1.10: The Duchess of Sutherland and Slavery
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“Le secret des grandes fortunes sans cause apparente est un crime oublié, parce qu’il a été proprement fait” [1] – Balzac
NOTE ON SOURCE: This selection was written by Marx in 1853 and published in The People’s Paper (no.45, March 12th).
Introduction – Why this is important and what to look for
Marx partially survived on newspaper articles he published on issues ranging from British imperialism to American slavery. This is an example of his biting satire and moral outrage over the hypocrisy of the British aristocracy. It has been included here verbatim from the original publication. Harriet Elizabeth Georgiana Sutherland-Leveson-Gower, Duchess of Sutherland (1806-1868) was a semi-official politician in the British government during this period, and a friend of Queen Victoria. She used her power and social position for various charitable work and led a protest against American slavery. In his article, Marx points out the role the Duchess’ family had in the forced emigration of many from Scotland during the “enclosure” period. He thus forces recognition of the nefarious beginning of all great fortunes. The article is also a useful read for historical background on the period of the clan system and its breakup under the advent of private property. It demonstrates how Marx marshalled historical facts to explain the development of capitalism as a social system, and how at odds was this new system with preexisting communities based on kinship and affective ties.
The Duchess of Sutherland and Slavery
During the present momentary slackness in political affairs, the address of the Stafford House Assembly of Ladies to their sisters in America upon the subject of Negro-Slavery, and the “affectionate and Christian address of many thousands of the women of the United States of America to their sisters, the women of England,’ upon white slavery, have proved a god-send to the press. Not one of the British papers was ever struck by the circumstance that the Stafford House Assembly took place at the palace under the Presidency of the Duchess of Sutherland, and yet the names of Stafford and Sutherland should have been sufficient to class the philanthropy of the British Aristocracy — a philanthropy which chooses its objects as far distant from home as possible, and rather on that than on this side of the ocean.
The history of the wealth of the Sutherland family is the history of the ruin and of the expropriation of the Scotch-Gaelic population from its native soil. As far back as the 10th century, the Danes had landed in Scotland, conquered the plains of Caithness, and driven back the aborigines into the mountains. Mhoir-Fhear-Chattaibh, as he was called in Gaelic, or the “Great Man of Sutherland”, had always found his companions-in-arms ready to defend him at risk of their lives against all his enemies, Danes or Scots, foreigners or natives. After the revolution which drove the Stuarts from Britain, private feuds among the petty chieftains of Scotland became less and less frequent, and the British Kings, in order to keep up at least a semblance of dominion in these remote districts, encouraged the levying of family regiments among the chieftains, a system by which these lairds were enabled to combine modern military establishments with the ancient clan system in such a manner as to support one by the other.
Now, in order to distinctly appreciate the usurpation subsequently carried out, we must first properly understand what the clan meant. The clan belonged to a form of social existence which, in the scale of historical development, stands a full degree below the feudal state; viz., the patriarchal state of society. “Klaen”, in Gaelic, means children. Every one of the usages and traditions of the Scottish Gaels reposes upon the supposition that the members of the clan belong to one and the same family. The “great man”, the chieftain of the clan, is on the one hand quite as arbitrary, on the other quite as confined in his power, by consanguinity, &c., as every father of a family. To the clan, to the family, belonged the district where it had established itself, exactly as in Russia, the land occupied by a community of peasants belongs, not to the individual peasants, but to the community. Thus, the district was the common property of the family. There could be no more question, under this system, of private property, in the modern sense of the word, than there could be of comparing the social existence of the members of the clan to that of individuals living in the midst of our modern society. The division and subdivision of the land corresponded to the military functions of the single members of the clan. According to their military abilities, the chieftain entrusted to them the several allotments, cancelled or enlarged according to his pleasure the tenures of the individual officers, and these officers again distributed to their vassals and under-vassals every separate plot of land. But the district at large always remained the property of the clan, and, however the claims of individuals might vary, the tenure remained the same; nor were the contributions for the common defense, or the tribute for the Laird, who at once was leader in battle and chief magistrate in peace, ever increased. Upon the whole, every plot of land was cultivated by the same family, from generation to generation, under fixed imposts. These imposts were insignificant, more a tribute by which the supremacy of the “great man” and of his officers was acknowledged, than a rent of land in a modern sense, or a source of revenue. The officers directly subordinate to the “great man” were called “Taksmen”, and the district entrusted to their care, “Tak”. Under then were placed inferior officers, at the head of every hamlet, and under these stood the peasantry.
Thus, you see, the clan is nothing but a family organized in a military manner, quite as little defined by laws, just as closely hemmed in by traditions, as any family. But the land is the property of the family , in the midst of which differences of rank, in spite of consanguinity, do prevail as well as in all the ancient Asiatic family communities.
The first usurpation took place, after the expulsion of the Stuarts, by the establishment of the family Regiments. From that moment, pay became the principal source of revenue of the Great Man, the Mhoir-Fhear-Chattaibh. Entangled in the dissipation of the Court of London, he tried to squeeze as much money as possible out of his officers, and they applied the same system of their inferiors. The ancient tribute was transformed into fixed money contracts. In one respect these contracts constituted a progress, by fixing the traditional imposts; in another respect they were a usurpation, inasmuch as the “great man” now took the position of landlord toward the “taksmen” who again took toward the peasantry that of farmers. And as the “great men” now required money no less than the “taksmen”, a production not only for direct consumption but for export and exchange also became necessary; the system of national production had to be changed, the hands superseded by this change had to be got rid of. Population, therefore, decreased. But that it has yet was kept up in a certain manner, and that man, in the 18th century, was not yet openly sacrificed to net-revenue, we see from a passage in Steuart, a Scotch political economist, whose work was published 10 years before Adam Smith’s, where it says (Vol.1, Chap.16):
“The rent of these lands is very trifling compared to their extent but compared to the number of mouths which a farm maintains, it will perhaps be found that a plot of land in the highlands of Scotland feeds ten times more people than a farm of the same extent in the richest provinces.”
That even in the beginnings of the 19th century the rental imposts were very small, is shown by the work of Mr. Loch (1820), the steward of the Countess of Sutherland, who directed the improvements on her estates. He gives for instance the rental of the Kintradawell estate for 1811, from which it appears that up to then, every family was obliged to pay a yearly impost of a few shillings in money, a few fowls, and some days’ work, at the highest.
It was only after 1811 that the ultimate and real usurpation was enacted, the forcible transformation of clan-property into the private property , in the modern sense, of the Chief . The person who stood at the head of this economical revolution was a female Mehemet Ali, who had well digested her Malthus — the Countess of Sutherland, alias Marchioness of Stafford.
Let us first state that the ancestors of the Marchioness of Stafford were the “great men” of the most northern part of Scotland, of very near three-quarters of Sutherlandshire. This country is more extensive than many French Departments or small German Principalities. when the Countess of Sutherland inherited these estates, which she afterward brought to her husband, the Marquis of Stafford, afterward Duke of Sutherland, the population of them was already reduced to 15,000. My lady Countess resolved upon a radical economic reform, and determined upon transforming the whole tract of country into sheep-walks. From 1814 to 1820, these 15,000 inhabitants, about 3,000 families, were systematically expelled and exterminated. All their villages were demolished and burned down, and all their fields converted into pasturage. British soldiers were commanded for this execution and came to blows with the natives. An old woman refusing to quit her hut was burned in the flames of it. Thus, my lady Countess appropriated to herself 794,000 acres of land, which from time immemorial had belonged to the clan. In the exuberance of her generosity she allotted to the expelled natives about 6,000 acres — two acres per family.  The Countess was generous enough to sell the acre at two shillings six pence on an average, to the clan-men who for centuries past had shed their blood for her family. The whole of the un-rightfully appropriated clan-land she divided into 29 large sheep farms, each of them inhabited by one single family, mostly English farm-laborers; and in 1821 the 15,000 Gaels had already been superseded by 131,000 sheep.
A portion of the aborigines had been thrown upon the sea-shore and attempted to live by fishing. They became amphibious, and, as an English author says, lived half on land and half on water, and after all did not live upon both.
Sismondi, in his Etudes Sociales , observes with regard to this expropriation of the Gaels from Sutherlandshire — an example, which, by-the-by, was imitated by other “great men” of Scotland:
“The large extent of seignorial domains is not a circumstance peculiar to Britain. In the whole Empire of Charlemagne, in the whole Occident, entire provinces were usurped by the warlike chiefs, who had them cultivated for their own account by the vanquished, and sometimes by their own companions-in-arms. During the 9th and 10th centuries the Counties of Maine, Anjou, Poitou were for the Counts of these provinces rather three large estates than principalities. Switzerland, which in so many respects resembles Scotland, was at that time divided among a small number of Seigneurs. If the Counts of Kyburg, of Lenzburg, of Habsburg, of Gruyeres had been protected by British laws, they would have been in the same position as the Earls of Sutherland; some of them would perhaps have had the same taste for improvement as the Marchioness of Stafford, and more than one republic might have disappeared from the Alps in order to make room for flocks of sheep. Not the most despotic monarch in Germany would be allowed to attempt anything of the sort.”
Mr. Loch, in his defense of the Countess of Sutherland (1820), replies to the above as follows:
“Why should there be made an exception to the rule adopted in every other case, just for this particular case? Why should the absolute authority of the landlord over his land be sacrificed to the public interest and to motives which concern the public only?”
And why, then, should the slave-holders in the Southern States of North America sacrifice their private interest to the philanthropic grimaces of her Grace, the Duchess of Sutherland?
The British aristocracy, who have everywhere superseded man by bullocks and sheep, will, in a future not very distant, be superseded, in turn, by these useful animals.
The process of clearing estates , which, in Scotland, we have just now described, was carried out in England in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. Thomas Morus already complains of it in the beginning of the 16th century. It was performed in Scotland in the beginning of the 19th, and in Ireland it is now in full progress. The noble Viscount Palmerston, too, some years ago cleared of men his property in Ireland, exactly in the manner described above.
If of any property it ever was true that it was robbery , it is literally true of the property of the British aristocracy. Robbery of Church property, robbery of commons, fraudulent transformation, accompanied by murder, of feudal and patriarchal property into private property — these are the titles of British aristocrats to their possessions. And what services in this latter process were performed by a servile class of lawyers, you may see from an English lawyer of the last century, Dalrymple, who, in his History of Feudal Property , very naively proves that every law or deed concerning property was interpreted by the lawyers, in England, when the middle class rose in wealth in favor of the middle class — in Scotland, where the nobility enriched themselves, in favor of the nobility — in either case it was interpreted in a sense hostile to the people .
The above Turkish reform by the Countess of Sutherland was justifiable, at least, from a Malthusian point of view. Other Scottish noblemen went further. Having superseded human beings by sheep, they superseded sheep by game, and the pasture grounds by forests. At the head of these was the Duke of Atholl.
“After the conquest, the Norman Kings afforested large portions of the soil of England, in much the same way as the landlords here are now doing with the Highlands. (R. Somers, Letters on the Highlands, 1848)
As for a large number of the human beings expelled to make room for the game of the Duke of Atholl, and the sheep of the Countess of Sutherland, where did they fly to, where did they find a home?
In the United States of America.
The enemy of British Wage-Slavery has a right to condemn Negro-Slavery; a Duchess of Sutherland, a Duke of Atholl, a Manchester Cotton-lord — never!
Questions
- Explain the clan system as a social system. How does it compare with capitalism? With feudalism?
- How did land in Scotland (and elsewhere) become “private property”? What role did lawyers play here? What is Marx’s opinions on lawyers?
- What happened to the peasantry who were pushed off the Sutherland property?
- In the last line, Marx claims that “the enemy of British Wage-Slavery” has a right to condemn slavery, but not the Duchess of Sutherland. What does he mean by this? Who is the enemy of British Wage-Slavery to which he refers?
- If you were the Duchess of Sutherland, how would you respond to Marx’s attack?
Concepts
Private Property
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“The secret of all great fortunes that appear from nowhere is a crime, never found out because so well executed.” This quote from Balzac was a favorite of Marx’s. ↵


