8.7: Chapter Summary
The musical styles that have developed in the United States are as varied as the people who live here. In this chapter, we learned that ragtime, New Orleans jazz, and the blues are all critical to the creation and growth of the popular music we enjoy today. We learned about the emphasis on rhythm inherited from African roots, and that syncopation refers to accented notes that are not on the beat. We also learned that from the country’s colonial beginnings to the present day, the musical, societal, and cultural establishment has not always approved of popular music—particularly ragtime, blues, and jazz.
Scott Joplin and others developed the distinct style that was called “ragtime,” which contributed, along with other African American music styles to the forma- tion of jazz in and around New Orleans. We saw Louis Armstrong rise to international fame as a jazz performer, recording artist, and movie star. This was followed by the “big bands” of the 1930s and 1940s, and later the small groups, or combos that performed the highly sophisticated music known as bebop. We discussed the evolution of rhythm and blues (R&B) into modern R&B and learned to identify rap music as a style based on two central elements; a strong rhythmic beat and lyrics. We explored the wide variety of folk songs in America. We also learned that folk music in America largely developed from music of the British Isles and Europe, as well as the music brought here by African slaves. We also investigated how rock music incorporated the blues and an emphasis on beats two and four borrowed from jazz to create an exciting new music that appealed to the youth culture.
In the realm of country music, we learned about bluegrass music, which developed largely in the Appalachian region, as well as honky-tonk and hillbilly music, both of which were variations of country music. We examined Western swing as a subset of country music that often uses dance band instruments, and recognized contemporary country music as a mixture of rock and country styles.
America was also home to a wide variety of styles of musical theatre. From the minstrel songs of Stephen Foster, which glorified the plantation South, to the operettas of Victor Herbert, which dominated musical theatre at the turn of the nineteenth century, America has a rich history of song and dance. Today, American musical theatre takes the form of the Broadway musical, which features a strong plot conveyed through dialogue and supported by song and dance. We also discussed American opera in the form of Gershwin’s folk opera, Porgy and Bess .
The importance of American popular music of the twentieth century cannot be overstated. Genres such as rock and roll and rap have now been exported around the globe. At their root, all forms of American popular music have been influenced by the blues, and thus owe their existence to the cultural contributions of African Americans. Although America was not yet discovered during much of the early development of Western art music, we have contributed much to the culture of the world in a relatively short span of time.


15.6: Corporate Cultures
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- Identify the fit between organizational cultures and the external environment
Organizational culture is considered one of the most important internal dimensions of an organization ’s effectiveness criteria. Peter Drucker, an influential management guru, once stated, “Culture eats strategy for breakfast.” He meant that corporate culture is more influential than strategy in terms of motivating employees’ beliefs, behaviors, relationships, and ways they work since culture is based on values. Strategy and other internal dimensions of organization are also very important, but organizational culture serves two crucial purposes: first, culture helps an organization adapt to and integrate with its external environment by adopting the right values to respond to external threats and opportunities; and secondly, culture creates internal unity by bringing members together so they work more cohesively to achieve common goals. Culture is both the personality and glue that binds an organization. It is also important to note that organizational cultures are generally framed and influenced by the top-level leader or founder. This individual’s vision, values, and mission set the “tone at the top,” which influences both the ethics and legal foundations, modeling how other officers and employees work and behave. A framework used to study how an organization and its culture fit with the environment is offered in the Competing Values Framework.
The Competing Values Framework (CVF) is one of the most cited and tested models for diagnosing an organization’s cultural effectiveness and examining its fit with its environment. The CVF, shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\), has been tested for over 30 years; the effectiveness criteria offered in the framework were discovered to have made a difference in identifying organizational cultures that fit with particular characteristics of external environments.
The two axes in the framework, external focus versus internal focus, indicate whether or not the organization’s culture is externally or internally oriented. The other two axes, flexibility versus stability and control, determine whether a culture functions better in a stable, controlled environment or a flexible, fast-paced environment. Combining the axes offers four cultural types: (1) the dynamic, entrepreneurial Adhocracy Culture —an external focus with a flexibility orientation; (2) the people-oriented, friendly Clan Culture —an internal focus with a flexibility orientation; (3) the process-oriented, structured Hierarchy Culture —an internal focus with a stability/control orientation; and (4) the results-oriented, competitive Market Culture —an external focus with a stability/control orientation.
The orientation of each of these cultural types is summarized as follows. The Adhocracy Culture profile of an organization emphasizes creating, innovating, visioning the future, managing change, risk-taking, rule-breaking, experimentation, entrepreneurship, and uncertainty. This profile culture is often found in such fast-paced industries as filming, consulting, space flight, and software development. Facebook and Google’s cultures also match these characteristics. It should be noted, however, that larger organizations may have different cultures for different groupings of professionals, even though the larger culture is still dominant. For example, a different subculture may evolve for hourly workers as compared to PhD research scientists in an organization.
The Clan Culture type focuses on relationships, team building, commitment, empowering human development, engagement, mentoring, and coaching. Organizations that focus on human development, human resources, team building, and mentoring would fit this profile. This type of culture fits Tom’s of Maine, which has strived to form respectful relationships with employees, customers, suppliers, and the physical environment.
The Hierarchy Culture emphasizes efficiency, process and cost control, organizational improvement, technical expertise, precision, problem solving, elimination of errors, logical, cautious and conservative, management and operational analysis, and careful decision-making. This profile would suit a company that is bureaucratic and structured, such as the U.S. Postal Service, the military, and other similar types of government agencies.
The Market Culture focuses on delivering value, competing, delivering shareholder value, goal achievement, driving and delivering results, speedy decisions, hard driving through barriers, directive, commanding, and getting things done. This profile suits a marketing-and-sales-oriented company that works on planning and forecasting but also getting products and services to market and sold. Oracle under the dominating, hard-charging executive chairman Larry Ellison characterized this cultural fit.
Amazon illustrates a company that can have a mix of cultures and be effective. For example, Amazon blends a high-performance Adhocracy Culture with regard to its external expansion and Bezos’s leadership style; at the same time, Amazon resembles a Hierarchy Culture internally with regard to its tight control over employees at lower levels. The company propelled its domain from an “online bookstore” “to selling everything online to being the pioneering in adopting cloud computing with AWS . . . to adopting the latest robotics in its warehouses to improve productivity . . . to thinking and testing disruptive technologies like drones and so on.” It has been criticized, at the same time, for its “toxic cut-throat work environment,” asserting that Jeff Bezos is overly demanding and sets very high standards for Amazon employees, as well as for himself. This type of culture extends down to the warehouse employees. Amazon employees have complained that “Work came first, life came second, and trying to find the balance came last.” This criticism peaked with an alleged suicide attempt in 2017 of a disgruntled employee who requested a transfer to a different department within in the company but was placed on an employee improvement plan—“a step that could result in his termination from Amazon if his performance didn’t improve.” Amazon has since changed many of its working rules and regulations for warehouse employees.
concept Check
- Explain the concept of hiring for fit as it relates to corporate culture.
- What are some organizational issues that must be addressed when two large firms merge or grow rapidly like Amazon?


18.6: Hemostasis
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the three mechanisms involved in hemostasis
- Explain how the extrinsic and intrinsic coagulation pathways lead to the common pathway, and the coagulation factors involved in each
- Discuss disorders affecting hemostasis
Platelets are key players in hemostasis , the process by which the body seals a ruptured blood vessel and prevents further loss of blood. Although rupture of larger vessels usually requires medical intervention, hemostasis is quite effective in dealing with small, simple wounds. There are three steps to the process: vascular spasm, the formation of a platelet plug, and coagulation (blood clotting). Failure of any of these steps will result in hemorrhage —excessive bleeding.
Vascular Spasm
When a vessel is severed or punctured, or when the wall of a vessel is damaged, vascular spasm occurs. In vascular spasm , the smooth muscle in the walls of the vessel contracts dramatically. This smooth muscle has both circular layers; larger vessels also have longitudinal layers. The circular layers tend to constrict the flow of blood, whereas the longitudinal layers, when present, draw the vessel back into the surrounding tissue, often making it more difficult for a surgeon to locate, clamp, and tie off a severed vessel. The vascular spasm response is believed to be triggered by several chemicals called endothelins that are released by vessel-lining cells and by pain receptors in response to vessel injury. This phenomenon typically lasts for up to 30 minutes, although it can last for hours.
Formation of the Platelet Plug
In the second step, platelets, which normally float free in the plasma, encounter the area of vessel rupture with the exposed underlying connective tissue and collagenous fibers. The platelets begin to clump together, become spiked and sticky, and bind to the exposed collagen and endothelial lining. This process is assisted by a glycoprotein in the blood plasma called von Willebrand factor, which helps stabilize the growing platelet plug . As platelets collect, they simultaneously release chemicals from their granules into the plasma that further contribute to hemostasis. Among the substances released by the platelets are:
- adenosine diphosphate (ADP), which helps additional platelets to adhere to the injury site, reinforcing and expanding the platelet plug
- serotonin, which maintains vasoconstriction
- prostaglandins and phospholipids, which also maintain vasoconstriction and help to activate further clotting chemicals, as discussed next
A platelet plug can temporarily seal a small opening in a blood vessel. Plug formation, in essence, buys the body time while more sophisticated and durable repairs are being made. In a similar manner, even modern naval warships still carry an assortment of wooden plugs to temporarily repair small breaches in their hulls until permanent repairs can be made.
