28.5: Superphylum Deuterostomia
Skills to Develop
- Describe the distinguishing characteristics of echinoderms
- Describe the distinguishing characteristics of chordates
The phyla Echinodermata and Chordata (the phylum in which humans are placed) both belong to the superphylum Deuterostomia. Recall that protostome and deuterostomes differ in certain aspects of their embryonic development, and they are named based on which opening of the digestive cavity develops first. The word deuterostome comes from the Greek word meaning “mouth second,” indicating that the anus is the first to develop. There are a series of other developmental characteristics that differ between protostomes and deuterostomes, including the mode of formation of the coelom and the early cell division of the embryo. In deuterostomes, internal pockets of the endodermal lining called the archenteron fuse to form the coelom. The endodermal lining of the archenteron (or the primitive gut) forms membrane protrusions that bud off and become the mesodermal layer. These buds, known as coelomic pouches, fuse to form the coelomic cavity, as they eventually separate from the endodermal layer. The resultant coelom is termed an enterocoelom . The archenteron develops into the alimentary canal, and a mouth opening is formed by invagination of ectoderm at the pole opposite the blastopore of the gastrula. The blastopore forms the anus of the alimentary system in the juvenile and adult forms. The fates of embryonic cells in deuterostomes can be altered if they are experimentally moved to a different location in the embryo due to indeterminant cleavage in early embryogenesis.
Phylum Echinodermata
Echinodermata are so named owing to their spiny skin (from the Greek “echinos” meaning “spiny” and “dermos” meaning “skin”), and this phylum is a collection of about 7,000 described living species. Echinodermata are exclusively marine organisms. Sea stars (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)), sea cucumbers, sea urchins, sand dollars, and brittle stars are all examples of echinoderms. To date, no freshwater or terrestrial echinoderms are known.
Morphology and Anatomy
Adult echinoderms exhibit pentaradial symmetry and have a calcareous endoskeleton made of ossicles, although the early larval stages of all echinoderms have bilateral symmetry. The endoskeleton is developed by epidermal cells and may possess pigment cells, giving vivid colors to these animals, as well as cells laden with toxins. Gonads are present in each arm. In echinoderms like sea stars, every arm bears two rows of tube feet on the oral side. These tube feet help in attachment to the substratum. These animals possess a true coelom that is modified into a unique circulatory system called a water vascular system . An interesting feature of these animals is their power to regenerate, even when over 75 percent of their body mass is lost.
Water Vascular System
Echinoderms possess a unique ambulacral or water vascular system, consisting of a central ring canal and radial canals that extend along each arm. Water circulates through these structures and facilitates gaseous exchange as well as nutrition, predation, and locomotion. The water vascular system also projects from holes in the skeleton in the form of tube feet. These tube feet can expand or contract based on the volume of water present in the system of that arm. By using hydrostatic pressure, the animal can either protrude or retract the tube feet. Water enters the madreporite on the aboral side of the echinoderm. From there, it passes into the stone canal, which moves water into the ring canal. The ring canal connects the radial canals (there are five in a pentaradial animal), and the radial canals move water into the ampullae, which have tube feet through which the water moves. By moving water through the unique water vascular system, the echinoderm can move and force open mollusk shells during feeding.
Nervous System
The nervous system in these animals is a relatively simple structure with a nerve ring at the center and five radial nerves extending outward along the arms. Structures analogous to a brain or derived from fusion of ganglia are not present in these animals.
Excretory System
Podocytes, cells specialized for ultrafiltration of bodily fluids, are present near the center of echinoderms. These podocytes are connected by an internal system of canals to an opening called the madreporite .
Reproduction
Echinoderms are sexually dimorphic and release their eggs and sperm cells into water; fertilization is external. In some species, the larvae divide asexually and multiply before they reach sexual maturity. Echinoderms may also reproduce asexually, as well as regenerate body parts lost in trauma.
Classes of Echinoderms
This phylum is divided into five extant classes: Asteroidea (sea stars), Ophiuroidea (brittle stars), Echinoidea (sea urchins and sand dollars), Crinoidea (sea lilies or feather stars), and Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers) (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)).
The most well-known echinoderms are members of class Asteroidea, or sea stars. They come in a large variety of shapes, colors, and sizes, with more than 1,800 species known so far. The key characteristic of sea stars that distinguishes them from other echinoderm classes includes thick arms (ambulacra) that extend from a central disk where organs penetrate into the arms. Sea stars use their tube feet not only for gripping surfaces but also for grasping prey. Sea stars have two stomachs, one of which can protrude through their mouths and secrete digestive juices into or onto prey, even before ingestion. This process can essentially liquefy the prey and make digestion easier.
Brittle stars belong to the class Ophiuroidea. Unlike sea stars, which have plump arms, brittle stars have long, thin arms that are sharply demarcated from the central disk. Brittle stars move by lashing out their arms or wrapping them around objects and pulling themselves forward. Sea urchins and sand dollars are examples of Echinoidea. These echinoderms do not have arms, but are hemispherical or flattened with five rows of tube feet that help them in slow movement; tube feet are extruded through pores of a continuous internal shell called a test. Sea lilies and feather stars are examples of Crinoidea. Both of these species are suspension feeders. Sea cucumbers of class Holothuroidea are extended in the oral-aboral axis and have five rows of tube feet. These are the only echinoderms that demonstrate “functional” bilateral symmetry as adults, because the uniquely extended oral-aboral axis compels the animal to lie horizontally rather than stand vertically.
Phylum Chordata
Animals in the phylum Chordata share four key features that appear at some stage of their development: a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail. In some groups, some of these traits are present only during embryonic development. In addition to containing vertebrate classes, the phylum Chordata contains two clades of invertebrates: Urochordata (tunicates) and Cephalochordata (lancelets). Most tunicates live on the ocean floor and are suspension feeders. Lancelets are suspension feeders that feed on phytoplankton and other microorganisms.
Summary
Echinoderms are deuterostomic marine organisms. This phylum of animals bears a calcareous endoskeleton composed of ossicles. These animals also have spiny skin. Echinoderms possess water-based circulatory systems. A pore termed the madreporite is the point of entry and exit for water into the water vascular system. Osmoregulation is carried out by specialized cells known as podocytes.
 Chordata contains two clades of invertebrates: Urochordata (tunicates) and Cephalochordata (lancelets), together with the vertebrates in Vertebrata. Most tunicates live on the ocean floor and are suspension feeders. Lancelets are suspension feeders that feed on phytoplankton and other microorganisms.
