1.2: Computer Hardware and Networks
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain the components that make up a computer
- Describe how computers process and store data
- Discuss what networks are and how they function
- Understand how to maintain and clean computer components
You do not need to know how to build a computer from scratch to effectively use a mobile device or other computing technology. However, a basic understanding of how computers operate can help you troubleshoot problems, and with some knowledge of computer terminology, you will be a more informed consumer when you are making technology purchases. Although there are technological and programming differences between computers, tablets, gaming consoles, and mobile devices, all are built around the same basic technology. This technology has evolved through innovations in the field to offer users enhanced features, reduced costs, and increased operating speeds.
This section will cover some basic aspects of computing. These concepts will give you a broader understanding of the technology you are using beyond simply operating the computer or tablet for personal or work tasks.
What Is a Computer?
Although today’s computers look and behave differently from early efforts, they include the same core features. A computer is simply a programmable machine that can execute predefined lists of instructions and respond to new instructions. A very large computers called a mainframe is capable of great processing speed and data storage. Mainframe computers today typically function as servers. Servers are powerful computers that act as a central hub of the technology needs for the organization. Servers support data storage, sharing of computer programs, and hosting websites. Another name for a computer program (language) or set of programs with the end goal of converting data into processes and actions is software . Software, such as Microsoft Word, allows the user to interface with the computer. Accessories such as a keyboard, mouse, printer, and monitor are called hardware . These input and output devices allow us to communicate with the computer and to extract information from it.
There are many different types of computer systems, including workstations, microcomputers, and supercomputers. A workstation is a powerful single-user computer that is similar to a personal computer but more powerful. They are typically used to manage business operations such as invoicing customers, managing online sales, or ordering inventory for the company. A minicomputer is similar in power to mainframe computers but, as the name implies, is much smaller in size and can be used in midsize organizations that need more power than what a typical personal computer might provide. A supercomputer is extremely powerful and has the fastest processor available. These computers can be used to process highly complex scientific data at fast speeds.
Computers are hard to get away from—they’re in all kinds of everyday devices. Appliances, cars, watches, and even the heating and cooling systems in our homes incorporate computer technology that enables us to send and receive information from these devices. Today’s smartphones are essentially minicomputers.
How Computers Work
Most computers consist of a few basic elements. The motherboard is the hardware that runs communications for the computer system (Figure 1.20a). It sits within the system unit, which is the container that houses most of the computer’s electronic components. The central processing unit (CPU) contains a single chip called a microprocessor (the “brains” of a computer system). A microprocessor (Figure 1.20b) consists of a control and what is known as an arithmetic-logic unit, which performs math and logical operations within the computer system.
Personal Computers and Devices
Numerous types of computers and devices are available for business or personal use today. A personal computer (PC) is a microcomputer that is suitable for individual use, including a desktop computer , laptop , tablet , smartphone , and wearable device such as a smartwatch . Desktop computers are personal workstations that you set up at a fixed location, such as a desk. They are typically equipped with a tower (where components such as the motherboard are housed), a monitor, and other peripheral accessories, such as a keyboard, mouse, and printer. Laptops are portable and lightweight—small enough to fit into most briefcases. The computer and monitor are combined, and peripheral accessories are optional. Tablets, such as the Kindle, are smaller than laptops and have less functionality but are still very powerful, with many features that support everyday personal use. They are even more portable than laptops, and their touch screens, which don’t require a mouse, are their distinguishing feature.
Operating Systems
As stated earlier, a computer’s operating system is software that is essential to all functionality and use of the computer. It controls the computer’s activities, from memory to processes, and ensures that hardware and software components can “speak” to each other. It provides the interface necessary for humans to communicate with the computer and all its components. Here is where the big players enter the computing scene: Microsoft Windows , Apple macOS , and Google’s Android OS , to name a few. You will typically interact with Windows and Apple macOS on a laptop or tablet. The programs that we discuss in this text, such as Google Sheets and Microsoft Word, use their respective operating system. The Android and iOS operating systems are used for mobile devices. You are likely to see these operating systems in use daily, both in the workplace and in your personal life.
Information Processing, Storage, and Memory
Businesses take great care in procuring computers that can handle the work that needs to get done. Before selecting computers, they’ll investigate some basic functions that have to do with how fast the devices process information and how well they store data. The information processing cycle is the sequence of events involved in processing information—input, processing, storage, and output:
- Input consists of entering the data and information into the computer system.
- Processing involves a series of operations performed by the computer to organize, interpret, or otherwise make use of the information input into the computer.
- Output entails viewing this processed information in a way that makes sense to the user, either through the monitor or as a printout.
- Finally, storage is the process of saving information into the computer for future use.
There are two types of storage, primary storage and secondary storage . Primary storage refers to temporary files that are available only when the computer is on. Primary storage is also known as short-term memory, or random access memory (RAM) . This type of memory is not meant to save information for future use but allows the computer to operate and process information quickly as it is being used. Secondary storage is considered permanent storage on a computer system or removable device, such as the old floppy disks. You may also be familiar with another type of memory— cache . The computer’s cache holds data that can be retrieved quickly, often including downloads from websites or other information that can be used to load websites faster. The cache operates in the background to help the computer operate more quickly.
A hard disk is considered secondary storage where users can save files and retrieve data and programs. There are two types of hard disks, internal and external. An internal disk drive is housed within the computer unit, and users update and produce copies of all files they need. Figure 1.21 shows a few types of external disk drive . These are portable, allowing the user to save information outside of the computer unit for use elsewhere.
Before an operating system loads and is ready to use, the computer needs hardwired instructions, called read-only memory (ROM) . Businesses should be sure to procure computers with sufficient RAM and to make sure that data storage solutions are in place to handle their needs. The amount of RAM impacts the speed at which programs run. Computers with less RAM are slower and can hinder work productivity in the workplace. Often businesses will begin with less RAM and eventually upgrade to higher levels as their business and needs expand.
Networks
Talk about networks is common in the workplace. You will hear that the network “has gone down” or “is running slow.” What does this mean? What is a network, anyway? A network is a connection of two or more computer systems, as well as devices, by either a cable or a wireless connection. Networks may be simple or complex, self-contained within a small area like your home or dispersed over a large geographic area.
These different types of networks are called personal area networks (PANs) , local area networks (LANs) , and wide area networks (WANs) . Personal area networks typically connect personal computers and devices within a small area. Local area networks (LANs) are primarily used by colleges and universities as a way of linking computers and sharing printers and other resources. Wide area networks (WANs) allow access to regional service providers and span distances greater than 100 miles. The internet is a wide area network.
Network Hardware
In order to function properly, networks depend on a router . These devices perform two functions: they direct the data traffic, so to speak, from one network to another, and they allow multiple computers to use the same internet connection. Routers can vary in shape and size and also by performance. Switches coordinate direct flow of data between components. Gateways are devices that allow one local area network to be linked to other LANs or larger networks. The purpose of a hub is to send a received message to all connected devices rather than just the intended ones.
Network Servers
A client is a device that requests and uses resources available from other devices on the same network. For example, if you use a computer at your local library or a computer located on your campus, you are using a client device. In the workplace, the computers that employees have at their workstations are often connected through the network and are clients to that network. A server connects devices and allows for resource sharing across the network. Servers may have different functions. Examples are application servers, communication servers, database servers, file servers, print servers, and web servers.
Network adapter cards connect computers and devices to a network, enabling the sharing of hardware, software, and data across the network. The network adapter card connects the system unit to the network via a network cable. These cards used to be purchased separately in the early days of personal computers, but most computers today come with integrated cards embedded in their motherboard. The devices sending and receiving data are identified by transmission control protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP) , which organizes the information into small packets for transmission through the network and across the internet. One of the most widely used internet protocols, used for web traffic, is hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) . HTTPS is a more secure protocol than HTTP, for users and website owners alike, because users’ information is protected with a “pass” safety inspector embedded within the protocol. Before exchanging confidential information, such as credit card information, online, users should always verify if the website begins with https. And even with this safer and more secure connection, you should always be cautious when sharing information.
Secure File Transfer Protocol (SFTP) is a secure version of file transfer protocol; it provides a secure connection for transferring files. User datagram protocol (UDP) is a communication protocol that works across the internet for time-sensitive transmissions such as video playback. Its main goal is to speed up communication by establishing connection before data is transferred. Another security protocol that uses encryption to help ensure privacy of information and communications across the internet is secure sockets layer (SSL) . Cybersecurity is a major concern of computer users, both personally and professionally. As encryption technology has progressed, there have been several iterations of SSL protocols. Today, the encryption is referred to as TLS (transport layer security) , but the intent is the same—providing protection of data that is shared via the internet.
One of the most common types of cybercrimes is identity theft, which occurs when a hacker steals an individual’s identity for economic gain. The increase of hacker s , individuals who gain unauthorized access to computer systems in an attempt to steal someone’s information, has become a major issue and has led to the development of such software programs as Norton Antivirus and LifeLock to protect consumers’ identities.
Another major safety concern when using computers is the existence of malware and viruses—software that can damage or slow down a computer system by opening an insecure portal into your computer. Malware can also damage files and allow hackers access to files and information stored on your computer. Depending on how these programs are written, they may only damage the computer that initiated the virus/malware, or the malware may flow throughout networks by attaching itself to other files that are exchanged across the network.
Users should be very careful when opening files sent to them in email or when clicking links to unfamiliar websites. Phishing scams are very common. These are attempts by hackers to gain access to your personal information, such as the credentials you may use to access financial and other sensitive accounts. Phishing most often occurs through email that appears to come from a reputable source, or via social media. It is always best to avoid logging into accounts through links sent in email, clicking on links that are not secure or recognizable, or opening files unless you know who the sender is and what is being sent.