7.7: Organizational Design Considerations
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6. How do mechanistic and organic organizations differ?
You are now familiar with the different ways to structure an organization, but as a manager, how do you decide which design will work the best for your business? What works for one company may not work for another. In this section, we’ll look at two generic models of organizational design and briefly examine a set of contingency factors that favors each.
Exhibit 7.8 The Walt Disney Company expanded its entertainment empire more than a decade ago by acquiring Pixar Studios, the animation powerhouse behind such blockbusters as Toy Story, Finding Dory, Cars, and Up . The $7.4 billion purchase absorbed Pixar into the Disney Studio Entertainment division, one of the company’s four operating units, alongside Parks and Resorts, Media Networks, and Consumer Products and Interactive Media. Why do some analysts believe that Disney’s gigantic organizational structure could engulf the smaller Pixar operation and stifle its creative output? (Credit: Poi Beltran/ Flicker/ Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC BY 2.0))
Mechanistic versus Organic Structures
Structural design generally follows one of the two basic models described in Table 7.3 : mechanistic or organic. A mechanistic organization is characterized by a relatively high degree of job specialization, rigid departmentalization, many layers of management (particularly middle management), narrow spans of control, centralized decision-making, and a long chain of command. This combination of elements results in what is called a tall organizational structure. The U.S. Army and the United Nations are typical mechanistic organizations.
In contrast, an organic organization is characterized by a relatively low degree of job specialization, loose departmentalization, few levels of management, wide spans of control, decentralized decision-making, and a short chain of command. This combination of elements results in what is called a flat organizational structure. Colleges and universities tend to have flat organizational structures, with only two or three levels of administration between the faculty and the president. Exhibit 7.9 shows examples of flat and tall organizational structures.
Factors Influencing the Choice between Mechanistic and Organic Structures
Although few organizations are purely mechanistic or purely organic, most organizations tend more toward one type or the other. The decision to create a more mechanistic or a more organic structural design is based on factors such as the firm’s overall strategy, the size of the organization, and the stability of its external environment, among others.
A company’s organizational structure should enable it to achieve its goals, and because setting corporate goals is part of a firm’s overall strategy-making process, it follows that a company’s structure depends on its strategy . That alignment can be challenging for struggling companies trying to accomplish multiple goals. For example, a company with an innovation strategy will need the flexibility and fluid movement of information that an organic organization provides. But a company using a cost-control strategy will require the efficiency and tight control of a mechanistic organization. Often, struggling companies try to simultaneously increase innovation and rein in costs, which can be organizational challenges for managers. Such is the case at Microsoft, where CEO Satya Nadella cut more than 18,000 jobs in 2014 after taking the helm at the technology giant. Most of the cuts were the result of the company’s failed acquisition of Nokia’s mobile phone business. More recently, the company eliminated additional jobs in sales and marketing (mostly overseas) as Microsoft shifts from a software developer to a cloud computing software delivery service. At the same time, Nadella is also trying to encourage employees and managers to break down barriers between divisions and increase the pace of innovation across the organization. 14
| Mechanistic versus Organic Structure | ||
|---|---|---|
| Structural Characteristic | Mechanistic | Organic |
| Job specialization | High | Low |
| Departmentalization | Rigid | Loose |
| Managerial hierarchy (levels of management) | Tall (many levels) | Flat (few levels) |
| Span of control | Narrow | Wide |
| Decision-making authority | Centralized | Decentralization |
| Chain of command | Long | Short |
Table 7.3
Exhibit 7.9 Flat versus Tall Organizational Structures (Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license.)
Size is another factor that affects how mechanistic or organic a company’s organizational structure is. Much research has been conducted that shows a company’s size has a significant impact on its organizational structure. Smaller companies tend to follow the more organic model, in part because they can. It’s much easier to be successful with decentralized decision-making, for example, if you have only 50 employees. A company with that few employees is also more likely, by virtue of its size, to have a lesser degree of employee specialization. That’s because, when there are fewer people to do the work, those people tend to know more about the entire process. As a company grows, it becomes more mechanistic, as systems are put in place to manage the greater number of employees. Procedures, rules, and regulations replace flexibility, innovation, and independence. That isn’t always the case, however. W. L. Gore has nearly 10,000 employees and more than $3 billion in annual revenues, but, as noted earlier, uses an extremely organic organizational structure. Employees have no bosses, participate on teams, and often create roles for themselves to fill functional gaps within the company. 15
Lastly, the business in which a company operates has a significant impact on its organizational structure. In complex, dynamic, and unstable environments, companies need to organize for flexibility and agility. That is, their organizational structures need to respond to rapid and unexpected changes in the business environment. For companies operating in stable environments, however, the demands for flexibility and agility are not so great. The environment is predictable. In a simple, stable environment, therefore, companies benefit from the efficiencies created by a mechanistic organizational structure.
MANAGING CHANGE
Google Learns the Alphabet
A little less than 20 years ago, Larry Page and Sergey Brin built a search engine that used links to determine the importance of individual pages on the web. Today, Google has grown from two founders to more than 60,000 employees in 50 different countries. While the company is routinely high on the lists of best places to work and companies with the best employee perks, its meteoric growth has not been without challenges.
Much has been written about Google’s informal organizational structure, which has fueled a creative environment second to none. At one point, the founders shared an office that looked like a college dorm room, complete with skateboards, beanbag chairs, and remote-controlled airplanes. The company’s offices around the world are designed to be the most productive workspaces imaginable, sometimes with meeting rooms designed as camping vans (Amsterdam) or hallways decorated with subway grates and fire hydrants (New York City).
As this creative environment expanded, Google relied on its innovative and competitive culture to produce some of the most-used products around the world, including YouTube, the Android operating system, Gmail, and, of course, Google Search. As Google grew, so did the strain on its informal structure. In the early days, while adding employees on a daily basis, the company needed to find the right balance between maintaining creativity and running a rapidly growing organization.
In 2001, Brin and Page hired an outside CEO, Eric Schmidt, who hired an HR manager and then divided employees into teams based on product or function. This structure seemed to work well until Google started to acquire companies or develop new products to add to its portfolio of business ventures, including Double Click and Nest. At the same time, Page and Brin never lost sight of their “moonshot” projects, potentially game-changing innovations that could change the world, such as a self-driving car, which may or may not become a profitable venture.
Fast-forward to 2015, when the founders decided Google was getting too big to contain in one company. They created Alphabet, which is now a holding company that includes Google as well as several other business ventures. Their decision to refocus Google and pull out other activities under the Alphabet umbrella has provided transparency and an organizational structure that has been simplified. Sundar Pichai, who was quite successful managing Google Search, became the new Google CEO, while Page became the Alphabet CEO and Brin the Alphabet President. (Former Google CEO Schmidt is Alphabet’s executive chairman.)
This reorganization allows both Brin and Page to focus on projects they are passionate about, such as Project Loon, a network of balloons flying high above commercial airspace that provides web connectivity to remote areas, while leaving Google and its many successful endeavors to be managed independently by Pichai and his team. Alphabet’s recent CFO hire, Ruth Porat, former CFO at Morgan Stanley, has received praise for her guidance in helping company executives take a closer look at costs while still encouraging the innovation and creativity the Google founders seemingly invented. Although not as simple as A - B - C , the new organizational structure seems to streamline processes while allowing the various businesses room to grow on their own.
Critical Thinking Questions
- If you were a long-time “Googler,” how would feel about the change in organizational structure at the company?
- Do you think the creative work environment fostered by company founders has taken a hit with the new Alphabet organizational structure? Why or why not?
- What are some advantages and disadvantages of creating separate businesses for the company’s moonshot projects?
Sources: “Our History,” https://www.google.com , accessed July 24, 2017; “Project Loon: Balloon-Powered Internet for Everyone,” x.company, accessed July 24, 2017; Catherine Clifford, “Google Billionaire Eric Schmidt: These 2 Qualities Are the Best Predictors of Success,” CNBC, http://www.cnbc.com , June 26, 2017; Dave Smith, “Read Larry Page’s New Letter about the Current Status of Alphabet, Google’s Parent Company,” Business Insider, http://www.businessinsider.com , April 27, 2017; Avery Hartmans, “Here Are All the Companies and Divisions within Alphabet, Google’s Parent Company,” Business Insider, http://www.businessinsider.com , October 6, 2016; Leena Rao, “CFO Ruth Porat Is Pushing Google ‘Creatives’ to Bring Their Costs under Control,” Fortune, http://fortune.com , September 12, 2016; Adam Lashinsky, “How Alphabet’s Structure Shows Off Google’s True Value,” Fortune, http://fortune.com , February 2, 2016; Carey Dunne, “8 of Google’s Craziest Offices,” Fast Company Design, https://www.fastcodesign.com , April 10, 2014.
CONCEPT CHECK
- Compare and contrast mechanistic and organic organizations.
- What factors determine whether an organization should be mechanistic or organic?


