3.1.3: The Process of Becoming an Enterpreneur
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the evolution of entrepreneurship through American historical periods
- Understand the nine stages of the entrepreneurial life cycle
Scholars of business and entrepreneurship have long debated how people become entrepreneurs. Are entrepreneurs born or made? That is, are some people born with the natural skills, talent, and temperament to pursue entrepreneurship? Or can you develop entrepreneurship skills through training, education, and experience? These questions reflect the classic debates known as “nature versus nurture” or “born versus made,” which attempt to explain the determinants of a person’s personality and character.
This debate has been around for centuries. In classical Greece, Plato supported the nature argument, whereas Aristotle believed in the nurture perspective. During the eighteenth-century Enlightenment period, Immanuel Kant (1724–1824; supported the supremacy of human reason) and John Locke (1632–1704; opposed authoritarianism) argued their views. Kant firmly believed that obedience was the expected and desired behavior, whereas Locke believed in allowing some degree of freedom and creativity. The focus of the aspects of this argument changed when late-nineteenth-century psychologists sought to understand how individuals obtain knowledge, and as modern psychologists concentrated on additional factors such as intelligence, personality, and mental illness.
Scott Shane, a professor of entrepreneurial studies at Case Western Reserve University, co-directed a study using identical twins and fraternal twins as the research subjects. Shane determined that entrepreneurs are about 40 percent born and 60 percent made, meaning that nature—that is, an individual’s DNA—is responsible for 40 percent of entrepreneurial behaviors, whereas nurture is responsible for about 60 percent of entrepreneurial behaviors. Although “nature versus nurture” and “born versus made” are parallel arguments, researchers and experienced entrepreneurs suggest a combined viewpoint. You can unite your natural talents and abilities with training and development to achieve a well-rounded entrepreneurial experience and outcome. Once you determine that entrepreneurship is in your future, the next action is to establish a process to follow, such as identifying useful reading materials, attending classes or workshops, finding a mentor, or learning by doing through simulations or firsthand experiences. Firsthand experiences occur throughout our days and lives as we gain relevant experiences and as we develop a mindset to seek out opportunity-recognition behaviors. Completing coursework, such as reading this textbook, and reviewing the suggested resources provided within this textbook are actions that can support your knowledge and awareness of entrepreneurship as a valid option for your future.

Entrepreneurial Personality Test
Review Bill Wagner’s article “What’s Your Entrepreneurial Personality Type?” in Entrepreneur at this link: https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/84134 . Then, go to The Entrepreneur Next Door at http://www.theentrepreneurnextdoor.com/ to take the Entrepreneurial Personality Test to find your personality type.
- Think about your results. Are you a generalist or a specialist?
- Once you know this information, what other entrepreneurial personality types do you fit into?
- How can you use this information in your pursuits as an entrepreneur?
- What does this information tell you about selecting members of your startup team?
Historical Perspective
The evolution of entrepreneurship in the United States has spanned centuries. Entrepreneurs have responded to and innovated within the political and economic conditions of their times. The United States’ economic and industrial spirit has inspired generations of entrepreneurial Americans. Understanding this history might help you appreciate the importance of entrepreneurship as you consider your own entrepreneurial journey.
During the late 1700s, the Pembina Band of Chippewa Indians lived along the Red River of the North, which flows through North Dakota and Minnesota, and into Canada. European explorers established trading posts in this region and bargained with the Pembina and others for pemmican, a buffalo or fish jerky created by tribes for survival during harsh winters when food was scarce. The Pembina pemmican was exported internationally through trading with French, Canadian, British, and other explorers. The Pembina solved a problem of food scarcity, then leveraged the product to trade for other products they needed that were available through the trading posts.
In the late 1880s, Madam C. J. Walker, an African American hair-care entrepreneur, developed and marketed her products across the United States (Figure <IP_ADDRESS>), hiring sales agents and founding the Madam C. J. Walker Hair Culturists Union of America and the National Negro Cosmetics Manufacturers Association in 1917. She started her company with a philosophy of “hair culture,” which quickly became popular and eventually led to steady employment for African American women. Another African American, Charles Drew, established the national blood bank in the late 1930s, just before World War II gave rise to the need for quick access to blood. He researched transfusion medicine and saw a need that he wanted to fulfill. Drew applied the ideas from his doctoral thesis to create the blood bank and continued to innovate, developing mobile blood donation stations.
Many innovations and entrepreneurial activities are not achieved by one person acting alone. One example is the invention of the cotton gin in 1794, attributed to Eli Whitney, and possibly based on a design by Catherine Greene and African Americans working as slaves. Some scholars believe that the cotton gin had the unintended consequence of hardening the grip of slavery in the South. Eli Whitney, a descendant of a British immigrant, leveraged his status as the creator of the cotton gin to manufacture muskets for the US government, becoming known as a pioneer of American industry with a focus on standardization.
Colonial and Early America: 1607–1776
The earliest concept of an “entrepreneur” can be traced to this era, from the French entreprendre , which translates as “to do something” or “to undertake.” Jean-Baptiste Say (1767–1832), a French philosopher, economist, and businessman, supported lifting restraints to encourage business growth, a highly liberal view in the late 1700s. “The entrepreneur shifts economic resources out of an area of lower and into an area of higher productivity and greater yield,” is a concept attributed to Say, as is the word entrepreneur .
Entrepreneurial-minded persons included merchants, landowners, manufacturers in textile-related trades, shipbuilders, explorers, merchants, and world market traders. The first immigrants to the British colonies took advantage of several key inventions developed before this era, such as printing, double-entry bookkeeping, and improvements in ship design and navigational instruments. The first North American patent was granted in 1641 by the Massachusetts General Court to Samuel Winslow for a new process for making salt. The entrepreneurial spirit of the early colonists helped shape an economic landscape that lasted for generations. Some notable pioneering inventors and entrepreneurs are shown in Table <IP_ADDRESS> and (Figure <IP_ADDRESS>).
| Inventor or Entrepreneur | Contribution(s) | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Pierre-Esprit Radisson (1640–1710), French explorer | Founded Hudson’s Bay trading company | Offered bartering of furs for textiles and guns |
| William Penn (1644–1718), colonist | Founded Commonwealth of Pennsylvania as a sanctuary for Quakers | Early social entrepreneur |
| Sybilla Masters (1676–1720), inventor | Invented method to clean and refine Indian corn grown by early settlers | Patent for a process for cleaning and milling Indian corn (1715) |
| Thomas Hancock (1703–1764), merchant | Founded trading house that furnished multiple goods | Sought alternative funding sources to finance business interests |
| Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), inventor, publisher, statesman | Established printing franchises and an infrastructure for his apprentices to launch in other colonies | Epitome of an inventor and serial entrepreneur |
As entrepreneurship flourished in the American colonies, the economic structure also began to emerge. The prevailing view of economics was associated with the stockpiling of gold and silver. Colonists perceived imports as a reduction of metal wealth—gold and silver money—and felt that exports channeled these metals back to the colonies. To categorize the economic mindset of the time, the Scottish philosopher and economist Adam Smith (1723–1790) wrote An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). This influential treatise outlined the concepts of free trade and economic expansion through capitalism , a system in which individuals, people, and companies have the freedom to make decisions and own property as well as benefit from their own efforts, with government playing a secondary role in oversight. This book confirmed Smith as the “father of economics” and modern free trade. Among the most significant concepts that Smith proposed were the “invisible hand” theory of supply and demand in the marketplace; the use of the GDP to measure a country’s level of production and commerce; and the self-interest concept, whereby individuals inadvertently help others as they pursue their own goals. The ability to gain personally from entrepreneurial activities is a key factor in supporting entrepreneurial behavior. Smith’s concepts continue to influence modern economics and entrepreneurial activity.
The First Industrial Revolution: 1776–1865
As the colonies expanded, so did opportunities and interest in property ownership, manufacturing, inventions, and innovations. An innovation is any new idea, process, or product, or a change to an existing product or process. The understanding and acceptance of innovation developed around 1730, when the economist Richard Cantillon identified the first academic meaning and characteristics of “entrepreneurship” as the “willingness to bear the personal financial risk of a business venture.” The First Industrial Revolution was notable for the explosion of inventive activities by the “great inventors,” who pursued entrepreneurial opportunities to meet market needs, demands, and economic incentives.