Coagulation
Those more sophisticated and more durable repairs are collectively called coagulation , the formation of a blood clot. The process is sometimes characterized as a cascade, because one event prompts the next as in a multi-level waterfall. The result is the production of a gelatinous but robust clot made up of a mesh of fibrin —an insoluble filamentous protein derived from fibrinogen, the plasma protein introduced earlier—in which platelets and blood cells are trapped. Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) summarizes the three steps of hemostasis.
Clotting Factors Involved in Coagulation
In the coagulation cascade, chemicals called clotting factors (or coagulation factors) prompt reactions that activate still more coagulation factors. The process is complex, but is initiated along two basic pathways:
- The extrinsic pathway, which normally is triggered by trauma.
- The intrinsic pathway, which begins in the bloodstream and is triggered by internal damage to the wall of the vessel.
Both of these merge into a third pathway, referred to as the common pathway (see Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) b ). All three pathways are dependent upon the 12 known clotting factors, including Ca 2 + and vitamin K (Table \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Clotting factors are secreted primarily by the liver and the platelets. The liver requires the fat-soluble vitamin K to produce many of them. Vitamin K (along with biotin and folate) is somewhat unusual among vitamins in that it is not only consumed in the diet but is also synthesized by bacteria residing in the large intestine. The calcium ion, considered factor IV, is derived from the diet and from the breakdown of bone. Some recent evidence indicates that activation of various clotting factors occurs on specific receptor sites on the surfaces of platelets.
The 12 clotting factors are numbered I through XIII according to the order of their discovery. Factor VI was once believed to be a distinct clotting factor, but is now thought to be identical to factor V. Rather than renumber the other factors, factor VI was allowed to remain as a placeholder and also a reminder that knowledge changes over time.
| Factor number | Name | Type of molecule | Source | Pathway(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| I | Fibrinogen | Plasma protein | Liver | Common; converted into fibrin |
| II | Prothrombin | Plasma protein | Liver* | Common; converted into thrombin |
| III | Tissue thromboplastin or tissue factor | Lipoprotein mixture | Damaged cells and platelets | Extrinsic |
| IV | Calcium ions | Inorganic ions in plasma | Diet, platelets, bone matrix | Entire process |
| V | Proaccelerin | Plasma protein | Liver, platelets | Extrinsic and intrinsic |
| VI | Not used | Not used | Not used | Not used |
| VII | Proconvertin | Plasma protein | Liver * | Extrinsic |
| VIII | Antihemolytic factor A | Plasma protein factor | Platelets and endothelial cells | Intrinsic; deficiency results in hemophilia A |
| IX | Antihemolytic factor B (plasma thromboplastin component) | Plasma protein | Liver* | Intrinsic; deficiency results in hemophilia B |
| X | Stuart–Prower factor (thrombokinase) | Protein | Liver* | Extrinsic and intrinsic |
| XI | Antihemolytic factor C (plasma thromboplastin antecedent) | Plasma protein | Liver | Intrinsic; deficiency results in hemophilia C |
| XII | Hageman factor | Plasma protein | Liver | Intrinsic; initiates clotting in vitro also activates plasmin |
| XIII | Fibrin-stabilizing factor | Plasma protein | Liver, platelets | Stabilizes fibrin; slows fibrinolysis |
Extrinsic Pathway
The quicker responding and more direct extrinsic pathway (also known as the tissue factor pathway) begins when damage occurs to the surrounding tissues, such as in a traumatic injury. Upon contact with blood plasma, the damaged extravascular cells, which are extrinsic to the bloodstream, release factor III (thromboplastin). Sequentially, Ca 2 + then factor VII (proconvertin), which is activated by factor III, are added, forming an enzyme complex. This enzyme complex leads to activation of factor X (Stuart–Prower factor), which activates the common pathway discussed below. The events in the extrinsic pathway are completed in a matter of seconds.
Intrinsic Pathway
The intrinsic pathway (also known as the contact activation pathway) is longer and more complex. In this case, the factors involved are intrinsic to (present within) the bloodstream. The pathway can be prompted by damage to the tissues, resulting from internal factors such as arterial disease; however, it is most often initiated when factor XII (Hageman factor) comes into contact with foreign materials, such as when a blood sample is put into a glass test tube. Within the body, factor XII is typically activated when it encounters negatively charged molecules, such as inorganic polymers and phosphate produced earlier in the series of intrinsic pathway reactions. Factor XII sets off a series of reactions that in turn activates factor XI (antihemolytic factor C or plasma thromboplastin antecedent) then factor IX (antihemolytic factor B or plasma thromboplasmin). In the meantime, chemicals released by the platelets increase the rate of these activation reactions. Finally, factor VIII (antihemolytic factor A) from the platelets and endothelial cells combines with factor IX (antihemolytic factor B or plasma thromboplasmin) to form an enzyme complex that activates factor X (Stuart–Prower factor or thrombokinase), leading to the common pathway. The events in the intrinsic pathway are completed in a few minutes.
Common Pathway
Both the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways lead to the common pathway , in which fibrin is produced to seal off the vessel. Once factor X has been activated by either the intrinsic or extrinsic pathway, the enzyme prothrombinase converts factor II, the inactive enzyme prothrombin, into the active enzyme thrombin . (Note that if the enzyme thrombin were not normally in an inactive form, clots would form spontaneously, a condition not consistent with life.) Then, thrombin converts factor I, the soluble fibrinogen, into the insoluble fibrin protein strands. Factor XIII then stabilizes the fibrin clot.
Fibrinolysis
The stabilized clot is acted upon by contractile proteins within the platelets. As these proteins contract, they pull on the fibrin threads, bringing the edges of the clot more tightly together, somewhat as we do when tightening loose shoelaces (see Figure 18.14 a ). This process also wrings out of the clot a small amount of fluid called serum , which is blood plasma without its clotting factors.
To restore normal blood flow as the vessel heals, the clot must eventually be removed. Fibrinolysis is the gradual degradation of the clot. Again, there is a fairly complicated series of reactions that involves factor XII and protein-catabolizing enzymes. During this process, the inactive protein plasminogen is converted into the active plasmin , which gradually breaks down the fibrin of the clot. Additionally, bradykinin, a vasodilator, is released, reversing the effects of the serotonin and prostaglandins from the platelets. This allows the smooth muscle in the walls of the vessels to relax and helps to restore the circulation.
Plasma Anticoagulants
An anticoagulant is any substance that opposes coagulation. Several circulating plasma anticoagulants play a role in limiting the coagulation process to the region of injury and restoring a normal, clot-free condition of blood. For instance, a cluster of proteins collectively referred to as the protein C system inactivates clotting factors involved in the intrinsic pathway. TFPI (tissue factor pathway inhibitor) inhibits the conversion of the inactive factor VII to the active form in the extrinsic pathway. Antithrombin inactivates factor X and opposes the conversion of prothrombin (factor II) to thrombin in the common pathway. And as noted earlier, basophils release heparin , a short-acting anticoagulant that also opposes prothrombin. Heparin is also found on the surfaces of cells lining the blood vessels. A pharmaceutical form of heparin is often administered therapeutically, for example, in surgical patients at risk for blood clots.
Interactive Link
View these animations to explore the intrinsic, extrinsic, and common pathways that are involved the process of coagulation. The coagulation cascade restores hemostasis by activating coagulation factors in the presence of an injury. How does the endothelium of the blood vessel walls prevent the blood from coagulating as it flows through the blood vessels?
Disorders of Clotting
Either an insufficient or an excessive production of platelets can lead to severe disease or death. As discussed earlier, an insufficient number of platelets, called thrombocytopenia, typically results in the inability of blood to form clots. This can lead to excessive bleeding, even from minor wounds.
Another reason for failure of the blood to clot is the inadequate production of functional amounts of one or more clotting factors. This is the case in the genetic disorder hemophilia , which is actually a group of related disorders, the most common of which is hemophilia A, accounting for approximately 80 percent of cases. This disorder results in the inability to synthesize sufficient quantities of factor VIII. Hemophilia B is the second most common form, accounting for approximately 20 percent of cases. In this case, there is a deficiency of factor IX. Both of these defects are linked to the X chromosome and are typically passed from a healthy (carrier) female to their male offspring, since males are XY. Females would need to inherit a defective gene from each parent to manifest the disease, since they are XX. Patients with hemophilia bleed from even minor internal and external wounds, and leak blood into joint spaces after exercise and into urine and stool. Hemophilia C is a rare condition that is triggered by an autosomal (not sex) chromosome that renders factor XI nonfunctional. It is not a true recessive condition, since even individuals with a single copy of the mutant gene show a tendency to bleed. Regular infusions of clotting factors isolated from healthy donors can help prevent bleeding in hemophiliac patients. At some point, genetic therapy will become a viable option.
In contrast to the disorders characterized by coagulation failure is thrombocytosis, also mentioned earlier, a condition characterized by excessive numbers of platelets that increases the risk for excessive clot formation, a condition known as thrombosis . A thrombus (plural = thrombi) is an aggregation of platelets, erythrocytes, and even WBCs typically trapped within a mass of fibrin strands. While the formation of a clot is normal following the hemostatic mechanism just described, thrombi can form within an intact or only slightly damaged blood vessel. In a large vessel, a thrombus will adhere to the vessel wall and decrease the flow of blood, and is referred to as a mural thrombus. In a small vessel, it may actually totally block the flow of blood and is termed an occlusive thrombus. Thrombi are most commonly caused by vessel damage to the endothelial lining, which activates the clotting mechanism. These may include venous stasis, when blood in the veins, particularly in the legs, remains stationary for long periods. This is one of the dangers of long airplane flights in crowded conditions and may lead to deep vein thrombosis. Thrombophilia, also called hypercoagulation, is a condition in which there is a tendency to form thrombosis. This may be familial (genetic) or acquired. Acquired forms include the autoimmune disease lupus, immune reactions to heparin, polycythemia vera, thrombocytosis, sickle cell disease, pregnancy, and even obesity. A thrombus can seriously impede blood flow to or from a region and will cause a local increase in blood pressure. If flow is to be maintained, the heart will need to generate a greater pressure to overcome the resistance.
