1.6: Review Questions
What factors contribute to a growing interest in entrepreneurship?
- unemployment levels
- low job turnover rates
- increasing levels of creativity
- decreasing rates of discrimination
Angel investors contribute to the entrepreneurial world by ________.
- outpacing venture capitalists in access to startup funds
- directly investing in entrepreneurial startups
- holding seminars to teach people how to become an entrepreneur
- forming groups of other investors to supply greater quantities of investment funds to entrepreneurs.
An entrepreneur is someone who ________.
- creates a small business based on other existing businesses
- creates a home-based business that sells products available through other retailers
- creates a business around the idea of solving a problem
- is highly creative
Roxanne Quimby of Burt’s Bees is an example of an entrepreneur primarily for which of the following reasons?
- She saw available resources and recognized the resources could be used to create a business.
- She acted on her passions.
- She solved a significant societal problem.
- She had the time and energy to dedicate to starting business.
In the early stages of developing an entrepreneurial venture, the entrepreneur might seek funding from which group?
- venture capitalists
- the local bank
- friends and family
- shark tank
The acronym SMART for goal setting stands for ________.
- short-term, measurable, accurate, relevant, and timely
- specific, measurable, accurate, relevant, and timely
- specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time oriented
- specific, measurable, achievable, results, and time oriented
A vision statement does not include ________.
- a picture of the future described in words
- concepts and ideas that inspire and focus people’s actions toward a united outcome
- both creative and exploratory process in creating the vision
- the scope of the venture
Which one of the following is not a quantifiable result?
- 5 percent annual growth in sales
- increase market share by 2 percent
- decrease collection of accounts receivable by $5,000.00
- increase creativity throughout the venture
Which of the following is not a creativity building technique or tool?
- conducting a case study
- brainstorming activities
- mind map creation
- brain writing
Disruptive technologies include all but which of the following?
- new methods or approaches that make established methods obsolete
- self-booking of air travel
- restaurant food delivery services
- a change from ownership of resources to the ability to have access to resources
The entrepreneurial mindset includes ________.
- a willingness to develop ideas that are not always initially popular
- a willingness to wait for an idea to become popular before moving forward with that idea
- an ability to focus on past successes
- a belief in following tradition and established patterns


1.4.1: Latitude and Longitude
Latitude and longitude comprises a grid system of lines encircling the globe and is used to determine the locations of points on the earth. Lines of latitude , also called parallels , run east - west. Latitude lines always run parallel to each other, and hence, they are always an equal distance apart. Latitude lines never converge or cross.
Lines of latitude measure distance north or south of the equator. The latitude of a particular location is the distance, measured in degrees, between that place and the equator along a meridian, or line of longitude. The equator is 0 o latitude, and the North and South Poles are located at 90 o north and 90 o south latitude respectively. In other words, values for latitude range from a minimum of 0 o to a maximum of 90 o .
If the earth were a perfect sphere (which it isn't), the distance, or the length, of 1 o of latitude would be constant everywhere. In reality, the earth is slightly flattened at the poles, so the length of 1 o of latitude at the poles is slightly more than at the equator. At the equator, the length of 1 o of latitude is equal to 110.6 km (68.7 mi.) and at the poles, the length of 1 o of latitude is equal to 111.7 km (69.4 mi.). For our purposes, we will assume the length of one degree of latitude is 111 km.
Lines of longitude , also called meridians , run north - south. Meridians are farthest apart at the equator, and converge at the North and South Poles. Lines of longitude measure distance east or west of the prime meridian. The longitude of a particular location is the distance along a parallel, measured in degrees, between that place and the prime meridian. The prime meridian passes through the old Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England, and is sometimes referred to as the Greenwich meridian. Since meridians are farthest apart at the equator and converge at the poles, the distance in kilometers (or miles) of 1 o of longitude varies from a maximum at the equator, to a minimum at the poles. At the equator the approximate length of 1 o is approximately 111 km (69 mi.). At 60 o north and south latitudes, the length of 1 o of longitude is approximately 55.5 km (34.5 mi.), or half what it is at the equator.
The prime meridian , which runs through Greenwich, England, is referred to as 0 o longitude. Points are measured east or west of the prime meridian until one reaches the opposite side of the prime meridian, which is referred to as the International Date Line. This is considered 180 o longitude, and is the highest value which longitude can take. In other words, values for longitude range from a minimum of 0 o to a maximum of 180 o .
An infinite number of parallels or meridians can be drawn on a globe. Thus, parallels and meridians exist for any point on the earth. Generally, only selected parallels and meridians are marked on maps and globes, and these are usually spaced equal distances apart. Parallels and meridians always intersect each other at right angles. In order to locate a particular point on the earth, a latitude and a longitude measurement is necessary. As stated above, these measurements are in degrees, but sometimes measurements smaller than degrees are necessary. In this case, minutes and seconds are used.
When we travel, we usually like to take the shortest route between two locations. If you pass a plane through the center of a sphere, the intersection of the plane and the surface of the sphere creates a great circle . Planes passing through any other part of a sphere without going through the center create small circles . An arc of a great circle is the shortest distance between two points on a sphere and therefore is the preferred route for planes traveling great distances, like crossing an ocean. The concept of great and small circles relates to meridians (longitude) and parallels (latitude). Meridians are half of a great circle (180 o ) whose ends are at the North and South poles. Parallels of latitude are small circles, except for the equator which is a great circle.
For more information about other locational systems, start "Digging Deeper Into Locational Systems: USPLS and UTM" or continue reading
United States Public Land Survey (USPLS)
Latitude and longitude gives us an easy way of locating points on the Earth. Instead of a point, we may wish to identify land areas. In the United States, the United States Public Land Survey (USPLS), conceived by Thomas Jefferson, is used to identify parcels of land. The USPLS is actually a means of describing parcels of land, but like latitude and longitude, the USPLS is basically a grid that can be used to identify location.
Across the United States, several principal meridians (lines of longitude) have been selected to define "columns" of ranges every six miles either east or west of a particular principal meridian. In a similar fashion, "rows" of townships are delimited every six miles either north or south of a particular baseline , that coincides with a line of latitude. This creates a grid work of townships and ranges encompassing 36 square miles in area. Actually, an individual cell in this grid is sometimes referred to simply as a township.
A township is subdivided into 36 1 square mile sections . Sections are numbered beginning at the upper right and working left to section 6, then down to 7, and then right across to section 12 ending with 36 sections as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\).
