9.6: Bibliography
Allen, J.A., H. Lang, and J.P. Chapin. 1917. The American Museum Congo Expedition Collection of Bats (New York: Order of the Trustees, American Museum of Natural History). http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/handle/2246/1068
Anderson, S.C., T.A. Branch, A.B. Cooper, et al. 2017. Black-swan events in animal populations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114: 3252–57. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1611525114
Ayinla, O.A., A.B. Williams, D.A. Bolaji, et al. 2011. Development of turtle excluder device (TED) and its adoption in Nigeria (Lagos: Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research). http://hdl.handle.net/1834/5337
Barthold, J.A., A.J. Loveridge, D.W. Macdonald, et al. 2016. Bayesian estimates of male and female African lion mortality for future use in population management. Journal of Applied Ecology 53: 295–304. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12594
Bongers, F., L. Poorter, W.D. Hawthorne, et al. 2009. The intermediate disturbance hypothesis applies to tropical forests, but disturbance contributes little to tree diversity. Ecology Letters 12: 798–805. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01329.x
Bouché, P., I. Douglas-Hamilton, G. Wittemyer, et al. 2011. Will elephants soon disappear from West African savannahs? PLoS ONE 6: e20619. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0020619
Bouley P., M. Poulos, R. Branco, et al. 2018. Post-war recovery of the African lion in response to large-scale ecosystem restoration. Biological Conservation 227: 233–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2018.08.024
Brook B.W., J.J. O’Grady, A.P. Chapman, et al. 2000. Predictive accuracy of population viability analysis in conservation biology. Nature 329: 512–19. https://doi.org/10.1038/35006050
Brook, B., M. Burgman, and R. Frankham. 2000. Differences and congruencies between PVA packages: The importance of sex ratio for predictions of extinction risk. Conservation Ecology 4: 6.
Brook, B.W., L.W. Traill, and C.J.A. Bradshaw. 2006. Minimum viable population sizes and global extinction risk are unrelated. Ecology Letters 9: 375–82. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2006.00883.x
Buckland, S.T., and A. Johnston. 2017. Monitoring the biodiversity of regions: Key principles and possible pitfalls. Biological Conservation 214: 23–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2017.07.034
Carlsen, F., K. Leus, K. Traylor-Holzer, et al. 2012. Western chimpanzee population and habitat viability assessment for Sierra Leone: Final report. IUCN/SSC CBSG—Europe (Copenhagen: CBSG Europe). http://www.cpsg.org/sites/cbsg.org/files/documents/Sierra%20Leone%20Chimpanzee%20PHVA%20Final%20Report.pdf
Caro, T.M., C.R. Young, A.E. Cauldwell, et al. 2009. Animal breeding systems and big game hunting: Models and application. Biological Conservation 142: 909–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2008.12.018
Caughley, G. 1977. Analysis of Vertebrate Populations (New York: Wiley).
Conde, D.A., J. Staerk, F. Colchero, et al. 2019. Data gaps and opportunities for comparative and conservation biology. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116: 9658–64. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1816367116
Crawford, R.J.M., L.G. Underhill, J.C. Coetzee, et al. 2008. Influences of the abundance and distribution of prey on African penguins Spheniscus demersus off western South Africa. African Journal of Marine Science 30: 167–75. https://doi.org/10.2989/AJMS.2<IP_ADDRESS>.467
Crone, E.E., M.M. Ellis, W.F. Morris, et al. 2013. Ability of matrix models to explain the past and predict the future of plant populations. Conservation Biology 27: 968–78. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12049
Crouse, D.T., L.B. Crowder, and H. Caswell. 1987. A stage ‐ based population model for loggerhead sea turtles and implications for conservation. Ecology 68: 1412–23. https://doi.org/10.2307/1939225
Cumming, D.H.M., and G.S. Cumming. 2015. One Health: An ecological and conservation perspective. In: One Health: The Theory and Practice of Integrated Health Approaches, ed. by J. Zinsstag, et al. (Wallingford: CAB International).
De Leo, G.A., and F. Micheli. 2015. The good, the bad and the ugly of marine reserves for fishery yields. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 370: 20140276. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2014.0276
Eggert, L.S., R. Buij, M.E. Lee, et al. 2014. Using genetic profiles of African forest elephants to infer population structure, movements, and habitat use in a conservation and development landscape in Gabon. Conservation Biology 28: 107–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12161
Ellner, S.P., J. Fieberg, D. Ludwig, et al. 2002. Precision of population viability analysis. Conservation Biology 16: 258–61. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.00553.x
Fennessy, S.T., and B. Isaksen. 2007. Can bycatch reduction devices be implemented successfully on prawn trawlers in the Western Indian Ocean? African Journal of Marine Science 29: 453–63. https://doi.org/10.2989/AJMS.2<IP_ADDRESS>.342
Flather, C.H., G.D. Hayward, S.R. Beissinger, et al. 2011. Minimum viable populations: Is there a ‘magic number’ for conservation practitioners? Trends in Ecology and Ecolution 26: 307–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2011.03.001
Formia, A., B.J. Godley, J.F. Dontaine, et al. 2006. Mitochondrial DNA diversity and phylogeography in West and Central African green turtles (Chelonia mydas). Conservation Genetics 7: 353–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-005-9047-z
Frankham, R., C.J.A. Bradshaw, and B.W. Brook. 2014. Genetics in conservation management: Revised recommendations for the 50/500 rules, Red List criteria and population viability analyses. Biological Conservation 170: 56–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2013.12.036
Funmilayo, O. 1978. Fruit bats for meat: are too many taken? Oryx 14: 377–78. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605300016008
Hayman, D.T.S., and A.J. Peel. 2016. Can survival analyses detect hunting pressure in a highly connected species? Lessons from straw-coloured fruit bats. Biological Conservation 200: 131–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2016.06.003
Hayman, D.T.S., R. McCrea, O. Restif, et al. 2012. Demography of straw-colored fruit bats in Ghana. Journal of Mammalogy 93: 1393–404. https://doi.org/10.1644/11-MAMM-A-270.1
Hughes, N., N. Rosen, N. Gretsky, et al. 2011. Will the Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee go extinct? Models derived from intake rates of ape sanctuaries. In: Primates of Gashaka, ed. by V. Sommer and C. Ross (New York: Springer). http://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-7403-7
Ingram, D.J., L. Coad, B. Collen, et al. 2015. Indicators for wild animal offtake: Methods and case study for African mammals and birds. Ecology and Society 20: 40. http://doi.org/10.5751/ES-07823-200340
Kamins, A.O., O. Restif, Y. Ntiamoa-Baidu, et al. 2011. Uncovering the fruit bat bushmeat commodity chain and the true extent of fruit bat hunting in Ghana, West Africa. Biological Conservation 144: 3000–08. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2011.09.003
Kays, R., M.C. Crofoot, W. Jetz, et al. 2015. Terrestrial animal tracking as an eye on life and planet. Science 348: aaa2478. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa2478
Kümpel, N.F., E.J. Milner-Gulland, G. Cowlishaw, et al. 2010. Assessing sustainability at multiple scales in a rotational bushmeat hunting system. Conservation Biology 24: 861–71. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01505.x
Lindsey, P., C.J. Tambling, R. Brummer, et al. 2011. Minimum prey and area requirements of the vulnerable cheetah Acinonyx jubatus: Implications for reintroduction and management of the species in South Africa. Oryx 45: 587–99. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003060531000150X
Lindsey, P., K. Marnewick, H. Davies-Mostert, et al. 2009. Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) population habitat viability assessment workshop report (Johannesburg: IUCN CBSG and EWT). http://www.cbsg.org/sites/cbsg.org/files/documents/South%20African%20Cheetah%20PHVA%202009.pdf
Lindsey, P.A., G.A. Balme, P. Funston, et al. 2013. The trophy hunting of African lions: Scale, current management practices and factors undermining sustainability. PLoS ONE 8: e73808. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0073808
Marnewick, K., S.M. Ferreira, S. Grange, et al. 2014. Evaluating the status of and African wild dogs Lycaon pictus and cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus through tourist-based photographic surveys in the Kruger National Park. PloS ONE 9: e86265. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0086265
Maxwell, S.M., G.A. Breed, B.A. Nickel, et al. 2011. Using satellite tracking to optimize protection of long-lived marine species: Olive ridley sea turtle conservation in Central Africa. PloS ONE 6: e19905. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0019905
McCarthy, M.A. 2007. Bayesian Methods for Ecology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511802454
McCarthy, M.A., S.J. Andelman, and H.P. Possingham. 2003. Reliability of relative predictions in population viability analysis. Conservation Biology 17: 982–89. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2003.01570.x
McGeoch, M.A., B.J. van Rensburg, and A. Botes. 2002. The verification and application of bioindicators: A case study of dung beetles in a savanna ecosystem. Journal of Applied Ecology 39: 661–72. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2664.2002.00743.x
Metcalfe, K., P.D. Agamboué, E. Augowet, et al. 2015. Going the extra mile: Ground-based monitoring of olive ridley turtles reveals Gabon hosts the largest rookery in the Atlantic. Biological Conservation 190: 14–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2015.05.008
Milner-Gulland, E.J., and M.J. Rowcliffe. 2007. Conservation and Sustainable Use: A Handbook of Techniques (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
Morris, W.F., and D.F. Doak. 2002. Quantitative Conservation Biology (Sunderland: Sinauer).