Glossary
- archenteron
- primitive gut cavity within the gastrula that opens outwards via the blastopore
- Chordata
- phylum of animals distinguished by their possession of a notochord, a dorsal, hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail at some point in their development
- Echinodermata
- phylum of deuterostomes with spiny skin; exclusively marine organisms
- enterocoelom
- coelom formed by fusion of coelomic pouches budded from the endodermal lining of the archenteron
- madreporite
- pore for regulating entry and exit of water into the water vascular system
- water vascular system
- system in echinoderms where water is the circulatory fluid


1.3: For-Profit vs. Nonprofit
What you’ll learn to do: distinguish between for-profit and nonprofit businesses
We defined business earlier as an organization that provides goods, service, or both to their customers, clients, or consumers in order to make a profit. That definition, although accurate, does not account for those organizations and businesses that aren’t driven by the “bottom line” or profitability. Instead, some organizations provide their goods and services in order to generate revenues (income) that can be used to further their purpose or mission. It is highly likely that you have been involved with a nonprofit organization, and though it may not have seemed like it at the time, you were actually working with a business! In this section we’ll dig a little deeper into this idea of for-profit versus nonprofit business.
Learning Objectives
- Explain the purpose of for-profit businesses
- Explain the purpose of nonprofit businesses/organizations
- Distinguish between for-profit and nonprofit businesses
Profits and Purpose
A nonprofit or not-for-profit business is one that provides goods or services to consumers, but its primary goal is not to return profit to the owners of the business (as is the case with a for-profit business). Instead, it uses those profits to provide a public service, advance a cause, or assist others. The American Red Cross, the local SPCA, and the American Cancer Society are all examples of nonprofit businesses. They use any revenue generated from operations to support the continued mission of the organization. In addition, most nonprofits also rely on donations from individuals and businesses, grants, and government funding to help fund their work, since the revenue they raise rarely covers all their operating costs.
Much of what differentiates a for-profit business from a nonprofit business goes on behind the scenes and isn’t very visible to the customer. For example, a nonprofit organization is subject to government regulation and oversight in ways that differ significantly from a for-profit business: Nonprofits do not pay taxes on their revenue, but how their funds are disbursed and their operations are managed is tightly regulated.
Profit and non-profit Lemonade stands
Profit and Non-Profit Lemonade Stands
Despite their differences, nonprofits and for-profits have some fundamental business principles and practices in common. Let’s explore these shared aspects by comparing two businesses—one for-profit and one nonprofit.
Molly opens a lemonade stand in front of a local museum and intends to use her profits to purchase a new bike at the end of the summer. There are expenses associated with Molly’s business such as lemons, sugar, cups, and ice. She also spends money on advertising when she prints up flyers and makes directional signs to alert customers to her location. She hires Jamie to help her on busy weekends and pays her a percentage of the stand’s revenue on the days she works. She has T-shirts printed at a local shop with her slogan on the back: “When life gives you lemons, Molly makes lemonade.” She sells the shirts at her stand for $10 each. A local bakery owner sees that Molly’s business is thriving and asks if she can sell her cookies at the lemonade stand. Molly arranges to sell the cookies for the bakery and keep 25 percent of the revenue generated from cookie sales.Molly is running a for-profit business and generates revenue from several sources (lemonade, T-shirts, and cookies). Every day, after packing up her stand, she goes home and calculates her profit by subtracting her expenses (wages to Jamie, advertising, T-shirts, and supplies) from her revenue. She takes the profit and deposits it in the bank account her father helped her open.
At the end of the summer, Molly can withdraw the money from the bank account and buy the bike she wants. If she has profits left after she buys the bike, she can do whatever she wants with that money. As a for-profit business owner, she owns all the profits.
Emma opens a lemonade stand in front of a local museum and intends to donate her profits to the local Humane Society to support their Feline Hope program. Besides that difference of purpose, Emma’s business is nearly identical to Molly’s: There are expenses associated with Emma’s business such as lemons, sugar, cups, and ice. Emma spends money on advertising when she prints up flyers and makes directional signs to alert customers to her location. She hires Linda to help her on busy weekends and pays her a percentage of the stand’s revenue on the days she works. She has T-shirts printed at a local shop with her slogan on the back: “When life gives you lemons, Emma makes lemonade.” She sells the shirts at her stand for $10 each. A local bakery owner sees that Emma’s business is thriving and asks if she can sell her cookies at the lemonade stand. Emma arranges to sell the cookies for the bakery and keep 25 percent of the revenue generated from cookie sales.
Emma is running a not-for-profit business and generates revenue from several sources (lemonade, T-shirts, and cookies). Like Molly, after packing up her stand, she goes home and calculates her profit by subtracting her expenses (wages to Linda, advertising, T-shirts, and supplies) from her revenue. She takes the profit and deposits it in the bank account her father helped her open.
At the end of the summer, Emma can withdraw the money from the bank account and deliver a check to the Humane Society. If the business has profits in excess of what she promised to donate to the Humane Society, Emma can pay herself a small wage for running the business all summer, but the majority of the profits will either need to stay in the bank account to fund future causes or be used to expand the business to support charitable or social causes later on. Emma isn’t really a business “owner,” because she doesn’t own the profit generated by the business. We’d expect to hear Emma say that she’s running a not-for-profit (or nonprofit) organization —in contrast to Molly, who would probably say that she owns a business.
Although these may be very simple examples, they show that, from a customer’s perspective, there is virtually no difference in the way the two businesses operate. Emma might decide to advertise that her proceeds support an important cause (the Humane Society’s Feline Hope program) as a way of attracting
Although these may be very simple examples, they show that, from a customer’s perspective, there is virtually no difference in the way the two businesses operate. Emma might decide to advertise that her proceeds support an important cause (the Humane Society’s Feline Hope program) as a way of attracting customers. If not, the two lemonade stands would seem nearly identical from the outside.
It’s not until you look behind the scenes that you will see the differences between a for-profit and nonprofit business. The following table compares the attributes of for-profit and not-for-profit businesses and highlights some of the “hidden” differences.
| For-Profit | Not-for-Profit/Nonprofit |
| Incurs expenses for operations | Incurs expenses for operations |
| Provides goods and services to customers | Provides goods and services to customers |
| Generates revenue from sales | Generates revenue from sales and/or contributions |
| Owned by individuals, partners, or shareholders | Operated by board of directors, trustees, and managers |
| Profit is used to pay owners, partners, or shareholders | Profit is used to further the mission of the organization |
| Pays salaries to employees and managers | Pays salaries to employees and managers |
| Profits are subject to taxation by local, state, and federal authorities | Profits are NOT subject to taxation by local, state, and federal authorities |


5.5: Summary
Language is a mental capacity that allows members of a speech community to produce and understand countless number of utterances which include grammatical elements like words, phrases and sentences.
Language as a means of communication makes use of different communicative acts (orders, questions, apologies, suggestions) performed during conversational situations across varied social contexts. Language is a symbol of social identity and serves to express ideas, beliefs and attitudes shared by a cultural group. It is reflected in cultural stereotypes, notions about different languages, and behaviors during speech situations which presuppose the use of cultural schemata and cultural scripts.
