10.1: Introduction to Islamic Art
Islamic Art
Islamic art encompasses visual arts produced from the seventh century onwards by culturally Islamic populations.
Identify the influences and the specific attributes of Islamic art
Key Points
- Islamic art is not art of a specific religion, time, place, or of a single medium . Instead it spans some 1400 years, covers many lands and populations, and includes a range of artistic fields including architecture, calligraphy , painting, glass, ceramics , and textiles, among others.
- Islamic religious art differs from Christian religious art in that it is non-figural because many Muslims believe that the depiction of the human form is idolatry , and thereby a sin against God, forbidden in the Qur’an. Calligraphy and architectural elements are given important religious significance in Islamic art.
- Islamic art developed from many sources: Roman, early Christian art, and Byzantine styles ; Sassanian art of pre-Islamic Persia; Central Asian styles brought by various nomadic incursions, and Chinese influences appear on Islamic painting, pottery , and textiles.
Key Terms
- Qu’ran : The central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be the verbatim word of God (Arabic: Allah). It is widely regarded as the finest piece of literature in the Arabic language.
- arabesque : A repetitive, stylized pattern based on a geometrical floral or vegetal design.
- idolatry : The worship of idols.
- monotheistic : Believing in a single god, deity, spirit, etc., especially for an organized religion, faith, or creed.
Islam
Islam is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion articulated by the Qur’an, a book considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of God (Allah) and the teachings of Muhammad , who is considered to be the last prophet of God. An adherent of Islam is called a Muslim.
Most Muslims are of two denominations: Sunni (75–90%),[7] or Shia (10–20%). Its essential religious concepts and practices include the five pillars of Islam, which are basic concepts and obligatory acts of worship, and the following of Islamic law, which touches on every aspect of life and society. The five pillars are:
- Shahadah (belief or confession of faith)
- Salat (worship in the form of prayer)
- Sawm Ramadan (fasting during the month of Ramadan)
- Zakat (alms or charitable giving)
- Hajj (the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime)
Islamic Art
Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the seventh century onward by both Muslims and non-Muslims who lived within the territory that was inhabited by, or ruled by, culturally Islamic populations. It is thus a very difficult art to define because it spans some 1400 years, covering many lands and populations. This art is also not of a specific religion, time, place, or single medium. Instead Islamic art covers a range of artistic fields including architecture, calligraphy, painting, glass, ceramics, and textiles, among others.
Islamic art is not restricted to religious art, but instead includes all of the art of the rich and varied cultures of Islamic societies. It frequently includes secular elements and elements that are forbidden by some Islamic theologians. Islamic religious art differs greatly from Christian religious art traditions.
Because figural representations are generally considered to be forbidden in Islam, the word takes on religious meaning in art as seen in the tradition of calligraphic inscriptions. Calligraphy and the decoration of manuscript Qu’rans is an important aspect of Islamic art as the word takes on religious and artistic significance.
Islamic architecture, such as mosques and palatial gardens of paradise, are also embedded with religious significance. While examples of Islamic figurative painting do exist, and may cover religious scenes, these examples are typically from secular contexts, such as the walls of palaces or illuminated books of poetry.
Other religious art, such as glass mosque lamps, Girih tiles, woodwork, and carpets usually demonstrate the same style and motifs as contemporary secular art, although they exhibit more prominent religious inscriptions.
Islamic art was influenced by Greek, Roman, early Christian, and Byzantine art styles, as well as the Sassanian art of pre-Islamic Persia. Central Asian styles were brought in with various nomadic incursions; and Chinese influences had a formative effect on Islamic painting, pottery, and textiles.
Themes of Islamic Art
There are repeating elements in Islamic art, such as the use of stylized , geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as the arabesque . The arabesque in Islamic art is often used to symbolize the transcendent, indivisible and infinite nature of God. Some scholars believe that mistakes in repetitions may be intentionally introduced as a show of humility by artists who believe only God can produce perfection.
Typically, though not entirely, Islamic art has focused on the depiction of patterns and Arabic calligraphy, rather than human or animal figures, because it is believed by many Muslims that the depiction of the human form is idolatry and thereby a sin against God that is forbidden in the Qur’an.
However, depictions of the human form and animals can be found in all eras of Islamic secular art. Depictions of the human form in art intended for the purpose of worship is considered idolatry and is forbidden in Islamic law, known as Sharia law.
Islamic Architecture
Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of styles and the principal example is the mosque.
Describe the development of mosques, and their different features during different periods and dynasties
Key Points
- A specifically recognizable Islamic architectural style emerged soon after Muhammad’s time that incorporated Roman building traditions with the addition of localized adaptations of the former Sassanid and Byzantine models.
- The Islamic mosque has historically been both a place of prayer and a community meeting space . The early mosques are believed to be inspired by Muhammad’s home in Medina, which was the first mosque.
Key Terms
- mosque : A place of worship for Muslims, corresponding to a church or synagogue in other religions, often having at least one minaret. In Arabic: masjid.
- mihrab : A semicircular niche in the wall of a mosque, that indicates the qibla (direction of Mecca), and into which the imam prays.
- minaret : The tall slender tower of an Islamic mosque, from which the muezzin recites the adhan (call to prayer).
Islamic Architecture
Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles. The principal Islamic architectural example is the mosque. A specifically recognizable Islamic architectural style emerged soon after Muhammad’s time that incorporated Roman building traditions with the addition of localized adaptations of the former Sassanid and Byzantine models.
Early Mosques
The Islamic mosque has historically been both a place of prayer and a community meeting space. The early mosques are believed to be inspired by Muhammad’s home in Medina, which was the first mosque.
The Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia) is one of the best preserved and most significant examples of early great mosques. Founded in 670, it contains all of the architectural features that distinguish early mosques: a minaret , a large courtyard surrounded by porticos , and a hypostyle prayer hall.
Ottoman Mosques
Ottoman mosques and other architecture first emerged in the cities of Bursa and Edirne in the 14th and 15th centuries, developing from earlier Seljuk Turk architecture, with additional influences from Byzantine, Persian, and Islamic Mamluk traditions.
Sultan Mehmed II would later fuse European traditions in his rebuilding programs at Istanbul in the 19th century. Byzantine styles as seen in the Hagia Sophia served as particularly important models for Ottoman mosques, such as the mosque constructed by Sinan.
Building reached its peak in the 16th century when Ottoman architects mastered the technique of building vast inner spaces surmounted by seemingly weightless yet incredibly massive domes , and achieved perfect harmony between inner and outer spaces, as well as articulated light and shadow.
They incorporated vaults , domes, square dome plans, slender corner minarets, and columns into their mosques, which became sanctuaries of transcendently aesthetic and technical balance, as may be observed in the Blue Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey.
Architecture flourished in the Safavid Dynasty , attaining a high point with the building program of Shah Abbas in Isfahan, which included numerous gardens, palaces (such as Ali Qapu), an immense bazaar, and a large imperial mosque. Isfahan, the capital of both the Seljuk and Safavid dynasties, bears the most prominent samples of the Safavid architecture, such as the the Imperial Mosque, which was constructed in the years after Shah Abbas I permanently moved the capital there in 1598.
Islamic Glass Making
Glassmaking was the most important Islamic luxury art of the early Middle Ages.
Describe the art of Islamic glass
Key Points
- Between the 8th and early 11th centuries, the emphasis in luxury glass was on effects achieved by manipulating the surface of the glass, initially by incising into the glass on a wheel, and later by cutting away the background to leave a design in relief .
- Lustre painting uses techniques similar to lustreware in pottery and dates back to the 8th century in Egypt; it became widespread in the 12th century.
Key Terms
- luxury arts : Highly decorative goods made of precious materials for the wealthy classes.
- glassmaking : The craft or industry of producing glass.
Islamic Glass
For most of the Middle Ages , Islamic luxury glass was the most sophisticated in Eurasia , exported to both Europe and China. Islam took over much of the traditional glass-producing territory of Sassanian and Ancient Roman glass. Since figurative decoration played a small part in pre-Islamic glass, the change in style was not abrupt—except that the whole area initially formed a political whole, and, for example, Persian innovations were now almost immediately taken up in Egypt.