When a portion of a thrombus breaks free from the vessel wall and enters the circulation, it is referred to as an embolus . An embolus that is carried through the bloodstream can be large enough to block a vessel critical to a major organ. When it becomes trapped, an embolus is called an embolism. In the heart, brain, or lungs, an embolism may accordingly cause a heart attack, a stroke, or a pulmonary embolism. These are medical emergencies.
Among the many known biochemical activities of aspirin is its role as an anticoagulant. Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) is very effective at inhibiting the aggregation of platelets. It is routinely administered during a heart attack or stroke to reduce the adverse effects. Physicians sometimes recommend that patients at risk for cardiovascular disease take a low dose of aspirin on a daily basis as a preventive measure. However, aspirin can also lead to serious side effects, including increasing the risk of ulcers. A patient is well advised to consult a physician before beginning any aspirin regimen.
A class of drugs collectively known as thrombolytic agents can help speed up the degradation of an abnormal clot. If a thrombolytic agent is administered to a patient within 3 hours following a thrombotic stroke, the patient’s prognosis improves significantly. However, some strokes are not caused by thrombi, but by hemorrhage. Thus, the cause must be determined before treatment begins. Tissue plasminogen activator is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin, the primary enzyme that breaks down clots. It is released naturally by endothelial cells but is also used in clinical medicine. New research is progressing using compounds isolated from the venom of some species of snakes, particularly vipers and cobras, which may eventually have therapeutic value as thrombolytic agents.


1.5: Writing Process- Thinking Critically About a "Text"
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Develop and implement flexible strategies for reading and rereading.
- Articulate how organizational features function for different audiences, creating cultural awareness within rhetorical situations.
- Determine how genre conventions for structure, paragraphs, tone, and mechanics vary.
- Identify common formats and design features for different kinds of text.
- Read and write critically within social media platforms.
Thinking critically is crucial to success both in and after school. Indeed, this skill may be the foundation of all education. Most of Writing Guide with Handbook explores strategies for helping you become an accomplished critical writer, but as you have already learned, a close relationship exists between critical writing and critical reading. Reading and writing, like producing and consuming, are two sides of the same coin. When you study one, you inevitably learn more about the other at the same time. The more you attend to the language of published writers, the more you will learn about your own language. The more you attend to your own written language, the more you will learn about the texts you read.
Summary of Assignment: Critical Response
Select a short “text” for response. The “text” may be written, visual, or a combination of both. Keeping in mind the example of Selena Gomez or other social media activists (such as Swedish environmentalist Greta Thunberg [b. 2003] or conservative speaker and entrepreneur Wayne Dupree [b. 1968]), focus on a text, perhaps a meme or social media post, that addresses an aspect of social activism. First, read it completely for understanding. Summarize or paraphrase the main ideas of the text to check for comprehension. Second, read it critically to determine its purpose, to analyze its use of language (or another element), and to evaluate it. Finally, write a short (1–2 pages) critical response to the text, perhaps recommending or not recommending it to other readers, explaining its significance in a particular area of life or field of study, or even commenting on the diction or style of the communication and its potential impact on readers.
Another Lens.
When you consider another perspective, you often learn information you have not considered before. Look at Figure \(1.6\):
Figure \(1.6\) What X, Y, and Z see (CC BY 4.0; Rice University & OpenStax)
If you have the perspective of the X, all you see is the “back” of the L. You might not even know it’s an L. You might think it is an I, but it also could be the side of an M, or an N, or even a P. From the perspective of X, you have only limited information about the structure, letter, or whatever is in front of you. If you take the perspective of Y, you have a different information, which contrasts with what you learned from X. Furthermore, neither X nor Y has the perspective of Z. As you can see, combining the perspectives gives you a more comprehensive picture. Although it is unlikely you will ever get a complete and accurate picture of any given situation, by considering other perspectives, you begin to think critically to understand an issue, problem, or condition.
As a class or in small groups, agree on a short text to read and respond to, as described. Share your responses in small groups, paying particular attention to the evaluation, analysis, and evidence that each person presents. Revise your initial response based on these new, shared perspectives from your classmates about the same text. The goal is to learn from others’ perspectives. In so doing, consider how your classmates’ perspectives enhance your comprehension and broaden your ability to understand the interpretations of the text. As you revise, incorporate this new knowledge, and consider how the various cultures and interpretations based on culture can lead to understanding and even misunderstanding. Finally, pay attention to how you might consider these multiple perspectives to clarify the text’s purpose or meaning for an audience.
Quick Launch: Mapping the Rhetorical Situation
When you first sit down to write, you can use any of several methods to get going. The blank page can be intimidating, and facing a blank page is one of the reasons writing can be challenging at first.
Figure out which “launch” methods work best for you and your style(s) of thinking and writing. Sometimes this stage is called prewriting or planning . Taking the time to prewrite helps you decide how to proceed to the actual writing and builds your confidence in the process. Some people make concept maps, others make checklists, and still others create formal outlines. Some do research on a topic before they start, whereas others just sit down and write whatever comes to mind, a process called freewrite . There is no perfect or correct way to begin writing. The important thing is to discover which strategies work for you for a particular writing task, and then to use them.
For this writing task, create a concept map with six radiating circles (or use six index cards that you can physically move around on a tabletop). Label the map as noted in Figure \(1.7\).
In each radiating circle, fill in the information regarding the rhetorical situation (that is, the agents and the five conditions: genre, purpose, stance, context, and culture) in relation to your chosen text. As you assess the rhetorical situation, you will further your understanding of the text, and you may begin to find areas for analysis or evaluation.
Figure \(1.7\) Concept map (CC BY 4.0; Rice University & OpenStax)
Drafting: Restating, Analyzing, and Evauluating
To restate and then respond to a text, you need to both reread and “resee” it, reconsidering its rhetorical situation and your reaction to it. Be sure that you grasp the main ideas within the text but move beyond that to a critical understanding of the text as a cultural artifact. In responding, you start a conversation with the text so that you enter into the framework and context of the communication. In general, when responding to a text, you have to
- understand what it means within its rhetorical situation;
- analyze its meaning;
- evaluate its significance; and
- determine how to incorporate it into your own thinking and writing.
Responding to Understand: Summary
A summary is a condensed version of a longer text that reviews its main ideas. Shorter than the original text, a summary is written in your own words. To prepare a summary, you may outline or annotate the text to highlight relationships between ideas or conclusions. Reread sections of the text such as abstracts, first and last paragraphs, and sections titled “Summary,” “Observations,” or “Conclusion(s).” Also consider headings, subheadings, and visuals, all of which often name main ideas. Remember, you want to provide a summary in your own words of the source’s work, not your interpretation or opinion of it. Review this video on summarizing ( https://openstax.org/r/summarizing ) for more information.
Responding to Clarify: Paraphrase
A paraphrase is a restatement of a text or part of a text, written in your own words, to clarify its meaning for your readers. A paraphrase is usually about the same length as the original text, although it can be either longer or shorter. Your goal in paraphrasing is to provide readers with clarity about a complex idea while still maintaining the perspective of the source. Paraphrasing can be difficult and requires practice, so be sure to review ( https://openstax.org/r/review ).
Responding to Analyze
Responding to analyze means moving beyond a basic understanding and appreciation of what the text says and examining it to see how it was put together in order to deepen your comprehension. From thorough analysis, you can arrive at your own theory regarding what the text means . Thus, analysis leads to interpretation and to evaluation, or judgment of its merits.
In responding to analyze, consider the following questions: How has the author constructed this text? What is the author’s subject, tone, and message or theme? For what reason or purpose has the author constructed this text in this way at this time? An analysis provides an understanding of the ways in which the parts of the text form a whole within a rhetorical situation. Any such response points to important ideas and makes connections to provide textual evidence to support the analysis.
To read a text analytically, mark it for
- points of agreement and disagreement with claims or assertions;
- convincing examples that support claims or assertions;
- implications or consequences of believing the author;
- personal associations with text material;
- connections to other “texts” you have read;
- recurring images, symbols, diction, phrases, ideas, and so on; and
- conclusions.
Consider developing a coding system for cross-referencing to show that one annotation, passage, or idea is related to another. Some students write comments on different features of the text in different colors, such as green for nature imagery, blue for key terms, red for interesting anecdotes, and so on. Other students use numbers, such as 1 for plot, 2 for character, and so on.
Visit Walden University ( https://openstax.org/r/WaldenUniversity ) for more detail on including analysis in your writing. You can also refer to Rhetorical Analysis: Interpreting the Art of Rhetoric for more on rhetorical analysis and Print or Textual Analysis: What You Read for more on print or textual analysis.
Responding to Evaluate
Responding to evaluate means deciding whether you think the text accomplishes its purposes effectively. In other words, does the text do what it claims to do? You can also determine the significance of the text and its implications. Of course, different genres of texts should be judged using different criteria. To evaluate a text, you need to understand and analyze it in order to support your judgments.
