of the group leader.
Barriers to group performance
In an effective group, the purpose of the group takes precedence over the needs of individuals. When individuals place their needs ahead of those of the group, they act as a barrier to performance. These people can be classified as:
- Aggressors who want to win or exert power
- Defeatists who feel that the problem is insurmountable, and sometimes, demoralize the group and sabotage the group process
- Stars who have to be in the limelight all the time, even when not making a contribution
- Storytellers who keep lapsing into asides and irrelevant conversations
- Clowns who just want to get attention and laughs
- Dominators who want to run things more than they want to solve the problem
- Axe-grinders who relate everything to their pet peeve
Perhaps you can think of one or two people with whom you’ve worked who fit into these categories.
Good communication
Good communication always leads to better cooperation. Communication that is honest and assertive tells the listener what you need. It does not expect the listener to read between the lines. When appropriate, it also expresses feelings about the situation. When problems arise, honest communication allows them to be resolved in a mature way.
When you deal with problems in an aggressive manner, the situation may appear to be resolved in your favour initially, but the other person will likely have hard feelings and resentments. If you deal with problems by giving in to others even though you feel your position has some validity, or when you complain to others but not to the persons involved, you may also begin to feel resentments. Over time, hard feelings and resentments may continue to build over a series of small incidents.
Leadership
Leadership is important in a team. A good supervisor is a leader who can bring the group together and build an environment in which the team can work together effectively. A leader acts as a:
- Representative of management
- Role model
- Problem solver
- Motivator
- Manager of daily operations
A group leader does not have to perform all of these functions all of the time. Some of the most effective leaders lead from behind. They lead the group unobtrusively, sharing the responsibilities and rewards of leadership.
That does not mean that they do nothing. They work hard at “catching people doing it right” and acknowledging their efforts. They value the contributions of others and share decision making. They also recognize when it is important to step in and take charge.
A successful leader has the ability to influence employees by making suggestions and guiding discussion. Every supervisor has legitimate power, which is the authority associated with being a boss. In addition to this authority, effective leaders have a second type of power: the power to influence or persuade people. This power depends on the employee’s acceptance of the supervisor as a person who makes sound judgments and merits respect.
Influence is a very potent form of power (Figure 12). Employees may obey the requests of an authority, but they will go above and beyond the call of duty for someone with influence. Of course, a supervisor needs both authority and influence. If the supervisor has no authority to make decisions, he or she will be unable to create a climate in which work can be performed. In turn, he or she will not enjoy the respect and acceptance that creates influence.
Successful leaders combine a focus on task (getting the job done) with a commitment to helping employees achieve their personal goals. If a supervisor concentrates only on accomplishing tasks, he or she will be perceived to be uncaring and unsupportive. Employees may feel that they are not appreciated for their unique skills and interests.
If, on the other hand, the supervisor concentrates only on making employees feel comfortable and fostering a pleasant work environment, the tasks for which the group is responsible may not be accomplished. The owner of the company will not get the necessary job performance. Profits and customer service will suffer. Although you might expect employees to be satisfied, they will not have a sense of accomplishment in their work. Morale will suffer.
Leadership styles
The style of leadership that supervisors use can be categorized into four types:
- Authoritarian
- Passive
- Bureaucratic
- Participative
Authoritarian leaders plan, organize, coordinate, control, and direct in a very commanding manner. They make the decisions and expect their subordinates to obey. Most military units function under this type of leadership. This does not mean that the leader is not concerned about the welfare of the staff. This type of leader may be a caring individual, but may feel that he or she is in the best position to judge what is best for the staff being supervised. He or she may be like the wise and caring father in a traditional family.
Passive leaders do not want to face conflict. They avoid situations where decisions have to be made or they have to interact with others. They have little concern for either people or production. This style of leadership is seldom appropriate in the type of situations encountered in the food service industry.
A bureaucratic leader expects employees to put in an honest day’s work for an honest day’s pay. He or she expects everyone to play by the rules. The results may be predictable, but this type of leadership does not foster creativity or initiative.
Participative leaders believe that participation in decision making is the key to achieving the company’s goals. In today’s world, where most people have a strong streak of individualism, this style may complement the personality and needs of employees well.