Languages are commonly classified according to membership in a language family such as Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, Indo-Pacific, Mayan, Niger-Congo. Members within a family are further subdivided into branches (Germanic, Slavic, Finno-Ugric, Indo-Iranian) and the branches into subgroups (English in the Germanic branch; Spanish in the Romance branch).
The distribution of languages around the world is influenced by numerous factors: settlement history, demographic strength, ways of living and contact with other ethnolinguistic groups. Some languages become more dominant and as a result displace others that may eventually become extinct, leading to language death. The world’s ten most widespread languages include Chinese, Spanish, English, Hindi, Arabic, Portuguese, Bengali, Russian, Japanese, and Javanese.
The number of dialects or varieties of American English have changed over time due to settlement histories, political changes (Louisiana Purchase, Mexican American War, Spanish-American War, territory annexation). Language diversity and multilingualism continue to be prevalent in the United States. Recent 2015 Census data reveal extensive language diversity in states like California, Texas, New Mexico, New York, New Jersey, Nevada, Florida, Hawaii, Illinois and Massachusetts.
Place names provide us with cultural insights about the significance of geographic locations, important features of the landscape, the recognition of famous personalities, and local reference to distant places and times. Diverse forms of advertisement are used to inform and convince customers that the products and services offered are the worthiest in the marketplace.
The use of different social media technologies (Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Snapchat, among others) allows for online interaction between many senders and receivers. Users can create and share information, ideas, photos, career interests, and other concerns via virtual communities and networks.
Geographic mapping of the use and users of web-based technologies (desktop computers, smart phones and tablet computers) is unattainable at this time. Research methods from the social science (questionnaires, oral interviews, focus group sessions) may reveal some insights about the pervasive ways individuals, communities and organizations communicate in the virtual world.


9.3: The Origins of the European War
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Across the globe in Europe, the continent’s major powers were still struggling with the aftereffects of World War I when the global economic crisis spiraled much of the continent into chaos. Germany’s Weimar Republic collapsed with the economy, and out of the ashes emerged Adolf Hitler’s National Socialists—the Nazis. Championing German racial supremacy, fascist government, and military expansionism, Hitler rose to power and, after aborted attempts to take power in Germany, became chancellor in 1933 and the Nazis conquered German institutions. Democratic traditions were smashed. Leftist groups were purged. Hitler repudiated the punitive damages and strict military limitations of the Treaty of Versailles. He rebuilt the German military and navy. He reoccupied regions lost during the war and remilitarized the Rhineland, along the border with France. When the Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936, Hitler and Benito Mussolini—the fascist Italian leader who had risen to power in the 1920s—intervened for the Spanish fascists, toppling the communist Spanish Republican Party. Britain and France stood by warily and began to rebuild their militaries, anxious in the face of a renewed Germany but still unwilling to draw Europe into another bloody war. 3
In his autobiographical manifesto, Mein Kampf , Hitler advocated for the unification of Europe’s German peoples under one nation and that nation’s need for Lebensraum , or living space, particularly in Eastern Europe, to supply Germans with the land and resources needed for future prosperity. The Untermenschen (lesser humans) would have to go. Once in power, Hitler worked toward the twin goals of unification and expansion.
n 1938, Germany annexed Austria and set its sights on the Sudetenland, a large, ethnically German area of Czechoslovakia. Britain and France, alarmed but still anxious to avoid war, agreed—without Czechoslovakia’s input—that Germany could annex the region in return for a promise to stop all future German aggression. They thought that Hitler could be appeased, but it became clear that his ambitions would continue pushing German expansion. In March 1939, Hitler took the rest of Czechoslovakia and began to make demands on Poland. Britain and France promised war. And war came.
Hitler signed a secret agreement—the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact—with the Soviet Union that coordinated the splitting of Poland between the two powers and promised nonaggression thereafter. The European war began when the German Wehrmacht invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. Britain and France declared war two days later and mobilized their armies. Britain and France hoped that the Poles could hold out for three to four months, enough time for the Allies to intervene. Poland fell in three weeks. The German army, anxious to avoid the rigid, grinding war of attrition that took so many millions in the stalemate of World War I, built their new modern army for speed and maneuverability. German doctrine emphasized the use of tanks, planes, and motorized infantry (infantry that used trucks for transportation instead of marching) to concentrate forces, smash front lines, and wreak havoc behind the enemy’s defenses. It was called Blitzkrieg , or lightning war.
After the fall of Poland, France and its British allies braced for an inevitable German attack. Throughout the winter of 1939–1940, however, fighting was mostly confined to smaller fronts in Norway. Belligerents called it the Sitzkrieg (sitting war). But in May 1940, Hitler launched his attack into Western Europe. Mirroring the German’s Schlieffen Plan of 1914 in the previous war, Germany attacked through the Netherlands and Belgium to avoid the prepared French defenses along the French-German border. Poland had fallen in three weeks; France lasted only a few weeks more.  Germany split France in half. Germany occupied and governed the north, and the south would be ruled under a puppet government in Vichy.
With France under heel, Hitler turned to Britain. Operation Sea Lion—the planned German invasion of the British Isles—required air superiority over the English Channel. From June until October the German Luftwaffe fought the Royal Air Force (RAF) for control of the skies. Despite having fewer planes, British pilots won the so-called Battle of Britain, saving the islands from immediate invasion and prompting the new prime minister, Winston Churchill, to declare, “Never before in the field of human conflict has so much been owed by so many to so few.”
If Britain was safe from invasion, it was not immune from additional air attacks. Stymied in the Battle of Britain, Hitler began the Blitz—a bombing campaign against cities and civilians. Hoping to crush the British will to fight, the Luftwaffe bombed the cities of London, Liverpool, and Manchester every night from September to the following May. Children were sent far into the countryside to live with strangers to shield them from the bombings. Remaining residents took refuge in shelters and subway tunnels, emerging each morning to put out fires and bury the dead. The Blitz ended in June 1941, when Hitler, confident that Britain was temporarily out of the fight, launched Operation Barbarossa—the invasion of the Soviet Union.
