3.4.1: Molecular Shape
Learning Objectives
- Predict the structures of small molecules using valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory
Thus far, we have used two-dimensional Lewis structures to represent molecules. However, molecular structure is actually three-dimensional, and it is important to be able to describe molecular bonds in terms of their distances, angles, and relative arrangements in space (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). A bond angle is the angle between any two bonds that include a common atom, usually measured in degrees. A bond distance (or bond length) is the distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms along the straight line joining the nuclei. Bond distances are measured in Ångstroms (1 Å = 10 –10 m) or picometers (1 pm = 10 –12 m, 100 pm = 1 Å).
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Bond distances (lengths) and angles are shown for the formaldehyde molecule, H 2 CO.
VSEPR Theory
Valence shell electron-pair repulsion theory (VSEPR theory) enables us to predict the molecular structure, including approximate bond angles around a central atom, of a molecule from an examination of the number of bonds and lone electron pairs in its Lewis structure. The VSEPR model assumes that electron pairs in the valence shell of a central atom will adopt an arrangement that minimizes repulsions between these electron pairs by maximizing the distance between them. The electrons in the valence shell of a central atom form either bonding pairs of electrons, located primarily between bonded atoms, or lone pairs. The electrostatic repulsion of these electrons is reduced when the various regions of high electron density assume positions as far from each other as possible.
VSEPR theory predicts the arrangement of electron pairs around each central atom and, usually, the correct arrangement of atoms in a molecule. We should understand, however, that the theory only considers electron-pair repulsions. Other interactions, such as nuclear-nuclear repulsions and nuclear-electron attractions, are also involved in the final arrangement that atoms adopt in a particular molecular structure.
As a simple example of VSEPR theory, let us predict the structure of a gaseous BeF 2 molecule. The Lewis structure of BeF 2 (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)) shows only two electron pairs around the central beryllium atom. With two bonds and no lone pairs of electrons on the central atom, the bonds are as far apart as possible, and the electrostatic repulsion between these regions of high electron density is reduced to a minimum when they are on opposite sides of the central atom. The bond angle is 180° (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)).
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): The BeF 2 molecule adopts a linear structure in which the two bonds are as far apart as possible, on opposite sides of the Be atom.
Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\) illustrates this and other electron-pair geometries that minimize the repulsions among regions of high electron density (bonds and/or lone pairs). Two regions of electron density around a central atom in a molecule form a linear geometry; three regions form a trigonal planar geometry; four regions form a tetrahedral geometry; five regions form a trigonal bipyramidal geometry; and six regions form an octahedral geometry.
Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): The basic electron-pair geometries predicted by VSEPR theory maximize the space around any region of electron density (bonds or lone pairs).
Electron-pair Geometry versus Molecular Structure
It is important to note that electron-pair geometry around a central atom is not the same thing as its molecular structure. The electron-pair geometries shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\) describe all regions where electrons are located, bonds as well as lone pairs. Molecular structure describes the location of the atoms , not the electrons.
We differentiate between these two situations by naming the geometry that includes all electron pairs the electron-pair geometry . The structure that includes only the placement of the atoms in the molecule is called the molecular structure . The electron-pair geometries will be the same as the molecular structures when there are no lone electron pairs around the central atom, but they will be different when there are lone pairs present on the central atom.
Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): The molecular structure of the methane molecule, CH 4 , is shown with a tetrahedral arrangement of the hydrogen atoms. VSEPR structures like this one are often drawn using the wedge and dash notation, in which solid lines represent bonds in the plane of the page, solid wedges represent bonds coming up out of the plane, and dashed lines represent bonds going down into the plane.
For example, the methane molecule, CH 4 , which is the major component of natural gas, has four bonding pairs of electrons around the central carbon atom; the electron-pair geometry is tetrahedral, as is the molecular structure (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). On the other hand, the ammonia molecule, NH 3 , also has four electron pairs associated with the nitrogen atom, and thus has a tetrahedral electron-pair geometry. One of these regions, however, is a lone pair, which is not included in the molecular structure, and this lone pair influences the shape of the molecule (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)).
Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\): (a) The electron-pair geometry for the ammonia molecule is tetrahedral with one lone pair and three single bonds. (b) The trigonal pyramidal molecular structure is determined from the electron-pair geometry. (c) The actual bond angles deviate slightly from the idealized angles because the lone pair takes up a larger region of space than do the single bonds, causing the HNH angle to be slightly smaller than 109.5°.
Small distortions from the ideal angles in Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\) can result from differences in repulsion between various regions of electron density. VSEPR theory predicts these distortions by establishing an order of repulsions and an order of the amount of space occupied by different kinds of electron pairs. The order of electron-pair repulsions from greatest to least repulsion is:
lone pair-lone pair > lone pair-bonding pair > bonding pair-bonding pair
This order of repulsions determines the amount of space occupied by different regions of electrons. A lone pair of electrons occupies a larger region of space than the electrons in a triple bond; in turn, electrons in a triple bond occupy more space than those in a double bond, and so on. The order of sizes from largest to smallest is:
lone pair > triple bond > double bond > single bond
Consider formaldehyde, H 2 CO, which is used as a preservative for biological and anatomical specimens. This molecule has regions of high electron density that consist of two single bonds and one double bond. The basic geometry is trigonal planar with 120° bond angles, but we see that the double bond causes slightly larger angles (121°), and the angle between the single bonds is slightly smaller (118°).
In the ammonia molecule, the three hydrogen atoms attached to the central nitrogen are not arranged in a flat, trigonal planar molecular structure, but rather in a three-dimensional trigonal pyramid (Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\)) with the nitrogen atom at the apex and the three hydrogen atoms forming the base. The ideal bond angles in a trigonal pyramid are based on the tetrahedral electron pair geometry. Again, there are slight deviations from the ideal because lone pairs occupy larger regions of space than do bonding electrons. The H–N–H bond angles in NH 3 are slightly smaller than the 109.5° angle in a regular tetrahedron (Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\)) because the lone pair-bonding pair repulsion is greater than the bonding pair-bonding pair repulsion. The ideal molecular structures are predicted based on the electron-pair geometries for various combinations of lone pairs and bonding pairs.
Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\): The molecular structures are identical to the electron-pair geometries when there are no lone pairs present (first column). For a particular number of electron pairs (row), the molecular structures for one or more lone pairs are determined based on modifications of the corresponding electron-pair geometry.
According to VSEPR theory, the terminal atom locations (Xs in Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\)) are equivalent within the linear, trigonal planar, and tetrahedral electron-pair geometries (the first three rows of the table). It does not matter which X is replaced with a lone pair because the molecules can be rotated to convert positions. For trigonal bipyramidal electron-pair geometries, however, there are two distinct X positions (Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\)a): an axial position (if we hold a model of a trigonal bipyramid by the two axial positions, we have an axis around which we can rotate the model) and an equatorial position (three positions form an equator around the middle of the molecule). The axial position is surrounded by bond angles of 90°, whereas the equatorial position has more space available because of the 120° bond angles. In a trigonal bipyramidal electron-pair geometry, lone pairs always occupy equatorial positions because these more spacious positions can more easily accommodate the larger lone pairs.
Theoretically, we can come up with three possible arrangements for the three bonds and two lone pairs for the ClF 3 molecule (Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\)). The stable structure is the one that puts the lone pairs in equatorial locations, giving a T-shaped molecular structure.
Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\): (a) In a trigonal bipyramid, the two axial positions are located directly across from one another, whereas the three equatorial positions are located in a triangular arrangement. (b–d) The two lone pairs (red lines) in ClF 3 have several possible arrangements, but the T-shaped molecular structure (b) is the one actually observed, consistent with the larger lone pairs both occupying equatorial positions.
When a central atom has two lone electron pairs and four bonding regions, we have an octahedral electron-pair geometry. The two lone pairs are on opposite sides of the octahedron (180° apart), giving a square planar molecular structure that minimizes lone pair-lone pair repulsions.
Predicting Electron Pair Geometry and Molecular Structure
The following procedure uses VSEPR theory to determine the electron pair geometries and the molecular structures:
- Write the Lewis structure of the molecule or polyatomic ion.