An important thing to keep in mind is that dates of inventions don’t necessarily reflect specific launch dates. Development of these inventions may have been ongoing for years or decades before they were considered market-viable products.
A plethora of inventors and their inventions transformed several industries and economic classes across the growing nation. During this era, the country benefited from inventions that created, expanded, or revolutionized industry and increased wealth and expansion. These revolutionary inventors included Eli Whitney (cotton gin, 1794), Elias Howe (sewing machine, 1845), and Samuel Morse (telegraph, 1830s–1840s) (Figure <IP_ADDRESS>). Many other people contributed to these and other inventions.
Although he was not an inventor but an industrialist, Andrew Carnegie provides an interesting example. A manufacturer who focused on the value of innovations and how to implement them, Carnegie adopted newly developed techniques to improve steel production. He also was among the first to implement vertical integration , the strategy of gaining control over suppliers of raw materials and distributors of finished products to expand or control the relevant supply chain. He developed a reliable network of suppliers and distributors to support his steel factories. Carnegie also was one of the first magnates to practice philanthropy. He gave away much of his immense fortune to support community and public library systems, concert halls, museums, and scientific research.
These entrepreneurial pioneers, and many others like them, sought ways to earn a return on investment on an invention and to protect themselves legally through the patent process. A patent is a legal grant of protection for an inventor over the rights, usage, and commercialization of an invention for a set time period. An early US patent was issued in 1790 to Samuel Hopkins for his process of making potash as a fertilizer ingredient.
The innovations of women, African Americans (slaves or free persons), and other marginalized groups were crucial during this era. As we saw earlier, Sybilla Masters invented a method for grinding Indian corn. She received a patent from the English king in 1715. But because women were not allowed to file for patents or even to own property at that time, the patent was filed in her husband’s name. Although the invention of the cotton gin is attributed to Eli Whitney, as we have seen, it may have been based on a design by Catherine Greene and African American slaves. Social and legal discrimination could limit or conceal the identities of actual inventors, especially if they were women or slaves. Most patent applicants and awardees were white males. One exception was Mary Dixon Kies, who in 1809 became the first woman awarded a patent for her process of weaving straw with silk or thread. This was a key innovation for the hat industry, due to an embargo on European goods. Likewise, many slaves were extremely innovative, but laws and prejudice prevented them from filing independently for patents. Because slaves had no rights, many sought patent submissions under their owners’ names but received no recognition or compensation for their efforts. It was not until 1820 that an African American, Thomas Jennings, was granted a patent for a process called “dry scouring” for cleaning fabric. As the successes and failures of inventors and innovations expanded, so did the consumer demand for better-performing products and services. This led to the Second Industrial Revolution.
The Second Industrial Revolution: 1865–1920
Although the First Industrial Revolution had a broad scope and a transformative impact, the Second Industrial Revolution helped shape consumer demand for the latest inventions and innovations developed by small and large businesses. The breakthroughs of this era brought applicable innovations in many fields, from chemistry to engineering to medicine.
The nineteenth-century economists Jean-Baptiste Say and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) refined and popularized Cantillion’s definition of an entrepreneur to capture the spirit of their era. Their definition of “entrepreneur” describes someone who creates value by effectively managing resources for better productivity, and someone who is a financial risk-taker.
After the US Civil War and into the 1870s, many industries flourished with improvements in production organization (petroleum refinery storage, mass production) and technological systems (electricity and the telephone). Additional inventions included improvements in steel production, chemical dyes, transportation (diesel and gasoline engines, the airplane), assembly-line production, agriculture and food-processing improvements (refrigeration), textiles, and the typewriter (Figure <IP_ADDRESS>). As entrepreneurial activity, economic prosperity, and productivity demands increased, entrepreneurs and their inventions were highly regarded and sought after, contributing to the belief that the United States was a land of opportunity.
When World War I began, the US economy was in a recession, with Europeans purchasing US materials for the war. When the United States entered World War I in 1917, an economic boom ensued. Unemployment declined from 7.9 percent in 1914 to 1.4 percent in 1918 as the United States produced goods and equipment necessary to support the war efforts of the nation and its allies. From an entrepreneurial perspective, World War I contributed to military-related advancements, communication equipment, and improvements in production processes. The American economic landscape began to shift during this era from small independent companies to big corporations. The smaller businesses in the previous era either dissolved or were absorbed by larger corporations. As the stock market crash of October 1929 and the Great Depression of the 1930s struck worldwide, innovation slowed. Consumer confidence waned as economic confidence and production declined, and unemployment rose.
LINK TO LEARNING
Visit the History site on the Great Depression or PBS’s American Experience article on the Great Depression to understand the background and circumstances that led to the stock market crash of 1929, the Great Depression, and how the United States rebounded during this period.
After World War II ended in 1945, American society shifted from reliance on the traditional entrepreneur as a resource to reliance on large organizations that offered stability and job security. Corporations continued to buy up small firms to standardize innovative, large-scale mass production of goods, services, and jobs. The idea of being an entrepreneur gave way to the idea of the “corporate man” with job security and health benefits offered by big employers. Although entrepreneurship did not totally vanish, its growth slowed tremendously compared with previous years and shifted to corporate entrepreneurship , whereby large corporations funded the development of new ideas, opportunities, or ventures through formal research and development processes that focused on the corporations’ own strategies and goals. Figure <IP_ADDRESS> lists some of the corporations that emerged during this period.
As economic views and confidence in how the United States might regain economic prosperity shifted, so did the scholarly meaning of entrepreneurship. One scholar and economist, Joseph Schumpeter (1883–1950), introduced theories and terminology that continue to influence modern entrepreneurial concepts and practices. He originated two critical phrases: entrepreneurial spirit , which is associated with those individuals who are productive self-starters and make things happen, and creative destruction , which he defined as the “process of industrial mutation that incessantly revolutionizes the economic structure from within, incessantly destroying the old one, incessantly creating a new one.” Schumpeter’s theory that innovation would destroy established corporations to create new ones was not a popularly held or shared view at the time. The thought leaders of this era had different approaches to addressing the rise of corporations as part of the entrepreneurial fabric of the United States. Schumpeter theorized that corporations were better positioned than individuals to support the kinds of research and development that would result in innovations and have economic impact. To complement this view, he also proposed the concept that corporate support of entrepreneurs’ visions would result in a sustainable “capitalistic financial system” to support and expand on the free-market system espoused by Adam Smith. In contrast, the sociologist and journalist William Whyte (1917–1999) argued that entrepreneurial culture had changed because “American business life had abandoned the old virtues of self-reliance and entrepreneurship in favor of a bureaucratic ‘social ethic’ of loyalty, security and ‘belongingness.’”
Finally, it is critical to note that the growth of corporations and opportunities expanded beyond the borders of the United States. Corporations faced novel global experiences that supported Schumpeter’s creative destruction theory, as other countries presented new dynamics to address. The annually created Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) report is a scholarly examination that examines how a group of nineteen countries benefited from venture-capital investments and the factors affecting those investments for entrepreneurial activity. This study addressed the question of entrepreneurial opportunities, entrepreneurial capacity, and entrepreneurial motivation as parts of the engagement within all industries and the direct correlation between venture-capital investment and high-growth startups. The GEM report is created annually with timely and relevant information related to entrepreneurship and is available at this website: https://www.gemconsortium.org/ . This cultural shift in the American entrepreneurial spirit generated new interest in the training and education of workers, ushering in the knowledge economy.
The Knowledge Economy: 1975 to Today
In the mid-1970s, the promises of corporate life began to lose their appeal to entrepreneurial-minded individuals. One change was established corporations’ shift in focus on innovations from research and development departments to internal entrepreneurial activities by intrapreneurs . An intrapreneur is an employee who acts as an entrepreneur within an organization, rather than going solo. Intrapreneurs contribute entrepreneurial ideas, products, and services, using corporate work time and resources, but on a much less formal basis than past corporate contributions to innovation. Quickly evolving advances in technology have touched every industry, and people with tech know-how have become champions. Firms dominating the technological landscape include Apple, Microsoft, 3M, Alphabet (the parent company of Google), IBM, and Oracle. In today’s David-versus-Goliath culture, these companies once were small startups, but now they command seemingly endless resources. New opportunities have arisen in the world of technology for those willing and able to compete with these giants. All companies, large and small, are interested in a more informed and educated workforce with specialized or advanced degrees in entrepreneurship and business administration. The new entrepreneurs are prepared to develop and lead firms that can become startup superstars. Viewed through our current lens, companies like Apple, Microsoft, Google, and others have become the new Goliaths, but in their startup days, these companies were the disruptors that fought to create new industries or reshape previously established ones.