However, this does not mean it is appropriate in all situations. For example, an authoritarian style will likely be most effective in an emergency. If there is a fire in the restaurant and the customers and guests must be evacuated, someone needs to take charge quickly. There is no time to consult with staff and arrive at a consensus about what approach should be taken.
The style you choose should reflect the needs of a situation, taking into consideration your personality and the needs of your employees. When you have chosen a style (or one is imposed from above), do not attempt to disguise it. For example, authoritarian leaders sometimes wish to appear more participative. They make a pretense of consulting with others, when in fact a decision has already been made. This only angers and confuses their subordinates.
Here are some tips on being an effective leader:
- Be clear about your expectations of employees. Expect excellent performance and customer service. Let employees know that you have confidence in them.
- Share the responsibilities of the job and the credit for a job well done. Praise employees on work well done (Figure 13).
- Give honest feedback to help employees improve performance. See mistakes as an opportunity to grow and develop.
- Earn respect by modelling appropriate behaviour and exercising self-discipline.
- Be positive and encouraging about challenges the group faces. Introduce incentives to help your group achieve the desired level of productivity. Respond to your employees’ motivation and efforts by showing enthusiasm.
- Enhance your knowledge and skills so that you can answer employee questions and provide detailed information about specific processes and techniques employed by your business.
- When challenges arise, pitch in and help where help is needed. Encourage others to do so as well.
- Stand up for your staff when they need support. Listen to your employee’s side of the story before you make a decision.
- Do not be a gossip or a back stabber. Never say or repeat anything you are not prepared to acknowledge saying.
- Be consistent, firm, and fair.
Delegation
Some supervisors believe that if you want a job done, do it yourself. These individuals often work themselves so hard that they burn out. They may work long, hard hours and be admired by others, but inevitably something slips. Perhaps the supervisor becomes ill due to overwork. Because the junior staff have never been given the opportunity to learn the work performed by that individual, the performance of the whole team suffers. Junior staff may feel unappreciated and unchallenged because they have not been given the opportunity to learn new skills.
Delegation of tasks provides you with time to meet your responsibilities. It recognizes the abilities of others and provides them with opportunities to develop their skills and talents. It divides the work to be done among the team members, increasing effectiveness and efficiency (Figure 14).
When you delegate a task to a junior staff member, it is not enough to simply ask the person to do the job. You must ensure that you:
- Explain why the task is necessary and how it relates to the goals of the company
- Explain what is to be done
- Set performance standards
- Give a timeline for completion of the task
- Give the person the necessary resources, authority, and responsibility to carry out the task
- Provide adequate training
- Give support and guidance during the initial period
- Provide feedback on completion of the task
For example, you are planning changes to the menu. You need to test and cost the recipes for the new items. You decide that one of the apprentices you supervise could handle some of the breakfast items you are considering adding to the menu. You might proceed as follows:
“Kuldip, I would like your help in testing and costing the recipe for a new fruit waffle (what) that we are considering adding to our breakfast menu (why).
“You will need to prepare the recipe exactly as shown here. You will calculate the food cost and estimate a menu price based on a 35% food cost. You will prepare four portions that we will serve to some of the dining room staff to get their reactions. I want you to listen to their comments carefully and make notes regarding the flavour, presentation, and cost. I would also appreciate your suggestions on dealing with these comments (what, performance standards).
“Do you have any questions about what you will do?
“In order to test this item, I would like you to stay an extra half hour tomorrow. I will arrange the schedule with the restaurant manager. All the necessary supplies are available. The dining room staff knows that they will be working with you, but you will have to explain exactly what information you need (necessary resources, authority and responsibility).
“I would like your report by 2:30 tomorrow (timeline).
“Do you understand how to fill out the standard recipe costing form we use? This process was covered in your third-year apprentice technical training class. If you have any problems, review this material (handing apprentice an appropriate reading) or come to see me for help (provide training and offer support).”
On the following day, you would go over the report and provide feedback to Kuldip on what she did well and what she could improve.
