10.6.1: Introduction- Binary Systems
selected template will load here
This action is not available.
Black and white. Masculine and feminine. Rich and poor.  Able-bodied and disabled. Binaries are social constructs composed of two parts that are framed as absolute and unchanging opposites. Binary systems reflect the integration of these oppositional ideas into our culture. This results in an exaggeration of differences between social groups until they seem to have nothing in common. An example of this is the phrase “men are from Mars, women are from Venus.” Ideas of men and women being complete opposites invite simplistic comparisons that rely on stereotypes: men are practical, women are emotional; men are strong, women are weak; men lead, women support. Binary notions mask the complicated realities and variety in the realm of social identity. They also erase the existence of individuals, such as multiracial or mixed-race people and people with non-binary gender identities, who may identify with neither of the assumed categories or with multiple categories. We know very well that men have emotions and that women have physical strength, but a binary perspective of gender prefigures men and women to have nothing in common. They are defined against each other; men are defined, in part, as “not women” and women as “not men.” Thus, our understandings of men are influenced by our understandings of women. Rather than seeing aspects of identity like race, gender, class, ability, and sexuality as containing only two dichotomous, opposing categories, conceptualizing multiple various identities allows us to examine how men and women, Black and white, etc., may not be so completely different after all, and how varied and complex identities and lives can be.


8.2: The Competing Goals of Public Education- A Historical Perspective
Frontloading Activity
Consolidating Understanding Activity
Contributors and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
selected template will load here
This action is not available.
Frontloading Activity
Before continuing the reading, take some time to review the history of American public education and write on the following questions:
David Labaree (1997), an educational historian, argued that there have been three overarching goals of public education in the United States since the inception of public education in the 1800’s: 1) democratic equality, 2) social efficiency, and 3) social mobility. A democratic equality goal aims at educating an engaged citizenry capable of actively participating in a democratic society. A social efficiency goal aims at educating young people to help the economic success of the country. Finally, a social mobility goal aims at educating young people in order for people to “gain a competitive advantage in the struggle for competitive social positions” (p. 42). Two of these goals—democratic equality and social efficiency—can be defined as public goods, or goods that benefit society as a whole; whereas the social mobility goal positions education as a private resource, or commodity. Each of these goals, Labaree argued, tacitly guides the direction of public education policy. At times, these three goals compete against the inherent aims of the other goals, i.e., public goods versus private goods. In some cases, such as social mobility, there are internal contradictions, or aporias, within a single goal’s overall aims. For example, families with higher socio-economic status tend to work to protect and ensure their children’s social status, which creates gatekeeping mechanisms to limit access to educational opportunities. However, families in lower socio-economic strata seek to expand equitable access to educational opportunities in order to help advance the economic and social well-being of their children. In either case, social mobility goals envision education as a private and limited resource.
The following podcast and webinar further elaborate Labaree’s model of public education goals as well as describe how each goal competes with one another. As you listen to the first twenty minutes of podcast, paraphrase each of the three goals and give concrete examples of each goal.
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: pb.libretexts.org/foundationsofeducation/?p=126
After listening to the previous podcast, watch David Labaree’s webinar up to minute 26:20. As you watch, take notes on the ways Labaree elaborates on how the goals compete with one another.
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: pb.libretexts.org/foundationsofeducation/?p=126
Take note of the internal contradictions of social mobility goals:
Review this chapter and videos on the periods of educational history. Return to your original ideas on what you thought were/are the goals of public education in the U.S. Write on the following questions:


29.1.1: Plant Adaptations to Life on Land
-
- Last updated
- Save as PDF
- Boundless
- Boundless
Learning Objectives
- Discuss how lack of water in the terrestrial environment led to significant adaptations in plants
Plant Adaptations to Life on Land
As organisms adapted to life on land, they had to contend with several challenges in the terrestrial environment. The cell ‘s interior is mostly water: in this medium, small molecules dissolve and diffuse and the majority of the chemical reactions of metabolism take place. Desiccation, or drying out, is a constant danger for organisms exposed to air. Even when parts of a plant are close to a source of water, the aerial structures are prone to desiccation. Water also provides buoyancy to organisms. On land, plants need to develop structural support in a medium that does not give the same lift as water. The organism is also subject to bombardment by mutagenic radiation because air does not filter out the ultraviolet rays of sunlight. Additionally, the male gametes must reach the female gametes using new strategies because swimming is no longer possible. As such, both gametes and zygotes must be protected from desiccation. Successful land plants have developed strategies to face all of these challenges. Not all adaptations appeared at once; some species never moved very far from the aquatic environment, although others went on to conquer the driest environments on Earth.
Despite these survival challenges, life on land does offer several advantages. First, sunlight is abundant. Water acts as a filter, altering the spectral quality of light absorbed by the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll. Second, carbon dioxide is more readily available in air than water since it diffuses faster in air. Third, land plants evolved before land animals; therefore, until dry land was also colonized by animals, no predators threatened plant life. This situation changed as animals emerged from the water and fed on the abundant sources of nutrients in the established flora. In turn, plants developed strategies to deter predation: from spines and thorns to toxic chemicals.
Early land plants, like the early land animals, did not live far from an abundant source of water and developed survival strategies to combat dryness. One of these strategies is called desiccation tolerance. Many mosses can dry out to a brown and brittle mat, but as soon as rain or a flood makes water available, mosses will absorb it and are restored to their healthy green appearance. Another strategy is to colonize environments where droughts are uncommon. Ferns, which are considered an early lineage of plants, thrive in damp and cool places such as the understory of temperate forests. Later, plants moved away from moist or aquatic environments and developed resistance to desiccation, rather than tolerance. These plants, like cacti, minimize the loss of water to such an extent they can survive in extremely dry environments.
The most successful adaptation solution was the development of new structures that gave plants the advantage when colonizing new and dry environments. Four major adaptations are found in all terrestrial plants: the alternation of generations, a sporangium in which the spores are formed, a gametangium that produces haploid cells, and apical meristem tissue in roots and shoots. The evolution of a waxy cuticle and a cell wall with lignin also contributed to the success of land plants. These adaptations are noticeably lacking in the closely-related green algae, which gives reason for the debate over their placement in the plant kingdom.
Alternation of Generations
Alternation of generations describes a life cycle in which an organism has both haploid and diploid multicellular stages (n represents the number of copies of chromosomes). Haplontic refers to a lifecycle in which there is a dominant haploid stage (1n), while diplontic refers to a lifecycle in which the diploid (2n) is the dominant life stage. Humans are diplontic. Most plants exhibit alternation of generations, which is described as haplodiplodontic. The haploid multicellular form, known as a gametophyte, is followed in the development sequence by a multicellular diploid organism: the sporophyte. The gametophyte gives rise to the gametes (reproductive cells) by mitosis. This can be the most obvious phase of the life cycle of the plant, as in the mosses. In fact, the sporophyte stage is barely noticeable in lower plants (the collective term for the plant groups of mosses, liverworts, and lichens). Alternatively, the gametophyte stage can occur in a microscopic structure, such as a pollen grain, in the higher plants (a common collective term for the vascular plants). Towering trees are the diplontic phase in the life cycles of plants such as sequoias and pines.
Protection of the embryo is a major requirement for land plants. The vulnerable embryo must be sheltered from desiccation and other environmental hazards. In both seedless and seed plants, the female gametophyte provides protection and nutrients to the embryo as it develops into the new generation of sporophyte. This distinguishing feature of land plants gave the group its alternate name of embryophytes.
Key Points
- While some plants remain dependent on a moist and humid environment, many have adapted to a more arid climate by developing tolerance or resistance to drought conditions.
- Alternation of generations describes a life cycle in which an organism has both haploid (1n) and diploid (2n) multicellular stages, although in different species the haploid or diploid stage can be dominant.
- The life on land presents significant challenges for plants, including the potential for desiccation, mutagenic radiation from the sun, and a lack of buoyancy from the water.
Key Terms
- desiccation tolerance : the ability of an organism to withstand or endure extreme dryness, or drought-like condition
- alternation of generation : the life cycle of plants with a multicellular sporophyte, which is diploid, that alternates with a multicellular gametophyte, which is haploid


7.1: Why It Matters- Linking Probability to Statistical Inference
Why understand the link between probability and statistical interference?
This module introduces our study of inference. Before we begin Linking Probability to Statistical Inference , let’s look at how the remainder of the course relates to the Big Picture of Statistics.
Recall that we start a statistical investigation with a research question. The investigation proceeds with the following steps:
- Produce Data: Determine what to measure, then collect the data. ← Types of Statistical Studies and Producing Data
- Explore the Data: Analyze and summarize the data. ← Summarizing Data Graphically and Numerically, Examining Relationships: Quantitative Data, Nonlinear Models, Relationships in Categorical Data with Intro to Probability
- Draw a Conclusion: Use the data, probability, and statistical inference to draw a conclusion about the population. ← Relationships in Categorical Data with Intro to Probability, Probability and Probability Distributions, Linking Probability to Statistical Inference, Inference for One Proportion, Inference for Two Proportions, Inference for Means, Chi-Square Tests
In the Big Picture of Statistics, we are about to start the last step: Inference. We use data from a sample to “infer” something about the population in this and the upcoming modules. Inference is based on probability.
Example
At the end of April 2005, ABC News and the Washington Post conducted a poll to determine the percentage of U.S. adults who support the death penalty.
Research question: What percentage of U.S. adults support the death penalty?
Steps in the statistical investigation:
- Produce Data: Determine what to measure, then collect the data.The poll selected 1,082 U.S. adults at random. Each adult answered this question: “Do you favor or oppose the death penalty for a person convicted of murder?”