For this reason it is often impossible to distinguish between the various centers of production (of which Egypt, Syria, and Persia were the most important), except by scientific analysis of the material, which itself has difficulties. From various documentary references, glassmaking and glass-trading seems to have been a specialty of the Jewish minority.
Between the 8th and early 11th centuries, the emphasis in luxury glass was on effects achieved by manipulating the surface of the glass, initially by incising into the glass on a wheel, and later by cutting away the background to leave a design in relief. The very massive Hedwig glasses, only found in Europe, but normally considered Islamic (or possibly from Muslim craftsmen in Norman Sicily), are an example of this, though they are puzzlingly late in date.
These and other glass pieces probably represented cheaper versions of vessels of carved rock crystal (clear quartz)—themselves influenced by earlier glass vessels—and there is some evidence that at this period glass and hard-stone cutting were regarded as the same craft. From the 12th century, the glass industry in Persia and Mesopotamia declined, and the main production of luxury glass shifted to Egypt and Syria. Throughout this period, local centers made simpler wares, such as Hebron glass in Palestine.
Lustre painting
Lustre painting, by techniques similar to lustreware in pottery, dates back to the 8th century in Egypt, and involves the application of metallic pigments during the glass-making process. Another technique used by artisans was decoration with threads of glass of a different color, worked into the main surface, and sometimes manipulated by combing and other effects.
Gilded, painted, and enameled glass were added to the repertoire, as were shapes and motifs borrowed from other media , such as pottery and metalwork . Some of the finest work was in mosque lamps donated by a ruler or wealthy man.
As decoration grew more elaborate, the quality of the basic glass decreased, and it often exhibited bubbles and a brownish-yellow tinge. Aleppo ceased to be a major center after the Mongol invasion of 1260, and Timur appears to have ended the Syrian glass industry around 1400 by carrying off the skilled workers to Samarkand. By about 1500, the Venetians were receiving large orders for mosque lamps.
Some of the finest work was in mosque lamps donated by a ruler or wealthy man. As decoration grew more elaborate, the quality of the basic glass decreased, and it often exhibited bubbles and a brownish-yellow tinge. Aleppo ceased to be a major center after the Mongol invasion of 1260, and Timur appears to have ended the Syrian industry around 1400 by carrying off the skilled workers to Samarkand. By about 1500, the Venetians were receiving large orders for mosque lamps.
Islamic Calligraphy
Calligraphic design was omnipresent in Islamic art in the Middle Ages, and is seen in all types of art including architecture and the decorative arts.
Explain the purpose and characteristics of Islamic calligraphy
Key Points
- In a religion where figural representations are considered an act of idolatry , it is no surprise that the word and its artistic representation became an important aspect in Islamic art.
- The earliest form of Arabic calligraphy is Kufic script .
- Besides Quranic verses, other inscriptions include verses of poetry, and inscriptions recording ownership or donation.
Key Terms
- Kufic script : The earliest form of Arabic calligraphy, noted for its angular form.
- calligraphy : The art of writing letters and words with decorative strokes.
In a religion where figural representations are considered an act of idolatry, it is no surprise that the word and its artistic representation became an important aspect in Islamic art. The most important religious text in Islam is the Quran, which is believed to be the word of God. There are many examples of calligraphy and calligraphic inscriptions pertaining to verses from the Quran in Islamic arts.
The earliest form of Arabic calligraphy is Kufic script, which is noted for its angular form. Arabic is read from right to left and only the consonants are written. The black ink in the image above from a 9th century Quran marks the consonants for the reader. The red dots that are visible on the page note the vowels.
However, calligraphic design is not limited to the book in Islamic art. Calligraphy is found in several different types of art, such as architecture. The interior of the Dome of the Rock (Jerusalem, circa 691), for example, features calligraphic inscriptions of verses from the Quran as well as from additional sources. As in Europe in the Middle Ages , religious exhortations such as Quranic verses may be included in secular objects, especially coins, tiles, and metalwork .
Calligraphic inscriptions were not exclusive to the Quran, but also included verses of poetry or recorded ownership or donation. Calligraphers were highly regarded in Islam, which reinforces the importance of the word and its religious and artistic significance.
Islamic Book Painting
Manuscript painting in the late medieval Islamic world reached its height in Persia, Syria, Iraq, and the Ottoman Empire.
Discuss the origin and development of Islamic manuscript painting
Key Points
- The art of the Persian book was born under the Ilkhanid dynasty and encouraged by the patronage of aristocrats for large illuminated manuscripts .
- Islamic manuscript painting witnessed its first golden age in the 13th century when it was influenced by the Byzantine visual vocabulary and combined with Mongol facial types from 12th-century book frontispieces.
- Under the rule of the Safavids in Iran (1501 to 1786), the art of manuscript illumination achieves new heights, in particular in the Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp, an immense copy of Ferdowsi’s epic poem that contains more than 250 paintings.
- The medieval Islamic texts called Maqamat were some of the earliest coffee-table books and among the first Islamic art to mirror daily life.
- Masterpieces of Ottoman manuscript illustration include the two books of festivals, one from the end of the 16th century and the other from the era of Sultan Murad III.
Key Terms
- Mongols : An umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic and Turkic tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan in the 13th century.
- illuminated manuscripts : A book in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated initials, borders (marginalia), and miniature illustrations.
- miniature : An illustration in an ancient or medieval illuminated manuscript.
- muraqqa : An album in book form containing Islamic miniature paintings and specimens of Islamic calligraphy, normally from several different sources, and perhaps other matter.
- Maqamat : The plural for Maqāma, an Arabic literary genre of rhymed prose with intervals of poetry that often ruminates on spiritual topics.
Islamic Book Painting
Book painting in the late medieval Islamic world reached its height in Persia, Syria, Iraq, and the Ottoman Empire . The art form blossomed across the different regions and was inspired by a range of cultural reference points.
The evolution of book painting first began in the 13th century, when the Mongols, under the leadership of Genghis Khan, swept through the Islamic world. Upon the death of Genghis Khan, his empire was divided among his sons and dynasties formed: the Yuan in China, the Ilkhanids in Iran, and the Golden Horde in northern Iran and southern Russia.
The Ilkhanids
The Ilkhanids were a rich civilization that developed under the little khans in Iran. Architectural activity intensified as the Mongols became sedentary yet retained traces of their nomadic origins, such as the north–south orientation of buildings. Persian, Islamic, and East Asian traditions melded together during this period and a process of Iranization took place, in which construction according to previously established types, such as the Iranian-plan mosques , was resumed.
The art of the Persian book was born under the Ilkhanid dynasty and encouraged by the patronage of aristocrats for large illuminated manuscripts, such as the Jami’ al-tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani. Islamic book painting witnessed its first golden age in the 13th century, mostly within Syria and Iraq.
Miniatures
The tradition of the Persian miniature (a small painting on paper) developed during this period, and it strongly influenced the Ottoman miniature of Turkey and the Mughal miniature in India. Because illuminated manuscripts were an art of the court, and not seen in public, constraints on the depiction of the human figure were much more relaxed and the human form is represented with frequency within this medium.
Influence from the Byzantine visual vocabulary (blue and gold coloring, angelic and victorious motifs, symbology of drapery) was combined with Mongol facial types seen in 12th-century book frontispieces. Chinese influences in Islamic book painting include the early adoption of the vertical format natural to a book. Motifs such as peonies, clouds, dragons, and phoenixes were adapted from China as well, and incorporated into manuscript illumination.
The largest commissions of illustrated books were usually classics of Persian poetry, such as the Shahnameh. Under the rule of the Safavids in Iran (1501 to 1786), the art of manuscript illumination achieved new heights. The most noteworthy example of this is the Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp, an immense copy of Ferdowsi’s epic poem that contains more than 250 paintings.
Maqamat and Albums
The medieval Islamic texts called Maqamat that were copied and illustrated by Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti, were some of the earliest coffee-table books. They were among the first texts in Islamic art to hold a mirror to daily life, portraying humorous stories and showing little adherence to prior pictorial traditions.