Hoping to capture agricultural lands, seize oil fields, and break the military threat of Stalin’s Soviet Union, Hitler broke the two powers’ 1939 nonaggression pact and, on June 22, invaded the Soviet Union. It was the largest land invasion in history. France and Poland had fallen in weeks, and German officials hoped to break Russia before the winter. And initially, the Blitzkrieg worked. The German military quickly conquered enormous swaths of land and netted hundreds of thousands of prisoners. But Russia was too big and the Soviets were willing to sacrifice millions to stop the fascist advance. After recovering from the initial shock of the German invasion, Stalin moved his factories east of the Urals, out of range of the Luftwaffe. He ordered his retreating army to adopt a “scorched earth” policy, to move east and destroy food, rails, and shelters to stymie the advancing German army. The German army slogged forward. It split into three pieces and stood at the gates of Moscow, Stalingrad, and Leningrad, but supply lines now stretched thousands of miles, Soviet infrastructure had been destroyed, partisans harried German lines, and the brutal Russian winter arrived. Germany had won massive gains but the winter found Germany exhausted and overextended. In the north, the German army starved Leningrad to death during an interminable siege; in the south, at Stalingrad, the two armies bled themselves to death in the destroyed city; and, in the center, on the outskirts of Moscow, in sight of the capital city, the German army faltered and fell back. It was the Soviet Union that broke Hitler’s army. Twenty-five million Soviet soldiers and civilians died during the Great Patriotic War, and roughly 80 percent of all German casualties during the war came on the Eastern Front. The German army and its various conscripts suffered 850,000 casualties at the Battle of Stalingrad alone. In December 1941, Germany began its long retreat. 4


15.2: Sculpture of the Sub-Saharan Civilizations
Sculpture of the Nok
Two of the best examples of ancient terra cotta sculptures are from the Nok culture in Nigeria and from an ancient culture who lived near modern Lydenburg, South Africa.
Compare the ancient terra cotta sculptures from the Nok culture in Nigeria to those found near present-day Lydenburg, South Africa
Key Points
- The Nok culture , existing in Nigeria from around 1500 BCE to 200 CE, was the earliest sub-Saharan producer of life-sized terra cotta sculptures.
- The large Nok sculptures are hollow, with detailed, stylized features. Striking similarities between terra cotta Nok sculptures and later wooden sculptures by Yoruba sculptors have led scholars to speculate whether the two cultures are related.
- While the function of Nok sculptures is largely unknown, theories include use as grave markers, ancestral portrayal, or charms to protect against crop failure, infertility, or illness.
- The Lydenburg Heads are human-shaped terra cotta sculptures discovered in Lydenburg, South Africa. Their image has since become associated with awards for achievement in the arts.
Key Terms
- terra cotta : A hard red-brown unglazed earthenware, used for pottery and building construction.
- finial : Any decorative fitting at the peak of a flagpole, fence post or staircase newel post.
The earliest identified Nigerian culture is the Nok culture, which thrived between 1500 BCE and 200 CE on the Jos Plateau in northeastern Nigeria. Information is lacking from the first millennium BCE following the Nok ascendancy. However, by the second millennium BCE, active trade routes had developed from Ancient Egypt via Nubia through the Sahara to the forest. Savanna peoples acted as intermediaries in exchanges of various goods. Reasons for the Nok’s sudden disappearance remains unknown.
Nok and Lydenburg Terra Cotta Sculptures
Ancient terra cotta sculptures in the form of human bodies or heads have been found in several areas of sub-Saharan Africa, providing glimpses into the cultures that existed in the region. Two of the best examples are from the Nok culture in present-day Nigeria and from an ancient culture living near the present-day town of Lydenburg, South Africa.
Nok
Similarities in artwork suggest the Nok culture evolved into the later Yoruba culture of Ife. One example is this sculpture of a woman, which bears a striking resemblance to an early 20th-century sculpture of a king and queen mother by the Yoruba artist Olowe of Ise. The Nok culture was the earliest sub-Saharan producer of life-sized terra cotta sculptures.
The first scattered fragments were discovered on the Jos Plateau during a tin mining expedition in 1928. The terra cotta figures are hollow, and while some include plant and animal motifs , the most well-known are of human heads and bodies that often reach life-sized proportions. These human sculptures contain very detailed and stylized features, abundant jewelry, and varied postures. Some even illustrate physical ailments, disease, or facial paralysis. While their function is largely unknown, theories include use as ancestor portrayal, grave markers, finials for roofs of buildings, or charms to protect against crop failure, infertility, or illness.
Researchers suggest that Nok ceramics were likely shaped by hand from coarse-grained clay and then sculpted with a technique similar to wood carving. After drying, the sculptures were covered with slip and polished to produce a smooth, glossy surface. The firing process probably resembled that used today in Nigeria, in which the sculptures are covered with grass, twigs, and leaves and burned for several hours.
Lydenburg
Lydenburg, a town in Mpumalanga, South Africa, is also known for the discovery of some of the earliest forms of African sculpture. The Lydenburg Heads (400-500 CE) are terra cotta sculptures similar to those of the Nok. Found in the area in the late 1950s, their function is still unknown, although they likely served a ritualistic purposes as masks, ornamentation, or part of ceremonial regalia.
Since their discovery, these heads have come to symbolize African art and won multiple awards. The image of the Lydenburg head can be seen both on the badge given by the South African Order of Ikhamanga representing achievement in the arts and in the Golden Horn trophy of the South African Film and Television Awards, which signifies excellence in visual creative arts, performance, and drama.
Sculpture of the Igbo-Ukwu
The Nigerian town of Igbo-Ukwu is notable for archaeological sites where highly sophisticated bronze artifacts were discovered.
Describe the discovery, production, and function of Igbo bronze art, masquerades, sculptures, and mbari
Key Points
- Excavations in Igbo-Ukwu have found highly sophisticated bronze artifacts from the earliest known age of bronze casting , dating to the ninth or tenth century CE.
- The three sites were discovered from 1938-1959 and include Igbo Isaiah (a shrine), Igbo Richard (a burial chamber), and Igbo Jonah (a cache ).
- These artifacts are likely from the burial of a highly important person. They include ritual vessels , pendants, crowns and breastplates, jewelry, ceramics , copper and iron objects, and thousands of glass beads.
- The bronze castings, made in stages using the lost wax technique, illustrate the artisans’ high level of skill.
- In addition to the artifacts at Igbo-Ukwu, the Igbo people are known for hammered jewelry, masks, Mbari houses, and mud sculptures.
Key Terms
- cache : A store of things that may be required in the future such as food, which can be retrieved rapidly but is protected or hidden in some way.
Igbo-Ukwu, a town of the Igbo people in southeastern Nigeria, is notable for three archaeological sites where excavations have found bronze artifacts from a sophisticated metal-working culture dating to the ninth or tenth century. This is the earliest known example of a bronze-casting society in the region by hundreds of years.
The first of the sites, Igbo Isaiah, is a shrine uncovered in 1938 by Isaiah Anozie, a local villager who stumbled upon the bronze works while digging beside his home. Subsequent excavations by Thurston Shaw in 1959 resulted in the discovery of two other sites: Igbo Richard, a burial chamber, and Igbo Jonah, thought to be a cache.
Some metal objects were hammered into their current forms , including many pieces of jewelry. A woman’s anklet now housed in the British Museum consists of a central leg tube that extends over an inch beyond the center (approximately 2.75 inches in diameter). Its disk is incised with intricate abstract designs.