- Explore the Data: Analyze and summarize the data.In the sample, 65% favored the death penalty.
- Draw a Conclusion: Use the data, probability, and statistical inference to draw a conclusion about the population.
Our goal is to determine the percentage of the U.S. adult population that support the death penalty. We know that different samples give different results. What are the chances that a sample reflects the opinions of the population within 3%? Probability describes the likelihood that a sample is this accurate, so we can say with 95% confidence that between 62% and 68% of the population favor the death penalty.
We illustrated the Big Picture of Statistics with an example about an inference made from survey data. From a random sample of U.S. adults, we estimated the percentage of all U.S. adults who support the death penalty. We saw that probability describes the likelihood that an estimate is within 3% of the true percentage with this opinion in the population. For this example, there is a 95% chance that a random sample is within 3% of the true population percentage.
Because random samples vary, inference always involves uncertainty. This uncertainty is captured by probability statements that are part of our conclusions. We emphasize this point in the following example where we look more closely at the process of statistical investigation with a real court case. Our goal is to identify arguments that use statistical inference to draw a conclusion as well as arguments that do not use inference.
EXAMPLE
Using Inference to Detect Cheating – A Real Case
How can a prosecutor use data to detect cheating? The details of this case appeared in Chance magazine in 1991.
The Case: During an exam at a university in Florida in 1984, the proctor suspected that one student, whom we will call Student C, was copying answers from another student, whom we will call Student A. The proctor accused Student C of cheating, and the case went to the university’s supreme court.
The Evidence: At the trial, the prosecution introduced evidence based on data. Here is the evidence: On the 16 questions missed by both Student A and Student C, 13 of the answers were the same.
The Argument: The prosecutor used the data to draw an inference based on probability. He asked the question: Could 13 out of 16 matches be due to chance? He argued that a match of 13 out of 16 by chance alone was very unlikely. The probability of this occurring is very small. So there had to be another explanation besides chance, and the prosecutor said the explanation was cheating. Based on this evidence, Student C was found guilty of academic dishonesty.
The Role of Random Chance: To decide if we agree with this argument, we need to understand if chance might explain this result. We need to determine if it would be unusual to get 13 matches on 16 questions by chance alone. To determine if 13 out of 16 is unusual, we have to look at what happens in the long run if students just guess on 16 multiple choice questions.
Let’s assume that each question had four options: a, b, c, or d. We use a computer program to randomly assign answers to each question, which mimics what happens when someone randomly guesses. Using software to imitate chance behavior is called simulation .
Here you see a representation of answers from Student A and Student C as well as three randomly generated answer sets for the 16 questions missed by both Student A and Student C. We highlighted matches with Student A’s answers in green.
Notice that Student C has 13 answers that match Student A’s answers: As a proportion, this is 13 ÷ 16 = 0.8125. It means that about 81% of the time, Student C’s answers matched Student A’s answers on questions that they both missed.
For the random answers generated by “guessing,” we see the proportion of matches differs:
- Set 1 has 6 matches with Student A: 6 ÷ 16 = 0.375 as a proportion, or about 38%.
- Set 2 has 3 matches with Student A: 3 ÷ 16 = 0.1875 as a proportion, or about 19%.
- Set 3 has 5 matches with Student A: 5 ÷ 16 = 0.3125 as a proportion, or about 31%.
The proportion of matches in the randomly generated answers vary quite a bit, from 0.1875 to 0.3125. But none are close to the proportion of matches seen in Student C’s paper, 0.8175. The proportion of matches for the three sets of results from the random guesses are graphed in the following figure. The blue line is the proportion of matches for Student C.
Now we repeat the simulation of random sets of answers on the 16 questions, each time determining the proportion of matches to the wrong answers on Student A’s paper. On the left is a dotplot for 100 random sets of answers. Each dot represents a set of 16 answers generated by random guessing. On the right is a histogram of 1,025 random sets of answers, which shows the long-run pattern.
Analysis: In the histogram, we see that typical results fall between about 0.1 and 0.4. More specifically, if a student randomly guessed on these 16 questions, it would not be surprising to see from 2 to 6 matches with Student A’s wrong answers. Translated into proportions, this is 2 ÷ 16 = 0.125 to 6 ÷ 16 = 0.375.
Is Student C unusual? Yes. Notice that no randomly generated set of answers comes close to the proportion of matches on Student C’s exam. A proportion of 0.8125 would be very unusual if guessing, so we conclude that Student C was not guessing.
Conclusion: The prosecution argued that a match of 13 out of 16 wrong answers (a proportion of 0.8125) was unusual and could not be explained by random chance. Our simulation agrees with this observation. When we created answer sets by randomly guessing, we never saw more than 9 matches out of 16, which is a proportion of 0.5625. We agree with the prosecution that there has to be another explanation besides chance.
However, could there be another explanation besides cheating?
Yes. If you don’t know the answer to a question on an exam, you rarely guess at random. It is more likely that you will make an educated guess. Some wrong answers might be more logical than others. This could also explain the large proportion of matches on wrong answers between the two students. So this evidence is not convincing evidence that Student C cheated, but we know that he did not just guess.
EXAMPLE
Follow-up Argument Based on Exploratory Data Analysis
Student C appealed his case. A second trial was held. This time the prosecution made a different argument using data. This argument did not use statistical inference.
The prosecution created a new measurement. They compared every student’s paper to Student A’s paper. For the 40-multiple choice questions on the test, they counted the number of matches to Student A’s paper and divided by 40. This new measurement was also a proportion.
Analysis: There were 88 students. Here are the results:
Each dot represents a student who took the exam. A dot with a proportion of 0.6 means that 60% of this student’s answers matched Student A’s answers.
Note: Student A is included in the data. Of course, Student A is the dot with the proportion of 40 out of 40 = 1.0 This makes sense because all of Student A’s answers matched Student A. (This does not mean that Student A did well on the exam.)
We see that many of the proportions fall between between 0.40 (which is 16 matches out of 40) and 0.60 (which is 24 matches out of 40). So it is not surprising if between 40% and 60% of a student’s answers matched Student A’s answers.
Student C had 32 matches out of 40, which is a proportion of 0.80. (This does not mean that Student C made an 80% on the exam. It means that 80% of Student C’s answers matched Student A’s answers.) Student C is once again an unusual data point.
Conclusion: This time it is harder to argue that Student C is not cheating. When we compare him to the rest of the class, his paper had an unusually high number of matches with Student A’s answers. This data together with the proctor’s testimony is fairly convincing evidence for the prosecution’s claim that Student C cheated by copying from Student A’s paper.
(Source: Phillip J. Boland and Michael Proschan, “The Use of Statistical Evidence in Allegations of Exam Cheating,” Chance 3(3):10-14, 1991.)
What’s the Main Point?
Statistical inference always involves an argument based on probability.
In this court case, the prosecution used two different types of arguments to provide evidence of cheating. The first argument is an example of statistical inference because it is based on probability. We set up a simulation to reflect an assumption that the prosecutor made. The assumption is that answer sets come from random guessing. We simulated over a thousand answer sets with randomly chosen answers to investigate the long-run behavior of simulated answer sets. We then compared Student C to the distribution of randomly generated answer sets. Student C was unusual. We concluded that Student C was not randomly guessing.
The second argument is an example of exploratory data analysis with no statistical inference. The prosecutor designed a measurement and collected data from every student in the class. He compared Student C’s measurement to the measurements of the other students. Probability did not have a role in this analysis. Probability statements require a random event and a look at long-run behavior of random events, so this is not an example of statistical inference.
The court case illustrates how we can view statistical inference as an argument based on probability. Here we briefly connect the probability argument with the vocabulary and ideas from the module Probability and Probability Distribution .
Recall the following important points about probability that we learned in that module:
- Probability is a measure of how likely an event is to occur.
- We can make probability statements only about random events. Random here means that the outcome is uncertain in the short run but has a predictable pattern in the long run.
How does the logic of the probability argument in the court case relate to Probability and Probability Distribution?
To understand the probability argument in the original court case, we used a computer simulation to analyze the long-run pattern that emerges if students randomly guess on multiple-choice questions. Our variable was Proportion of matches with Student A’s wrong answers on 16 questions . We graphed the distribution of a large number of proportions from the random answer sets to see the pattern. Using the vocabulary of Probability and Probability Distribution , the proportion of matches is a random variable . In the short run, we do not know the proportion of matches that will occur in a random answer set, but in the long run, we see a pattern in the distribution of these proportions. This distribution of proportions is treated as a probability model. From it we can see how much variability to expect in matches from random answer sets. We can also identify unusual values. From the pattern in this distribution, we can say it is very unlikely that Student C guessed.
How does this logic relate to the Big Picture?
This logic is similar to the logic of inference that we explore in future modules, where we randomly select samples from a population. We continue to use computer simulation throughout these modules to analyze the long-run pattern that emerges in measurements from random samples. We create probability models that tell us how much variability to expect in random samples. We also use these models to identify unusual measurements. From the patterns, we use data to make judgments about the population. In this way, our conclusions about a population are based on probability.
Probability and Probability Distribution included a long discussion of probability models that are normal curves. Under certain conditions, the long-run behavior of measurements from random samples can be modeled with a normal curve (or a similar curve), we see in this module and in Inference for One Proportion , Inference for Two Proportions , and Inference for Means . In each module, we ask the question, When can we use a normal model? Once we know these conditions, we can use what we learned in the previous module to make probability-based decisions about population values.
Here we add these ideas to the Big Picture to show how probability connects to inference.
Note that we highlighted two types of inference in the diagram:
- Estimate a population value.