Niamien, M., J. Coffi, B. Kadjo, et al. 2015. Initial data on poaching of Eidolon helvum (Kerr, 1792) near-threatened species in Côte D’ivoire, West Africa. European Journal of Scientific Research 35: 219–27.
Ogutu, J.O., H.-P. Piepho, M.Y. Said, et al. 2016. Extreme wildlife declines and concurrent increase in livestock numbers in Kenya: What are the causes? PLoS ONE 11: e0163249. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0163249
Parker, L. 2017. New ocean reserve, largest in Africa, protects whales and turtles. National Geographic. http://on.natgeo.com/2samx3a
Peel, A.J., J.L.N. Wood, K.S. Baker, et al. 2017. How does Africa’s most hunted bat vary across the continent? Population traits of the straw-coloured fruit bat (Eidolon helvum) and its interactions with humans. Acta Chiropterologica 19: 77–92. https://doi.org/10.3161/15081109ACC2<IP_ADDRESS>
Péron, G., and R. Altwegg. 2015. Twenty-five years of change in southern African passerine diversity: Nonclimatic factors of change. Global Change Biology 21: 3347–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12909
Pfab, M.F., and E.T.F. Witkowski. 2000. A simple population viability analysis of the critically endangered Euphorbia clivicola R.A. Dyer under four management scenarios. Biological Conservation 96: 263–70. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3207(00)00088-4
Pikesley S.K., P.D. Agamboue, J.P. Bayet, et al. 2018. A novel approach to estimate the distribution, density and at-sea risks of a centrally-placed mobile marine vertebrate. Biological Conservation 221:246256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2018.03.011
Reed, D.H., J.J. O’Grady, B.W. Brook, et al. 2003. Estimates of minimum viable population sizes for vertebrates and factors influencing those estimates. Biological Conservation 113: 23–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3207(02)00346-4
Shaffer, M.L. 1981. Minimum population sizes for species conservation. BioScience 31: 131–34. https://doi.org/10.2307/1308256
Sherley, R.B., T. Burghardt, P.J. Barham, et al. 2010. Spotting the difference: Towards fully-automated population monitoring of African penguins Spheniscus demersus. Endangered Species Research 11: 101–11. https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00267
Stalmans M., T.J. Massad, M.J.S. Peel, et al. 2019. War-induced collapse and asymmetric recovery of large-mammal populations in Gorongosa National Park, Mozambique. PLoS ONE 14: e0212864. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212864
Steenweg, R., M. Hebblewhite, R. Kays, et al. 2017. Scaling‐up camera traps: Monitoring the planet’s biodiversity with networks of remote sensors. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 15: 26–34. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1448
Tinley, K.L. 1977. Framework of the Gorongosa ecosystem. Ph.D. thesis (Pretoria: University of Pretoria). http://hdl.handle.net/2263/24526
Traill, L.W., B.W. Brook, R.R. Frankham, et al. 2010. Pragmatic population viability targets in a rapidly changing world. Biological Conservation 143: 28–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2009.09.001
Traill, L.W., C.J.A. Bradshaw, and B.W. Brook. 2007. Minimum viable population size: A meta-analysis of 30 years of published estimates. Biological Conservation 139: 159–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2007.06.011
White, L., and A. Edwards. 2000. Conservation Research in the African Rain Forests: A Technical Handbook (New York: WCS). http://apes.eva.mpg.de/eng/pdf/documentation/WhiteEdwards2000.pdf
Wilson, H.B., J.R. Rhodes, and H.P. Possingham. 2015. Two additional principles for determining which species to monitor. Ecology 96: 3016–22. https://doi.org/10.1890/14-1511.1
Witt, M.J., B. Baert, A.C. Broderick, et al. 2009. Aerial surveying of the world’s largest leatherback turtle rookery: A more effective methodology for large-scale monitoring. Biological Conservation 142: 1719–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2009.03.009
Witt, M.J., E.B. Augowet, A.C. Broderick, et al. 2011. Tracking leatherback turtles from the world’s largest rookery: Assessing threats across the South Atlantic. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 278: 2338–47. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2010.2467


19: Scripting for the Public Forum- Writing to Speak
Figure \(19.1\) American crisis manager, lawyer, author, and television producer Judy Smith (b. 1958) speaks at the Roanoke College Regional Forum. Smith and her company, Smith & Company, served as the inspiration for the ABC television series Scandal , which ran from 2012 to 2018. (credit: “Judy Smith” by roanokecollege/flickr, CC BY 2.0)
Chapter Outline
Introduction
While writing academic text may take up the bulk of your time as a student, other aspects of life involve writing as well, especially as you move toward an engaged social life and a career. One personal or professional task in particular is writing to speak. Whether speaking as part of a classroom assignment, a planned address, a professional presentation, or recording a video to post to a video-sharing social media platform, script writing shares much more with traditional academic writing than you might first believe. A successful speaking event is not achieved by a perfectly planned outline or even extensive research and knowledge on a topic—although these are important aspects. No, the key to memorable speech is the speaker’s connection with an audience , or group of listeners.
Greek philosophers and educators wrote the first texts for public speaking over 2,000 years ago. In fact, Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BCE) wrote the treatise On Rhetoric , which covers many of the same concepts and topics you will encounter in this chapter, including rhetorical appeals, awareness of audience, and organization. As it turns out, effectively engaging an audience through speech is a time-honored endeavor. But new technologies, channels, and avenues of communication have expanded the opportunities for more and more voices to be heard.
In this chapter, you will read about podcast trailblazer Alice Wong, read a student script, and write your own script or outline advocating for a cause of your choice. Speaking of activism, you will discover how script writing and activism go hand in hand, opening new possibilities for communicating with your audience.


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burn rate
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rate at which cash outflow exceeds cash inflow
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buyback clause
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legal agreement regarding an exit by a founding team member prior to the harvesting of the venture
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code of conduct
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formal statement that provides guidance on how ethical conduct is demonstrated
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company culture
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shared beliefs, values and assumptions held by people regarding how to behave or conduct themselves within the context of fitting into an organization
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Delphi method
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group decision-making process that includes a diverse group of people who are located at different locations and willing to respond to a series of questionnaires to assist in providing ideas, information or solutions to a defined question or problem
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escalation of commitment
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tendency to continue with a predetermined action based on the past efforts and contributions to the project rather than an analysis of the current realities that disclose a new solution or approach is necessary
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fail-safe point
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identified point that triggers the entrepreneur to consider what actions are needed to bring the venture back to a healthy position and whether this action is reasonable and feasible
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founders’ agreement
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written document that addresses contractual topics such as division of equity, compensation, contributions to the venture, and commitments to the venture with timelines included
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Gannt chart
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bar chart used to organize and plan sequential steps in a process
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hindsight bias
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belief that, in retrospect, the outcome was predictable when the outcome wasn’t predictable due to various uncontrollable factors
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hubris
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overinflated belief in oneself
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lifestyle business
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business that provides incomes similar to other forms of employment
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Nominal Group technique
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group decision-making process that requests multiple rounds of responses and discussions of response
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noncompete agreement
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formal agreement that the person signing the document will not work for another organization that is a direct competitor of their current employer during employment and usually for a specified length of time after employment ends
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nondisclosure agreement
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formal agreement that the person signing the document will not sharing proprietary information with outside sources
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planning fallacy
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creation of a plan that is too optimistic and not aligned with conservative assumptions
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serial entrepreneur
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entrepreneur who becomes involved in starting multiple entrepreneurial ventures
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social capital
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goodwill that is created through helping someone else
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status quo bias
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pattern of relying on previous actions and results as the accepted pattern and outcome with a bias against change or new information or new results


15.14: Bias and Protections in Hiring
- Describe the laws designed to prevent bias and discrimination in hiring.
Equal opportunity is one of our nation’s core values and should be a core company policy. Seeking out diverse candidates is a Human Resource best practice. Having a policy of recruiting diverse candidates reflects an awareness of demographic and socio-cultural trends as well as allowing your company to tap into the broadest range of expertise, skills, and global and cultural insight—factors that drive growth and innovation.
However, we still live in a society where individuals that belong to a majority group often benefit from a system that places minority groups at a disadvantage. There are several laws in place that seek to deter this type of discrimination.
As an SHRM article emphasizes: “Discrimination costs employers millions of dollars every year, not to mention the countless hours of lost work time, employee stress and the negative public image that goes along with a discrimination lawsuit.” Equal employment opportunity isn’t just the right thing to do, it’s the law. Specifically, it’s a series of federal laws and Executive Orders designed to eliminate employment discrimination. Illegal discrimination is the practice of making employment decisions such as hiring, compensation, scheduling, performance evaluation, promotion, and firing based on factors unrelated to performance. There are currently seven categories protected under federal law: age, disability, genetic information, national origin, pregnancy, race and color, religion and sex.
Some hiring criteria may be related to a particular group an applicant belongs to and not individual abilities. Unless membership in that group directly affects potential job performance, a decision based on group membership is discriminatory (Figure 1). For instance, some jobs may require the employee to perform a physical task, such as lifting and carrying heavy objects; in such cases the physical capabilities of applicants may be considered. However, most office jobs do not have such physical requirements, so it is discriminatory to ask about physical capabilities.
To combat hiring discrimination, in the United States there are numerous city, state, and federal laws that prevent hiring (or not hiring) based on various group-membership criteria. For example, did you know it is illegal for a potential employer to ask your age in an interview? Did you know that an employer cannot ask you whether you are married, a U.S. citizen, have disabilities, or what your race or religion is? They cannot even ask questions that might shed some light on these attributes, such as where you were born or who you live with. These are only a few of the restrictions that are in place to prevent discrimination in hiring. In the United States, federal anti-discrimination laws are administered by the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC).