Igbo Bronze Art
Most bronze sculptures were made in stages using the lost wax technique, an ancient casting process commonly using wax. Many of the castings integrated small decorative items and designs, showing the artisans’ high level of skill. Some of the bronzes were likely part of the furniture in the burial chamber of a king or other noble. In addition to a variety of ritual vessels, bronze items include pendants, crowns and breastplates, staff ornaments , swords, and fly-whisk handles .
Other artifacts discovered in the sites include jewelry, ceramics, a corpse adorned in what appears to be regalia, and many assorted copper and iron objects. Tens of thousands of glass beads were also discovered, suggesting a long-distance trading system with places as far away as Egypt, Venice , or India.
Other Examples of Igbo Art
Prior to British colonialism , the Igbo were a fragmented and diverse group, a quality reflected in its artistic styles . Besides the bronze artifacts discovered in the twentieth century, Igbo art is generally known for various types of masquerade masks and outfits symbolizing people, animals, or abstract images. The New Yam Festival is an annual cultural festival held at the end of the rainy season in early August to symbolize the conclusion of a harvest and the beginning of the next work cycle. The celebration ties individual Igbo communities together as essentially agrarian and dependent on yam.
Igbo art is also famous for Mbari houses , large open-sided square planned shelters containing life-sized mud sculptures. These painted figures–sculpted in the form of deities , animals, legendary creatures, ancestors, officials, craftsmen, and foreigners–are made to appease the earth goddess. The process of building Mbari houses often takes years and is regarded as sacred. Therefore, new ones are regularly constructed, while old ones are left to decay.
A unique structure of Igbo culture is the Nsude Pyramids , a group of ten pyramidal clay and mud structures built as temples for the goddess Ala/Uto , believed to reside at the top. Everyday houses were made of mud and thatched roofs and had bare earth floors with carved doors. Some houses had elaborate designs both in the interior and exterior, including Uli art designed by Igbo women.
Ile-Ife and Benin Sculpture
The Yoruba and Benin cultures produced bronze and ivory sculptures in modern Nigeria from the 13th through the 19th centuries.
Describe the characteristics of Ile-Ife and Benin sculpture
Key Points
- Ife is home to the Yoruba people in southwestern Nigeria. The city was established near the ninth century CE, and reached its artistic peak between 1200 and 1400 CE.
- Ife is most well-known for its bronze sculptures, typically in a naturalistic style . Stone and terra cotta artwork was also common, and leaders were often depicted with large heads to indicate their power.
- The Benin Empire, which ruled Nigeria from the 11th to the late 19th century, produced sculptures in a wide variety of media for political, social, and religious purposes.
- In the 15th century, contact with Portuguese traders and colonists resulted in the incorporation of European styles into Benin art.
Key Terms
- terra cotta : A hard red-brown unglazed earthenware used for pottery and building construction.
- deities : Divine beings; gods or goddesses.
Yoruba
Ife is the home to the Yoruba people of southwestern Nigeria, located in the present-day Osun State. The Yoruba people comprise one of the largest ethnic groups in Sub-Saharan Africa, constituting close to 40 million people predominantly in Nigeria. Evidence of habitation at the site dates to as early as 600 BCE. Some evidence suggests the Yoruba developed from the Nok culture (1000 BCE–500 CE).
The meaning of the word “ife” in Yoruba is “expansion.” According to Yoruba faith, the city of Ife is where all of humanity originated: Oduduwa created the world where Ife would be built, and his brother Obatala created the first humans out of clay. The city was a settlement of substantial size between the ninth and 12th centuries CE. Production of Yoruba artwork reached its peak between 1200 and 1400 CE, after which it declined as political and economic power shifted to the nearby kingdom of Benin.
Artwork of Ife
Ife is best known for its naturalistic bronze sculptures. Hollow-cast bronze art created by the Yoruba culture provides an example of realism in precolonial African art. Important people were often depicted with large heads, as the Yoruba believed that the Ase, or inner power and energy of a person, resided in the head. Their rulers were often depicted with their mouths covered so that the power of their speech would not be too great .
Stone and terra cotta artwork were also common in Ife. More elaborate festivals organized to worship deities were also common. These would often extend over several days and involve theatrical dramatizations in the palace and kingdom.
In his book “The Oral Traditions in Ile-Ife,” Yemi D. Prince referred to the terra cotta artists of 900 CE as the founders of art guilds , cultural schools of philosophy similar to Europe’s old institutions of learning. These guilds may be some of the oldest non-Abrahamic African centers of learning still in existence.
Benin
The Benin Empire was a precolonial African kingdom that ruled Nigeria from the eleventh century to 1897. Not to be confused with the present-day country of Benin, this empire dissolved into what is today the Edo State of Nigeria, marked by the capital , Benin City. At its height, the empire developed an advanced artistic culture and produced beautiful artifacts of bronze, iron and ivory .
Art of Benin
The Benin Empire was known for its many works of art, including religious objects, ceremonial weapons, masks, animal heads, figurines , busts, and plaques. Typically made from bronze, brass, clay, ivory, terra cotta, or wood, most pieces were produced at the court of the Oba (king) and used to illustrate achievements of the empire or narrate mythical stories. Iconic imagery depicted religious, social, and cultural issues central to their beliefs, and many bronze plaques featured representations of the Oba.
Various works promoted theological and religious piety, while others narrated past events and achievements (actual or mythical). During the reign of the Kingdom of Benin, the characteristics of the artwork shifted from thin castings and careful treatment to thick, less defined castings and generalized features.
One of the most common artifacts today is the ivory mask based on Queen Idia, the mother of Oba Esigie who ruled from 1504-1550. Now commonly known as the Festac mask, it was used in 1977 as the logo of the Nigeria-hosted Second Festival of Black & African Arts and Culture.
Another object unique to Benin art is the Ikegobo (“altars to the hand”), a cylindrical votive object. Used as a cultural marker of an individual’s accomplishments, Ikegobo were dedicated to the hand, from which the Beninese considered all will for wealth and success to originate. These commemorative objects were made of brass, wood, terra cotta, or clay depending on the patron ‘s hierarchical ranking.
Portuguese Influence
The peak of the Benin art occurred in the fifteenth century with the arrival of the Portuguese missionaries and traders. By that point, Benin was already highly militarized and economically developed. However, the arrival of the Portuguese catalyzed a process of even greater political and artistic development.
Because of Benin’s military strength, Portuguese missionaries were unable to enslave its people upon their arrival in the fifteenth century. Instead, a trade network was established in which the Benin Empire traded beautiful works of art for luxury items from Portugal, such as beads, cloth, and brass manillas for casting. The wealth of Benin’s art was credited with preventing the empire from becoming economically dependent on the Portuguese.
As trade flourished, Benin art began to depict European influence through technique, imagery, and themes. Bronze work reached its height during this era, and today the Benin Bronzes are regarded as some of the finest works of that time. These depict a variety of scenes including animals, court life, Portuguese sailors, and relationships between the Benin Empire and the Portuguese. They were cast in matching pairs (although each was individually made), and may have originally been nailed to walls and pillars in the palace as decoration.