5.1: Simplify Rational Expressions
Rational numbers are sometimes informally called fractions. Numbers such as \(\dfrac{3}{4}\) and \(−\dfrac{1}{5}\) are rational numbers.
The set of rational numbers is the set of all numbers of the form \(\dfrac{p}{q}\) where both \(p\) and \(q\) are integers and \(q \neq 0\).
Numbers like \(\dfrac{\sqrt{3}}{2}\) and \(\dfrac{\pi}{4}\) are therefore not rational numbers! The numerators, in both cases, are not integers. Although \(\dfrac{\sqrt{3}}{2}\) and \(\dfrac{\pi}{4}\) are irrational numbers due to their irrational numerators, we commonly refer to them as fractions, even though that’s a bit of an allowance. But let’s agree \(\dfrac{\sqrt{3}}{2}\) and \(\dfrac{\pi}{4}\) are not rational numbers!
Whereas a rational number describes a type of number , a rational expression describes a type of algebraic expression .
Rational expressions are ratios of polynomials, \(p(x)\) and \(q(x)\):
\[\dfrac{p(x)}{q(x)}\]
where \(q(x)\) is not zero itself.
\(\textcolor{green}{\checkmark}\;\; \text{Examples of rational expressions: } \dfrac{2x+1}{3x+4}, −\dfrac{1}{x^2+1}, \dfrac{2−x^2}{5x}, \text{ or } \dfrac{5x^9−3x^4+x}{2x^2−7x}.\)
\(\textcolor{red}{\times}\;\; \text{Examples of expressions that are not rational expressions: } \dfrac{6x^2}{0}, \dfrac{x^{\pi}}{3x}, \dfrac{\sqrt{2x+9}}{5x}, \text{ or } \dfrac{x^2+2}{2^x} \)
How do these last \(4\) expressions fail to be rational expressions? You might have to revisit the definition of a polynomial from Chapter 2 to articulate why they are not rational expressions!
Canceling Quantities
Fractions denote division. \(\dfrac{5}{5} = 5 ÷ 5 = 1\). Algebraically, \(\dfrac{a}{a} = a ÷ a = 1\) for all \(a ≠ 0\). Canceling within fractions uses this property. Although the word “cancel” suggests the number or quantity “disappears,” it’s not a magic act! We should probably say “cancels to one” instead, so that we don’t lose sight of the mathematical sense.
Simplify \(\dfrac{3a^3b^2}{12a^2b^5}\)
Solution
When simplifying rational expressions, look for groups of variables or numbers that can be canceled to one. The numbers \(3\) and \(12\) have a common factor. The variable \(a\) is repetitively multiplied to create a power. The variable \(b\) is also repetitively multiplied to create a power. Cancel as many times as permits within a rational expression.
\(\begin{array} &&\dfrac{3}{12} \cdot \dfrac{a^3}{a^2} \cdot \dfrac{b^2}{b^5} &\text{Separating into groups sets up for cancelling.} \\ &=\dfrac{3}{3 \cdot 4} \cdot \dfrac{\cancel{a} \cdot \cancel{a} \cdot a}{\cancel{a} \cdot \cancel{a}} \cdot \dfrac{\cancel{b} \cdot \cancel{b}}{\cancel{b} \cdot \cancel{b} \cdot b \cdot b \cdot b} &\text{You could also use rules of exponents. See Chapter 1.} \\ &=\dfrac{1}{4} \cdot \dfrac{a}{1} \cdot \dfrac{1}{b \cdot b \cdot b} &\text{The cancelations are complete.} \\ &=\dfrac{a}{4b^3} &\text{Simplify powers.} \end{array}\)
The same property of division applies to quantities. Parentheses group algebraic expressions, bundling them together like a packaged box. The contents within the parentheses act as a single value, which is referred to as a quantity.
Simplify \(\dfrac{10(2y−1)^2(y+6)}{6(2y−1)(y+6)}\)
Solution
Since quantities behave like single values, the problem is logically equivalent to: \(\dfrac{10A^2B}{6AB}\). By refocusing the lens, this problem is very much like Example 5.1.1.
\(\begin{array} &&\dfrac{5 \cdot 2}{3 \cdot 2} \cdot \dfrac{\cancel{(2y−1)}(2y−1)}{\cancel{(2y−1)}} \cdot \dfrac{\cancel{y+6}}{\cancel{y+6}} &\text{Separating into groups sets up for cancelling.} \\ &=\dfrac{5}{3} \cdot \dfrac{2y-1}{1} \cdot 1 &\text{The cancelations are complete.} \\ &=\dfrac{5(2y-1)}{3} &\text{Write as a single fraction. This answer is okay!} \\ &=\dfrac{10y-5}{3} &\text{When multiplication is simple to do, it is often performed.} \end{array}\)
The final simplified answer can be multiplied out, or not! If it isn’t a quick multiplication, it’s often preferred that you leave the answer as powers or factored form.
Simplify \(\dfrac{x^2+2x-15}{x^2-5x+6}\)
Solution
Cancelations occur only over factored quantities. The given numerator and denominator are not in factored form. For factoring review, see chapter 2.
\(\begin{array} &\dfrac{x^2+2x-15}{x^2-5x+6}&= \dfrac{(x+5) \cancel{(x-3)}}{(x-2) \cancel{(x-3)}} &\text{Factor the numerator and the denominator.} \\ &=\dfrac{(x+5)}{(x-2)} \cdot 1 &\text{The quantities \((x − 3)\) cancel to one.} \\ &=\dfrac{x+5}{x-2} &\text{The rational expression is fully simplified.} \end{array}\)
The horizontal fraction bar groups the numerator and groups the denominator. The parentheses become redundant. Therefore, removing the parentheses is preferred.
Although \(\dfrac{ab}{cd} = \dfrac{a}{c} \cdot \dfrac{b}{d}\), addition and subtraction are more persnickety. You can make mistakes by incorrectly applying cancellation properties to addition or subtraction. As Example 5.1.3 demonstrates, cancellation can be applied after factoring.
Simplify \(\dfrac{2p+14}{p+7}\)
Solution
Both the numerator and the denominator are expressions involving addition. If the quantities are factorable, then we factor to compare quantities. Identical quantities can be cancelled after factoring.
\(\begin{array} &&\dfrac{2p+14}{p+7} = \dfrac{2(p+7)}{p+7} &\text{Factor the numerator using GCF \(= 2\).} \\ &= 2 \cdot \dfrac{p+7}{p+7} &\text{The quantities \((p + 7)\) cancel.} \\ &= 2 \cdot 1 &\text{The value after cancelling is \(1\).} \\ &= 2 \end{array}\)
Simplify \(\dfrac{12}{6t−4}\)
Solution
The denominator is a factorable expression. The numerator is a factorable number.
\(\begin{array} &&\dfrac{12}{6t−4} = \dfrac{\cancel{2} \cdot 2 \cdot 3}{\cancel{2}(3t−2)} &\text{Factor numerator and denominator. Cancel the common factor.} \\ &= \dfrac{6}{3t−2} &\text{Simplify.} \end{array}\)
It’s tempting to inspect the individual terms of the quantity \((3t − 2)\) for further cancellations, but because the terms are subtracted, not multiplied, canceling is not possible.
Try It! (Exercises)
For #1-6, use the definition of a rational number to determine if the number is rational or irrational.
- \(\dfrac{5}{9}\)
- \(1\)
- \(−4\)
- \(\dfrac{\sqrt{2}}{2}\)
- \(\pi\)
- \(\dfrac{3 \pi}{4}\)
For #7-12, use the definition of a rational expression to determine if the expression is a rational expression or something else.
- \(\dfrac{1}{x}\)
- \(\dfrac{5^x}{x}\)
- \(\dfrac{3x^5}{2x+1}\)
- \(\dfrac{1}{\sqrt{x}}\)
- \(\dfrac{4(2x−5)^2}{(x−7)(x+5)}\)
- \(7x^{−3}\)
For #13-34, simplify the rational expression.
- \(\dfrac{15a^4b^2}{6a^5b}\)
- \(\dfrac{7p^6q}{35p^7q^2}\)
- \(\dfrac{16x^4y^5z^2}{6x^3y^6z^2}\)
- \(−\dfrac{ 30u^7v^3w^9}{u^8v^8w^8}\)
- \(\dfrac{4(t−2)(3t+7)^3}{10(t−2)^2(3t+7)}\)
- \(\dfrac{40(6u+1)^2(4u−1)^5}{8(4u−1)^3(6u−1)}\)
- \(−\dfrac{ 2(8a−b)^3(2a+1)^2}{12(8a−b)^3(2a+1)^3}\)
- \(\dfrac{x^2+x−20}{x^2−5x+4}\)
- \(\dfrac{3q−6}{q^2−4}\)
- \(\dfrac{y^2−11y+30}{y^2−25}\)
- \(\dfrac{3c^2−14c−5}{3c^2+c}\)
- \(\dfrac{a^2+12a+36}{a^2+3a−18}\)
- \(\dfrac{5r^2−12r+4}{r^2−4r+4}\)
- \(\dfrac{w^2−81}{2w^2+18w}\)
- \(\dfrac{20y^2−5}{10y^2+35y−20}\)
- \(\dfrac{m^3−27}{2m^2−7m+3}\)
- \(\dfrac{10b^3+10}{10b^2−10}\)
- \(\dfrac{3p^4−48}{6p^2−24}\)
- \(\dfrac{2x^2+7x+6 }{4x^2+3x−6}\)
- \(\dfrac{5d(d+1)^3}{5d^3−5d}\)
- \(\dfrac{7v^3−28v}{7v(v−2)^3}\)
- \(\dfrac{3x^5−6x^4−105x^3}{6x^2+30x}\)
For #35-36, simplify the numerator and denominator, then simplify the rational expression.
- \(\dfrac{(3x+4)−(2x−4)}{(x+10)+(x+6)}\)
- \(\dfrac{(4x^2+5x+1)−(3x^2+3x+4)}{(2x^2+x+8)−(x^2−6x−4)}\)