The EEOC’s mission is to stop and remedy unlawful employment discrimination. Specifically, the EEOC is charged with “enforcing protections against employment discrimination on the bases of race, color, national origin, religion, and sex.” Congress has expanded the agency’s jurisdiction over the years and the EEOC is now responsible for enforcing the Equal Pay Act of 1963 (APA), the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA), Section 501 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Titles I and V of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA), and Title II of the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 (GINA). In 1972, Congress expanded Title VII protections to include federal government employees and granted the EEOC authority to pursue independent litigation against private employers under Title VII.
Note that state and local laws may provide broader discrimination protections. If in doubt, contact your state department of labor for clarification. Note as well that laws are subject to interpretation. For example, an EEOC notice [1] emphasizes that their interpretation of the Title VII reference to “sex” is broadly applicable to gender, gender identity, and sexual orientation. And, further, that “these protections apply regardless of any contrary state or local laws.”
In summary, avoiding discrimination is not only the right thing to do, it’s the best thing to do from a Human Resource and risk prevention standpoint. Complying with the law reduces a company’s legal risk and an equal opportunity environment may increase employee productivity, retention and morale. Businesses may also be eligible for tax benefits associated with making your business accessible to or hiring individuals with disabilities. For additional information, refer to Appendix A of the EEOC’s “ ADA Primer for Small Business .”
- EEOC’s Digest of Equal Employment Opportunity Law : This publication includes feature articles on timely issues in equal employment opportunity law, as well as summaries of recent Commission decisions and federal court cases, as they affect Federal government employees.
- EEOC Publications, Including discrimination fact sheets
- www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/newsroom/wysk/enforcement_protections_lgbt_workers.cfm
Contributors and Attributions
- The Digest of Equal Employment Opportunity Law. Provided by : U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Located at : https://www.eeoc.gov/federal/digest/index.cfm . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright


4.4: Partition Functions and Average Energies at High Temperatures
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It is enlightening to find the integral approximations to the partition functions and average energies for our simple quantum-mechanical models of translational, rotational, and vibrational motions. In doing so, however, it is important to remember that the use of integrals to approximate Boltzmann-equation sums assumes that there are a large number of energy levels, \(\epsilon_i\), for which \(\epsilon_i\ll kT\). If we select a high enough temperature, the energy levels for any motion will always satisfy this condition. The energy levels for translational motion satisfy this condition even at sub-ambient temperatures. This is the reason that Maxwell’s derivation of the probability density function for translational motion is successful.
Rotational motion is an intermediate case. At sub-ambient temperatures, the classical-mechanical derivation can be inadequate; at ordinary temperatures, it is a good approximation. This can be seen by comparing the classical-theory prediction to experimental values for diatomic molecules. For diatomic molecules, the classical model predicts a constant-volume heat capacity of \({5k}/{2}\) from \(3\) degrees of translational and \(2\) degrees of rotational freedom. Since this does not include the contributions from vibrational motions, constant-volume heat capacities for diatomic molecules must be greater than \({5k}/{2}\) if both the translational and rotational contributions are accounted for by the classical model. For diatomic molecules at \(298\) K, the experimental values are indeed somewhat larger than \({5k}/{2}\). (Hydrogen is an exception; its value is \(2.47\ k\).)
Vibrational energies are usually so big that only a minor fraction of the molecules can be in higher vibrational levels at reasonable temperatures. If we try to increase the temperature enough to make the high-temperature approximation describe vibrational motions, most molecules decompose. Likewise, electronic partition functions must be evaluated from the defining equation.
The high-temperature limiting average energies can also be calculated from the Boltzmann equation and the appropriate quantum-mechanical energies. Recall that we find the following quantum-mechanical energies for simple models of translational, rotational, and vibrational motions:
Translation
\[\epsilon^{\left(n\right)}_{\mathrm{trans}}=\frac{n^2h^2}{8m{\ell }^2} \nonumber \]
(\(\mathrm{n\ =\ 1,\ 2,\ 3,\dots .}\) Derived for a particle in a box)
Rotation
\[\epsilon^{\left(m\right)}_{\mathrm{rot}}=\frac{m^2h^2}{8{\pi }^2I} \nonumber \] (\(\mathrm{m\ =\ 1,\ 2,\ 3,\ \dots .}\) Derived for rotation about one axis—each energy level is doubly degenerate)
Vibration
\[\epsilon^{\left(n\right)}_{\mathrm{vibration}}=h\nu \left(n+\frac{1}{2}\right) \nonumber \] (\(\mathrm{n\ =\ 0,\ 1,\ 2,\ 3,\dots .}\) Derived for simple harmonic motion in one dimension)
When we assume that the temperature is so high that many \(\epsilon_i\) are small compared to \(kT\), we find the following high-temperature limiting partition functions for these motions:
\[z_{\mathrm{translation}}=\sum^{\infty }_{n=1}{\mathrm{exp}}\left(\frac{-n^2h^2}{8m{\ell }^2kT}\right)\approx \int^{\infty }_0{\mathrm{exp}}\left(\frac{-n^2h^2}{8m{\ell }^2kT}\right)dn={\left(\frac{2\pi mkT{\ell }^2}{h^2}\right)}^{1/2} \nonumber \]
\[z_{\mathrm{rotation}}=\sum^{\infty }_{m=1}{\mathrm{2\ exp}}\left(\frac{-m^2h^2}{8{\pi }^2IkT}\right)\approx 2\int^{\infty }_0{\mathrm{exp}}\left(\frac{-m^2h^2}{8{\pi }^2IkT}\right)dn={\left(\frac{8{\pi }^3IkT}{h^2}\right)}^{1/2} \nonumber \] \[z_{\mathrm{vibration}}=\sum^{\infty }_{n=0}{\mathrm{exp}}\left(\frac{-h\nu }{kT}\left(n+\frac{1}{2}\right)\right)\approx \int^{\infty }_0{\mathrm{exp}}\left(\frac{-h\nu }{kT}\left(n+\frac{1}{2}\right)\right)dn=\frac{kT}{h\nu }\mathrm{exp}\ \left(\frac{-h\nu }{2kT}\right) \nonumber \]
We can then calculate the average energy for each mode as
\[\left\langle \epsilon \right\rangle =z^{-1}\int^{\infty }_0{\epsilon_n}{\mathrm{exp} \left(\frac{-\epsilon_n}{kT}\right)\ }dn \nonumber \]
and find
\[\begin{align*} \left\langle \epsilon_{\mathrm{translation}}\right\rangle &=z^{-1}_{\mathrm{translation}}\int^{\infty }_0{\left(\frac{n^2h^2}{8m{\ell }^2}\right)\mathrm{\ exp}}\left(\frac{-n^2h^2}{8m{\ell }^2kT}\right)dn \\[4pt] &=\frac{kT}{2} \\[4pt] \left\langle \epsilon_{\mathrm{rotation}}\right\rangle &=z^{-1}_{\mathrm{rotation}}\int^{\infty }_0{2\left(\frac{m^2h^2}{8{\pi }^2I}\right)\mathrm{\ exp}}\left(\frac{-m^2h^2}{8{\pi }^2IkT}\right)dm \\[4pt] &=\frac{kT}{2} \\[4pt] \left\langle \epsilon_{\mathrm{vibration}}\right\rangle &=z^{-1}_{\mathrm{vibration}} \times \int^{\infty }_0{h\nu \left(n+\frac{1}{2}\right) \mathrm{\ exp}}\left(\frac{-h\nu }{kT}\left(n+\frac{1}{2}\right)\right)dn \\[4pt] &=kT+\frac{h\nu }{2} \\[4pt] &\approx kT \end{align*} \nonumber \]
where the last approximation assumes that \({h\nu }/{2}\ll kT\). In the limit as \(T\to 0\), the average energy of the vibrational mode becomes just \({h\nu }/{2}\). This is just the energy of the lowest vibrational state, implying that all of the molecules are in the lowest vibrational energy level at absolute zero.


18.1: Respiratory System
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Identify the structures and functions of the respiratory system
- Recognize the physiology of the respiratory system
- Describe the regulation of the respiratory system
The primary purpose of the respiratory (or pulmonary) system is gas exchange , which is necessary to support human life. The gas exchange happens where the capillaries and alveoli meet, with a very thin membrane between them—the capillary-alveolar bed (or membrane). The process of breathing— inspiration (inhaling) and expiration (exhaling)— provides O 2 and removes CO 2 waste. The cardiovascular system provides the means of transport for O 2 and other nutrients and the removal of waste products. The blood vessels provide the medium for the exchange of gases by the pulmonary circulation through interaction with respiratory alveoli. The joining of these systems as the cardiopulmonary system combines the actions of cardiac perfusion (vascular circulation powered by the pumping heart, which delivers O 2 and other nutrients to the body) with respiratory ventilation to provide the essential processes of oxygenation and perfusion. Prior to considering the complexity of the combined cardiopulmonary system, each system is explored individually, and these concepts are investigated more deeply later in this section.
This chapter also considers dysfunctions of the cardiovascular and pulmonary systems, diagnostics for recognition and assistance in planning care, and management of patients, particularly nursing actions and skills. The following section explores the structure and function, physiology, and regulation of the respiratory system.