In 1897, the British led the Punitive Expedition in which they ransacked the Benin kingdom and destroyed or confiscated much of their artwork. Over 3,000 brass plaques were seized and are now held in museums around the world.
In 1936, Oba Akenzua II began a movement to return the art to its place of origin. Nigeria bought approximately 50 bronzes from the British Museum between the 1950s and 1970s and has repeatedly called for the return of the remainder.
Sculpture of the Kingdom of Kongo
The Kingdom of Kongo was a highly developed state in the 13th century, best known for its nkisi (power objects).
Discuss the function of Kongolese nkisi and nkondi
Key Points
- The Kingdom of Kongo was first established in the 13th century and was a highly developed state by the time of European contact.
- Kongo had an extensive trading network that included ivory , copperware, ferrous metal goods, cloth, and pottery.
- Nkisi are containers such as ceramic vessels , gourds, animal horns, or shells designed to hold spiritually-charged substances. They were believed to aid in communication with the dead.
- Nkisi made in the shape of humans or animals were often used in divination practices for healing or good fortune.
- Nkondi , whose etymological root comes from the word meaning “to hunt,” are believed to protect the user from forces of evil.
Key Terms
- ferrous : Iron-based.
- anthropomorphic : Having the form or attributes of a human.
- zoomorphic : Having the shape, form, or likeness of an animal.
The Kingdom of the Kongo was an African kingdom located in west central Africa in what is now northern Angola, Cabinda, the western portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the southernmost part of Gabon. At its greatest extent, it reached from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Kwango River in the east, and from the Congo River in the north to the Kwanza River in the south.
The first king of the Kingdom was Lukeni lua Nimi (circa 1280-1320). By the time of the first recorded contact with the Europeans, the kingdom was a highly developed state at the center of an extensive trading network. Apart from natural resources and ivory, the country manufactured and traded copperware, ferrous metal goods, raffia cloth, and pottery. The eastern regions were particularly famous for cloth production.
Artistically, the Kingdom of Kongo is perhaps best known for its nkisi (singular: minkisi ) , objects believed to be inhabited by spirits. Early travelers often called nkisi “fetishes” or “idols,” as some were made in human form . Modern anthropology has generally called them either “power objects” or “charms.” As in many African cultures , the Kongo religion placed great importance on communication with ancestors, believing that exceptional human powers could result from this communication. Nkisi were containers such as ceramic vessels, gourds, animal horns, or shells, designed to hold spiritually charged substances. Sometimes considered “portable graves,” elements like earth or relics from the grave of a powerful individual were often placed in the bellies of nkisi . The powers of the dead thus infused the object, placing it under control of the ngaga (healer, diviner, or mediator).
Nkisi were often used in divination practices, for healing, or for good fortune in hunting, trade, or sex. Most famously, nkisi take the form of anthropomorphic or zoomorphic wooden carvings. Birds of prey, dogs (closely tied to the spiritual world in Kongo theology), lightning, weapons, and fire are all common themes. The substances chosen for inclusion in nkisi are frequently called “ bilongo ” or “ milongo ” (singular nlongo ) a word often translated as “medicine.” However, their operation was not primarily pharmaceutical, as they were not applied to or ingested by the infirm. Rather, they were frequently chosen for metaphoric reasons, such as correcting illicit behavior.
Nkondi – often referred to as “nail fetishes” – are an aggressive type of nkisi that were thought to be activated by having nails driven into them. Each nail or metal piece represented a vow, a signed treaty, and efforts to abolish evil. Although nkisi nkondi have probably been made since at least the 16th century, the nailed figures were most likely made in the northern part of the Kongo in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
The name nkondi derives from the verb -konda , meaning “to hunt” and thus nkondi means “hunter” because they can hunt down and attack evildoers or enemies. The object’s primary function is to house a spirit that can hunt down the source or sources of evil that threaten an individual or an entire village. While some nkondi figures appear relatively benign, like the example above, others assume more aggressive body language and facial expressions to demonstrate their ability to attack evildoers successfully.
Some nkondi assume zoomorphic forms, such as this sculpture of a protective wild animal.
- Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
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13.1: Angle of parallelism
Let \(P\) be a point off an h-line \(\ell\) . Drop a perpendicular \((PQ)_h\) from \(P\) to \(\ell\) ; let \(Q\) be its foot point. Let \(\phi\) be the smallest value such that the h-line \((PZ)_h\) with \(|\measuredangle_h Q P Z|=\phi\) does not intersect \(\ell\) .
The value \(\phi\) is called the angle of parallelism of \(P\) to \(\ell\) . Clearly, \(\phi\) depends only on the h-distance \(s=PQ_h\) . Further, \(\phi(s) \to \pi/2\) as \(s \to 0\) , and \(\phi(s) \to 0\) as \(s \to \infty\) . (In the Euclidean geometry, the angle of parallelism is identically equal to \(\pi/2\) .)
If \(\ell\) , \(P\) , and \(Z\) are as above, then the h-line \(m=(PZ)_h\) is called asymptotically parallel to \(\ell\) . In other words, two h-lines are asymptotically parallel if they share one ideal point. (In hyperbolic geometry, the term parallel lines is often used for asymptotically parallel lines ; we do not follow this convention.)
Given \(P \not\in \ell\) , there are exactly two asymptotically parallel lines thru \(P\) to \(\ell\) ; the remaining parallel lines are called ultra parallel .
On the diagram, the two solid h-lines passing thru \(P\) are asymptotically parallel to \(\ell\) ; the dashed h-line is ultra parallel to \(\ell\) .
Show that two distinct h-lines \(\ell\) and \(m\) are ultraparallel if and only if they have a common perpendicular ; that is, there is an \(h\) -line \(n\) such that \(n \perp \ell\) and \(n \perp m\) .
- Hint
-
"only-if" part. Suppose \(\ell\) and \(m\) are ultraparallel; that is, they do not intersect and have distinct ideal points. Denote the ideal points by \(A, B, C\), and \(D\); we may assume that they appear on the absolute in the same order. In this case the h-line with ideal points \(A\) and \(C\) intersects the h-line with ideal points \(B\) and \(D\). Denote by \(O\) their point of intersection.
By Lemma 12.3.1 , we can assume that \(O\) is the center of absolute. Note that \(\ell\) is the reflection of \(m\) across \(O\) in the Euclidean sense. Drop an h-perpendicular \(n\) from \(O\) to \(\ell\), and show that \(n \perp m\).
"If" part. Suppose \(n\) is a common perpendicular. Denote by \(L\) and \(M\) its points of intersection with \(\ell\) and \(m\) respectively. By Lemma 12.3.1 , we can assume that the center of absolute \(O\) is the h-midpoint of \(L\) and \(M\). Note that in this case \(\ell\) is the reflection of m across \(O\) in the Euclidean sense. It follows that the ideal points of the h-lines \(\ell\) and \(m\) are symmetric to each other. Therefore, if one pair of them coincides, then so is the other pair. By Exercise 12.1.1 , \(\ell = m\), which contradicts the assumption \(\ell \ne m\).