- Test a claim about the population value.
We end our introduction to inference with a look at research questions that illustrate these two types of inference. We also connect these examples to the types of inference we learn about in upcoming modules.
Research Questions That Involve Inference
| Type of Question | Examples | Variable Type | Unit |
|---|---|---|---|
| Make an estimate about the population | What proportion of all U.S. adults support the death penalty? | Categorical variable | Inference for One Proportion |
| What is the average number of hours that community college students work each week? | Quantitative variable | Inference for Means | |
| Test a claim about the population | Do the majority of community college students qualify for federal student loans? | Categorical variable | Inference for One Proportion |
| Has the average birth weight in a town decreased from 3,500 grams? | Quantitative variable | Inference for Means | |
| Compare two populations | Are teenage girls more likely to suffer from depression than teenage boys? | Categorical variable | Inference for Two Proportions |
| In community colleges do female students have a higher average GPA than male students? | Quantitative variable | Inference for Means |
Note: Each research question relates to either a categorical variable or a quantitative variable. In this course, three criteria determine the inference procedure we use:
- The type of variable.
- The type of inference (estimate a population value or test a claim about a population value).
- The number of populations involved.
Contributors and Attributions
- Concepts in Statistics. Provided by : Open Learning Initiative. Located at : http://oli.cmu.edu . License : CC BY: Attribution


3.2: Human Capital Trends
- Identify human capital trends and implications
In the Introduction to their Reimaging Human Resources briefing, consulting firm Deloitte notes that “Enterprises are fundamentally shifting with new business models, technologies, and changing expectations of—and by—the workforce. Often, HR teams are left straddling the needs of the legacy organization while planning for the needs of the future. This creates unprecedented opportunity for HR to play a new and vital role in shaping the way enterprises compete, access talent, and show up in the communities where they operate.” [1]
As their The future of enterprise demands a new future of HR video explains: How people live and work is changing dramatically. Enterprises must adapt. And so must HR. It’s time to reimagine outcomes and drive growth in the context of three futures happening now:
- The future of enterprise
- The future of the workforce and
- The future of how work gets done. [2]
In order to lead the organization into the future, HR will have to execute shifts across four dimensions: mindset, focus, lens and enablers. Here’s the framework for transformation:
Mindset
Shift from doing digital to being digital.
- Embrace new traits & behaviors
- Reevaluate job design and work and strategic planning to factor in artificial intelligence, robotics and cognitive technology
Focus
Shift from being center-driven to providing human-centered solutions.
- Personalize the workforce
- Drive measurable—qualitative and quantitative—value across the enterprise
Lens
Shift from compliance & control to trust and empowerment.
- Implement flexible operating models
- Develop ecosystems that foster speed, talent and innovation
Enablers
Shift from integrated systems to a unified engagement platform.
- Adopt advanced technologies
- Don’t just automate, reinvent
-
Mazor, Arthur H., and Michael Stephan. "
The Future of Enterprise Demands a New Future of HR
." Deloitte United States. July 08, 2019. Accessed August 06, 2019. ↵
-
Ibid. ↵
Contributors and Attributions
- Upward. Authored by : Peggy and Marco Lachmann-Anke. Provided by : Pixabay. Located at : pixabay.com/illustrations/course-graphic-upward-bar-top-1015601/. License : CC0: No Rights Reserved . License Terms : Pixabay License
- Lens Camera Focus. Authored by : Free-Photos. Provided by : Pixabay. Located at : pixabay.com/photos/lens-camera-lens-focus-focusing-1209823/. License : CC0: No Rights Reserved . License Terms : Pixabay License


9.2: Address All Developmental Domains
Course Competency 9. Integrate STEM learning experiences into an interdisciplinary unit
CRITERIA: 9.2. unit plan addresses all developmental domains
Domains of Learning
“Development” and “learning” are two integrated concepts that we promote as teachers. As children are “learning” new concepts and skills, they are fostering their “development”. Our goal is to encourage the development of the “whole child” (physical, cognitive, social, emotional, spiritual) by providing learning experiences based on children’s interests and abilities, a concept known as “ intentional teaching ”.
Although children learn in an integrated manner (blending all areas of development together) these areas are often broken down for planning purposes.
Figure 9.3: All areas of development affect and are affected by each other [69]
Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) below shows the relationship between the domains of development and concepts of learning.
Table 9.1: Relationship between Development and Learning [70]
|
Development |
Learning |
|
Cognitive |
Science, Technology, Math |
|
Language |
Language and Literacy |
|
Physical |
Health, Safety, Nutrition, Self-Help Skills, Physical Education |
|
Social, Emotional, Spiritual |
Social Science, Visual and Performing Arts |
|
Vignette Javier and Ji are playing in the block area. They have stacked several large blocks on top of each other. Twice the blocks have fallen and each time they have modified their plan slightly to make them stay. Once stable, Ji counts the blocks and Javier turns to the teacher and proudly says, “Look at our 5-story building, you should shop here.” |
|
|
|
Pause to Reflect Can you find development and learning for Javier and Ji in each of the categories listed in the table above? |
Including All Domains in Unit Plans
You will want to be sure that the activities you have planned for your interdisciplinary unit will foster development in all developmental domains.
See the images below for examples of how the children might be developing in all domains through the activities in the unit.


2.4: Speaking on Special Occasions
Learning Objectives
- Distinguish between informative and persuasive speeches as taught in class, and special occasion speeches.
- Identify special occasions when you might be asked to speak.
- Prepare for presentations in academic, social and professional settings.
The good news is that when you have mastered the informative and persuasive speech skills taught in SPE 100 and SPE 102 (for non-native speakers), you will be well equipped to tackle presentations for special occasions. We sometimes refer to informative speaking as “telling” and persuasive speaking as “selling” (an idea, a concept, an advocacy).
Although you may think you want to avoid speaking on special occasions at all costs, it is usually an honor and a pleasure, once you accept the fact that you will not be asked to speak unless it appears you are eminently suited to do so.
Special occasion speeches fall into four categories: academic, advocacy, social and professional; but the same rules or guidelines apply: be prepared, be appropriate, be brief.
You have already discovered that being prepared is essential. You show disrespect to your audience if you are unprepared, and you want to feel confident, not embarrassed by your own performance. To be appropriate, you need to know your audience and the occasion, as well as the purpose of the speech you will give. As for brevity, a good short speech is always preferred to a good long speech, and the speech that leaves us wanting for more always receives the loudest applause.
The original version of this chapter contained H5P content. You may want to remove or replace this element.
The best known speeches in high school and college are valedictorian and salutatorian speeches given at graduation ceremonies. If you are invited to give such a speech – congratulations! You are probably top of the class with a perfect 4.00 GPA.
Both words comes from the Latin. One is a greeting (“salut”), and the other a farewell speech (“vale”) in which the valedictorian says “good-bye” to college on behalf of the student body. It is expected that the speaker will thank the institution and mention how education has helped overcome difficulties and prepare for a brilliant future. It’s also supposed to be inspirational – not an easy task when you think of the thousands of speeches made across the United States every summer. And the audience is not your comfortable classroom of fellow students, but a stadium or theater packed with thousands of fellow graduates and their parents, as well as honored guests on stage. So the stakes are high. But the audience is usually friendly and appreciative. If the large number of strangers makes you nervous, concentrate on one section where your family and friends are sitting; then make eye contact with individual groups of your fellow graduates.
Rather than give directions, which are cold and uninspiring, it is better to relate successful valedictorian experiences from BMCC’s past. And it gives me great pleasure to introduce a BMCC student valedictorian whom I coached, and who is now my colleague with whom I share an office. Yes, one of the most exciting things about BMCC is that you can truly “Start Here, Go Anywhere!” In this case, Mark Janis started as a student, earned his Associate degree, bachelor’s degree, and master’s degree, and returned to BMCC first as a tutor, then as an adjunct, and now as a full-time instructor. What follows, in his own words, is Prof. Janis’ story. [ Please note that while most professors prefer their students prepare the BODY of the speech first, once the course is over you do what works best for you. In this case, Mark approached the outline chronologically: first the Introduction, then the Body, and last the Conclusion. ]
The original version of this chapter contained H5P content. You may want to remove or replace this element.
The Big Day
It was the phone call I had been waiting for. It was the Dean of Student Services inviting me to deliver the valedictorian speech at commencement. I had been keeping up a 4.0 GPA all year, and this was an honor, a reward for all the hard work and study. But when I started to write my speech, I was lost. Some reward, I thought to myself, as I stared at the blank paper.
In speech class, I had gotten A’s on my speeches so I decided to go back to the basic outline: introduction, body, and conclusion. Yet, after over an hour, I had gotten no further than when I started. I never had problems with outlines before, so why was I having trouble with this one? I finally realized it was not the format that was the problem; it was that I didn’t know what a valedictorian speech actually was. I didn’t know what it should accomplish. I didn’t know what my specific purpose was.
I put down my pen and paper and went looking for an old speech book (a good example of why you should keep your old textbooks) and turned to the chapter on special occasion speeches. The chapter said that the valedictorian speech is a farewell to the school on behalf of all fellow students. The speaker can inject his personal experiences; however the speech itself should not be egocentric. In other words, I was not speaking for and about myself, but rather I was chosen as a representative for the entire graduating class, to speak for and about them. The chapter went on to say that the speech must also thank the school and explain how the school helped us, the students, in reaching our goals. It should conclude on an inspirational note.
Now that I had my specific purpose and a clear understanding of what the speech must contain, I was ready. I started to compose the outline and filled out what was needed in each section.