In an argument , a writer (or speaker) advances claims and supports them with logical reasoning and evidence. A claim is a statement that something is true (or valid) or that some action should be taken. Every claim in an argument should be supported by logical reasoning (e.g., cause and effect, comparison and contrast, or problem and solution) and by reliable and sufficient evidence (e.g., facts, statistics, anecdotes, examples, or quotations). When responding to an argument, ask the following questions: Is the claim based on presented facts—information that can be verified? Is the claim based on credible inferences—connections between textual evidence and personal knowledge or experience? Is the claim based on unsubstantiated opinions—personal belief? All three elements—facts, inferences, and opinions—have their places in argumentative texts. However, the strongest arguments are those based on verifiable facts and reasonably drawn inferences. Look out for opinions masquerading as facts and for inferences stemming from insufficient facts. Refer to the social media exchange in the Annotated Student Sample and recognize how those posts present information to help you see these connections.
An informational text presents facts and draws conclusions based on those facts. When responding to an informational text, ensure that the facts are accurate, that the inferences rely on facts, and that opinions presented as evidence are based on expertise, not emotion. Decide whether the author presents enough reliable facts to justify the conclusions. In addition, consider whether the author is reliable and reasonable. Also, ask questions, such as Is the tone objective? Has all the relevant information been presented? Is the author an expert in the field? What necessary or useful information seems missing? Are other perspectives missing?
To understand an informational text, you need some context for the new ideas you encounter, some knowledge of the terms and ideas, and knowledge of the rules that govern the genre. If would be difficult to read the Emancipation Proclamation with no knowledge of the Civil War (1861–1865) or the practice of enslavement. It would also be difficult to read a biology textbook chapter about photosynthesis but know nothing of plants, cell structure, or chemical reactions. The more you know, the more you learn; the more you learn, the more critical your reading, writing, and thinking will be. As you gain knowledge, you will naturally ask more questions and make more connections or bridges between information sources, thereby enhancing your reading, writing, and critical thinking skills.
Many college instructors will ask you to read about subjects that are new to you. First, of course, it’s important to understand what you read. Comprehension means being proactive as a reader: looking up words you do not know, taking meaningful notes, asking questions, understanding the rhetorical situation of the text, and so on. Second, you want to improve your skills to analyze or evaluate texts critically and write about this understanding. However, how do you develop context, learn background, and find the rules to help you read unfamiliar texts on unfamiliar subjects? What strategies or shortcuts can speed up the learning process?
As an experiment, read the following statement issued by President Harry S. Truman (1884–1972), take notes, and practice being a proactive reader who focuses on comprehension, the rhetorical situation, and critical analysis of the passage:
Figure \(1.8\) Harry S. Truman (credit: “Portrait of President Harry S. Truman” by National Archives and Records Administration/Public Domain)
Sixteen hours ago an American airplane dropped one bomb on Hiroshima, Japan, and destroyed its usefulness to the enemy. That bomb had more power than 20,000 tons of T.N.T. It had more than two thousand times the blast power of the British Grand Slam, which is the largest bomb ever yet used in the history of warfare.
How did you do? Did your reasoning go something like this?
- Noting the setting—Hiroshima, Japan. Prior historical knowledge suggests that Hiroshima is one of the cities on which the United States dropped an atomic bomb near the end of World War II (1939–1945).
- Staying with the first sentence, Truman focuses on Hiroshima as something useful to the enemy that has been destroyed. There is no mention of human casualties.
- The second sentence focuses on the destructive power of the bomb, suggesting the force of the United States’s arsenal.
- Out of curiosity, you might have looked up the British Grand Slam to learn it was a powerful bomb type developed by engineer and inventor Sir Barnes Wallis (1887–1979) and used during World War II. Here, too, Truman suggests that the United States is even more powerful than its ally Great Britain.
- The tone of the text is prideful, as if using the largest bomb in the history of warfare is a grand accomplishment.
Whether reading new texts, learning new information, or witnessing unfamiliar events, you usually draw meaning by following a process something like this one—trying to identify what you see, hear, or read; questioning what you do not understand; making and testing predictions; and consulting authorities for confirmation or credible information. In this way, comprehension leads to critical analysis, understanding, and evaluation.
You will encounter different text types, too. Authors of literary texts such as short stories, poems, and plays may strive to make their work believable, enjoyable, and effective in conveying their themes. To locate a theme , look for recurring language, ideas, or images. Consider how the characters change between the beginning and the end of the story. Then, consider whether the author’s choices effectively convey the theme. The strongest responses to literature or other art forms are based on textual evidence, as in most academic writing. Visit Colorado State University ( https://openstax.org/r/Colorado_State_University ) for more insight into evaluation.
You also can refer to Evaluation or Review: Would You Recommend It? for more on evaluation or review and Print or Textual Analysis: What You Read for more direction in approaching narrative texts.
Responding to Write
Once you understand a text, examine it more slowly to analyze and evaluate its cultural assumptions, its arguments, its evidence, its logic, and its conclusions. The best way to do this is to respond, or “talk back,” to the text in writing. Again, pay attention to the rhetorical situation: the agents and conditions. Talking back can take various forms, from actually saying words to yourself or aloud, to making margin notes, to composing a critical response. Respond to passages that cause you to pause for a moment to reflect, to question, to read again, or to say “Ah!” or “Aha!” Your reactions may suggest something important, maybe a revelation or an insight. Whichever it may be, take note of it because you may not have that reaction on another reading.
If the text is informational, try to capture the statements that are repeated or that pull together or summarize ideas. These are often critical elements to understand and possibly evaluate later. If the text is argumentative, examine the claim, reasoning, and each piece of supporting evidence. You can always go back to examine evidence or look up sources the author used when you want to gain a better understanding of the text’s purpose and position in a larger conversation. If the text is literary, pay extra attention to language features, such as images, metaphors, and crisp dialogue. Often, authors use these elements to help create a character, such as a character that always says “ya know” after every sentence, thus making a character more individual and realistic.
Basically, you want to note what’s happening to you as you read. Ask about the text’s effect on you. How are you reacting? What are you thinking or feeling? What do you like? What do you dislike? What do you trust or distrust? Why? These responses are useful especially if the information is new or unexpected. By noting them, you will be able to build your understanding and convey that to readers. Part of the goal as a writer is to take the connections and bridges you have made and provide them for your readers to help them follow the logic of those connections.
Responding to a text in writing also means locating specific evidence to quote, paraphrase, or summarize in support of your analysis or evaluation. When you quote, you use the exact language of the text; when you summarize, you reduce the text to a brief statement of its main ideas in your own words; when you paraphrase, you restate the text in your own words. In all these cases—quotation, summary, or paraphrase—you will need to cite or reference the original source. Proper and consistent citation is important for several reasons. It helps establish your authority, thus building your credibility with readers. It also allows readers to go to your sources for more details or specifics so that they, too, can take part in the conversation. And it shows you are crediting your sources, thus avoiding plagiarism. To learn more about source citation, consult MLA Documentation and Format or APA Documentation and Format.
Use this media interactive to practice identifying the different ways in which readers respond to texts. Then, examine the annotated professional critical response model below.
Critical Response: An Annotated Model
The Case of Jean Glanini
In 1914, in the village of Poland, New York, sixteen-year-old Jean Gianini murdered his former teacher Lydia Beecher. During the commission of this brutal murder, Gianini provided evidence that tied him to the murder through a lost a button at the crime scene. Upon arrest, Gianini confessed to the crime. At the trial, Gianni’s defense lawyers claimed that Gianini was legally insane during the commission of his crime. Psychologist Dr. Henry Herbert Goddard was called to testify as an expert witness.
Here, as the author, Henry Herbert Goddard (1866–1957) , analyzes “The Case of Jean Gianini” (1915) . The selection that follows demonstrates a framework and an example of a critical response to a text. It has been excerpted for clarity and space.
Introduction
In the introduction to his critical response, Goddard includes the title of the work and a summary of the rhetorical situation. He ends the introduction with a statement of evaluation.
“We find the defendant in this case not guilty as charged . . .”
Such was the verdict by the jury of the Supreme Court of Herkimer County, New York, on May 28th, 1914, in the case of the people vs. Jean Gianini, indicted for the murder of Lida Beecher, his former teacher
Here, the author cites the title of the text—a court case—and provides some early context.
The prosecution and, at first at least, the majority of the citizens of the community held that this had been a carefully planned, premeditated, cold-blooded murder of the most atrocious character, committed with a fiendishness seldom seen among human beings. It was, on the other hand, claimed by the defense that the boy . . . had only the intelligence of a ten-year-old child, that he did not know the nature and quality of his act, and that he did not have any true realization of the enormity of his crime. For some reason unaccountable to a great many people, the jury accepted the view of the defense.
Here, the author provides elements of the rhetorical situation: culture, context, and stance. Shared cultural assumptions are that the guilty will be punished. Contextual details of the trial include a summary of the defense and the jury’s reaction. The phrase “unaccountable to a great many people” may suggest that the author does not agree with the jury’s “not guilty” verdict.
Not infrequently have verdicts in murder trials been unacceptable to the populace. In that respect this verdict is not an exceptional one, but from other standpoints it is remarkable. Probably no verdict in modern times has marked so great a step forward in society’s treatment of the wrongdoer. For the first time in history psychological tests of intelligence have been admitted into court and the mentality of the accused established on the basis of these facts.
The value of this verdict cannot be overestimated. It establishes a new standard in criminal procedure.