Let \(Q\) be the foot point of \(P\) on h-line \(\ell\) . Then
\(PQ_h=\dfrac{1}{2} \cdot \ln \dfrac{1 + \cos \phi}{1 - \cos \phi},\)
where \(\phi\) is the angle of parallelism of \(P\) to \(\ell\) .
In particular, if \(P \notin \ell\) and \(\beta =|\measuredangle_h XPY|\) for some points \(X,Y\in\ell\) , then
\(PQ_h < \dfrac{1}{2} \cdot \ln \dfrac{1+\cos \dfrac{\beta}{2}}{1- \cos \dfrac{\beta}{2}}.\)
- Proof
-
Applying a motion of the h-plane if necessary, we may assume \(P\) is the center of the absolute. Then the h-lines thru \(P\) are the intersections of Euclidean lines with the h-plane.
Let \(A\) and \(B\) denote the ideal points of \(\ell\) . Without loss of generality, we may assume that \(\angle APB\) is positive. In this case
\(\phi=\measuredangle QPB=\measuredangle APQ=\dfrac{1}{2} \cdot\measuredangle APB.\)
Let \(Z\) be the center of the circle \(\Gamma\) containing the h-line \(\ell\) . Set \(X\) to be the point of intersection of the Euclidean segment \([AB]\) and the line \((PQ)\) .
Note that, \(PX = \cos \phi\) . Therefore, by Lemma 12.3.2 ,
\(PX_h=\ln \dfrac{1+\cos\phi}{1-\cos\phi}.\)
Note that both angles \(PBZ\) and \(BXZ\) are right. Since the angle \(PZB\) is shared, \(\triangle ZBX \sim \triangle ZPB\) . In particular,
\(ZX \cdot ZP = ZB^2;\]\)
that is, \(X\) is the inverse of \(P\) in \(\Gamma\) .
The inversion in \(\Gamma\) is the reflection of the h-plane across \(\ell\) . Therefore
\(\begin{array} {rcl} {PQ_h} & = & {QX_h =} \\ {} & = & {\dfrac{1}{2} \cdot PX_h =} \\ {} & = & {\dfrac{1}{2} \cdot \ln \dfrac{1 + \cos \phi}{1 - \cos \phi}.} \end{array}\)
The last statement follows since \(\phi > \dfrac{\beta}{2}\) and the function
is decreasing in the interval \((0,\dfrac{\pi}{2}]\) .
Let \(ABC\) be an equilateral h-triangle with side \(100\) . Show that
\(|\measuredangle_h ABC|<\frac1{10\ 000\ 000\ 000}.\)
- Hint
-
By triangle inequality, the h-distance from \(B\) to \((AC)_h\) is at least 50. It remains to estimate \(|\measuredangle_h ABC| using Proposition \(\PageIndex{1}\). The inequalities \(\cos \phi \le 1 - \dfrac{1}{10} \cdot \phi^2\) for \(|\phi| < \dfrac{\pi}{2}\) and \(e^3 > 10\) should help to finish the proof.


Using the notation of feature matrices, we can create “formulas” that represent the relationship between the phonemic and phonetic levels of representation in our mental grammar. These formulas are known as phonological derivations or phonological rules, and they are meant to represent the unconscious knowledge that every fluent speaker has about the predictable environments where allophonic variation occurs in their language.
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: ecampusontario.pressbooks.pu...guistics/?p=96
Check Yourself
1. Which phonological rule accurately represents the process, “vowels become nasalized before a nasal consonant”?
2. Which sentence accurately describes the process depicted in this phonological rule?
-
Voiceless fricatives become voiced between voiced sonorants.
-
Voiceless stop consonants become voiced before or after a voiced sonorant.
3. Which sentence accurately describes the process depicted in this phonological rule?
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The segment [ə] is deleted in the environment of a strident consonant.
-
The segment [ə] is epenthesized following a strident consonant.
Answers


1.1: Melody
Introduction
Melody is a timely arranged linear sequence of pitched sounds that the listener perceives as a single entity.
Melody is one of the most basic elements of music. A note is a sound with a particular pitch and duration. String a series of notes together, one after the other, and you have a melody . But the melody of a piece of music isn’t just any string of notes. It’s the notes that catch your ear as you listen; the line that sounds most important is the melody. First of all, a melodic line of a piece of music is a succession of notes that make up a melody. Extra notes, such as trills and slides, that are not part of the main melodic line but are added to the melody either by the composer or the performer to make the melody more complex and interesting are called ornaments or embellishments.
There are some common terms used in discussions of melody that you may find it useful to know. Below are some more concepts that are associated with melody.
The Shape or Contour of a Melody
A melody that stays on the same pitch gets boring pretty quickly. As the melody progresses, the pitches may go up or down slowly or quickly. One can picture a line that goes up steeply when the melody suddenly jumps to a much higher note, or that goes down slowly when the melody gently falls. Such a line gives the contour or shape of the melodic line. You can often get a good idea of the shape of this line by looking at the melody as it is written on the staff, but you can also hear it as you listen to the music.
You can also describe the shape of a melody verbally. For example, you can speak of a “rising melody” or of an “arch-shaped”phrase.
Composer Richard Strauss’s Don Juan is a good example of ascending melody:
Melodic Motion
Another set of useful terms describe how quickly a melody goes up and down. A melody that rises and falls slowly, with only small pitch changes between one note and the next, is conjunct. One may also speak of such a melody in terms of step-wise or scalar motion, since most of the intervals in the melody are half or whole steps or are part of a scale.
A melody that rises and falls quickly, with large intervals between one note and the next, is a disjunct melody. One may also speak of “leaps” in the melody. Many melodies are a mixture of conjunct and disjunct motion. A melody may show conjunct motion, with small changes in pitch from one note to the next, or disjunct motion, with large leaps. Many melodies are an interesting, fairly balanced mixture of conjunct and disjunct motion.
Start listening at the 2:30 mark to Beethoven, “Ode to Joy” from Symphony No. 9 and note how the pitch rises and falls slowly, creating conjunct melody.
Melodic Range
Range refers to the distance between the highest and lowest notes found in a given melody. When a piece of music has wide range , there is a great distance between the highest and lowest pitches heard. Conversely, when a piece of music has narrow range the distance between the highest and lowest pitches is relatively small.
Wide Range
Narrow Range
As you listen to Bach’s Brandenburg Concerto No. 5, in D Major, 1st Movement , note that the piece has a wide range in pitch.
Now listen to Brahms, Violin Concerto in D, 3rd movement, and note that it’s range is narrow compared to the Brandenburg Concerto.