Media Attributions
- Chefs Collaborating by go2HR. Used with permission
- 3-Person High-Five by go2HR. Used with permission
- A Chef Plating Food by go2HR. Used with permission


7.0: Prelude to Telling Your Entrepreneurial Story and Pitching the Idea
Sara Minkara, a Muslim American of Lebanese decent, lost her eyesight at age seven because of a genetic disorder. She grew up experiencing ethnic discrimination and mistreatment because of her disability. As a college student in the United States, Minkara realized that she had access to privileges that other children in her native Lebanon did not. Her desire to make things better for youth like her developed into a passion for empowering blind children to get engaged in their communities. The problem: Many societies marginalize visually impaired people and may even see them as a burden. This bias can be attributed in part to physical and cultural constraints and habits that create de facto limitations on their ability to function freely and effectively in those societies. The solution: educational programs and public awareness campaigns that empower visually impaired persons from a young age and provide them with assertiveness training.
At 27, Minkara founded Empowerment Through Integration (ETI), a social enterprise that empowers youth with visual impairments in the Middle East-North African region and in the United States. The organization has grown from a summer camp to a small movement that assists more than 3,000 individuals across Lebanon and the United States. The mission and vision of ETI are to develop an inclusive society that transforms the global social stigma against disabilities and empower blind youth. 1 One of Minkara’s signature events is “Dining in the Dark,” which is designed to expose participants to the life of a blind person and educate them about the potential in all people, particularly those who are disabled, including the visually impaired.


9.2: Beyond the Mk model
In Chapter 8, we considered the evolution of discrete characters on phylogenetic trees. These models fall under the general category of continuous-time Markov models, which consider a process that can occupy two or more states. Transitions occur between those states in continuous time. The Markov property means that, at some time t , what happens next in the model depends only on the current state of the process and not on anything that came before.
In evolutionary biology, the most detailed work on continuous time Markov models has focused on DNA or protein sequence data. As mentioned earlier, an extremely large set of models are available for modeling and analyzing these molecular sequences. One can also elaborate on these models by adding rate heterogeneity across sites (e.g. the gamma parameter, as in GTR + Γ ), or other complications related to mechanisms of sequence evolution (for a review, see Liò and Goldman 1998) .
However, there are two important differences between models of sequence evolution and models of character change on trees that make our task distinct from the task of modeling DNA or amino acid sequences. First, when analyzing molecular sequences, one typically has data for many thousands (or millions) of characters. Data sets for other characters – like the phenotypic characters of species – are typically much smaller (and harder to collect). Second, sequence analysis very often assumes that each character evolves independently from all other characters, but that all characters (or at least certain large subsets of those characters) evolve under a shared model (Liò and Goldman 1998; Yang 2006) . This means that, for example, the frequency of transitions between A and C at one location in a gene sequence contribute information about the same transition in a different location in the sequence.
Unfortunately, when analyzing morphological character evolution, we are often interested in single characters, and the use of shared models across characters seems impossible to justify. There is usually no equivalence between different character states for different characters: an A is an A for sequences, but a “1” in a character matrix usually corresponds to the presence of two completely different characters. The consequence of this difference is reflected in the statistical property of multivariate data. For gene sequence problems, adding more data in the form of additional characters (sites) makes model-fitting easier, as each site adds information about the overall (shared) model across sites. With character data, additional characters do not make the problem any easier, because each character comes with its own model parameters. In fact, we will see that when considering character correlations using a generalized Mk model, adding characters actually makes the problem more and more difficult. Perhaps these issues partially explain the slow pace of model development for fitting discrete characters to trees. There are a few potential solutions, such as threshold models [ Felsenstein (2005) ; Felsenstein (2012) ; discussed below]. More work is desperately needed in this area.
In this chapter, we will first discuss extensions of Mk models that allow us to add complexity to this simple model. We also discuss threshold models, a relatively new approach in comparative methods that is distinct from Mk models and has some potential for future development.


3.3.2: Barriers to Accurate Social Perception
-
- Last updated
- Save as PDF
2. How can managers and organizations minimize the negative impact of stereotypes and other barriers to accurate social perception in interpersonal relations?
In the perceptual process, several barriers can be identified that inhibit the accuracy of our perception. These barriers are (1) stereotyping, (2) selective perception, and (3) perceptual defense. Each of these will be briefly considered as it relates to social perception in work situations (see Table 3.2 ).