In the 17th century a new type of painting developed based around the album (muraqqa). The albums were the creations of connoisseurs who bound together single sheets of paintings, drawings, or calligraphy by various artists; they were sometimes excised from earlier books and other times created as independent works.
The paintings of Reza Abbasi figure largely in this new form of book art. The form depicts one or two larger figures, typically idealized beauties in a garden setting, and often use the grisaille techniques previously used for background border paintings .
Mughal and Ottoman Manuscripts
The Mughals and Ottomans both produced lavish manuscripts of more recent history with the autobiographies of the Mughal emperors and purely military chronicles of Turkish conquests. Portraits of rulers developed in the 16th century, and later in Persia, where they became very popular.
Mughal portraits, normally in profile, are very finely drawn in a realist style , while the best Ottoman ones are vigorously stylized . Album miniatures typically featured picnic scenes, portraits of individuals, or (in India especially) animals, or idealized youthful beauties of either sex.
Masterpieces of Ottoman manuscript illustration include the two books of festivals, one from the end of the 16th century and the other from the era of Sultan Murad III. These books contain numerous illustrations and exhibit a strong Safavid influence, perhaps inspired by books captured in the course of the Ottoman–Safavid wars of the 16th century.
Islamic Ceramics
Islamic art has notable achievements in ceramics that reached heights unmatched by other cultures.
Discuss how developments such as tin-opacified glazing and stonepaste ceramics made Islamic ceramics some of the most advanced of its time
Key Points
- The first Islamic opaque glazes date to around the 8th century, and another significant contribution was the development of stonepaste ceramics in 9th century Iraq.
- Lusterwares with iridescent colors were either invented or considerably developed in Persia and Syria from the 9th century onward.
- The techniques, shapes, and decorative motifs of Chinese ceramics were admired and emulated by Islamic potters, especially after the Mongol and Timurid invasions.
- The Hispano–Moresque style emerged in the 8th century, with more refined production happening later, presumably by Muslim potters working in areas reconquered by Christian kingdoms.
Key Terms
- Hispano–Moresque style : A style of Islamic pottery created in Al-Andaluz, or Muslim Spain, which continued to be produced under Christian rule in styles that blended Islamic and European elements.
- lusterware : A type of pottery or porcelain having an iridescent metallic glaze.
- glaze : The vitreous coating of pottery or porcelain, or a transparent or semi-transparent layer of paint.
- ceramics : Inorganic, nonmetallic solids created by the action of heat and their subsequent cooling. Most common ceramics are crystalline and the earliest uses of ceramics were in pottery.
Islamic Ceramics
Islamic art has notable achievements in ceramics, both in pottery and tiles for buildings, which reached heights unmatched by other cultures . Early pottery had usually been unglazed, but a tin-opacified glazing technique was developed by Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in Basra, dating to around the 8th century.
Another significant contribution was the development of stonepaste ceramics, originating from 9th century Iraq. The first industrial complex for glass and pottery production was built in Ar-Raqqah, Syria, in the 8th century. Other centers for innovative pottery in the Islamic world included Fustat (from 975 to 1075), Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600), and Tabriz (from 1470 to 1550).
Lusterware
Lusterware is a type of pottery or porcelain that has an iridescent metallic glaze. Luster first began as a painting technique in glassmaking , which was then translated to pottery in Mesopotamia in the 9th century.
The techniques, shapes, and decorative motifs of Chinese ceramics were admired and emulated by Islamic potters, especially after the Mongol and Timurid invasions. Until the Early Modern period, Western ceramics had little influence, but Islamic pottery was highly sought after in Europe, and was often copied.
An example of this is the albarello, a type of earthenware jar originally designed to hold apothecary ointments and dry drugs. The development of this type of pharmacy jar had its roots in the Islamic Middle East. Hispano–Moresque examples were exported to Italy, inspiring the earliest Italian examples, from 15th century Florence.
Hispano–Moresque Style
The Hispano–Moresque style emerged in Al-Andaluz, or Muslim Spain, in the 8th century, under Egyptian influence. More refined production happened much later, presumably by Muslim potters who worked in the areas reconquered by the Christian kingdoms.
The Hispano–Moresque style mixed Islamic and European elements in its designs and was exported to neighboring European countries. The style introduced two ceramic techniques to Europe:
- Glazing with an opaque white tin-glaze.
- Painting in metallic lusters.
Ottoman Iznik pottery produced most of the finest ceramics of the 16th century—tiles and large vessels boldly decorated with floral motifs that were influenced by Chinese Yuan and Ming ceramics. These were still in earthenware, since porcelain was not made in Islamic countries until modern times.
The medieval Islamic world also painted pottery with animal and human imagery . Examples are found throughout the medieval Islamic world, particularly in Persia and Egypt.
Islamic Textiles
The most important textile produced in the Medieval and Early Modern Islamic Empires was the carpet.
Discuss the making and designs of Islamic textiles
Key Points
- The production and trade of textiles pre-dates Islam , and had long been important to Middle Eastern cultures and cities, many of which flourished due to the Silk Road .
- When the Islamic dynasties formed and grew more powerful they gained control over textile production in the region, which was arguably the most important craft of the era.
Key Terms
- textile arts : The production of arts and crafts that use plant, animal, or synthetic fibers to create objects.
Islam and the Textile Arts
The textile arts refer to the production of arts and crafts that use plant, animal, or synthetic fibers to create objects. These objects can be for everyday use, or they can be decorative and luxury items. The production and trade of textiles pre-dates Islam, and had long been important to Middle Eastern cultures and cities, many of which flourished due to the Silk Road.
When the Islamic dynasties formed and grew more powerful they gained control over textile production in the region, which was arguably the most important craft of the era. The most important textile produced in Medieval and Early Modern Islamic Empires was the carpet.
The Ottoman Empire and Carpet Production
The art of carpet weaving was particularly important in the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman state was founded by Turkish tribes in northwestern Anatolia in 1299 and became an empire in 1453 after the momentous conquest of Constantinople.
Stretching across Asia, Europe, and Africa, the Empire was vast and long lived, lasting until 1922 when the monarchy was abolished in Turkey. Within the Ottoman Empire, carpets were immensely valued as decorative furnishings and for their practical value . They were used not just on floors but also as wall and door hangings, where they provided additional insulation.
These intricately knotted carpets were made of silk, or a combination of silk and cotton, and were often rich in religious and other symbolism. Hereke silk carpets, which were made in the coastal town of Hereke, were the most valued of the Ottoman carpets because of their fine weave. The Hereke carpets were typically used to furnish royal palaces.
Persian Carpets
The Iranian Safavid Empire (1501–1786) is distinguished from the Mughal and Ottoman dynasties by the Shia faith of its shahs, which was the majority Islamic denomination in Persia. Safavid art is contributed to several aesthetic traditions, particularly to the textile arts.
In the sixteenth century, carpet weaving evolved from a nomadic and peasant craft to a well-executed industry that used specialized design and manufacturing techniques on quality fibers such as silk. The carpets of Ardabil, for example, were commissioned to commemorate the Safavid dynasty and are now considered to be the best examples of classical Persian weaving, particularly for their use of graphical perspective.
Textiles became a large export, and Persian weaving became one of the most popular imported goods of Europe. Islamic carpets were a luxury item in Europe and there are several examples of European Renaissance paintings that document the presence of Islamic textiles in European homes during that time.
Indonesian Batik
Islamic textile production, however, was not limited to the carpet. Royal factories were founded for the purpose of textile production that also included cloth and garments.
The development and refinement of Indonesian batik cloth was closely linked to Islam. The Islamic prohibition on certain images encouraged batik design to become more abstract and intricate. Realistic depictions of animals and humans are rare on traditional batik, but serpents, puppet-shaped humans, and the Garuda of pre-Islamic mythology are all commonplace.