15.7: Stagnation
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In 2012, Barack Obama won a second term by defeating Republican Mitt Romney, the former governor of Massachusetts. However, Obama’s inability to control Congress and the ascendancy of Tea Party Republicans stunted the passage of meaningful legislation. Obama was a lame duck before he ever won reelection, and gridlocked government came to represent an acute sense that much of American life—whether in politics, economics, or race relations—had grown stagnant.
The economy continued its halfhearted recovery from the Great Recession. The Obama administration campaigned on little to specifically address the crisis and, faced with congressional intransigence, accomplished even less. While corporate profits climbed and stock markets soared, wages stagnated and employment sagged for years after the Great Recession. By 2016, the statistically average American worker had not received a raise in almost forty years. The average worker in January 1973 earned $4.03 an hour. Adjusted for inflation, that wage was about two dollars per hour more than the average American earned in 2014. Working Americans were losing ground. Moreover, most income gains in the economy had been largely captured by a small number of wealthy earners. Between 2009 and 2013, 85 percent of all new income in the United States went to the top 1 percent of the population. 26
But if money no longer flowed to American workers, it saturated American politics. In 2000, George W. Bush raised a record $172 million for his campaign. In 2008, Barack Obama became the first presidential candidate to decline public funds (removing any applicable caps to his total fund-raising) and raised nearly three quarters of a billion dollars for his campaign. The average House seat, meanwhile, cost about $1.6 million, and the average Senate Seat over $10 million. 27 The Supreme Court, meanwhile, removed barriers to outside political spending. In 2002, Senators John McCain and Russ Feingold had crossed party lines to pass the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act, bolstering campaign finance laws passed in the aftermath of the Watergate scandal in the 1970s. But political organizations—particularly PACs—exploited loopholes to raise large sums of money and, in 2010, the Supreme Court ruled in Citizens United v. FEC that no limits could be placed on political spending by corporations, unions, and nonprofits. Money flowed even deeper into politics.
The influence of money in politics only heightened partisan gridlock, further blocking bipartisan progress on particular political issues. Climate change, for instance, has failed to transcend partisan barriers. In the 1970s and 1980s, experts substantiated the theory of anthropogenic (human-caused) global warming. Eventually, the most influential of these panels, the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded in 1995 that there was a “discernible human influence on global climate.” 28 This conclusion, though stated conservatively, was by that point essentially a scientific consensus. By 2007, the IPCC considered the evidence “unequivocal” and warned that “unmitigated climate change would, in the long term, be likely to exceed the capacity of natural, managed and human systems to adapt.” 29
Climate change became a permanent and major topic of public discussion and policy in the twenty-first century. Fueled by popular coverage, most notably, perhaps, the documentary An Inconvenient Truth , based on Al Gore’s book and presentations of the same name, addressing climate change became a plank of the American left and a point of denial for the American right. American public opinion and political action still lagged far behind the scientific consensus on the dangers of global warming. Conservative politicians, conservative think tanks, and energy companies waged war to sow questions in the minds of Americans, who remain divided on the question, and so many others.
Much of the resistance to addressing climate change is economic. As Americans looked over their shoulder at China, many refused to sacrifice immediate economic growth for long-term environmental security. Twenty-first-century relations with China remained characterized by contradictions and interdependence. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, China reinvigorated its efforts to modernize its country. By liberating and subsidizing much of its economy and drawing enormous foreign investments, China has posted massive growth rates during the last several decades. Enormous cities rise by the day. In 2000, China had a GDP around an eighth the size of U.S. GDP. Based on growth rates and trends, analysts suggest that China’s economy will bypass that of the United States soon. American concerns about China’s political system have persisted, but money sometimes matters more to Americans. China has become one of the country’s leading trade partners. Cultural exchange has increased, and more and more Americans visit China each year, with many settling down to work and study.
By 2016, American voters were fed up. In that year’s presidential race, Republicans spurned their political establishment and nominated a real estate developer and celebrity billionaire, Donald Trump, who, decrying the tyranny of political correctness and promising to Make America Great Again, promised to build a wall to keep out Mexican immigrants and bar Muslim immigrants. The Democrats, meanwhile, flirted with the candidacy of Senator Bernie Sanders, a self-described socialist from Vermont, before ultimately nominating Hillary Clinton, who, after eight years as first lady in the 1990s, had served eight years in the Senate and four more as secretary of state. Voters despaired: Trump and Clinton were the most unpopular nominees in modern American history. Majorities of Americans viewed each candidate unfavorably and majorities in both parties said, early in the election season, that they were motivated more by voting against their rival candidate than for their own. 30 With incomes frozen, politics gridlocked, race relations tense, and headlines full of violence, such frustrations only channeled a larger sense of stagnation, which upset traditional political allegiances. In the end, despite winning nearly three million more votes nationwide, Clinton failed to carry key Midwestern states where frustrated white, working-class voters abandoned the Democratic Party—a Republican president hadn’t carried Wisconsin, Michigan, or Pennsylvania, for instance, since the 1980s—and swung their support to the Republicans. Donald Trump won the presidency.
Political divisions only deepened after the election. A nation already deeply split by income, culture, race, geography, and ideology continued to come apart. Trump’s presidency consumed national attention. Traditional print media and the consumers and producers of social media could not help but throw themselves at the ins and outs of Trump's norm-smashing first years while seemingly refracting every major event through the prism of the Trump presidency. Robert Mueller’s investigation of Russian election-meddling and the alleged collusion of campaign officials in that effort produced countless headlines. Meanwhile, new policies enflamed widening cultural divisions. Border apprehensions and deportations reached record levels under the Obama administration, but Trump pushed even farther. He pushed for a massive wall along the border to supplement the fence built under the Bush administration. He began ordering the deportation of so-called Dreamers—students who were born elsewhere but grew up in the United States—and immigration officials separated refugee-status-seeking parents and children at the border. Trump’s border policies heartened his base and aggravated his opponents. But while Trump enflamed America’s enduring culture war, his narrowly passed 2017 tax cut continued the redistribution of American wealth toward corporations and wealthy individuals. The tax cut exploded the federal deficit and further exacerbated America’s widening economic inequality.