Here, the author offers commentary about the larger meaning of this case, historically. In addition, the author concludes with a statement of evaluation—the importance of the verdict to the administration of justice.
Body
The next several body paragraphs provide Goddard with the opportunity to offer the reasons behind his evaluation. Each paragraph should have a topic sentence to maintain focus and organization. For each reason offered, explanation of its importance and supporting evidence from the text through quotations, summaries, or paraphrases should follow. See MLA Documentation and Format or APA Documentation and Format for guidance on citation.
One of the unique features, so far as court procedure is concerned, was the introduction into the case, of examinations by means of the Binet-Simon Measuring Scale of Intelligence.
In this passage, the author gives one reason to support both his and the jury’s assessment of Jean’s intelligence—an intelligence test. Moreover, it is presented as a new scientific tool, which it was in 1915, to help establish the case.
The writer’s examination of Jean consisted largely of the use of these tests, and as a result he estimated his mentality at approximately ten years of age. It was somewhat difficult to estimate his mentality with the usual exactness since others had already used the tests, and it was impossible to say how much Jean had learned from his previous examinations. As a matter of fact, in some cases at least, he had not profited by the experiences which should have helped him greatly [. . .] For example, one of the tests is to draw from memory a diagram which he has been allowed to study for ten seconds. It is clear that if one were given this test two or three times, at the last trial he should have a pretty good idea of it and be able to draw it correctly. Although the writer’s use of this test was in the last of the series of those who tested him, yet he did not succeed in drawing it. This is usually drawn by a child of ten years. When asked to repeat a certain sentence, he replied, “Oh, I have been asked that a hundred times.” But in spite of the fact that he had heard it several times he failed to remember it, and yet this sentence is generally remembered by a child of twelve.
The writer’s examination of Jean consisted largely of the use of these tests, and as a result he estimated his mentality at approximately ten years of age. It was somewhat difficult to estimate his mentality with the usual exactness since others had already used the tests, and it was impossible to say how much Jean had learned from his previous examinations. As a matter of fact, in some cases at least, he had not profited by the experiences which should have helped him greatly [. . .] For example, one of the tests is to draw from memory a diagram which he has been allowed to study for ten seconds. It is clear that if one were given this test two or three times, at the last trial he should have a pretty good idea of it and be able to draw it correctly. Although the writer’s use of this test was in the last of the series of those who tested him, yet he did not succeed in drawing it. This is usually drawn by a child of ten years. When asked to repeat a certain sentence, he replied, “Oh, I have been asked that a hundred times.” But in spite of the fact that he had heard it several times he failed to remember it, and yet this sentence is generally remembered by a child of twelve.
Conclusion
To conclude, Goddard shares with readers his final thoughts about the text and leaves the readers with something to think about.
Our general studies have not yet gone far enough, and certainly our study of this particular family is far from sufficient, to enable us to decide whether this is a matter of heredity or whether we shall say that Jean’s condition as well as that of the first child is traceable directly to the mother’s insanity or to her alcoholism.
For the present purpose, of course, it does not matter. We see in these facts, whether we regard them as causes or merely as symptoms of a deeper lying cause, sufficient reason for Jean’s [intellectual condition. [. . .] The next important question that arises is a legal one of whether [. . .] he knew the nature and quality of his act and that it was wrong.
Finally, the author introduces subsequent (and maybe distracting) information. Additionally, the author concedes to the popular assessment of Jean’s mental condition, but he raises a legal question that prompts readers to continue thinking: Does one’s intellectual capacity excuse one from criminal culpability?
Now, it is your turn to put this knowledge to work. Use a graphic organizer like Table \(1.1\) to get started drafting your ideas in response to your chosen text.
| Structure of Response | Content of Response |
Your Response |
| Introduction |
Author Title of Work Summary of Rhetorical Situation Statement of Analysis or Evaluation |
|
| Body 1 |
Point 1 of Analysis or Evaluation Evidence from Text in form of Quotation, Summary, or Paraphrase |
|
| Body 2 |
Point 2 of Analysis or Evaluation Evidence from Text in form of Quotation, Summary, or Paraphrase |
|
| Body 3 |
Point 3 of Analysis or Evaluation Evidence from Text in form of Quotation, Summary, or Paraphrase |
|
| Body 4 (if needed) |
Point 4 of Analysis or Evaluation Evidence from Text in form of Quotation, Summary, or Paraphrase |
|
| Body 5 (if needed) |
Point 5 of Analysis or Evaluation Evidence from Text in form of Quotation, Summary, or Paraphrase |
|
| Conclusion |
Final Conclusions regarding Analysis or Evalutation Leave Readers Thinking or Suggest Action |
In addition, use these sentence starters as needed during drafting:
Summary:
[Name of author] explains ________.
After discussing ________, the author claims ________.
[Author’s name]’s main point is ________.
Paraphrase:
In other words, the author is saying that ________.
To paraphrase, the author claims that ________.
To simplify this idea, think about it in this way: ________.
Analysis:
[Name of author] develops ________ to show ________.
The author’s use of ________ supports ________.
The author employs ________ to create ________.
Evaluation:
The most important aspect of this text is ________ because ________.
[Name of author] fails to address ________ and ________, which makes me think about the impact on ________.
I think [name of author] is wrong [or correct] because ________.
Evidence:
As an example, the author says, “________.” (Be sure to provide accurate citation!)
The sentence “________” suggests that ________.
The use of the word “________” creates the impression that ________.
As often as possible, use the author’s name rather than a pronoun. The first time you mention it, write the full name as it is listed on the source you are using. Then, use the last name only, and be certain to cite properly. Finally, edit and revise your work to catch any oversights.


9.3E: The Working Class
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The working class consists of individuals and households with low educational attainment, low status occupations, and below average incomes.
Learning Objectives
- Explain how differences in class culture may affect working-class students who enter the post-secondary education system
Key Points
- Members of the working class usually have a high school diploma or some college education, and may work in low-skilled occupations like retail sales or manual labor.
- Due to differences between middle and working-class cultures, working-class college students may face “culture shock” upon entering the post-secondary education system, with its “middle class” culture.
- Working classes are mainly found in industrialized economies and in the urban areas of non-industrialized economies.
Key Terms
- working class : The social class of those who perform physical or low-skilled work for a living, as opposed to the professional or middle class, the upper class, or the upper middle class.
- Blue Collar : Describes working-class occupations, especially those involving manual labor.
- manual labor : Any work done by hand; usually implying it is unskilled or physically demanding.
Working class is a term used in the social sciences and in ordinary conversation to describe those employed in lower tier jobs (as measured by skill, education, and income), often extending to those who are unemployed or otherwise earning below-average incomes. Working classes are mainly found in industrialized economies and in the urban areas of non-industrialized economies.
In the United States, the parameters of the working class remain vaguely defined and are contentious. Since many members of the working class, as defined by academic models, are often identified in the vernacular as being middle class, there is considerable ambiguity over the term’s meaning. In the class models devised by sociologists, the working class comprises between 30 percent and 35 percent of the population, roughly the same percentage as the lower middle class. Those in the working class are commonly employed in low-skilled occupations, including clerical and retail positions and blue collar or manual labor occupations. Low-level, white-collar employees are sometimes included in this class, such as secretaries and call center employees.
Education, for example, can pose an especially intransigent barrier in the United States. Members of the working class commonly have only a high school diploma, although some may have minimal college courses to their credit as well. Due to differences between middle and working-class cultures, working-class college students may face “culture shock” upon entering the post-secondary education system, with its “middle class” culture. Research showing that working-class students are taught to value obedience over leadership and creativity can partially account for the difficulties that many working-class individuals face upon entering colleges and universities.
Battle Strike : Class War: Workers battle with the police during the Minneapolis Teamsters Strike of 1934.


15.9: Introduction to Control in the Business Setting
What you’ll learn to do: explain what control means in a business setting and why it is needed
Control can mean a lot of things to different people. In a business setting, it means guiding the activities, employees, and processes of an organization to reach goals, prevent errors, and abide by the law. There are various styles, types, and levels of organizational control. A good manager applies the best combination of these elements, based on the needs and culture of the company, to successfully run the organization.
Contributors and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Introduction to Control in the Business Setting. Authored by : Talia Lambarki and Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


5.2: Compounds Display Constant Composition
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When building a house, the starting point is a blueprint of what the house will look like. The plan states how many windows and what kind, how many doors and what style, how many rooms and what type (bedroom, kitchen, other). The blueprint shows how the different pieces will go together to make the house. As long as the blueprint is followed and exactly the same items are used, the house will be identical to its blueprint.
A compound is a substance that contains two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed proportion. The elements carbon and hydrogen combine to form many different compounds. One of the simplest is called methane, in which there are always four times as many hydrogen particles as carbon particles. Methane is a pure substance because it always has the same composition. However, it is not an element because it can be broken down into simpler substances—carbon and hydrogen.
Recall that the components of a mixture can be separated from one another by physical means. This is not true for a compound. Table salt is a compound consisting of equal parts of the elements sodium and chlorine. Salt cannot be separated into its two elements by filtering, distillation, or any other physical process. Salt and other compounds can only be decomposed into their elements by a chemical process. A chemical change is a change that produces matter with a different composition. Many compounds can be decomposed into their elements by heating. When sugar is heated, it decomposes into carbon and water. Water is still a compound, but one which cannot be broken down into hydrogen and oxygen by heating. Instead, the passage of an electrical current through water will produce hydrogen and oxygen gases.