Stereotyping
One of the most common barriers in perceiving others at work is stereotyping . A stereotype is a widely held generalization about a group of people. Stereotyping is a process in which attributes are assigned to people solely on the basis of their class or category. It is particularly likely to occur when one meets new people, since very little is known about them at that time. On the basis of a few prominent characteristics such as sex, race, or age, we tend to place people into a few general categories. We ascribe a series of traits to them based upon the attributes of the category in which we have put them. We assume that older people are old-fashioned, conservative, obstinate, and perhaps senile. We view professors as absentminded, impractical, idealistic, or eccentric.
One explanation for the existence of stereotypes has been suggested by Jain, Triandis, and Weick.14 They argue that stereotypes may be to some extent based upon fact. People tend to compare other groups with their own group, accentuating minor differences between groups to form a stereotype. For example, older people as a group may indeed be more conservative or more old-fashioned. These traits then become emphasized and attributed to particular older individuals.
At least three types of stereotype can be found in organizations: those dealing with age, race, and gender. Age stereotypes can be found throughout organizations. A recent study by15 found that there are still clear stereotypes of older employees. They are thought to be (1) more resistant to organizational change, (2) less creative, (3) less likely to take calculated risks, (4) lower in physical capacity, (5) less interested in learning new techniques, and (6) less capable of learning new techniques. When asked to make personnel decisions concerning older people, the business students generally followed several trends. First, they gave older people lower consideration in promotion decisions. Older people also received less attention and fewer resources for training and development. Finally, older people tended to be transferred to other departments instead of confronted by their superiors when a problem with their performance emerged.
Similar problems arise for people from different racial or cultural backgrounds and for gender. A particular problem in many companies today is that of attitudes toward women as managers or executives. Although succeeding in a managerial position is always difficult, the job is all the harder if your coworkers, superiors, or subordinates are not supportive.
expanding around the globe
To See Ourselves as Others See Us
In considering stereotyping in organizations, it may be interesting to examine how people in different countries and cultures see others around the world. Specifically, we should note that “foreigners” often hold certain stereotypes of what a “typical” American looks and acts like. Look, for example, at Table 3.3 . This table shows how people in seven countries around the globe view the typical American. Note the sizable differences in perceptions.
Foreign Observations of Americans
The following are quotations from foreign visitors to the United States:
India: “Americans seem to be in a perpetual hurry. Just watch the way they walk down the street. They never allow themselves the leisure to enjoy life; there are too many things to do.”
Kenya: “Americans appear to us rather distant. They are not really as close to other people—even fellow Americans—as Americans overseas tend to portray. It’s almost as if an American says, ‘I won’t let you get too close to me.’ It’s like building a wall.”
Turkey: “Once we were out in a rural area in the middle of nowhere and saw an American come to a stop sign. Though he could see in both directions for miles and no traffic was coming, he still stopped!”
Colombia: “The tendency in the United States to think that life is only work hits you in the face. Work seems to be the one type of motivation.”
Indonesia: “In the United States everything has to be talked about and analyzed. Even the littlest thing has to be ‘Why, Why, Why?’ I get a headache from such persistent questions.”
Ethiopia: “The American is very explicit; he wants a ‘yes’ or ‘no.’ If someone tries to speak figuratively, the American is confused.”
 I asked myself, ‘Why is he teaching me?’ In my country a professor would give the wrong answer rather than admit ignorance.”
Source: J. Feig and G. Blair, There Is a Difference, 2nd ed. (Washington: Meridian House International). Meridian House International is an organization that conducts intercultural training for visitors to the United States and for Americans going abroad.
Table 3.3
When examining these comments, consider the extent to which you think these perceptions and stereotypes are accurate or inaccurate. Why do people in different countries form such divergent opinions of our country? How do their perceptions color the behavior and effectiveness of American managers working abroad? On the basis of this assessment, you might want to reassess your own stereotypes of people in different countries. How accurate do you think your own stereotypes have been?
Selective Perception
Selective perception is the process by which we systematically screen out information we don’t wish to hear, focusing instead on more salient information. Saliency here is obviously a function of our own experiences, needs, and orientations. The example of the Dearborn and Simon16 study of managers described earlier provides an excellent glimpse of selective perception. Production managers focused on production problems to the exclusion of other problems. Accountants, personnel specialists, and sales managers were similarly exclusive. Everyone saw his own specialty as more important in the company than other specialties.