Each section is 640 acres in size and can be further subdivided into smaller units by either halving or quartering the section (Figure EG.16) and described according to direction. For instance, the letter X is located in the NW 1/4, S9, T2N, R3E.
All United States Geological Survey topographic maps show the township, range, and section information on them. the figure below is a portion of the Whitewater, WI 1:24000 USGS topographic map. Township and Range information is found printed in red along the bottom and left margins (R 17E, T3N). Section boundaries are printed in red and their number designation is printed in the center of the section.
The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Grid
Though a spherical coordinate system like latitude and longitude is convenient for large areas, it is cumbersome for small areas. The need for accurate measurements within small areas was realized with the increasing range of artillery during the First and Second World Wars. This spurred the development of rectangular coordinate grid systems as plane rectangular geometry formulas were simpler than spherical geometry formulas upon which latitude and longitude is derived from. The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Grid is one such system.
The Universal Transverse Mercator Grid divides the world into 60 north-south zones, each covering a strip 6° wide in longitude between 84N and 80S. Poleward the Universal Stereographic grid (UPS) is used. These longitude zones are numbered (called the "zone number") from Zone 1, between 180° and 174° west longitude, progressing eastward to Zone 60, between 174° and 180° east longitude. Each longitude zone is subdivided into a latitude zone is 8 degrees high north and south of the equator, and lettered starting from "C" at 80° S, increasing up to "X" (called the "zone designator"). The letters "I" and "O" are omitted because of their similarity to the digits one (1) and zero(0). X spans 12° of latitude.
Each longitude zone is subdivided into an eastern and western half by drawing a line down the middle called the "central meridian". A point can be described by its distance east of the origin, called its "easting" value. The central meridian is assigned a false easting of 500,000 meters to insure positive coordinates. Any easting value greater than 500,000 meters indicates a point east of the central meridian. Any easting value less than 500,000 meters indicates a point west of the central meridian. A point's north-south origin depends on the hemisphere it is in. In the northern hemisphere, the origin is the equator and all distances north (or ‘northings’) are measured from the equator. In the southern hemisphere the origin is the south pole and all northings are measured from there. When writing UTM coordinates, the easting is always first and the northing is after it.
The UTM grid is printed on all U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) maps as blue tick marks in the margins, or as full grid lines. The spacing of the tick marks or grid lines depends on the scale of the map. Point A on the topopgraphic map is located at 599000 E., 4887000 N.


12.2: Yerkes-Dodson Law
Optimal Levels of Arousal (i.e. Stress)
Theories of learning assert that there is an optimal level of arousal (stress) that we all try to maintain. If we are under-aroused, we become bored and will seek out some sort of stimulation. On the other hand, if we are over-aroused, we will engage in behaviors to reduce our arousal/stress. Research shows that moderate arousal is generally best; when arousal (stress) is very high or very low, performance tends to suffer. The Yerkes–Dodson law is an empirical relationship between arousal and performance, originally developed by psychologists Robert M. Yerkes and John Dillingham Dodson in 1908. The law dictates that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point. When levels of arousal become too high, performance decreases. The process is often illustrated graphically as a bell-shaped curve which increases and then decreases with higher levels of arousal.
Most students have experienced this need to maintain optimal levels of arousal (stress) over the course of their academic career. Think about how much stress students experience toward the end of spring semester—they feel overwhelmed with work and yearn for the rest and relaxation of summer break. Their arousal/stress level may be too high. Once they finish the semester, however, it doesn’t take too long before they begin to feel bored; their arousal level is too low and their level of performance or productivity is also typically lower. Generally, by the time fall semester starts, many students are ready to return to school. This is an example of how arousal theory works.
- Optimal Levels of Arousal. Authored by : Boundless. Located at : https://www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/motivation-12/theories-of-motivation-65/arousal-theory-of-motivation-251-12786/ . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


 They produce both sperm and androgens, such as testosterone, and are active throughout the reproductive lifespan of the male.
Paired ovals, the testes are each approximately 4 to 5 cm in length and are housed within the scrotum ( see this figure ). They are surrounded by two distinct layers of protective connective tissue (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Anatomy of the Testis ). The outer tunica vaginalis is a serous membrane that has both a parietal and a thin visceral layer. Beneath the tunica vaginalis is the tunica albuginea, a tough, white, dense connective tissue layer covering the testis itself. The tightly coiled seminiferous tubules form the bulk of each testis.


21.15: Parallel Wire Transmission Line
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A parallel wire transmission line consists of wires separated by a dielectric spacer. Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) shows a common implementation, commonly known as “twin lead.” The wires in twin lead line are held in place by a mechanical spacer comprised of the same low-loss dielectric material that forms the jacket of each wire. Very little of the total energy associated with the electric and magnetic fields lies inside this material, so the jacket and spacer can usually be neglected for the purposes of analysis and electrical design.
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Twin lead, a commonly-encountered form of parallel wire transmission line. ( CC BY SA 3.0 (modified); SpinningSpark)Parallel wire transmission line is often employed in radio applications up to about \(100\) MHz as an alternative to coaxial line. Parallel wire line has the advantages of lower cost and lower loss than coaxial line in this frequency range. However, parallel wire line lacks the self-shielding property of coaxial cable; i.e., the electromagnetic fields of coaxial line are isolated by the outer conductor, whereas those of parallel wire line are exposed and prone to interaction with nearby structures and devices. This prevents the use of parallel wire line in many applications.
Another discriminator between parallel wire line and coaxial line is that parallel wire line is differential. 1 The conductor geometry is symmetric and neither conductor is favored as a signal datum (“ground”). Thus, parallel wire line is commonly used in applications where the signal sources and/or loads are also differential; common examples are the dipole antenna and differential amplifiers. 2
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) shows a cross-section of parallel wire line.
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Parallel wire transmission line structure and design parameters. ( CC BY SA 4.0 ; C. Wang)Relevant parameters include the wire diameter, \(d\); and the center-to-center spacing, \(D\).
The associated field structure is transverse electromagnetic (TEM) and is therefore completely described by a single cross-section along the line, as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\).
Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Structure of the electric and magnetic fields for a cross-section of parallel wire line. In this case, the wave is propogating away from the viewer. ( CC BY SA 4.0 ; S. Lally)Expressions for these fields exist, but are complex and not particularly useful except as a means to calculate other parameters of interest. One of these parameters is, of course, the characteristic impedance since this parameter plays an important role in the analysis and design of systems employing transmission lines. The characteristic impedance may be determined using the “lumped element” transmission line model using the following expression:
\[Z_0 = \sqrt{\frac{R'+j\omega L'}{G'+j\omega C'}} \nonumber \]
where \(R'\), \(G'\), \(C'\), and \(L'\) are the resistance, conductance, capacitance, and inductance per unit length, respectively. This analysis is considerably simplified by neglecting loss; therefore, let us assume the “low-loss” conditions \(R' \ll \omega L'\) and \(G' \ll \omega C'\). Then we find:
\[Z_0 \approx \sqrt{\frac{L'}{C'}}~~~\mbox{(low loss)} \label{m0188_eZ0LL} \]
and the problem is reduced to determining inductance and capacitance of the transmission line. These are
\[L' = \frac{\mu_0}{\pi}\ln\left[ \left(D/d\right) +\sqrt{\left(D/d\right)^2-1 } \right] \nonumber \]
\[C' = \frac{\pi\epsilon}{\ln\left[ \left(D/d\right) +\sqrt{\left(D/d\right)^2-1 } \right]} \nonumber \]
Because the wire separation \(D\) is typically much greater than the wire diameter \(d\), \(D/d\gg 1\) and so \(\sqrt{\left(D/d\right)^2-1} \approx D/d\). This leads to the simplified expressions
\[L' \approx \frac{\mu_0}{\pi}\ln\left( 2D/d \right) ~~~ (D \gg d) \nonumber \]
\[C' \approx \frac{\pi\epsilon}{\ln\left( 2D/d \right)} ~~~ (D \gg d) \nonumber \]
Now returning to Equation \ref{m0188_eZ0LL}:
\[Z_0 \approx \frac{1}{\pi}\sqrt{\frac{\mu_0}{\epsilon}}\ln\left( 2D/d \right) \nonumber \]
Noting that \(\epsilon=\epsilon_r\epsilon_0\) and \(\sqrt{\mu_0/\epsilon_0}\triangleq\eta_0\), we obtain
\[\boxed{ Z_0 \approx \frac{1}{\pi}\frac{\eta_0}{\sqrt{\epsilon_r}}\ln\left( 2D/d \right) } \label{m0188_eZ0PWL} \]
The characteristic impedance of parallel wire line, assuming low-loss conditions and wire spacing much greater than wire diameter, is given by Equation \ref{m0188_eZ0PWL}.
Observe that the characteristic impedance of parallel wire line increases with increasing \(D/d\). Since this ratio is large, the characteristic impedance of parallel wire line tends to be large relative to common values of other kinds of TEM transmission line, such as coaxial line and microstrip line. An example follows.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\): \(300~\Omega\) twin-lead
A commonly-encountered form of parallel wire transmission line is \(300~\Omega\) twin-lead. Although implementations vary, the wire diameter is usually about 1 mm and and the wire spacing is usually about 6 mm. The relative permittivity of the medium \(\epsilon_r\approx 1\) for the purposes of calculating transmission line parameters, since the jacket and spacer have only a small effect on the fields. For these values, Equation \ref{m0188_eZ0PWL} gives \(Z_0\approx 298~\Omega\), as expected.
Under the assumption that the wire jacket/spacer material has a negligible effect on the electromagnetic fields, and that the line is suspended in air so that \(\epsilon_r\approx 1\), the phase velocity \(v_p\) for a parallel wire line is approximately that of any electromagnetic wave in free space; i.e., \(c\). In practical twin-lead, the effect of a plastic jacket/spacer material is to reduce the phase velocity by a few percent up to about 20%, depending on the materials and details of construction. So in practice \(v_p\approx 0.8c\) to \(0.9c\) for twin-lead line.
Additional Reading:
- “Twin-lead” on Wikipedia.
- “Differential signaling” on Wikipedia.
- Sec. 8.7 (“Differential Circuits”) in S.W. Ellingson, Radio Systems Engineering , Cambridge Univ. Press, 2016.
- The references in “Additional Reading” at the end of this section may be helpful if you are not familiar with this concept.↩
- This is in contrast to “single-ended” line such as coaxial line, which has conductors of different cross-sections and the outer conductor is favored as the datum.↩


The previous section discussed how to measure respondents’ responses to predesigned items or indicators belonging to an underlying construct. But how do we create the indicators themselves? The process of creating the indicators is called scaling. More formally, scaling is a branch of measurement that involves the construction of measures by associating qualitative judgments about unobservable constructs with quantitative, measurable metric units. Stevens (1946) said, “Scaling is the assignment of objects to numbers according to a rule.” This process of measuring abstract concepts in concrete terms remains one of the most difficult tasks in empirical social science research.
The outcome of a scaling process is a
scale
, which is an empirical structure for measuring items or indicators of a given construct. Understand that “scales”, as discussed in this section, are a little different from “rating scales” discussed in the previous section. A rating scale is used to capture the respondents’ reactions to a given item, for instance, such as a nominal scaled item captures a yes/no reaction and an interval scaled item captures a value between “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” Attaching a rating scale to a statement or instrument is not scaling. Rather, scaling is the formal process of developing scale items, before rating scales can be attached to those items.
Scales can be unidimensional or multidimensional, based on whether the underlying construct is unidimensional (e.g., weight, wind speed, firm size) or multidimensional (e.g., academic aptitude, intelligence). Unidimensional scale measures constructs along a single scale, ranging from high to low. Note that some of these scales may include multiple items, but all of these items attempt to measure the same underlying dimension. This is particularly the case with many social science constructs such as self-esteem, which are assumed to have a single dimension going from low to high. Multi-dimensional scales, on the other hand, employ different items or tests to measure each dimension of the construct separately, and then combine the scores on each dimension to create an overall measure of the multidimensional construct. For instance, academic aptitude can be measured using two separate tests of students’ mathematical and verbal ability, and then combining these scores to create an overall measure for academic aptitude. Since most scales employed in social science research are unidimensional, we will next three examine approaches for creating unidimensional scales.
Unidimensional scaling methods were developed during the first half of the twentieth century and were named after their creators. The three most popular unidimensional scaling methods are: (1) Thurstone’s equal-appearing scaling, (2) Likert’s summative scaling, and (3) Guttman’s cumulative scaling. The three approaches are similar in many respects, with the key differences being the rating of the scale items by judges and the statistical methods used to select the final items. Each of these methods are discussed next.