4.10: Exercise- High-Pass Filtering
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Up to this point, we’ve focused on low-pass filters, but in this exercise we’ll see how high-pass filtering works. The only fundamental difference is that the impulse response functions are different.
With typical parameters (e.g., a 0.1 Hz half-amplitude cutoff frequency), high-pass filtering requires a very long impulse response function, so it doesn’t work very well with epoched EEG or ERP data (unless the epochs are many seconds long). Ordinarily, you’ll apply high-pass filtering to continuous EEG (as in some of the exercises in earlier chapters). However, it’s a little easier to create simulated waveforms and visualize them with ERPs, so we’ll apply high-pass filters to simulated ERP data in this exercise. As a compromise, I created simulated waveforms with a longer-than-usual epoch (from -1000 to +1000 ms). But with real data, you’d want even longer epochs (or, better yet, apply high-pass filters to the continuous EEG data).
To get started, quit and restart EEGLAB and then load the ERPset in the file named waveform+drift. erp . If you plot the ERPs, you’ll see something like Screenshot 4.11A. Channel 1 is the same artificial waveform we’ve used before, but with a longer epoch. Channel 2 is the same waveform, but with a linear drift superimposed on it. Channel 3 is an impulse that we can use to visualize the impulse response functions of the filters we’ll be using.
We’re going to start by using a high-pass filter cutoff of 5 Hz, which means that we’re filtering out frequencies below 5 Hz. I’d never recommend using this cutoff with real data (except for a few special cases, such as research on the auditory brainstem response). However, this will make it easier to see what the impulse response function looks like and how it impacts the filtered waveform.
Launch the filtering tool, and set the parameters as shown in Screenshot 4.12. In particular, turn off the low-pass filter, turn on the high-pass filter, set the high-pass cutoff to 5 Hz, and set the roll-off to 12 dB/octave. And make sure that Channel(s) to filter is set to All . If you look at the frequency response function shown in the upper left, you’ll see that the gain is near zero for the lowest frequencies, reaches 0.5 at 5 Hz (because that’s the half-amplitude cutoff frequency) and then starts nearing the asymptote of 1.0 by approximately 10 Hz.
Now look at the impulse response function by changing the Display setting from Filter frequency response to Filter impulse response . It should look like Screenshot 4.13. It’s very different from the impulse response function of a low-pass filter. Low-pass and high-pass filters have opposite effects (removing high versus low frequencies), so they have largely opposite impulse response functions. Whereas the low-pass impulse response functions we’ve looked at had positive values near time zero, this high-pass impulse response function is negative near time zero (but is near 1.0 right at time zero). The reasons for this are discussed in Chapters 7 and 12 of Luck (2014). Here, you’ll just have to take my word for it.
Go ahead and click APPLY to run the filter, and then plot the filtered waveforms. You should see something like Screenshot 4.11B. First look at the impulse (Channel 3), which now shows the impulse response function of the filter. You can see the negative values surrounding time zero, but they’re pretty small. This is because the impulse response function for a high-pass filter must sum to zero. If the impulse response extends for a long time period, the individual values must be very small.
Now look at the waveform+drift channel (Channel 2). The good news is that the filter has virtually eliminated the drift. The bad news is that the filter has produced artifactual negative peaks at the beginning and end of the waveform. You can also see these artifactual peaks in the channel without the drift (Channel 1). The filter has also reduced the amplitude and change the shape of the ERP waveform, but that’s to be expected because much of the power in the waveform falls into the frequencies that are attenuated by the filter (which you can confirm by making the unfiltered ERPset active and using EEGLAB > ERPLAB > Filter & Frequency Tools > Plot amplitude spectrum for ERP data ). These distortions are why I would never recommend using a filter like this with real data (except for the auditory brainstem responses, which are largely confined to higher frequencies).
If you think about the impulse response function, you can understand why the filter produces artificial negative peaks at the beginning and end of the waveform. The unfiltered waveform starts and ends with positive values. When we replace these values with the impulse response function, the negative values to the left and right of the current point in the impulse response function produce negative values before and after the positive peaks. Note that if the waveform contained negative peaks, the artifactual peaks would be positive (because a negative voltage from the unfiltered waveform multiplied by a negative value in the impulse response function creates a positive value).
Next we’re going to try a filter that’s not quite as extreme, but still has a higher cutoff frequency than I’d recommend, namely 1 Hz. Make the original waveform+drift ERPset active again in the ERPsets menu, launch the filtering tool, and change the cutoff from 5 Hz to 1 Hz. Look at the impulse response function in the filtering tool. You can see a large positive value at time zero, but the nearby values are just barely negative. The function extends for a longer period of time than the function for the 5 Hz filter, and each individual point must be nearer to zero so that the points sum to zero.
Go ahead and click APPLY and then plot the filtered data. It should look like Screenshot 4.11C. The drift in Channel 2 is still largely gone, but we haven’t attenuated the ERP waveform as much, so that’s an improvement. However, the artifactual negative peaks at the beginning and end of the waveform are still present. That’s why I wouldn’t recommend using a 1 Hz cutoff.
Now let’s try the high-pass filter cutoff I ordinarily recommend for most perceptual, cognitive, and affective ERP studies, namely 0.1 Hz. Make the unfiltered ERPset active again, launch the filtering tool, and change the cutoff to 0.1 Hz. If you look at the impulse response function in the filtering tool, you can’t really see much beyond the positive value at time zero. That means that the filter will be very mild. Apply the filter and look at the waveforms. As shown in Screenshot 4.11D, the filter has only partially reduced the drift in Channel 2. However, it has produced no noticeable distortion of the ERP waveform. That is, the filter hasn’t attenuated the waveform, and it hasn’t produced any artifactual peaks.
This set of examples illustrates an important principle: You can fully attenuate the slow drifts in your data but distort your ERP waveforms, or you can fail to fully attenuate the low-frequency noise and avoid distorting your ERP waveforms. You can’t both fully attenuate the drifts and avoid distorting the waveform. This is because of the inverse relationship between the time and frequency domains: The more you restrict the frequencies with extensive filtering, the more you distort the time course of the ERP waveform.
Keep in mind that the slow drifts are noise deflections that mainly arise from the skin, and they’re positive-going on some trials and negative-going on others. They add random noise to your data, decreasing your power to find statistically significant effects. Obviously that’s not a good thing. However, it’s much worse to use a filter that induces artifactual effects that are statistically significant but completely bogus, causing you to draw incorrect conclusions. This is why I usually recommend a high-pass cutoff of 0.1 Hz—it reduces the low-frequency noise reasonably well, but it doesn’t usually produce substantial artifacts.
In the first edition of my ERP textbook (Luck, 2005), I recommended using 0.01 Hz as the half-amplitude cutoff. Over the following years, however, my collaborators and I systematically compared a variety of different cutoffs, and we typically found that 0.1 Hz produced the best noise reduction without any substantial distortion of the waveforms (Kappenman & Luck, 2010; Tanner et al., 2015). If you’re looking at very slow ERPs (like the contralateral delay activity), 0.01 or 0.05 might be better than 0.1, but in most cases I find that 0.1 Hz works best.


10.7: The Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974
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The Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (JJDP) Act of 1974 reformed and redefined the philosophy, authority, and procedures of the juvenile justice system in the United States. This was the first major federal initiative to address juvenile delinquency across the nation. [1] While historically, the overseeing of juvenile matters fell on the states, the JJDP Act established some oversight at the federal level.
The JJDP Act attached to state funding to reform efforts. For example, one major reform effort involved revising policies around secure detention, separating juvenile from adult offenders, and deinstitutionalizing status offenders. Status offenders were no longer to be held in secure facilities with delinquent youth. [2] In 1992, as part of the reauthorization of JJDPA, states were encouraged to identify gaps in their ability to provide appropriate services for female juvenile delinquents (42 U.S.C. 5601; OJJDP). The federal government expected states to provide specific services for the prevention and treatment of female delinquency and prohibit gender bias in the placement, treatment, and programming of female delinquents.