The Entrepreneurial Process
Your approach to the entrepreneurial process , or the set of decisions and actions that you might follow (as in Figure <IP_ADDRESS>) as a guide to developing or adjusting your venture, is fluid, not static. This is because your personal interests, background, experiences, resources, and connections are unique to you—but those areas may change over time. For instance, you and a friend might take an art class together for fun and both discover a hidden talent and eye for creating handcrafted jewelry that everyone loves. One day over lunch, you share some of your frustrations with your friend about an interest in potentially selling your unique creations to a local art gallery. Despite your research, you have few clues about where to start or how to get your art shown in a gallery. During your conversation, you are surprised to learn that your friend has already sold several pieces by following a mentor’s advice. Through several referrals, she figured out that her best option was to create a presence on Etsy, an artisan-focused website for e-commerce , electronic transactions, particularly over the Internet, for the exchange of goods and services. Even though you both started at the same place with similar goals, your results differed because you followed different entrepreneurial pathways. In this case, your friend decided to enter the entrepreneurial process at a different stage than you did. This type of scenario occurs every day and clarifies why ventures differ: The decisions of the entrepreneur or the entrepreneurial team are the heart and success of the venture.
 What is that process? As we discussed previously in the steps of the entrepreneurial journey, you need to think through your goals, prepare and follow an action plan, make sound decisions and adjustments along the way, and persevere through challenges and crises to ensure a successful journey. If that sounds like you have some work to do, you are correct. However, if you follow or recognize the stages in the journey and keep track of the related elements, it could be the most satisfying work of your career. Many people find the entrepreneurial journey fulfilling, in part because they get to define their own paths. The plan to graduate, then find a career working hard to help a company or organization reach its goals, are even more satisfying when you can work for yourself to create your own path and purpose in the world.
Before you create your path, a key action in the entrepreneurial process is developing your entrepreneurial mindset. Recall that an entrepreneurial mindset is about being open, self-reflective, and honest about what you are willing to do and capable of doing to achieve success. For instance, are you comfortable with making sacrifices like spending an evening doing research instead of hanging out with friends or family?
The Entrepreneurial Process: Venture Life Cycle and Product Life Cycle
In general, the entrepreneurial process includes several key stages or some variation of these stages. Keep in mind that these stages do not always follow a sequential pattern, as circumstances and opportunities change. One popular method of understanding and connecting to this entrepreneurial process is to think of your new venture as similar to the human life cycle, the major stages that humans pass through in their life development, and the different growth processes in between.
As we can see in Figure <IP_ADDRESS> and Figure <IP_ADDRESS>, the startup stage is similar to the birth of an infant. During the startup stage, or the birth of the idea, the venture requires resources to support the startup as the entrepreneur develops the idea, creates the prototype, and builds the infrastructure to support production. During the startup stage, cash supports building the venture. Meanwhile, the startup is seldom ready to generate sales. Planning for this situation, knowing that cash is needed but not replenished through sales, is an important consideration.
Just as a child grows rapidly in their early years, often a business venture experiences quick growth as the product or service becomes commercialized and experiences strong demand, reflected through increasing sales and stronger knowledge and access to the target market. Again, this stage requires resources to support growth. The difference between this stage and the startup stage is cash is generated through sales activity. In some entrepreneurial ventures, however, the growth stage is about building the venture, rather than generating sales. For ventures like YouTube, the growth stage entails increasing the inventory of videos as well as an increase in people accessing the videos.
Just as humans achieve maturity during their life cycle, the business might reach a point where growth slows and perhaps moves into a decline stage. In our human experience, we can take actions to improve or lengthen the maturity stage of our lives through better life choices, such as nutritious eating habits and exercise, to increase longevity and delay decline. We can also extend the maturity of the business and even move into a rebirth and a new growth phase through insightful decisions, such as adding new features to the product or service, or offering the product or service to a new target market. The goal in our lives, and in this analogy, is continued growth and success. Products can be altered or enhanced to extend the product’s life cycle, which also extends the life cycle of the venture.
Examples of avoiding the decline and death of a business fit well into the concept of product life cycle and are prevalent in technology-related products such as the television, the personal computer, and the cell phone. For example, black-and-white televisions underwent a growth stage after World War II. Color televisions were introduced in the 1950s. As technology improved, television manufacturers have repeatedly moved through the life cycle and avoided declines in sales with new features and adaptations with options such as plasma, LED, and smart technology. An example of a product that started and then quickly declined into the death stage of the business is the eight-track player, a music player available between the mid-1960s to the early 1980s. The eight-track player replaced the reel-to-reel tape recorder as a more accessible product for installation in moving vehicles, from cars to Lear jets, to offer individual music purchased by the vehicle owner for listening while traveling. Even as the eight-track player was becoming popular, moving from the introductory stage into the growth stage of the product life cycle, the compact cassette was being developed. In the early 1980s, the compact cassette format replaced the eight-track player, abruptly ending the product life cycle of the eight-track player.
Some products lend themselves more easily than others to managing the life cycle. The goal is to manage the product for continuous growth, whereas other products, such as the eight-track player, are based on technology that quickly becomes obsolete when a better option becomes available. Other examples of products with short life cycles are categorized as fads, like the hula hoop and pet rocks—fads from the past that were reintroduced to a new generation of consumers and that moved quickly through the product life cycle into the last stage—the death of the product with sales either nonexistent or so few that the product becomes a novelty item.
The life cycles of the venture and of the product are two different concepts but are closely related. The venture will need different resources during each stage of the cycle to support the growth and success of the venture. Knowing what stage of the life cycle the product is in assists in decision making. For example, a decrease in sales triggers the need to enhance the product’s value to extend and continue strong levels of growth. From the venture’s perspective, managing the product life cycle also supports the continued success of the venture.
A successful venture avoids decline or death with the potential to prepare for either the sale of the venture or a public offering of stock, known as an initial public offering (IPO), which gives the company access to significant funds for future growth. Two entrepreneurial IPOs in May 2019 were Zoom and Uber. Zoom is a company that offers video conferencing, web conferencing, webinars, and cross-platform access. Uber is a ride-sharing company. Both entrepreneurial ventures used IPOs to support their future plans for growth.
Think about some of the friends you’ve known since childhood compared with those you’ve met in recent years. Suppose you plan to work on a project together and want to figure out who should handle which parts of the work. You might learn some information about a newer friend’s past experiences through conversations, observations, or other collaborations. Even so, it would not be possible—or necessary—to learn everything about their childhood and how they learned a specific set of skills or acquired certain connections. You would just start your interaction and work with your friend from the current time. The same is the case for a venture. You might start a venture from the idea-generation stage or from infancy as part of the pre-launch stage. Or you might join the process after someone else has already completed the early stages of the business—for example, by purchasing an existing business or entering into a partnership. You might not have been around when the business was launched, but you can continue with the development of the business from the present moment. Just as each stage of human experience involves different concerns and milestones, the same holds true for your venture. The venture is your responsibility to manage during each stage of the development process.
Figure <IP_ADDRESS> provides an overview of each stage and the associated decisions that you might consider or encounter for the entrepreneurial process.