Although its existence in Indonesia pre-dates Islam, batik reached its high point in the royal Muslim courts, such as Mataram and Yogyakarta, whose Muslim rulers encouraged and patronized batik production. Today, batik has undergone a revival, and cloths are used for other purposes besides wearing, such as wrapping the Quran.
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- Islamic art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- calligraphy. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/calligraphy. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Mongol soldiers by Rashid al-Din 1305. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mongol_soldiers_by_Rashid_al-Din_1305.JPG. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- The_Court_of_Gayumars.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahnameh_of_Shah_Tahmasp. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Islamic art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- muraqqa. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/muraqqa. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Mongols. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongols. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Maqamat. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Maqamat. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- painted minatures. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/painted%20miniatures. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Illuminated Manuscripts. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/illuminated%20manuscript. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Iran orientale o asia centrale, coppa, x sec 02. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Iran_orientale_o_asia_centrale,_coppa,_x_sec_02.JPG. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Islamic art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_art . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Hispano-Moresque style. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispano-Moresque%20style. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- ceramics. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/ceramics. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- glaze. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/glaze. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Lusterware. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Lusterware. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Batik_Indonesia.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Batik_Indonesia.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Inside_the_Harem2C_Topkapi_Palace2C_Istanbul2C_Turkey_28Nov_200929.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inside_the_Harem,_Topkapi_Palace,_Istanbul,_Turkey_(Nov_2009).jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Ardabil_Carpet.jpg. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardabil_Carpet. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- The East. Provided by : Boundless. Located at : www.boundless.com/users/212217/textbooks/world-art-history/islamic-art-8/later-islamic-art-71/the-east-363-8033/. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Safavid Dynasty. Provided by : Boundless. Located at : www.boundless.com/users/212217/textbooks/world-art-history/islamic-art-8/the-ottom-safavid-and-mughai-dynasties-72/safavid-dynasty-369-5178/. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Textile Arts. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_arts. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Ottoman Empire. Provided by : Boundless. Located at : www.boundless.com/users/212217/textbooks/world-art-history/islamic-art-8/the-ottom-safavid-and-mughai-dynasties-72/ottoman-empire-368-7111/. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


7.1.2: Adjacent Angles
Lesson
Let's look at some special pairs of angles.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\): Estimating Angle Measures
Estimate the degree measure of each indicated angle.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\): Cutting Rectangles
Your teacher will give you two small, rectangular papers.
1. On one of the papers, draw a small half-circle in the middle of one side.
2. Cut a straight line, starting from the center of the half-circle, all the way across the paper to make 2 separate pieces. (Your cut does not need to be perpendicular to the side of the paper.)
3. On each of these two pieces, measure the angle that is marked by part of a circle. Label the angle measure on the piece.
4. What do you notice about these angle measures?
5. Clare measured 70 degrees on one of her pieces. Predict the angle measure of her other piece.
6. On the other rectangular paper, draw a small quarter-circle in one of the corners.
7. Repeat the previous steps to cut, measure, and label the two angles marked by part of a circle.
8. What do you notice about these angle measures?
9. Priya measured 53 degrees on one of her pieces. Predict the angle measure of her other piece.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\): Is It a Complement or Supplement?
1. Use the protractor in the picture to find the measure of angles \(BCA\) and \(BCD\).
2. Explain how to find the measure of angle \(ACD\) without repositioning the protractor.
3. Use the protractor in the picture to find the measure of angles \(LOK\) and \(LOM\).
4. Explain how to find the measure of angle \(KOM\) without repositioning the protractor.
5. Angle \(BAC\) s a right angle. Find the measure of angle \(CAD\).
6. Point \(O\) is on line \(RS\). Find the measure of angle \(SOP\).
Are you ready for more?
Clare started with a rectangular piece of paper. She folded up one corner, and then folded up the other corner, as shown in the photos.
- Try this yourself with any rectangular paper. Fold the left corner up at any angle, and then fold the right corner up so that the edges of the paper meet.
- Clare thought that the angle at the bottom looked like a 90 degree angle.
- Can you explain why the bottom angle always has to be 90 degrees? Hint: the third photo shows Clare’s paper, unfolded. The crease marks have dashed lines, and the line where the two paper edges met have a solid line. Mark these on your own paper as well.
Summary
If two angle measures add up to \(90^{\circ}\), then we say the angles are complementary . Here are three examples of pairs of complementary angles.
If two angle measures add up to \(180^{\circ}\), then we say the angles are supplementary . Here are three examples of pairs of supplementary angles.
Glossary Entries
Definition: Adjacent Angles
Adjacent angles share a side and a vertex.
In this diagram, angle \(ABC\) is adjacent to angle \(DBC\).
Definition: Complementary
Complementary angles have measures that add up to 90 degrees.
For example, a \(15^{\circ}\) angle and a \(75^{\circ}\) angle are complementary.
Definition: Right Angle
A right angle is half of a straight angle. It measures 90 degrees.
Definition: Straight Angle
A straight angle is an angle that forms a straight line. It measures 180 degrees.
Definition: Supplementary
Supplementary angles have measures that add up to 180 degrees.
For example, a \(15^{\circ}\) angle and a \(165^{\circ}\) angle are supplementary.
Practice
Exercise \(\PageIndex{4}\)
Angles \(A\) and \(C\) are supplementary. Find the measure of angle \(C\).
Exercise \(\PageIndex{5}\)
- List two pairs of angles in square \(CDFG\) that are complementary.
- Name three angles that sum to \(180^{\circ}\).
Exercise \(\PageIndex{6}\)
Complete the equation with a number that makes the expression on the right side of the equal sign equivalent to the expression on the left side.
\(5x-2.5+6x-3=\underline{\quad}(2x-1)\)
(From Unit 6.4.5)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{7}\)
Match each table with the equation that represents the same proportional relationship.
A:
| \(x\) | \(y\) |
|---|---|
| \(2\) | \(8\) |
| \(3\) | \(12\) |
| \(4\) | \(16\) |
| \(5\) | \(20\) |
- \(y=1.5x\)
- \(y=1.25x\)
- \(y=4x\)
B:
| \(x\) | \(y\) |
|---|---|
| \(3\) | \(4.5\) |
| \(6\) | \(9\) |
| \(7\) | \(10.5\) |
| \(10\) | \(15\) |
C:
| \(x\) | \(y\) |
|---|---|
| \(2\) | \(\frac{5}{2}\) |
| \(4\) | \(5\) |
| \(6\) | \(\frac{15}{2}\) |
| \(12\) | \(15\) |
(From Unit 2.2.1)


10.1: Factors That Influence Health Practices
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
- Identify factors that influence individual health practices.
- Describe how the interaction of genetics, behavior, environmental and physical influences, medical care, and social determinants of health interact to determine a person’s health and well-being.
Dynamic and complex interactions among a person, their community, the environment, and society at large influence the overall health experience of clients and communities. Clients’ health depends on more than just their own decisions and personal health practices, or health behaviors. Health behavior encompasses the actions, habits, activities, policies, and procedures of individual clients, communities, organizations, and governments that can either support or undermine health. The term “behavior” can carry a judgmental or negative connotation that implies blame or moralizes health choices, when in reality the health behavior depends on numerous factors.
For example, whether or not a client participates in physical activity outside of their working time may appear to be their choice , and whether or not a client consumes microwaved meals and packaged snacks at each meal rather than eating a lot of fresh fruits and vegetables may be viewed as a preference . However, there may be some actions a client would like to take to support their health, but barriers to participation in their home, workplace, community, health system, or greater society may prevent them from doing so. Significant factors impact choices, compulsions, preferences, necessities, and other decision-making processes about health and related activities.
Socio-ecological models (SEMs) are models that offer a way to study and organize how personal, situational, community, societal, political, and other contexts affect client and community health behaviors and outcomes. Socio-ecological perspective s are a focus of this chapter. Before discussing SEMs in more detail, this section explores some of the concepts that can shape, and be shaped by, health behavior.