9.1E: Control of Muscle Tension
Muscle tension is influenced by the number of cross-bridges that can be formed.
- Describe the factors that control muscle tension
Key Points
- The more cross-bridges that are formed, the more tension in the muscle.
- The amount of tension produced depends on the cross-sectional area of the muscle fiber and the frequency of neural stimulation.
- Maximal tension occurs when thick and thin filaments overlap to the greatest degree within a sarcomere; less tension is produced when the sarcomere is stretched.
- If more motor neurons are stimulated, more myofibers contract, and there is greater tension in the muscle.
Key Terms
- tension : condition of being held in a state between two or more forces, which are acting in opposition to each other
Control of Muscle Tension
Neural control initiates the formation of actin – myosin cross-bridges, leading to the sarcomere shortening involved in muscle contraction. These contractions extend from the muscle fiber through connective tissue to pull on bones, causing skeletal movement. The pull exerted by a muscle is called tension. The amount of force created by this tension can vary, which enables the same muscles to move very light objects and very heavy objects. In individual muscle fibers, the amount of tension produced depends primarily on the amount of cross-bridges formed, which is influenced by the cross-sectional area of the muscle fiber and the frequency of neural stimulation.
Muscle tension : Muscle tension is produced when the maximum amount of cross-bridges are formed, either within a muscle with a large diameter or when the maximum number of muscle fibers are stimulated. Muscle tone is residual muscle tension that resists passive stretching during the resting phase.
Cross-bridges and Tension
The number of cross-bridges formed between actin and myosin determine the amount of tension that a muscle fiber can produce. Cross-bridges can only form where thick and thin filaments overlap, allowing myosin to bind to actin. If more cross-bridges are formed, more myosin will pull on actin and more tension will be produced.
Maximal tension occurs when thick and thin filaments overlap to the greatest degree within a sarcomere. If a sarcomere at rest is stretched past an ideal resting length, thick and thin filaments do not overlap to the greatest degree so fewer cross-bridges can form. This results in fewer myosin heads pulling on actin and less muscle tension. As a sarcomere shortens, the zone of overlap reduces as the thin filaments reach the H zone, which is composed of myosin tails. Because myosin heads form cross-bridges, actin will not bind to myosin in this zone, reducing the tension produced by the myofiber. If the sarcomere is shortened even more, thin filaments begin to overlap with each other, reducing cross-bridge formation even further, and producing even less tension. Conversely, if the sarcomere is stretched to the point at which thick and thin filaments do not overlap at all, no cross-bridges are formed and no tension is produced. This amount of stretching does not usually occur because accessory proteins, internal sensory nerves, and connective tissue oppose extreme stretching.
The primary variable determining force production is the number of myofibers (long muscle cells) within the muscle that receive an action potential from the neuron that controls that fiber. When using the biceps to pick up a pencil, for example, the motor cortex of the brain only signals a few neurons of the biceps so only a few myofibers respond. In vertebrates, each myofiber responds fully if stimulated. On the other hand, when picking up a piano, the motor cortex signals all of the neurons in the biceps so that every myofiber participates. This is close to the maximum force the muscle can produce. As mentioned above, increasing the frequency of action potentials (the number of signals per second) can increase the force a bit more because the tropomyosin is flooded with calcium.
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14.15: Reading- Approaches to Global Competition
Global Marketing Strategies
U.S. firms choose to engage in international marketing for many reasons, the most attractive of which are market expansion and new profit opportunities. When a firm chooses to market internationally, it must decide whether to adjust its domestic marketing program—depending on how much centralized control a firm wishes to maintain over its marketing. If an organization wants to maintain strong centralized control and uniformity in its products and marketing activities, it is choosing a strategy called standardization . If an organization wants to adjust products, messaging, and marketing activities to fit the needs and preferences of local markets around the world, it is choosing a localization strategy. You’ll recall our earlier discussion of the unique flavors of Oreo cookies developed for the Chinese market: that’s an example of a localization strategy.
Global Standardization: The Argument for Standardized Marketing
To the extent that global consumers desire standardized products, companies can pursue a global standardization strategy. Using this approach, a product and the way in which it is marketed are largely uniform across the world, with little variation in the marketing mix from country to country. Advocates of standardization strategy argue that companies can achieve competitive advantage by offering the optimal combination of price, quality, and reliability with products that are identical in design and function throughout the world; they also claim that consumers will prefer this standardized product to a highly localized product that is also more expensive.
Standardization can translate into lower operating costs because there aren’t extra costs associated with developing and marketing unique products tailored to local market needs. It also expands the customer base receptive to a common global product. There is no need to adjust product features, naming, or other attributes for each new market, and marketing materials themselves can be repurposed across different world regions. Below are the primary benefits of a global standardization strategy:
- Marketers can use the same approach for developing, promoting, and delivering products and services worldwide, creating lower operating costs and economies of scale in product development and marketing
- The ability to develop and invest in a unified brand and/or company identity throughout the world, along with the opportunity to develop brand awareness and brand equity that give a competitive advantage
- Product lines that consist of a small number of global brands rather than a plethora of localized product brands and extensions, along with cost savings and improved efficiencies associated with managing a smaller total number of brands
Companies that pursue this approach assume that consumer needs are relatively homogenous around the world and that the same basic marketing mix will work across global markets. These organizations typically have a centralized approach to the marketing function and try to minimize the need for developing localized marketing strategies.
The case for a standardization strategy was made by Harvard marketing professor Theodore Levitt in his 1983 article “The Globalization of Markets.” He argued that technology and worldwide communications have helped trigger the emergence of global consumer markets that are receptive to single, standardized global products. According to Levitt, adopting a standardized global strategy provides a competitive advantage in cost and effectiveness.
Localization: The Argument for Localized Marketing
On the other end of the spectrum is localization strategy, in which firms adjust their products and marketing mix for each target market. Advocates of localization argue that, in reality, global standardization doesn’t work, and in fact nearly all exported products require one or more adaptations to be successful. In work by Kotler, one study found that 80 percent of U.S. exports require one or more adaptations, and the average product requires at least four to five adaptations out of eleven different elements: labeling, packaging, materials, colors, name, product features, advertising themes, media, execution, price, and sales promotion.
Localization strategy recognizes that diversity exists in global markets and that marketers need to understand and respond to this diversity in the goods they offer and the way they market to consumers in these markets. Language, culture, customs, the physical environment, the degree of economic development, societal institutions, and other factors all contribute to how well a product fits a local market’s needs. Localization may involve: 1) altering existing products to fit the needs of the local target market, or 2) creating completely new products to fit the needs of the local target market.
Although localization does increase the cost and complexity associated with developing and marketing tailored products, its supporters argue that it results in products and marketing strategy that are a better fit for local market needs and ultimately a greater sales success. A localized approach can protect companies from high-profile, disastrous consequences when a standardized product fails. Standardization is often responsible for marketing misfires like offensive marketing images, catastrophic naming, and product-design glitches. Its critics argue that standardization strategy overestimates how well any single, uniform product and marketing approach will succeed in markets all over the world.
The Middle Ground: Blending Standardization and Localization
In reality, global marketing is not an either/or proposition requiring either full standardization or completely localized control of product and marketing. In fact, a successful global approach can fall anywhere on a spectrum–from tight worldwide coordination on marketing program details to loose agreements on product ideas. Most organizations find that flexibility is essential in order to allow organizations to capitalize global opportunities available to them. The right answer for each business depends on organizational structure, leadership and operations; the product category; the markets in question; and other factors. Both strategies offer attractive benefits as well as costs and risks. Most organizations find ways to balance the options available to them with a focus on how to maximize success in their target markets.
Global Segmentation Strategies
Closely related to the issue of standardization vs. localization is the question of global segmentation strategy. How marketers segment and market to consumers in global markets is inextricably tied to whether products and marketing are uniform across multiple world regions or whether they are localized to individual countries, regions, or markets.
Global marketers use the same principles and processes outlined in the Segmentation and Targeting module to evaluate where there is greater potential and market opportunity for their products and services. They work to answer the same set of fundamental questions that domestic marketers do, using the broader world as their frame of reference:
- To whom should I be marketing?
- Why them ?
- How can I reach them most effectively?
To develop a segmentation and targeting strategy, global marketers may use the common segmentation approaches employed by domestic marketers but with an eye on how these characteristics shape consumers within and beyond national boundaries and world regions. These characteristics include the following:
- Demographics: Gender, age distribution, ethnicity, income, socioeconomic status, family size
- Geography: Geographic location, world region, climate, urban/suburban/rural orientation
- Psychographics: Lifestyle, attitudes, social class
- Behavioral: Purchasing occasions, user status, brand loyalty, readiness to buy and other behavioral patterns that drive consumer decisions
- Decision maker: Who makes buying decisions for which types of goods and services? Who influences these decisions?
Additionally, global marketers also consider the following factors in segmentation and targeting:
- Culture: The interplay between language, religion, education, values, identity, history, and traditions
- Economic status: Stage of economic development, wealthy vs. poor nations, employment, GDP
- Social environment: Conditions and operational stability for business, government, politics, the legal system, health care, education, and other societal support structures
A naive view of global marketing assumes that all consumers within a country or world region are homogenous and can be reached effectively through a uniform approach targeting the entire geographic area. In fact, just as in the U.S., not all consumers within a country or region are the same. While they have some things in common, they also have different characteristics, needs, and preferences that drive their purchasing decisions. It is important to recognize these differences and evaluate what they represent in terms of potential market segments and growth opportunities.
When considering global marketing opportunities, it’s also important for marketers to look for characteristics, interests, needs, and buying behaviors they can use to define segments that transcend national boundaries. For example, some marketing targets a “global youth” segment comprised of young people from around the world who are educated, technologically connected, follow global trends in music and culture, and seek opportunities for travel and cultural exchange.
Because global marketing and expansion carry inherent risk, global segmentation and targeting decisions should also reflect the following factors:
- Market size and growth potential: What is the customer base and revenue potential today? How might this change in the future?
- Competition: What competitors and alternatives exist in the market? How crowded is the competitive field? Who are the current players, what is their market position, and what would it take to displace them?
- Compatibility: Are the new market and target segments well aligned with the organization’s goals, plans, and strategies? How much of a stretch is it to capture this new market? Does the potential gain justify the added risk, cost, and complexity?
Contributors and Attributions
- Revision and adaptation. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Introduction to Global Marketing. Provided by : Lumen Learning. Located at : courses.candelalearning.com/principlesmktg1x2kscope/chapter/13-1-introduction-to-global-marketing/. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Global Marketing: Points of Controversy. Provided by : Lumen Learning. Located at : courses.candelalearning.com/principlesmktg1x2kscope/chapter/global-marketing-points-of-controversy/. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- IMG_3639.JPG. Authored by : Shoko Muraguchi. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/shok/1794713372/ . License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
- How Did These Hipsters Get Here?. Authored by : Betty Tsang. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/bettytsang/3231176585/ . License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives


7.6A: Processing of tRNAs and rRNAs
- Describe how pre-rRNAs and pre-tRNAs are processed into mature rRNAs and tRNAs.
The tRNAs and rRNAs are structural molecules that have roles in protein synthesis; however, these RNAs are not themselves translated. In eukaryotes, pre-rRNAs are transcribed, processed, and assembled into ribosomes in the nucleolus, while pre-tRNAs are transcribed and processed in the nucleus and then released into the cytoplasm where they are linked to free amino acids for protein synthesis.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
The four rRNAs in eukaryotes are first transcribed as two long precursor molecules. One contains just the pre-rRNA that will be processed into the 5S rRNA; the other spans the 28S, 5.8S, and 18S rRNAs. Enzymes then cleave the precursors into subunits corresponding to each rRNA. In bacteria, there are only three rRNAs and all are transcribed in one long precursor molecule that is cleaved into the individual rRNAs. Some of the bases of pre-rRNAs are methylated for added stability. Mature rRNAs make up 50-60% of each ribosome. Some of a ribosome’s RNA molecules are purely structural, whereas others have catalytic or binding activities.
The eukaryotic ribosome is composed of two subunits: a large subunit (60S) and a small subunit (40S). The 60S subunit is composed of the 28S rRNA, 5.8S rRNA, 5S rRNA, and 50 proteins. The 40S subunit is composed of the 18S rRNA and 33 proteins. The bacterial ribosome is composed of two similar subunits, with slightly different components. The bacterial large subunit is called the 50S subunit and is composed of the 23S rRNA, 5S rRNA, and 31 proteins, while the bacterial small subunit is called the 30S subunit and is composed of the 16S rRNA and 21 proteins.
The two subunits join to constitute a functioning ribosome that is capable of creating proteins.
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Each different tRNA binds to a specific amino acid and transfers it to the ribosome. Mature tRNAs take on a three-dimensional structure through intramolecular basepairing to position the amino acid binding site at one end and the anticodon in an unbasepaired loop of nucleotides at the other end. The anticodon is a three-nucleotide sequence, unique to each different tRNA, that interacts with a messenger RNA (mRNA) codon through complementary base pairing.
There are different tRNAs for the 21 different amino acids. Most amino acids can be carried by more than one tRNA.
.
In all organisms, tRNAs are transcribed in a pre-tRNA form that requires multiple processing steps before the mature tRNA is ready for use in translation. In bacteria, multiple tRNAs are often transcribed as a single RNA. The first step in their processing is the digestion of the RNA to release individual pre-tRNAs. In archaea and eukaryotes, each pre-tRNA is transcribed as a separate transcript.
The processing to convert the pre-tRNA to a mature tRNA involves five steps.
1. The 5′ end of the pre-tRNA, called the 5′ leader sequence, is cleaved off.
2. The 3′ end of the pre-tRNA is cleaved off.
3. In all eukaryote pre-tRNAs, but in only some bacterial and archaeal pre-tRNAs, a CCA sequence of nucleotides is added to the 3′ end of the pre-tRNA after the original 3′ end is trimmed off. Some bacteria and archaea pre-tRNAs already have the CCA encoded in their transcript immediately upstream of the 3′ cleavage site, so they don’t need to add one. The CCA at the 3′ end of the mature tRNA will be the site at which the tRNA’s amino acid will be added.
4. Multiple nucleotides in the pre-tRNA are chemically modified, altering their nitorgen bases. On average about 12 nucleotides are modified per tRNA. The most common modifications are the conversion of adenine (A) to pseudouridine (ψ), the conversion of adenine to inosine (I), and the conversion of uridine to dihydrouridine (D). But over 100 other modifications can occur.
5. A significant number of eukaryotic and archaeal pre-tRNAs have introns that have to be spliced out. Introns are rarer in bacterial pre-tRNAs, but do occur occasionally and are spliced out.
After processing, the mature pre-tRNA is ready to have its cognate amino acid attached. The cognate amino acid for a tRNA is the one specified by its anticodon. Attaching this amino acid is called charging the tRNA. In eukaryotes, the mature tRNA is generated in the nucleus, and then exported to the cytoplasm for charging.
Processing of a pre-tRNA. : A typical pre-tRNA undergoing processing steps to generate a mature tRNA ready to have its cognate amino acid attached. Nucleotides that are cleaved away are shown in green. Chemically-modified nucleotides are in yellow, as is the CAA trinucleotide that is added to the 3′ end of the pre-tRNA during processing. The anticodon nucleotides are shown in a lighter shade of red.
Key Points
- Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a structural molecule that makes up over half of the mass of a ribosome and aids in protein synthesis.
- Transfer RNA (tRNA) recognizes a codon on mRNA and brings the appropriate amino acid to that site.
- rRNAs are processed from larger pre-rRNAs by trimming the larger rRNAs down and methylating some of the nucleotides.
- tRNAs are processed from pre-tRNAs by trimming both ends of the pre-tRNA, adding a CCA trinucleotide to the 3′ end, if needed, removing any introns present, and chemically modified 12 nucleotides on average per tRNA.
Key Terms
- anticodon : a sequence of three nucleotides in transfer RNA that binds to the complementary triplet (codon) in messenger RNA, specifying an amino acid during protein synthesis


1.7.6: End-of-Chapter Material
-
- Last updated
- Save as PDF
Key takeaways for this Chapter
- Both alcohol and tobacco increase your risk of disease
- A drink is considered 12-ounces of beer, 5-ounces of wine, or 1.5-ounces of 80-proof liquor
- BAC, Blood Alcohol Concentration, measures how much alcohol is in the blood.
- People should avoid binge drinking and heavy drinking.
- Nicotine is the drug in tobacco.
- Secondhand smoke is harmful to non-smokers.
References
- Mitchell, R. A., Rathi, S., Dahiya, M., Zhu, J., Hussaini, T., & Yoshida, E. M. (2020). Public awareness of acetaminophen and risks of drug induced liver injury: Results of a large outpatient clinic survey. PLoS ONE, 15(3), 1–9. https://doi-org.ezproxy.palomar.edu/...l.pone.0229070 07: Alcohol and Tobacco#return-footnote-35-1
- Cummings, K. M., & Proctor, R. N. (2014). The changing public image of smoking in the United States: 1964-2014. Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive Oncology, 23(1), 32–36. https://doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-13-0798 07: Alcohol and Tobacco#return-footnote-35-2
- National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (U.S.). Office on Smoking and Health (2014). Let's make the next generation tobacco-free : your guide to the 50th anniversary Surgeon General’s Report on Smoking and Health Corporate https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/21587 07: Alcohol and Tobacco#return-footnote-35-3
- Hartmann-Boyce J, McRobbieH, ButlerAR, LindsonN, BullenC, BeghR, TheodoulouA, NotleyC, RigottiNA, TurnerT, FanshaweTR, HajekP.Electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2021, Issue 9. Art. No.: CD010216. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD010216.pub6. 07: Alcohol and Tobacco#return-footnote-35-4