Stage 1: Startup
In stage 1, startup activities are related to your perceptions about a potential idea, how you develop your idea, and how you might recognize appropriate opportunities. At this stage, the crucial activity is defining the opportunity to develop your concept into a realizable business venture with a strong potential for success. In this stage, you work on developing the idea more thoroughly to determine whether it fits your current and future circumstances and goals. You will also work through exercises to distinguish ideas from viable opportunities. Each of these actions is addressed in greater detail in future chapters. The goal of this section is to introduce concepts for a greater understanding of these stages. Key actions or exercises in this stage include:
- Idea development
- Opportunity recognition
- Identification of a market opportunity
- Research and due diligence , or conducting the necessary research and investigation to make informed decisions that minimize risk, such as ensuring you are not duplicating an idea that already exists
Stage 2: Development
Now that you have confidence in your idea, it is time to develop a structure to determine what type of venture will work best for the idea. In Stage 2, you might select a business model and pull together a team to make your dream venture a reality. The business model identifies how a business will build revenue, deliver value, and receive compensation for that value. Some examples of business models include monthly subscriptions, pre-sale orders, kiosk sales, and other choices. Entrepreneurial decisions in the development stage include many options to consider, including bootstrapping, starting out with limited funds, receiving venture funding from external sources, licensing to receive royalties on a per-item basis, purchasing another business, inheriting a business, franchising either through the purchase of a franchise or building your company with the goal of eventually creating your own franchise, creating a virtual web-based company, using mobile apps that support your business or connect with other businesses, founding a social venture to support a cause, consulting, or freelancing. Choosing among these options or creating your own unique approach to supporting the success of your business will change your results and success level.
Key activities in this stage include:
- Formulation or refinement of your concept
- Design of business model, plan, goals, launch team, and operational structure
- Creation of prototype product to fit market (sample or model for customer feedback)
- Further research and due diligence, as needed
Stage 3: Resourcing
Using the knowledge you gained in the first two stages, in the resource stage, you will evaluate the necessary resources to support your new venture. Resources include financial support; support and selection of a manufacturing location or facility (if you are producing a physical product); personnel talents, knowledge, and skills; possible political and community support; and family support, because the new venture will require time commitments that will cut into time with your family.
The key activities in this stage include:
- Gathering pertinent resources, such human and financial capital, investors, facilities, equipment, and transportation
- Establishing connections, networks, and logistics
- Further research and due diligence, as needed
Stage 4: Market Entry
Market entry—the launch of your venture—is often undertaken in a soft launch, or soft open, within a limited market to minimize exposure to unforeseen challenges. As an entrepreneur, you are presenting your new venture to a specific market to see how well it is received and supported. You might make last-minute adjustments at this stage, but the crucial part is to see how the market reacts to your venture. This is an excellent time to scrutinize all aspects of your business for solutions to unexpected problems and improvements in efficiencies, and to track customer reactions to your venture.
One of your most important responsibilities at this point is managing your cash flow , or the money coming into and going out of a business, as cash is essential for the success of the venture. In the early stages of the venture, you will need large amounts of cash to fund the operational activities, because your sales are not yet guaranteed. Production costs, payroll, supplies, inventory, lease payments, and marketing: All of these expenditures involve cash outflows from your venture as part of the startup costs. A successful business needs available cash as well as customers for its products and services, or it will not survive. Key activities at this stage include:
- Assessing management structure and needs, adjusting as necessary
- Managing cash flow
- Launching the entity
- Monitoring progress
- Further research and due diligence, as needed
Stage 5: Growth
The growth stage includes making decisions that support the future growth of your venture. In the growth stage, your decisions reflect the scalability of your venture. There is a big difference between a small-scale venture and a venture that must handle significant levels of sales. At this point, your organizational structure needs an update. You might need new functional levels, such as a finance department, or a human resources department, or perhaps an assistant manager. Other considerations include the size of your facilities. Is the current size, or capacity, appropriate for the growth of the venture? Other questions relate to the appropriateness of your suppliers or inventory providers. Are quality and delivery time meeting your needs? Is the payment system appropriate for your venture? In this stage, you should also monitor the growth of your venture and make appropriate adjustments. For instance, if your venture is not growing as expected, then you might go back to your business plan and see what adjustments you can make. Key actions in this stage include:
- Managing the venture
- Making key adjustments, as needed
- Further research and due diligence, as needed
Stage 6: Maturity
In the maturity stage, your venture has moved into the maintenance phase of the business life cycle. Entrepreneurs monitor how a venture is growing and developing according to the business plan, and its projections and expectations. Is your venture growing faster or slower than you expected? What milestones has it reached? What changes are needed to continue the success of the venture? How can you address those changes? Are you still able to maintain or meet the needs of the venture?
Depending on your situation, you still will need to take action to support the venture. Even if the venture is operating efficiently and in a predictable manner, external changes could compel you to change your venture, for example, by making improvements to the product or service, finding new target markets, adopting new technologies, or bundling features or offerings to add value to the product.
One of the key points to understand at this stage is that ventures can, and often do, fail. Entrepreneurship is about taking calculated risks to achieve a reward. Sometimes your venture may not turn out how you planned. Keeping an open mind and learning from experience presents new opportunities for either changes to the existing venture or even a new venture. Consider these examples of early entrepreneurial failures by people who later went on to achieve great success:
- Bill Gates’s early Traf-O-Data company failed because the product did not work
- Walt Disney was told he lacked creativity and was fired from a newspaper job
- Steve Jobs was once fired by his own company, Apple
- Milton Hershey started three candy companies before he founded the successful Hersey Company
Key actions of this stage include:
- Strengthening market position
- Awareness and willingness to change
- Reaping return on investment (ROI)
Stage 7: Harvest
At some point, your company may outgrow your dreams, ambitions, or interests. At this stage, you are harvesting or collecting the most return on your investment while planning how to retire or make a transition away from this venture. Many entrepreneurs enjoy the excitement of starting and building a venture but are less interested in the routine aspects of managing a company. In the field of entrepreneurship, the entrepreneurial team creates a venture with the goal of harvesting that venture. Harvesting is the stage when all your hard work and ingenuity are rewarded through a sizable return on the invested money, time, and talents of the startup team, including any investors. During this stage, the entrepreneurial team looks for the best buyer for the venture to achieve both a return on investment and a match for the continued success of the venture. Key actions in this stage include:
- Identifying what the entrepreneurial team, and investors, want out of the venture, their ROI
- Planning for your future: What’s next on your entrepreneurial journey?
Stage 8: Exit
The exit stage is the point at which your venture either has fulfilled its purpose as a harvested success that is passed along to the next generation of business owners or has not met your needs and goals. These two situations give rise to vastly different scenarios. In the harvesting of the venture, you might receive a sizable cash payment, or a combination of cash payment and a minority share of stock in the venture’s buyout. In an exit that reflects the closing of the venture, your option is most likely liquidation of assets, which you would sell to pay off any remaining creditors and investors. In both harvesting and liquidation, the challenge for you as an entrepreneur can be to accept the emotional withdrawal from a venture that has consumed your thoughts, time, and energy. The time has come for you to step out of the picture and allow the venture to be cared for by a new “parent” or to close the venture completely. Key actions in this stage include:
- Exit strategy and plan
- Transition to the next generation of owners
Stage 9: Rebirth
For some entrepreneurs, the excitement of creating a new venture supersedes the financial gain from harvesting a successful venture. The thrill of transforming an idea into a realizable opportunity and then creating a thriving venture is difficult to find elsewhere. In the rebirth phase, the entrepreneur decides to seek out another new venture to begin the process all over again. As an experienced entrepreneur, you can create a new type of venture or develop a new spin-off of your original venture idea. At this point, you have become a serial entrepreneur , an entrepreneur who becomes involved in starting multiple entrepreneurial ventures. Key actions in this stage include:
- Redesigning or creating a new venture
- Bringing in a new entrepreneurial team or the team from the previous venture
LINK TO LEARNING
“Drop into” Man Crates to learn about this entrepreneurial venture. Who is their clientele? Does this company sell an experience, a product, or both? What life cycle stage is this business in now? Applying your assessment of the company’s life cycle stage, pretend that you are the CEO of the company. What recommendations do you have for the company’s continued success and growth?
Visit the Man Crates site to learn more.


2.11: The Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis
In this chapter you will
- discover whether “Mary’s Song” was in fact a “song” in its original context in the Gospel of Luke
- learn why some composers have set this same text to music repeatedly
For as long as there has been liturgical setting or singing of parts of the Bible to musical accompaniment, the Magnificat has been part of that. Often called “Mary’s Song/Canticle,” Luke 1:46–55 does not say that Mary sang the words in question. It features in Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant liturgies. John Dunstaple set the Magnificat in the fifteenth century, and many more followed, including Tomás Luis de Victoria , Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina , Antonio Vivaldi , J. S. Bach , W. A. Mozart , Franz Schubert , Felix Mendelssohn , Franz Liszt (as part of his Dante Symphony), Anton Bruckner, Ralph Vaughan Williams, John Rutter , Krzysztof Penderecki , Arvo Pärt , and (as part of the Orthodox All-Night Vigil ) Piotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and Sergei Rachmaninov.