Thurstone’s equal-appearing scaling method
. Louis Thurstone. one of the earliest and most famous scaling theorists, published a method of equal-appearing intervals in 1925. This method starts with a clear conceptual definition of the construct of interest. Based on this definition, potential scale items are generated to measure this construct. These items are generated by experts who know something about the construct being measured. The initial pool of candidate items (ideally 80 to 100 items) should be worded in a similar manner, for instance, by framing them as statements to which respondents may agree or disagree (and not as questions or other things). Next, a panel of judges is recruited to select specific items from this candidate pool to represent the construct of interest. Judges may include academics trained in the process of instrument construction or a random sample of respondents of interest (i.e., people who are familiar with the phenomenon). The selection process is done by having each judge independently rate each item on a scale from 1 to 11 based on how closely, in their opinion, that item reflects the intended construct (1 represents extremely unfavorable and 11 represents extremely favorable). For each item, compute the median and inter-quartile range (the difference between the 75th and the 25th percentile – a measure of dispersion), which are plotted on a histogram, as shown in Figure 6.1. The final scale items are selected as statements that are at equal intervals across a range of medians. This can be done by grouping items with a common median, and then selecting the item with the smallest inter-quartile range within each median group. However, instead of relying entirely on statistical analysis for item selection, a better strategy may be to examine the candidate items at each level and selecting the statement that is the most clear and makes the most sense. The median value of each scale item represents the weight to be used for aggregating the items into a composite scale score representing the construct of interest. We now have a scale which looks like a ruler, with one item or statement at each of the 11 points on the ruler (and weighted as such). Because items appear equally throughout the entire 11-pointrange of the scale, this technique is called an equal-appearing scale.
Thurstone also created two additional methods of building unidimensional scales – the
method of successive intervals
and the
method of paired comparisons
– which are both very similar to the method of equal-appearing intervals, except for how judges are asked to rate the data. For instance, the method of paired comparison requires each judge to make a judgment between each pair of statements (rather than rate each statement independently on a 1 to 11 scale). Hence, the name paired comparison method. With a lot of statements, this approach can be enormously time consuming and unwieldy compared to the method of equal-appearing intervals.
Likert’s summative scaling method
. The Likert method, a unidimensional scaling method developed by Murphy and Likert (1938), is quite possibly the most popular of the three scaling approaches described in this chapter. As with Thurstone’s method, the Likert method also starts with a clear definition of the construct of interest, and using a set of experts to generate about 80 to 100 potential scale items. These items are then rated by judges on a 1 to 5 (or 1 to 7) rating scale as follows: 1 for strongly disagree with the concept, 2 for somewhat disagree with the concept, 3 for undecided, 4 for somewhat agree with the concept, and 5 for strongly agree with the concept. Following this rating, specific items can be selected for the final scale can be selected in one of several ways: (1) by computing bivariate correlations between judges rating of each item and the total item (created by summing all individual items for each respondent), and throwing out items with low (e.g., less than 0.60) item-to-total correlations, or (2) by averaging the rating for each item for the top quartile and the bottom quartile of judges, doing a t-test for the difference in means, and selecting items that have high t-values (i.e., those that discriminates best between the top and bottom quartile responses). In the end, researcher’s judgment may be used to obtain a relatively small (say 10 to 15) set of items that have high item-to-total correlations and high discrimination (i.e., high t-values). The Likert method assumes equal weights for all items, and hence, respondent’s responses to each item can be summed to create a composite score for that respondent. Hence, this method is called a summated scale. Note that any item with reversed meaning from the original direction of the construct must be reverse coded (i.e., 1 becomes a 5, 2 becomes a 4, and so forth) before summating.
Guttman’s cumulative scaling method
. Designed by Guttman (1950), the cumulative scaling method is based on Emory Bogardus’ social distance technique, which assumes that people’s willingness to participate in social relations with other people vary in degrees of intensity, and measures that intensity using a list of items arranged from “least intense” to “most intense”. The idea is that people who agree with one item on this list also agree with all previous items. In practice, we seldom find a set of items that matches this cumulative pattern perfectly. A scalogram analysis is used to examine how closely a set of items corresponds to the idea of cumulativeness.
Like previous scaling methods, the Guttman method also starts with a clear definition of the construct of interest, and then using experts to develop a large set of candidate items. A group of judges then rate each candidate item as “yes” if they view the item as being favorable to the construct and “no” if they see the item as unfavorable. Next, a matrix or table is created showing the judges’ responses to all candidate items. This matrix is sorted in decreasing order from judges with more “yes” at the top to those with fewer “yes” at the bottom. Judges with the same number of “yes”, the statements can be sorted from left to right based on most number of agreements to least. The resulting matrix will resemble Table 6.6. Notice that the scale is now almost cumulative when read from left to right (across the items). However, there may be a few exceptions, as shown in Table 6.6, and hence the scale is not entirely cumulative. To determine a set of items that best approximates the cumulativeness property, a data analysis technique called scalogram analysis can be used (or this can be done visually if the number of items is small). The statistical technique also estimates a score for each item that can be used to compute a respondent’s overall score on the entire set of items.
Table 6.6.


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International law consists of rules and principles that apply to the conduct of nations, international organizations, and individuals across borders. There are two types of international law: public and private.
Public international law
governs the relations among governments and international organizations. It includes the law of war, the acquisition of territory, and the settlement of disputes among nations. Public international law also includes agreements governing property rights, trade, outer space, and natural resources, such as the seas and mineral rights. For businesses, public international law is important because it defines human rights, such as the prohibition against child labor, slavery, and trafficking in people and stolen goods.
Private international law
applies to private parties engaged in international commercial and legal transactions. Essentially, private international law identifies what law applies to an agreement and how the parties will settle any disputes with parties in other nations.
Counselor’s Corner
US nationals and businesses need to understand that they are subject to the laws of the nations where they travel and operate. For example, many US nationals do not understand that they are restricted in what they can say and publish within China. The US Constitution’s freedom of speech does not apply when visiting or working in other nations, especially communist ones. It is worth the time to understand the culture of the nation a business wants to work in before investing too much time and resources into developing operations there. Culture is just as important as finances when developing a business plan to expand into another nation. If the culture is not one that the business is comfortable with, then it should look at business opportunities elsewhere. ~Wei Z., attorney
6.2 The Nature of International Law
A
sovereign state
is a political entity that governs the affairs of its own territory without being subjected to an outside authority. Nations are sovereign states. Sovereign states have
sovereign immunity
, which is the principle that courts of one nation lack the jurisdiction to hear cases against foreign governments. In the US, this principle is enacted in the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (FSIA) which prohibits US courts from hearing cases against foreign governments. Two exceptions are: (1) when the foreign government waives its right to immunity and agrees to the jurisdiction of the US court; and (2) when the foreign government is engaged in commercial, not political, activity.