8.1: Tutorials- Using Word
Read, view, and complete the following tutorials at GCFLearnFree.org ( http://www.gcflearnfree.org/word2013 ).
Word Basics
- #4 – GETTING TO KNOW WORD
- #5 – CREATING AND OPENING DOCUMENTS
- #6 – SAVING AND SHARING DOCUMENTS
- #7 – TEXT BASICS
- #8 – FORMATTING TEXT
- #9 – PAGE LAYOUT
- #10- PRINTING DOCUMENTS
Working with Text
- #11- Indents and tabs
- #12- Line and paragraph spacing
- #13- Lists
- #14- Hyperlinks
- #15- breaks
- #16- Columns
- #17- Headers, footers, and page numbers
Optional Additional Tutorials are available from GCF Learnfree.org . You can find them by scrolling down to the bottom of the page and looking under Doing More with Word and Extras .
CC licensed content, Original
- Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts Word Tutorials. Authored by : Jim Shannon. Provided by : Extended Learning Institute of Northern Virginia Community College. Located at : http://www.nvcc.edu/eli/index.html . License : CC BY: Attribution


5.4: Literary Analysis Arguments
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Analysis means to break something down in order to better understand how it works. To analyze a literary work is to pull it apart and look at its discrete components to see how those components contribute to the meaning and/or effect of the whole. Thus, a literary analysis argument considers what has been learned in analyzing a work (What do the parts look like and how do they function?) and forwards a particular perspective on their contribution to the whole (In light of the author’s use of diction, for example, what meaning does the novel, as a whole, yield?).
Consider, once again, the literary analysis arguments presented in this book so far:
Marion Velis (Chapter 2): “At first glance, Theodore Roethke’s poem ‘My Papa’s Waltz’ may seem like a poem about a boy’s fear of his controlling, abusive, alcoholic father. But the poem goes much deeper than that. Roethke uses specific rhythm, word choice, and a controlling metaphor to give the poem a reminiscent tone that looks back on the father in love.”
Bill Day (Chapter 5): “Through the metaphors of Jake’s wound and the tainted Pamplona fiesta, the novel [The Sun Also Rises] conveys the possibility that we can dangerously disrupt the cycle of renewal.”
Katherine Jones (Chapter 5): “Brett, as she is developed in the novel [The Sun Also Rises], has been painted in different lights, depending on the interpreter, ranging from a sympathetic view to one of condemnation. The portrait of her that I will attempt to show is one of a human being, caught between the ideologies of two eras.”
Each of these essays engages in analysis of the text in question, pointing to and considering plot events, images, character traits, dialogue, and other components of the work to understand the meaning of the text as a whole. Although in her thesis, Katherine does not list the “parts” that her paper investigates, she goes on to focus on Brett’s specific behaviors and expressions that support the essay’s interpretation of The Sun Also Rises.


10.3: Properties of Liquids
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- Scott Van Bramer
- Widener University
Learning Objectives
- Distinguish between adhesive and cohesive forces
- Define viscosity, surface tension, and capillary rise
- Describe the roles of intermolecular attractive forces in each of these properties/phenomena
When you pour a glass of water, or fill a car with gasoline, you observe that water and gasoline flow freely. But when you pour syrup on pancakes or add oil to a car engine, you note that syrup and motor oil do not flow as readily. The viscosity of a liquid is a measure of its resistance to flow. Water, gasoline, and other liquids that flow freely have a low viscosity. Honey, syrup, motor oil, and other liquids that do not flow freely, like those shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\), have higher viscosities. We can measure viscosity by measuring the rate at which a metal ball falls through a liquid (the ball falls more slowly through a more viscous liquid) or by measuring the rate at which a liquid flows through a narrow tube (more viscous liquids flow more slowly).
The IMFs between the molecules of a liquid, the size and shape of the molecules, and the temperature determine how easily a liquid flows. As Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) shows, the more structurally complex are the molecules in a liquid and the stronger the IMFs between them, the more difficult it is for them to move past each other and the greater is the viscosity of the liquid. As the temperature increases, the molecules move more rapidly and their kinetic energies are better able to overcome the forces that hold them together; thus, the viscosity of the liquid decreases.
| Substance | Formula | Viscosity (mPa·s) |
|---|---|---|
| water | H 2 O | 0.890 |
| mercury | Hg | 1.526 |
| ethanol | C 2 H 5 OH | 1.074 |
| octane | C 8 H 18 | 0.508 |
| ethylene glycol | CH 2 (OH)CH 2 (OH) | 16.1 |
| honey | variable | ~2,000–10,000 |
| motor oil | variable | ~50–500 |
The various IMFs between identical molecules of a substance are examples of cohesive forces . The molecules within a liquid are surrounded by other molecules and are attracted equally in all directions by the cohesive forces within the liquid. However, the molecules on the surface of a liquid are attracted only by about one-half as many molecules. Because of the unbalanced molecular attractions on the surface molecules, liquids contract to form a shape that minimizes the number of molecules on the surface—that is, the shape with the minimum surface area. A small drop of liquid tends to assume a spherical shape, as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\), because in a sphere, the ratio of surface area to volume is at a minimum. Larger drops are more greatly affected by gravity, air resistance, surface interactions, and so on, and as a result, are less spherical.
Surface tension is defined as the energy required to increase the surface area of a liquid, or the force required to increase the length of a liquid surface by a given amount. This property results from the cohesive forces between molecules at the surface of a liquid, and it causes the surface of a liquid to behave like a stretched rubber membrane. Surface tensions of several liquids are presented in Table \(\PageIndex{2}\).
| Substance | Formula | Surface Tension (mN/m) |
|---|---|---|
| water | H 2 O | 71.99 |
| mercury | Hg | 458.48 |
| ethanol | C 2 H 5 OH | 21.97 |
| octane | C 8 H 18 | 21.14 |
| ethylene glycol | CH 2 (OH)CH 2 (OH) | 47.99 |
Among common liquids, water exhibits a distinctly high surface tension due to strong hydrogen bonding between its molecules. As a result of this high surface tension, the surface of water represents a relatively “tough skin” that can withstand considerable force without breaking. A steel needle carefully placed on water will float. Some insects, like the one shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\), even though they are denser than water, move on its surface because they are supported by the surface tension.
The IMFs of attraction between two different molecules are called adhesive forces . Consider what happens when water comes into contact with some surface. If the adhesive forces between water molecules and the molecules of the surface are weak compared to the cohesive forces between the water molecules, the water does not “wet” the surface. For example, water does not wet waxed surfaces or many plastics such as polyethylene. Water forms drops on these surfaces because the cohesive forces within the drops are greater than the adhesive forces between the water and the plastic. Water spreads out on glass because the adhesive force between water and glass is greater than the cohesive forces within the water. When water is confined in a glass tube, its meniscus (surface) has a concave shape because the water wets the glass and creeps up the side of the tube. On the other hand, the cohesive forces between mercury atoms are much greater than the adhesive forces between mercury and glass. Mercury therefore does not wet glass, and it forms a convex meniscus when confined in a tube because the cohesive forces within the mercury tend to draw it into a drop (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)).
If you place one end of a paper towel in spilled wine, as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\), the liquid wicks up the paper towel. A similar process occurs in a cloth towel when you use it to dry off after a shower. These are examples of capillary action —when a liquid flows within a porous material due to the attraction of the liquid molecules to the surface of the material and to other liquid molecules. The adhesive forces between the liquid and the porous material, combined with the cohesive forces within the liquid, may be strong enough to move the liquid upward against gravity.
Towels soak up liquids like water because the fibers of a towel are made of molecules that are attracted to water molecules. Most cloth towels are made of cotton, and paper towels are generally made from paper pulp. Both consist of long molecules of cellulose that contain many −OH groups. Water molecules are attracted to these −OH groups and form hydrogen bonds with them, which draws the H 2 O molecules up the cellulose molecules. The water molecules are also attracted to each other, so large amounts of water are drawn up the cellulose fibers.
Capillary action can also occur when one end of a small diameter tube is immersed in a liquid, as illustrated in Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\). If the liquid molecules are strongly attracted to the tube molecules, the liquid creeps up the inside of the tube until the weight of the liquid and the adhesive forces are in balance. The smaller the diameter of the tube is, the higher the liquid climbs. It is partly by capillary action occurring in plant cells called xylem that water and dissolved nutrients are brought from the soil up through the roots and into a plant. Capillary action is the basis for thin layer chromatography, a laboratory technique commonly used to separate small quantities of mixtures. You depend on a constant supply of tears to keep your eyes lubricated and on capillary action to pump tear fluid away.
The height to which a liquid will rise in a capillary tube is determined by several factors as shown in the following equation:
\[h=\dfrac{2T\cosθ}{rρg} \label{10.2.1} \]
where
- h is the height of the liquid inside the capillary tube relative to the surface of the liquid outside the tube,
- T is the surface tension of the liquid,
- θ is the contact angle between the liquid and the tube,
- r is the radius of the tube, ρ is the density of the liquid, and
- g is the acceleration due to gravity, 9.8 m/s 2 .
When the tube is made of a material to which the liquid molecules are strongly attracted, they will spread out completely on the surface, which corresponds to a contact angle of 0°. This is the situation for water rising in a glass tube.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\): Capillary Rise
At 25 °C, how high will water rise in a glass capillary tube with an inner diameter of 0.25 mm?
For water, T = 71.99 mN/m and ρ = 1.0 g/cm 3 .
Solution
The liquid will rise to a height h given by Equation \(\ref{10.2.1}\) :
\[h=\dfrac{2T\cosθ}{rρg} \nonumber \]
The Newton is defined as a kg m/s 2 , and so the provided surface tension is equivalent to 0.07199 kg/s 2 . The provided density must be converted into units that will cancel appropriately: ρ = 1000 kg/m 3 . The diameter of the tube in meters is 0.00025 m, so the radius is 0.000125 m. For a glass tube immersed in water, the contact angle is θ = 0°, so cos θ = 1. Finally, acceleration due to gravity on the earth is g = 9.8 m/s 2 . Substituting these values into the equation, and cancelling units, we have:
\[h=\mathrm{\dfrac{2(0.07199\:kg/s^2)}{(0.000125\:m)(1000\:kg/m^3)(9.8\:m/s^2)}=0.12\:m=12\: cm} \nonumber \]
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Water rises in a glass capillary tube to a height of 8.4 cm. What is the diameter of the capillary tube?
- Answer
-
diameter = 0.36 mm
Applications: Capillary Action is Used to Draw Blood
Many medical tests require drawing a small amount of blood, for example to determine the amount of glucose in someone with diabetes or the hematocrit level in an athlete. This procedure can be easily done because of capillary action, the ability of a liquid to flow up a small tube against gravity, as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\). When your finger is pricked, a drop of blood forms and holds together due to surface tension—the unbalanced intermolecular attractions at the surface of the drop. Then, when the open end of a narrow-diameter glass tube touches the drop of blood, the adhesive forces between the molecules in the blood and those at the glass surface draw the blood up the tube. How far the blood goes up the tube depends on the diameter of the tube (and the type of fluid). A small tube has a relatively large surface area for a given volume of blood, which results in larger (relative) attractive forces, allowing the blood to be drawn farther up the tube. The liquid itself is held together by its own cohesive forces. When the weight of the liquid in the tube generates a downward force equal to the upward force associated with capillary action, the liquid stops rising.
Key Concepts and Summary
The intermolecular forces between molecules in the liquid state vary depending upon their chemical identities and result in corresponding variations in various physical properties. Cohesive forces between like molecules are responsible for a liquid’s viscosity (resistance to flow) and surface tension (elasticity of a liquid surface). Adhesive forces between the molecules of a liquid and different molecules composing a surface in contact with the liquid are responsible for phenomena such as surface wetting and capillary rise.
Key Equations
- \(h=\dfrac{2T\cosθ}{rρg}\)
Glossary
- adhesive force
- force of attraction between molecules of different chemical identities
- capillary action
- flow of liquid within a porous material due to the attraction of the liquid molecules to the surface of the material and to other liquid molecules
- cohesive force
- force of attraction between identical molecules
- surface tension
- energy required to increase the area, or length, of a liquid surface by a given amount
- viscosity
- measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow


23.3: Uterine Tubes
The uterine tubes (also called fallopian tubes or oviducts) serve as the conduit of the oocyte from the ovary to the uterus (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Each of the two uterine tubes is close to, but not directly connected to, the ovary and divided into sections. The isthmus is the narrow medial end of each uterine tube that is connected to the uterus. The wide distal infundibulum flares out with slender, finger-like projections called fimbriae . The middle region of the tube, called the ampulla , is where fertilization often occurs. The uterine tubes also have three layers: an outer serosa, a middle smooth muscle layer, and an inner mucosal layer. In addition to its mucus-secreting cells, the inner mucosa contains ciliated cells that beat in the direction of the uterus, producing a current that will be critical to move the oocyte.


12.4.2: Database Management Systems
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Database Management Systems
To the computer, a database looks like one or more files. In order for the data in the database to be read, changed, added, or removed, a software program must access it. Many software applications have this ability: iTunes can read its database to give you a listing of its songs (and play the songs); your mobile-phone software can interact with your list of contacts. But what about applications to create or manage a database? What software can you use to create a database, change a database’s structure, or simply do analysis? That is the purpose of a category of software applications called database management systems (DBMS).
DBMS packages generally provide an interface to view and change the design of the database, create queries, and develop reports. Most of these packages are designed to work with a specific type of database, but generally are compatible with a wide range of databases.
For example, Apache OpenOffice.org Base (see screen shot) can be used to create, modify, and analyze databases in open-database (ODB) format. Microsoft’s Access DBMS is used to work with databases in its own Microsoft Access Database format. Both Access and Base have the ability to read and write to other database formats as well.
Microsoft Access and Open Office Base are examples of personal database-management systems. These systems are primarily used to develop and analyze single-user databases. These databases are not meant to be shared across a network or the Internet, but are instead installed on a particular device and work with a single user at a time.
Enterprise Databases
A database that can only be used by a single user at a time is not going to meet the needs of most organizations. As computers have become networked and are now joined worldwide via the Internet, a class of database has emerged that can be accessed by two, ten, or even a million people. These databases are sometimes installed on a single computer to be accessed by a group of people at a single location. Other times, they are installed over several servers worldwide, meant to be accessed by millions. These relational enterprise database packages are built and supported by companies such as Oracle, Microsoft, and IBM. The open-source MySQL is also an enterprise database.
As stated earlier, the relational database model does not scale well. The term scale here refers to a database getting larger and larger, being distributed on a larger number of computers connected via a network. Some companies are looking to provide large-scale database solutions by moving away from the relational model to other, more flexible models. For example, Google now offers the App Engine Datastore, which is based on NoSQL. Developers can use the App Engine Datastore to develop applications that access data from anywhere in the world. Amazon.com offers several database services for enterprise use, including Amazon RDS, which is a relational database service, and Amazon DynamoDB, a NoSQL enterprise solution.


2.2.10: Fyodor Dostoyevsky (1821-1881)
Notes from Underground Russian Realism Fyodor Dostoyevsky's life was every bit as eventful as the stories that he wrote. As a young man, he was sentenced to be executed by a firing squad for being part of a group that was considered subversive. He received a last-minute reprieve from the tsar, and Dostoyevsky instead spent four years doing hard labor in a Siberian prison camp. Those experiences informed his works; in addition to characters who face imminent death or time in Siberia, there are characters with epilepsy, gambling problems, bad luck in love, and ongoing poverty—all conditions that he faced. His fame began with his first novella, Poor Folk (1845), but he never made enough money from his writings to support his family in comfort. Despite all of these hardships, Dostoyevsky managed to become one of Russia's greatest writers. Leo Tolstoy praised Dostoyevsky as the better writer, and his works influenced writers such as Ernest Hemingway, Franz Kafka, James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, Jean-Paul Sartre, and William Faulkner, among many others (including Albert Einstein and Sigmund Freud). Dostoyevsky is considered the first existentialist novelist; for him, the psychology of the characters is the basis for realism (their experience of the world is the world). In novels such as Crime and Punishment (1866) and The Brothers Karamazov (1880), characters range from murderers to devout followers of the Russian Orthodox Church (Dostoyevsky's own religious preference), all portrayed with psychological clarity. In Notes from Underground (1864), Dostoyevsky satirizes (among other things) the idea that scientific progress will create a utopian society. In Part One, the unnamed narrator, or Underground Man, may seem crazy at first, with what appear to be random and contradictory thoughts. In fact, the argument is constructed very carefully to demonstrate that human beings demand free will—and that they will give up everything to get it. In Part Two, which is an extended flashback, the Underground Man offers a practical demonstration of his theories in his own past. Of particular interest is his love-hate relationship with Romanticism; the narrator ultimately argues that all of us prefer Romanticism to real life (or Realism), simply because real life is not as satisfying as escapism. Consider while reading:
- The Underground Man (UM) contradicts himself in part because he wants to do so (free will). He also claims to be telling us the truth. Why does he need to write to an imaginary audience if he does not intend to show his work to anyone?
- What does the brick wall represent to the UM?
- What is the difference between justice and revenge for the UM, and why is it so problematic?
- What do the chicken coop and the crystal palace represent for the UM?
- In what ways is Liza braver than the UM? What victory does she have at the end?
Written by Laura Getty


13.5: Social Cognitive Theory
Social cognitive theory (SCT) was developed by Albert Bandura in the 1980s, and built upon an earlier theory of his about societal learning. Learning is an important component of SCT, characterized by reinforcement of a particular behavior. Bandura provided the SCT as a loose framework, where each component had a bidirectional influence: it influenced the other factors and was influenced by them. Personal factors include the person’s own experiences, thoughts and feelings, which are highly influenced by their environment, and also influence the behaviors they engage in. Their environment includes the people in their social circles who may both model behaviors and provide reinforcement for those behaviors - but the individual also has influence on that circle. Finally, the behaviors themselves and the experiences from engaging in the behaviors will have an effect on the environment and the person’s thoughts and feelings (LaMorte, 2022).
Included in this theory are several concepts which tie these factors together: behavioral capability, self-efficacy, expectancies, and reinforcements. The first is behavioral capability , which refers to the knowledge and skills that individuals must possess in order to adopt a new behavior. Self-efficacy is the personal belief that the person has this knowledge and skill, and can effectively engage in the behavior. For example, if someone wants to start a healthy dietary pattern, they must first know what a healthy diet is, and secondly how to prepare these foods (behavioral capability). They must also believe that this dietary change is possible for them (self-efficacy). Something that contributes to developing both behavioral capability and self-efficacy is observational learning; which just means that people learn from watching others. If a child observes their parents preparing fruit for a snack, they are more likely to copy them. And observational learning works for adults too - if a person sees their neighbors taking walks every day, they might be more likely to do so themselves. Expectancies are the value that the person places on the anticipated outcome of the behavior. For example, if a person values healthy eating over enjoying the taste of a food, they are more likely to eat health-promoting foods - whether they taste good or not. Finally, reinforcements happen as a result of the behavior, and can be a natural consequence or imposed by the person or their social group. A reinforcement to eating a healthy diet might be that the person feels good, or that they reward themselves with a treat, or still further that a friend or family member gives them praise. Reinforcements are a key component of the SCT model (LaMorte, 2022, McKenzie et al., 2017). See Figure 13.3 for a diagram of the SCT.


1.9: Automorphism
An isomorphism from a group ( G ,*) to itself is called an automorphism of this group. It is a bijection f : G → G such that
f ( g ) * f ( h ) = f ( g * h )
An automorphism preserves the structural properties of a group, e.g.:
- The identity element of G is mapped to itself.
- Subgroups are mapped to subgroups, normal subgroups to normal subgroups.
- Conjugacy classes are mapped to conjugacy classes (the same or another).
- The image f(g) of an element g has the same order as g .
The composition of two automorphisms is again an automorphism, and with composition as binary operation the set of all automorphisms of a group G , denoted by Aut( G ) , forms itself a group, the automorphism group of G .