The properties of compounds are generally very different than the properties of the elements from which the compound is formed. Sodium is an extremely reactive soft metal that cannot be exposed to air or water. Chlorine is a deadly gas. The compound sodium chloride is a white solid which is essential for all living things (see below).


3.6: Editing Focus- Sentence Structure
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Use language structures, including multilingual structures, grammar, punctuation, and spelling, during the process of editing.
- Develop flexible strategies for drafting, reviewing, collaborating, revising, rewriting, and editing.
- Use composing processes and tools as a means to discover and reconsider ideas.
After writing a draft of your literacy narrative and revising it to strengthen the overall structure and content of the text, you are ready to pay closer attention to individual sentences within it. This section offers several strategies for improving your sentences to communicate meaning more effectively to your audience and to make the reading experience more engaging.
Sentence Combining
Sentence combining is an often-used revision strategy that can completely transform a narrative. When writers compose early drafts with many short sentences rather than more sophisticated efforts at varied or complex sentence construction, the writing appears choppy and disjointed. Once you have a complete draft of your essay, consider combining sentences to provide your audience with more effective and nuanced ways of reading your work. You can combine short, repetitive sentences into a simple sentence with a compound predicate or subject, as in the first example below. Or you can combine the shorter sentences into a complex sentence with a dependent clause, as in the second example. See Clear and Effective Sentences for more information about effective sentences and sentence structure.
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- I learned to play piano. I was five years old. Learning to play piano is my literacy experience. Memorizing the location of the keys is also my literacy experience.
- Learning to play piano at the age of five and memorizing the location of the keys are my literacy experiences.
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- I learned to read in first grade. Learning to read made me want to be a teacher. I want to share my experience with reading with future first graders.
- Learning to read as a first grader made me want to become a teacher so that I could share my experiences with future first graders.
Read through the draft of your essay, and look for sentences that are closely related enough that they can be combined for richer meaning. However, keep in mind that short sentences can be effective in your writing, especially when you want to create realistic dialogue or show action. Strive to create a balance among sentence lengths and types to engage your audience. Remember, too, that the best test of whether words are pulling their own weight and providing rhythm, balance, and emphasis is to read the passage aloud. Let your ear tell you what is sharp and clear and what could benefit from editing.
Revising Common Sentence Patterns for More Effective Communication
If you have often been told to make your sentences clearer, less wordy, or both, but you do not know where to start, this section offers some quick strategies to address some of the most common issues that contribute to unclear or wordy writing.
Defining You and This. One common pattern that makes writing less clear is the use of you to mean “a random person” rather than “you,” the audience. Here is an example, followed by a revision.
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- You must plan your document carefully to connect with your audience.
- Writers must plan their documents carefully to connect with their audiences.
This sentence is stronger with the revision clearly indicating who needs to plan their writing. You might be writing a piece addressed directly to the audience, as this textbook is. If so, be careful to distinguish between the use of you to mean your specific audience—appropriate when directly addressing an audience—and a hazier use of you that needs clarification. Use the “find” function to search your document for the word you , and then replace every unclear you with a definite noun.
Another pattern affecting the clarity of written work is using the word this on its own without an explanation of what “this” is. Here is an example, along with its revision.
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- This can be confusing to the reader.
- This lack of explanation can be confusing to the reader.
In the first sentence, the audience wonders, “This what?” In the second sentence, the writer simply adds a noun phrase to explain, and readers will appreciate the clarification. Use the “find” function to search your document for this , and make sure you have defined or explained this in all cases.
Revising Sentences to Change There are / There is or It is. Readers relate better to sentences that feature a “doer”—someone or something performing an action—and an “action”—the activity of the doer. For this reason, writing that overuses the sentence patterns There are . . . / There is . . . and It is . . . in place of a doer and action can seem unclear, remote, or dull for the reader. As you revise such sentences, you may find at times that you need to insert a doer or an action; one or both may be missing from the first version of the sentence. Here is one example, with a suggested revision.
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- There are many strategies to revise written work.
- Authors employ many strategies to revise written work.
In the first sentence, the doer (“authors”) is implied, but the second sentence includes a doer for a more reader-friendly version.
Sentences using the It is . . . pattern need similar attention to present a doer and an action to the reader. Here is one example and revision.
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- It is challenging and rewarding to revise a composition.
- I feel challenged and rewarded when revising a composition.
Again, the first sentence needs an agent to do the sentence’s actions. Use the “find” function to search your document for “there are,” “there is,” and “it is,” and replace these weaker sentence constructions with doers and actions wherever possible.
Eliminating Wordiness . To begin, look at the sentences below to get a sense of what wordiness is. Eliminating wordiness should not alter or omit information. In these sentences, the information remains the same, but the edited sentence shows a trimmed-down version. There was and that are eliminated, as is the unnecessary adverb really; was shining becomes shone; and the phrase waves in the ocean becomes ocean waves.
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- There was a really bright light that was shining on the waves in the ocean.
- A bright light shone on the ocean waves.
In general, try to cut out words that do not add meaning, rhythm, or emphasis. Sentences clogged with unnecessary words often cause readers to lose interest, patience, and comprehension. Edit sentences to include concrete nouns and action verbs—or “doers” and “actions,” as described above. Additionally, choosing modifiers carefully will help you weed out unnecessary words. Look at the following sentences, which all say essentially the same thing. However, you will see some changes and omissions.
- In almost every situation that I can think of, except with few exceptions, it will make good sense for you to look for as many places as possible to cut out needless, redundant, and repetitive words from the papers and reports, paragraphs and sentences you write for college assignments. (49 words)
- In most situations, it makes good sense to cut out needless words from your college papers. (16 words)
- Whenever possible, omit needless words from your writing. (8 words)
- Omit needless words. (3 words)
The 49-word sentence is full of early-draft language; you can almost visualize the writer finding their way while writing. The 16-word sentence says much the same thing with far fewer words. Most of this editing simply cut out unnecessary words. Only at the end were several wordy phrases condensed: “from the papers and reports, paragraphs and sentences you write for college assignments” was reduced to “from your college papers.” That 16-word sentence was reduced by half by rephrasing and dropping the emphasis on college writing. And that sentence was whittled down by nearly two-thirds to arrive at the core three-word sentence, “Omit needless words.”
The first sentence is long-winded by any standard or in any context; each of the next three might serve well in different situations. Thus, when you edit to make language more concise, think about the overall effect you intend to create. Sometimes the briefest construction is not the best one for your purpose. For example, the three-word sentence is more suited to a brief list than to a sentence of advice for this book.
Editing for More Effective Sentences
This paragraph from a student's first draft of a narrative contains sentences that need editing. On a separate sheet of paper, revise the sentences to eliminate There are . . . / It is . . . , unclear you and this, and wordiness. For better flow, combine sentences that are repetitive or choppy.
It is now hours later. I think it is almost midnight, in fact. I have finally managed to get my paper started and studied for my exam. My eyes are very tired. I get up and leave my comfortable chair. Next, I walk out of the library. You have to walk through a glass door. I retrace the path that goes back to my apartment, where I came from earlier.
Revision: _________________________________________________________________
Since it is midnight, it is dark, and I nervously listen to footsteps. They are coming up behind me. Then they get too close for comfort. This is really making me very, very nervous. I am really very scared, but I step over to the sidewalk’s edge. I am trying to be calm, and I let a man walk briskly past. Phew!
Revision: _________________________________________________________________
When I am finally at my door to my apartment, I fumble for the key to the door. I insert the key in the lock. I open the door, put my hand on the switch to turn on the hall light, and step inside the door to my apartment. There are two slices of pizza left in the box that is on the kitchen counter. They are really cold and very congealed.
Revision: _________________________________________________________________
Possible edited version.  It is midnight now. I listen closely when I hear footsteps approaching behind me, their steady rhythm making me nervous. Scared, I step to the sidewalk’s edge to let a man walk briskly past. Phew! At my apartment door, I fumble for the key, insert it in the lock, open the door, tum on the hall light, and step inside. On the kitchen counter, I see the box with its two slices of cold, congealed pizza.


1.3: Determining your scope
The first thing you need to do is determine the scope of your research. Take a few minutes to think about your topic and the kind of information you might need. You can define your research scope by thinking about the following:
- Amount: how much information you need
- Content: the types of information you need
- Format: the configuration of the source (e.g., books, articles, videos, etc.)
Establishing the boundaries for your research may come from your instructor’s assignment guidelines. By carefully reviewing your assignment requirements and your instructor’s expectations, you can refine what research question you’re trying to answer and determine where you need to look for sources, what types and formats to use, and what content within your sources will be helpful.
Information that is appropriate for one research project may not be appropriate or relevant for another. For example, if you need to give a five minute class presentation on the pros or cons of an issue, you probably need a few sources that cover the key aspects of the issue and not every paper that’s ever been written on the topic. If you were writing a lengthy class paper, you would want more comprehensive coverage of your topic.
Amount of information
Sometimes your instructor will require that you use at least a specific number of sources for a project, but you won’t always have that as a guideline. If you need to determine the number of sources to use on your own, you can base it on what seems to be enough to fully answer your research question. Keep in mind that this might be more sources than the minimum you’re required to use.
Types of information
Knowing what types of information you need will help you be more efficient and successful in your research. Some common types of information are listed below.
Background information
This kind of information gives you a basic understanding and vocabulary surrounding a topic. Background information is broad and tends to be general. This is helpful when you don’t already know a lot about your topic. Examples of where you can find background information include encyclopedias like Encyclopaedia Britannica and Wikipedia or introductory textbooks.