Structures and Functions of the Airway
What is considered the airway consists of structures from the head and face through the pulmonary cavity in the chest (Figure 18.2). The study of the structure (anatomy) of the airway tends to be considered as two components: upper and lower airways. The upper airway extends from the sinuses and nose through the trachea to the carina , where the airway bifurcates into left and right bronchi and continues into the lungs. This helps to focus on the different locations of the sections of the airway, as well as the normal function of each, and the variation of pathophysiology when things go awry. Disturbed function may arise from a variety of issues, including microbial invasions, exposure to noxious or toxic gases, and injuries. This section explores the structures of the upper and lower airways and their function, physiology of the respiratory system, and respiratory system regulation.
Upper Airway
The upper airway includes the trachea as its lowest part and structures above including the sinuses, nose, pharynx , epiglottis , glottis , and larynx . Behind the nose is a space that includes the nasal turbinates or conchae, which are composed of folded mucosal tissues. The nasal turbinates protect the airway from inhaled particles and increase the surface area in the nasal cavity, helping to warm and humidify inhaled air. The sinuses are bilateral cavities named based on the bones where they are located, including frontal (above each eye, maxillary), posterior to the maxillae bilaterally, sphenoid (near the pituitary gland and optic nerves and the sphenoid bone of the eye sockets), and the ethmoid (several small air-filled cells comprising front, middle, and rear groups, each with independent openings to the nasal cavity). The mucus lining the sinuses helps to humidify the air we breathe, and cilia lining the sinuses (hairlike fibers) help to trap and remove excess secretions and foreign objects from the upper airway.
Three regions comprise the pharynx:
- the nasopharynx —behind the turbinates at the posterior of the nasal cavity
- the oropharynx —located at the posterior of the oral cavity
- the laryngopharynx —below the oropharynx, extending to the larynx, familiarly referred to as the voice box
The epiglottis is a cartilaginous structure, which rests its loose end on the glottis, thereby protecting the trachea. When a person swallows, the epiglottis closes the opening from the esophagus (part of the gastrointestinal tract, which sits posterior to the trachea ), thereby preventing food or fluid from flowing into the trachea. Located within the glottis are false and true vocal cords . The false vocal cords are also known as vestibular folds and are composed of mucus membrane tissue. True vocal cords have muscular attachments to the thyroid and to laryngeal cartilage; the movement of the inner aspects of the vocal cords provides the mechanism for sound production.
The trachea, commonly referred to as the windpipe, provides the pathway from the upper to lower airways. The esophagus carries fluids and chewed foods from the oral cavity to the stomach. A combination of cartilage and connective tissue gives the trachea its shape and maintains it open for the passage of air. Cilia line the trachea, continuing the process of trapping foreign objects and allowing for their removal, in the same fashion as in the higher structures of the upper airway. Where the trachea bifurcates into the left and right mainstem bronchi is the location of the carina . The carina is the border of the upper and lower airways.
Nurse:
Danisha, RN
Clinical setting:
Intensive care unit (ICU)
Years in practice:
Less than one year at the time
Facility location:
Dallas, Texas
As a student, I took an elective course between junior and senior years of nursing school—it was a course modeled after senior capstone and included 400 clinical hours with a preceptor. My placement was night shift in the ICU. My first night’s patient was an older adult Asian female who was intubated and on mechanical ventilation ; she was on pressors to maintain her blood pressure adequately. I remember coming in with lofty goals in mind, and when I saw this patient with all the tubes and wires and the monitor and ventilator, I was overwhelmed. One of the first tasks necessitated by the patient’s status was to suction her through an inline suction catheter that passed through the endotracheal tube. She was coughing, and my nurse preceptor showed me how to advance the suction catheter through the tube; she demonstrated the suction control, and while withdrawing the catheter, she suctioned the patient of moderate secretions.
As the patient recovered between passes, she asked how I would know if the catheter had advanced to touch the carina. At that point in my nursing education, I had no idea. “She’ll cough,” she told me, “The carina is sensitive, so when it’s touched, the patient will cough, and you’ve gone too far. Ideally, you want to pay attention to how far that is, so you don’t go that far again.” Through over ten years in the ICU, I never forgot that recommendation and tried not to stimulate the discomfort of hitting the carina when suctioning.
Lower Airway
The lower airway consists of structures below the carina. The bronchi are the major structures of the lower airway and begin with the bifurcation of the right and left mainstem bronchi, which enter into the right and left lung, respectively. Subsequently, the mainstem bronchi continue paths through the lungs as the primary, secondary, and tertiary bronchi, becoming smaller, and branching further throughout the lungs. Bronchi continue to be lined with cilia and goblet cells for mucus production and have cartilaginous rings like the trachea , to provide support and prevent airway collapse.
From the tertiary bronchi, the branching of the airway becomes even smaller, as they are identified as bronchioles. These continue to their smallest form as terminal bronchioles; at this point, the airway is no longer supported by cartilage, and the muscles comprising the walls can dilate and constrict to control the flow of air. The tiny terminal (or respiratory) bronchioles reach alveolar ducts, which are also a combination of smooth muscle and connective tissues, where alveoli (the minuscule, round sacs of air involved in gas exchange ) cluster together. These clusters of alveoli are where the most common type I alveolar cells and the smallest capillaries of the bloodstream exchange gases (primarily O 2 and CO 2 ) through a very thin alveolar-capillary membrane (Ball et al., 2023). Another alveolar cell type (type II) is responsible for the production of surfactant. A phospholipid substance that prevents the collapse of alveoli by reducing surface tension is called surfactant . The third type of alveolar cells, alveolar macrophages, remove foreign substances and waste products from this delicate and essential region.
Lungs
The lungs are responsible for respiration and house the smaller structures involved in the process of ventilation . The right and left lungs are slightly different in structure: the left lung is shaped to include the cardiac notch, which provides space for the heart. The left lung has two lobes: upper and lower; the right lung contains three lobes: upper, middle, and lower. Normal, healthy lungs are supple and yield in size and shape to the demands of respiration, including compliance , the ability to accommodate deep and shallow breaths, and elastic recoil, or the ability to bounce back to normal size and shape after the expansion of inhaling, during exhalation. Lungs are designed to be air-filled. When taxed by disease, fluid accumulation, or exposure to toxic or noxious gases, the lungs can lose effectiveness, and the respiratory processes may become compromised.
Within the lungs are the structures of the lower airway, including the right and left bronchi, primary, secondary, and tertiary, bronchioles, alveoli, and the alveolar-capillary bed, where the cardiopulmonary system interacts, and gases are exchanged. Deoxygenated blood undergoes removal of CO 2 , and O 2 is brought into the system. These processes are studied in more detail in the next section, through exploration of the physiology of the respiratory system.
Physiology of the Respiratory System
The exchange of gases, primarily O 2 and CO 2 , is the purpose of the respiratory system. The removal of CO 2 during expiration also helps to regulate the body’s acid-base balance. Acid-base balance is measured by pH level. The body is sensitive to alterations in pH, and there is a narrow range of normal for pH: 7.35 to 7.45. In circumstances when the body’s pH has fallen out of range, the respiratory system is able to adjust quickly in an effort to normalize it (Daniels, 2020). By increasing the rate and depth of respirations, excess CO 2 is released through exhalation, and an acidic pH (less than 7.35) may be improved. An alkalotic pH (over 7.45) may be corrected by shallow, slow breaths, allowing the accumulation of CO 2 to bring pH closer to normal.
Cilia and mucus throughout the respiratory system provide mechanisms for isolating and removing foreign substances, such as inhaled gases and microbiota. Cilia move pathogens and other inhaled particles that become trapped in mucus out of the lungs and into the bronchi, where expectoration is assisted through coughing.
The lungs also play a role in the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II, in conjunction with the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) (Figure 18.3) (Fountain et al., 2023). Angiotensin II is recognized for its powerful vasoconstriction properties and therefore increases blood pressure. Angiotensin I is produced by a combination of the enzyme renin from the renal system and angiotensinogen. Angiotensin I is not a potent vasoconstrictor, but when combined with angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), it is transformed into angiotensin II and increases blood pressure by its properties of vasoconstriction. Capillaries within the lungs are a major location for ACE production.
Oxygenation involves interactions between the respiratory and cardiovascular systems, including air movement through the lungs, where O 2 and CO 2 are exchanged through the alveoli and capillaries as the respiratory and circulatory systems connect and interact at the alveolar-capillary bed. Physiological processes involved include ventilation (the movement of air in and out of the lungs) and perfusion . This combination of respiratory ventilation and cardiovascular perfusion provides O 2 (and other nutrients) to the body’s tissues and removes waste products including CO 2 from the tissues.
The part of the respiratory cycle whereby the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract, which enlarges the space within the thorax, is called inspiration . This enlargement lowers the pressure within the alveoli, and air flows into the lungs. During expiration , the muscles that expanded the thoracic cavity now relax, and elastic recoil reduces the pressures in the lungs and surrounding thorax. The pressure within the intrapulmonary system is momentarily higher than atmospheric pressure, and air is passively exhaled from the lungs. Lungs that are compliant and retain the properties of elastic recoil are able to increase and decrease in size and shape with each respiratory cycle (Figure 18.4).
Potential problems of the respiratory system include any changes to the normal structure and/or function of any part of the system. This may include injuries, such as rib fracture(s) or burns to any part of the airway. Pathophysiological changes from diseases such as asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease can alter the structure of the airways and the processes and effectiveness involved in gas exchange .