3.7: Post-test-
- True or False: All people have the same experience as they age.
- True or False: All people, even those who are forgetful or have dementia have a right to confidential and respectful health care.
- True or False: Dementia is a normal part of aging. All older people have trouble remembering things and are forgetful.
- True or False: Handwashing is the best way to prevent the spread of infectious disease.
-
When people have trouble breathing, which is the
best
position to place them?
- Lying flat on their back
- Lying on their side with their knees bent
- Sitting upright in a high Fowler’s position
- Lying on their back with their knees bent
- True or False: Signs of possible worsening of heart failure include increased shortness of breath, sudden weight gain, edema of the legs, and chest pain.
-
Which of the following are signs and symptoms of a cerebrovascular accident (stroke)?
Select
all
that
apply
.
- Numbness in the arms or legs on 1 side of the body.
- Sudden inability to see or blurred vision .
- Sudden inability to lift or move an arm or leg.
- Sudden inability to speak.
- Facial drooping, especially on one side of the face.
- True or False: Patients should be allowed to sit at the edge of the bed and rest before moving to a standing position to allow adjustment to changes in blood pressure and prevent falls.
- True or False: To protect the skin and prevent skin breakdown, pressure ulcers, and skin tearing, immobile patients should be turned and positioned every two hours with pillows used to protect bony areas.
- True or False: Incontinence is a normal part of aging. All older people have urinary problems.
-
Which is a way to help people control incontinence?
- Limit the patient’s fluid intake to prevent incontinence.
- Instruct patients to “hold” their bladder as long as they can to help strengthen their bladder muscle tone.
- Offer the bedpan or use of the toilet every two hours.
- Delay answering patient calls for help to use the bathroom.
- Offer the use of the toilet or bedpan every four to six hours.
-
When working with a patient who has Alzheimer’s, the HHA/PCA should do which of the following?
Select
all
that
apply
.
- Allow the patient to use the stove unsupervised.
- Take special precautions for the safety of the patient by providing close supervision.
- Use notes to help the patient remember the names of objects and people.
- Allow the patient to go to the supermarket alone.
- Lock the patient in a room for their safety.
- Answer
-
1. False
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. C
6. True
7. All are signs of a stroke
8. True
9. True
10. False
11. C
12. B and C


16.A: Review Questions
Complete as directed.
Fill in the Blanks:
- A stairway or ladder, for personal access, shall be provided whenever there is a break in elevation of ________ inches or more.
- ________ stairways are not permitted for employees on construction sites unless they are part of the structure on which the construction work is being performed.
- A ________ ladder, or two or more separate ladders shall be provided when ladders are the only means of access or exit from a working area for 25 or more employees or when a ladder is used for simultaneous two-way traffic.
- Each building or structure shall have at least ________ point of access between levels and the point shall be kept clear to permit free passage of employees.
- Temporary stairways shall be equipped with landings of not less than ________ inches in the direction of travel and extend at least 22 inches in width at every 12 foot of vertical rise.
- The construction of stairways shall be such that the height of the stair rails shall not be less than ________ inches from the upper surface of the stand rail system to the surface of the tread, in line with the face of the riser at the forward and of the tread.
- Handrails and the top rails of stair rails shall be capable of withstanding, without failure, a force of at least ________ pound, applied within ________ inches of any point along the top edge.
- Self-supporting and portable ladders shall be designed to handle ________ times the maximum intended load. Fixed ladder shall be capable of handling at least two loads of pounds each, concentrated between any two consecutive attachments, plus any anticipated loads.
- The height of handrails shall not be more than ________ inches or less than ________i nches from the upper surface of the handrail to the surface of the tread.
True or False: (Circle the Correct Answer)
10. T or F
Stairways with pan stairs, where the tread and/or landings are not fill-in, shall not be used for foot traffic, unless the tread and/or landings are temporarily fitted with wood or other materials to the top edge of the each pan.


1: Structure and Bonding
This chapter provides a review of material covered in a standard freshman general-chemistry course through a discussion of the following topics:
- the differences between organic and inorganic chemistry.
- the shapes and significance of atomic orbitals.
- electron configurations.
- ionic and covalent bonding.
- molecular orbital theory.
- hybridization.
- the structure and geometry of the compounds methane, ethane, ethylene and acetylene.
-
- 1.2: Atomic Structure - The Nucleus
- Atoms are comprised of protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus of the atom, while electrons are found in the electron cloud around the nucleus. The relative electrical charge of a proton is +1, a neutron has no charge, and an electron’s relative charge is -1. The number of protons in an atom’s nucleus is called the atomic number, Z. The mass number, A, is the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in a nucleus.
-
- 1.4: Atomic Structure - Electron Configurations
- The order in which electrons are placed in atomic orbitals is called the electron configuration and is governed by the aufbau principle. Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called valence electrons. The number of valence electrons in any atom is related to its position in the periodic table. Elements in the same periodic group have the same number of valence electrons.
-
- 1.5: Development of Chemical Bonding Theory
- Lewis Dot Symbols are a way of indicating the number of valence electrons in an atom. They are useful for predicting the number and types of covalent bonds within organic molecules. The molecular shape of molecules is predicted by Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory. The shapes of common organic molecules are based on tetrahedral, trigonal planar or linear arrangements of electron groups.
-
- 1.6: Describing Chemical Bonds - Valence Bond Theory
- Covalent bonds form as valence electrons are shared between two atoms. Lewis Structures and structural formulas are common ways of showing the covalent bonding in organic molecules. Formal charge describes the changes in the number of valence electrons as an atom becomes bonded into a molecule. If the atom has a net loss of valence electrons it will have a positive formal charge. If the atom has a net gain of valence electrons it will have a negative formal charge.
-
- 1.8: sp³ Hybrid Orbitals and the Structure of Ethane
- The C-C bond in ethane forms as the result of sigma bond overlap between a sp³ hybrid orbital on each carbon. and the s orbital of each hydrogen. The six identical C-H single bonds in form as the result of sigma bond overlap between the sp³ hybrid orbitals of carbon and the s orbital of each hydrogen.
-
- 1.13: Drawing Chemical Structures
- Kekulé Formulas or structural formulas display the atoms of the molecule in the order they are bonded. Condensed structural formulas show the order of atoms like a structural formula but are written in a single line to save space. Skeleton formulas or Shorthand formulas or line-angle formulas are used to write carbon and hydrogen atoms more efficiently by replacing the letters with lines. Isomers have the same molecular formula, but different structural formulas


4.17: Other Key Ratios
Learning Outcomes
Analyze other key ratios used to interpret financial statement data
Operating Ratios
Operating ratios measure how effectively a company is utilizing its resources. These ratios also help identify areas for improvement in operations that will improve overall financial health. Operating ratios are commonly used when comparing a business to “industry standards” or benchmarks.
- Average-Inventory-Turnover Ratio. This ratio measures the number of times that a company’s inventory turns over or sells out during the accounting period. It is very common for retail businesses to rely heavily on this ratio for obvious reasons – their primary source of revenue is derived from selling inventory. This ratio can also help a business determine if its inventory is obsolete, understocked or overstocked and is calculated as follows:
Average Inventory Turnover Ratio= (Cost of Goods Sold)/(Average Inventory)
Average inventory is determined by inventory at the beginning of the accounting period to inventory at the end of the accounting period and dividing by 2. This ratio will vary considerably by business type. For example, an automobile dealership may turn its inventory only twice a year as opposed to a grocery store that may turn its inventory 15 times annually. Because of this disparity it is key to compare a business’s inventory turn-over ration to similar businesses or industry standards.
- Average-Collection-Period Ratio. This ratio is often referred to as days sales outstanding because it tells the business the average number of days that it takes to collect its accounts receivable. In order to calculate this ratio a business must first calculate its receivables turnover ratio as follows:
Average Collection Period Ratio= (Days in the Accounting Period)/(Receivables Turnover Ratio)
The higher the receivables turnover ratio, the shorter the time between a credit sale and payment. Once we have this ratio we can then calculate the Average-Collection-Period ratio as follows:
One of the most beneficial uses for this ratio is comparison to industry averages. This ratio, like the Average-Inventory-Turnover Ratio varies among industries. A company can also use this ratio to evaluate its credit terms. A rule of thumb is that the collection period ratio should be no more than one-third greater than its credit terms. For example, if a company extends credit to its customers and gives them 30 days to pay their bill then their average collection ratio should be no more than 40 days (30 + 30 × 1/3).
- Average-Payable-Period Ratio. This ratio measures the number of days it takes a company to pay its accounts payable. Like the collection period ratio, we must first calculate the Payables Turnover Ratio as follows:
Payables Turnover Ratio= Purchases/(Accounts Payable)
Then we are able to calculate the Average-Payable-Period Ratio as follows:
Average Payable Period Ratio= (Days in Accounting Period)/(Payables Turnover Ratio)
One of the most meaningful comparisons for this ratio is to compare the ratio to the terms offered by suppliers and creditors. If the average payable period ratio is higher than the terms offered by creditors, then this may signal that the company needs to improve its accounts payable system. A high average payable period ratio may also be discovered by companies that are short on cash. Allowing this ratio to remain high has the long-term consequences of damaging the company’s reputation with suppliers and creditors and may make it very difficult for the company to purchase necessary materials or inventory on credit terms. On the other hand, if the average payable period ratio is very low then the company may not be putting its cash to its best use by paying creditor too fast. Cleary there is a “happy medium” when it comes to managing payables for a business.
- Net-Sales-to-Total Assets Ratio. This ratio measures a company’s ability to generate sales revenue based upon the assets of the business. It is a measure of productivity but is only meaningful when compared to similar businesses or industry benchmarks. The Net-Sales-to-Total Assets Ratio is calculated as follows:
Net Sales to Total Assets= (Net Sales)/(Net Total Assets)
For the purposes of calculating this ratio, total net assets is the sum of everything the business owns (cash, buildings, equipment, land, tools, etc.) less depreciation.
practice questions
Profitability Ratios
Profitability ratios are a measurement of how efficiently a company is being managed and run. More than any other type of ratio, profitability ratios provide owners and managers with information about a business’s ability to use its resources to generate a profit.
- Net-Profit-on-Sales Ratio. This ratio measures a company’s profit per dollar of sales. The ratio is expressed as a percentage and shows the percentage of each dollar remaining after paying expenses. The ratio is calculated as follows:
Net Profit on Sales = Net Profit/Net Sales
For a small, privately owned company this ratio generally ranges from 3 to 7%, but like many of the other ratios we have discussed it varies based on the industry. Retail businesses generally have a net profit on sales ratio between 2 and 4% but other industries such as the healthcare industry have ratios as high as 15%. When businesses see their net profit on sales ratio fall, they often undertake drastic cost-cutting measures. This is not always the best approach as many times cost reduction measures have a negative impact on the overall health and future of the business. Rather, businesses should look at their gross margin in comparison to similar businesses or their industry. If their gross sales are comparable, then it makes sense for the business to investigate what in their operations is driving less revenue to the bottom line (net profit).
- Net-Profit-to-Assets Ratio. This ratio is also referred to as a return-on-assets ratio because it measures how much profit a company is generating for every dollar it has invested in the assets of the company. This ratio is calculated as follows:
Net Profit to Assets Ratio= (Net Profit)/(Total Assets)
This ratio provides information about how “asset intensive” a business or industry is. Manufacturing companies that require expensive machinery to produce a product will have a much lower net profit to asset ratio than an accounting firm, for instance. Again, this is a comparative ratio. A business will look at the industry average for similar businesses to determine if changes need to be made in how assets are utilized in the course of day-to-day operations.
- Net-Profit-to-Equity Ratio. This ratio is often referred to as a return on net worth ratio because it measures the owner’s return on investment (ROI). It reflects the percentage of the owner’s investment in the business that is returned annually via the profit of the business. It is one of the most important ratios when evaluating the company’s overall profitability. This ratio is computed as follows:
Net Profit to Equity Ratio= (Net Profit)/(Owners Equity)
One of the most common uses for this ratio is in comparison to a company’s cost of capital (interest rate on money borrowed). The business should produce a rate of return (ROI) that exceeds its cost of capital.
In general, ratios are useful in measuring a firm’s overall performance and identifying areas where the firm can improve. In addition to being able to calculate these ratios, owners and managers must understand how to interpret them in order to increase efficiency and profitability. Ratio analysis is an ongoing process, comparing the ratios not only to industry benchmarks but also to the company’s own ratios from prior periods.