Another example of selective perception in groups and organizations is provided by Miner. 17 Miner summarizes a series of experiments dealing with groups competing on problem-solving exercises. Consistently, the groups tended to evaluate their own solutions as better than the solutions proposed by others. Such findings resemble a syndrome found in many research organizations. There is a frequent tendency for scientists to view ideas or products originating outside their organization or department as inferior and to judge other researchers as less competent and creative than themselves. This is often referred to as the “Not-Invented-Here” syndrome. Similar patterns of behavior can be found among managers, service workers, and secretaries.
Perceptual Defense
A final barrier to social perception is perceptual defense . 18 Perceptual defense is founded on three related principles:
- Emotionally disturbing or threatening stimuli have a higher recognition threshold than neutral stimuli.
-
Such stimuli are likely to elicit substitute perceptions that are radically altered so as to prevent recognition
of the presented stimuli.
- These critical stimuli arouse emotional reactions even though the stimuli are not recognized.
In other words, through perceptual defense we tend to distort or ignore information that is either personally threatening or culturally unacceptable. Because emotionally disturbing stimuli have a higher recognition threshold, people are less likely to fully confront or acknowledge the threat. Instead, they may see entirely different or even erroneous stimuli that are safer. Even so, the presence of the critical stimulus often leads to heightened emotions despite the lack of recognition. For instance, suppose that during a contract negotiation for an assembly plant, word leaked out that because of declining profits, the plant might have to close down permanently. Anxious workers might ignore this message and instead choose to believe the company management is only starting false rumors to increase their leverage during wage negotiations. Even if the leverage claim is accepted by the workers as truth, strong emotional reactions against the company can be expected.
One effect of perceptual defense is to save us from squarely facing events that we either do not wish to handle or may be incapable of handling. We dissipate our emotions by directing our attention to other (substitute) objects and hope the original event that distressed us will eventually disappear.
Perceptual defense is especially pronounced when people are presented with a situation that contradicts their long-held beliefs and attitudes. In a classic study of perceptual defense among college students, Haire and Grunes presented the students with descriptions of factory workers. Included in these descriptions was the word intelligent . Because the word was contrary to the students’ beliefs concerning factory workers, they chose to reject the description by using perceptual defenses. 19 Four such defense mechanisms can be identified. 20
- Denial . A few of the subjects denied the existence of intelligence in factory workers.
-
Modification and distortion
. This was one of the most frequent forms of defense. The pattern was to
explain away the perceptual conflict by joining intelligence with some other characteristics—for instance,
“He is intelligent but doesn’t possess initiative to rise above his group.”
-
Change in perception
. Many students changed their perception of the worker because of the intelligence
characteristic. Most of the change, however, was very subtle—for example, “cracks jokes” became “witty.”
-
Recognition, but refusal to change
. A very few students explicitly recognized the conflict between their perception of the worker and the characteristic that was confronting them. For example, one subject
stated, “The trait seems to be conflicting . . . most factory workers I have heard about aren’t too intelligent.”
Perceptual defense makes any situation in which conflict is likely to be present more difficult. It creates blind spots, causing us to fail to hear and see events as they really are. The challenge for managers is to reduce or minimize the perception of threat in a situation so these defenses are not immediately called into play. This can be accomplished by reassuring people that things that are important to them will not be tampered with, or by accentuating the positive.
concept check
- What are the barriers that can inhibit the accuracy of our perception?
- What are the cultural factors that can influence perception?
- What is perceptual defense, and what are examples of the mechanisms that can be identified?
14. R. Jain, H. C. Triandis, and C. W. Weick, Managing Research, Development and Innovation: Managing the Unmanageable, 3rd Edition (New York: Wiley, 2010).
15. C. von Hippel, et al, “Age-based stereotype threat and work outcomes: Stress appraisals and ruminations as mediators,” Psychology and Aging, February 2019, pp. 68-84.
16. Dearborn and Simon, op. cit.
17. J. B. Miner, Organizational Behavior 2: Essentials Theories of Process and Structure (Routledge, 2015).
18. Levine and Shefner, op. cit.
19. M. Haire and W. Grunes, “Perceptual Defenses: Processes Protecting an Organized Perception of Another’s Personality,” Human Relations, 1950, 3 , pp. 403–412.
20. Ibid., p. 409.
Table 3.2 (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license)
Table 3.3 (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license)