Introduction
I. Introduce myself as the representative of the graduating class.
II. Thank the guests and all who attended.
III. Relate common experiences to show how we got to where we are as a class.
The last one gave me trouble. In a graduating class of over 2000 students, how in the world would I ever know what each student’s experiences were, let alone find the ones that we all shared? I started thinking about how we started the school year in late August. Hurricane Katrina had destroyed New Orleans weeks earlier. I remembered that our finals in December were postponed for two weeks because of a subway strike that shut down our city. We were in the middle of the Iraq War that sent our gasoline and fuel prices sky high. “Jeez”, I thought, “I can’t speak about such negative, depressing things. It’s a wonder any of us were able to make it through the school year.” After a while, I realized that it was indeed an accomplishment that we made it through such a year and we should be proud of that. My introduction was done. On to the body.
I knew the body was the point in the speech where I was to thank the college faculty and staff; but if I just thanked them, it would not be much of a body. This is where I could inject my own experiences of what fellow students, a college education, and the professors mean to me; in the process, I would be thanking them as well. I now had my three main points:
Body
I. Speak about positive things I have seen students do.
II. Remind the audience of the results and advantages of a college education.
III. Explain how teachers are invaluable because of the information they provide us.
Knowing that the body was the longest part of the speech and knowing I was facing 2000 students who wanted to get their diplomas and start celebrating, it was essential I keep the attention level high. The best way to do that was to tell a story that would keep the listeners interested. This is the part of the speech where I could get creative and even emotional (but not too emotional). After all, I didn’t want to break down in the middle of Madison Square Garden.
I knew that the conclusion of any speech needs a really good power punch ending. I wanted my listeners to feel inspired when they left, but I did not want to use any well-known sayings or cliches. (I actually had a professor come up to me before the speech and say he hoped there was no mention of “reaching for the stars” in my speech!) I wanted to inspire others toward something that they could actually do but may never have considered. If I could find a suitable quote, then I would have my power punch ending.
Conclusion
I. Signal the conclusion.
II. Use quote and raise banner.
III. Say goodbye.
The next day, I was to meet with the chair of the Speech Department, Prof. Powell, and for the next two weeks she and I would work on the speech together. She confirmed that my specific purpose was correct and was pleased with my main points, but she wanted to know what I would use as a visual aid. I must admit that I did not think this kind of speech needed one. But I also had to admit that with all the speeches I had heard in my speech class, it was the presentation aids that I remembered most. She suggested to me that I just repeat the school slogan–“Start Here, Go Anywhere!”–at the end of the speech and print it on a banner to hold up to the audience. It was just the thing I needed to end with a real punch.
The following is the speech I delivered to the BMCC class of 2006. It is because of what I learned in Speech 100 that I was able to present a well-organized, focused speech that satisfied the elements of a special occasion speech.
Good afternoon and welcome! As I stand here before you, keep in mind that I am only a representation of you, our fellow students. I only hope that the following words will do honor to the hard work you have accomplished here at BMCC.
I would like to thank all who came here today, especially our guests.
What a year this has been! We started the year in the aftermath of one of the nations’ worst natural disasters ever: Hurricane Katrina. We worked hard during the fall only to witness an MTA strike that shut down the city and delayed our finals for up to two weeks. We are ending this semester with skyrocketing prices of gas and merchandise, soaring rents here in New York City, and ongoing uncertainty in the Middle East. Through it all, BMCC has been our nook, shelter, our academic haven.
I came here as a 42 year-old freshman, but BMCC never made me feel any different than any other student. We truly have been part of a unique college. I have been in a class where the youngest student was 19 years old and the oldest was 72 years young. I have seen full-time workers who are earning their degrees walking into the building for classes on Saturday night and Sunday morning. I have seen mothers of all ages dropping off their children in BMCC’s daycare and going on to their classes with confidence that their child is in safe, caring hands.
When people speak of community colleges, they speak of a student body that is too busy with other parts of their life to concern themselves with other issues. They feel that we are just here to do our coursework and move on. To speak about our student body like that would be a mistake. I have seen you all during Wednesday club hours engaging one another in conversation and philosophy. I have seen students marching next to adjuncts fighting for higher pay and better benefits. I have seen you walk down Chambers Street to a recruiting station to protest the war, and I have seen you walk out of class and march up Broadway in support of immigrants. I have seen you in the early morning, boarding buses for Albany to lobby for more money for students with disabilities. I have seen you get involved. I have seen you care.
I came here in January 2005 after working for over twenty years in various occupations. They were quite different from one another but they all had one thing in common: competition. I am not talking about competition among businesses. That I expected. What I did not expect was competition among fellow workers. I entered the workforce in the decade whose motto was “information is power.” Information was the weapon of choice people used against one another. If you had knowledge about something, you kept it to yourself, with the thought that if you teach what you know to someone, that someone might take your job one day. I was selfish with my knowledge in order to survive.
As I stood outside BMCC on my first day of classes, I watched the other students walk by as I sized up what I perceived as my competition. I vowed that not only would I be selfish with my knowledge but also that I would obtain knowledge from others by whatever means necessary.
I kept up this vow for the first three weeks of the semester when I found myself entering the library for the first time to do some research on William Faulkner. As my feet made their way across the carpeted floor, my eyes were drawn to the shelves of books. As I walked by rows and rows of columns and columns of shelves and shelves, it struck me. I looked all around me at the books filled with knowledge right there for the taking. Pages and pages of information with answers to any question I could possibly come up with right there! At my fingertips. If I chose to, that day alone, I could have learned how to solve a linear equation, how to conjugate an irregular Spanish verb, the impact of the reform act of 1884, and the reason why the caged bird sings.
I learned in Astronomy 110 that we are made up from the sun. All the elements that our bodies contain–magnesium, iron, hydrogen–came from the core, the center of the sun. But after our bodies are formed, where do we receive the elements to fill our brains, our minds?
( Turn to professors )
It is these suns that give off information, knowledge. It is these administrators, teachers, instructors, professors, who are releasing energy from the core, the center of their minds; and in the same way that a new star begins its formation by grabbing hold of stellar dust, we grab hold of their stellar knowledge. And one day, it will be our turn to release our energy of knowledge to others.
I am not here to ask that you all become certified teachers. What I am asking is not to be selfish with your knowledge. Teach others in any way you can. Give generously of your knowledge. To quote Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales : “And gladly would he learn and gladly teach.”
I find it only fitting to close this address with a quote that we have all seen everywhere from our course catalogue to the banner that faces the Hudson River.
( Pick up banner. )
“START HERE. GO ANYWHERE.”
BMCC has given us a strong start. And because of this, we can indeed go anywhere.
Thank you! Good luck!
Appropriately, Mark’s photograph, together with the slogan, was used on BMCC publicity material, and we would often see him posted in subway trains in his graduation gown!
Another memorable valedictory speech came from “Joon” in 2002, and it almost didn’t happen. When I contacted Joon about coaching him in his speech, he waited so long to reply that I suggested someone else be selected. His reply was that as a non-native speaker of English (from South Korea) he was very nervous, and he had hated his speech class, even though he earned an “A”! Here, then, was the very material to share and bond with his audience: all students are nervous about public speaking and many hate taking speech classes!
Graduating in 2002, Joon was part of the senior class that suffered the devastation of 9/11, so it was appropriate to mention the six BMCC students and two former students who died at the World Trade Center. He did not know them personally, but I suggested he held up a photograph of those eight students. This was then taken up by the keynote speaker Hillary Clinton, then a New York Senator, and also featured in The New York Times and The Daily News. So, a student who was reluctant to speak at all made lemonade out of lemons and delivered a valedictory speech worthy of media coverage.
Valedictorians are not the only students called upon to speak in public. In a memorable fund-raising speech in 2004, honors student Aubrey Sebayoni, a black South African scholarship recipient who came to the U.S. as a welterweight boxing champion, talked about his struggle, his opportunity and his dream, and urged patrons to make large donations to the BMCC Scholarship fund.
Like Joon, Aubrey was not keen on accepting the invitation to speak to prospective donors with a background so different from his own. I persuaded him to tell his own story, which was so compelling. However, his first draft was long and rambling; so our job was to cut his outline down to a short story that really hit home. He was so successful that a record dollar amount was raised at the Gala, and Aubrey was invited to be a guest speaker for Con Edison, and then offered a job with Smith Barney.
Advocacy
Because of BMCC’s close proximity to City Hall, the college is often the base for CUNY demonstrations when our budgets are predictably cut almost every year. Student Government members often organize marches and take part in rallies which demand public speaking of a different nature. Notable student advocates have included Reggie Mason, Melissa Balthazar, and Orville Ingram.
In an interesting turn of events, Student Government Association President Reggie Mason once turned the tables on me, his speech professor. At a City Hall Park rally with thousands of demonstrators, he pulled me up on stage and handed me the bullhorn, when I had not expected to speak. Dressed in an academic gown for the march, I mentioned that older CUNY graduates had the opportunity for free or low cost tuition, and made the chance remark: “It’s YOUR turn now.” Miraculously, I heard students chanting back “It’s OUR turn now!” Needless to say, I repeated the slogan, heard it bellowed back again, and then left the stage, grateful for a truly good exit line.
Inside City Hall, testimony is very strictly controlled. Speakers usually have only two to three minutes to make their point, and a huge clock ticks away the time like an oven-timer. When time is up, the speaker is thanked for his /her testimony and expected to stop. If not, the microphone is turned off. Remember the old saying: “time is money!”