30.9: Practice Exercises
30.9 Practice Exercises
Species Counterpoint: Day One
First and Second Species Exercises
1.
For each exercise below, write first species (note-against-note) counterpoint. Write the intervallic distance from the cantus firmus (“ c.f. ”) to the counterpoint in the blanks above the staff. Remember to begin and end with an octave or unison, to proceed to the last unison by step in both voices, and use only consonances (1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10).
Answer.
2.
For the exercises below, write second species counterpoint—two half notes in each measure except the last. Each downbeat must be a consonance. The only dissonance allowed is the passing tone. Write the intervallic distance from the cantus firmus (“ c.f. ”) to the counterpoint in the blanks above the staff. Circle all dissonant numbers (2, 4, and 7) and label passing tones with “pt.”
Answer.
Species Counterpoint: Day Two
3.
For each exercise below, write third species counterpoint (quarter notes). Circle all dissonant interval numbers and label passing tones and cambiata figures.
Answer.
4.
For each exercise below, write fourth species counterpoint (suspensions and syncopations). Circle all dissonant interval numbers and label suspensions with “sus” and syncopations with “sync.”
Answer.
Invention Expositions
5.
Complete these invention expositions by following the I–I–V–V–I harmonic pattern and transposing and modifying the theme accordingly.
Answer.
Fugue Analysis
6.
For this fugue from the second Kyrie eleison of Bach's Mass in B Minor (BWV 232), specify formal sections (expositions and episodes), motives (subject, answer, countersubjects, and fragments thereof), and key areas for expositions only in the table below. This fugue contains more “counterpoint” (material not derived for subjects or countersubjects) than the C minor fugue in the body of the text.
| FORM | ||||||||
| SOPRANO | ||||||||
| ALTO | ||||||||
| TENOR | ||||||||
| BASS | ||||||||
| KEY | ||||||||
| Meas. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | ||||
| l | ||||||||
| FORM | ||||||||
| SOPRANO | ||||||||
| ALTO | ||||||||
| TENOR | ||||||||
| BASS | ||||||||
| KEY | ||||||||
| Meas. | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | ||||
| l | ||||||||
| FORM | ||||||||
| SOPRANO | ||||||||
| ALTO | ||||||||
| TENOR | ||||||||
| BASS | ||||||||
| KEY | ||||||||
| Meas. | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | ||||
| l | ||||||||
| FORM | ||||||||
| SOPRANO | ||||||||
| ALTO | ||||||||
| TENOR | ||||||||
| BASS | ||||||||
| KEY | ||||||||
| Meas. | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | ||||
| l | ||||||||
| FORM | ||||||||
| SOPRANO | ||||||||
| ALTO | ||||||||
| TENOR | ||||||||
| BASS | ||||||||
| KEY | ||||||||
| Meas. | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 |
Answer.
Click here to download the first homework assignment for this chapter.
Click here to download the second homework assignment for this chapter.
Click here to download the third homework assignment for this chapter.
Click here to download the fourth homework assignment for this chapter.
Click here to download the fifth homework assignment for this chapter.
Click here to download the Unit 10 Practice Test.
PDF versions of the textbook, homework exercises, and practice exercises can be found at
musictheory.pugetsound.edu


Learning Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn to:
-
Compare the frequency content of an ERP waveform with the frequency response function of a filter to predict how well the filter will attenuate the noise in the data
-
Determine the
impulse response function
of a filter and conceptualize filtering as a process that replaces each point in the unfiltered waveform with a scaled copy of this function
-
Think of an ERP waveform as a series of
impulses
, one at each time point
-
Predict how a filter will distort an ERP waveform on the basis of the filter’s impulse response function
-
Select filter parameters that provide the best balance between noise reduction and distortion of the waveform
-
Create artificial waveforms and filter them to see how a filter might be distorting your data
You
must
use filters in ERP experiments. At a minimum, your amplifier includes an
antialiasing
filter that must be used prior to digitizing the EEG. In almost all ERP experiments, additional filtering is important for reducing sources of noise that would otherwise create large measurement error and reduce your statistical power. However, when filters are misused, they can dramatically distort your data, leading to incorrect conclusions. As a result, it’s vitally important that you understand how filters work and the conditions under which they can produce significant distortion of your ERP waveforms.
For most ERP researchers, there is no topic more boring than filtering. At the core of filtering is a mathematical operation called
convolution
. Even the word “convolution” sounds complicated and boring!
However, you can get a reasonable understanding of filtering by seeing how convolution works visually, without ever seeing an equation. This chapter takes you through a set of exercises that will show you how convolutions are used for filtering without any equations. If you want a more detailed description of filtering, you should read Chapter 7 in Luck (2014). If you want to understand the math, you can read Chapter 12 in Luck (2014), which is
available for free online
.


11.1: Abstract
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Conventional analysis and interpretation of inscriptions and associated images often focus on their status as finished objects, with less attention being devoted to image ‘life histories’, particularly the creative processes involved in physical expression. The aim of this chapter is to explore the unfolding of written culture across time–space in relation to particular material media and the implications of their transformations for the role of inscribed objects. For its basis, this inquiry grapples with evidence from the lower Nile Valley during the Late Predynastic–Early Dynastic periods (c.3300 / 3100–2800 / 2770 bce), including perforated bone, ivory and wooden plaques or ‘labels’, stone vessels, and funerary stelae from cemetery contexts, with particular focus on the Upper Egyptian site of Abydos. Tool and other marks on these objects provide detailed insight into sequences of technical action involved in the writing process. However, I move beyond a general consideration of the writing act to focus on different degrees of un-making and partial making, as well as episodes of adjustment, addition, and possible re-making. Whole compositions and parts thereof are obliterated through vigorous scratching or scraping away while some are scored or crossed out. Yet other images are tidily removed. Additions may be made after initial inscription using different or similar writing tools and techniques. In at least one case, the drafting phase appears complete while the subsequent carving remains unfinished. Drawing on the notion of chaîne opératoire and practice theory, including structuration, I examine these secondary and other transformations and consider their implications for maker intention and choice, and object function and meaning. In contrast to notions of writing as enduring and transcendent, embodied in terms such as ‘record’ or ‘source’, a material practice approach prompts consideration of the ways in which writing and related symbolic modes may be unstable. Based on the form, content and modes of expression, as well as spatial and temporal distribution, Egypt’s earliest script was clearly bound up with the development of the Egyptian state, playing an important role in high status funerary practice. However, despite the centralisation and increasing standardisation of scribal and artistic activities, the ways in which the writing ‘system’ was practised on more local and individual levels could be variable and contingent.
How to cite this book chapter:
Piquette, K. E. 2013. “It Is Written”?: Making, remaking and unmaking early ‘writing’ in the lower Nile Valley. In: Piquette, K. E. and Whitehouse, R. D. (eds.)
Writing as Material Practice: Substance, surface and medium.
Pp. 213-238. London: Ubiquity Press. DOI: http:// dx.doi.org/10.5334/bai.k


14: Instructional Assessment- Involving Students in the Assessment Process Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 87640 Jennfer Kidd, Jamie Kaufman, Peter Baker, Patrick O'Shea, Dwight Allen, & Old Dominion U students Old Dominion University 14.1: What is locus of control? How is it related to student achievement and assessment? 14.2: What are the benefits of students as self-regulated learners? 14.3: How can we help students set goals and monitor their own learning? 14.4: How can early elementary students be involved in the assessment process? 14.5: How can upper elementary students be involved in the assessment process? 14.6: How can secondary students be involved in the assessment process? 14.7: When is peer reviewing effective? 14.8: Can and should students grade each other?


17.10.12: Links to Primary Sources
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The Aztecs and the Making of Colonial Mexico
http://publications.newberry.org/aztecs/
Maya Hieroglyphic Writing: The Ancient Codices
http://www.famsi.org/mayawriting/codices/index.html
Popul Vuh: Creation account of the Quiché Mayan People
http://www.mesoweb.com/publications/Christenson/PV-Literal.pdf
Moche Decorated Ceramics
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/moch/hd_moch.htm
Tiwanaku
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/567
Nazca
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/700
Machu Picchu
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/274
Chaco Canyon
https://www.nps.gov/museum/exhibits/chcu/index1.html
Hopewell Ceremonial Earthworks
http://worldheritageohio.org/hopewell-ceremonial-earthworks/
Cahokia Mounds
http://cahokiamounds.org/explore/


3.E: Work and Energy (Exercise)
Conceptual Questions
4.1: Work- The Scientific Definition
1. Give an example of something we think of as work in everyday circumstances that is not work in the scientific sense. Is energy transferred or changed in form in your example? If so, explain how this is accomplished without doing work.
2. Give an example of a situation in which there is a force and a displacement, but the force does no work. Explain why it does no work.
3. Describe a situation in which a force is exerted for a long time but does no work. Explain.
4.2: Kinetic Energy and the Work-Energy Theorem
4. The person in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) does work on the lawn mower. Under what conditions would the mower gain energy? Under what conditions would it lose energy?
5. Work done on a system puts energy into it. Work done by a system removes energy from it. Give an example for each statement.
6. When solving for speed in Example 4.2.3, we kept only the positive root. Why?
4.3: Gravitational Potential Energy
7. In Example 4.3.2, we calculated the final speed of a roller coaster that descended 20 m in height and had an initial speed of 5 m/s downhill. Suppose the roller coaster had had an initial speed of 5 m/s uphill instead, and it coasted uphill, stopped, and then rolled back down to a final point 20 m below the start. We would find in that case that it had the same final speed. Explain in terms of conservation of energy.
8. Does the work you do on a book when you lift it onto a shelf depend on the path taken? On the time taken? On the height of the shelf? On the mass of the book?
4.4: Conservative Forces, Potential Energy, and Conservation of Energy
9. What is a conservative force?
10. The force exerted by a diving board is conservative, provided the internal friction is negligible. Assuming friction is negligible, describe changes in the potential energy of a diving board as a swimmer dives from it, starting just before the swimmer steps on the board until just after his feet leave it.
11. Define mechanical energy. What is the relationship of mechanical energy to nonconservative forces? What happens to mechanical energy if only conservative forces act?
12. What is the relationship of potential energy to conservative force?
13. Consider the following scenario. A car for which friction is not negligible accelerates from rest down a hill, running out of gasoline after a short distance. The driver lets the car coast farther down the hill, then up and over a small crest. He then coasts down that hill into a gas station, where he brakes to a stop and fills the tank with gasoline. Identify the forms of energy the car has, and how they are changed and transferred in this series of events. (See Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\).)
14. Describe the energy transfers and transformations for a javelin, starting from the point at which an athlete picks up the javelin and ending when the javelin is stuck into the ground after being thrown
15. List four different forms or types of energy. Give one example of a conversion from each of these forms to another form.
16. List the energy conversions that occur when riding a bicycle.
4.6: Power
18. Most electrical appliances are rated in watts. Does this rating depend on how long the appliance is on? (When off, it is a zero-watt device.) Explain in terms of the definition of power.
19. Explain, in terms of the definition of power, why energy consumption is sometimes listed in kilowatt-hours rather than joules. What is the relationship between these two energy units?
20. A spark of static electricity, such as that you might receive from a doorknob on a cold dry day, may carry a few hundred watts of power. Explain why you are not injured by such a spark.


3.3.4: Warrant – How Do Your Reasons Support Your Claim? Five Essential Parts of an Argument
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Five Essential Parts of an Argument
Read article on the parts of an argument, especially warrants. How do warrants differ from reasons and evidence?
Why Does Little Red Schoolhouse (LRS) View Writing as Argument?
When we disagree about an issue, care deeply about an outcome, or try to convince others of the validity of our approach, we often resort to argument. Argument as it is depicted on television and experienced in times of stress or conflict carries with it many negative connotations of anger, high emotion, and even irrationality. But each of us also makes arguments every day, and in settings that help us become more rational, better informed, and more clearly understood.
Arguments help us to gather information from our own experience and that of others, to make judgments based on evidence, and to marshal information toward sound conclusions. Argument is appropriate when we seek understanding or agreement, when we want to solve a problem or answer a question, and when we want others to act or think in ways we deem beneficial, suitable, or necessary. Argument also comes in handy when we seek to convince, persuade, or produce change in our audience, and when circumstances require trust, respect, belief in our evidence or agreement with our reasoning.
Argument is everywhere – on television and radio, in politics and publications, and also in our day-to-day decisions about what to have for dinner, when to schedule the next meeting, and who should walk the family dog. As Colomb and Williams point out, the common notion that argument must be combative is built into our very language: opposing sides attack, defend, hold off, triumph, struggle, crush objections and slaughter competitors. On the other hand, in order to use argument as productive and collaborative communication, we must certainly find a way to transcend the vocabulary of argument-as-war. We must negotiate the audience's needs along with the speaker's agenda.
Argument is also about conversation. Although sometimes we forget, the best arguments are a forum for:
- Obtaining and expressing information;
- Airing and sharing assumptions and reasons;
- Establishing common ground;
- Coming to mutual agreement.
Productive argumentation starts with a problem. It makes us realize why we have an interest in seeing that problem solved. It also claims a solution, convincing its audience of the validity of that solution with evidence and reasons that it will accept.
Writing and Argument
The Little Red Schoolhouse (LRS) focus on argumentation raises writers' and readers' awareness of:
- The importance of audience;
- The intersecting languages of information and persuasion; and
- The reading process through which we share the tasks of critical thinking and decision-making.
Argument structure also helps writers to avoid:
- The formulaic "five paragraph essay" that is often assigned in high school ("Scientific progress is good. Here are several reasons why scientific progress is good. In conclusion, scientific progress is good.");
- The default structure of chronological order (First I set up the lab, then I opened my notebook, then performed the first step in my experiment…);
- Simple summary with no so what; and
- Binary structures where two issues or ideas are described without connection to each other.
Preparing Your Argument
To prepare to make an effective argument you must first:
- Translate your topic into a problem statement;
- Frame a situation that is debatable or contestable;
- Formulate a question about which reasonable people might disagree; and
- Find a claim your analysis has led you to assert.
Now you can begin to imagine what it will take to convince your audience. What evidence, methods, or models do they expect? What conventions must you follow to win approval?
Sketch Your Approach
- What do you want to show?
- Why should readers agree?
- Based on what evidence?
- What are some possible alternatives or objections?
- What conclusion will you offer, and why should your readers accept it as valuable?
The Five Parts of Argument
The questions that lead to your topic, broadly conceived, also steer you toward what The Craft of Argument formalizes in the five parts of argument.
- Claim;
- Reason;
- Evidence;
- Warrant;
- Acknowledgment and Response.
These Correspond to the Williams' and Colomb's Five Questions of Argument:
- What are you claiming?
- What reasons do you have for believing your claim?
- What evidence do you base those reasons on?
- What principle connects or makes your reasons relevant to your claims?
- What about such-and-such potential disagreement/difficulty?
Constructing Claims
We learn that, at bottom, an argument is just a claim and its support:
Reason therefore Claim
or
Claim because of Reason.
Your claim is your main point. It should either be clearly conceptual (seeking to change how we think) or clearly pragmatic (seeking to change how we act). Claims should, by definition, require good reasons. Audiences should be able to disagree with your claim and, by extension, to be convinced and converted by your evidence.
More about Claims
- Make sure your readers can recognize why your claim is significant.
- Ensure that your claim is clear and concise. Readers should be able to tell what is at stake and what principles you intend to use to argue your point.
- Confirm that the claim accurately describes the main tenets of the argument to follow.
- Moderate your claim with appropriate qualifiers like "many", "most", "often", in place of "all", "always", etc.
Evaluating Good Claims
- Your solution is possible.
- Your solution is ethical (moral, legal, fair, etc.).
- Your solution is prudent – it takes into consideration both the problem you seek to resolve and the possible ramifications of your proposal.
Reasons and Evidence
Most arguers know from experience that reasons and evidence help to convince audiences. In the simplest terms, reasons answer the question: "Why are you making that claim?" Evidence offers tangible support for reasons.
When stating reasons, always be aware of your audience. You will need to choose the reasons that support your evidence that are also the most likely to convince your specific readers or listeners. Knowing the general values and priorities of your readers will help you to determine what they will count as compelling reasons.
Knowing what kind of arguments and evidence they will expect from you will guide you in choosing reasons that meet those expectations.
Tailor your appeal to the specific needs and acknowledged concerns of your reading community, because arguments are always audience specific.
Evidence should be reliable and based upon authoritative and trustworthy research and sources. It should be appropriately cited, and ample enough to convince. Evidence should also be designed to appeal to your target audience's values and priorities.
When Arguing through Evidence
- Present evidence from general to specific.
- Build on what readers know.
- Do not rehearse your own work process; instead, support your conclusions.
- Use diagrams, graphs, and other visuals.
- Keep support appropriate and simple.
- Make sure data is authoritative/expert.
- Help the audience to know what is important.
Warrants
The words reason and evidence are much more familiar to most students of written and oral argument than the term warrant. But reasons and evidence are most powerful when they are utilized within the structure of argument we have been discussing.
To be convincing, the reasons and evidence you present in support of your claim need to be connected through warrants. Warrants express a general belief or principle in a way that influences or explains our judgments in specific cases.
Take, for example, the old saying: "Measure twice, cut once".
Expressing as it does a general belief or principle – that when you take the time to do a thing properly, you don't make mistakes – the saying provides a viable warrant for an argument like:
"It is never a good idea to hurry a task. [Reason] [Connected by the beliefs and assumptions expressed by the warrant to the supporting evidence that] Careless mistakes take longer to fix than it would to do things right the first time." [Evidence]
Warrants express justifying principles, shared beliefs, or general assumptions. They are the spoken or unspoken logic that connects your reasons to your evidence. Warrants take many forms, but Williams and Colomb emphasize that they always have or imply two parts:
- One articulating a general belief or circumstance.
- One stating a conclusion we can infer from applying that circumstance to a specific situation.
Warrants often take the form: Whenever X, then Y. For example, take the commonly held belief expressed by the old saying "When it rains, it pours". The same sentiment and set of assumptions could be described by the general truism "If one thing goes wrong, everything goes wrong". Whether implied or explicit, and whether it takes the form of a general observation or a cultural belief, a warrant states a broader principle that can be applied in a particular case to justify the thinking behind an argument.
More on Clear Warrants
Warrants connect your reasons to your claim in logical ways. Whether a warrant is assumed or implied, it is still crucial that the audience be able to recognize your warrant and be able to determine that they agree with or accept your warrant.
Questions for Determining Good Warrants
- Do readers know the warrant already?
- Will all readers think it is true?
- Will they see its connection to this circumstance or situation?
- If they think it is both valid and appropriate, will they think it applies to their family, corporation, or community?
Warranting: A Specific Case
Consider a case when an audience might not accept your argument unless it first accepts your warrant. Take, for example, the following discussion between a mother and her child.
Child (to mother): "I need new shoes."
Mother: "But why, what are your reasons?"
Child: "Because all the other kids have them." X
Child: "Because red is 'in' this season and my shoes are blue." X
Mother: "Sorry, but I don't accept your argument that you need new shoes."
Above all, warrants require common ground. In the example above, the success of the child's argument depends upon his mother's sharing the values and assumptions upon which the argument for new shoes is based.
Productive argument will require that the child find, and address, some common belief or assumption about what constitutes "need". While his mother might not be influenced by peer pressure or style trends, she probably does share a set of values that would ultimately lead to agreement (Common Ground).
Consider a situation in which the child's previous reasons had not convinced his mother to accept his argument, and we can see how compelling reasons and evidence can be developed alongside shared warrants.
Child: "I need new shoes because these ones have holes in them and it's the rainy season." √
Mother: "Well why didn't you say so?! I agree that you shouldn't be walking around with wet feet!"
We are most likely to accept an argument when we share a warrant. In this case, it is unstated, but implied:
Warrant = When shoes no longer protect the feet from stones and weather, it is time to buy new ones.
There is another way to look at warrants that don't necessarily fit a certain mold. If you believe in a general principle stated about general circumstances (for example, "People who fall asleep at work probably aren't getting enough sleep at home".), then you are likely to link a specific instance (of nodding off at your computer) with a specific conclusion (that you haven't gotten adequate rest). Warrants here can be defined as general truths that lead us to accepted conclusions.
Acknowledgment and Response
Acknowledgment and response can be included in your argument in order to:
- Produce trust;
- Mediate or moderate objections;
- Limit the scope of your claim;
- Demonstrate experience or immersion in a wider field or discipline.
Brainstorm useful concessions to potential dissenters by thinking about the difficulties or questions your argument is likely to produce. Within your argument, acknowledgements and responses often begin with: To be sure, admittedly, some have claimed, etc.
Concessions allow the writer to predict problems that might weaken an argument and respond with rebuttals and reassessments. Acknowledgement and response frequently employs terms like but, however, on the other hand, etc.
 Ask yourself: Does the claim still introduce and frame the discussion that follows? Are there elements of the claim that need to be revised? Built upon? Eliminated? Explained?
Think:
- Is your claim clear and concise?
- Is it contestable?
- Is there good evidence for your solution?
- Will your audience agree?
Evaluate and Revise Reasons
Consider the specific needs and perspectives of your audience and select reasons that will connect to their priorities and motivations. Make sure that you provide ample reasons for each claim or subclaim you assert. Order your reasons in a way that is logical and compelling: Depending on your argument, you may want to lead with your best reason or save your strongest reason for last. Finally, ask yourself whether any essential evidence is missing from your discussion of the problem.
Think:
- Do your reasons make a strong case for the validity of your claim?
- Can you imagine other reasons that would appeal more strongly to your audience?
Assess and Improve Evidence
If there are authorities to appeal to, experts who agree, or compelling facts that support your argument, make sure you have included them in full. Whether you are speaking from experience, research, or reading, make sure to situate yourself firmly in your field. Create confidence in your authority and establish the trustworthiness of your account.
- Have you consulted reputable sources?
- Have you conducted your research and formatted your findings according to accepted standards?
Think:
- What does your audience need to know to appreciate the solution you propose?
- What makes it easy or difficult to accept?
- What further support might you offer?
Scrutinize Your Warrants
If you can't articulate the connection between what you claim and why you believe the audience should accept your assertion, your readers probably can't either! Good warrants often take the form of assumptions shared by individuals, communities or organizations. They stem from a shared culture, experience, or perspective. If understanding your claim means sharing a particular set of beliefs or establishing common ground with your reader, make sure your argument takes time to do so.
Think:
- Can your audience easily connect your claim to your reasons?
- Are your warrants shared? Explicit? Implied?
- What unspoken agreements do your conclusions depend upon?
Concede and Explain
Gracefully acknowledge potential objections when it can produce trust and reinforce the fairness and authority of your perspective. Try to anticipate the difficulties that different types of readers might have with your evidence or reasoning
Think:
- Where are my readers most likely to object or feel unsettled?
- How can I concede potential problems while still advancing the authority of my claim?
Assessing and Revising Your Argument
By way of conclusion, we can revisit the issue of method. Little Red Schoolhouse (LRS) encourages thinking about the parts of argument in order to produce logic that is
- Easy to understand, and
- Easy to acknowledge or accept.
Argument structures comprehension by giving readers a framework within which to understand a given discussion. Argument supplies criteria for judgment, and connects reasons with claims through implicit or explicit warrants. Sometimes, crafting a good argument is as simple as asking yourself three basic questions:
- What do you want to say?
- Why should readers care?
- Why should readers agree?
When you set about answering these questions using the five parts of argument, you will hone introductions and thesis statements to make clear and precise claims, make relevant costs and benefits explicit, and connect reasons and evidence through shared and compelling warrants.
Examples taken or adapted from:
- Williams, J. (2005). Style: Ten Lessons in Clarity and Grace. (8th ed.). New York: Pearson.
- Williams, J., Colomb, G. (2003). The Craft of Argument. (Concise ed.). New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.


1.2: Defining Communication Study
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When we tell others that we teach Communication, people often ask questions like, “Do you teach radio and television?” “Do you teach public speaking?” “Do you do news broadcasts?” “Do you work with computers?” “Do you study Public Relations?” “Is that Journalism or Mass Communication?” But, the most common question we get is, “What is that?” It’s interesting that most people will tell us they know what communication is, but they do not have a clear understanding of what it is Communication scholars study and teach in our academic discipline. In fact, many professors in other departments on our campus also ask us what it is we study and teach. If you’re a Communication major, you’ve probably been asked the same question, and like us, may have had a hard time answering it succinctly. If you memorize the definition below, you will have a quick and simple answer to those who ask you what you study as a Communication major.
Bruce Smith, Harold Lasswell, and Ralph D. Casey provided a good and simple answer to the question, “What is Communication study?” They state that, communication study is an academic field whose primary focus is “who says what, through what channels (media) of communication, to whom, [and] what will be the results.”
Although they gave this explanation almost 70 years ago, to this day it succinctly describes the focus of Communication scholars and professionals. As professors and students of Communication, we extensively examine the various forms and outcomes of human communication. On its website, the National Communication Association (NCA), states that communication study “focuses on how people use messages to generate meanings within and across various contexts, cultures, channels and media. The discipline promotes the effective and ethical practice of human communication.” They go on to say, “ Communication is a diverse discipline which includes inquiry by social scientists, humanists, and critical and cultural studies scholars. ” Now, if people ask you what you’re studying in a Communication class, you have an answer!
In this course we will use Smith, Lasswell, and Casey’s definition to guide how we discuss the content in this book. Part I of this book sets the foundation by explaining the historical development of the Communication discipline, exploring the “what” and “channels” (verbal and nonverbal communication), and presenting the “whom” and “results” (theories and research methods). Before we get into those chapters, it is important for you to know how we define the actual term “communication” to give you context for our discussion of it throughout the book.


2: Statistics - Part 2
Graphical descriptions of data are important. However, many times we want to have a number to help describe a data set. As an example, in baseball a pitcher is considered good if he has a low number of earned runs per nine innings. A baseball hitter is considered good if he has a high batting average. These numbers tell us a great deal about a player. There are similar numbers in other sports such as percentage of field goals made in basketball. There are also similar numbers in other aspects of life. If you want to know how much money you will make when you graduate from college and are employed in your chosen field, you could look at the average salary that someone with your degree earns. If you want to know if you can afford to purchase a home, you could look at the median price of homes in the area. To understand how to find this information, we need to look at the different numerical descriptive statistics that exist out there.
Numerical Descriptive Statistics: These are numbers that are calculated from the sample and are used to describe or estimate the population parameter.
Statistics that we can calculate are proportion, location of center (average), measures of spread (variability), and percentiles. There are other numbers, but these are the ones that we will concentrate on in this book.
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- 2.4: The Normal Distribution
- There is a special symmetric shaped distribution called the normal distribution. It is high in the middle and then goes down quickly and equally on both ends. It looks like a bell, so sometimes it is called a bell curve. One property of the normal distribution is that it is symmetric about the mean. Another property has to do with what percentage of the data falls within certain standard deviations of the mean.
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- 2.5: Correlation and Causation, Scatter Plots
- There are many studies that exist that show that two variables are related to one another. The strength of a relationship between two variables is called correlation. Variables that are strongly related to each other have strong correlation. However, if two variables are correlated it does not mean that one variable caused the other variable to occur.