News sources
News reports can provide information on an event or perspectives from a given point in time. They’re intended to keep us informed about current events and popular topics, and rarely go in depth or provide sources for further reading. News sources can help illustrate your points with timely examples or historical perspectives on a topic. They include historical or current newspapers, news websites, and some magazines. The Des Moines Register and Time magazine are examples of news sources.
Statistical information
Statistical information includes data and reports produced by research groups, associations, governmental organizations, non-profits, and more. These are helpful for making comparisons between groups, showing changes over time, and making predictions. Statistical databases and government websites, like the U.S. Census website, are examples of sources that contain statistics.


5.5: Baeyer-Villiger Oxidation (BVO)
Insertion of oxygen atom in between the ketone carbonyl and an adjacent carbon yielding the expanded ester is called as Baeyer-Villiger oxidation (BVO). Under the influence of a chiral reagent, this oxidation can be carried out asymmetrically. In case of a racemic ketone, a chiral catalyst has the potential of performing a kinetic resolution. A century after its discovery, the catalytic asymmetric BVO remains as one of the most powerful methods to convert a ketone into an ester proceeding by insertion of an oxygen atom into a bond.
Metal-Catalyzed Reactions
Copper(II) complexes with oxazoline-based ligands are studied for the oxidation of substituted cyclic ketones to give lactones with high enantioselectivity (Scheme \(\PageIndex{1}\)). These reactions employ isobutanal as co-reductant under aerobic conditions. During the reaction isobutanal is oxidized to the corresponding carboxylic acid.
Platinum complexes bearing chiral phosphines catalyze oxidation of substituted cyclic ketones in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (Scheme \(\PageIndex{2}\)). Coordination of Pt and peroxide to the carbonyl leads to the formation of a metallocycle that could be decomposed into the target lactone. Chiral ligands associated with Pt allow for diastereomeric transition states, which discriminate between the two possible migrating carbon atoms resulting in enantioselectivity.
The reaction conditions used for the enantioselective epoxidation of allylic alcohols (Sharpless epoxidation) is also effective for the oxidation of substituted cyclobutanones to give lactones with moderate to good enantioselectivity (Scheme \(\PageIndex{3}\)).
The oxidation of symmetrical cyclobutanones is effective using chiral palladium complex bearing phosphinooxazoline ( PHOX) in the presence of urea hydrogen peroxide. For example, prochiral 3-substituted cyclobutanones undergoes oxidation to give γ -lactones, which can be recrystallized to obtain the target products with 93% ee and 91% yield. This procedure has been utilized for the synthesis of GABA-B receptor agonist (R) -( _ )-baclofen (Scheme \(\PageIndex{5}\)). The racemic form of baclofen is commercially available to treat spasticity and alcoholism; however, the ( R ) - isomer has been shown to be predominantly responsible for the molecule's bioactivity. The molecule has been the target of many asymmetric syntheses. Several of these strategies start from enantioenriched lactone using enzymatic BVO or from an enantioselective C-H insertion.
In addition to the metal-catalyzed BVOs, chiral auxiliary approach is also followed to synthesis lactone with good enantioselectivity (Scheme \(\PageIndex{6}\)). For example, reaction of optically active 1,3-diol with an achiral cyclobutanone can give chiral ketal. The latter can be reacted with m CPBA and SnCl 4 to give an orthoester, which upon acidic work-up affords the lactone.
Enzyme Catalyzed Reactions
Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases are enzymes that catalyze the insertion of an oxygen atom in a ketone, next to the carbonyl carbon atom. So far, only a limited number of BVMO have been identified from bacteria and fungi. These enzymes typically contain FAD or FMN as a cofactor and catalyze highly regio- and stereoselective oxygenations at the expense of NAD(P)H and molecular oxygen. Bio-catalyzed BVO proceeds with high levels of enantioselectivity. For example, cyclohexanone monooxygenase (CHMO), a bacterial flavoenzyme, carries out an oxygen insertion reaction on cyclohexanone to form a seven-membered cyclic product, ε-caprolactone (Scheme \(\PageIndex{7}\)). This reaction involves the four-electron reduction of O 2 at the expense of a two-electron oxidation of NADPH and a two-electron oxidation of cyclohexanone to form ε-caprolactone. The CHMO has been employed successfully for the oxidative desymmetrization of cyclobutanone and cyclopentanone rings with high enantioselectivity. CHMO mutant 1K 2 -F 5 (Phe 432 Ser) has been used with air as the oxidant in a whole-cell process. Mutant Phe 432 Ser also tested for oxidative desymmetrization of a set of 4-substituted cyclohexanone derivatives (methyl, ethyl, methoxy, chloro, bromo, iodo) and in all cases enantioselective transformations are observed with up to 99% ee.
Similarly, PAMO mutant Gln 93 Asn/ Pro 94 Asp is tested for the asymmetric desymmetrization of 4-substituted cyclohexanone derivatives to give chiral lactones with high enantioselectivity (Scheme \(\PageIndex{8}\)). It is interesting to note that the absolute configuration of the lactone products is opposite to what is observed with the thermolabile cyclohexanone monooxygenase (CHMO) as the catalyst.
Reactions using Organocatalysis
Readily available glucose-derived oxazolidinone containing ketone can be employed for BVO of a variety of benzylidenecyclopropanes in the presence of oxone (Scheme \(\PageIndex{9}\)). Optically active α -aryl- γ -butyrolactones and α -aryl- γ - methyl- γ -butyrolactones can be obtained in reasonable yields and enantioselectivities. The reaction works via in situ epoxide rearrangement and BVO. Chiral cyclobutanones can also be obtained by suppressing BVO with more ketone catalyst and less oxone.


4.1: How to Estimate General Tendencies
It is always tempting to describe the sample with just one number “to rule them all”. Or only few numbers... This idea is behind central moments , two (or sometimes four) numbers which represent the center or central tendency of sample and its scale (variation, variability, instability, dispersion: there are many synonyms).
Third and fourth central moments are not frequently used, they represent asymmetry (shift, skewness ) and sharpness (“tailedness”, kurtosis ), respectively.
Median is the best
Mean is a parametric method whereas median depends less on the shape of distribution. Consequently, median is more stable, more robust . Let us go back to our seven hypothetical employees. Here are their salaries (thousands per year):
Code \(\PageIndex{1}\) (R):
Dramatic differences in salaries could be explained by fact that Alex is the custodian whereas Kathryn is the owner of company.
Code \(\PageIndex{2}\) (R):
We can see that mean does not reflect typical wages very well—it is influenced by higher Kathryn’s salary. Median does a better job because it is calculated in a way radically different from mean. Median is a value that cuts off a half of ordered sample . To illustrate the point, let us make another vector, similar to our salary :
Code \(\PageIndex{3}\) (R):
Vector salary1 contains an even number of values, eight, so its median lies in the middle, between two central values (21 and 22).
There is also a way to make mean more robust to outliers, trimmed mean which is calculated after removal of marginal values:
Code \(\PageIndex{4}\) (R):
This trimmed mean is calculated after 10% of data was taken from each end and it is significantly closer to the median.
There is another measure of central tendency aside from median and mean. It is mode , the most frequent value in the sample. It is rarely used, and mostly applied to nominal data. Here is an example (we took the variable sex from the last chapter):
Code \(\PageIndex{5}\) (R):
Here the most common value is male \(^{[1]}\).
Often we face the task of calculating mean (or median) for the data frames. There are at least three different ways:
Code \(\PageIndex{6}\) (R):
The first way uses attach() and adds columns from the table to the list of “visible” variables. Now we can address these variables using their names only, omitting the name of the data frame. If you choose to use this command, do not forget to detach() the table. Otherwise, there is a risk of loosing track of what is and is not attached. It is particularly problematic if variable names repeat across different data frames. Note that any changes made to variables will be forgotten after you detach() .
The second way uses with() ) which is similar to attaching, only here attachment happens within the function body:
Code \(\PageIndex{7}\) (R):
The third way uses the fact that a data frame is just a list of columns. It uses grouping functions from apply() family\(^{[2]}\), for example, sapply() (“apply and simplify”):
Code \(\PageIndex{8}\) (R):
What if you must supply an argument to the function which is inside sapply() ? For example, missing data will return NA without proper argument. In many cases this is possible to specify directly:
Code \(\PageIndex{9}\) (R):
In more complicated cases, you might want to define anonymous function (see below).
Quartiles and quantiles
Quartiles are useful in describing sample variability. Quartiles are values cutting the sample at points of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of the total distribution\(^{[3]}\). Median is nothing else then the third quartile (50%). The first and the fifth quartiles are minimum and maximum of the sample.
The concept of quartiles may be expanded to obtain cut-off points at any desired interval. Such measures are called quantiles (from quantum, an increment), with many special cases, e.g. percentiles for percentages. Quantiles are used also to check the normality (see later). This will calculate quartiles:
Code \(\PageIndex{10}\) (R):
Another way to calculate them:
Code \(\PageIndex{11}\) (R):
(These two functions sometimes output slightly different results, but this is insignificant for the research. To know more, use help. Boxplots (see below) use fivenum() .)