Melodic Phrases
Melodies are often described as being made up of phrases. A musical phrase is actually a lot like a grammatical phrase. A phrase in a sentence (for example, “into the deep, dark forest” or “under that heavy book”) is a group of words that make sense together and express a definite idea, but the phrase is not a complete sentence by itself. A melodic phrase is a group of notes that make sense together and express a definite melodic “idea”, but it takes more than one phrase to make a complete melody.
How do you spot a phrase in a melody? Just as you often pause between the different sections in a sentence (for example, when you say, “wherever you go, there you are”), the melody usually pauses slightly at the end of each phrase. In vocal music, the musical phrases tend to follow the phrases and sentences of the text. For example, listen to the phrases in the melody of “The Riddle Song” and see how they line up with the four sentences in the song.
But even without text, the phrases in a melody can be very clear as the notes are still grouped into melodic “ideas.”
One way that a composer keeps a piece of music interesting is by varying how strongly the end of each phrase sounds like “the end”. By varying aspects of the melody, the rhythm, and the harmony, the composer gives the ends of the other phrases stronger or weaker “ending” feelings. Often, phrases come in definite pairs, with the first phrase feeling very unfinished until it is completed by the second phrase, as if the second phrase were answering a question asked by the first phrase. When phrases come in pairs like this, the first phrase is called the antecedent phrase, and the second is called the consequent phrase.The rhythm of the first two phrases of “Auld Lang Syne” is the same, but both the melody and the harmony lead the first phrase to feel unfinished until it is answered by the second phrase.
Antecedent and Consequent Phrases
Define the melody of this composition in terms of range, motion, and contour. J.S. Bach’s Brandenburg Concerto #6, first movement
Motive or Motif
Another term that usually refers to a piece of melody (although it can also refer to a rhythm or a chord progression) is motive or “motif”. A motive is a short musical idea – shorter than a phrase – that occurs often in a piece of music. A motive may only consist of a few pitches or maybe divided in smaller cells.
Most figures and motifs are shorter than phrases, but some of the leitmotifs of Wagner’s operas are long enough to be considered phrases. A leitmotif (whether it is a very short cell or a long phrase) is associated with a particular character, place, thing, or idea in the opera and may be heard whenever that character is on stage or that idea is an important part of the plot. As with other motifs, leitmotifs may be changed when they return. For example, the same melody may sound quite different depending on whether the character is in love, being heroic, or dying.
Themes
A longer melody that at times keeps reappearing in the music – for example, in a “theme and variations” – is often called a theme. Themes generally are at least one phrase long and often have several phrases. Many longer works of music, such as symphony movements, have more than one melodic theme.
The musical scores for movies and television contain themes, which can be developed as in a symphony or may be used very much like operatic leitmotifs. For example, in the music John Williams composed for the Star Wars movies, there are melodic themes that are associated with the main characters. These themes are often complete melodies with many phrases, but a single phrase can be taken from the melody and used as a motif. A single phrase of Ben Kenobi’s Theme, for example, can remind you of all the good things he stands for, even if he is not on the movie screen at the time.
Contributors and Attributions
- Melody. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Melody . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Understanding Basic Music Theory. Authored by : Catherine Schmidt-Jones. Provided by : OpenStax. Located at : http://cnx.org/contents/2ad74b7b-a72f-42a9-a31b-7e75542e54bd@3.74:20/Understanding_Basic_Music_Theo . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Blue Green Music Staff. Located at : https://pixabay.com/en/music-staff-blue-green-scrapbook-794506/ . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved
- Richard Strauss: Don Juan / Gustavo Dudamel, conductor u00b7 Berliner Philharmoniker / Recorded at the Berlin Philharmonie, 2 February 2013.. Provided by : Berliner Philharmoniker. Located at : https://youtu.be/66zOdfCWEqA . License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
- Handel: Joy to the World! (John Rutter and the Cambridge Singers). Authored by : Kate Price. Located at : https://youtu.be/wKW_az2HVfk?t=1s . License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
- Dmitri Shostakovich - Romance (from The Gadfly). Authored by : Classical Music Only. Located at : https://youtu.be/QDW4VJGKLAQ . License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Standard YouTube License


9.1: Oliver v. United States
PETITIONER RESPONDENT
Oliver United States
LOCATION
Sugar Camp Road
DOCKET NO. DECIDED BY
82-15 Burger Court
LOWER COURT
United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit
CITATION
466 US 170 (1984)
ARGUED
Nov 9, 1983
DECIDED
Apr 17, 1984
ADVOCATES
Donna L. Zeegers on behalf of the Respondent
Thornton Wayne S. Moss on behalf of the Petitioner Maine
Frank E. Haddad, Jr. on behalf of the Petitioner
Oliver Alan I. Horowitz on behalf of the Respondent United States
Facts of the case
These are two consolidated cases involving the discovery of open marijuana fields as the result of unwarranted searches of privately owned land.
In the first case, Kentucky State police searched Ray E. Oliver's farm, acting on reports that marijuana was grown there. A gate marked with a "No Trespassing" sign surrounded the field.
Police found marijuana in the field about a mile from Oliver's home. Before trial, the United States District Court for the Western District of Kentucky suppressed evidence found in the search on the ground that Oliver had a reasonable expectation that his field would remain private. This expectation triggered the Fourth Amendment's protection against unreasonable searches and seizures. The Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit reversed under the open field doctrine. The open field doctrine states that a citizen's protection from unwarranted search does not extend to open fields.
In the second case, police searched the woods behind Richard Thornton's property after an anonymous tip. Police found two marijuana patches on Thornton's land. The Main Superior Court granted Thornton's motion to suppress evidence found in the search for the same reasons as the Oliver case. On appeal, the Supreme Judicial Court of Main affirmed.
Question
Does the open field doctrine apply when police officers knowingly enter privately owned fields without a warrant?
Conclusion
6–3 Decision
| FOR | AGAINST |
|---|---|
|
Blackmun White Powell Burger O’Conner Rehnquist |
Marshall Brennan Stevens |
Yes. In a 6-3 vote, Justice Lewis F. Powell, Jr. wrote for the majority, stating that the open field doctrine applies to both cases. Individuals cannot legitimately expect privacy for activities conducted out in the open except in the area immediately surrounding their house. Also, the act of police officers entering a privately owned field is not automatically a search for Fourth Amendment purposes even if it is a common law trespass. Oliver's case was affirmed, and Thornton's was reversed and remanded.
Justice Byron White wrote a special concurrence, saying that there was no need for the majority to deal with the expectation of privacy issue because a field is clearly not a "house" or an "effect" under the Fourth Amendment. Justice Thurgood Marshall wrote a dissent, contending that the law should protect private land that is marked as such against unreasonable searches and seizures. Justice William J. Brennan and Justice John P. Stevens joined Justice Marshall's dissent.