Gas Exchange in Alveoli
Alveoli are found in groups clustered around alveolar ducts, and when inflated, they resemble a cluster of grapes. There are three types of alveolar cells: type I, type II, and alveolar macrophages (Naeem et al., 2022). Type I cells cover approximately 90 percent, or 70 square meters, of surface area within the lungs. These cells are responsible for gas exchange (Figure 18.5). After inspiration, O 2 travels across the capillary-alveolar bed and attaches to hemoglobin, where it is transported throughout the bloodstream and to the body tissues. At the tissues, O 2 is released from the hemoglobin and taken up by the tissues as needed. It is also here that the waste product, CO 2 , returns from the body by diffusion (a transport process that involves molecular movement driven by a concentration gradient) into the bloodstream and subsequently the lungs, where it is ultimately removed from the body by exhalation. The respiratory membrane is extremely thin, only about half of a micrometer, which enables gases to easily move to and from the bloodstream and air space within the lungs.
For alveoli to easily reinflate, or to maximize inflation, surfactant is synthesized and released from type II alveolar cells. These cells are located among the type I cells and are made up of proteins and phospholipids. By coating the exterior of the alveoli, the cells reduce the surface tension, which prevents collapse (Naeem et al., 2022). Surfactant is produced by deep breaths, such as sighs, yawns, sobs, and gasps. Deep breaths often inspire coughing, and coughing causes deep breaths, which fosters continued production and release of surfactant and prevention of atelectasis (alveolar collapse). For this reason, patients are encouraged to cough and deep breathe when inspiration is limited. Nurses and respiratory therapists (RTs) instruct patients on the use of the incentive spirometer, which involves slow, deep breaths, often subsequent coughing, and tends to improve pulmonary function.
The third type of alveolar cell, the macrophages, like phagocytic cells elsewhere in the body, provide the immune system function of phagocytosis (Naeem et al., 2022). Alveolar macrophages are able to travel within the alveolar areas and isolate, consume, and remove foreign particles that have invaded the alveolar region. These cells are not involved directly in the gas exchange process.
With advanced age, some people experience hearing deficit or even total hearing loss (deafness). Older adults may also suffer from one of the cognitive impairments related to dementia. These sensory or cognitive deficits can influence a patient’s comprehension of a nurse’s teaching because the patient is unable to hear or understand the instructions.
Use of the incentive spirometer can be confusing to patients and requires education by the nurse and/or respiratory therapist to properly describe its use. In addition to telling the patient how to use the device, it is recommended the nurse evaluate the patient’s use of the incentive spirometer by demonstration. Often, patients assume that since the mouthpiece is attached to a strawlike hose, they should blow into it instead of the correct action of inhaling deeply through the mouthpiece. The device includes numbers representing volumes, and there is an indicator (piston) that moves with the patient’s inhalation (Figure 18.6). Nurses often write a line with a marker to indicate a goal volume for a particular patient.
Patients with hearing impairment or cognitive deficit may require a more active explanation of the use of the incentive spirometer, including a demonstration by the nurse (using an incentive spirometer dedicated to such patient education), which may also include gestures and dramatic movements to illustrate deep intake of breath through the mouthpiece instead of a blowing action. Again, the patient should provide a return demonstration so the nurse is able to assess proper understanding and use of the incentive spirometer. These patients may also respond well to having a goal indicated by a line on the device, and written reminders as to how often and how many inhalations should be done may be helpful, depending on the type and extent of impairment.
Respiration
The term respiration is a rather general term, often synonymous with the word breathing . It also may be used interchangeably with the term ventilation , as it involves inhalation and exhalation. Respiration is associated with the process of gas exchange , the primary purpose of the respiratory system.
Respiration is a basic function, generated by the neurological system, with control centers within the medulla oblongata and pons. Regulation by these systems, including actions stimulating the length and depth of each breath, is controlled by opposing actions of the apneustic and pneumotaxic centers, in efforts to maintain homeostasis, or stability, throughout the body.
Respiration is a critical function and is included as one of the vital signs, which most commonly include respiratory rate, heart rate, temperature, and blood pressure. In addition to the respiratory rate, nursing assessment of the respiratory system also includes auscultation of breath sounds and observation of depth and regularity of breathing, symmetry, whether the patient relies on the use of accessory muscles to breathe, their desired position, and how they breathe (e.g., pursed lips, gasping, apneic pauses), as well as apparent anxiety. A noninvasive device called a pulse oximeter measures saturation of hemoglobin with O 2 and can be a valuable respiratory assessment tool. Arterial blood gas (ABG) testing offers important data in some circumstances of respiratory compromise and potential failure, but ABGs are invasive and typically considered painful. Additional diagnostics may include chest radiographs (x-rays), computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging, ventilation- perfusion (V/Q) scan, and a variety of pulmonary function tests, depending on the diagnosis being explored.
Diffusion
Diffusion is a transport process that involves molecular movement driven by a concentration gradient. Molecules move from areas of high concentration to those with low concentration. In the case of respiratory gas exchange, diffusion is the primary process for the transport of gas molecules, moving the gas that is in high concentration to a low concentration area. Concentration gradients and the diffusion process are responsible for the exchange of gas between blood, with a high concentration of CO 2 and low O 2 concentration from the body, and the air in the lungs, which is high in O 2 concentration and has low CO 2 levels. The diffusion process is often very dynamic, as is the case in the respiratory system, as the molecules are not static. The concentration of gases changes with each breath and as tissues take up O 2 and release wastes.
Perfusion
Perfusion, as previously defined, is associated with the circulatory system and is evidenced by the cardiovascular system’s delivery of O 2 and nutrients to body tissues. Adequate perfusion indicates there is enough pumping action of the heart, which is referred to as contractility , and enough volume in the body’s vascular system, as shown by a normal blood pressure. Under conditions of adequate perfusion, patient assessment includes vital signs within normal ranges, normal or baseline mentation, pulses typified as 2+ (normal), no dependent edema noted, breath sounds that are clear without adventitious sounds, and skin that is warm, dry, and of normal color for race.
Inadequate perfusion tends to involve a variety of signs and symptoms. Examples of poor perfusion include deterioration of vital sign s, which may include tachycardia (heart rate over 100 beats per minute), hypotension (low blood pressure, e.g., under 90 systolic), abnormal body temperature, tachypnea (respiratory rate over 20 breaths per minute), mental status or level of consciousness changes that may range from slight confusion to lethargy to unconsciousness, peripheral edema, potentially adventitious breath sounds like crackles, and skin that feels cool, clammy, and is notably changed in appearance from normal to demonstrating pallor.
Respiratory changes due to lack of perfusion are particularly important, as the respiratory system is often the first to display signs and symptoms indicative of this negative status change. The signs emanating from the respiratory system may be obvious, such as tachypnea or crackles, or may be reflected in a neurological change, such as a change in mental status.
Regulation of the Respiratory System
The respiratory system is controlled by the neurological system. As a basic function of life, respiration is an involuntary effort. Control of several involuntary respiratory and cardiovascular functions, and some movement of the muscular system, originates within the brainstem and cerebellum.
The medulla oblongata, the primary respiratory center in the brainstem, is responsible for signaling to respiratory muscles that allow the process of ventilation . The two sets of respiratory muscles are the ventral and the dorsal respiratory groups, and they cause muscle movement for expiration and inspiration , respectively. Some reflex responses like sneezing, vomiting, and coughing are also under the control of the medulla.
The respiratory rate is controlled by the pons. There are two centers within the pons that are involved in this process. First is the apneustic center, which is involved in signals for length and depth of breaths, or tidal volume . The intensity of respirations is limited by stretch receptors of the muscles involved in breathing and by further signaling from the pneumotaxic center. Inhibitory signals from the pneumotaxic center also provide fine-tuning of respiratory rate control by limiting the action of the phrenic nerve. The actions of the pneumotaxic center lead to diminished tidal volume.
Watch the video “Neural Control of Breathing: Respiratory System” and make note of the importance of C-5 as the narrator says, “C-5 Keeps You Alive.” Also, notice the impact of thoracic nerves on breathing.
Dyspnea
The medical term for the subjective feeling of shortness of breath or difficulty breathing is dyspnea. Patients can be asked to rate their dyspnea on a scale of zero to ten, similar to using a pain rating scale. The feeling of dyspnea can be very disabling for patients. Nurses can objectively assess the response to the experience by noting a climbing respiratory rate, shallow breaths, the use of accessory muscles, and whether the patient is able to speak only one word between breaths. Certain pathological changes to normal physiology, like asthma, heart failure (HF), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), hypercapnia (elevated CO 2 ), and anxiety, may contribute to dyspneic episodes. Interestingly, anxiety can both cause and result from dyspnea, as struggling to breathe is one of the most helpless, frightening experiences most people can have.
Episodes of dyspnea may or may not require intervention from the healthcare team. Sometimes, the symptoms are mild and transitory, resolving as quickly as they began. However, if the patient’s respiratory status is compromised, prompt action may be necessary. Observations and assessments of respiratory deterioration may include a falling O 2 saturation as seen on pulse oximeter , exhaustion from sustained tachypnea and use of accessory muscles, intolerance of lying flat, and decreased breath sounds.
Mr. Wu is a 73-year-old Asian immigrant who moved to California when he was 27 years old. Mr. Wu has been smoking two packs of cigarettes a day since he was 15 years old and was diagnosed with emphysema ten years ago. He presents to the emergency department stating he cannot breathe. Mr. Wu is sitting upright on the gurney and leaning forward onto the bedside table.