- Count the number of regions of electron density (lone pairs and bonds) around the central atom. A single, double, or triple bond counts as one region of electron density.
- Identify the electron-pair geometry based on the number of regions of electron density: linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal bipyramidal, or octahedral (Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\), first column).
- Use the number of lone pairs to determine the molecular structure (Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\) ). If more than one arrangement of lone pairs and chemical bonds is possible, choose the one that will minimize repulsions, remembering that lone pairs occupy more space than multiple bonds, which occupy more space than single bonds. In trigonal bipyramidal arrangements, repulsion is minimized when every lone pair is in an equatorial position. In an octahedral arrangement with two lone pairs, repulsion is minimized when the lone pairs are on opposite sides of the central atom.
The following examples illustrate the use of VSEPR theory to predict the molecular structure of molecules or ions that have no lone pairs of electrons. In this case, the molecular structure is identical to the electron pair geometry.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\): Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure
Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure for each of the following:
- carbon dioxide, CO 2 , a molecule produced by the combustion of fossil fuels
- boron trichloride, BCl 3 , an important industrial chemical
Solution
(a) We write the Lewis structure of CO 2 as:
This shows us two regions of high electron density around the carbon atom—each double bond counts as one region, and there are no lone pairs on the carbon atom. Using VSEPR theory, we predict that the two regions of electron density arrange themselves on opposite sides of the central atom with a bond angle of 180°. The electron-pair geometry and molecular structure are identical, and CO 2 molecules are linear.
(b) We write the Lewis structure of BCl 3 as:
Thus we see that BCl 3 contains three bonds, and there are no lone pairs of electrons on boron. The arrangement of three regions of high electron density gives a trigonal planar electron-pair geometry. The B–Cl bonds lie in a plane with 120° angles between them. BCl 3 also has a trigonal planar molecular structure.
The electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of BCl 3 are both trigonal planar. Note that the VSEPR geometry indicates the correct bond angles (120°), unlike the Lewis structure shown above.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Carbonate, \(\ce{CO3^2-}\), is a common polyatomic ion found in various materials from eggshells to antacids. What are the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of this polyatomic ion?
- Answer
-
The electron-pair geometry is trigonal planar and the molecular structure is trigonal planar. Due to resonance, all three C–O bonds are identical. Whether they are single, double, or an average of the two, each bond counts as one region of electron density.
Example \(\PageIndex{2}\): Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure
Two of the top 50 chemicals produced in the United States, ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate, both used as fertilizers, contain the ammonium ion. Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of the \(\ce{NH4+}\) cation.
Solution
We write the Lewis structure of \(\ce{NH4+}\) as:
We can see that \(\ce{NH4+}\) contains four bonds from the nitrogen atom to hydrogen atoms and no lone pairs. We expect the four regions of high electron density to arrange themselves so that they point to the corners of a tetrahedron with the central nitrogen atom in the middle (Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\)). Therefore, the electron pair geometry of \(\ce{NH4+}\) is tetrahedral, and the molecular structure is also tetrahedral (Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\)).
Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\): The ammonium ion displays a tetrahedral electron-pair geometry as well as a tetrahedral molecular structure.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\)
Identify a molecule with trigonal bipyramidal molecular structure.
- Answer
-
Any molecule with five electron pairs around the central atoms including no lone pairs will be trigonal bipyramidal. \(\ce{PF5}\) is a common example
The next several examples illustrate the effect of lone pairs of electrons on molecular structure.
Example \(\PageIndex{3}\): Lone Pairs on the Central Atom
Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of a water molecule.
Solution
The Lewis structure of H 2 O indicates that there are four regions of high electron density around the oxygen atom: two lone pairs and two chemical bonds:
We predict that these four regions are arranged in a tetrahedral fashion (Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\)), as indicated in Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\). Thus, the electron-pair geometry is tetrahedral and the molecular structure is bent with an angle slightly less than 109.5°. In fact, the bond angle is 104.5°.
Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\) : (a) H 2 O has four regions of electron density around the central atom, so it has a tetrahedral electron-pair geometry. (b) Two of the electron regions are lone pairs, so the molecular structure is bent.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\)
The hydronium ion, H 3 O + , forms when acids are dissolved in water. Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of this cation.