Many factors influence client “compliance” or “adherence” to care plans, suggested health interventions, or engagement with what is generally accepted as a healthy lifestyle. Assigning feeling, meaning, or blame to client health behavior without a thorough consideration of other socio-ecological factors can do serious harm. For example, clients may be labeled “noncompliant” when documenting or discussing a medication plan instead of naming factors such as pharmacy access, financial situations, or unpleasant side effects. This labeling of clients can influence how other providers interact with the client, creating an inequity in providing health care.
(See Cox & Fritz, 2022.)
Read the scenario, and then respond to the questions that follow.
While generally healthy, Mo has been diagnosed with dyslipidemia for which he takes atorvastatin; he also has seasonal allergies that he manages well with daily over-the-counter loratadine and fluticasone under the direction of his primary care nurse practitioner. Mo wears corrective lenses. He has the occasional tennis elbow flare-up during his busy seasons at work. About once or twice per year, he experiences respiratory bronchitis and uses an albuterol inhaler as needed. The bronchitis can be particularly bothersome, which motivates him to get his seasonal immunizations like flu and COVID-19 as soon as his local pharmacy has them in stock. Sometimes, he says it is tough to sleep because he lives near the highway, which can be noisy overnight. He has not had any prior surgeries. His family history is significant for dyslipidemia and coronary artery disease; his mother (living) and his father (deceased over 20 years) had type 2 diabetes mellitus and chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Mo has never had genetic testing but is of Ashkenazi Jewish descent. Aside from seasonal allergies, he has no known allergies, and his immunizations are up to date.
Mo states he does not mind the physical nature of his landscaping work, but each year it seems a bit harder to work quickly. He proudly tells you he also works on his own yard, having planted 100 tulip bulbs for the coming season. He lives with his wife in a single-family home in a small town about 30 minutes by car from the capital city. He uses the 5-mile bicycle and walking path once a week in nice weather. Mo’s town has several grocery stores and a large farm where he is able to buy organic produce. Mo has two adult children who do not live at home and one grandchild. His daughter is a nurse, and his son works in finance. Mo spends as much time as possible with his family and socializes with friends a few times per month.
- Identify three components of Mo’s profile that are health-promoting, are risk-reducing, or may affect his health in a positive way.
- Identify three components of Mo’s health that present health risks, present safety concerns, or may affect his health in a negative way.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2019) recognize five main factors that influence health:
- Genetics
- Behavior
- Environmental and physical influences
- Medical care
- Social factors
These factors are discussed below. While reading about these factors, think about how each component identified as either supportive or potentially detrimental to Mo’s health could be categorized. The cultural beliefs, norms, values, and practices of clients and families can influence individual definitions, understanding, and experiences of health. For more information on culture and health, see Cultural Influences on Health Beliefs and Practices.
Genetics
Family health history helps identify strong risk factors or predictors for acquiring certain conditions and disorders and alternatively for lowering the risk of health conditions. Genetics involves the study of how genes, traits, and diseases are passed from one generation to the next. Although genetic associations can be robust, genetics are still only one component in an overall health picture. As heritability and the presence of certain genes or attributes are measurable, scientists can calculate the impact of genetics versus lifestyle, social, and other factors on specific health risks. Some health conditions can have exceptionally strong genetic linkages, with a high likelihood that if one or both biological parents have a condition, their offspring will have it, too. For example, while the risk of developing breast cancer in the general population is 12.9 percent, children of parents with a certain gene mutation have a 50 percent risk of inheriting the mutation, dramatically increasing the risk of developing cancer (National Cancer Institute, 2020). Some aspects of health may be loosely related to genetics. The heritability of lifespan is only estimated to be between 7 and 25 percent (van den Berg et al., 2019), which suggests that there are many other factors that contribute to how long a client may live beyond the age of their oldest relatives at death.
Mo has a few possible genetic health risks. His parents were noted to have dyslipidemia and coronary artery disease as well as type 2 diabetes mellitus and cancer. Mo may be at increased risk of these conditions from a genetics standpoint, but he may also have had exposure to environmental and lifestyle factors similar to his parents that can precipitate these conditions. Mo is also of Ashkenazi Jewish descent. Ashkenazi Jews are one of several ethnic groups known to carry an increased likelihood of select genetic conditions (National Gaucher Foundation, 2023).
Behavior
Broadly, behavior encompasses the way a person acts, the mannerisms they display, and the conduct they employ. Health behavior refers to specific actions that support or undermine health. Some individual health behaviors, such as staying adequately hydrated and participating in mindfulness practices like meditation, journaling, or guided imagery, can lower the risk of conditions or lead to improved health. Other health behaviors can precipitate or worsen conditions, such as smoking and getting insufficient sleep. Behavior is one of many factors that can influence client health, and all clients do not have the same access to engaging in select health-promoting behaviors.
Many recognized structures, inequities, and ideologies, as well as broad societal organization, have a greater influence on health behavior than individual choices and nonconscious processes (Rejeski & Fanning, 2019; Short & Mollborn, 2015). These external factors can create barriers or opportunities that influence the ease with which individuals can engage in health-promoting behaviors. Think back to the examples at the start of this section: a client who does not engage in physical activity and a client who does not eat fruits and vegetables. The client who does not participate in leisure-time physical activity may not have safe places to walk in their neighborhood or might work odd hours that leave little daylight time for walking and jogging. The client who eats mostly packaged foods may not live near a grocery store that sells any fresh fruits and vegetables or sells them at affordable prices. These situations highlight the significance of city planning, equitable access to jobs with daytime hours, and community buying power that could incentivize a full-service grocery store chain to locate a store in the neighborhood. These factors outweigh the influence of clients’ personal activity and meal preferences or conscious health decisions. A comingling of other health factors affect whether individuals are aware that a particular factor supports or hinders health.
Mo engages in some health-supporting behaviors, such as keeping up social contacts and participating in physical activity. He also regularly takes medication in support of his identified health conditions and has agreed to receive immunizations as scheduled. Some of his behaviors represent health risks and require further assessment. For example, the physical nature of his job has been a challenge and at times exacerbates his tennis elbow.
Environmental and Physical Influences
When thinking of health and the environment, one may consider several aspects such as access to drinking water and exposure to air pollution . While clean air and water are essential to physical and mental well-being, other aspects of the environment can dictate health status (Figure 10.2). The primary environment for most people is their home. Even dwellings that clients note as pleasant, comfortable, and preferred can represent health risks. For example, clients who live in multiunit buildings (e.g., apartments or condominiums) and do not smoke still face a health risk if other people in their building smoke in their own home units, on balconies, or outside of the buildings in designated smoking areas that are in close proximity to the living area (Willand & Nethercote, 2020). If the physical environment around a client’s home or place of work has a well-marked, smooth, tree-lined sidewalk, this can support engagement in outdoor physical activity. Similarly, living near nature or being able to see green space from a window in the home supports self-esteem , life satisfaction , and happiness and helps clients avoid depression , anxiety , and feelings of loneliness (Soga et al., 2021). Alternatively, living near a highway places a client at risk for hearing constant noise and being exposed to pollution and has been associated with neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis, and Parkinson’s disease (Yuchi et al., 2020). A healthy home environment may not be available in densely populated areas. For many people, opportunities to relocate from an unhealthy home environment to an improved setting may not be affordable.
“Redlining” was a discriminatory home loan practice that emerged in the United States in the 1930s when banks would deny mortgages or offer loans on unfavorable terms to clients and families based on their race. Redlining led to neighborhood segregation and ongoing disparities. Modern-day disparities in air quality can be linked to these nearly 100-year-old practices. Researchers studied the association between air pollution and redlining in 202 cities across the United States. They determined that BIPOC communities, particularly Black and Hispanic people, are exposed to higher levels of air pollution despite general improvements in air quality across the nation. One reason for poor air quality in these communities is the presence of hazardous industrial factories in redlined neighborhoods. While banks and lenders today may have antidiscrimination practices in place and there is legislation meant to prevent redlining, the health impact of this racist practice persists. Higher levels of contaminants such as nitrogen dioxide and fine particulate matter present in formerly redlined neighborhoods can contribute to premature death, chronic conditions across body systems, environmental allergies, cognitive problems in children, and complications with reproductive and fertility health. See Structural Racism and Systemic Inequities for more information on redlining and Environmental Health for more information on the negative effects of pollution on health.