14.2: Security Issues for Online Testing
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Security Issues in A Computer Lab Setting
In this section, I focus on the WebCT CE 4.x Quiz Tool and on issues related to administering a closed-book quiz/exam in a computer lab. I do not cover all issues of setting-up and running a WebCT quiz in a computer lab, I only consider certain security issues not covered in most reference material on WebCT. As well, even though you may use a different platform than WebCT, many of the issues discussed here are similar for most of the learning management systems (LMSs). In the following discussion it is assumed that the person monitoring the quiz/exam has access to a computer workstation in the lab.
The Submissions page provides a wealth of information about a quiz. The page informs the instructor if the quiz is “In progress”, “Not taken”, “Not graded”, or “Partial”. The first two labels are self-explanatory. The last label means that some of the questions in the quiz are not marked. This happens when there are machine gradable questions mixed with short answer or paragraph type questions. The latter question types must be manually marked by a human. The “Not graded” label means that the student either quit the quiz without properly submitting the quiz for grading or the designer configured the quiz so that it either must be manually graded or it must be manually submitted for grading. Clicking a Submissions no. opens the quiz of any student, whether submitted or not. In WebCT, you can view the quiz while it is being completed by the student, before it is even submitted. In fact, the designer can force the quiz to be submitted while it is still being completed, so be careful when accessing live quizzes.
Though the Submissions view does provide information about a quiz, and allows some monitoring of the quiz environment, computer labs should also be equipped with either a secure browser or computer monitoring software such as NetSupport to protect the security of the quiz environment. Preferably a lab would have both features; neither by itself ensures absolute security. Together, these tools give a high level of security. Nevertheless, even if both these security tools are implemented, you should still consider restricting the IP address of work stations (more on this below in the Quiz Settings).
You can also increase the magnification of the collective class screen. The following demonstrates that it is possible to create other views of the workstations in the lab, which are easy to tab between. You can create a tabbed view of all workstations, of the workstations for only the class, or of the workstations that are only doing the quiz (I frequently allow other students in the lab who are not completing the quiz). The fewer the number of stations monitored the greater the magnification possible to view all stations at once.
Using A Secure Browser
As well, by setting your quizzes a certain colour it is easy to spot workstations that are accessing material that is not part of the quiz. You can do a screen capture of any suspicious workstation, to act as evidence of violation of the rules of the exam setting.
Using Excel with WebQuery
I have up to 200 students registered in a WebCT course. Even though the class breaks down into 24 students per lab/quiz, which is quite manageable, the Submissions screen does not provide an easy way to isolate the specific 24 students taking a quiz; you must view all 200 student accounts at once. It is very difficult to monitor the 24 students taking a quiz when the Submissions screen lists 200, and the 24 are scattered throughout the 200. This is especially a problem if students are assigned to the labs non-alphabetically (the Submissions screen sorts students alphabetically by Last Name only). However, you can use the WebQuery feature of an Excel spreadsheet to assist in the monitoring. All data on any WebCT page can be grabbed by an Excel WebQuery.
This screen capture displays an Excel spreadsheet, in which I wrote macros and formulas to analyze the data pulled from the Submissions page. Excel has tools that allow you to continuously update the data being generated from WebCT. With WebQuery you are basically creating a real-time Excel window into the Submissions page of your WebCT Quiz. Excel WebQuerys can be used to mine data for a variety of different purposes in WebCT; they are exceptionally useful.
Configuring The WebCT Quiz
In the following I only discuss a few of the 17 areas numbered above, many of these areas are covered in other sources about WebCT CE 4.x. I only cover those that are directly relevant to monitoring a quiz in a lab.
Controlled release of quizzes
Controlled release to specific students
- You can release quizzes to the whole class or to only a subsection of the class, even to just one person.
- Even though you can control release to one account, more than one person can sign into an account (all using the same student/WebCT ID). So, a student could sign into a quiz, and have their bright friend in Timbuktu sign in at exactly the same time and complete the quiz for them, while the student sits in front of the workstation appearing to do the work. The best way to stop this is by controlling the IP Address, and setting and changing the password.
Controlled release to an IP address
To reduce the risk that more than one person signs into the same account/quiz, you can release quizzes to a single IP address or to a range of IP address. This at least prevents the person in Timbuktu from accessing the quiz.
Controlled release by quiz password
You can set a password to allow entry into a quiz. With this setting, the quiz cannot be started without the password. Not only does this assist to control unauthorized access to the quiz, it also gives you the power to force everyone to start the quiz at approximately the same time. This option combined with the release by User ID and the release by IP address can significantly reduce the possibility of unauthorized access.
Change the password during the quiz and deny access
During the quiz, I usually reset the password as soon as everyone is into the quiz, which effectively prevents anyone new from signing in. This helps to prevent someone signing-on from a remote site (if you didn’t restrict access by the IP address and they were emailed the current password by someone taking the quiz), especially someone who was authorized to do the quiz but did not show up.
Security Issues for totally online courses
Obviously, the security issues for totally online courses are quite different than for face-to-face courses. There is a fair amount of literature on this topic. Most universities and colleges have testing centres, and for a fee you can have students invigilated during an exam. I have done this with students taking my online logic course. These students arranged with a testing centre to use an Internet-enabled computer for completing their exams. An invigilator was also present. However, you still need to create an exam that is more demanding and that could not be easily completed by cheating. In testing centres, you seldom have the ability to check out the computer system the student uses for the exam, or to specify that there must be a secure browser.


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Review the story of Sixto Cancel and his journey to developing the social venture Think of Us.
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Consider Sixto’s entrepreneurial journey and the development of Think of Us. What types of challenges or obstacles do you think he had to overcome to complete his journey?
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Discuss some of the advantages and disadvantages related to Sixto Cancel’s background and his experiences in developing an organization and board.
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Consider how Sixto Cancel developed his organization. Discuss how he followed or skipped any steps of an entrepreneurial journey.
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Explore
the websites of Cratejoy and Prospurly
. How did these venture founders follow the entrepreneurial journey?
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After researching Man Crates, explain how Man Crates has followed the model in Figure <IP_ADDRESS>?
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What additional ideas can you think of for starting your own business, using Man Crates as a source of inspiration?
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Go back to the Work It Out: Startup Ideas Feature Box in
3.1.4: Entrepreneurial Pathways
. Select either an idea that you’ve created or an idea listed on either of the websites. Where could you go to gain more information about this idea? This might mean finding a business where you could shadow someone, or perhaps an internship, or research conducted in some other manner.
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Return to the Work It Out: Startup Ideas Feature Box in
3.1.4: Entrepreneurial Pathways
and revisit the links to business ideas, using the same idea that you identified in Question 1. What are five other businesses that could be spinoff ideas from your one new idea?
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Refer to the case questions in
3.1.4: Entrepreneurial Pathways
. Select one of the framework tools discussed in this section and apply that framework to your idea.
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Why did you select this framework over another framework?
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By applying the framework to your idea, what new information did you learn and what information is lacking, or needs further development?