The Nunc Dimittis has been set on its own less frequently. This is sometimes called “Simeon’s Song” and also derives from the infancy story in Luke’s Gospel. [1] For a particularly striking modern setting, have a listen to Sungji Hong’s “Nunc Dimittis.” She has also set the Pater Noster (Our Father / Lord’s Prayer) and has an ongoing project exploring the life of Jesus through multiple musical works .
It can be challenging enough to set words to music that have been set many times before. With the Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis together becoming a main recurring feature of the Evensong liturgy of the Anglican Church (a daily service marking the end of another day ), a further challenge was added for church composers: set these same words over and over again. [2] If adding to what others have produced with one new offering of one’s own can be daunting, what about when one has to add another new creation of one’s own with the same text? Anglican composers were not the first to face this challenge, of course. A number of composers in the era of Gregorian chant, for instance, made multiple musical arrangements for the designated psalm tones used for the Magnificat. Anglican composers did, however, face this challenge regularly, and without a specified melody to serve as a starting point. Charles Villiers Stanford provides a particularly good example, as he composed settings of the Magnificat in every key. Here are his Magnificat settings in G and in C sung by the Choir of St. John’s College, Cambridge; his Magnificat in A sung by the Manchester Cathedral Choir; and the one in B flat sung by the Choir of Winchester Cathedral. [3]
Hubert Parry has also composed a significant body of choral work for the Church of England, including settings of the Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis. We have mentioned the music of Herbert Howells already in chapter 11 on David. He also composed twenty settings of the Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis. Compare these two recordings. [4]
If you’d like to listen to still more contrasting examples by the same composer, George Dyson set the Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis three times. [5]
Notice the way composers find a fresh approach to the same text. To begin with, they tend to write each new setting in a different key. Sometimes they opt for minor as a variation from major, immediately giving a different feel. If in one the melody begins ascending, they may make sure they are doing something different next time by descending initially. They do not simply hope that the new work will emerge and be different from previous settings; rather, they appear to have imposed constraints on themselves to move them in such directions. Even if your own creative endeavors during your life may not be musical in character, the same principles can help you find fresh approaches to what might otherwise be repetitive situations. If you are giving a talk on a topic that you have spoken about before or creating a commercial for a product that you have advertised before, forcing yourself to approach the familiar in a new way may make the difference between innovation and tedium.
If you’d like to listen to more, here are some you may enjoy, as they provide further evidence of just how different the mood and style can be even when setting the same words in the same era: Ruth Watson Henderson , Alan Hovhaness , Roxanna Panufnik , Ēriks Ešenvalds , Vladimír Godár , Bryan Kelly , James Whitbourn , Gabriel Jackson , Craig Phillips , Naji Hakim , Ruth Gipps , William Mathias , Martin Palmeri , and Oliver Tarney . [6] There are also settings in a contemporary song style (as opposed to those for choral singing), such as that by John Michael Talbot , as well as paraphrases such as the “Canticle of the Turning” by Rory Cooney , which is set to a famous folk tune often sung with the words “The Star of the County Down” but has an earlier name with a biblical connection, “Dives and Lazarus” (Dives being the traditional name for the rich man in the parable in Luke 16:19–31 ). That melody has been explored in a set of variations by Ralph Vaughan Williams .
For Further Reading
Hendrickson, Peter A., Bradley C. Jenson, and Randi H. Lundell. Luther and Bach on the Magnificat for Advent and Christmas . Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2015.
- As with “Mary’s Song,” the Gospel of Luke does not indicate that the words had a musical character when first uttered. ↵
- The Episcopal Church in the United States is the US equivalent of the Anglican Church or Church of England in the UK. ↵
- The Choir of St. John’s College, Cambridge , shared their music on their own YouTube channel. That choir has released complete albums with settings of the Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis (Evening Canticles). The performance by the Manchester Cathedral Choir was provided to YouTube by the Orchard Enterprises. The performance by the Choir of Winchester Cathedral was released by the Hyperion label. These videos were created by an anonymous YouTuber who combined the music in question with the score of the work. ↵
- The Magnificat Collegium Regale is performed by the Choir of King’s College, Cambridge, conducted by Stephen Cleobury, licensed to YouTube by UMG (on behalf of Universal Music). His 1918 setting of the Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis is performed by the Collegiate Singers. The music is provided to YouTube by the Orchard Enterprises. ↵
- The Magnificat in C minor by George Dyson is sung by the Choristers of Lichfield Cathedral. Licensed to YouTube by the Orchard Music. The Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis by George Dyson are here performed by the Choir of King’s College, Cambridge, conducted by Stephen Cleobury. Licensed to YouTube by Kontor New Music Media. The Magnificat and Nunc dimittis in F by George Dyson are performed by the Guildford Cathedral Choir, directed by Barry Rose, in a recording made at Evensong at Guildford Cathedral, July 17, 1967. ↵
- See also the account of experiencing musical inspiration in connection with his Evening Canticles (Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis) by Howard Goodall, “Music and Mystery,” in Composing Music for Worship , ed. Stephen Darlington and Alan Kreider (Norwich: Canterbury Press, 2003), 31–33. ↵


3.12: References
College of Nurses of Ontario. (2017). Practice Guideline. Retrieved from: http://www.cno.org/globalassets/docs/policy/41020_consent.pdf
Government of Canada. (2017). Page 8: Canadian Immunization Guide: Part 1 – Key Information. Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/publications/healthy-living/canadian-immunization-guide-part-1-key-immunization-information/page-8-vaccine-administration-practices.html#t2
Public Health Agency of Canada. (2015). National vaccine storage and handling guidelines for immunization providers. Retrieved from: https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/publications/healthy-living/national-vaccine-storage-handling-guidelines-immunization-providers-2015.html


5.10: Test Yourself- List in the Correct Order – Answers
The steps are listed in the correct order for each of the following techniques. These are printable flashcards to help you memorize and practice the techniques.
Two-step blood pressure technique
- Palpate the radial or brachial artery, inflate the blood pressure cuff until the pulse is no longer felt, and then continue to inflate 20–30 mm Hg more: this is the maximum pressure inflation.
- Deflate the cuff quickly.
- Now, you can start blood pressure so place the bell of the cleansed stethoscope over the brachial artery using a light touch and complete seal.
- Inflate the cuff to the maximum pressure inflation number.
- Open the valve slightly.
- Deflate the cuff slowly and evenly at about 2 mm Hg per second.
- Note the points at which you hear the first appearance of Korotkoff sound (systolic blood pressure), and the last Korotkoff sound before it goes silent (diastolic blood pressure).
One-step blood pressure technique
- Palpate the radial or brachial artery, inflate the blood pressure cuff until the pulse is no longer felt, and then continue to inflate 20–30 mmHg more.
- Place the bell of the cleansed stethoscope over the brachial artery using a light touch, but with an airtight seal.
- Open the valve slightly.
- Deflate the cuff slowly and evenly at about 2 mm Hg per second.
- Note the points at which you hear the first appearance of Korotkoff sound (systolic blood pressure), and the last Korotkoff sound before it goes silent (diastolic blood pressure).


9.5: Glossary
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- Last updated
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Command group A group that is permanent.
Decoupling Involves separating two groups—physically or administratively—in such a way that the required tasks of the organization are fulfilled while the interaction between the two groups is minimized.
Formal group Work units that are prescribed by the organization.
Friendship group Friendship groups tend to be long lasting.
Group An organized system of two or more individuals who are interrelated so that the system performs some function, has a standard set of role relationships among its members, and has a set of norms that regulate the function of the group and each of its members.
Group cohesiveness The extent to which individual members of a group are motivated to remain in the group.
Informal group Groups that evolve naturally out of individual and collective self-interest among the members of an organization and are not the result of deliberate organizational design.
Information flow To be successful, groups need the appropriate amount of information.
Interaction process analysis A technique that records who says what to whom, and through using it illustrates that smaller groups typically exhibit greater tension, agreement, and opinion seeking, whereas larger groups show more tension release and giving of suggestions and information.
Interest group A network that forms due to mutual interests such as working women or minority managers.
Linking role A position or unit within the organization that is charged with overseeing and coordinating the activities of two or more groups.