Social Events
Timing is also important in speeches for social events such as weddings, when celebrants want to be eating, drinking, and dancing rather than listening politely. Because members of the wedding party usually know each other well, it is tempting to tell off-color jokes or stories of bad behavior. Such temptations may be acceptable at bachelor/ette parties, but not at wedding receptions where several generations of the partners’ families may be present. Don’t say anything you would not say to your own grandmother. Rather than striking a note of hilarity, with the goal of entertaining, aim for the shedding of a tear, marking the end of one life and the beginning of another. It is too easy to get a laugh at the expense of the couple being married, and the ensuing embarrassment will be magnified when the glow of champagne no longer dulls the senses. Remember, these are “feel good” experiences, not stand-up comedy routines.
Similarly, if you are unfortunate enough to lose a loved one, and are asked to give the eulogy at a funeral, make sure you praise the deceased, and don’t dwell on problems, mistakes and indiscretions. The emphasis should be on the positive attributes of the deceased, and the contributions made to family or community. Fond memories will be appreciated, but grudges should not go beyond the grave.
On a lighter note, if you have the good fortune to receive an award, you need to acknowledge the institution that gives it, as well as your fellow recipients or competitors. Try to avoid the Oscar syndrome, in which you emulate the breathless and often inarticulate list of Academy Award “thank you’s”, and remember that if you use the occasion to propagate your pet cause, the results may be mixed. Recently, Black Lives Matter advocates have successfully spread their message widely, in unexpected places and occasions. But there can be a backlash, as demonstrated in many instances in the news. So you need to evaluate the advantages of spreading your message to a wide audience and weigh it against angry reactions. Such luminaries as Marlon Brando, Vanessa Redgrave, Jane Fonda and Michael Moore often lost work as a result of speaking out for social justice. And recently student valedictorians’ microphones have been cut when they advocated for transgender youth and abortion rights. In my opinion, this should not stop you from spilling advocacy into a social occasion. You should be aware, however, that this is controversial, and be prepared to stand up for your free speech rights, despite the consequences.
Introducing and/or Thanking a Speaker
Be brief and be gracious. Make sure your research includes the highlights of the speaker’s accomplishments relevant to the occasion. Take notes during the speech so you can refer to salient points at the end and show that you were really listening.
The original version of this chapter contained H5P content. You may want to remove or replace this element.
Professional Settings
You can be confident that once you have mastered the basic aspects of public speaking taught in SPE 100 and SPE 102 (for non-native speakers) you have the skills to carry you into your career. If called upon to give a report on the job, all the presentation tips you have learned will apply. Just make sure you know your audience, and analyze the space and technology available to maximize your proficiency.
If you are leading a group discussion, make sure everyone has a chance to contribute by asking questions of the silent members, and suggest that the least eloquent take notes to ensure inclusion. Be clear from the offset what is the expected outcome, and limit the time of those who always like to hear their own voices – respectfully but firmly. This is even more important if you are moderating a panel or symposium: an early speaker exceeding time limits will impact later speakers and lead to disgruntled speakers and audiences.
“This does not apply to me.”
You may think you will never be called upon to give a speech outside the classroom.  But think again! Don’t you want to speak out when you witness social injustice? Surely the #MeToo and “Black Lives Matter” movements have shown us that we do not need to be politicians or professional speakers to insist on change, reform, and justice for all? Your own lived experience in your own community may provide you with a story that inspires and helps others. You have the skills so speak up and be heard!
Whatever the occasion, be sure to ask how long your presentation should be , who else is speaking , in what order, as well as the purpose of the speech . Then prepare slightly under the time-frame.
Glossary of Special Occasion Speech Terms
Toast Honors a person or an event.
Roast Honors through light-hearted criticism.
Advocacy Reveals social injustice and suggests reform.
Welcome Welcomes a guest speaker or the audience.
Introduction Introduces a guest speaker to the audience.
Acceptance Gives thanks for an award or promotion.
After-dinner (or any meal) Serious or light-hearted to a group.
Keynote The main speech at a meeting.
Eulogy A funeral speech honoring the deceased.
Salutatorian Welcome speech at Commencement.
Valedictory Farewell Speech on behalf of the student body at Commencement.
Symposium Short academic discussion.
Panel Longer academic discussion.
The original version of this chapter contained H5P content. You may want to remove or replace this element.
Review Questions
- What are the audience expectations of a valedictorian speech?
- How can student advocates effect change?
- What are the pitfalls to avoid in speeches at a wedding reception?
Class Activity
Share experiences of giving or hearing special occasion speeches: what worked and what didn’t? Why?
Works Cited
Lukpat, Alyssa. “When a Valedictorian Spoke of His Queer Identity, the Principal Cut Off His Speech.” The New York Times. 6/27/21.
Hauser, Christine. “As Texas Abortion Law Nears, Opponents Amplify a Valedictorian’s Speech.” The New York Times. 6/3/21.


2.4: Toulmin Analysis Questions
Toulmin Analysis Model – for reading and analyzing an argument
The Toulmin model can also be used when you read an argument essay so that you can better analyze the author’s writing. Here are questions you can ask as you are reading:
- Claim : The author wants me to believe:
- Support/subclaims : I should believe this because:
- Warrants : Why is this claim important to the author? (assumptions and/or values the author holds):
- Backing for Warrants : What evidence does the author give to remind me of warrants and make me want to accept them?
- Rebuttal : Are other positions shown? Are they refuted or discussed?
- Qualifier : Is there anything which suggests the claim might be limited (sometimes, probably, possibly, if)?


11.1: Motive
A motive (or motif) is the smallest identifiable melodic idea in music. However, we will find times when it will be necessary to discuss a smaller fragment (called a “germ” by some authors) from a motive.
In the following example from the first movement of Beethoven’s Symphony No. 1, we find four motives within the first four measures of the primary theme.
Later in the movement we find Beethoven extracting motives from this four-measure phrase in order to develop them through sequences (see Definition 9.1.11 ).
Here is development of motive 1.
Here is development of motive 2
Here is development of motives 2 and 3 together.
The previous excerpt leads directly into the next, which features development of motive 4.


9.3: Physical Development
-
- Last updated
- Save as PDF
- Lumen Learning
- Lumen Learning
Learning Outcomes
- Detail the most important physiological changes occurring in men and and women during middle adulthood
- Describe how physiological changes during middle adulthood can impact life experience, health, and sexuality
Physical Mobility in Middle Adulthood
The importance of not succumbing to the temptations of a sedentary lifestyle was as obvious to Hippocrates in 400 BCE as it is now. Piasecki et al (2018) are of the opinion that sarcopenia (l oss of muscle tissue and function as we age) in legs might be the result of leg muscles becoming detached from the nervous system. Further, Piasescki et al (2018) believe that exercise encourages new nerve growth slowing the progression of sarcopenia. Persons aged 75 may have up to 30-60% fewer nerve endings in their leg muscles than they did in their early 20s. [1]
Sarcopenia has only recently been recognized an independent disease entity since 2016 (ICD-10). In 2018 the U.S. Center for Disease Control and prevention assigned sarcopenia its own discrete medical code. Disease entities that affect mobility will become an increasingly costly phenomenon, and will affect the quality of life of millions of people as the population ages. In many ways it is a natural phenomenon, and many doctors and researchers have been reticent to overly pathologize natural changes associated with age. However, mobility is now becoming a central concern, and some researchers are now identifying some conditions like osteosarcopenia, which describes the decline of both muscle tissue (sarcopenia) and bone tissue (osteoporosis). Diagnoses and pharmaceuticals which deal with the central question of mobility will become ever more important, even more so as the burgeoning costs associated with caring for those with mobility issues becomes apparent.
The years between 30 and 60 can see the onset of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). This is the third most common form of arthritis and its specific etiology is unknown at this time. RA occurs when antibodies attack normal synovial fluid in the joints mistaking them for an alien threat. It affects women more than men by a factor of around 3 to 1 . Peak onset for women is reckoned to be sometime in the early 40s. This has led to the conclusion, albeit a preliminary one, that RA is caused by hormonal changes. Women who are pregnant, and have RA, often experience a temporary remission, again leading to the identification of hormonal changes in the body as the most likely culprit. Women also experience symptoms at an earlier age. This condition is often associated with people in their 60s, but only about a third first experience symptoms at this age, though they become more acute with the passage of time.
Human beings reach peak bone mass around 35-40. Osteoporosis is a “silent disease” which progresses until a fracture occurs. The sheer scale and cost of this illness is radically underestimated. It is often associated with women due to the fact that bone mass can deteriorate in women much more quickly in middle age due to menopause. After menopause women can lose 5-10% bone mass per year, rendering it advisable to monitor intakes of calcium and Vitamin D, and evaluate individual risk factors. Beginning in their 60s, though, men and women lose bone mass at roughly the same rate. The number of American men diagnosed with osteoporosis is currently around the 2 million mark, with a further 12 million reckoned to be at risk. The National Osteoporosis Foundation (NOF) estimates that 50% of women and 25% of men over the age of 50 will suffer a bone fracture due to osteoporosis. Attention at this stage of the life may bring pronounced health benefits now and later for both women and men. Fixing the damage takes a considerable amount of the Medicare budget.
The health benefits that walking and other physical activity have on the nervous system are becoming increasingly obvious to those who study aging. Adami et al (2018) found pronounced links between weight bearing exercise and neuron production. We tend to think of the brain as a central processing unit giving instructions to the body via the conduit of of the central nervous system, but contemporary science is now coalescing around the idea that muscles and nerves also communicate with the brain—it is a two-way informational and sustaining process. Many studies suggest that voluntary physical activity (VPA) extends and improves quality of life. Such studies show that even moderate physical activity can bring large gains. [2] .