(See Lane et al., 2022; Manisalidis et al., 2020.)
The physical environment to which a client has access can impact health and behavior. Consider Mo: Mo exercises regularly in nice weather. He lives in a town that has a 5-mile biking and walking path that he uses for walking and jogging. This walking path gives Mo a safe place to participate in physical activity. If Mo lived in a city that did not have such a path, would he be able to walk for 5 miles on the sidewalk? Would he need to dodge oncoming traffic while jogging? If there was not a path designed specifically for walkers and joggers, would he consider outdoor physical activity too much of a hassle? Without a place to exercise outside, would he need to join a gym? Could he afford to join a gym? Mo is in an ideal position where he enjoys exercise and has access to resources that allow him to exercise in the community environment. On the other hand, living next to a highway may pose a threat to Mo’s health due to poor air quality, conditions that are not conducive to sleep, and risk for neurodegenerative disorders.
Medical Care
Medical care refers to services rendered by a health care clinician during visits to clinics, offices, hospitals, surgical centers, schools, labs, and other places. Access to medical care can improve health through prevention, diagnosis, treatment, or palliation of illnesses, injuries, and diseases. The presence or absence of barriers to medical care for clients and communities influence their health behavior. Access to medical care provides clients with preventive health screenings, symptom management, and access to treatment and medications to manage chronic conditions. Access to care depends on many factors, such as a client’s insurance status and comfort or trust in specific providers or in the health system as a whole (Greene & Ramos, 2021).
Members of marginalized communities face additional barriers to finding a provider who might welcome them and understand their needs. Older adults, LGBTQIA+ clients, and clients with language barriers are a few examples of those who might have physical access to care but do not fully receive the care they need due to factors such as systemic ageism, heterosexism, and stigma in health settings (Al Shamsi et al., 2020; D’cruz & Banerjee, 2020; Gibb et al., 2020). Caring for Vulnerable Populations and Communities shares more information regarding the care of populations vulnerable to marginalization, discrimination, and exclusion in the health setting. Even factors that change day to day can impact medical care. For example, scheduling and attending a medical appointment involves: finding time to make a phone call, being able to succinctly describe the health concern, finding a convenient day and time to attend an appointment around work and other commitments, ensuring access to and money for transportation to get to the appointment, paying for the copay in the setting of lost wages, and more. Geographic access to a hospital or care provider can also differ for many Americans in rural versus urban environments. For example, although the United States has climbing maternal morbidity and mortality rates, in recent years access to perinatal services in rural communities has decreased, and these communities have a nine percent greater probability of severe maternal morbidity and mortality compared to urban residents (Kozhimannil et al, 2019).
Mo sees his primary care provider annually and as needed. The primary care clinic is situated in Mo’s town, and he finds it easily accessible. This makes his quarterly visits for monitoring of chronic conditions easy, and Mo has never missed an appointment for a cholesterol check. Mo can quickly see the primary care provider for an evaluation of his respiratory health and inhaler refills as needed. If he ever needed surgery or inpatient care, he could easily access the larger hospitals in the capital city, which is only about 30 minutes away by car. Further, his daughter is a nurse, which gives him access to extra support. She can help him make sense of any of the primary care provider’s recommendations or test results and can help him prepare to explain his health issue in a succinct manner to make the most of any visit scheduled. The same is not true for many Americans. Health inequities are apparent and harmful when clients face barriers such as limited health plan coverage, living far away from hospitals and clinics, language barriers, or lack of family support. Any barrier to care access can impact a client’s ability to receive care, which can lead to poor health outcomes and continuation of society-wide health inequities.
An increasing number of locations in the United States are becoming “ maternity care deserts ,” leaving pregnant clients and families without access to birth centers or hospitals and providers that can provide obstetric care. In a 2022 report , March of Dimes determined that the growth of these deserts was affecting nearly 7 million people of childbearing potential and over a half million babies. March of Dimes developed a companion site to the report with summaries and interactive maps. Please note, the report refers to women and mothers. Authors and editors of this textbook acknowledge and support that women and mothers are not the only clients with childbearing potential.
Visit the links, and then respond to the following questions.
- What are the health consequences of living in a maternity care desert?
- Is your school or home in an area considered a maternity care desert?
- How do clients receive medical care when living in a maternity care desert?
- What individual health behaviors are impacted when living in a maternity care desert?
- What might it take to eliminate maternity care deserts?
Social Determinants of Health
Social determinants of health (SDOH) have crossover with the factors previously discussed, but they also bring different perspectives and antecedents to a client’s full health picture. Other chapters within this textbook discuss SDOH in greater depth. Briefly, per Healthy People 2030, social determinants of health are the conditions and environments where people are born, live, learn, work, play, worship, and age that affect a wide range of health, functioning, and quality-of-life outcomes and risks (Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion [ODPHP], n.d.-a); they are discussed at length in Social Determinants Affecting Health Outcomes. Social determinants across domains, including a client’s economic stability, education access and quality, health care access and quality, neighborhood and built environment, and social and community context can influence or are influenced by the factors associated with health behavior.
Not all clients have the same access to engaging in healthy behaviors and lifestyle interventions. For example, teen clients have identified support from caregivers, family members, and peers regarding healthy eating and exercising and access to organized sports as two factors essential to facilitating a healthy lifestyle (Cardel et al., 2020). What happens to teens without such supports? There are many benefits to outdoor play for children and teens alike (Chaudhury et al., 2019; McCormick, 2017), and nurses might suggest increasing outdoor play time to families during health encounters. Unfortunately, not all clients and families have the same access to recreational areas, parks with amenities such as play structures, vegetation, and outdoor spaces with tree canopy and shade coverage in their neighborhoods (Kephart, 2022). How might a nurse approach suggesting increased outdoor activity for families that are not afforded access to safe green space (Figure 10.3)? While nurses can acknowledge that health behaviors can bolster or hinder personal health and wellness, they must remember that placing ultimate accountability for engaging in health behaviors solely on an individual is not in alignment with nursing practice principles of justice and equity.
Mo’s social determinants affect his experience of health. He considers himself economically stable. He finished high school, he is employed full-time, and he owns a home. He has health plan coverage and, as discussed, can easily access health services when he needs them. He enjoys the environment in his own backyard and can access outdoor recreation space in his neighborhood. Mo has a positive social and community context. His job does pose health risks to both his musculoskeletal function (tennis elbow) and respiratory wellness ( allergies and bronchitis). He knows that living near the highway can affect his sleep, and he might be surprised to hear about the risks that traffic and pollutants pose to his respiratory conditions—and to the vibrancy of his tulip garden! All in all, Mo’s social determinants contribute to a positive experience of health.
Intersectionality
None of the factors that influence health behavior exist, form, evolve, or influence on their own. Similarly, barriers or health risks relevant in one factor or category can worsen those in another and perpetuate inequalities and injustices in health. Intersectionality considers how more than one disadvantage can interact for clients on an individual level and reflect the inequities and injustices at the systems level. Racism , classism , colonialism , sexism , heterosexism , and ableism are a few of the structures that result in systems-level oppression and privilege (Crenshaw, 1991). Intersectionality focuses on systems of oppression and privilege, not individual identities, and while all people have intersecting social identities, not all people belong to groups that are harmed by oppressive structures or supported by subsequent privilege (Aguayo-Romero, 2021). Considering the intersectionality of genetics, behavior, environment, medical care, social determinants, and societal structures allows for a better understanding of the complexity of health and illness across the population. It also serves as a reminder to all clinicians that addressing disparities, inequities, biases, injustices, and other problems that perpetuate oppression in health care is a priority that must be addressed to promote health for all.
This CDC video defines intersectionality and explores its role in health outcomes.
Watch the video, and then respond to the following questions.
- How would you define intersectionality?
- What different groups do you belong to?
- The video states that public health professionals can use the intersectionality framework as an equity lens. What does this mean?