In
domestic law
, or law that is applicable within the nation where it is created, some authority has the power to create, apply, and enforce a rule of law system. There is a legitimate law-creating authority at the “top,” and the people to be governed at the “bottom.” This is a vertical structure of law, because there is some “higher” authority that imposes a rule of law on the people. In the United States, laws are made by the legislative branch (statutory law), by the judicial branch (common law), and by the executive branch (executive orders, rules, and regulations). This authority is derived from the US Constitution.
Figure 6.1 Vertical Nature of Domestic Law
It’s important to note, however, that not all law can be conceived as a vertical structure. Some, such as international laws, are best thought of as a horizontal structure. Treaties have a horizontal structure because sovereign nations are parties to international treaties. Since each nation is sovereign, that means that one nation is not legally dominant over another.
Figure 6.2 Horizontal Nature of International Law
If a party to a treaty has breached the agreement, enforcement can be difficult because no overarching power “above” the parties to a treaty exists. For this reason, many horizontal laws, like treaties, contain provisions that require the parties to submit to a treaty-created dispute resolution panel or other neutral tribunal, such as the International Court of Justice (ICJ).
Another common challenge in international law is that the laws are applicable only to parties who voluntarily choose to participate in them. This means that a sovereign nation cannot generally be compelled to submit to the authority of the international law if it chooses not to participate. Compare this with domestic law. Everyone within the United States is subject to the jurisdiction of certain state and federal courts, whether they voluntarily choose to submit to the jurisdiction or not. This is why fleeing criminals can legally be caught and brought to justice through extradition.
6.3 Sources of International Law
There are two main sources of international law: customary international law and treaties. It is important for all companies to understand the laws that apply to their activities so they can avoid criminal and civil liability.
Customary International Law
A
custom
is a widely accepted way of doing something. Before treaties and conventions started to become common during the 1900s, custom was the primary way international law was created.
Customary international law
is a body of international rules that has become binding through the pattern of consistent, long-standing behavior through a sense of legal obligation. For example, granting diplomatic immunity to visiting heads of state is customary international law. Historically, customary international law governed the rules of war, treatment of prisoners of war, and human rights. After World War II, many areas of customary law became the basis for UN Conventions. While customary international law still exists, the modern trend is to reduce legal obligations to writing and have nations expressly agree to their terms.
Treaties
A
treaty
is an agreement between two or more nations governed by international law. In essence, a treaty is a contract between sovereign nations. A
bilateral treaty
is an agreement between two nations. A
multilateral treaty
is an agreement between three or more nations. A
convention
is a multilateral treaty on a specific issue that concerns issues of worldwide importance, such as human rights, property rights, and international trade rules. For businesses, one of the most important conventions is the UN Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG). This convention sets the global standard for international trade.
Treaties are
adopted
when the parties agree to its final form. Then the treaty needs to be
ratified
by the nations’ governments. To take effect in the US, treaties must be approved by two-thirds of the Senate. At that point, the treaty becomes part of US law. Finally, a treaty
enters into force
when it becomes legally binding on the parties. This may be a specific date identified in the treaty or when it is ratified by the parties.
Although many treaties may impact businesses, a few are particularly important to international trade.
GATT
The
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
is a multilateral treaty to promote international trade by reducing or eliminating trade barriers, such as tariffs and quotas, between the member nations. GATT has been negotiated on and off since the 1940s as nations have sought to grow their economies through global commerce. In 1995, GATT members created the
World Trade Organization (WTO)
to stimulate international commerce and resolve trade disputes.
GATT and WTO are founded on three principles:
-
Free trade
. The major purpose of the treaty is to reduce trade barriers to increase global trade.
-
Most Favored Nation Status
. Member nations agree to treat every other member nation equally. If one nation receives a special discount on customs duties, then the discount must be extended to all other member nations.
-
National Treatment
. Member nations agree to treat imported goods the same as domestic ones after they have entered the nation. In other words, members cannot discriminate against foreign goods by imposing additional taxes after being subject to import taxes and duties.
The WTO resolves trade disputes between member nations and has the power to impose trade sanctions for non-compliance with GATT. If a member nation refuses to comply with a WTO ruling, affected members may retaliate by imposing punitive tariffs or other sanctions. For example, in the famous “banana battle,” the US and four Latin American nations filed a complaint with the WTO alleging that the European Union (EU) placed unfair restrictions on imported bananas and showed favoritism to their former colonies by buying bananas from them in violation of GATT. The WTO agreed and granted the US and the Latin American nations the right to impose sanctions on EU imports to their nations. The banana battle ended in 2009 after 20 years of trade restrictions.
CISG
The
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG)
promotes international trade by making sales law uniform and predictable across international boundaries. The US and most of its trading partners (except the United Kingdom) have adopted CISG, which results in the convention governing over two-thirds of the world’s trade. Some of its provisions include:
-
CISG applies to contracts for the sale of commercial goods between merchants. It does not apply to the sale of goods to consumers for personal use.
-
CISG applies automatically to contracts between parties located in different signatory nations. The convention does not depend on nationality; it depends on location.
-
Contract parties can opt out. Parties can contract to be governed by a nation’s laws instead of CISG but they must expressly state their intention to not be bound by CISG.
-
CISG does not require a written contract.
-
CISG requires parties to negotiate in good faith and to modify contracts in the case of unforeseen circumstances.
-
A buyer can avoid payment only after giving the seller notice and an opportunity to remedy the problem.
Regional Trade Agreements
Regional trade agreements promote international commerce by reducing trade barriers among member nations that are located near each other. One of the most famous is the European Union (EU) but more than half of international trade is covered by regional trade agreements throughout the world. An important trade bloc agreement is the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), which is a ten-nation trade bloc in Southeast Asia. ASEAN + 3 includes the ASEAN nations, as well as China, Japan and South Korea.
The US is part of the
United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA)
, which was formerly the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). USMCA reduces trade barriers among the three nations and updated NAFTA provisions, especially as it relates to e-commerce, labor, and intellectual property rights. These agreements create tremendous opportunities for businesses because they lower the costs associated with importing and exporting within the region.
Trade Regulations
Companies wishing to export or import products are subject to federal trade regulations. To
export
simply means to transport products to another nation.