In addition, there is often an increase in chronic inflammation at this time of life with no discernible discrete cause (as opposed to acute inflammation associated with something like an infection). Inflammation is the body’s natural way of responding to injury or harmful pathogens in the body. The function of inflammation is to eliminate the initial cause of injury and initiate tissue repair, but when this happens consistently and for longer periods of time, the body’s stress response systems become overworked. This can have serious effects on health, such as fatigue, fever, chest or abdominal pain, rashes, or greater susceptibility to diseases such as cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, and heart disease. Untreated acute inflammation, autoimmune disorders, or long-term exposure to irritants are some contributing factors, [3] as is social isolation (Nersessian et al, 2018).
Chronic inflammation has been implicated as part of the cause of the muscle loss that occurs with aging. [4] Chronic inflammatory disorder is now implicated in a whole series of chronic diseases such as dementia, and the biomedical evidence for its centrality is now emerging in the medical research literature.
Because of the aging population, health issues associated with autoimmune disease, chronic inflammation, and bone mass density will become central concerns in health and social policy in the coming decades.
Normal Physiological Changes in Middle Adulthood
There are a few primary biological physical changes in midlife. There are changes in vision, hearing, more joint pain, and weight gain (Lachman, 2004). Vision is affected by age. As we age, the lens of the eye gets larger but the eye loses some of the flexibility required to adjust to visual stimuli. This is known as presbyopia . Middle aged adults often have trouble seeing up close as a result. Night vision is also affected as the pupil loses some of its ability to open and close to accommodate drastic changes in light.
Presbycusis is the most common cause of hearing loss, afflicting one out of four persons between ages 65 and 74, and one out of two by age 75. This loss accumulates after years of being exposed to intense noise levels, and is generally due to the loss or damage of nerve hair cells inside the cochlea. It is more common in men, but men are also more likely to work in noisy occupations, which may explain their nearly doubled rates of hearing loss levels. [5] Hearing loss is also exacerbated by cigarette smoking, high blood pressure, and stroke. High frequency sounds are the first affected by such hearing loss. Hearing loss could be prevented by guarding against b eing exposed to extremely noisy environments.
There is new concern over hearing loss as early as childhood with the widespread use of headphones, as loud and/or prolonged listening can cause damage to the cilia, or the tiny sensory hairs, within the cochlea. Another cause of hearing loss in middle age is otosclerosis , a physiological condition affecting the middle ear and its bone structure. This occurs when one of the bones in the middle ear, the stapes, acquires a rigidity via abnormal bone growth which it should not have. Unable to vibrate, it induces hearing impairment. Otosclerosis is often described as a rare condition, but it afflicts a good number of Americans, with white women being more prone, though there has been some speculation that this was the origin of deafness in the composer Beethoven. Its cause is unknown, but chronic inflammation may be a risk factor. We tend to associate hearing loss with older adults, but peak onset is in the middle adulthood age bracket.
Weight gain, sometimes referred to as the middle-aged spread, or the accumulation of fat in the abdomen is one of the common complaints of midlife adults.  Many adults are surprised at this weight gain because their diets have not changed. However, the metabolism slows by about one-third during midlife (Berger, 2005). Consequently, midlife adults have to increase their level of exercise, eat less, and watch their nutrition to maintain their earlier physique.
Many of the changes that occur in midlife can be easily compensated for (by buying glasses, exercising, and watching what one eats, for example.) Most midlife adults experience generally good health. However, the percentage of adults who have a disability increases through midlife; while 7 percent of people in their early 40s have a disability, the rate jumps to 30 percent by the early 60s. This increase is highest among those of lower socioeconomic status (Bumpass and Aquilino, 1995).
What can we conclude from this information? Again, lifestyle has a strong impact on the health status of midlife adults. Smoking tobacco, drinking alcohol, poor diet, stress, physical inactivity, and chronic disease such as diabetes or arthritis reduce overall health. It becomes important for midlife adults to take preventative measures to enhance physical well-being. Those midlife adults who have a strong sense of mastery and control over their lives, who engage in challenging physical and mental activity, who engage in weight bearing exercise, monitor their nutrition, and make use of social resources are most likely to enjoy a plateau of good health through these years. Not only that, but those who begin an exercise regimen in their 40s may enjoy comparable benefits to those who began in their 20s according to Saint-Maurice et al (2019), who also found that while it is never too late to begin, continuing to do as much as possible, is just as important. [6]
The Climacteric
One biologically based change that occurs during midlife is the climacteric . During midlife, men may experience a reduction in their ability to reproduce. Women, however, lose their ability to reproduce once they reach menopause.
Menopause
Menopause refers to a period of transition in which a woman’s ovaries stop releasing eggs and the level of estrogen and progesterone production decreases. After menopause, a woman’s menstruation ceases (U. S. National Library of Medicine and National Institute of Health [NLM/NIH], 2007).
Changes typically occur between the mid 40s and mid 50s. The median age range for a women to have her last menstrual period is 50-52, but ages vary. A woman may first begin to notice that her periods are more or less frequent than before. These changes in menstruation may last from 1 to 3 years. After a year without menstruation, a woman is considered menopausal and no longer capable of reproduction. (Keep in mind that some women, however, may experience another period even after going for a year without one.) The loss of estrogen also affects vaginal lubrication which diminishes and becomes more watery. The vaginal wall also becomes thinner, and less elastic.
Menopause is not seen as universally distressing (Lachman, 2004). Changes in hormone levels are associated with hot flashes and sweats in some women, but women vary in the extent to which these are experienced. Depression, irritability, and weight gain are not necessarily due to menopause (Avis, 1999; Rossi, 2004). Depression and mood swings are more common during menopause in women who have prior histories of these conditions rather than those who have not. The incidence of depression and mood swings is not greater among menopausal women than non-menopausal women.
Cultural influences seem to also play a role in the way menopause is experienced. For example, once after listing the symptoms of menopause in a psychology course, a woman from Kenya responded, “We do not have this in my country or if we do, it is not a big deal,” to which some U.S. students replied, “I want to go there!” Indeed, there are cultural variations in the experience of menopausal symptoms. Hot flashes are experienced by 75 percent of women in Western cultures, but by less than 20 percent of women in Japan (Obermeyer in Berk, 2007).
Women in the United States respond differently to menopause depending upon the expectations they have for themselves and their lives. White, career-oriented women, African-American, and Mexican-American women overall tend to think of menopause as a liberating experience. Nevertheless, there has been a popular tendency to erroneously attribute frustrations and irritations expressed by women of menopausal age to menopause and thereby not take her concerns seriously. Fortunately, many practitioners in the United States today are normalizing rather than pathologizing menopause.
Concerns about the effects of hormone replacement have changed the frequency with which estrogen replacement and hormone replacement therapies have been prescribed for menopausal women. Estrogen replacement therapy was once commonly used to treat menopausal symptoms. But more recently, hormone replacement therapy has been associated with breast cancer, stroke, and the development of blood clots (NLM/NIH, 2007). Most women do not have symptoms severe enough to warrant estrogen or hormone replacement therapy (HRT). Women who do require HRT can be treated with lower doses of estrogen and monitored with more frequent breast and pelvic exams. There are also some other ways to reduce symptoms. These include avoiding caffeine and alcohol, eating soy, remaining sexually active, practicing relaxation techniques, and using water-based lubricants during intercourse.
Fifty million women in the USA aged 50-55 are post-menopausal. During and after menopause a majority of women will experience weight gain. Changes in estrogen levels lead to a redistribution of body fat from hips and back to stomachs. This is more dangerous to general health and wellbeing because a bdominal fat is largely visceral, meaning it is contained within the abdominal cavity and may not look like typical weight gain. That is, it accumulates in the space between the liver, intestines and other vital organs.  It is possible to be relatively thin and retain a high level of visceral fat, yet this type of fat is deemed especially harmful by medical research.
Andropause
Do males experience a climacteric? Yes. While they do not lose their ability to reproduce as they age, they do tend to produce lower levels of testosterone and fewer sperm. However, men are capable of reproduction throughout life after puberty. It is natural for sex drive to diminish slightly as men age, but a lack of sex drive may be a result of extremely low levels of testosterone. About 5 million men experience low levels of testosterone that results in symptoms such as a loss of interest in sex, loss of body hair, difficulty achieving or maintaining erection, loss of muscle mass, and breast enlargement. This decrease in libido and lower testosterone (androgen) levels is known as andropause , although this term is somewhat controversial as this experience is not clearly delineated, as menopause is for women. Low testosterone levels may be due to glandular disease such as testicular cancer. Testosterone levels can be tested and if they are low, men can be treated with testosterone replacement therapy. This can increase sex drive, muscle mass, and beard growth. However, long term HRT for men can increase the risk of prostate cancer (The Patient Education Institute, 2005).
The debate around declining testosterone levels in men may hide a fundamental fact. The issue is not about individual males experiencing individual hormonal change at all. We have all seen the adverts on the media promoting substances to boost testosterone: “Is it low-T?” The answer is probably in the affirmative, if somewhat relative. That is, in all likelihood they will have lower testosterone levels than their fathers. However, it is equally likely that the issue does not lie solely in their individual physiological make up, but is rather a generational transformation (Travison et al, 2007). Why this has occurred in such a dramatic fashion is still unknown. There is evidence that low testosterone may have negative health effects on men. In addition, there are studies which show evidence of rapidly decreasing sperm count and grip strength. Exactly why these changes are happening is unknown and will likely involve more than one cause. [7]
The Climacteric and Sexuality
Sexuality is an important part of people’s lives at any age. Midlife adults tend to have sex lives that are very similar to that of younger adulthood. And many women feel freer and less inhibited sexually as they age. However, a woman may notice less vaginal lubrication during arousal and men may experience changes in their erections from time to time. This is particularly true for men after age 65. Men who experience consistent problems are likely to have other medical conditions (such as diabetes or heart disease) that impact sexual functioning (National Institute on Aging, 2005).