The nurse asks about his health history, and Mr. Wu is only able to say one word before he has to pause to try to catch his breath. The nurse auscultates Mr. Wu’s breath sounds and can barely hear inspiratory and expiratory sounds from either front or back.
Mr. Wu’s vital sign s are as follows:
- HR 118 beats per minute
- BP 162/94
- RR 26 breaths per minute
- T 99.3°F
- SaO 2 75 percent
The nurse considers this patient’s subjective and objective presentation and determines the following: Important information includes medical history and vital signs (HR, BP, RR, SaO 2 ). Priority information includes SaO 2 and severely diminished breath sounds. Ventilation and oxygenation are the nurse’s immediate concern.
Hypoxia
A reduced level of tissue oxygenation is the definition of hypoxia . Hypoxia has many causes, ranging from respiratory and cardiac conditions to anemia. A specific type of hypoxia is hypoxemia , defined as decreased partial pressure of oxygen in the blood (PaO 2 ) indicated in an ABG result.
Early signs of hypoxia are anxiety, confusion, and restlessness. As hypoxia worsens, the patient’s level of consciousness and vital signs will worsen with an increased respiratory rate and heart rate and decreased pulse oximetry readings. Late signs of hypoxia include bluish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes called cyanosis .
Hyperventilation
Rapid, deep breathing is referred to as hyperventilation . A faster respiratory rate and depth cause low levels of CO 2 in the blood. Hyperventilation can occur due to anxiety, panic attacks, pain, fear, head injuries, or mechanical ventilation . Acute asthma exacerbations, pulmonary embolisms, or other respiratory disorders can initially cause respiratory alkalosis as the lungs breathe faster in an attempt to increase oxygenation, which decreases the PaCO 2 . After a while, however, these hypoxic disorders cause respiratory acidosis as respiratory muscles tire, breathing slows, and CO 2 builds up in the blood (Table 18.1).
| Physiological Challenge | Respiratory Pattern | Subsequent Acid-Base Imbalance | Resultant Compensatory Change | Ideal Result |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Anxiety, pain, fear, asthma exacerbation, pulmonary embolus | Hyperventilation | Respiratory alkalosis (pH >7.45; PaCO 2 <35 mm Hg) | Hypoventilation in response to alkalosis | Normal pH (acid-base balance) with return to normal respiratory rate and depth |
| Decreased level of consciousness, obesity, weak respiratory muscles | Hypoventilation | Respiratory acidosis (pH < 7.35; PaCO 2 >45 mm Hg) | Hyperventilation in response to acidosis | Normal pH with return to normal respiratory rate and depth |


21.5: Protozoan and Helminthic Infections of the Eyes
- Identify two parasites that commonly cause infections of the skin and eyes
- Identify the major characteristics of specific parasitic diseases affecting the skin and eyes
Many parasitic protozoans and helminths use the skin or eyes as a portal of entry. Some may physically burrow into the skin or the mucosa of the eye; others breach the skin barrier by means of an insect bite. Still others take advantage of a wound to bypass the skin barrier and enter the body, much like other opportunistic pathogens. Although many parasites enter the body through the skin, in this chapter we will limit our discussion to those for which the skin or eyes are the primary site of infection. Parasites that enter through the skin but travel to a different site of infection will be covered in other chapters. In addition, we will limit our discussion to microscopic parasitic infections of the skin and eyes. Macroscopic parasites such as lice, scabies, mites, and ticks are beyond the scope of this text.
Acanthamoeba Infections
Acanthamoeba is a genus of free-living protozoan amoebae that are common in soils and unchlorinated bodies of fresh water. (This is one reason why some swimming pools are treated with chlorine.) The genus contains a few parasitic species, some of which can cause infections of the eyes, skin, and nervous system. Such infections can sometimes travel and affect other body systems. Skin infections may manifest as abscesses, ulcers, and nodules. When acanthamoebae infect the eye , causing inflammation of the cornea, the condition is called Acanthamoeba keratitis. Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) illustrates the Acanthamoeba life cycle and various modes of infection.
While Acanthamoeba keratitis is initially mild, it can lead to severe corneal damage, vision impairment, or even blindness if left untreated. Similar to eye infections involving P. aeruginosa, Acanthamoeba poses a much greater risk to wearers of contact lenses because the amoeba can thrive in the space between contact lenses and the cornea. Prevention through proper contact lens care is important. Lenses should always be properly disinfected prior to use, and should never be worn while swimming or using a hot tub.
Acanthamoeba can also enter the body through other pathways, including skin wounds and the respiratory tract. It usually does not cause disease except in immunocompromised individuals; however, in rare cases, the infection can spread to the nervous system, resulting in a usually fatal condition called granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE) (see Fungal and Parasitic Diseases of the Nervous System ). Disseminated infections, lesions, and Acanthamoeba keratitis can be diagnosed by observing symptoms and examining patient samples under the microscope to view the parasite. Skin biopsies may be used.
Acanthamoeba keratitis is difficult to treat, and prompt treatment is necessary to prevent the condition from progressing. The condition generally requires three to four weeks of intensive treatment to resolve. Common treatments include topical antiseptics (e.g., polyhexamethylene biguanide, chlorhexidine, or both), sometimes with painkillers or corticosteroids (although the latter are controversial because they suppress the immune system, which can worsen the infection). Azoles are sometimes prescribed as well. Advanced cases of keratitis may require a corneal transplant to prevent blindness.
How are Acanthamoeba infections acquired?
Loiasis
The helminth Loa loa , also known as the African eye worm, is a nematode that can cause loiasis, a disease endemic to West and Central Africa (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). The disease does not occur outside that region except when carried by travelers. There is evidence that individual genetic differences affect susceptibility to developing loiasis after infection by the Loa loa worm. Even in areas in which Loa loa worms are common, the disease is generally found in less than 30% of the population. 1 It has been suggested that travelers who spend time in the region may be somewhat more susceptible to developing symptoms than the native population, and the presentation of infection may differ. 2
The parasite is spread by deerflies (genus Chrysops ), which can ingest the larvae from an infected human via a blood meal (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). When the deerfly bites other humans, it deposits the larvae into their bloodstreams. After about five months in the human body, some larvae develop into adult worms, which can grow to several centimeters in length and live for years in the subcutaneous tissue of the host.
The name “eye worm” alludes to the visible migration of worms across the conjunctiva of the eye. Adult worms live in the subcutaneous tissues and can travel at about 1 cm per hour. They can often be observed when migrating through the eye, and sometimes under the skin; in fact, this is generally how the disease is diagnosed. It is also possible to test for antibodies, but the presence of antibodies does not necessarily indicate a current infection; it only means that the individual was exposed at some time. Some patients are asymptomatic, but in others the migrating worms can cause fever and areas of allergic inflammation known as Calabar swellings. Worms migrating through the conjunctiva can cause temporary eye pain and itching, but generally there is no lasting damage to the eye. Some patients experience a range of other symptoms, such as widespread itching, hives, and joint and muscle pain.
Worms can be surgically removed from the eye or the skin, but this treatment only relieves discomfort; it does not cure the infection, which involves many worms. The preferred treatment is diethylcarbamazine, but this medication produces severe side effects in some individuals, such as brain inflammation and possible death in patients with heavy infections. Albendazole is also sometimes used if diethylcarbamazine is not appropriate or not successful. If left untreated for many years, loiasis can damage the kidneys, heart, and lungs, though these symptoms are rare.
Describe the most common way to diagnose loiasis.
The protozoan Acanthamoeba and the helminth Loa loa are two parasites capable of causing infections of the skin and eyes. Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\) summarizes the characteristics of some common fungal infections of the skin.
Key Concepts and Summary
The protozoan Acanthamoeba and the helminth Loa loa are two parasites that can breach the skin barrier, causing infections of the skin and eyes. Acanthamoeba keratitis is a parasitic infection of the eye that often results from improper disinfection of contact lenses or swimming while wearing contact lenses. Loiasis , or eye worm, is a disease endemic to Africa that is caused by parasitic worms that infect the subcutaneous tissue of the skin and eyes. It is transmitted by deerfly vectors.
Footnotes
- 1 Garcia, A.. et al. “Genetic Epidemiology of Host Predisposition Microfilaraemia in Human Loiasis.” Tropical Medicine and International Health 4 (1999) 8:565–74. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10499080 . Accessed Sept 14, 2016.
- 2 Spinello, A., et al. “Imported Loa loa Filariasis: Three Cases and a Review of Cases Reported in Non-Endemic Countries in the Past 25 Years.” International Journal of Infectious Disease 16 (2012) 9: e649–e662. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2012.05.1023 .


15.1: The Restoration and the 18th Century
The King openly proclaimed his love of parliaments, his devotion to the immemorial constitution of balance and moderation, his Protestant fervor, and his pious hopes for a national church.
~The Longman Anthology of British Literature
Those RULES of old discover’d, not devis’d,
Are Nature still, but Nature Methodiz’d
.
~
Alexander Pope
Background: The Augustans and the Age of Reason
The Restoration refers to the restoration of the monarchy when Charles II was restored to the throne of England following an eleven-year Commonwealth period during which the country was governed by Parliament under the direction of the Puritan General Oliver Cromwell. This political event coincides with (and to some extent is responsible for) changes in the literary, scientific, and cultural life of Britain.