20.E: Phylogenies and the History of Life (Exercises)
20.1: Organizing Life on Earth
Review Questions
What is used to determine phylogeny?
- mutations
- DNA
- evolutionary history
- organisms on earth
- Answer
-
C
What do scientists in the field of systematics accomplish?
- discover new fossil sites
- organize and classify organisms
- name new species
- communicate among field biologists
- Answer
-
B
Which statement about the taxonomic classification system is correct?
- There are more domains than kingdoms.
- Kingdoms are the top category of classification.
- Classes are divisions of orders.
- Subspecies are the most specific category of classification.
- Answer
-
D
On a phylogenetic tree, which term refers to lineages that diverged from the same place?
- sister taxa
- basal taxa
- rooted taxa
- dichotomous taxa
- Answer
-
A
Free Response
How does a phylogenetic tree relate to the passing of time?
- Answer
-
The phylogenetic tree shows the order in which evolutionary events took place and in what order certain characteristics and organisms evolved in relation to others. It does not relate to time.
Some organisms that appear very closely related on a phylogenetic tree may not actually be closely related. Why is this?
- Answer
-
In most cases, organisms that appear closely related actually are; however, there are cases where organisms evolved through convergence and appear closely related but are not.
List the different levels of the taxonomic classification system.
- Answer
-
domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
20.2: Determining Evolutionary Relationships
Review Questions
Which statement about analogies is correct?
- They occur only as errors.
- They are synonymous with homologous traits.
- They are derived by similar environmental constraints.
- They are a form of mutation.
- Answer
-
C
What do scientists use to apply cladistics?
- homologous traits
- homoplasies
- analogous traits
- monophyletic groups
- Answer
-
A
What is true about organisms that are a part of the same clade?
- They all share the same basic characteristics.
- They evolved from a shared ancestor.
- They usually fall into the same classification taxa.
- They have identical phylogenies.
- Answer
-
B
Why do scientists apply the concept of maximum parsimony?
- to decipher accurate phylogenies
- to eliminate analogous traits
- to identify mutations in DNA codes
- to locate homoplasies
- Answer
-
A
Free Response
Dolphins and fish have similar body shapes. Is this feature more likely a homologous or analogous trait?
- Answer
-
Dolphins are mammals and fish are not, which means that their evolutionary paths (phylogenies) are quite separate. Dolphins probably adapted to have a similar body plan after returning to an aquatic lifestyle, and, therefore, this trait is probably analogous.
Why is it so important for scientists to distinguish between homologous and analogous characteristics before building phylogenetic trees?
- Answer
-
Phylogenetic trees are based on evolutionary connections. If an analogous similarity were used on a tree, this would be erroneous and, furthermore, would cause the subsequent branches to be inaccurate.
Describe maximum parsimony.
- Answer
-
Maximum parsimony hypothesizes that events occurred in the simplest, most obvious way, and the pathway of evolution probably includes the fewest major events that coincide with the evidence at hand.
20.3: Perspectives on the Phylogenetic Tree
Review Questions
The transfer of genes by a mechanism not involving asexual reproduction is called:
- meiosis
- web of life
- horizontal gene transfer
- gene fusion
- Answer
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C
Particles that transfer genetic material from one species to another, especially in marine prokaryotes:
- horizontal gene transfer
- lateral gene transfer
- genome fusion device
- gene transfer agents
- Answer
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D
What does the trunk of the classic phylogenetic tree represent?
- single common ancestor
- pool of ancestral organisms
- new species
- old species
- Answer
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A
Which phylogenetic model proposes that all three domains of life evolved from a pool of primitive prokaryotes?
- tree of life
- web of life
- ring of life
- network model
- Answer
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C
Free Response
Compare three different ways that eukaryotic cells may have evolved.
- Answer
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Some hypotheses propose that mitochondria were acquired first, followed by the development of the nucleus. Others propose that the nucleus evolved first and that this new eukaryotic cell later acquired the mitochondria. Still others hypothesize that prokaryotes descended from eukaryotes by the loss of genes and complexity.
Describe how aphids acquired the ability to change color.
- Answer
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Aphids have acquired the ability to make the carotenoids on their own. DNA analysis has demonstrated that this ability is due to the transfer of fungal genes into the insect by HGT, presumably as the insect consumed fungi for food.


9.7: Calculations and Basic Formulas in Google Sheets
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Add numbers in Sheets
- Subtract numbers in Sheets
- Multiply numbers in Sheets
- Divide numbers in Sheets
Microsoft Excel has been around for decades, yet there are no functions for subtracting or dividing numbers. Users must still build formulas with the appropriate mathematical operator to divide or subtract numbers. Google Sheets has added a MINUS and a DIVIDE function. WorldCorp likes being able to use these functions in their number crunching.
Adding Numbers
Adding numbers in Sheets uses the same commands and formulas as Excel does. Here, you will compare orders from two clients, Client A and Client B, who ordered the same product—headphones—but at different times and in different quantities. Figure 9.57 is a snapshot of these orders, showing the two clients’ order history in two different tables.
You will design a new table that summarizes these orders by client and by month using the data found in the two client tables. Figure 9.58 shows a snapshot of the summarized orders of each client, separated by month. In this table, we used the + sign to add the cells containing numbers (for example: =G3+G4+G5+G6+G7+G8+G9) in the formula bar to add together total sales for each month by client. Note this syntax is the same as Excel.
The same calculations can occur using functions. You can use the table in Figure 9.58, but replace the plus sign with the SUM function , like Excel. Type “=SUM", an open parenthesis, then list the cells you wish to add, putting a comma after each cell reference. Then close the formula with a closing parenthesis (Figure 9.59). Repeat the process for all sales data by month and client.
Subtracting Numbers
One way to use subtraction in data analysis is to determine how far an order is above or below the average order. This information can tell us which clients might need more attention to increase their orders or to analyze ordering patterns due to seasonality. To perform this calculation, we will measure the distance from the average. First, find the average, which is the total sales divided by the number of orders. Using the data in Figure 9.57, insert two columns after Quantity for the average quantity and distance from average and insert two more columns after FOB $ for the average FOB $ and distance from average. Then, find the average for each of these and repeat the value in all cells in that column. Then, to find the distance from average, subtract the average from the individual order, for both Quantity and FOB $. Figure 9.60 shows the average columns and the formula for finding the distance from average. Then, apply the formula to all rows (Figure 9.61). Repeat the process for the distance from average for FOB $ (Figure 9.62). In these statistical analyses, you can see that there are some large orders that make the average high, which in turn makes many smaller orders have a negative distance from average and makes them seem even smaller by comparison.
Sheets also offers a subtraction function, unlike Excel. You can replace the subtraction formula with the MINUS function . First, type “=minus(” and list the cell references separated by a comma (Figure 9.63). The MINUS function subtracts numbers in the order they appear in the formula just as if they were separated by “-” in a formula. You can repeat this for all the subtraction formulas in the table. You can only subtract two numbers using the MINUS function.
Multiplying Numbers
As in Excel, when using the multiplication formula in Sheets, you can multiply a cell reference by a constant or a cell reference by a cell reference. Using the same dataset, you can find the FOB $ by multiplying the quantity by the price per unit. Figure 9.64a shows multiplication of the cell reference from the Quantity column by the constant price per unit without adding a column for the value. A Price per Unit column is added and the constant in the formula is replaced with the cell reference (Figure 9.64b). You can repeat the calculation for all rows, as previously illustrated.
To use the function, replace the formula with “=multiply(” and add the constant and/or cell references in parentheses, separated by commas (Figure 9.65). You can only multiply two numbers using the MULTIPLY function . Sheets has another function, PRODUCT , that can multiply a series of numbers rather than just two.
Dividing Numbers
Dividing numbers using formulas in Sheets is also the same as in Excel. You can use the same sales data to find the proportion of sales of each client compared with the total. Start with the data from Figure 9.58, organized by month. Add a column for the total sales for each month and one for the proportion, and then add a formula to calculate the total sales for clients A and B for each month (Figure 9.66).