- Answer
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electron pair geometry: tetrahedral; molecular structure: trigonal pyramidal
Example \(\PageIndex{4}\): SF 4 Sulfur tetrafluoride,
Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure: SF 4 , is extremely valuable for the preparation of fluorine-containing compounds used as herbicides (i.e., SF 4 is used as a fluorinating agent). Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of a SF 4 molecule.
Solution
The Lewis structure of SF 4 indicates five regions of electron density around the sulfur atom: one lone pair and four bonding pairs:
We expect these five regions to adopt a trigonal bipyramidal electron-pair geometry. To minimize lone pair repulsions, the lone pair occupies one of the equatorial positions. The molecular structure (Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\)) is that of a seesaw (Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\)).
Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\): (a) SF 4 has a trigonal bipyramidal arrangement of the five regions of electron density. (b) One of the regions is a lone pair, which results in a seesaw-shaped molecular structure.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{4}\)
Predict the electron pair geometry and molecular structure for molecules of XeF 2 .
- Answer
-
The electron-pair geometry is trigonal bipyramidal. The molecular structure is linear.
Example \(\PageIndex{4}\): XeF 4
Of all the noble gases, xenon is the most reactive, frequently reacting with elements such as oxygen and fluorine. Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of the XeF 4 molecule.
Solution
The Lewis structure of XeF 4 indicates six regions of high electron density around the xenon atom: two lone pairs and four bonds:
These six regions adopt an octahedral arrangement (Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\)), which is the electron-pair geometry. To minimize repulsions, the lone pairs should be on opposite sides of the central atom (Figure \(\PageIndex{11}\)). The five atoms are all in the same plane and have a square planar molecular structure.
Figure \(\PageIndex{11}\): (a) XeF 4 adopts an octahedral arrangement with two lone pairs (red lines) and four bonds in the electron-pair geometry. (b) The molecular structure is square planar with the lone pairs directly across from one another.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{4}\)
In a certain molecule, the central atom has three lone pairs and two bonds. What will the electron pair geometry and molecular structure be?
- Answer
-
electron pair geometry: trigonal bipyramidal; molecular structure: linear
Video \(\PageIndex{1}\): An overview of simple molecular shapes.
Molecular Structure for Multicenter Molecules
When a molecule or polyatomic ion has only one central atom, the molecular structure completely describes the shape of the molecule. Larger molecules do not have a single central atom, but are connected by a chain of interior atoms that each possess a “local” geometry. The way these local structures are oriented with respect to each other also influences the molecular shape, but such considerations are largely beyond the scope of this introductory discussion. For our purposes, we will only focus on determining the local structures.
Example \(\PageIndex{5}\): Predicting Structure in Multicenter Molecules
The Lewis structure for the simplest amino acid, glycine, H 2 NCH 2 CO 2 H, is shown here. Predict the local geometry for the nitrogen atom, the two carbon atoms, and the oxygen atom with a hydrogen atom attached:
Solution
Consider each central atom independently. The electron-pair geometries:
- nitrogen––four regions of electron density; tetrahedral
- carbon ( C H 2 )––four regions of electron density; tetrahedral
- carbon ( C O 2 )—three regions of electron density; trigonal planar
- oxygen ( O H)—four regions of electron density; tetrahedral
The local structures:
- nitrogen––three bonds, one lone pair; trigonal pyramidal
- carbon ( C H 2 )—four bonds, no lone pairs; tetrahedral
- carbon ( C O 2 )—three bonds (double bond counts as one bond), no lone pairs; trigonal planar
- oxygen ( O H)—two bonds, two lone pairs; bent (109°)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{5}\)
Another amino acid is alanine, which has the Lewis structure shown here. Predict the electron-pair geometry and local structure of the nitrogen atom, the three carbon atoms, and the oxygen atom with hydrogen attached:
- Answer
-
electron-pair geometries: nitrogen––tetrahedral; carbon ( C H)—tetrahedral; carbon ( C H 3 )—tetrahedral; carbon ( C O 2 )—trigonal planar; oxygen ( O H)—tetrahedral; local structures: nitrogen—trigonal pyramidal; carbon ( C H)—tetrahedral; carbon ( C H 3 )—tetrahedral; carbon ( C O 2 )—trigonal planar; oxygen ( O H)—bent (109°)
Example \(\PageIndex{6}\): Molecular Simulation
Using this molecular shape simulator allows us to control whether bond angles and/or lone pairs are displayed by checking or unchecking the boxes under “Options” on the right. We can also use the “Name” checkboxes at bottom-left to display or hide the electron pair geometry (called “electron geometry” in the simulator) and/or molecular structure (called “molecular shape” in the simulator).