During this time, a premium was placed on the importance of human reason and on an empirical philosophy that held that knowledge about the world was through the senses and by applying reason to what we take in through our senses. Reason was an unchanging, uniquely human characteristic that served as a guide for man. Thus this time is often also called the Age of Reason or Enlightenment. Characteristics of this period included observing human nature and nature itself which were considered unchanging and constant.
The age is also known as the Neoclassical period. Writers of the time placed great emphasis on the original writings produced by classical Greek and Roman literature. The literature of this period imitated that of the age of Caesar Augustus, writers such as Horace and Virgil, with classical influences appearing prevalent in poetry with the use of rhyming, and in prose with its satirical form. The Augustans deemed classical literature as natural, that these works were the idealized models for writing. The Neoclassical “ideals of order, logic, restraint, accuracy, ‘correctness,’ decorum,. . . would enable the practitioners of various arts to imitate or reproduce the structures or themes of Greek or Roman originals” (Victorian Web). Alexander Pope furthers this idea as he says “Learn hence for ancient rules a just esteem; To copy Nature is to copy them” ( Essay on Criticism ). The way to study nature is to study the ancients; the styles and rules of classical literature. Closely allied with the emphasis placed on the classics and the unchanging rules of nature was the belief that reason was an unchanging and unique human quality that served as a guide for man.
Home An Age of Satire
Literature during this period was often considered a tool for the advancement of knowledge. Writers were often found observing nature in their attempts to express their beliefs. Human nature was considered a constant that observation and reason could be applied to for the advancement of knowledge. Within these circumstances, the Age of Satire was born. Satire was the most popular literary tool that was utilized by writers of the time. With the help of satire, writers were better able to educate the public through literature. Its function was to acknowledge a problem in society and attempt to reform the problem in a comical manner while still educating the public. Its effectiveness can be seen in literary pieces by Jonathan Swift such as A Modest Proposal where he addresses and criticizes the problem of a growing famine in Ireland. Playwrights of the time were also known to incorporate satire in their plays. Through the use of satire, they were able to expose and critique social injustices. “Over the thirty years of its triumphs, Restoration comedy, in an astounding fugue of excesses and depravities, laid bare the turbulence and toxins of this culture” (Longman). Satire was a highly successful literary tool that worked to promote social awareness through literature, the theater and periodicals of the time.
Home Timeline
- 1660: Restoration–Charles II, Stuart monarchy
- 1662: Royal Society established
- 1685: James, Duke of York, succeeds his brother Charles II
- 1688: Glorious Revolution–James II deposed, William and Mary share the English throne
- 1689: Bill of Rights–limits crown, affirms supremacy of Parliament
- 1689: Toleration Act–religious freedom for dissenters
- 1690: John Locke’s Essay Concerning Human Understanding
- 1707: Act of Union–England and Scotland for Great Britain
- 1745: Last Jacobite uprising
For more details see Restoration Politics
Home Cultural and Literary Contexts
- Newspapers and Periodicals
- The Coffeehouse Culture
- The Novel
- Classical Education in the Eighteenth Century
- Eighteenth-Century Grammars
- Religion, Politics, and the Glorious Revolution of 1688
- Restoration and Eighteenth-Century Drama
- The Royal Society and the Enlightenment
- Social and Family Life in the Late17th & Early 18th Centuries
Home Authors
References
Damrosch, David, and Kevin J.H. Dettmar. The Longman Anthology of British Literature . 3rd ed. United States: Pearson Education, Inc., 2006.
Damrosch, David, and Kevin J.H. Dettmar. “Essay on Criticism.” The Longman Anthology of British Literature . 3rd ed. United States: Pearson Education, Inc., 2006.
Fielding, Henry. Joseph Andrews . 1st ed. United States: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1987.
“Neoclassicism: An Introduction.” The Victorian Web . http://www.victorianweb.org/previctorian/nc/ncintro.html 16 Mar. 2008.
“Restoration Drama”. Theatre History . 2 Mar. 2008 < http://www.theatrehistory.com/british/restoration_drama_001.html>.
- The Restoration and the 18th Century. Authored by : Diane Aiken and Lindsay Milbourne. Provided by : BritLitWiki. Located at : https://britlitwiki.wikispaces.com/The+Restoration+and+the+18th+Century . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


12.14: Putting It Together
SUMMARY
In this section, we used almost all of the concepts we have learned so far. While plate tectonics may not have been mentioned directly, we know the role it plays in the formation of rock, minerals and mineral resources. In this section, we focused on these items:
- How mineral resources and fossil fuels are formed
- How these resources are mined
- Nonrenewable and renewable resources
- What type and amount of resources we use in our everyday life
Contributors and Attributions
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Original content from Kimberly Schulte (Columbia Basin College) and supplemented by Lumen Learning . The content on this page is copyrighted under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.


8.3: Consequences of Drug Abuse
Drug abuse is a serious public health problem that affects many communities and families in some way. Each year drug abuse causes millions of serious illnesses or injuries among Americans. Examples of abused drugs include:
Drug abuse also plays a role in many major social problems, such as drugged driving, violence, stress, and child abuse. Drug abuse can lead to homelessness, crime, and missed work or problems with keeping a job. It harms unborn babies and destroys families. There are different types of treatment for drug abuse. But the best is to prevent drug abuse in the first place.
How it affects the family
When a person has a drug problem, they have a disease that can hurt the family.
Drug abuse puts a lot of stress on parents, brothers and sisters, children, grandparents—anyone who is part of the home.
When family members take drugs:
- You generally can’t count on them to do what they say they will do.
- They may forget or get distracted because their focus is on getting and taking drugs.
- They might lie or steal money to buy drugs.
- They might get fired from their jobs.
- They might not come home at night.
- They may do bad things they would never do if they weren’t abusing drugs.
Family members might fight a lot because of the problems the drug abuse is causing. The drug user might do and say things that upset neighbors and friends, and make the family ashamed.
Some people who are addicted don’t believe that they are sick and out of control, so they don’t look for treatment. They don’t see the problems they are causing themselves and those around them. Other people who are addicted are aware of the problem, but may be so upset and confused that they do not know how to ask for or get help.
Drugs don’t just hurt the person taking them. Everyone connected to the person can get hurt.
Drug abuse can cause many problems:
- Fighting and violence in and outside the home
- Money problems
- Trouble at school
- Trouble at work, losing a job
- Trouble in relationships
- Child abuse, neglect
- Driving accidents
- Arrests and jail
When you or a loved one abuse drugs, everyday life can feel out of control.
Contributors and Attributions
Public Domain Content
- Drug Abuse. Authored by: MedlinePlus. Provided by: National Institutes of Health. Located at: https://medlineplus.gov/drugabuse.html . License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Drug Abuse Hurts Families. Authored by: National Institute on Drug Abuse. Provided by: National Institutes of Health. Located at: easyread.drugabuse.gov/conte...hurts-families. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright


7.13: Discussion- Temporary Workers at Sun City Boards
Post 1: Initial Post
Instructions
This posting should be a minimum of one short paragraph and a maximum of two paragraphs. Word totals for this post should be in the 100–200-word range. Whether you agree or disagree, explain why with supporting evidence and concepts from the readings or a related experience. Include a reference, link, or citation when appropriate.
Scenario
Sun City Boards currently has a lean staff that includes part-time associates hired as needed for specific tasks or events. Tom is considering making greater use of part-time and/or contract employees to execute on his expansion plans. Although part-time labor has been a budget-friendly, flexible option for Tom, he is concerned that an increase in use of temporary workers may create a perception of “haves” (full time employees with benefits) and “have nots” that impacts the company’s aloha culture and forward momentum.
For Discussion
- As preparation for this discussion, conduct additional research on best practices in managing contingent employees.
- Based on the module readings (specifically Current Trends and Challenges in HR Management) and your research, articulate 5 best practices that Tom should consider adopting to achieve both budget and strategic objectives, including high morale and engagement across all categories of workers. Give credit where credit is due and Include a link(s) to your research source(s).
Posts 2 and 3: Respond to Classmates’ Posts
Instructions
After you have created your initial post, look over the discussion posts of your classmates and give at least two thoughtful responses to two different classmates (one per classmate).
A response posting should be a minimum of one short paragraph. Word totals for these posts should be in the 75–100-word range. Whether you agree or disagree, explain why with supporting evidence and concepts from the readings or a related experience. Include a reference, link, or citation when appropriate. The goal of your response posts is to extend discussions already taking place or pose new possibilities or opinions not previously voiced. Your goal should be to motivate the group discussion and present a creative approach to the topic.
Contributors and Attributions
- Discussion: Temporary Workers at Sun City Boards. Authored by : Nina Burokas. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


10.27: Reading- Products and Services
Goods vs. Services
In marketing, are services considered products? Should products that are predominately goods be treated differently than products that are predominantly services? Whether or not there are substantial differences between goods, products, and service products has been the source of great debate in marketing. Opponents of the division assert that “products are products,” and just because there are some characteristics associated with service products and not goods products and vice versa, it doesn’t mean that customized strategies are necessary for each. Advocates on the other side offer evidence that the differences are significant indeed.
You may have noticed that throughout this course we use the term “product” broadly to address the full product offering that is comprised of goods, services, and often a combination of both. We’ve given examples of service products (hotel stays, for instance) and goods products (sneakers and bread, for instance). Thinking inclusively about the tangible and intangible aspects of all products is useful because it creates a more complete view of the customer’s product needs and experience. Still, there are unique characteristics of services that set them apart from goods. It is important to understand the differences and to consider them in the development of strategies, tactics, and objectives.