24.7: Ternary Form
24.7 Ternary Form
Ternary form is usually diagrammed as ABA and is described as “statement, digression, restatement.” 1 A piece in a rather simple and straightforward ternary is shown below.
Below is a diagram of K. 15mm by Mozart.
Character pieces from the Romantic era with titles such as “Nocturne,” “Intermezzo,” and “Song Without Words,” among others, by composers such as Schubert, Chopin, Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Brahms, are often in a larger ternary form where each section might be longer than eight bars. Below are examples from a larger ternary piece, Rachmaninov's Prelude in C-sharp minor, Op.3 No.2.
24.7.1 Compound Ternary
A compound ternary is a ternary form in which one of the sections (the A or the B) is itself a binary or ternary form. Examples can be found in the minuet and trio as well as the da capo aria. In the next section, we will examine the differences between rounded binary and ternary.


12.1: The Mongols
Influence of the Mongols
The Mongol Empire emerged in Central Asia during the 13th and 14th centuries.
Describe the governmental code, extensive trade routes, and artistic accomplisments of the powerful Mongol Empire
Key Points
- During his reign, Genghis Khan began a series of invasions known as the Mongol invasions, often accompanied by the large scale massacre of civilian populations and resulting in the conquest of most of Eurasia .
- The Mongol Empire was governed by a code of law instituted by Genghis termed “Yassa,” which means “order.” The Empire is also notable for its extensive trade routes as well as its postal system, called “yam.”
- The trade routes known as the Silk Road consisted of well-traveled and well-maintained roads that linked the land from the Mediterranean basin to China, greatly increasing trade throughout the area.
- The Mongols enjoyed various art forms , and their art work was highly influential on the dynasties that followed; many paintings, illuminated manuscripts , and epics exist from the empire.
- The oldest surviving Mongolian work is “The Secret History of the Mongols,” which was written sometime after Genghis Khan’s death in 1227 and is the most significant native account of Genghis’ life and genealogy.
- The “Shahnama,” or “Book of Kings,” is an illuminated manuscript noted for its innovative compositions that blended elements of Persian, Chinese, and European painting traditions through lavish illustrations.
Key Terms
- Silk Road : An extensive interconnected network of trade routes across Asia, North and Northeast Africa, and Europe, historically used by silk traders.
Background: The Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire emerged in Central Asia during the 13th and 14th centuries as the largest land empire in history. A result of the unification of Mongol and Turkic tribes, the empire took form under the leadership of the legendary Genghis Khan, also known as the Great Khan, meaning emperor. During his reign, Genghis Khan began a series of invasions known as the Mongol invasions, often accompanied by the large scale massacre of civilian populations and resulting in the conquest of most of Eurasia. After Genghis Khan’s death, the empire began to split as a result of wars between succession heirs.
The Mongol Empire was governed by a code of law instituted by Genghis and termed “Yassa,” meaning “order.” Those of rank shared many of the same hardships as common people, resulting in an empire that was generally disciplined and well-run. Any resistance to Mongol rule was met with massive and collective punishment. The society practiced religious tolerance, and many religions found homes in the empire.
The Mongol Empire is notable for its extensive trade routes as well as its postal system, which was called “yam.” This postal system was very advanced and was later replicated in the United States, where it was known as the Pony Express. The trade routes known as the Silk Road consisted of well-traveled and well-maintained roads that linked the land from the Mediterranean basin to China, greatly increasing trade throughout the area. Genghis Khan encouraged trade during his reign as merchants provided both information about neighboring cultures and necessary goods that the Mongols didn’t produce.
Art in the Mongol Empire
The Mongols enjoyed various art forms, and their art work was highly influential on the dynasties that followed. The ruling classes were active patrons , and many paintings, illuminated manuscripts, and epics exist from the empire. The oldest surviving Mongolian work is “The Secret History of the Mongols,” which was written for the royal family sometime after Genghis Khan’s death in 1227. It is the most significant native account of Genghis’ life and genealogy, covering his origins and childhood through to the establishment of the Mongol Empire and the reign of his son, Ögedei.
Another important work from the empire, the “Shahnama,” is an illuminated manuscript noted for its innovative compositions blending elements of Persian, Chinese, and European painting traditions in its lavish illustrations. The Jami’ al-tawarikh, or “Universal History,” was commissioned in the early 14th century by the Ilkhan Abaqa Khan as a way of documenting the entire world’s history in order to establish the Mongols’ own cultural legacy.
Other pieces of literature have long been orally traded and typically consist of alliterative verses; these are known as Üligers, which literally means ‘tales.’ They include the proverbs attributed to Genghis Khan and the epics around the Khan’s life. Already at the time of the Mongol empire, samples of Buddhist and Indian literature became known in Mongolia. Another wave of translations of Indian/Tibetan texts came with Mongolia’s conversion to Tibetan Buddhism in the late 16th/early 17th centuries.
Mongol scribes in the 14th century used a mixture of resin and vegetable pigments as a primitive form of correction fluid; this is arguably its first known usage. The Mongols also appreciated the visual arts, though their portraiture tended to focus on portraits of their horses rather than of people.
- Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Baysonghori Shahnameh 1. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Baysonghori_Shahnameh_1.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Culture of Mongolia. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Mongolia . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Mongol Empire. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_Empire. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Shahnameh. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahnameh. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Silk Road. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Silk_Road. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


22.4: Wills and Trusts
Both real and personal property may be transferred to another owner through wills and trusts. Although most people think of wills and trusts as a tool for conveying property owned by individuals, businesses property often needs to be transferred when the business owner dies. This is especially true for sole proprietorships and partnerships.
A will is a document by which an individual directs his or her estate to be distributed upon death. Wills must be in writing and signed by the individual(s) making them. Although state laws regarding wills vary slightly, most states require:
| Requirement | Description |
| Legal age |
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| Testamentary intent |
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| Testamentary capacity |
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| Signature |
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| Witnesses |
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A trust is a property interest held by one person or entity at the request of another for the benefit of a third party. For a trust to be valid, it must involve specific property, reflect the person’s or entity’s intent, and be created for a lawful purpose. Trusts are very popular for leaving property to benefit children who are under 18 years old, elderly, and people with disabilities.
When planning how to distribute property upon death, it is important to understand the difference between probate and non-probate assets. Probate is the process through which a court determines how to distribute property after someone dies. Some assets are distributed to heirs by the court ( probate assets ) and some assets bypass the court process and go directly to beneficiaries ( non-probate assets ). Probate assets generally are subject to inheritance taxes and distribution can be delayed until the court orders the distribution of the assets. Because of these drawbacks, many individuals prefer non-probate assets.
| Probate Assets | Non-Probate Assets |
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Death of a property owner impacts the ability to transfer property. The ownership interest dictates how the property may be transferred.
| Type of Ownership | Death of Owner | Transfer | Where Available |
| Tenancy in Common | Owner’s interest passes to heirs | Owner may transfer interest without agreement of co-owners | All states |
| Joint Tenancy | Owner’s interest passes to the remaining joint tenants as non-probate asset | Owner may not transfer interest without agreement of co-owners | All states |
| Tenancy by Entirety | Owner’s interest passes to the surviving spouse | Owner may not transfer interest without agreement of spouse | Approximately half of the states |
| Community Property | Half of owner’s interest passes to the surviving spouse & other half passes to other heirs | Owner may not transfer interest without agreement of spouse | Only 9 states: Arizona, California, Idaho, Louisiana, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas & Washington |
If someone dies without a will or trust, the probate court will determine:
- The nature and value of the decedent’s estate;
- The nature and value of any outstanding debts and tax obligations;
- Whether the decedent has any heirs;
- The identity of the heirs and their relationship to the decedent; and
- What, if anything, the heirs are entitled to receive from the decedent’s estate.
The essential role of the probate court is to ensure that the deceased person’s creditors are paid and that any remaining assets are distributed to the proper beneficiaries. However, this process takes time and costs money from the deceased person’s estate. And there is no guarantee that the deceased person intended his or her property to be distributed based on the state’s rules on who qualifies as an heir and what they are entitled to receive. Business assets owned by the deceased person may complicate the probate process even more.


9.1: Introduction to Relationship Styles, Communication, Sexual Behavior, and Fantasies
After completing this module, students should have a working knowledge of:
- The wide variety of relationship styles
- Effective relationship tools
- The importance of honest communication
- Sexual Behaviors
- Sexual Fantasies
Introduction
While many people enter into fulfilling relationships that enhance their lives, relationships also take energy and work to flourish. Part of this work involves open communication, both with ourselves and those who we are partnering with. There are many relationship styles and types, but because of the standard sexual scripts we’ve been taught to follow, we usually imagine cisgendered, heterosexual, monogamous couples when we think of a relationship. We hope to expand this understanding here. Our sexual behaviors and fantasies are also varied, and the possibilities are endless. In this chapter, we will dive into some of these different behaviors and fantasies, but know that there is so much more to the story, and you get to imagine your own fantasies and ideas of what feels good. It is important to note that while we may not all find pleasure in the same things, pleasure is something all humans seek. If a particular behavior or fantasy is not appealing to you, that’s ok, but please try to keep from judging and open your mind to learning. To put it simply, don’t yuck someone else’s yum.