Couples continue to enjoy physical intimacy and may engage in more foreplay, oral sex, and other forms of sexual expression rather than focusing as much on sexual intercourse. Risk of pregnancy continues until a woman has been without menstruation for at least 12 months, however, and couples should continue to use contraception. People continue to be at risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections such as genital herpes, chlamydia, and genital warts. Seventeen percent of new cases of AIDS in the United States are in people 50 and older ( https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/group/age/ol...ans/index.html ). Of all people living with HIV, 47% are aged 50 or over ( https://aidsinfo.nih.gov/understandi...d-older-adults ). Practicing safe sex is important at any age- safe sex is not just about avoiding an unwanted pregnancy… it is about protecting yourself from STDs as well. Hopefully, when partners understand how aging affects sexual expression, they will be less likely to misinterpret these changes as a lack of sexual interest or displeasure in the partner and be more able to continue to have satisfying and safe sexual relationships.
Exercise, Nutrition, and Health
The impact of exercise
Exercise is a powerful way to combat the changes we associate with aging. Exercise builds muscle, increases metabolism, helps control blood sugar, increases bone density, and relieves stress. Unfortunately, fewer than half of midlife adults exercise and only about 20 percent exercise frequently and strenuously enough to achieve health benefits. Many stop exercising soon after they begin an exercise program-particularly those who are very overweight. The best exercise programs are those that are engaged in regularly—regardless of the activity, but a well-rounded program that is easy to follow includes walking and weight training. Having a safe, enjoyable place to walk can make the difference in whether or not someone walks regularly. Weight lifting and stretching exercises at home can also be part of an effective program. Exercise is particularly helpful in reducing stress in midlife. Walking, jogging, cycling, or swimming can release the tension caused by stressors, and learning relaxation techniques can have healthful benefits. Exercise can be thought of as preventative health care; promoting exercise for the 78 million “baby boomers” may be one of the best ways to reduce health care costs and improve quality of life (Shure & Cahan, 1998).
Nutrition
Aging brings about a reduction in the number of calories a person requires. Many Americans respond to weight gain by dieting. However, eating less does not necessarily mean eating right and people often suffer vitamin and mineral deficiencies as a result. Very often, physicians will recommend vitamin supplements to their middle aged patients. As stated above, chronic inflammation is now identified as one of the so called “pillars of aging”. The link between diet and inflammation is yet unclear, but there is now some information available on the Diet Inflammation Index (Shivappa et, 2014). [8] , which in popular parlance, supports a diet rich in plant-based foods, healthy fats, nuts, fish in moderation, and sparing use of red meat— often referred to as “the Mediterranean Diet.”
The ideal diet is one low in fat, low in sugar, high in fiber, low in sodium, and low in cholesterol. In 2005, the Food Pyramid, a set of nutritional guidelines established by the U. S. Government was updated to accommodate new information on nutrition and to provide people with guidelines based on age, sex, and activity levels. The ideal diet is low in sodium (less than 2300 mg per day). Sodium causes fluid retention which may in turn exacerbate high blood pressure. The ideal diet is also low in cholesterol (less than 300 mg per day) and high in fiber. Fiber is thought to reduce the risk of certain cancers and heart disease. Finally, an ideal diet is low in sugar. Sugar is not only a problem for diabetics; it is also a problem for most people. Sugar satisfies the appetite but provides no protein, vitamins or minerals. It provides empty calories. High starch diets are also a problem because starch is converted to sugar in the body. A 1-2 ounce serving of red wine (or grape juice) may have beneficial effects on health, as red wine can increase “good cholesterol” or HDLs (high density lipoproteins) in the blood and provide antioxidants important for combating aging. [9]
Glossary
- andropause
- age-related hormone changes in men due to lower testosterone levels
- chronic inflammation
- when the body’s immune system is working to fight off infections and toxins for prolonged periods of time, having a negative impact on tissues and organs
- climacteric
- term used to describe the menopausal period and hormonal changes associated with the gradual change in ovarian production
- menopause
- period of transition in which a woman’s ovaries stop releasing eggs and the level of estrogen and progesterone production decreases
- osteosarcopenia
- when someone has both sarcopenia and osteoporosis, or both muscle and bone tissue loss
- osteoporosis
- the decline and loss of bone density and the increasing fragile and brittle condition of bones from a loss of tissue
- presbyopia
- farsightedness caused by loss of flexibility of the lens of the eye as a result of aging
- presbycusis
- hearing loss as a result of aging
- sarcopenia
- the technical term for the loss of muscle tissue and function as we age
- Piasecki, M., Piasecki, J., Stashuk, D. W., Swiecicka, A., Rutter, M. K., Jones, D. A., & McPhee, J. S. (2018, March 23). Failure to expand the motor unit size to compensate for declining motor unit numbers distinguishes sarcopenic from non‐sarcopenic older men. Retrieved from https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1113/JP275520<EMAIL_ADDRESS>- Raffaella, Pagano, Jessica, Michela, Platonova, Natalia, . . . Daniele. (2018, April 30). Reduction of Movement in Neurological Diseases: Effects on Neural Stem Cells Characteristics. Retrieved from https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnins.2018.00336/full?utm_source=G-BLO&utm_medium=WEXT&utm_campaign=ECO_FNINS_20180607_leg-exercise<EMAIL_ADDRESS>- Santos-Longhurst, Adrienne. Understanding and Managing Chronic Inflammation. Healthline . Retrieved from https://www.healthline.com/health/chronic-inflammation#symptoms<EMAIL_ADDRESS>- oth, M. J.; Matthews, DE; Tracy, RP; Previs, MJ (29 December 2004). "Age-related differences in skeletal muscle protein synthesis: relation to markers of immune activation". AJP: Endocrinology and Metabolism. 288 (5): E883–E891. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00353.2004. PMID 15613683<EMAIL_ADDRESS>- National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. Quick Statistics on Hearing. Retrieved from https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/sta...istics-hearing<EMAIL_ADDRESS>- P.Saint-Maurice et al (2019) Association of leisure Time Physical Activity Across the Adult Life Course with all cause and cause specific mortality JAMA Netw Open. 2019;2(3):e190355. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.0355<EMAIL_ADDRESS>- Travison et al (2007) Testoserone levels<EMAIL_ADDRESS>- Shivappa et al (2014). Diet Inflammation Index<EMAIL_ADDRESS>- P.Nersessian et al (2018 ) Loneliness in middle age and biomarkers of systemic inflammation. Findings from midlife in the US Social Science and Medicine 209 174-81<EMAIL_ADDRESS>Contributors and Attributions
- Modification, adaptation, and original content. Authored by : Ronnie Mather for Lumen Learning. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. Authored by : Laura Overstreet. Located at : http://opencourselibrary.org/econ-201/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Authored by : Ed Yourdan. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle#/media/File:Jogging_couple.jpg . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Menopause. Authored by : Mikael Hu00e4ggstru00f6m. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Symptoms_of_menopause_(vector).svg . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Inflammation. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammation#cite_note-pmid15613683-87 . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Couple preparing for bike ride. Authored by : Bill Branson acquired from National Cancer Institute. Located at : http://www.freestockphotos.biz/stockphoto/17048 . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright


1.3: Retailing
- Define retailing
Retailing involves all activities required to market consumer goods and services to ultimate consumers who are purchasing for individual or family needs.
By definition, Business-to-Business (B2B) purchases are not included in the retail channel since they are not made for individual or family needs. In practice this can be confusing because many retail outlets do serve both consumers and business customers—like Home Depot, which has a Pro Xtra program for selling directly to builders and contractors. Generally, retailers that have a significant B2B or wholesale business report these numbers separately in their financial statements, acknowledging that they are separate lines of business within the same company. Those with a pure retail emphasis do not seek to exclude business purchasers. They simply focus their offering to appeal to individual consumers, knowing that some businesses may also choose to purchase from them.
We typically think of a store when we think of a retail sale, even though retail sales occur in other places and settings. For instance, they can be made by a Pampered Chef salesperson in someone’s home. Retail sales also happen online, through catalogs, by automatic vending machines, and in hotels and restaurants. Nonetheless, despite tremendous growth in both nontraditional retail outlets and online sales, most retail sales still take place in brick-and-mortar stores.
The Retail Industry
The term retail refers to the sale of goods and services to the public for consumption. Retailing involves all activities required to market consumer goods and services to consumers who are purchasing for individual or family needs through a point of purchase.