Export controls
prohibit or restrict certain products from leaving a nation.
Companies wishing to import products are also subject to import controls.
Import controls
take many forms including tariffs, quotas, bans and restrictions. The US Department of Homeland Security Customs and Border Protection Agency (CBA) has a primary role in import control administration and regulation. For example, it inspects imports to classify them and to establish their tariff schedule.
Tariffs
are import taxes that apply to certain goods imported from other nations. They make the imported product more expensive and keep the cost of domestic products attractive to consumers. CBA customs officers classify the imported goods, which determines the applicable tariff. The importer is responsible for complying with all import laws.
Quotas
are simply limits on the quantity of particular imported goods. To protect domestic industries, a nation may limit the number of a competitor’s goods that are sold within the nation.
Bans
apply to goods that are illegal to be imported, because they are dangerous to public safety, health, the environment, or national interests. For example, it is illegal to import items of cultural heritage from other nations without permission.
Along with the CBA, the US International Trade Commission investigates import injuries to the United States, such as dumping and subsidized imports.
Dumping
occurs when a foreign producer sells products for less than the cost of manufacturing.
Subsidized imports
are produced overseas for which a government has provided financial assistance. When dumping or subsidized imports materially injure or threaten to injure domestic producers, the United States may impose a countervailing duty for subsidized products or anti-dumping duty for dumped products. These duties, which are particular types of tariffs, reduce the negative impact that such practices could have on US companies.
Safeguards
are limited duration growth restrictions that are imposed when domestic markets are threatened or injured from imports. This allows for domestic markets to adjust to the surge from the import market. For example, the United States imposed safeguards on Chinese textiles in response to actual or threatened market disruption of the US textile industry.
6.4 US Laws that Apply to US Nationals Abroad
Extraterritoriality
is the power of a nation’s laws to reach activities outside of its physical borders. In other words, it is the power of a nation to impose its laws in other nations. Congress expressly applies several important laws to US nationals working abroad.
US citizens working for US companies overseas are protected by US federal employment laws, such as Title VII of the Civil Rights Act and the Americans with Disabilities Act. This means that US companies may not illegally discriminate against US employees because those employees happen to work for the company on foreign soil rather than within the United States.
Business practices abroad are also regulated by the US government. For example, price-fixing conducted abroad by US companies is a violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act. Similarly, the Alien Torts Claims Act allows non-citizens to bring suit in US federal court against US businesses or citizens that have committed torts or human rights violations in foreign nations.
The Foreign Corrupt Practices Act
The Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) is an anti-corruption law that prohibits the payment of bribes by US companies and their employees to foreign officials. Violation of this law is a criminal offense. It does, however, permit
grease payments
, or facilitating payments. Grease payments are only allowed to individuals who are not decision makers. For example, a small payment to a clerk to process paperwork, after a project has already been approved, is a grease payment.
US citizens are also prohibited from conducting transactions with terrorists or terrorist organizations. Conducting transactions with prohibited persons, entities or businesses can result in serious criminal violations, which carry significant financial penalties and long prison sentences.
6.5 Concluding Thoughts
Tremendous opportunities exist for companies that wish to operate in international markets. However, the international legal environment requires careful planning to avoid costly mistakes associated with violations of trade regulations, the formation of international contracts, and criminal and civil liability.
|


41.3.14: Chapter 15
Unfolding Case Study
1.
b.
This is important to assess in case the client is prescribed buprenorphine or naltrexone to avoid withdrawal symptoms.
2.
d.
Diarrhea is a common symptom of opioid withdrawal and can occur if clients continue to use opioids while taking the opioid antagonist naltrexone.
3.
a.
This is the only medication of the four listed that is indicated for smoking cessation.
4.
b.
The client’s quit date should be one week after starting varenicline, to reduce withdrawal symptoms and increase chances for successful cessation.
Review Questions
1.
c.
This client had a sudden discontinuation of their oxycodone, leading to typical opioid withdrawal effects.
2.
d.
This client is experiencing the behavioral aspects of discontinuation of a substance, leading to intense cravings.
3.
b.
The Clinical Institute Withdrawal Assessment for Alcohol-Revised (CIWA-Ar) uses a symptoms-based approach to manage the symptoms of alcohol withdrawal as they occur.
4.
a.
This client is experiencing the triad of opioid overdose symptoms (respiratory depression, CNS depression, and miosis). This client requires quick reversal of these effects, so naloxone should be administered.
5.
c.
The naloxone in this drug makes it so that if it is injected instead of being used orally, it will prevent the buprenorphine from causing as much euphoria as it would by itself.
6.
a.
Because of the short-acting nature of naloxone, it is imperative to call emergency services after naloxone administration to get definitive care prior to the client re-sedating.
7.
b.
Facial flushing is one of the most characteristic reactions seen in clients consuming alcohol while using disulfiram.
8.
d.
Seizures are one of the most severe and potentially life-threatening effects that can be seen with alcohol withdrawal.
9.
c.
This is an important counseling point to avoid having the client receive excessive doses of nicotine, leading to toxicity.
10.
a.
Because bupropion is primarily used as an antidepressant and can reduce cravings during smoking cessation, it is an ideal medication to treat both conditions.


10.1: Nucleotides - The Building Blocks of Nucleic Acids
- Describe the makeup of nucleotides that are building blocks of nucleic acids DNA and RNA.
Nucleic acids are biopolymers that carry the codes for the synthesis of proteins and pass them on from generation to generation, i.e., they are genetic materials. In other words, nucleic acids are the instruction manual for biochemical reactions taking place in living things.
Nucleotides are the building blocks, i.e., the repeat units or monomers of nucleic acids.
Nucleotides are composed of three sub-units:
- a 5-carbon carbohydrate,
- a base that is an aromatic compound containing nitrogen, and
- an anion of phosphoric acid, i.e., phosphate (\(\ce{PO4^{3-}}\)).
5-Carbon Monosaccharide
There are two 5-carbon carbohydrates i.e., ribose and deoxyribose, found in nucleic acids, as shown in the figure 10.1.1 below. Both are in furanose (five-membered cyclic) form with hydroxyl (\(\ce{-OH}\)) group at anomeric (\(\ce{C}\)#1') in a \(\beta\) configuration. The number labels have prime symbols on them, i.e. 1', 2', 3' etc. to distinguish them from regular numbers 1, 2, 3, etc that are used for the nitrogen bases of the nucleic acids. The only difference between ribose and deoxyribose is that hydroxy group at \(\ce{C}\)#2' is missing in the latter, which gives the deoxy prefix to its name.