Now that you have the totals, find the proportion by dividing the FOB $ in O3 by the total in Q3 (Figure 9.67). Repeat the same operation for the other three rows (Figure 9.68). This analysis shows the sales behavior differences between clients A and B. This data analyses shows that in December, client B had 52.36 percent of the sales, and in January client A had 65.81 percent of the sales. The proportion can be changed into a percentage to increase readability, as shown in Figure 9.69.
The division function in Sheets works in the same way as other mathematical functions. You can type “=divide(” and then enter the cell references, separated by a comma (Figure 9.70). Notice that the result of the DIVIDE function is a decimal. The numbers are divided in the order in which they are placed in the function, and you can only divide two numbers using the DIVIDE function. The QUOTIENT function in Sheets also works in the same way as Excel. The result of the QUOTIENT function will be a whole number, not a decimal. For example, when you divide 5 by 4, the answer is 1.25, but using the QUOTIENT function, the answer will be displayed as 1.


3.7: Ecological Interactions- Two-Species Model
Two-species model allows to describe how two theoretical species might influence each other. For example, Species I may facilitate Species II: it means that if biomass (sum of weight) of Species I increases, biomass of Species II also increases ( \(+\) interaction). There are also \(+\) and \(0\) interactions. Two species and three signs make six combinations:
| + | 0 | - | |
| + | mutualism | commensalism 1 | exploitation 2 |
| 0 | ... | neutralism | amensalism |
| - | ... | ... | interference 3 |
\(^1\) Includes phoresy (transportation), inquilinism (housing) and “sponging”.
\(^2\) Includes predation, parasitism and phytophagy.
\(^3\) Includes competition, allelopathy and aggression.
- Mutualism
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It sometimes called “symbiosis”. Two different species collaborate to make each other life better. One of the most striking example is lichenes which is algae-fungus mutualism.
- Commensalism
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Remember “Finding Nemo”? Clown fish lives inside actinia. This type of commensalism is called “ housing ”. Another example is suckerfish and shark, this is phoresy . Sponging happens when scavengers feed on what is left after the bigger carnivore meal.
- Exploitation
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This is the most severe interaction. Predation kills, but parasitism or phytophagy (the only difference is that second uses plants) do not.
- Neutralism
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Rare. Philosophically, everything is connected in nature, and if Species I and II live together, they usually interact, somehow.
- Amensalism
-
This happens when suppressing organism is, for example, much bigger then the “partner”. Big trees often suppress all surrounding smaller plants.
- Interference
-
Competition happens when Species I and II share same ecological niche, have similar requirements. Gause’s Principle says that sooner or later, one of them wins and another looses. Allelopathy is a mediated competition, typically through some chemicals like antibiotics. Most advanced (but least pleasant) is the direct aggression when individuals of one species physically eliminate the other one.


8.8.4: Social Cohesion
In general, the sense of solidarity that a community has, how “tight-knit” it is, and how strongly the members feel they can support and rely on each other, all have positive impacts on health. The idea that neighbors and community members can be trusted to take actions for the common good, and can be relied on in times of need, are characteristics of social cohesion. Social cohesion also encompasses social capital (which includes connecting community members with resources), and social networks - which are multiple sources of support, whether emotional or physical. To whom will you turn if your car breaks down and you need a ride? If you knew of a good job opening, who would you share it with? Where would you go if your home was subject to a natural disaster? When community members share mutual trust and respect, they are able to work together to better their lives. This collective efficacy is associated with lower rates of neighborhood violence, and better access to things like healthcare, health-supporting foods and physical activity options. Health-related behaviors - whether positive like physical activity, or negative like smoking - also tend to be influenced by social networks ( Social Cohesion - Healthy People 2030 , n.d.).
On the flipside of social cohesion, loneliness and isolation are significant drivers of poor health. In adults over the age of 50, loneliness increases the risk of dementia, heart disease, stroke, depression, anxiety, and death from all causes. Those that are at higher risk for isolation include minoritized populations, immigrants (particularly first-generation), and LGBTQ folks. Stigma and discrimination prevent the development of trust and strong social-support networks, which in turn isolates people in the community ( Loneliness and Social Isolation Linked to Serious Health Conditions , 2022). Although most of the research on loneliness addresses older adulthood, it can also significantly impact young adults. Self-reported loneliness increased during the COVID-19 pandemic - particularly among young adults and low-income households - and has gradually tapered off since (Witters, 2023).


<IP_ADDRESS>: The Galapagos Finches and Natural Selection
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Learning Objectives
- Describe how finches provide visible evidence of evolution
Visible Evidence of Ongoing Evolution: Darwin’s Finches
From 1831 to 1836, Darwin traveled around the world, observing animals on different continents and islands. On the Galapagos Islands, Darwin observed several species of finches with unique beak shapes. He observed these finches closely resembled another finch species on the mainland of South America and that the group of species in the Galápagos formed a graded series of beak sizes and shapes, with very small differences between the most similar. Darwin imagined that the island species might be all species modified from one original mainland species. In 1860, he wrote, “seeing this gradation and diversity of structure in one small, intimately related group of birds, one might really fancy that from an original paucity of birds in this archipelago, one species had been taken and modified for different ends.”
Natural Selection
Darwin called this mechanism of change natural selection. Natural selection, Darwin argued, was an inevitable outcome of three principles that operated in nature. First, the characteristics of organisms are inherited, or passed from parent to offspring. Second, more offspring are produced than are able to survive; in other words, resources for survival and reproduction are limited. The capacity for reproduction in all organisms exceeds the availability of resources to support their numbers. Thus, there is a competition for those resources in each generation. Third, offspring vary among each other in regard to their characteristics and those variations are inherited. Out of these three principles, Darwin reasoned that offspring with inherited characteristics that allow them to best compete for limited resources will survive and have more offspring than those individuals with variations that are less able to compete. Because characteristics are inherited, these traits will be better represented in the next generation. This will lead to change in populations over generations in a process that Darwin called “descent with modification,” or evolution.
Studies of Natural Selection After Darwin
Demonstrations of evolution by natural selection can be time consuming. Peter and Rosemary Grant and their colleagues have studied Galápagos finch populations every year since 1976 and have provided important demonstrations of the operation of natural selection. The Grants found changes from one generation to the next in the beak shapes of the medium ground finches on the Galápagos island of Daphne Major.
The medium ground finch feeds on seeds. The birds have inherited variation in the bill shape with some individuals having wide, deep bills and others having thinner bills. Large-billed birds feed more efficiently on large, hard seeds, whereas smaller billed birds feed more efficiently on small, soft seeds. During 1977, a drought period altered vegetation on the island. After this period, the number of seeds declined dramatically; the decline in small, soft seeds was greater than the decline in large, hard seeds. The large-billed birds were able to survive better than the small-billed birds the following year.
The year following the drought when the Grants measured beak sizes in the much-reduced population, they found that the average bill size was larger. This was clear evidence for natural selection of bill size caused by the availability of seeds. The Grants had studied the inheritance of bill sizes and knew that the surviving large-billed birds would tend to produce offspring with larger bills, so the selection would lead to evolution of bill size. Subsequent studies by the Grants have demonstrated selection on and evolution of bill size in this species in response to other changing conditions on the island. The evolution has occurred both to larger bills, as in this case, and to smaller bills when large seeds became rare.
Key Points
- Darwin observed the Galapagos finches had a graded series of beak sizes and shapes and predicted these species were modified from one original mainland species.
- Darwin called differences among species natural selection, which is caused by the inheritance of traits, competition between individuals, and the variation of traits.
- Offspring with inherited characteristics that allow them to best compete will survive and have more offspring than those individuals with variations that are less able to compete.
- Large-billed finches feed more efficiently on large, hard seeds, whereas smaller billed finches feed more efficiently on small, soft seeds.
- When small, soft seeds become rare, large-billed finches will survive better, and there will be more larger-billed birds in the following generation; when large, hard seeds become rare, the opposite will occur.
Key Terms
- natural selection : a process in which individual organisms or phenotypes that possess favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce
- evolution : the change in the genetic composition of a population over successive generations