The retail industry covers an enormous range of consumer needs. According to the National Retail Federation, there are sixteen major segments in the industry. As shown below, these categories are not necessarily store types, but they show the breadth of products offered through the retail chain. [1]
| Category | Sample Retailers |
|---|---|
| Auto Aftermarket | Advance Auto Parts, AutoZone, Pep Boys |
| Department Stores | Kohl’s, Macy’s, Nordstrom, Saks Fifth Avenue |
| Drug Stores | CVS, Rite Aid, Walgreen’s |
| Entertainment and Consumer Electronics | AT&T, Apple, Barnes & Noble, BestBuy, GameStop, Toys R Us |
| Footwear | DSW, Foot Locker |
| General Apparel | Forever 21, Gap, H&M, Old Navy, TJ Maxx, Urban Outfitters |
| Health and Beauty | Bath and Body Works, Sally Beauty, Sephora, Ulta |
| Hobby and Craft | Michael’s, Guitar Center, Jo-Ann Fabrics |
| Home Improvement and Hardware | Home Depot, Ikea, Pier 1 Imports, True Value, Williams-Sonoma |
| Jewelry and Accessories | Charming Charlie’s, Coach, Piercing Pagoda, Signet, Tiffany & Co. |
| Mass Merchants | Amazon, Costco, Target, Walmart |
| Restaurants | Chipotle, KFC, McDonald’s, Olive Garden, Starbucks |
| Small-Format Value | Big Lots, Dollar General, Dollar Tree, Family Dollar |
| Sporting Goods and Outdoor | Bass Pro Shops, Cabela’s, Dick’s, Sports Authority, REI |
| Supermarkets | Albertson’s, Kroger, QFC, Safeway, Publix, Whole Foods |
| Women’s Apparel | Ann Taylor, Lane Bryant, Talbot’s, Victoria’s Secret |
The retail industry is designed to create contact efficiency—allowing shoppers to buy what they want with a smaller number of transactions. This design doesn’t come from a master retail plan; it’s driven by market forces. When a retailer sees an opportunity to expand its offering to increase purchases from customers in one location, it will take advantage of it. For example, when Barnes & Noble adds Starbucks coffee shops to its locations, customers visit more frequently and stay longer, increasing the likelihood of additional purchases. Costco recognized that busy holiday shoppers would rather buy a Christmas tree as part of a larger convenience purchase than have a focused (and less convenient) buying experience at a Christmas tree lot. Such opportunities cause retailers to expand their offerings, creating greater contact efficiency for consumers.
Given this logic and opportunity, why doesn’t every retailer become a Walmart Super Store filled with every possible product? Like all organizations that market effectively, retailers shape their offerings to a target buyer and must consider the particular shopping experience a buyer is seeking in that moment or context. One experience isn’t right for everyone at the same time; nor are all “experiences” compatible. For example, a buyer is expecting a different experience when she fills her car’s gas tank and when she stays at a luxury resort.
Retailers define their target buyer segments, identify the service outputs that those segments require, and match their offerings to provide value to each target segment.
We can understand this better by looking at Zara and Forever 21 . Both of these retailers offer fast fashion and appeal directly to several markets from pre-teen to young adult, ages 12-24. They generally cycle through products fairly quickly making it appealing for a customer to purchase right away or else risk missing out on the item.
Beyond the distinctions in the products they provide, there are structural differences among retailers that influence their strategies and results. One of the reasons the retail industry is so large and powerful is its diversity. Stores vary in size, in the kinds of services that are provided, in the assortment of merchandise they carry, and in their ownership and management structures.
The U.S. Census Bureau indicates that 94.5 percent of retail companies have only one location or store. [2] More than one million retail businesses in the U.S. have fewer than one hundred employees. Most retail outlets are small and have weekly sales of just a few hundred dollars. A few are extremely large, having sales of $500,000 or more on a single day. In fact, on special sale days, some stores exceed $1 million in sales.
This diversity in size and earnings is reflected in the range of different ownership and management structures, discussed below.
Department Stores
Department stores are characterized by their wide product mixes. That is, they carry many different types of merchandise, which may include hardware, clothing, and appliances. Each type of merchandise is typically displayed in a different section or department within the store. The depth of the product mix depends on the store, but department stores’ primary distinction is the ability to provide a wide range of products within a single store. For example, people shopping at Macy’s can buy clothing for a woman, a man, and children, as well as housewares such as dishes and luggage.
Chain Stores
The 1920s saw the evolution of the chain store movement. Because chains were so large, they were able to buy a wide variety of merchandise in large quantity discounts. The discounts substantially lowered their cost compared to costs of single unit retailers. As a result, they could set retail prices that were lower than those of their small competitors and thereby increase their share of the market. Furthermore, chains were able to attract many customers because of their convenient locations, made possible by their financial resources and expertise in selecting locations.
Supermarkets
Supermarkets evolved in the 1920s and 1930s. For example, Piggly Wiggly Food Stores , founded by Clarence Saunders around 1920, introduced self-service and customer checkout counters. Supermarkets are large, self-service stores with central checkout facilities. They carry an extensive line of food items and often nonfood products. There are 37,459 supermarkets operating in the United States, and the average store now carries nearly 44,000 products in roughly 46,500 square feet of space. The average customer visits a store just under twice a week, spending just over $30 per trip. Supermarkets’ entire approach to the distribution of food and household cleaning and maintenance products is to offer large assortments these goods at each store at a minimal price.
Discount Retailers
Discount retailers, like Ross Dress for Less and Grocery Outlet , are characterized by a focus on price as their main sales appeal. Merchandise assortments are generally broad and include both hard and soft goods, but assortments are typically limited to the most popular items, colors, and sizes. Traditional stores are usually large, self-service operations with long hours, free parking, and relatively simple fixtures. Online retailers such as Overstock.com have aggregated products offered them at deep discounts. Generally, customers sacrifice having a reliable assortment of products to receive discounts on the available products.
Warehouse Retailers
Warehouse retailers provide a bare-bones shopping experience at very low prices. Costco is the dominant warehouse retailer, with $79.7 billion in sales in 2014. Warehouse retailers streamline all operational aspects of their business and pass on the efficiency savings to customers. Costco generally uses a cost-plus pricing structure and provides goods in wholesale quantities. A cost-plus pricing structure involves determining what the markup should be for an item and adding that to the cost of the item. The company must first determine the break-even point for the product by calculating all costs involved in marketing, distributing, and producing a product.
Franchises
The franchise approach brings together national chains and local ownership. An owner purchases a franchise which gives her the right to use the firm’s business model and brand for a set period of time. Often, the franchise agreement includes well-defined guidance for the owner, training, and on-going support. The owner, or franchisee, builds and manages the local business. Entrepreneur magazine posts a list each year of the 500 top franchises according to an evaluation of financial strength and stability, growth rate, and size. The Entrepreneur Magazine’s 2016 list of the 500 top franchises is led by Jimmy John’s gourmet sandwiches, Hampton by Hilton midprice hotels, Supercuts hair salon, Servpro insurance/disaster restoration and cleaning, and Subway restaurants.
Malls and Shopping Centers
Malls and shopping centers are successful because they provide customers with a wide assortment of products across many stores. If you want to buy a suit or a dress, a mall provides many alternatives in one location. Malls are larger centers that typically have one or more department stores as major tenants. Strip malls are a common string of stores along major traffic routes, while isolated locations are freestanding sites not necessarily in heavy traffic areas. Stores in isolated locations must use promotion or some other aspect of their marketing mix to attract shoppers.
Online Retailing
Online retailing is unquestionably a dominant force in the industry. Between 2011 and 2015, online retailing is expected to grow from 7% of total retail sales to 15% by 2020. The Asia-Pacific market represents the largest share of the retail ecommerce market while North America is the second largest. Ecommerce sales in North America continue to be fueled by increased spending using smartphones and tablets as well as growth in key categories such as grocery and apparel.
Companies like Amazon and Geico complete all or most of their sales online. Many other online sales result from online sales of traditional retailers, such as purchases made at Nordstrom.com . Online marketing plays a significant role in preparing the buyers who shop in stores. In a similar integrated approach, catalogs that are mailed to customers’ homes drive online orders. In a survey on its Web site, Land’s End found that 75 percent of customers who were making purchases had reviewed the catalog first. [3]
Catalog Retailing
Catalogs have long been used as a marketing device to drive phone and in-store sales. As online retailing began to grow, it had a significant impact on catalog sales. Many retailers who depended on catalog sales—Sears, Land’s End, and J.C. Penney, to name a few—suffered as online retailers and online sales from traditional retailers pulled convenience shoppers away from catalog sales. Catalog mailings peaked in 2009 and saw a significant decrease through 2012. In 2013, there was a small increase in catalog mailings. Industry experts note that catalogs are changing, as is their role in the retail marketing process. Despite significant declines, U.S. households still receive 11.9 billion catalogs each year. [4]
Nonstore Retailing
Beyond those mentioned in the categories above, there’s a wide range of traditional and innovative retailing approaches. Although the Avon lady largely disappeared at the end of the last century, there are still in-home sales from Arbonne facial products, cabi women’s clothing, WineShop at Home , and others. Many of these models are based on the idea of a woman using her personal network to sell products to her friends and their friends, often in a party setting.
In addition, the amount of subscription services such as Stitch Fix , Trunk Club , and Amazon Prime Wardrobe has increased. Research from the NPD group shows these services are increasing in popularity although still very much in the beginning stages. The annual spend for these services increased 5% to $170 according to NPD.
Vending machines and point-of-sale kiosks have long been a popular retail device. Today they are becoming more targeted, such as companies selling easily forgotten items—such as small electronics devices and makeup items—to travelers in airports.
Each of these retailing approaches can be customized to meet the needs of the target buyer or combined to span a range of needs.
Contributors and Attributions
- The Retail Industry. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Chapter 10, Channel Concepts: Distributing the Product, from Introducing Marketing. Authored by : John Burnett. Located at : https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/BookDetail.aspx?bookId=388 . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Philadelphia Retail Space. Authored by : Ashim D'Silva. Located at : https://unsplash.com/photos/ZmgJiztRHXE . License : Other . License Terms : Unsplash License
- Piggly Wiggly VA. Authored by : Acroterion. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Piggly_Wiggly_VA1.jpg . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Ankara: Panora Shopping Mall. Authored by : Jorge Franganillo. Provided by : flickr. Located at : https://flic.kr/p/eDYfQW . License : CC BY: Attribution
- iPod vending machine. Authored by : Greg Hewgill. Provided by : flickr. Located at : https://flic.kr/p/68Mbr5 . License : CC BY: Attribution