Service products are reflected by a wide variety of industries: utilities, restaurants, educational institutions, consulting firms, hotels, medical care providers, and banking, to name but a few. Beyond these traditional industries there is a growing sector of software as a service offered by companies that provide individuals and other companies with hosted and managed access to software systems. In 2013, software as a service was a $22.6 billion industry, it is projected to hit $100 billion in 2019 [1] . Services account for nearly 50 percent of the average consumer’s total expenditures, 70 percent of the jobs, and two-thirds of the U.S. Gross National Product (GNP). Clearly, the service sector is large and is growing. While all products share certain common facets, service products tend to differ from goods products in a number of ways.
Characteristics of Service Products
As you can see from the examples above, service products are quite diverse. Nonetheless, they tend to have the following characteristics.
Intangible
Leonard Berry offers this useful differentiation: “A good is an object, a device, a thing; a service is a deed, a performance, an effort.” [2] With the purchase of a good, you have something tangible—an item that can be seen, touched, tasted, worn, or displayed. That’s not true of a service, which is intangible (quite literally, “not able to be touched”).
Although you pay your money and consume the service, there is nothing tangible to show for it. For example, if you attend a professional football game, you spend money for a ticket and spend nearly three hours taking in the entertainment. After the game, you leave. Unless you have purchased a good at the game, you will not take anything tangible to take away (except, perhaps, the ticket stub).
Simultaneous Production and Consumption
Service products are consumed at the same time they are being produced. The tourist attraction is producing entertainment or pleasure at the same time it is being consumed. In contrast, goods products are produced, stored, and then consumed. A result of this characteristic is that the provider of the service is often present when consumption takes place. Dentists, hotel staff, hair stylists, and ballet dancers are all present when the product is used.
Little Standardization
Because service products are so closely related to the people providing the service, ensuring the same level of satisfaction every time is very difficult. Dentists have their bad days, not every baseball game is exciting, and the second vacation to Walt Disney World Resort may not be as wonderful as the first.
High Buyer Involvement
With many service products, the purchaser may provide a great deal of input into the final form of the product. For example, if you wanted to go on a Caribbean cruise, you would visit a number of websites describing the various cruise locations, review the available options for cabin location and size, islands visited, food, entertainment, prices, and whether they accommodate children. Although the task would be very time consuming, you could, if you wanted, practically design every moment of your vacation.
It should be noted that the four characteristics associated with service products described above vary in intensity from product to product. In fact, service products are best treated as existing on a continuum, shown in the following figure.
When marketing a service, it’s important to remember that (a) service products on the right side of the continuum (i.e., those with greater intangibility) are different from goods products on the left side of the continuum, and (b) service products tend to require certain adjustments in their marketing strategy on account of these differences.
All products, whether they are goods, services, blankets, diapers, or plate glass, possess peculiarities that require adjustments in the marketing effort. However, “pure” goods products and “pure” service products (i.e. those on the extreme ends of the continuum) tend to reflect characteristics and responses from customers that suggest different marketing strategies. Admittedly, offering an exceptional product at the right price, through the most accessible channels, promoted extensively and accurately, should work for any type of product. The goods/services classification provides the same useful insights provided by the B2B/B2C classification discussed earlier.
- https://www.cbronline.com/news/saas-market ↵
- Leonard L. Berry, "Services Marketing Is Different," Business May/June 1980: 24–29. ↵
Contributors and Attributions
- Revision and adaptation. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Chapter 7: Introducing and Managing the Product, from Introducing Marketing. Authored by : John Burnett. Project : Global Text. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Cruise Ship Deck. Authored by : Bob Jagendorf. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/bobjagendorf/465126372/ . License : CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial
- allStarGame_1971. Authored by : Doug Berger. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/27703647@N04/5442111811/ . License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives


2.39: Physics - Astrophysics
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- Susan Rahman, Prateek Sunder, and Dahmitra Jackson
- CC ECHO
Astrophysics is a branch of space science that applies the laws of physics and chemistry to explain the birth, life and death of stars, planets, galaxies, nebulae and other objects in the universe. It has two sibling sciences, astronomy and cosmology, and the lines between them blur (Balter, 2017). Like its counterpart, Astronomy, it is a predominantly white field (AIP Report, 2021). While racism is not rocket science, rocket science suffers from it when it comes to representation in the field. A notable exception is Dr. George Carruthers, who was an Astrophysicist, acclaimed scientist, and inventor who died in December of 2020. His telescope enabled astronauts on Apollo 16 to obtain photos while on the moon in 1973.
One of the leading and few Black astrophysicists in his field, Carruthers built his first telescope at age 10. He responded to a 1969 call from NASA to design experiments for Apollo space flights. Four months later, Dr. Carruthers received a patent for an “Image Converter for Detecting Electromagnetic Radiation Especially in Short Wavelengths.” He was unique in that he was the conceptual scientist behind the invention but also the practical engineer. He and a team created a telescope that “electronically amplify [sic] images from space through a series of lenses, prism [sic] and mirror [sic], just three inches in diameter. Then, by converting photons to electrons,the images could be recorded on film” (Shudel, 2020).The telescope was also sturdy enough to handle space travel and was easy enough for astronauts to maneuver in their space gear. It was like a planetary observatory, which was the first of its kind to be used in space. He went on to develop more telescopes in his tenure. Dr. Carruthers was one of four children. He completed his education in a very short time period. He was very shy but gave wonderful lectures. In a 1971 interview, he mentioned that in his 7 year career at the naval research laboratory, he worked 14 hour days, had never taken a vacation, and had no hobbies as this work felt like a hobby. In the 1980s, he began to work extensively in science outreach programs particularly in Black schools. After retiring in 2002, he taught Earth and Space science at Howard University (Shudel, 2020).
In a 1992 Interview with Dr. George Carruthers, he discussed Project SMART,Science and Mathematics Achievement through Research Training(SMART) which was a group started by Valarie Thomas, who works at the National Space Science Data Center in Goddard Space Flight Center. The project was created to advise on science and technology issues of importance to the Black community. The initial goal of the project was to increase literacy in the fields of science and technology among the Black community regardless if they make a career out of it and it has expanded its charge over time. Dr. Carruthers explained that there are other organizations working on similar causes that he also works with. When asked if it was different working to recruit African American students into his field as opposed to white students, he responded,
“I don't think there is anything different in nature. There may be some difference in the degree because of environment and background. Certainly I don't think there is anything inherent to race that's involved. It's just that most of the African American students come from less well-to-do backgrounds, inner city backgrounds, and aren't exposed to science and technology to the degree that some of the other students are. But the other question about how we get them interested is something that we're really trying to find out and develop” (Carruthers, 1992).
He spoke to the idea of being a role model and the importance of the youth to see someone like them doing the work (DeVorkin, 1992). He mentioned the obstacles but argued that there were fewer of them at the time of the interview (1993) than in the 1950s and 1960s. Dr.Carruthers discussed his father who worked in the same field, and he also had an uncle with a PhD who taught at Howard University. Getting a science fiction comic book from his grandmother is what got him interested in science. He built his first telescope shortly after. In high school he competed in science fairs and continued to build telescopes. There he started going to the Adler planetarium and connected with astronomers. He read an article in the 1950s that suggested astronomy should be done in outer space, and this idea was in sharp contrast to what many astronomers felt the charge of astronomy was and that in fact it should be done on Earth (DeVorkin, 1992). His teachers were supportive of him in high school but he was really over their head in terms of his intellect and ambition. At Adler, he was part of a telescope making group; in the group, it was up to the inventors to purchase their own supplies which Carruthers was capable of doing. He was not poor, but did not have as many resources as some of his contemporaries. Carruthers stated that, “Since the astronomers at the Adler Planetarium told me that space flight was nonsense, I wanted to sort of counter that by studying aerospace engineering and making space astronomy a reality,” so he pursued that area of inquiry at the university. He cited books growing up serving as role models for him (DeVorkin, 1992). In college the shift academically was hard. He went from As to Cs and Ds, and he credits these grades in part due to not enough high level math classes offered to him at his mostly Black high school. In his first year of grad school, Dr. Carruthers took a summer job at Aerojet in Sacramento, California, which was his first exposure to what engineers do. It helped him refine what he did not want to do but he learned a lot. He wanted to work for the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) from early on and secured a NASA postdoc with that goal.
The ability to do one's own engineering and building wasn't common practice of scientists at NASA, so many found Carruthers odd, and some engineers felt he was stepping on their toes. In 1967, he had his first rocket success and was able to get aerial images from space with a telescope. After the postdoc, he moved to NRL and was able to focus on the work he found meaningful. In this regard he could be involved in all aspects of the inventing, building, testing, and observing which is the way he wanted to work. In this work he saw an opportunity to act as a role model for those aspiring to do similar work. His groundbreaking telescope project came as a call for experiments to be brought on the Apollo 16 launch. His proposal was accepted and he was asked to partner with Thornton Page whose proposal was similar. The telescope was engineered by Carruthers and it launched with Apollo 16. After Apollo technology changed, Carruthers research interest shifted to his work with Project SMART. He saw classroom teaching as not engaging, and asserted that there needed to be supplemental hands-on opportunities for summer programs that perform first hand science experiments and activities to engage youth (DeVorkin, 1992).