Build the molecule HCN in the simulator based on the following Lewis structure:
Click on each bond type or lone pair at right to add that group to the central atom. Once you have the complete molecule, rotate it to examine the predicted molecular structure. What molecular structure is this?
Solution
The molecular structure is linear.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{6}\)
Build a more complex molecule in the simulator. Identify the electron-group geometry, molecular structure, and bond angles. Then try to find a chemical formula that would match the structure you have drawn.
- Answer
-
Answers will vary. For example, an atom with four single bonds, a double bond, and a lone pair has an octahedral electron-group geometry and a square pyramidal molecular structure. XeOF 4 is a molecule that adopts this structure.
Summary
Video \(\PageIndex{2}\): What is the shape of a molecule?
VSEPR theory predicts the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule. It states that valence electrons will assume an electron-pair geometry that minimizes repulsions between areas of high electron density (bonds and/or lone pairs). Molecular structure, which refers only to the placement of atoms in a molecule and not the electrons, is equivalent to electron-pair geometry only when there are no lone electron pairs around the central atom.
Glossary
- axial position
- location in a trigonal bipyramidal geometry in which there is another atom at a 180° angle and the equatorial positions are at a 90° angle
- bond angle
- angle between any two covalent bonds that share a common atom
- bond distance
- (also, bond length) distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms
- bond dipole moment
- separation of charge in a bond that depends on the difference in electronegativity and the bond distance represented by partial charges or a vector
- dipole moment
- property of a molecule that describes the separation of charge determined by the sum of the individual bond moments based on the molecular structure
- electron-pair geometry
- arrangement around a central atom of all regions of electron density (bonds, lone pairs, or unpaired electrons)
- equatorial position
- one of the three positions in a trigonal bipyramidal geometry with 120° angles between them; the axial positions are located at a 90° angle
- linear
- shape in which two outside groups are placed on opposite sides of a central atom
- molecular structure
- structure that includes only the placement of the atoms in the molecule
- octahedral
- shape in which six outside groups are placed around a central atom such that a three-dimensional shape is generated with four groups forming a square and the other two forming the apex of two pyramids, one above and one below the square plane
- polar molecule
- (also, dipole) molecule with an overall dipole moment
- tetrahedral
- shape in which four outside groups are placed around a central atom such that a three-dimensional shape is generated with four corners and 109.5° angles between each pair and the central atom
- trigonal bipyramidal
- shape in which five outside groups are placed around a central atom such that three form a flat triangle with 120° angles between each pair and the central atom, and the other two form the apex of two pyramids, one above and one below the triangular plane
- trigonal planar
- shape in which three outside groups are placed in a flat triangle around a central atom with 120° angles between each pair and the central atom
- valence shell electron-pair repulsion theory (VSEPR)
- theory used to predict the bond angles in a molecule based on positioning regions of high electron density as far apart as possible to minimize electrostatic repulsion
- vector
- quantity having magnitude and direction
Contributors and Attributions
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Paul Flowers (University of North Carolina - Pembroke), Klaus Theopold (University of Delaware) and Richard Langley (Stephen F. Austin State University) with contributing authors. Textbook content produced by OpenStax College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license. Download for free at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>).
- Adelaide Clark, Oregon Institute of Technology
- Fuse School, Open Educational Resource free of charge, under a Creative Commons License: Attribution-NonCommercial CC BY-NC (View License Deed: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ )
- TED-Ed’s commitment to creating lessons worth sharing is an extension of TED’s mission of spreading great ideas. Within TED-Ed’s growing library of TED-Ed animations, you will find carefully curated educational videos, many of which represent collaborations between talented educators and animators nominated through the TED-Ed website.


8.9: Check Your Understanding Questions Last updated Save as PDF Page ID 233620 OpenStax OpenStax 20 . How do self-concept, self-esteem, and self-efficacy differ? 21 . What is the primary challenge children face during Erikson’s industry versus inferiority stage? 22 . How does emotion regulation help children during middle childhood? How are metacognitive skills related to development of emotion regulation? 23 . According to Piaget, how does moral reasoning develop during middle childhood? What were Piaget’s two stages of moral reasoning? 24 . In what ways is bullying different from cyberbullying? 25 . In what ways do parent-child relationships change in middle childhood? In what ways do they stay the same? 26 . What is classroom climate? What aspects of the classroom climate support positive socioemotional development for children? 27 . What is a dependent teacher-child relationship? Why might this relationship form? 28 . List the steps in constructing an individualized education program. 29 . Describe internalizing and externalizing behaviors that may be seen during middle childhood.


3.6: Sleep and Early Childhood
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- Last updated
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Along with food and water, sleep is one of the human body's most important physiological needs—we cannot live without it. Extended sleeplessness (i.e., lack of sleep for longer than a few days) has severe psychological and physical effects. Research on rats has found that a week of no sleep leads to loss of immune function, and two weeks of no sleep leads to death. Recently, neuroscientists have learned that at least one vital function of sleep is related to learning and memory. New findings suggest that sleep plays a critical role in flagging and storing important memories, both intellectual and physical, and perhaps in making subtle connections that were invisible during waking hours. 15
How Much Sleep Do We Need?
The amount of sleep an individual needs varies depending on multiple factors including age, physical condition, psychological condition, and energy exertion. Just like any other human characteristic, the amount of sleep people need to function best differs among individuals, even those of the same age and gender.
Though there is no magic sleep number, there are general rules for how much sleep certain age groups need. For instance, children need more sleep per day in order to develop and function properly: up to 18 hours for newborn babies, with a declining rate as a child ages. A newborn baby spends almost 9 hours a day in REM sleep. By the age of five, only slightly over two hours is spent in REM. Studies show that young children need about 10 to 11 hours of sleep, adolescents need between 8.5 and 9.25, and adults generally need between 7 and 9 hours.
Sleepwalking (Somnambulism)
Sleepwalking (sometimes called sleepwalking disorder, somnambulism , or noctambulation) causes a person to get up and walk during the early hours of sleep. The person may sit up and look awake (though they're actually asleep), get up and walk around, move items, or dress or undress themselves. They will have a blank stare and still be able to perform complex tasks. Some individuals also talk while in their sleep, saying meaningless words and even having arguments with people who are not there. A person who sleepwalks will be confused upon waking up and may also experience anxiety and fatigue.
Sleepwalking can be dangerous—people have been known to seriously hurt themselves during sleepwalking episodes. It is most common in children, but it also occurs occasionally in adults. For adults, alcohol, sedatives, medications, medical conditions and mental disorders are all associated with sleepwalking.
Sleep Terrors and Nightmare Disorder
Sleep terrors are characterized by a sudden arousal from deep sleep with a scream or cry, accompanied by some behavioral manifestations of intense fear. Sleep terrors typically occur in the first few hours of sleep, during stage 3 NREM sleep. Night terrors tend to happen during periods of arousal from delta sleep (i.e., slow-wave sleep). They are worse than nightmares, causing significant disorientation, panic, and anxiety. They can last up to 10 minutes, and the person may be screaming and difficult to wake. In some cases, sleep terrors continue into adulthood.
Distinct from sleep terrors is nightmare disorder. Also known as "dream anxiety disorder," nightmare disorder is characterized by frequent nightmares. The nightmares, which often portray the individual in a situation that jeopardizes their life or personal safety, usually occur during the second half of the sleeping process, called the REM stage. Though many people experience nightmares, those with nightmare disorder experience them more frequently. 17
Contributors and Attributions
15. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0
17. Children’s Development by Ana R. Leon is licensed under CC BY 4.0


3-D Structures of Molecules
Skills to Develop
- List the common 3-D structures and their characteristics
Why do 3-D Structures Matter?
3D structures are important because they can have big effects on the properties of molecules. For instance, water has a dipole moment because it is bent, not linear. If it were linear, it would not be a great solvent for polar compounds, and all life would be completely different. In general, shapes of molecules will influence how they react, because they determine polarity (which can help pull molecules together to react) and fit (whether the reactive parts can get close to each other). Shapes of molecules can have other effects as well. Consider the following:
| Formula | NaF | MgF 2 | AlF 3 | SiF 4 | PF 5 | SF 6 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Melting Point (°C) | 980 | 1400 | 1040 | -77 | -83 | -55 |
Notice that there is an abrupt change in the melt point between AlF 3 and SiF 4 . You might take this as the change from an ionic compound to a covalent compound, but the difference in electronegativity between Al and Si isn't that large, and both are much less electronegative than F. We can explain the change better using molecular structure than bond type. In the first 3, the structure is typical of ionic compounds. Instead of clearly-defined molecules, there is an alternating lattice of positive and negative ions. Each cation is surrounded by 6 fluoride ions, and each fluoride ion is surrounded by 6, 3, or 2 cations (depending on the formula). All the ion-ion attractions must be loosened to melt the solid, which requires high temperature. In SiF 4 , however, each Si is surrounded by 4 "fluoride ions" (because radius decreases across the periodic table) which naturally makes a tetrahedron, and thus clearly separated molecules. When the molecules pack in the solid, the F atoms touch other F atoms, not Si atoms, and are not attracted much at all. This is only more true for PF 5 and SF 6 , in which the F atoms surround the central atom even more completely. Thus, these 3 compounds are molecular gases.
How do we Measure 3-D Structures?
We can measure 3D structures with several different techniques, but X-ray crystallography is probably the most common. For small molecules, it can usually tell you the exact positions of all the atoms as long as you can grow a good crystal. This data includes the bond lengths and bond angles.
Describing 3-D Structures
You'll need to learn the names of the common geometries, which describe the shape of bonds around each atom. They are organized in the following diagram based on how many bonds the atom makes. If the molecule only has one central atom, the geometry of the molecule is the geometry of the central atom. If there are several atoms that have bonds to 2 or more atoms, we can describe the geometry at each.
Predicting Molecular Shapes (Bond Angles)
Lewis structures are a great way to predict the shapes of molecules. The basic idea is that while all electrons repel each other, electrons with the same spin repel each other even more. The 2 paired electrons with opposite spin that make up a bond can be in the same general area between the bonding nuclei (although they will still try to avoid each other within this area), but electrons with the same spin really have to give each other space. The result is that the bonding and non-bonding electron pairs each take up their own area and try to stay as far away from each other as they can. The area occupied by a lone pair or a bond is called a domain. (We only worry about the valence electrons. We can think of the core electrons having their own area closer to the nucleus, although it's actually a little more complicated than this.) For the same reason, the different parts of a molecule usually spread out also, so the different parts don't get too close and bump their electron pairs.
You can picture each pair of electrons as being a big soft balloon, as in the diagram. Bonding pairs are a little narrower because they are attracted to 2 nuclei and try to stay between them. Lone pairs are a little flatter and take up more space, because there's no other nucleus pulling them away in a specific direction. So we can expect bond angles are a little smaller than we might think, because lone pairs take up more space and push the bonds closer together. Multiple bonds also take up more space than single bonds, but still act like a single domain, because they are held by the same two atoms.
Bond Lengths
Bond lengths depend on the size of the atoms and the strength of the bonds. In general, bond length decreases going from single bond to double bond to triple bond.
Some Average Bond Lengths, in Å
| Bond | r (Å) | Bond | r (Å) | Bond | r (Å) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| C—C | 1.54 | C=C | 1.34 | C≡C | 1.20 |
| C—N | 1.47 | C=N | 1.38 | C≡N | 1.16 |
| N—N | 1.45 | N=N | 1.25 | N≡N | 1.10 |
| C—O | 1.43 | C=O | 1.20 | C≡O | 1.13 |
Outside Links
- CrashCourse Chemistry: Orbitals (10 min)
- Khan Academy: VSEPR I (8 min)
- Khan Academy: VSEPR III (13 min)
- Khan Academy: VSEPR IV (15 min)
- Khan Academy: VSEPR V (11 min)
- Khan Academy: VSEPR VI (13 min)


28.8A: Lethal Inheritance Patterns
Inheriting two copies of mutated genes that are nonfunctional can have lethal consequences.
- Describe recessive and dominant lethal inheritance patterns
Key Points
- An inheritance pattern in which an allele is only lethal in the homozygous form and in which the heterozygote may be normal or have some altered non-lethal phenotype is referred to as recessive lethal.
- The dominant lethal inheritance pattern is one in which an allele is lethal both in the homozygote and the heterozygote; this allele can only be transmitted if the lethality phenotype occurs after reproductive age.
- Dominant lethal alleles are very rare because the allele only lasts one generation and is, therefore, not usually transmitted.
- In the case where dominant lethal alleles might not be expressed until adulthood, the allele may be unknowingly passed on, resulting in a delayed death in both generations.
Key Terms
- mutation : any heritable change of the base-pair sequence of genetic material
- recessive lethal : an inheritance pattern in which an allele is only lethal in the homozygous form and in which the heterozygote may be normal or have some altered non-lethal phenotype
- dominant lethal : an inheritance pattern is one in which an allele is lethal both in the homozygote and the heterozygote; this allele can only be transmitted if the lethality phenotype occurs after reproductive age
Lethal Inheritance Patterns
A large proportion of genes in an individual’s genome are essential for survival. Occasionally, a nonfunctional allele for an essential gene can arise by mutation and be transmitted in a population as long as individuals with this allele also have a wild-type, functional copy. The wild-type allele functions at a capacity sufficient to sustain life and is, therefore, considered to be dominant over the nonfunctional allele. However, consider two heterozygous parents that have a genotype of wild-type/nonfunctional mutant for a hypothetical essential gene. In one quarter of their offspring, we would expect to observe individuals that are homozygous recessive for the nonfunctional allele.  An inheritance pattern in which an allele is only lethal in the homozygous form and in which the heterozygote may be normal or have some altered non-lethal phenotype is referred to as recessive lethal.
For crosses between heterozygous individuals with a recessive lethal allele that causes death before birth when homozygous, only wild-type homozygotes and heterozygotes would be observed. The genotypic ratio would therefore be 2:1. In other instances, the recessive lethal allele might also exhibit a dominant (but not lethal) phenotype in the heterozygote. For instance, the recessive lethal Curly allele in Drosophila affects wing shape in the heterozygote form, but is lethal in the homozygote.
Dominant Lethal Alleles
Effects of Huntington’s disease on neurons : The neuron in the center of this micrograph (yellow) has nuclear inclusions characteristic of Huntington’s disease (orange area in the center of the neuron). Huntington’s disease occurs when an abnormal dominant allele for the Huntington gene is present.
A single copy of the wild-type allele is not always sufficient for normal functioning or even survival. The dominant lethal inheritance pattern is one in which an allele is lethal both in the homozygote and the heterozygote; this allele can only be transmitted if the lethality phenotype occurs after reproductive age. Individuals with mutations that result in dominant lethal alleles fail to survive even in the heterozygote form. Dominant lethal alleles are very rare because, as you might expect, the allele only lasts one generation and is not transmitted.
However, just as the recessive lethal allele might not immediately manifest the phenotype of death, dominant lethal alleles also might not be expressed until adulthood. Once the individual reaches reproductive age, the allele may be unknowingly passed on, resulting in a delayed death in both generations.
An example of this in humans is Huntington’s disease in which the nervous system gradually wastes away. People who are heterozygous for the dominant Huntington allele (Hh) will inevitably develop the fatal disease. However, the onset of Huntington’s disease may not occur until age 40, at which point the afflicted persons may have already passed the allele to 50 percent of their offspring.