Norms These regulate the function of the group and each of its members.
Pooled interdependence Occurs when various groups are largely independent of each other, even though each contributes to and is supported by the larger organization.
Reciprocal interdependence Occurs when two or more groups depend on one another for inputs.
Role ambiguity A condition that arises when messages sent to an individual may be unclear.
Role conflict A condition that can arise when individuals receive multiple and sometimes conflicting messages from various groups, all attempting to assign them a particular role.
Role episode An attempt to explain how a particular role is learned and acted upon.
Role overload A condition where individuals may simply receive too many role-related messages.
Role set The sum total of all the roles assigned to one individual.
Sequential interdependence Exists when the outputs of one unit or group become the inputs for another.
Social loafing A tendency for individual group members to reduce their effort on a group task
Status incongruence A situation that exists when a person is high on certain valued dimensions but low on others, or when a person’s characteristics seem inappropriate for a particular job.
Status system Serves to differentiate individuals on the basis of some criterion or set of criteria.
Task force Serves the same purpose as a linking role except that the role is temporary instead of permanent.
Task group Serves the same purpose as a command role except that the role is temporary instead of permanent.
Task uncertainty When groups are working on highly uncertain tasks, the need for communication increases. When task uncertainty is low, less information is typically needed.
Work role An expected behavior pattern assigned or attributed to a particular position in the organization.
Work technology Includes the equipment and materials used in manufacture, the prescribed work procedures, and the physical layout of the work site.


5.1: Total Differential of a Dependent Variable
Recall from Sec. 2.4.1 that the state of the system at each instant is defined by a certain minimum number of state functions, the independent variables. State functions not treated as independent variables are dependent variables. Infinitesimal changes in any of the independent variables will, in general, cause an infinitesimal change in each dependent variable.
A dependent variable is a function of the independent variables. The total differential of a dependent variable is an expression for the infinitesimal change of the variable in terms of the infinitesimal changes of the independent variables. As explained in Sec. F.2 of Appendix F, the expression can be written as a sum of terms, one for each independent variable. Each term is the product of a partial derivative with respect to one of the independent variables and the infinitesimal change of that independent variable. For example, if the system has two independent variables, and we take these to be \(T\) and \(V\), the expression for the total differential of the pressure is \begin{equation} \difp = \Pd{p}{T}{V}\dif T + \Pd{p}{V}{T}\dif V \tag{5.1.1} \end{equation} Thus, in the case of a fixed amount of an ideal gas with pressure given by \(p=nRT/V\), the total differential of the pressure can be written \begin{equation} \difp = \frac{nR}{V}\dif T - \frac{nRT}{V^2}\dif V \tag{5.1.2} \end{equation}


2.2.1: Proportional Relationships and Equations
Lesson
Let's write equations describing proportional relationships.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\): NUmber Talk: Division
Find each quotient mentally.
\(645\div 100\)
\(645\div 50\)
\(48.6\div 30\)
\(48.6\div x\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\): Feeding a Crowd, Revisited
1. A recipe says that 2 cups of dry rice will serve 6 people. Complete the table as you answer the questions. Be prepared to explain your reasoning.
- How many people will 1 cup of rice serve?
- How many people will 3 cups of rice serve? 12 cups? 43 cups?
- How many people will \(x\) cups of rice serve?
| cups of dry rice | number of people |
|---|---|
| 1 | |
| 2 | 6 |
| 3 | |
| 12 | |
| 43 | |
| \(x\) |
2. A recipe says that 6 spring rolls will serve 3 people. Complete the table as you answer the questions. Be prepared to explain your reasoning.
- How many people will 1 spring roll serve?
- How many people will 10 spring rolls serve? 16 spring rolls? 25 spring rolls?
- How many people will \(n\) spring rolls serve?
| number of spring rolls | number of people |
|---|---|
| 1 | |
| 6 | 3 |
| 10 | |
| 16 | |
| 25 | |
| \(n\) |
3. How was completing this table different from the previous table? How as it the same?
Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\): Denver to Chicago
A plane flew at a constant speed between Denver and Chicago. It took the plane 1.5 hours to fly 915 miles.
-
Complete the table.
time (hours) distance (miles) speed (miles per hour) 1 1.5 915 2 2.5 \(t\) Table \(\PageIndex{3}\) - How far does the plane fly in one hour?
- How far would the plane fly in \(t\) hours at this speed?
- If \(d\) represents the distance that the plane flies at this speed for \(t\) hours, write an equation that relates \(t\) and \(d\).
- How far would the plane fly in 3 hours at this speed? in 3.5 hours? Explain or show your reasoning.
Are you ready for more?
A rocky planet orbits Proxima Centauri, a star that is about 1.3 parsecs from Earth. This planet is the closest planet outside of our solar system.
- How long does it take light from Proxima Centauri to reach Earth? (A parsec is about 3.26 light years. A light year is the distance light travels in one year.)
- There are two twins. One twin leaves on a spaceship to explore the planet near Proxima Centauri traveling at 90% of the speed of light, while the other twin stays home on Earth. How much does the twin on Earth age while the other twin travels to Proxima Centauri? (Do you think the answer would be the same for the other twin? Consider researching “The Twin Paradox” to learn more.)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{4}\): Revisiting a Bread Dough
A bakery uses 8 tablespoons of honey for every 10 cups of flour to make bread dough. Some days they bake bigger batches and some days they bake smaller batches, but they always use the same ratio of honey to flour.
- Complete the table.
- If \(f\) is the cups of flour needed for \(h\) tablespoons of honey, write an equation that relates \(f\) and \(h\).
- How much flour is needed for 15 tablespoons of honey? 17 tablespoons? Explain or show your reasoning.
| honey (tbsp) | flour (c) |
|---|---|
| 1 | |
| 8 | 10 |
| 16 | |
| 20 | |
| \(h\) |
Summary
The table shows the amount of red paint and blue paint needed to make a certain shade of purple paint, called Venusian Sunset.
Note that “parts” can be any unit for volume. If we mix 3 cups of red with 12 cups of blue, you will get the same shade as if we mix 3 teaspoons of red with 12 teaspoons of blue.
| red paint (parts) | blue paint (parts) |
|---|---|
| \(3\) | \(12\) |
| \(1\) | \(4\) |
| \(7\) | \(28\) |
| \(\frac{1}{4}\) | \(1\) |
| \(r\) | \(4r\) |
The last row in the table says that if we know the amount of red paint needed, \(r\), we can always multiply it by 4 to find the amount of blue paint needed, \(b\), to mix with it to make Venusian Sunset. We can say this more succinctly with the equation \(b=4r\). So the amount of blue paint is proportional to the amount of red paint and the constant of proportionality is 4.
We can also look at this relationship the other way around.
If we know the amount of blue paint needed, \(b\), we can always multiply it by \(\frac{1}{4}\) to find the amount of red paint needed, \(r\), to mix with it to make Venusian Sunset. So \(r=\frac{1}{4}b\). The amount of blue paint is proportional to the amount of red paint and the constant of proportionality \(\frac{1}{4}\).
| blue paint (parts) | red paint (parts) |
|---|---|
| \(12\) | \(3\) |
| \(4\) | \(1\) |
| \(28\) | \(7\) |
| \(1\) | \(\frac{1}{4}\) |
| \(b\) | \(\frac{1}{4}b\) |
In general, when \(y\) is proportional to \(x\), we can always multiply \(x\) by the same number \(k\)—the constant of proportionality—to get \(y\). We can write this much more succinctly with the equation \(y=kx\).
 Every square meter of ceiling requires 10.75 tiles. Fill in the table with the missing values.
| square meters of ceiling | number of tiles |
|---|---|
| \(1\) | |
| \(10\) | |
| \(100\) | |
| \(a\) |
Exercise \(\PageIndex{6}\)
On a flight from New York to London, an airplane travels at a constant speed. An equation relating the distance traveled in miles, \(d\), to the number of hours flying, \(t\), is \(t=\frac{1}{500}d\). How long will it take the airplane to travel 800 miles?