The third and most commonly used way is to run summary() :
Code \(\PageIndex{12}\) (R):
summary() function is generic so it returns different results for different object types (e.g., for data frames, for measurement data and nominal data):
Code \(\PageIndex{13}\) (R):
In addition, summary() shows the number of missing data values:
Code \(\PageIndex{14}\) (R):
Command summary() is also very useful at the first stage of analysis, for example, when we check the quality of data. It shows missing values and returns minimum and maximum:
Code \(\PageIndex{15}\) (R):
We read the data file into a table and check its structure with str() . We see that variable AGE (which must be the number) has unexpectedly turned into a factor. Output of the summary() explains why: one of age measures was mistyped as a letter a . Moreover, one of the names is empty—apparently, it should have contained NA . Finally, the minimum height is 16.1 cm! This is quite impossible even for the newborns. Most likely, the decimal point was misplaced.
Variation
Most common parametric measures of variation are variance and standard deviation :
Code \(\PageIndex{16}\) (R):
(As you see, standard deviation is simply the square root of variance; in fact, this function was absent from S language.)
Useful non-parametric variation measures are IQR and MAD:
Code \(\PageIndex{17}\) (R):
The first measure, inter-quartile range (IQR), the distance between the second and the fourth quartiles. Second robust measurement of the dispersion is median absolute deviation , which is based on the median of absolute differences between each value and sample median.
To report central value and variability together, one of frequent approaches is to use “center ± variation”. Sometimes, they do mean ± standard deviation (which mistakenly called “SEM”, ambiguous term which must be avoided), but this is not robust. Non-parametric, robust methods are always preferable, therefore “median ± IQR” or “median ± MAD” will do the best:
Code \(\PageIndex{18}\) (R):
To report variation only, there are more ways. For example, one can use the interval where 95% of sample lays:
Code \(\PageIndex{19}\) (R):
Note that this is not a confidence interval because quantiles and all other descriptive statistics are about sample, not about population! However, bootstrap (described in Appendix) might help to use 95% quantiles to estimate confidence interval.
... or 95% range together with a median :
Code \(\PageIndex{20}\) (R):
... or scatter of “whiskers” from the boxplot:
Code \(\PageIndex{21}\) (R):
Related with scale measures are maximum and minimum . They are easy to obtain with range() or separate min() and max() functions. Taking alone, they are not so useful because of possible outliers, but together with other measures they might be included in the report:
Code \(\PageIndex{22}\) (R):
(Here boxplot hinges were used for the main interval.)
The figure (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)) summarizes most important ways to report central tendency and variation with the same Euler diagram which was used to show relation between parametric and nonparametric approaches (Figure 3.1.2).
To compare the variability of characters (especially measured in different units) one may use a dimensionless coefficient of variation . It has a straightforward calculation: standard deviation divided by mean and multiplied by 100%. Here are variation coefficients for trees characteristics from a bui db">trees):
Code \(\PageIndex{23}\) (R):
(To make things simpler, we used colMeans() which calculated means for each column. It comes from a family of similar commands with self-explanatory names: rowMeans() , colSums() and rowSums() .)


8.4: Campus and Student Life
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Whether your campus is small, tall, grande , or venti , you are probably amazed by the array of institutionally supported student activities available for your enrichment and enjoyment. Perhaps your biggest challenge is deciding how much extra time you have after studying and which added activities yield the greatest reward.
Below are two videos that give a sample of campus life at two different types of colleges. The first is from a large state institution—the University of Maryland. The second is from a smaller, private college—Baldwin Wallace University. Regardless, though, of where your institution fits on the spectrum of size, or how many activities, clubs, and organizations your institution offers, it’s very important for you to be able to explore co-curricular interests—for learning, enjoyment, and personal satisfaction. Student life should always be satisfying and rewarding to students, as well as to alumni, faculty, staff, and community members. Together, these groups are an institution’s lifeblood.
Colleges have an abundance of student organizations. Some examples you may be familiar with are the Hillel Student Organization for enriching the lives of Jewish students, the Chess Club, and Model United Nations. Larger institutions may have hundreds of such organizations. Here is a lengthy and exciting list of student organizations at the University of Maryland Baltimore County.
Generally, an organization is created and run by current students, and it’s sponsored by an executive officer, dean, or director of a major academic or operational unit. An organization must also have a mission that’s consistent with the mission of the college and sponsor. It might also collect dues from members, but in many cases, membership is free.
To link up with a student organization, you may not need to do much more than take stock of your interests. What do you love to do? In a later section, you’ll find a list of ways to learn about student organizations at your institution. If you find that your college doesn’t have an organization that speaks to your particular interests, you might consider starting one.
Fraternities and sororities are social organizations at colleges and universities. The terms “Greek letter organization” (“GLO”) and “Greek life” are often used to describe fraternities and sororities.  Most Greek organizations have five shared elements: secrecy, single-sex membership, rushing and pledging to select new members, occupancy in a shared residence, and identification with Greek letters. Fraternities and sororities also engage in philanthropic activities, and they often host parties and other events that may be popular across campus.
Diversity and multiculturalism are indeed critical pursuits not just on college campuses but in communities, businesses, and organizations around the world. If you are interested in expanding and promoting awareness of this issues on campus and further afield, you can seek opportunities at your college for starters. You will likely find informal gatherings, presentations, campus-wide events, individual students and classes focused on creating diverse, multicultural, and inclusive communities. As an example, here is a list of student clubs relating to culture and diversity at Goucher College.
Most colleges have many opportunities for you to learn about and prepare for civic engagement and leadership on campus and in the wider community. What is civic engagement? It’s your involvement in protecting and promoting a diverse and democratic society—and clearly, leadership is an important part of this. Student organizations and activities related to these pursuits may be student government associations, leadership courses and retreats, social change projects, service opportunities, social innovation initiatives, and many others.
If you are like many new college students, you probably already have experience volunteering. It may have been part of your high school requirements. Or perhaps you engaged in volunteering as part of a faith organization or as part of a community fundraising effort. Any of your volunteering can continue in college, too, as your institution will have many special and meaningful ways to stay involved, work on social problems, and contribute to a better world. Service and volunteer efforts may include philanthropy, activism, social entrepreneurship, advocacy, and direct service.
On any college campus, satellite center, or virtual space, students may be involved in activities around the clock on any given day. These activities may include student organization activities as well as special presentations, meetings, performing arts events, sporting events, intramurals, recreational activities, local community activities, holiday events, commemorative events, and so on.
You are heartily encouraged to pursue any interests that enhance your education and enrich your student experience. Your participation can expand your horizons, deepen your interests, and connect you with new people.
It can seem overwhelming to learn about all the activities, events, clubs, organizations, athletics, performing arts, etc. on campus. Sometimes you may need to dig a little, too. The following resources are a good place to start:
This project involves attending two campus and/or community culture activities (not athletic events), collecting mementos from each event, and displaying evidence of your experience via social media.
How is it that becoming fully involved in student life can have such a positive impact on student satisfaction and academic success?
The National Survey of Student Engagement—a survey measuring student involvement in academic and co-curricular activities—shows that student success is directly linked to student involvement in the institution. In fact, survey results show that the higher the level of student involvement is, the higher student grades are and the more likely students are to re-enroll the next semester. All of this seems to translate to satisfaction. The following lists some of the many benefits and rewards that result from active participation in campus and student life.
All in all, being involved in the campus community is vital to every student, and it’s vital to the college, too. It’s a symbiotic relationship that serves everyone well.
The key to getting the most out of college is to take advantage of as many facets of student life as possible while still keeping up with your academic commitments. That’s pretty obvious, right? What may be less obvious is that focusing exclusively on your academic work and not getting involved in any of the rich and diverse co-curricular activities on campus can come at a real price and even hamper your success.
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3.1: ¿Quiénes son los miembros de una familia?
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- Erica Brown, Alejandra Escudero, María Cristina Montoya, & Elizabeth Small
- SUNY Oneonta via OER SUNY
In this chapter, we’ll learn the vocabulary of family relationships.
Here are two salsa songs about families:
Ruben Blades –
Amor y Control
Rubén Blades Bellido de Luna (born July 16, 1948), known professionally as Rubén Blades is a Panamanian musician, singer, composer, actor, activist, and politician, performing musically most often in the Afro-Cuban, salsa, and Latin jazz genres. (
More about Ruben Blades on Wikipedia
)
Hansel y Raul –
Maria Teresa y Danilo
Hansel y Raul are a Miami-born Salsa duo who are best known for popularizing the Cuban “Charanga” rhythm.
We’ll also learn the regular verbs ending in -er and -ir. Here are a few songs featuring those verbs:
Carla Morrison –
Compartir
Carla Patricia Morrison Flores (Tecate, Baja California, 19 July 1986), known professionally as Carla Morrison, is a Mexican indie-pop singer and composer. She has won two Latin Grammys for her album, Déjenme llorar, which has also been certified Gold in Mexico. (
More about Carla Morrison on Wikipedia
)
Akil Ammar –
Comprendo
Akil Ammar is an MC and urban poet born in Mexico City.
Ana Tijoux (con Juan Ayala) –
Creo en Ti
Anamaría Tijoux Merino, commonly known by her stage name Ana Tijoux or Anita Tijoux, is a French-Chilean singer and musician. She became famous in Latin America as the MC of hip-hop group Makiza during the late 1990s. (
More about Ana Tijoux Wikipedia
)
Gusttavo Lima Part. Gente de Zona –
Lo Que Tú y Yo Vivimos
Nivaldo Batista Lima, better known by his stage name Gusttavo Lima, is a Brazilian singer. Gente de Zona is a Cuban reggaeton band made up of musicians Alexander Delgado and Randy Malcom.
Contributors and Attributions
- YouTube videos. License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Standard YouTube license
- Why It Matters: u00bfQuiu00e9nes son los miembros de una familia?. Authored by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution