15.4: Islam and Sufism
-
- Last updated
- Save as PDF
The last of the Abrahamic religions to be established, Islam has also been a profoundly successful religion. It ranks second in numbers only to Christianity, with some 1.5 billion followers around the world. Muslims , those who practice the Islamic faith, consider Jesus Christ to have been a great prophet, but they do not consider him to be the Son of God. They follow the teachings of the one whom they believe to be the last and greatest prophet: Muhammad (Wilkins, 1967).
The Foundation of the Islamic Faith
Muhammad was born around 571 A.D., in Mecca (in modern-day Saudi Arabia). An upright and honest man, Muhammad used to take refuge in a cave at Mount Hera, where he would contemplate (meditate?) good and evil. The religion of his time and region worshipped many spirits in the desert, including one called Allah. Muhammad came to believe that Allah was the one and only God, the creator of the universe.  He fled to the city of Medina, in the year 622 A.D., a date which marks the beginning of Muhammad’s formal efforts to establish the religion of Islam. Muhammad became a great leader, in the name of Allah, and when he died in the year 632 he controlled most of Arabia. Within one hundred years, Islam had spread around the Mediterranean to Europe, throughout North Africa, and to India in the East (Wilkins, 1967).
Muslims believe that Muhammad was directly descended from Abraham, through Abraham’s son Ishmael. Ishmael was the half-brother of Isaac, through whom the Jewish people trace their heritage to Abraham. He received his revelation from Allah through the angel Gabriel, and wrote it down in the Holy Qur’an , the holy book of Islam (the first English translation by a Muslim generally available in the West was originally published in 1917, and has seen numerous new editions since then; Ali, 2002). Like Judaism and Christianity, Islam has a fairly simple set of guidelines for living one’s life (Fadiman & Frager, 1997; Wilkins, 1967), known as the Five Pillars of Islam :
- Bearing Witness , or the Confession of Faith, to Allah and to his chosen prophet Muhammad.
- Daily Prayer , which occurs five times a day (dawn, noon, midafternoon, dusk, and night).
- Fasting , for those who are able, during the month of Ramadan (the ninth month of the Muslim calendar).
- Charity , or almsgiving, which involves giving one fourtieth (2½%) of one’s accumulated wealth to the poor at the end of the month of Ramadan.
- Pilgrimage to Mecca , once during the lifetime for those who are able and can afford to do so.
Two elements seem to stand out from the Five Pillars. First, Islam requires an active demonstration of one’s faith in Allah. Second, every Muslim must follow through on that faith with good works, particularly the fasting during Ramadan and the giving of charity to the poor. Thus, neither faith nor good works alone are adequate for those who claim to be Muslim, they must incorporate both into their lives.
discussion question \(\PageIndex{1}\)
The Five Pillars of Islam seem to be much more directly related to demonstrating one’s faith in God than we saw with Judaism or Christianity. Do M uslims seem more religious than other religions? Is your answer just an impression, or is it based on real experience? In your opinion, how do the Five Pillars of Islam compare to the Ten Commandments or Jesus’ two commandments?
Connections Across Cultures: Islamic Faith, Jihad, Ascesis, and Democracy
When considering the Five Pillars of Islam, it is hard to imagine why there is such a negative view of the Islamic religion in the Western world, particularly in the United States. The answer is actually quite simple, but it is based on a terrible misunderstanding: radical Islamic fundamentalism, and its common element of terrorism, is viewed in the West as being synonymous with Islam itself. As noted in the main text, Maulana Muhammad Ali was the first Muslim to translate the Holy Qur’an into English (originally in 1917; see Ali, 2002). In addition, Ali published another lengthy book entitled The Religion of Islam (originally in 1936; see Ali, 1990).
Many Americans believe that Muslims have a religious duty to wage jihad, a holy war, on all people who do not follow Islam and put their faith in Allah. This belief is mistaken. First, the word jihad is not synonymous with war, but rather it means to exert oneself, or to have the ability to resist one’s enemies. The enemies that must be resisted include the devil and one’s self (our weaknesses and our ignorance, which keep us from the path toward truth). This striving for the truth is reflected, of course, in the verses of the Holy Qur’an:
And those who strive hard for Us, We shall certainly guide them in
Our ways. And Allah is surely with the doers of good.
Chpt. 29:69; Holy Qur’an (Ali, 2002)
What might come as a surprise to many Christians is that this internal battle between oneself and evil is by no means unique to Muslims. In Christianity the same need to strive for God exists, and the word used to describe this striving is ascesis, a word with essentially the same meaning as jihad (Clement, 1993). In St. Paul’s letter to the Ephesians he tells them to put on the armor of God and do battle with the devil. As for whom this striving is valuable, even Jesus makes it clear that one does not have to be Jewish or Christian. In a passage quite similar to the quote above from the Qur’an:
John said to him, “Teacher, we saw a man casting out demons in your name, and we forbade him because he was not following us.”
But Jesus said, Do not forbid him, for no one who does a mighty work in my name will be able soon after to speak evil of me. For he that is not against us is for us. For truly I say to you, whoever gives you a cup of water to drink because you bear the name of Christ, will by no means lose his reward.”
Mark 6:38-41; Holy Bible
There are times, nonetheless, when one must fight in order to defend oneself. When this occurs, the Qur’an makes it clear that Muslims should prepare to accept peace when it is possible to do so:
And if they incline to peace, incline thou also to it, and trust in Allah.
Surely He is the Hearer, the Knower.
Chpt. 8:61; Holy Qur’an
So if the Islamic and Christian faiths are not so different, and both are supposed to seek peace, why have we become so deeply involved with repeated military conflicts in the Middle East? The problem may simply lie with democracy, and our belief that it should be the basis for all government. In America we purport to believe in separation of church and state, though the reality of this is quite debatable. In Islam, however, every aspect of one’s life must involve submission to Allah’s will. Thus, any attempt to spread democracy to Islamic countries, particularly with the American emphasis on separation of church and state, is an act of war against Islam (Shedinger, 2004; see also Esack, 1999; Moghaddam, 2006). No matter how much we might want to disagree with this perspective, if it is their perspective, then we are the aggressors, and they are justified, according to the Qur’an, in fighting back. We believe that we are fighting back, and so the vicious circle of politics continues.
However, there are those who believe that democracy is inevitable in Islamic societies. The critical difference is that they will be pluralistic democracies, not the secular democracy of America (Aslan, 2005, 2006; see also Manji, 2003). The Qur’an makes it clear that “There is no compulsion in religion…” (Chpt. 2:256; Holy Qur’an). Thus, the key to peace in the Middle East may lie in learning to understand one another, and in accepting the guidance of Yahweh, God, Christ, Allah, or whatever name you prefer for the Deity. The mystics sought to avoid the politics of the world, and to place themselves entirely within the presence of God.
Sufism
Keep your hands busy with your duties in this world,
and your heart busy with God.
Sheikh Muzaffer (pg. 35; in Fadiman & Frager, 1997)
This simple expression of the Sufi way demonstrates how one can seek Allah while remaining actively engaged in life, allowing for continued spiritual growth and opportunities to practice awareness, generosity, nonattachment, and love (Fadiman & Frager, 1997). The beginning of Sufism, as with the other mystical approaches, is somewhat shrouded in mystery. Since Islam is a continuation of the monotheistic religion of Judaism and Christianity, the Judaic and Christian mystics might be viewed as early Sufis. Sufism in its proper sense, however, exists within Islam. When the prophet Muhammad died, there was conflict between the primarily Arab and the primarily non-Arab followers of Islam. The primarily Arab Muslims emphasized the teachings of Muhammad’s colleagues, and became known as sunni, whereas the primarily non-Arab Muslims followed Ali, the son of Muhammad, and became known as shi’ah. These two groups drifted apart, and their disagreements became serious, to say the least (Nurbakhsh, 1990). Those sociopolitical differences continue today, and provide much of the basis for the continuing violence in the Middle East. However, a third group also arose, a group that ignored the sociopolitical arguments of the sunni and shi’ah, and focused instead on inner prayer and devotion to Allah. These were the first Sufis.
Practice and understanding in Sufism goes through four stages, with each one building upon the others: understanding the teachings of Islam, practicing Sufism by making the teachings part of one’s everyday life, discovering the Truth (or realizing the inner meaning of the teachings and practices), and finally, having the deep level of inner knowing, or superior wisdom, that transcends the Truth. The great Sheikh Ibn El-Arabi has described these stages as a progression from “yours and mine” through “mine is yours and yours is mine” and then there is “no mine and no yours,” and finally there is “no me and no you” (Fadiman & Frager, 1997; see also Shah, 1971). This perspective is reminiscent of a combination of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development (Kohlberg, 1963) and Eastern perspectives on nonattachment and selflessness.
Similar to Christianity, Sufism considers love to be of utmost importance in transforming the self. As we pursue a path of love in our lives, God begins to reach out and draw us in toward the divine presence. If we are willing to surrender to God, we will awaken and be taken in by Him. To assist with this loving pursuit of God, a number of great Sufi teachers have also been poets. Most notable among these Sufi teachers are Jalaluddin Rumi and Omar Khayyam (see Fadiman & Frager, 1997; Hall, 1975; Khan, 1999; Shah, 1971; Yogananda, 1994). In addition to his poetry, Rumi is recognized as the founder of the Order of the Whirling Dervishes. The whirling dance that distinguishes this group of Sufis is intended to help the Dervish achieve religious ecstasy, and it is far more ritualized than might be apparent at first sight. As strange as such a practice may seem in the Western world, the practice was apparently used on at least one occasion by the renowned St. Francis of Assisi, who lived at the same time as Rumi (Shah, 1971). Omar Kayyam is most famous for a collection of verses known as The Rubaiyat (see Yogananda, 1994). This strange and deeply symbolic poem almost defies interpretation, particularly for those raised in the Western world, unfamiliar with Sufi mysticism. The renowned Indian guru Paramahansa Yogananda, who also made an extensive study of the relationship between Christian gospel and Yoga (Yogananda, 2004a,b), has provided a marvelous interpretation of The Rubaiyat. For example, consider verse VII:
Come, fill the Cup, and in the Fire of Spring
The Winter Garment of Repentance fling:
The Bird of Time has but a little way
To fly - and Lo! the Bird is on the Wing.
Translation by Edward Fitzgerald, reprinted in Yogananda, 1994
In this verse, fill the cup refers to filling one’s consciousness (as one does during meditation), in the warmth of spiritual enthusiasm (the fire of spring). One should set aside regret caused by unfulfilled desires and disillusioning sensory indulgences (the winter garment of repentance fling).   Life is short, and there is a great spiritual truth to be discovered!
As with the Christian mystics, there have been many well-known Sufi women, including a number of Black women (Nurbakhsh, 1990). The following is an amusing story that both teaches a Sufi lesson and demonstrates that a woman can be every bit as faith-filled and wise as any man:
Maymuna was reputed to be her brother’s equal in asceticism, piety and reliance on God. Ahmad Ebn Salem recounts the story of a man who went to see Ebrahim Khawass. When he knocked on the door, he was met by Maymanu, Ebrahim’s sister, who asked his name and what he wanted. He introduced himself and asked for Ebrahim Khawass.
“He has gone out,” she told him.
“When will he return?”
Maymuna replied, “How can someone who has surrendered his life to another know when he is returning?”
(pg. 182; Nurbakhsh, 1990)
Discussion Question: What impression have you had of the whirling dervishes? Can you think of any religious groups within Christianity that demonstration such fervent, physical worship in their churches? What effect might this have on the sense of community within the church?


25.11: References
Alexander, M., Petri, H., Ding, Y., Wondel, C., Kwaja, O., & Foskett, N. (2015, August 18). Morbidity and medication in a large population of individuals with Down syndrome compared to the general population. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 58 (3), 246–254.
Altman, C. (2022, August 1). Identifying newborns with critical congenital heart disease. UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/id...-heart-disease
American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Fetus and Newborn. (2008, November). Hospital discharge of the high-risk neonate. Pediatrics, 122 (5), 1119–1126.
American Academy of Pediatrics. (2018). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders program . https://www.healthychildren.org/Engl...Disorders.aspx
American Heart Association (AHA). (2020). Part 5: Neonatal resuscitation. American Heart Association CPR & First Aid. https://cpr.heart.org/en/resuscitati...-resuscitation
Amodeo, I., Nardo, M., Raffaeli, M., Raffaeli, G., Kamel, S., Macchini, F., Amodeo, A., Mosca, F., & Cavallaro, G. (2021). Neonatal respiratory and cardiac ECMO in Europe. European Journal of Pediatrics, 180 (6), 1675–1692.
Antonarakis, S. E., Skotko, B. G., & Rafii, B. G. (2020, February 6). Down syndrome. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 6 (9). https://www.nature.com/articles/s415...-0143-7#citeas
Bagley, S. M., Wachman, E. M., Holland, E., & Brogley, S. B. (2014). Review of the assessment and management of neonatal abstinence syndrome. Addiction Science & Clinical Practice, 9 (19).
Balest, A. L. (2022, October). Neonatal resuscitation: Pediatrics . Merck Manuals. https://www.merckmanuals.com/profess...tion#v13953890
Bancalari, A., & Schade, R. (2022). Update in the treatment of retinopathy of prematurity. American Journal of Perinatology, 39 (1), 22–30.
Barrington, K. J., Finer, N., Pennaforte, T., & Altit, G. (2017). Nitric oxide for respiratory failure in infants born at or near term. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 1 (1).
Bence, C. M., & Wenger, A. J. (2021). Abdominal wall defects. Translational Pediatrics, 10 (5). www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/art...10-05-1461.pdf
Bonifacio, S. L., & Hutson, S. (2021). The term newborn: Evaluation for hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Clinics in Perinatology, 48 (3), 681-695.
Bowlby, J. (1979). The Bowlby-Ainsworth attachment theory. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2 (4), 637–638.
Bradley, R. H., Pennar, A., & Glick, J. (2014). Home environments of infants from immigrant families in the United States: Findings from the new immigrant survey. Infant Mental Health Journal , 35 (6), 565–579. doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21477
Bull, M. J., Trotter, T., Santoro, S. L., Christensen, C., & Grout, R. W. (2022, April 18). Health supervision for children and adolescents with Down syndrome. Pediatrics, 149 (5). publications.aap.org/pediatr...nd-Adolescents
Canavese, F., & Dimeglio, A. (2021, July 13). Clinical examination and classification systems of congenital clubfoot: A narrative review. Annals of Translational Medicine, 9 (13), 1–8.
Carey, J. C. (2021). Management of children with the trisomy 18 and trisomy 13 syndromes: Is there a shift in the paradigm of care? American Journal of Perinatology, 38 (11), 1122–1125.
Carey, J. C., Cassidy, S. B., Viskochil, D., & Battaglia, A. (Eds.). (2021). Cassidy and Allanson's management of genetic syndromes (4th ed.). Wiley.
Carlo, W. A., & Ambalavanan, N. (2016). Nelson textbook of pediatrics (20th ed.). Elsevier.
Cavazos-Rehg, P. A., Krauss, M. J., Spitznagel, E. L., Bommarito, K., Madden, T., Olsen, M. A., Subramaniam, H., Peipert, J. F., & Bierut, L. J. (2015). Maternal age and risk of labor and delivery complications. Maternal and Child Health Journal , 19 (6), 1202–1211. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-014-1624-7
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). Births: Final data for 2016. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/n.../nvsr67_01.pdf
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). Facts about microcephaly. www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefe...rocephaly.html
Chen, C., Kaushal, N., Scher, D. M., Doyle, S. M., Blanco, J. S., & Dodwell, E. R. (2018). Clubfoot etiology: A meta-analysis and systematic review of observational and randomized trials. Journal of Pediatric Orthopedics, 38 (8), e462–e469. doi.org/10.1097/BPO.0000000000001191
Chin Foo, C. A., Danseareau, L. M., Hawes, K., Oliveira, E. L., & Lester, B. M. (2021, August 9). Improving the assessment of neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS). Children, 8 (685).
Chung, D., Haynes, K., & Haynes, R. (2016, December 25). Surviving with trisomy 13: Provider and parent perspectives and the role of the pediatric palliative care program. American Journal of Medical Genetics, Part A (173A). onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/...2/ajmg.a.37984
Collins, K. A., & Popek, E. (2018). Birth injury: Birth asphyxia and birth trauma. Academic Forensic Pathology , 8 (4), 788–864. doi.org/10.1177/1925362118821468
Cornell, D., & Drew, C. (2023, August 30). 4 Stages of Attachment, Explained! (Bowlby's Theory) . Helpful Professor. https://helpfulprofessor.com/stages-of-attachment/
Cromeens, B. P., Abubakar, A. M., & Kenney, B. D. (2020). Birth injuries. In E. A. Ameh, S. W. Bickler, K. Lakhoo, B. C. Nwomeh, & D. Poenaru (Eds.), Pediatric surgery . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41724-6_35
Decraene, L., Boudewyns, A., Venstermans, C., & Ceulemans, B. (2020). Developmental unilateral facial palsy in a newborn: Six cases and literature review. European Journal of Pediatrics , 179 (3), 367–375. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00431-019-03484-8
Desai, K. D., Yuan, I., Padiyath, A., Goldsmith, M. P., Tsui, F., Pratap, J. N., Nelson, O., & Simpao, A. F. (2023). A narrative review of multiinstitutional data registries of pediatric congenital heart disease in pediatric cardiac anesthesia and critical care medicine. Journal of Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia, 37 (3), 461–470. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jvca.2022.11.034
Division of Reproductive Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. (2023, October 24). Preterm birth. CDC. www.cdc.gov/reproductiveheal...etermbirth.htm
Down, J. L. (1887). Lettsomian lectures—On some of the mental affections of childhood and youth . Paper presented at the Medical Society of London, London, England, January 1887. Accessed from www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2534114/
Edwards, J. U., Harnden, D. G., Cameron, A. H., Crosse, V. M., & Wolff, O. H. (1960). A new trisomic syndrome. Lancet, 1 (7128), 787–789.
Eichenwald, E. C., & Stark, A. R. (2023, September 30). Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD): Clinical features and diagnosis . UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/br...-and-diagnosis
El Shahed, A. I., Dargaville, P. A., Ohlsson, A., & Soll, R. (2014). Surfactant for meconium aspiration syndrome in term and late preterm infants. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD002054.pub3
Erickson, G., Dobson, N. R., & Hunt, C. E. (2021). Immature control of breathing and apnea of prematurity: The known and unknown. Journal of Perinatology, 41, 2111–2123. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41372-021-01010-z
Ersdal, H. L., Mduma, E., Svensen, E., & Perlman, J. M. (2012). Early initiation of basic resuscitation interventions including face mask ventilation may reduce birth asphyxia related mortality in low-income countries: A prospective descriptive observational study. Resuscitation, 83 , 869–873.
Ethawi, Y. W., Mehrem, A. A., Minski, A., Ruth, C. A., & Davis, P. G. (2016). High frequency jet ventilation versus high frequency oscillatory ventilation for pulmonary dysfunction in preterm infants. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 5 . doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD010548.pub2
Garcia-Prats, J. A. (2019, September 26). Meconium aspiration syndrome: Pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis . UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/me...-and-diagnosis
Garcia-Prats, J. A. (2023, June 27). Meconium aspiration syndrome: Prevention and management. UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/me...nt-and-outcome
Gelfer, Y., Leo, D. G., Russell, A., Bridgens, A., Perry, D. C., & Eastwood, D. M. (2022). The outcomes of idiopathic congenital talipes equinovarus. Bone Joint Open, 3 (1), 98–106.
General Hospital Corporation. (2022, March 1). Hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy: Causes and symptoms . Massachusetts General Hospital. www.massgeneral.org/children...encephalopathy
Gilard, V., Tebani, A., Marret, S., & Bekri, S. (2020, July 31). Intraventricular hemorrhage in very preterm infants: A comprehensive review. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 9 (8), 2447.
Gravholt, C. H., Anderson, N. H., & Conway, G. S. (2017, September). International Turner Syndrome Consensus Group. Clinical practice guidelines for the care of girls and women with Turner syndrome: Proceedings from the 2016 Cincinnati International Turner Syndrome Meeting. European Journal of Endocrinology, 177 (3), G1–G70. https://eje.bioscientifica.com/view/...JE-17-0430.xml
Gravholt, C. H., Viuff, M., Just, J., Sandahl, K., Brun, S., Van der Velden, J., Anderson, N. H., and Skakkebaek, A. (2022, June 13). The changing face of Turner syndrome. Endocrine Reviews, 44 (1), 33–69. https://doi.org/10.1210/endrev/bnac016
Gupta, R., & Cabacungan, E. T. (2021). Neonatal birth trauma: Analysis of yearly trends, risk factors, and outcomes. The Journal of Pediatrics, 238 , 174–180.e3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2021.06.080
Hale, D., and Phillips, W. (2022). Cannabis withdrawal in two newborns. Journal of Hospital Medicine. SHM Converge 2022, Abstract G24. shmabstracts.org/abstract/ca...-two-newborns/
Harris, S. R. (2015). Measuring head circumference: Update on infant microcephaly. Canadian Family Physician Medecin de Famille Canadien , 61 (8), 680–684.
Hashmi, H. M., Shamim, N., Kumar, V., Anjum, N., & Ahmad, K. (2021, September 29). Clavicular fractures in newborns: What happens to one of the commonly injured bones at birth? Cureus 13 (9): e18372. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.18372
Hysinger, E. B., Friedman, N. L., Padula, M. A., Shinohara, R. T., Zhang, H., Panitch, H. B., Kawut, S. M., & Children's Hospitals Neonatal Consortium. (2017). Tracheobronchomalacia is associated with increased morbidity in bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Annals of the American Thoracic Society , 14 (9), 1428–1435. doi.org/10.1513/AnnalsATS.201702-178OC
Ippolito, E., & Gorgolini, G. (2021). Clubfoot pathology in fetus and pathogenesis: A new pathogenetic theory based on pathology, imaging findings and biomechanics: A narrative review. Annals of Translational Medicine , 9 (13), 1095. https://doi.org/10.21037/atm-20-7236
Jansen, S. J., Lopriore, E., van der Beek, M. T., Veldkamp, K. E., Steggerda, S. J., & Bekker, V. (2021). The road to zero nosocomial infections in neonates: A narrative review. Acta Paediatrica, 110, 2326–2335. doi.org/10.1111/apa.15886
Jensen, E. A., & Schmidt, B. (2014, March). Epidemiology of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Birth Defects Research. Part A, Clinical and Molecular Teratology, 100 (3), 145–157.
Johns Hopkins University Medical Center. (2023). Fractures. Health . www.hopkinsmedicine.org/heal...ases/fractures
Jones, T. (2019, March 4). What to do when the heat is on! Tremendous Leadership. https://tremendousleadership.com/blo...the-heat-is-on
Kaminen-Ahola, N. (2020). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: Genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. Prenatal Diagnosis, 40 : 1185–1192.
Kikkeri, N. S., & Nagalli, S. (2022). Turner syndrome. StatPearls [Internet]. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554621/
Kim, A. R., Kim, S., & Yun, J. E. (2020). Attachment and relationship-based interventions for families during neonatal intensive care hospitalization: A study protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis. Systematic Review, 9 (61).
Kim, J. (2020, June 18). Neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis: Clinical features and diagnosis. UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/ne...-and-diagnosis
Laptook, A. R., Bell, E. F., Shankaran, S., Boghossian, N. S., Boghossian, N. S., Wyckoff, M. H., Kandefer, S., Walsh, M., Saha, S., & Higgins, R. (2018). Admission temperature and associated mortality and morbidity among moderately and extremely preterm infants. Journal of Pediatrics, 192 , 53–59.
LexiComp. (2020). Survanta (beractant) [prescribing information]. North Chicago, IL; AbbVie Inc.
Magriples, U. (2021, September 28). Prenatal diagnosis of talipes equinovarus (clubfoot) . UpToDate. https://medilib.ir/uptodate/show/6782
Mandell, E., Kinsella, J. P., & Abman, S. H. (2020, September 15). Persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. Pediatric Pulmonology, 56 (3), 661–669.
Marriage and Family Encyclopedia. (2022). Sibling relationships: Siblings in non-western cultures. Marriage and Family Encyclopedia. https://family.jrank.org/pages/1563/...-Cultures.html
Martin, R. (2023, January 6). Clinical features and diagnosis of respiratory distress syndrome in the newborn . UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/re...-and-diagnosis
Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (MFMER). (2021, April 14). Premature birth: Symptoms and causes . Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-...s/syc-20376730
Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. (2018). Fetal alcohol syndrome. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-...t/drc-20352907
McGowan, E. C., Abdulla, L. S., Hawes, K. K., Tucker, R., & Vohr, B. R. (2019). Maternal immigrant status and readiness to transition to home from the NICU. Pediatrics , 143 (5), e20182657. doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-2657
Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Dystocia. Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dystocia
Moraes, L. H., Coelho, R. M., Neves Dos Santos Beozzo, G. P., Yoshida, R. A., de Albuquerque Diniz, E. M., & de Carvalho, W. B. (2022). Use of budesonide associated with a pulmonary surfactant to prevent bronchopulmonary dysplasia in premature newborns: A systematic review. Jornal de Pediatria, S0021-7557 (22), 000124-3.
Murphy, J. D., Rabinovitch, M., Goldstein, J. D., & Reid, L. M. (1981). The structural basis of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn infant. Journal of Pediatrics, 98 (6), 962.
Murty, V. S., & Ram, D. K. (2012). Phrenic nerve palsy: A rare cause of respiratory distress in newborn . Journal of Pediatric Neuroscience, 7 (3), 225–227. doi.org/10.4103/1817-1745.106487
National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities. (n.d.). Facts about microcephaly. www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefe...rocephaly.html
National Health Service. (2023). Treatment: Cleft lip and palate . https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/cleft-...ate/treatment/
Necrotizing enterocolitis. (n.d.). Children’s Hospital of Los Angeles. https://www.chla.org/necrotizing-enterocolitis
North Carolina Pregnancy and Opioid Exposure Project (NCPOEP). (2018). Neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS). North Carolina Pregnancy & Opioid Exposure Project. https://ncpoep.org/guidance-document...-syndrome-nas/
Odabasi, I. O., & Bulbul, A. (2020). Neonatal sepsis. Sisli Etfal Hastanesi tip bulteni , 54 (2), 142–158. https://doi.org/10.14744/SEMB.2020.00236
Oermann, C. M. (2022, October 25). Congenital anomalies of the intrathoracic airways and tracheoesophageal fistula . UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/co...hageal-fistula
Oppenheim, W. L., Davis, A., Growdon, W. A., Dorey, F. J., & Davlin, L. B. (1990). Clavicle fractures in the newborn. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research , Jan;(250), 176–180.
Oster, M. E., Riehle-Colarusso, T., Alverson, C. J., & Correa, A. (2011). Associations between maternal fever and influenza and congenital heart defects. The Journal of Pediatrics, 158 (6), 990–995.
Pallapothu, B., Priyadarshi, M., Singh, P., Kumar, S., Chaurasia, S., & Basu, S. (2023). T-Piece resuscitator versus self-inflating bag for delivery room resuscitation in preterm neonates: A randomized controlled trial. European Journal of Pediatrics , 10.1007/s00431-023-05230-7. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00431-023-05230-7
Patau, K., Wagner, H. P., Inhorn, S. L., Therman, E., & Smith, D. W. (1960). Multiple congenital anomaly caused by an extra autosome. Lancet, 1 (7128), 790–793.
Polin, R.A. (2012). Committee on fetus and newborn. Management of neonates with suspected or proven early-onset bacterial sepsis. Pediatrics,129 (5),1006–1015.
Proctor, M. R., & Meara, J. G. (2019, December 1). A review of the management of single-suture craniosynostosis, past, present and future. Journal of Neurosurgery, 24 (6), 622–631.
Puls, H. T., Anderst, J. D., Bettenhausen, J. L., Hall, M., Markham, L. J., Krager, M., & Clark, N. (2019). Newborn risk factors for subsequent physical abuse hospitalizations. Pediatrics, 143 (2).
Rehm, A., Promod, P. & Ogilvy-Stuart, A. (2020). Neonatal birth fractures: A retrospective tertiary maternity hospital review. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecolog y, 40 (4), 485–490. doi.org/10.1080/01443615.2019.1631770
Rizeq, Y. K., Many, B. T., Vacek, J. C., Reiter, A. J., Raval, M. V., Abdullah, F., & Goldstein, S. D. (2020). Diaphragmatic paralysis after phrenic nerve injury in newborns. Journal of Pediatric Surgery, 55 (2) , 240–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2019.10.038 .
Sadowski, S. L. (2009). Congenital cardiac disease in the newborn infant: Past, present and future. Critical Care Nursing, 21 , 1–13.
Sahni, M., & Mowes, A. K. (2022). Bronchopulmonary dysplasia. StatPearls [Internet]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30969701/
Sanchez Luna, M., Unnebrink, K., Martinez-Tristani, M., & Ramos Navarro, C. (2022). Less invasive surfactant administration: A review of current evidence of clinical outcomes with beractant. Cureus , 14 (10), e30223. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.30223
Sarfaroj, K. (2021, Oct 5). Lung surfactants: Generic, uses, side effects, drug names. RxList. https://www.rxlist.com/how_do_lung_s...drug-class.htm
Schaff, E., Moreno, M., Foster, K., Klug, M. G., & Burd, L. (2019). What do we know about prevalence and management of intoxicated women during labor and delivery? Global Pediatric Health, 6 . doi.org/10.1177/2333794X19894799
Schaffer, H. R., & Emerson, E. P. (1964). The development of social attachments in infancy. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 29 (3), 1–77.
Shah, M. K., Shah, M. A., Shah, S. D., Shah, P. K., Patel, K., & Gupta, M. (2022). Comparison of neonatal and maternal outcomes of anti-diabetic drugs in the treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus: Findings from Bayesian network meta-analysis. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care , 11 (5), 1610–1618. doi.org/10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_1319_21
Shankar, S. G. (2011). Textbook of orthodontics . Professional Book House.
Singh, B. S., Clark, R. H., Powers, R. J., & Spitzer, A. R. (2009). Meconium aspiration syndrome remains a significant problem in the NICU: Outcomes and treatment patterns in term neonates admitted for intensive care during a ten-year period. Journal of Perinatology: Official Journal of the California Perinatal Association, 29 (7), 497–503.
Singh, M., Alsaleem, M., & Gray, C. P. (Updated 2022, September 29). Neonatal sepsis . StatPearls [Internet]. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK531478/
Slater, B. J., & Pimpalwar, A. (2020). Abdominal wall defects. NeoReviews ,21(6), e383–e391. doi.org/10.1542/neo.21-6-e383
Slater, B. J., & Rothenberg, S. S. (2016). Tracheoesophageal fistula. Seminars in Pediatric Surgery, 25 (3), 176–178.
Smith, V. C., & Stewart, J. (2021, July 20). Discharge planning for high-risk newborns. UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/di...-risk-newborns
Spoto, G., Saia, M. C., Amore, G., Gitto, E., Loddo, G., Mainieri, G., Nicotera, A. G., & Di Rosa, G. (2021, Sept 29). Neonatal seizures: An overview of genetic causes and treatment options. Brain Sciences , 11 (1295). https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11101295
Stages of attachment identified by Schaffer. (2021, March 22). Tutor2u. Retrieved September 28, 2023, from https://www.tutor2u.net/psychology/r...ed-by-schaffer
Stanford Medicine Children’s Health. (2023). Birth injuries . https://www.stanfordchildrens.org/en...ries-90-P02687
Stark, A. R., & Eichenwald, E. C. (2022, September 20). Persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn (PPHN): Clinical features and diagnosis. UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pe...-and-diagnosis
Tan, A. P., Svrckova, P., Cowan, F., Chong, W. K., & Mankad, K. (2018). Intracranial hemorrhage in neonates: A review of etiologies, patterns and predicted clinical outcomes. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology: EJPN: Official Journal of the European Paediatric Neurology Society , 22 (4), 690–717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpn.2018.04.008
The Johns Hopkins University. (2023). Intraventricular hemorrhage. Johns Hopkins Medicine. www.hopkinsmedicine.org/heal...lar-hemorrhage
Turner, H. H. (1938). A syndrome of infantilism, congenital webbed neck, and cubitus valgus. Endocrinology, 23 (5), 566–574.
Udayangani, S. (2022). What is the difference between genetic and congenital disorders? www.differencebetween.com/wh...tal-disorders/
Vain, N. E., Szyld, E. G., Prudent, L. M., Wiswell, L. M., Aguilar, T. E., & Vivas, N. I. (2004). Oropharyngeal and nasopharyngeal suctioning of meconium-stained neonates before delivery of their shoulders: Multicentre, randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 364 (9434), 597–602.
Vallerand, A. H., & Sanoski, C. A. (2019). Beractant. Davis's drug guide (16th ed.) (Version 1.31) [Mobile app]. F. A. Davis Company.
Vento, M., & Saugstad, O. D. (2019). Targeting oxygen in term and preterm infants starting at birth. Clinics in Perinatology , 46 (3), 459–473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clp.2019.05.013
Volling B. L. (2017). XI. General discussion: Children's adjustment and adaptation following the birth of a sibling. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development , 82 (3), 142–158. doi.org/10.1111/mono.12317
Vyas, T., Gupta, P., Kumar, S., Gupta, R., Gupta, T., & Singh, H. P. (2020, June 30). Cleft of lip and palate: A review. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care, 9 , 2621–2625.
Weatherly-White, R., Eiserman, W., Beddoe, M., & Vanderberg, R. (2005, October 1). Perceptions, expectations and reactions to cleft lip and palate and palate surgery in native populations: A pilot study in rural India. The Cleft Palate Craniofacial Journal, 42 , 560–564.
Weiner, G. M. (Ed.). (2021). Textbook of neonatal resuscitation (8th ed.). American Academy of Pediatrics.
Winston, R., & Chicot, R. (2016). The importance of early bonding on the long-term mental health and resilience of children. London Journal of Primary Care , 8 (1), 12–14. doi.org/10.1080/17571472.2015.1133012
Wittkowski, A., Vatter, S., Muhinyi, A., Garrett, C., & Henderson, M. (2020, December), Measuring bonding or attachment in the parent-infant-relationship: A systematic review of parent-report assessment measures, their psychometric properties and clinical utility. Clinical Psychology Review , 82, 101906. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101906
World Health Organization, Division of Reproductive Health and Research. (1997). Thermal protection of the newborn: A practical guide. apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/...ssionid=9CF1FA
Wyckoff, M. H., Wyllie, J., Aziz, K., de Almeida, M. F., Fabres, J., Fawke, J., Guinsburg, R., Shigeharu Hosono, T., Kapadia, V. S., Kim, H., Liley, H. G., McKinlay, C. J. D., Mildenhall, L., Perlman, J. M., Rabi, Y., Roehr, C. C., Schmölzer, G. M., Szyld, E., Trevisanuto, D., Velaphi, S., . . . Weiner, G. M. (2020). Neonatal life support: 2020 International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science with Treatment Recommendations. Circulation, 142 (suppl 1), S185–S221.
Yang, L., Zhao, H., & Cui, H. (2020). Treatment and new progress of neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain damage. Histology and Histopathology, 35 (9). https://www.hh.um.es/pdf/Vol_35/35_9...9-936-2020.pdf


30.2: The Art World Grows
Assemblage
Assemblage is the practice of creating two-dimensional or three-dimensional artistic compositions by combining and manipulating found objects.
Describe the origins and growth of assemblage art.
Key Points
- Though the term was not in use until the 1950s, assemblage originates with early 20th century avant garde movements that sought to challenge traditional artistic media.
- One of the most significant assemblage artists, active beginning in the 1930s and 40s, was Louise Nevelson, whose wooden wall-like sculptures disguised their found-object components under spray paint.
- In the 1960s, neo-Dadaist Robert Rauschenberg became notable for his “combines.” These pieces served to break the boundaries between art, sculpture, and the everyday so that all were present in a single work of art.
Key Terms
- found-object : A natural object, or one manufactured for some other purpose, considered as part of a work of art.
Assemblage is an artistic process whereby two- or three-dimensional artistic compositions are created by combining found objects. While similar to the process of collage, it is distinct in its deliberate inclusion of non-art materials.
The origin of the term in its artistic sense can be traced back to the early 1950s, when French artist Jean Dubuffet created a series of collages of butterfly wings titled “assemblages d’empreintes.” However, the origin of the artistic practice dates to the early 20 th century, as both Marcel Duchamp and Pablo Picasso as well as others worked with found objects for many years prior to Dubuffet. Russian constructivist artist Vladimir Tatlin created his “counter- reliefs ” in the middle of 1910s. Alongside Tatlin, the earliest woman artist to try her hand at assemblage was Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, the Dada Baroness. The most recognizable assemblage pieces from this period are the readymades of Marcel Duchamp, such as Fountain , 1917. Readymades were found objects that Duchamp chose and presented as art. The idea was to question the notion of art and the accepted canon, as well as the adoration of art, which Duchamp found “unnecessary. ”
Another early and prolific assemblage artist was Louise Nevelson, who began creating her sculptures from found pieces of wood in the late 1930s. Nevelson’s most notable sculptures are wooden, wall-like, collage-driven reliefs consisting of multiple boxes and compartments that hold abstract shapes and found objects from chair legs to balusters. Nevelson described these immersive sculptures as “environments.” The wooden pieces were cast-off scraps found in the streets of New York. Unlike Duchamp’s poor attempt to mask the urinal’s true form, Nevelson spray painted found objects to disguise them of their actual use or meaning. Nevelson called herself “the original recycler” because of her extensive use of discarded objects, and credited Pablo Picasso for the cube that served as the groundwork for her cubist-style sculpture.
In 1961, the exhibition “The Art of Assemblage” was featured at the New York Museum of Modern Art. The exhibition showcased the work of early 20 th century European artists such as Braque, Dubuffet, Marcel Duchamp, Picasso, and Kurt Schwitters alongside Americans Man Ray, Joseph Cornell, Robert Mallary, and Robert Rauschenberg. It also included lesser-known American West Coast assemblage artists such as George Herms, Bruce Conner, and Edward Kienholz. William C. Seitz, the curator of the exhibition, described assemblages as preformed natural or manufactured materials, objects, or fragments not originally intended as art.
Robert Rauschenberg is a significant proponent of assemblage art. Rauschenberg picked up trash and found objects that interested him on the streets of New York City and brought these back to his studio where they could become integrated into his work. These works, which he called “combines,” served as instances in which the delineated boundaries between art, sculpture, and the everyday were broken down so that all were present in a single work of art. Technically “combines” refers to Rauschenberg’s work from 1954 to 1962, but the impetus to combine both painting materials and everyday objects such as clothing, urban debris, and taxidermic animals continued throughout his artistic life.
Performance Art
Performance art is a genre which presents live art with a conceptual basis.
Evaluate the diverse manifestations and goals of performance art
Key Points
- Though Western performance art began with early 20th century avant-garde movements, it flourished during the 1960s and 70s when minimalism and abstract expressionism fell out of favor.
- Performance art often seeks to blur the line between art and life, with 1960s enthusiasm for this medium also reflecting the period’s frustrations with traditional fine art.
- Because performance art shifts between venues, audiences, and styles, it is unattached to established traditions, thriving during sociopolitical unrest and provoking free thought.
Key Terms
- Conceptual art : A genre of art in which the transmission of ideas is more important than the creation of an art object.
- Dada : A cultural movement that began in Zürich, Switzerland during World War I and peaked from 1916 to 1920. The movement primarily involved visual arts, poetry, theatre, and graphic design, and was characterized by nihilism, deliberate irrationality, disillusionment, cynicism, chance, randomness, and the rejection of the prevailing standards in art.
Performance art is a genre that presents live art, usually referring to conceptual art that conveys content through dramatic interaction rather than traditional performances solely for entertainment.
Origins
Western cultural theorists trace performance art to early 20 th century avant-garde movements such as Russian Constructivism, Futurism and Dada. The Dada movement led the way with its unconventional poetry performances, often at the Cabaret Voltaire, by the likes of Richard Huelsenbeck and Tristan Tzara. However, the most significant wave of performance art occurred in the 1960s and 70s when abstract expressionism and minimalism became less popular. The enthusiasm for live and innovative performance reflected this period’s interest in moving past preconceptions that limited what could qualify as fine art.
Styles
Performance art was one of many disparate trends that developed as abstract expressionism and minimalism faded. Its breadth and widespread usage, along with each performance existing as a unique occurrence, makes it difficult to summarize performance art’s characteristics. Performance art in the 1960s and 70s included “actions,” body art, happenings, endurance-focused, and ritual -focused performances. “Cut Piece,” an action performed by Yoko Ono in several venues, demonstrates the genre. Ono walked onstage and then knelt on the floor while audience members were encouraged to come onstage and cut off all of her clothing.
Happenings, a term coined by Allan Kaprow in 1958, are unique, improvisational events that can take place in any venue and require participation from spectators. There is no structured beginning, middle, or end, and no hierarchy or distinction between the artist and the viewers. The viewers’ reactions decide the art piece, making each happening a unique experience that cannot be replicated. Through happenings, the separations between life, art, artist, and audience become blurred.
The early works of Marina Abramović exemplify endurance-focused, ritual-based performances that explored issues of human determination, patience and bodily limits. In her first performance, Rhythm 10 (1973), Abramović explored ritual and gesture. Using twenty knives and two tape recorders, she played a Russian game in which she aimed rhythmic knife jabs between her splayed fingers. With this piece and as a performer, Abramović was exploring states of consciousness. Each time she cut herself, she picked up a new knife, began again, and recorded her results. After cutting herself twenty times, she replayed the tape, listening to the sounds she had made and repeating her previous movements. By replicating her mistakes, she was merging her past actions with the present moment. She explored her physical and mental limits by injuring herself, and then honored what she had done by repeating the gestures, encouraging the audience to think about what her ritual symbolized and what it meant to repeat the gestures after her ritual had already been performed.
Performance art seeks to demystify fine art by blurring the line between art and life. Because it can shift fluidly between venues, audiences, and styles and is unattached to traditional forms, performance art thrives in times of social upheaval and political unrest, providing a public forum for discussion, experimentation, and outrage. In the 1980s, performance art fell from favor following renewed interest in painting, but was resurrected in the 1990s in response to issues involving race, immigration, gay rights, and AIDS. Since then, performance art has become increasingly accepted in mainstream culture, shown in art museums and becoming a topic for scholarly research.
Photography in the Latter 20th Century
In the early 20th century, photography evolved through multiple styles as it became accepted as a legitimate fine art medium.
Discuss the progression of photography from pictorialism and straight photography to the snapshot aesthetic and conceptual work
Key Points
- The earliest fine art photography imitated painting styles, often using soft focus for a dreamy, romantic look known as pictorialism.
- In reaction to pictorialism, some fine art photographers advocated for “straight photography,” giving the sharply focused photograph the status of art in its own right.
- Following the World Wars, artistic tastes changed and led to the harsher, cleaner aesthetics of modern art and more interest in urban subject matter.
- Genre photography persisted and the 1960s saw the development of the “snapshot aesthetic,” featuring banal everyday subject matter and off-centered framing.
- Conceptual photography developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s. While these artists utilize photography to illustrate an idea, they often do not consider themselves photographers but rather use photography as a means to document performances, ephemeral sculpture, or actions.
Key Terms
- Conceptual art : A genre of art in which the transmission of ideas is more important than the creation of an art object.
During the 20 th century, both fine art photography and documentary photography became accepted by the English-speaking art world and the gallery system. In the United States, pioneer photographers such as Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, John Szarkowski, F. Holland Day, and Edward Weston spent their lives advocating for photography as a fine art. A culminating moment for pictorialism and for photography in general occurred in 1910, when the Albright Gallery in Buffalo bought 15 photographs from Alfred Stieglitz’s 291 Gallery. This was the first time photography was officially recognized as an art form worthy of a museum collection.
Pictorialism
At first, fine art photographers tried to imitate painting styles, giving rise to pictorialism, a style that uses soft focus to create a dreamy, romantic look. Pictorialism dominated photography from about 1885 to 1915, though it was still promoted by some as late as the 1940s. In general, this term refers to a style in which the photographer has somehow manipulated what would otherwise be a straightforward photograph as a means of “creating” an image rather than simply recording it. Typically, a pictorial photograph lacks sharp focus, is printed in one or more colors rather than black-and-white (ranging from warm brown to deep blue), and may have visible brush strokes or other surface manipulation. For the pictorialist, a photograph, like a painting, was a way of projecting emotional intent into the viewer ‘s imagination.
As the harsh realities of World War I began to spread around the world, the public’s taste for the art of the past began to change. Pictorialism gradually declined in popularity after 1920, fading out of popularity completely by the end of World War II. Weston, Ansel Adams, and others later began to move away from pictorialism and created the Group f/64, which advocated for ‘straight photography’, or, the literal representation of a subject rather than an imitation of something else. During this period, the new style of photographic modernism came into vogue, and the public’s interest shifted to more sharply focused images. As developed countries turned their focus to industrialism and growth, art reflected this change by featuring hard-edged images of new buildings, airplanes, and industrial landscapes. Until the late 1970s several genres predominated, including nudes, portraits, and natural landscapes (exemplified by Ansel Adams).
Snapshot Aesthetic
Around 1963, the term “snapshot aesthetic” entered the vocabulary of the fine art photography world. John Szarkowski, who was head of the photography department at the Museum of Modern Art from 1962 to 1991, became one of the trend’s largest promoters, and it became especially fashionable from the late 1970s until the mid 1980s. The snapshot aesthetic typically features off-centered framing and everyday subject matter often presented without apparent link from image-to-image, relying instead on the juxtaposition and disjunction of individual photographs. Notable practitioners include Garry Winogrand, Nan Goldin, Wolfgang Tillmans, Martin Parr, William Eggleston, Diane Arbus, and Terry Richardson. These photographers aimed not “to reform life but to know it” (John Szarkowski, Diane Arbus).
Conceptual Photography
Conceptual photography is a type of photography that illustrates an idea. While illustrative photographs have been made since the medium ‘s invention, the term conceptual photography derives from conceptual art, a movement of the late 1960s. Today the term describes either a methodology or a genre. Conceptual art of the late 1960s and early 1970s often involved photography that documented performances, ephemeral sculpture, or actions. The artists did not describe themselves as photographers. Since the 1970s, artists like Cindy Sherman, Thomas Ruff, and Thomas Demand have been described as conceptual. Although their work does not generally resemble the lo-fi aesthetic of 1960s conceptual art, they have certain methods in common such as documenting performance (Sherman), typological or serial imagery (Ruff), or the restaging of events (Demand).
Contemporary photography has seen a trend of carefully staging and lighting a picture rather than hoping to “discover” it ready-made. Photographers such as Gregory Crewdson and Jeff Wall are noted for the quality of their staged pictures. Additionally, new technological trends in digital photography have created the possibility of full-spectrum photography, where careful filtering choices across the ultraviolet, visible, and infrared lead to new artistic visions.
Pop Art
The pop art movement began in the 1960s and questioned the boundaries between “high” and “low” art.
Identify examples of American pop art
Key Points
- Pop art presented a challenge to traditions of fine art by including aspects of mass culture, such as advertising, comic books, and mundane, cultural objects in its work. One of the goals of pop art was to blur and question the boundaries between “high” art and “low” art.
- Neo-Dada was one minor artistic movement that contributed to the formation of pop art. In reaction to abstract expressionism, neo-Dadaists sought to create meaning solely through the use of conventional symbols and icons such as targets, flags, letters, and numbers.
- The works of Roy Lichtenstein and Andy Warhol exemplify pop art’s direct attachment to commonplace images in American popular culture, while treating the subject matter in a cool, impersonal manner. This detached style illustrated the idealization of mass production and its inherent anonymity.
Key Terms
- Ben-Day dots : The Ben-Day dots printing process, named after illustrator and printer Benjamin Henry Day, Jr., is similar to pointillism. Depending on the effect, colors, and optical illusion needed, small colored dots are closely spaced, widely spaced, or overlapping. Pulp comic books of the 1950s and 1960s used Ben-Day dots in the four process colors (cyan, magenta, yellow, and black) to inexpensively create shading and secondary colors such as green, purple, orange, and flesh tones.
- mass : A large quantity; a sum.
- abstract expressionism : An American genre of modern art that used improvised techniques to generate highly abstract forms
- silk-screen printing : A method of reproducing colored artwork using a cut stencil attached to a stretched, fine-meshed silk screen.
Although it originated in Britain in the late 1950s, pop art did not gain momentum in America until a full decade later. By this time, American advertising had adopted many elements and inflections of modern art and functioned at a sophisticated level. Consequently, American artists had to search deeper for dramatic styles that would distance fine art from well-designed and clever commercial materials. Pop art presented a challenge to traditions of fine art by including aspects of mass culture, such as advertising, comic books, and mundane, cultural objects. One of the goals of Pop Art was to blur and draw into question the boundaries between “high” and “low” art.
Neo-Dada
Two important painters in the establishment of America’s pop art vocabulary were the American neo-Dadaists Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg. In the mid-1950s, Jasper Johns began to appropriate popular abstract iconography for painting, allowing a set of familiar associations to answer the need for a subject. In contrast to the abstract expressionists, who not only disdained subject matter but also took their paintings to be an index of the artist’s presence on the canvas, Neo-Dadaists sought to create meaning solely through the use of conventional symbols and icons such as targets, flags, letters, and numbers. These neutral subjects rejected a reliance on the hand of the artist in the production of meaning–the surface of the painting could declare itself without reference to the persona that created it.
Robert Rauschenberg also was considered a Neo-Dadaist, and his “combines” incorporated found objects, printed materials, and urban debris with traditional fine art materials. Combines served to break down the delineated boundaries between art, sculpture, and the everyday object so that all were recontextualized in a single work of art.
Roy Lichtenstein
Of equal importance to American pop art is Roy Lichtenstein. His work defines the basic premise of pop art better than any other through parody. Selecting the old-fashioned comic strip as subject matter, Lichtenstein produced hard-edged, precise compositions that documented mass culture while simultaneously creating soft parodies. Lichtenstein used oil and Magna paint in his best known works, such as Drowning Girl (1963), which was appropriated from the lead story in DC Comics’ Secret Hearts #83. His characteristic style featured thick outlines, bold colors and Ben-Day dots to represent certain colors, as if created by photographic reproduction. Lichtenstein’s contribution to Pop Art merged popular and mass culture with the techniques of fine art while injecting humor, irony, and recognizable imagery and content into the final product. The paintings of Lichtenstein, like the works of many other pop artists, shared a direct attachment to the commonplace image of American popular culture while treating the subject matter in a cool, impersonal manner. This detached style illustrated the idealization of mass production and its inherent anonymity.
Andy Warhol
Andy Warhol is probably the most famous figure in pop art. Warhol attempted to take pop beyond art to become a lifestyle, and his work often displays a lack of human affectation that dispenses with the irony and parody of many of his peers. Warhol’s artwork uses many forms of media including and drawing, painting, printmaking, photography, silk screening, sculpture, film, and music. His studio, The Factory, was a famous gathering place that brought together distinguished intellectuals, drag queens, playwrights, bohemian street people, Hollywood celebrities, and wealthy patrons. New York’s Museum of Modern Art hosted a Symposium on Pop Art in December 1962, during which artists like Warhol were attacked for “capitulating” to consumerism. Critics were scandalized by Warhol’s open embrace of market culture. This symposium set the tone for Warhol’s reception.
Throughout the decade it became increasingly clear that there had been a profound change in the culture of the art world, and that Warhol was at the center of that shift. In the early 60s, Warhol pared his image vocabulary down to the icon itself–brand names, celebrities, dollar signs–and removed all traces of the artist’s hand in the production of his work. Eventually, he moved from hand painting to silk-screen printing, removing the handmade element altogether. The element of detachment reached such an extent at the height of Warhol’s fame that he had several assistants producing his silk-screen multiples.
The legacy of Pop Art is expansive, and much of the Pop art of the 1960s is considered incongruent as many different conceptual practices fed into the movement and are reflected by a wide variety of artists. The list of notable Pop artists is extensive, but some major proponents include Jim Dine, Richard Hamilton, Keith Haring, David Hockney, Alex Katz, Yayoi Kusama, John McHale, Claes Oldenburg, Julia Opie, Eduardo Paolozzi, Sigmar Polke, Ed Ruscha, George Segal, and Tom Wesselman.
Photorealism
Photorealism or super-realism is a genre of art that began in the late 1960s, encompassing painting, drawing, and other graphic media in which an artist studies a photograph and then attempts to reproduce the image as realistically as possible.
Evaluate photorealism within the era’s contemporary art movements
Key Points
- Pop art and photorealism were both reactionary movements stemming from the ever-increasing and overwhelming abundance of photographic media, which by the mid 20th century had become such a massive phenomenon that it was threatening to lessen the value of imagery in art.
- Photorealism uses photographs transferred to canvas in paint with tight and precise composition.
- Super-realist painters chose difficult subject matter that emphasized the technical prowess and virtuosity required to simulate, such as reflective surfaces or embellished environments.
Key Terms
- abstract expressionism : An American genre of modern art that used improvised techniques to generate highly abstract forms.
- Pop art : An art movement of the 1950s that presented a challenge to traditions of fine art by including imagery from popular culture such as advertising and news.
Photorealism, also known as super-realism or hyper-realism, is a genre of art that makes use of photography to create a highly realistic art work in another medium. The term was first applied in America during the late 1960s. Like pop art, photorealism was a reactionary movement that stemmed from the overwhelming abundance of photographic media, which by the mid 20 th century had grown into such a massive phenomenon that it threatened to lessen the value of imagery in art. While pop artists were primarily pointing out the absurdity of the imagery that dominated mass culture—such as advertising, comic books, and mass-produced cultural objects—photorealists aimed to reclaim and exalt the value of the image.
Process
Photorealist painters gather imagery and visual information through photographs, which are transferred onto canvas either by slide projection or the traditional grid. The resulting images are often direct copies of the photograph, usually on an increased scale. Stylistically, this results in painted compositions that are tight and precise, often with an emphasis on imagery that requires a high level of technical prowess and virtuosity to simulate; for example, reflections in surfaces and embellished, man-made environments.
The first generation of American photorealists included such painters as Richard Estes, Ralph Goings, Chuck Close, Charles Bell, Audrey Flack, Don Eddy, Robert Bechte, and Tom Blackwell.
- Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


14: Multiple and Logistic Regression
The principles of simple linear regression lay the foundation for more sophisticated regression methods used in a wide range of challenging settings. In Chapter 8, we explore multiple regression, which introduces the possibility of more than one predictor, and logistic regression, a technique for predicting categorical outcomes with two possible categories.
-
- 14.2: Model Selection
- The best model is not always the most complicated. Sometimes including variables that are not evidently important can actually reduce the accuracy of predictions. In this section we discuss model selection strategies, which will help us eliminate from the model variables that are less important. In this section, and in practice, the model that includes all available explanatory variables is often referred to as the full model. Our goal is to assess whether the full model is the best model.
-
- 14.3: Checking Model Assumptions using Graphs
- Multiple regression methods generally depend on the following four assumptions: the residuals of the model are nearly normal, the variability of the residuals is nearly constant, the residuals are independent, and each variable is linearly related to the outcome.
-
- 14.4: Introduction to Logistic Regression
- In this section we introduce logistic regression as a tool for building models when there is a categorical response variable with two levels. Logistic regression is a type of generalized linear model (GLM) for response variables where regular multiple regression does not work very well. In particular, the response variable in these settings often takes a form where residuals look completely different from the normal distribution.
Thumbnail: The logistic sigmoid function. (Public Domain; Qef ).


12.9C: Modulation of Movement by the Cerebellum
The cerebellum is important for motor control—specifically coordination, precision, and timing—as well as some forms of motor learning.
- Describe the role of the cerebellum in movement modulation
Key Points
- The cerebellum is a parallel grooved structure at the bottom of the brain containing a highly regular cellular arrangement of Purkinje cells, granule cells, and other cell types.
- The cerebellum adjusts to changes in sensorimotor relationships, possibly functioning as in the Marr-Albus theory: Strong inputs from a single climbing fiber serve as a teaching signal to change the strength of impulses from the corresponding group of parallel fibers.
- Four principles of cerebellum function have been identified. They include: feedforward processing, divergence and convergence, modularity, and plasticity.
Key Terms
- Purkinje cells : A class of GABAergic neurons located in the cerebellum.
- mossy fibers : One of the major inputs to the cerebellum from sources such as the cerebral cortex.
- granule cells : These cells receive excitatory input from mossy fibers that originate from pontine nuclei.
The cerebellum is a region of the brain that plays an important role in motor control. It may also be involved in some cognitive functions such as attention and language, and in regulating fear and pleasure responses, but its movement-related functions are the most solidly established. The cerebellum does not initiate movement, but it contributes to coordination, precision, and accurate timing.
It receives input from sensory systems of the spinal cord and from other parts of the brain, including the cerebral cortex, and integrates these inputs to fine-tune motor activity. Because of this fine-tuning function, damage to the cerebellum does not cause paralysis, but instead produces disorders in fine movement, equilibrium, posture, and motor learning.
The cerebellum differs from most other parts of the brain, especially the cerebral cortex, in regards to the ability of signals to move unidirectionally from input to output. This feedforward mode of operation means that the cerebellum cannot generate self-sustaining patterns of neural activity, in contrast to the cerebral cortex. However, the cerebellum can receive information from the cerebral cortex and processes this information to send motor impulses to the skeletal muscle.
Cerebellum : View of the cerebellum from above and behind.
Anatomy of the Cerebellum
Cerebellum cells : View of the cerebellum from above and behind.
In terms of anatomy, the cerebellum has the appearance of a separate structure attached to the bottom of the brain, tucked underneath the cerebral hemispheres. The surface of the cerebellum is covered with finely spaced parallel grooves, in striking contrast to the broad irregular convolutions of the cerebral cortex. These parallel grooves conceal the fact that the cerebellum is actually a continuous thin layer of tissue (the cerebellar cortex), tightly folded in the style of an accordion.
Within this thin layer are several types of neurons with a highly regular arrangement, the most important being Purkinje cells and granule cells. This complex neural network gives rise to a massive signal-processing capability, but almost all of its output is directed to a set of small, deep cerebellar nuclei lying in the interior of the cerebellum.
Function
Marr-Albus Theory
In addition to its direct role in motor control, the cerebellum is also necessary for several types of motor learning, the most notable one being learning to adjust to changes in sensorimotor relationships.
Several theoretical models have been developed to explain sensorimotor calibration in terms of synaptic plasticity within the cerebellum. Most of them derive from early models formulated by David Marr and James Albus, which were motivated by the observation that each cerebellar Purkinje cell receives two dramatically different types of input.
It receives input from thousands of parallel fibers, each individually very weak. However, each cerebellar Purkinje cell also gets input from one single climbing fiber, which is so strong that a single climbing fiber action potential will reliably cause a target Purkinje cell to fire a burst of action potentials.
The basic concept of the Marr-Albus theory is that the climbing fiber serves as a teaching signal, which induces a long-lasting change in the strength of synchronously activated parallel fiber inputs. Observations of long-term depression in parallel fiber inputs have provided support for theories of this type, but their validity remains controversial.
Insights from Cerebellar Dysfunction
The strongest clues to the function of the cerebellum have come from examining the consequences of damage to it. Animals and humans with cerebellar dysfunction show, above all, problems with motor control. They continue to be able to generate motor activity, but it loses precision, producing erratic, uncoordinated, or incorrectly timed movements.
A standard test of cerebellar function is to reach with the tip of the finger for a target at arm’s length. A healthy person will move the fingertip in a rapid straight trajectory, whereas a person with cerebellar damage will reach slowly and erratically, with many mid-course corrections.
Deficits in non-motor functions are more difficult to detect. Thus, the general conclusion reached decades ago is that the basic function of the cerebellum is not to initiate movements, or to decide which movements to execute, but rather to calibrate the detailed form of a movement.
The comparative simplicity and regularity of the cerebellar anatomy led to an early hope that it might imply a similar simplicity of computational function. Although a full understanding of cerebellar function remains elusive, at least four principles are identified as important: 1) feedforward processing, 2) divergence and convergence, 3) modularity, and 4) plasticity.
- Feedforward processing: Refers to the unidirectional movement of signals through the system from input to output, with very little recurrent internal transmission. This means that the cerebellum, in contrast to the cerebral cortex, cannot generate self-sustaining patterns of neural activity. Signals enter the circuit, are processed by each stage in sequential order, and then leave.
- Divergence and convergence: The 1000 or so Purkinje cells belonging to a microzone may receive input from as many as 100 million parallel fibers, and focus their own output down to a group of less than 50 deep nuclear cells. Thus, the cerebellar network receives a modest number of inputs, processes them very extensively through its rigorously structured internal network, and sends out the results via a very limited number of output cells.
- Modularity: The cerebellar system is functionally divided into independent modules. All modules have a similar internal structure, but with different inputs and outputs. The output of one module does not appear to significantly influence the activity of other modules
- Plasticity: The synapses between parallel fibers and Purkinje cells, and the synapses between mossy fibers and deep nuclear cells, are both susceptible to modification of their strength. The influence of each parallel fiber on nuclear cells is adjustable. This arrangement gives tremendous flexibility for fine-tuning the relationship between the cerebellar inputs and outputs.


4.1.1: Prelude to Carl Jung
-
- Last updated
- Save as PDF
Jung has always been controversial and confusing. His blending of psychology and religion, as well as his openness to different religious and spiritual philosophies, was not easy to accept for many psychiatrists and psychologists trying to pursue a purely scientific explanation of personality and mental illness. Perhaps no one was more upset than Freud, whose attitude toward Jung changed dramatically over just a few years. In 1907, Freud wrote a letter to Jung in which Freud offered high praise:
…I have already acknowledged…above all that your person has filled me with trust in the future, that I now know that I am dispensable like everyone else, and that I wish for no one other or better than you to continue and complete my work. (pg. 136; cited in Wehr, 1989)
In 1910, hoping that others would also support Jung, Freud wrote to Oskar Pfister:
I hope you will loyally support Jung, I want him to acquire the authority that will entitle him to leadership of the whole movement. (pg. 136; cited in Wehr, 1989)
However, in a dramatic shift just three years later, Freud wrote to Jung:
I suggest to you that we completely give up our private relationship. By this I lose nothing, since for a long time I have been bound to you emotionally only by the thin thread of previously experienced disappointments. … Spare me the supposed “duties of friendship.” (pg. 136; cited in Wehr, 1989)
Later, in 1922, Freud thanked Oskar Pfister for his help in trying to eliminate Jung’s influence on the psychoanalytic community:
With your ever more thorough and ever more clearly demonstrated dismissal of Jung and Adler, you have for a long time given me great satisfaction. (pg. 136; cited in Wehr, 1989)
Who was this man who inspired such profound confidence from Sigmund Freud, only to later inspire such contempt? And were his theories that difficult for the psychodynamic community, or psychology in general, to accept? Hopefully, this chapter will begin to answer those questions. As evidence of his character, and in contrast to Freud, Jung did not turn his back on his former mentor. Following Freud’s death in 1939, and later in 1957, Jung wrote the following:
[Freud’s work was]…surely the boldest attempt ever made on the apparently solid ground of empiricism to master the riddle of the unconscious psyche. For us young psychiatrists, it was a source of enlightenment… (pg. 29; cited in Wehr, 1989)
…Despite the resounding censure I suffered at the hands of Freud, I cannot, even despite my resentment toward him, fail to recognize his importance as a critical analyst of culture and as a pioneer in the field of psychology. (pg. 39; cited in Wehr, 1989)


5.5: Concluding Comments
-
- Last updated
- Save as PDF
Market demand arises from the decisions of consumers. The aim of this chapter has been to provide background on three consumer choice models relevant to food demand. Each is based on the simple idea that consumers choose the best bundle that they can afford. The models differ in terms of how consumer utility is specified and how affordable sets are characterized.
In the neoclassical model of consumer choice, the consumer derives satisfaction directly from goods and services acquired in the marketplace. Affordability is defined as the set of product bundles the consumer can purchase with his or her money income. It was shown that given several reasonable assumptions, the neoclassical model of consumer choice can be used to derive individual demand schedules that have properties similar to market demand schedules introduced in Chapter 1. However, the model does not shed a great deal of light on why a consumer might prefer a particular market good or service or why he or she might prefer one product bundle to another.
Lancaster’s model differs in that it focuses not on the products themselves but on the characteristics they contain. In Lancaster’s model, you learned that the consumer derives satisfaction for characteristics, for example, sensory attributes or nutrients. Market provided goods are important to the model in that they constitute the delivery mechanism for the attributes desired by the consumer. Thus, Lancaster’s model can provide additional insight into attributes of products that influence the consumer’s desire for them. Lancaster’s model provides theoretical underpinnings for hedonic pricing models. The logic of Lancaster’s model is particularly suited to products that are in a state of latent demand as described in chapter 1. The Lancaster framework permits a new product innovation to be compared to existing products in the characteristic space and can provide insight into whether the new product would be competitive at a price that justifies its production cost. Many product design activities in the food marketing system can be viewed within the context of Lancaster’s model examples include fortification of food offering and the design of product offerings with reduced fat, sodium and/or sugar content.
Finally, Becker’s model differs in that market-sourced products are used as inputs for household production. Time is essential to understanding affordable set in Becker’s model, which explicitly accounts for the opportunity costs of household-produced goods. The consumer’s time allocation directly effects his/or her ability to secure products in the marketplace. Becker’s model provides a useful template to understand growth in convenience foods over recent decades. Time spent in household production has a clear opportunity cost in the form of time not spent in the labor force and the value of foregone utility from leisure. As opportunities for women to work outside of the home have increased markedly in the post World-War-II era, the food system has responded by increasing product offerings that reduce preparation time.