Exercise \(\PageIndex{7}\)
Each table represents a proportional relationship. For each, find the constant of proportionality, and write an equation that represents the relationship.
| \(s\) | \(P\) |
|---|---|
| \(2\) | \(8\) |
| \(3\) | \(12\) |
| \(5\) | \(20\) |
| \(10\) | \(40\) |
Constant of proportionality:
Equation: \(P=\)
| \(d\) | \(C\) |
|---|---|
| \(2\) | \(6.28\) |
| \(3\) | \(9.42\) |
| \(5\) | \(15.7\) |
| \(10\) | \(31.4\) |
Constant of proportionality:
Equation: \(C=\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{8}\)
A map of Colorado says that the scale is 1 inch to 20 miles or 1 to 1,267,200. Are these two ways of reporting the scale the same? Explain your reasoning.
(From Unit 1.2.5)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{9}\)
Here is a polygon on a grid.
- Draw a scaled copy of the polygon using a scale factor 3. Label the copy A.
- Draw a scaled copy of the polygon with a scale factor \(\frac{1}{2}\). Label it B.
- Is Polygon A a scaled copy of Polygon B? If so, what is the scale factor that takes B to A?
(From Unit 1.1.3)


3.7: Behavioral Approaches to Leadership
- What are the behavioral perspectives on leadership?
The nearly four decades of research that focused on identifying the personal traits associated with the emergence of leaders and leader effectiveness resulted in two observations. First, leader traits are important—people who are endowed with the “right stuff” (drive, self-confidence, honesty, and integrity) are more likely to emerge as leaders and to be effective leaders than individuals who do not possess these characteristics. Second, traits are only part of the story. Traits only account for part of why someone becomes a leader and why they are (or are not) effective leaders.
Still under the influence of the great man theory of leadership, researchers continued to focus on the leader in an effort to understand leadership—who emerges and what constitutes effective leadership. Researchers then began to reason that maybe the rest of the story could be understood by looking at what it is that leaders do. Thus, we now turn our attention to leader behaviors and the behavioral approaches to leadership.
It is now common to think of effective leadership in terms of what leaders do. CEOs and management consultants agree that effective leaders display trust in their employees, develop a vision, keep their cool, encourage risk, bring expertise into the work setting, invite dissent, and focus everyone’s attention on that which is important (Labich, 1988). William Arruda, in a Fortune article, noted that “organizations with strong coaching cultures report their revenue to be above average, compared to their peer group.” Sixty-five percent of employees “from strong coaching cultures rated themselves as highly engaged,” compared to 13 percent of employees worldwide” (Williams, 2017).  Apple founder Steve Jobs believed that the best leaders are coaches and team cheerleaders. Management consultant Tom Peters has frequently echoed these views.
During the late 1940s, two major research programs—The Ohio State University and the University of Michigan leadership studies programs—were launched to explore leadership from a behavioral perspective.
The Ohio State University Studies
A group of Ohio State University researchers, under the direction of Ralph Stogdill, began an extensive and systematic series of studies to identify leader behaviors associated with effective group performance. Their results identified two major sets of leader behaviors: consideration and initiating structure.
Consideration is the “relationship-oriented” behavior of a leader. It is instrumental in creating and maintaining good relationships (that is, addressing the group’s maintenance needs) with organizational members. Consideration behaviors include being supportive and friendly, representing people’s interests, communicating openly with group members, recognizing them, respecting their ideas, and sharing concern for their feelings.
Initiating structure involves “task-oriented” leader behaviors. It is instrumental in the efficient use of resources to attain organizational goals, thereby addressing the group’s task needs. Initiating structure behaviors include scheduling work, deciding what to do (and how and when to do it), providing direction to organizational members, planning, coordinating, problem-solving, maintaining performance standards, and encouraging uniform procedures.
After consideration and initiating structure behaviors were first identified, many leaders believed they had to behave one way or another. If they initiated structure, they could not be considerate, and vice versa. However, it did not take long to recognize that leaders can simultaneously display any combination of both behaviors.
The Ohio State studies are important because they identified two critical categories of behavior that distinguish one leader from another. Both consideration and initiating structure behavior can significantly impact work attitudes and behaviors. Unfortunately, the effects of consideration and initiating structure are inconsistent from situation to situation (Fleishman, 1953; Halpin & Winer, 1957). In some of the organizations studied, for example, high levels of initiating structure increased performance. In other organizations, the amount of initiating structure seemed to make little difference. Although most organizational members reported greater satisfaction when leaders acted considerately, consideration behavior appeared to have no clear effect on performance.
Initially, these mixed findings were disappointing to researchers and managers alike. It had been hoped that a profile of the most effective leader behaviors could be identified so that leaders could be trained in the best ways to behave. Research made clear, however, that there is no one best style of leader behavior for all situations.
The University of Michigan Studies
At about the same time the Ohio State studies were underway, researchers at the University of Michigan also began to investigate leader behaviors. As at Ohio State, the Michigan researchers attempted to identify behavioral elements that differentiated effective from ineffective leaders (Katz & Kahn, 1952; Katz et al., 1950).
The two types of leader behavior that stand out in these studies are job-centered and organizational member-centered. Job-centered behaviors are devoted to supervisory functions, such as planning, scheduling, coordinating work activities, and providing the resources needed for task performance. Employee-member-centered behaviors include consideration and support for organizational members. These dimensions of behavior, of course, correspond closely to the dimensions of initiating structure and consideration identified at Ohio State. The similarity of the findings from two independent groups of researchers added to their credibility. As the Ohio State researchers had done, the Michigan researchers also found that any combination of the two behaviors was possible.
The studies at Michigan are significant because they reinforce the importance of leader behavior. They also provide the basis for later theories identifying specific, effective matches of work situations and leader behaviors. Subsequent research at Michigan and elsewhere has found additional behaviors associated with effective leadership: support , work facilitation , goal emphasis , and interaction facilitation (Bowers & Seashore, 1966; Nadler et al., 1975).
These four behaviors are important to the successful functioning of the group in that support and interaction facilitation contribute to the group’s maintenance needs, and goal emphasis and work facilitation contribute to the group’s task needs. The Michigan researchers also found that these four behaviors do not need to be brought to the group by the leader. In essence, the leader’s real job is to set the tone and create the climate to ensure these critical behaviors are present (Bowers & Seashore, 1966).
The Leadership Grid ®
Much of the credit for disseminating knowledge about important leader behaviors must go to Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton (1964), who developed a method for classifying leadership styles compatible with many of the ideas from the Ohio State and Michigan studies. In their classification scheme, concern for results (production) emphasizes output, cost-effectiveness, and (in for-profit organizations) a concern for profits. Concern for people involves promoting working relationships and paying attention to issues of importance to group members. As shown in Exhibit 3.9, the Leadership Grid ® demonstrates that any combination of these two leader concerns is possible, and five styles of leadership are highlighted here.
Exhibit 3.9 Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid® Source: Adapted from R. McKee and B. Carlson. 1999.The Power to Change, p.16.
Blake and Mouton contend that the sound (contribute and commit) leader (a serious concern for results and people, or 9,9) style is universally the most effective (Blake & Mouton, 1981). While the Leadership Grid® is appealing and well structured, research to date suggests that there is no universally effective style of leadership (9,9 or otherwise) (Larson, Hunt, & Osborn, 1976). There are, however, well-identified situations in which a 9,9 style is unlikely to be effective. Organizational members of high-involvement organizations who have mastered their job duties require little production-oriented leader behavior. Likewise, there is little time for people-oriented behavior during an emergency. Finally, evidence suggests that the “high-high” style may be effective when the situation calls for high levels of initiating structure. Under these conditions, the initiation of structure is more acceptable, favorably affecting follower satisfaction and performance, when the leader is also experienced as warm, supportive, and considerate (Tjosvold, 1984; Halpin, 1957; Fleishman & Simmons, 1970).
- What are the behavioral approaches to defining leadership?
- What roles do gender and the popular perceptions of gender roles have on views of leadership traits?


14.1: A Fermi Problem
Lesson
Let's solve a Fermi problem.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\): Fix It!
Andre likes a hot cocoa recipe with 1 cup of milk and 3 tablespoons of cocoa. He poured 1 cup of milk but accidentally added 5 tablespoons of cocoa.
- How can you fix Andre’s mistake and make his hot cocoa taste like the recipe?
- Explain how you know your adjustment will make Andre’s hot cocoa taste the same as the one in the recipe.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\): Who Was Fermi?
- Record the Fermi question that your class will explore together.
- Make an estimate of the answer. If making an estimate is too hard, consider writing down a number that would definitely be too low and another number that would definitely be too high.
- What are some smaller sub-questions we would need to figure out to reasonably answer our bigger question?
- Think about how the smaller questions above should be organized to answer the big question. Label each smaller question with a number to show the order in which they should be answered. If you notice a gap in the set of sub-questions (i.e., there is an unlisted question that would need to be answered before the next one could be tackled), write another question to fill the gap.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\): Researching Your Own Fermi Problem
- Brainstorm at least five Fermi problems that you want to research and solve. If you get stuck, consider starting with “How much would it cost to . . .?” or “How long would it take to . . .?”
- Pause here so your teacher can review your questions and approve one of them.
- Use the graphic organizer to break your problem down into sub-questions.
- Find the information you need to get closer to answering your question. Measure, make estimates, and perform any necessary calculations. If you get stuck, consider using tables or double number line diagrams.
- Create a visual display that includes your Fermi problem and your solution. Organize your thinking so it can be followed by others.


2.17: Quilt
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Quilt
American Ellen Sweet, c.1865 Cotton Gift of Delma Donald Woodburn Estate MHAHS 2002.002.0367 |
Late 19th century women’s magazines promoted household craft and decoration in a reactionary movement against the Industrial Revolution’s factory-line production of undifferentiated, machine-made items. Young ladies were expected to master these domestic skills, and common household goods often became their palette for artistic expression. Parlors and family spaces were filled with this kind of craft, like this 1865 quilt created by the young Ellen Sweet of the Town of Springdale.
For a complete essay on this object, click here.
Despite the countless technological and aesthetic developments of the past 150 years, few objects possess the degree of personal resonance inherent in a warm quilted blanket. Though centuries pass, it ties us to peoples long before us through our shared basic needs for warmth, home, and family. Ellen Sweet Donald Jones stitched this quilt when she was only 16 years old. Sweet’s granddaughter, Delma Donald Woodburn, wrote of the quilt, “My grandmother told me she pieced this when she was 16 because every girl had to piece a quilt” (Figure 1.) Set alongside the artistic quilts of more mature seamstresses, her work might seem unpracticed and simplistic because this quilt documents Sweet’s quilting education. The popular “Irish chain” design constructed in a double nine patch pattern in which nine block patches construct larger blocks, was a common and easy design particular favored by learners, while the combination of indigo patterned calicos and white squares were affordable fabrics for a large immigrant family new to the Midwest.
Sweet moved to the Springdale township of Wisconsin in 1855 at the age of six. She arrived with her family of eight from Chautauqua County in New York at a time when Springdale didn’t even have a general store. Moving to a small town before the age of ready-mades demanded that the family be self-sufficient in producing their own domestic goods such as blankets or quilts and clothing. The family chores were divided largely along gender lines so that Ellen’s mother, Sally Clark Sweet, would have been responsible for producing blankets so that her family would have a warm bed.
She was also responsible for teaching her daughters, including Ellen, how to sew so that she could help provide for her someday married household. Three years after she finished the quilt, Ellen married local farmer John Donald. We might assume that she continued to develop her skills as a quilter since technologies like the sewing machine and ready-mades were still not widely available.
Oftentimes, quilts such as Ellen’s go unremarked upon because they possess simple designs typical of American quilts of the mid-nineteenth century and betray an unpracticed hand; but Ellen’s quilt is special for these reasons because it represents the passage of knowledge from one generation of women to the other. Though her quilt does not possess the ingenuity and creative freedom exercised in seasoned seamstress works, Ellen’s material, the common indigo blue dyes and affordable calico, refer to her industrious use of nearby resources. Ultimately, Ellen’s ordinary quilt tells the extraordinary story of domestic self-sufficiency practiced in rural America.


6.11B: Biofilms
- Describe biofilms
Biofilm is an aggregate of microorganisms in which cells adhere to each other on a surface. These cells are frequently embedded within a self-produced matrix of extracellular polymeric substance (EPS). Biofilm EPS, also referred to as slime, is a polymeric conglomeration composed of extracellular DNA, proteins, and polysaccharides. Biofilms may form on living or non-living surfaces and can be prevalent in natural, industrial, and hospital settings.
The microbial cells growing in a biofilm are physiologically distinct from planktonic cells of the same organism, which, by contrast, are single cells that may float or swim in liquid. Microbes form a biofilm in response to many factors, including cellular recognition of specific or non-specific attachment sites on a surface, nutritional cues, or exposure of planktonic cells to sub-inhibitory concentrations of antibiotics. When a cell switches to the biofilm mode of growth, it undergoes a phenotypic shift in behavior in which large suites of genes are differentially regulated.
Formation of a biofilm begins with the attachment of free-floating microorganisms to a surface. These first colonists initially form a weak, reversible adhesion to the surface via van der Waals forces. If the colonists are not immediately separated from the surface, they can anchor themselves more permanently using cell adhesion structures such as pili. Some species are not able to attach to a surface on their own but are able to anchor themselves to the matrix or directly to earlier colonists. It is during this colonization that the cells are able to communicate via quorum sensing using such products as AHL. Once colonization has begun, the biofilm grows through a combination of cell division and recruitment. The final stage of biofilm formation is known as development; this is the stage in which the biofilm is established and may change only in shape and size. The development of a biofilm may allow for an aggregate cell colony (or colonies) to be antibiotic-resistant.
In sum, the five stages of biofilm development are as follows:
- Initial attachment
- Irreversible attachment
- Maturation I
- Maturation II
- Dispersion
Dispersal of cells from the biofilm colony is an essential stage of the biofilm life cycle. Dispersal enables biofilms to spread and colonize new surfaces. Enzymes that degrade the biofilm extracellular matrix, such as dispersin B and deoxyribonuclease, may play a role in biofilm dispersal. Biofilm matrix-degrading enzymes may be useful as anti-biofilm agents. Recent evidence has shown that one fatty acid messenger, cis-2-decenoic acid, is capable of inducing dispersion and inhibiting growth of biofilm colonies. Secreted by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, this compound induces cyclo heteromorphic cells in several species of bacteria and the yeast Candida albicans. Nitric oxide has also been shown to trigger the dispersal of biofilms of several bacteria species at sub-toxic concentrations, so it shows potential for use in the treatment of patients that suffer from chronic infections caused by biofilms.
Bacteria living in a biofilm usually have significantly different properties from free-floating bacteria of the same species, as the dense and protected environment of the film allows them to cooperate and interact in various ways. One benefit of this environment is increased resistance to detergents and antibiotics, as the dense extracellular matrix and the outer layer of cells protect the interior of the community. In some cases antibiotic resistance can be increased a thousandfold. Lateral gene transfer is also greatly facilitated in biofilms and leads to a more stable structure.
However, biofilms are not always less susceptible to antibiotics. For instance, the biofilm form of Pseudomonas aeruginosa has no greater resistance to antimicrobials than do stationary-phase planktonic cells, although when the biofilm is compared to logarithmic-phase planktonic cells, the biofilm does show greater resistance to antimicrobials. This resistance to antibiotics in both stationary phase cells and biofilms may be due to the presence of persister cells.
LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS
CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION
- Commensal bacteria. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Commensal_bacteria. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Symbiosis. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosis. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Bacteria. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- mutualism. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mutualism. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- commensalism. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/commensalism. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- parasitism. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/parasitism. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Bacterial%20infections%20and%20involved%20species. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bacterial_infections_and_involved_species.png. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Biofilms. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofilms. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- biofilm. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/biofilm. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Bacterial%20infections%20and%20involved%20species. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bacterial_infections_and_involved_species.png. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Biofilm. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biofilm.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
Key Points
- Microbes form a biofilm in response to many factors, including cellular recognition of specific or non-specific attachment sites on a surface, nutritional cues, or exposure of planktonic cells to sub-inhibitory concentrations of antibiotics.
- Formation of a biofilm begins with the attachment of free-floating microorganisms to a surface. These first colonists initially adhere to the surface through weak, reversible adhesion via van der Waals forces.
- If the colonists are not immediately separated from the surface, they can anchor themselves more permanently using cell adhesion structures such as pili.
Key Terms
- biofilm : an aggregate of microorganisms in which cells adhere to each other on a surface