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): The two monosaccharides in nucleic acids.
There are two types of nucleic acids, one contains ribose in its nucleotides is called ribonucleic acid ( RNA ) and the other contains deoxyribose in its nucleotides is called deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA ).
Nitrogen bases
Nitrogen bases in nucleic acids are derivatives of two aromatic compounds; purine and pyrimidine, shown in figure 10.1.2.
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Purine and Pyrimidine.
Cyclic compounds that contain atoms other than \(\ce{C's}\) in the cycle are called heterocyclic compounds. Purine and pyrimidine are heterocyclic aromatic compounds because they contain \(\ce{N's}\) in the cycles. Purine is bicyclic containing a six-membered ring with two \(\ce{N's}\) fused with a five-membered ring with two \(\ce{N's}\). Pyrimidine is a six-membered cycle with two \(\ce{N's}\). Both purine and pyrimidine are planar molecules like benzene.
There are five nitrogen bases found in nucleic acids: two are purines, i.e., adenine (A) and guanine (G), and three are pyrimidines, i.e., cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U), as shown in figure 10.1.3.
| Purines | Pyrimidines | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): The five bases in nucleic acids.
DNA contains four nitrogen bases, i.e., adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. RNA also contains four nitrogen bases i.e., adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil. Note that the first three, i.e., adenine, guanine, and cytosine are common in DNA and RNA, but the fourth, i.e, thymine in DNA is replaced with uracil in RNA.
Nucleosides
When a monomer sugar like ribose or deoxyribose reacts with an amine, the \(\ce{-OH}\) group at \(\ce{C}\)#1' is replaced with a \(\ce{N}\) of the amine. The product is called N-glycoside, and the \(\ce{C-N}\) bond in the N-glycoside is called an N-glycosidic bond , as shown in the following example.
Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\):Purines and pyrimidines connect with the anomeric carbon of the sugar to form the N-glycoside.
The N-glycosides are named by using the name of purine but ending with -osine e.g., adenine becomes adenosine and guanine becomes gunosine, or by using the name of pyrimidine ending with -idine, e.g., cytosine becomes cytidine and uracil become uridine. One letter abbreviation of the nitrogen bases remains the same for the corresponding nucleoside, e.g., adenine (A) and adenosine (A). The four nucleosides found in RNA are shown in figure 10.1.5 with their names and one-letter abbreviations.
Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\): The four nucleosides of RNA.
In DNA there is deoxyribose in place of ribose. So the names of nucleosides found in DNA begin with the deoxy- prefix. The four nucleosides found in DNA are shown in figure 10.1.6 with their names and one-letter abbreviations.
Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\): The four nucleosides of DNA.
Phosphate
Phosphoric acid (H 3 PO 4 ) is an oxyacid with three acidic protons, i.e., it is triprotic acid. Two phosphoric acids condense and form diphosphoric acid, with the elimination of water.
Similarly, three phosphoric acids can condense to form triphosphoric acid. Phosphoric acid, diphosphoric acid, and triphosphoric acid are shown below.
Under physiological conditions at pH ~7.4, the phosphoric acids loose proton and exist as phosphate anions as shown below.
Phosphoric acids also condense with alcohols (\(\ce{R-OH}\)) and form mono-, di-, or triesters, as illustrated below.
Nucleotide
Phosphate esters of nucleosides are called nucleotides. The nucleotides found in nucleic acids are formed when \(\ce{-OH}\) group at \(\ce{C}\)#5 of ribose or deoxyribose makes ester with a phosphate. Examples of monphosphate, diphosphate, and triphosphate esters of adenosine are shown in figure 10.1.7.
Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\):Phosphate esters of nucleosides are called nucleotides.
The names of the nucleotides are derived by using the name of the corresponding nucleoside with monophosphate, diphosphate, or triphosphate added at the end, depending on whether the phosphate group is monophosphate, diphosphate, or triphosphate. Abbreviation of the nucleotide starts with the one-letter abbreviation of the nitrogen base followed by MP, DP, or TP depending on whether the phosphate group is monophosphate, diphosphate, or triphosphate, as shown in the example structures above.
The nucleotides like ADP, and ATP are high-energy molecules that are energy-rich molecules in biochemical systems. For example, when ATP converts to ADP by releasing a phosphate, energy is released that is used to do work or to synthesize other compounds that need energy for the synthesis. Synthesis of nucleic acids begins with triphosphate esters that convert into monophosphate esters when they incorporate in the nucleic acid polymer. The energy released in the conversion of triphosphate to monophosphate is used to power an endothermic reaction.
The four nucleotides found in RNA are shown in figure 10.8.1 with their names and abbreviations.
, , , and
Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\): The four nucleotides found in RNA.
The nucleotides found in DNA are named similarly to those of RNA, i.e., start with the name of the corresponding nucleoside and end with monophosphate, diphosphate, or triphosphate. The abbreviations of the nucleotides found in DNA start with a small alphabet d representing the deoxy- prefix of the nucleotides. The four nucleotides found in DNA are shown in figure 10.1.9 with their names and abbreviations.
, , ,
Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\): The four nucleotides found in DNA.
Summary
Nucleotides are composed of an anion of phosphoric acid, a pentose sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and a nitrogen-containing base (adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, or uracil). Ribonucleotides contain ribose, while deoxyribonucleotides contain deoxyribose.


1.2: Descriptive Statistics
At the end of this section you should be able to answer the following questions:
- What is the concept of central tendency?
- What is the concept of dispersion?
So, let’s say you had measured the height of everyone you know. All of those responses by themselves don’t tell you much, beyond the height of each individual.
However, what we are after is a way to explain what the height of a typical person within this group might be. That is the concept of central tendency .
For example, let’s say you wanted to work out what the average height of all your friends is. The most obvious way to do that is to look at the mean . The mean is simply all of the numbers (their height measurements) added together and then divided by the number of responses (or number of friends whose height measurements you have collected). In contrast, if the numbers were to be listed in numerical ascending order (from lowest number [shortest person] to highest number [tallest person]), the number in the middle would be the median . Another similar measure or statistic that measures central tendency is the mode . The mode is just the number that appears most often. Finally, the range is the difference between the lowest and highest values.
This information covers the main ways to look at the central numbers of a data set, but how can we tell how the data is distributed across the range? Are the responses all relatively close together, or are they spread widely apart? What we want, when we need to tell how the data is distributed across its range, is a way to explain the general dispersion or scattering of individual responses across the range. That is the concept of variability or dispersion .
The quickest way to determine how much the responses differ from each other is to look at the standard deviation . To work out the standard deviation for the height of all your friends you would first calculate the mean, then for each case or individual response you would subtract the mean and square the result (providing a squared difference from the mean), then you would calculate the mean of those squared differences then take the square root of that value.
If you did these calculations using paper and a pen, it could take a while if you have a lot of friends. Another way to complete the calculations is to use a statistical program to perform all these calculations for you!
Your standard deviation tells you how much the responses generally vary from the mean. A low standard deviation means that most of the numbers are close to the mean. A high standard deviation means that the numbers are more spread out. The standard error , which can be found by dividing the standard deviation by the square root of the total number of responses, tells you how accurate the mean of any given sample from that population is likely to be, when compared to the true population mean.
These types of descriptive statistics are the basic information you would provide for describing your data.


15.15L: Chlamydia
- Describe the effects of chlamydia in men and women
Chlamydia infection (from the Greek meaning “cloak”) is a common sexually transmitted infection (STI) in humans caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis. The term Chlamydia infection can also refer to infection caused by any species belonging to the bacterial family Chlamydiaceae. C. trachomatis is found only in humans.
Chlamydia is a major infectious cause of human genital and eye disease. Chlamydia infection is one of the most common sexually transmitted infections worldwide; it is estimated that about 1 million individuals in the United States are infected with chlamydia. C. trachomatis is naturally found living only inside human cells. Chlamydia can be transmitted during vaginal, anal, or oral sex, and can be passed from an infected mother to her baby during vaginal childbirth. Between half and three-quarters of all women who have a chlamydia infection of the cervix (cervicitis) have no symptoms and do not know that they are infected.
Occasionally, the condition spreads to the upper genital tract in women (causing pelvic inflammatory disease ) or to the epididymis in men (causing epididymitis). If untreated, chlamydial infections can cause serious reproductive and other health problems with both short-term and long-term consequences.
Genital disease
Chlamydial cervicitis in a female patient characterized by mucopurulent cervical discharge, erythema, and inflammation. Male patients may develop a white, cloudy or watery discharge from the tip of the penis.
Women
Chlamydial infection of the neck of the womb (cervicitis) is a sexually transmitted infection which is asymptomatic for about 50-70% of women infected with the disease. The infection can be passed through vaginal, anal, or oral sex. Of those who have an asymptomatic infection that is not detected by their doctor, approximately half will develop pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), a generic term for infection of the uterus, fallopian tubes, and/or ovaries. PID can cause scarring inside the reproductive organs, which can later cause serious complications, including chronic pelvic pain, difficulty becoming pregnant, ectopic (tubal) pregnancy, and other dangerous complications of pregnancy.Chlamydia is known as the “Silent Epidemic” because in women, it may not cause any symptoms in 75% of cases, and can linger for months or years before being discovered. Symptoms that may occur include unusual vaginal bleeding or discharge, pain in the abdomen, painful sexual intercourse (dyspareunia), fever, painful urination or the urge to urinate more frequently than usual (urinary urgency).
Men
In men, chlamydia shows symptoms of infectious urethritis (inflammation of the urethra) in about 50% of cases. Symptoms that may occur include: a painful or burning sensation when urinating, an unusual discharge from the penis, swollen or tender testicles, or fever. Discharge, or the purulent exudate, is generally less viscous and lighter in color than for gonorrhea. If left untreated, it is possible for chlamydia in men to spread to the testicles causing epididymitis, which in rare cases can cause sterility if not treated within 6 to 8 weeks. Chlamydia is also a potential cause of prostatitis in men, although the exact relevance in prostatitis is difficult to ascertain due to possible contamination from urethritis.
Treatment
C. trachomatis infection can be effectively cured with antibiotics once it is detected. Current guidelines recommend azithromycin, doxycycline, erythromycin, or ofloxacin. Agents recommended for pregnant women include erythromycin or amoxicillin.
An option for treating partners of patients ( index cases ) diagnosed with chlamydia or gonorrhea is patient-delivered partner therapy (PDT or PDPT), which is the clinical practice of treating the sex partners of index cases by providing prescriptions or medications to the patient to take to his/her partner without the health care provider first examining the partner.
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- File:Azithromycin structure.svg - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/w/index.php?...ure.svg&page=1 . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
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- Chlamydae Life Cycle. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ch...Life_Cycle.svg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- CAMP test. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CAMP_test.JPG . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Diseases Characterized by Genital, Anal, or Perianal Ulcers. Provided by : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Located at : www.cdc.gov/std/treatment/201...tal-ulcers.htm . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Haemophilus ducreyi. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Haemophilus_ducreyi . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Chancroid. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancroid . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
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Key Points
- Chlamydia infection is one of the most common sexually transmitted infections worldwide; it is estimated that about 1 million individuals in the United States are infected with chlamydia.
- Between half and three-quarters of all women who have a chlamydia infection of the cervix (cervicitis) have no symptoms and do not know that they are infected.
- C. trachomatis infection can be effectively cured with antibiotics once it is detected. Current guidelines recommend azithromycin, doxycycline, erythromycin, or ofloxacin.Agents recommended for pregnant women include erythromycin or amoxicillin.
Key Terms
- azithromycin : A macrolide antibiotic derived from erythromycin.
- sexually transmitted disease : any of various diseases that are usually contracted through sexual contact


3.10: Animalia- body plans, phyla and classes
From Georges Cuvier times, highest animal groups (phyla) are understood as different body plans (Fig. 3.10.2).
There are some important animal phyla with notes about their body plans. Note that most of mentioned characters do not belong to the 100% of phylum species. As biology is a science of exceptions, this is normal. The following table lists many of animal phyla and also classes of chordates. Look also on “split pyramid” scheme (Fig. 3.10.1).
Subregnum Spongia : no symmetry
Phylum 1. Porifera: sitting filtrators with skeletal spicules (H)
Subregnum Cnidaria : radial symmetry, stinging cells
Phylum 2. Anthozoa: sitting, colonial, with skeleton (I)
Phylum 3. Medusozoa: swimming, solitary, soft (A)
Subregnum Bilateria : bilateral symmetry, likely originated from crawling habit
Infraregnum Deuterostomia : with specific embryogenesis
Phylum 4. Echinodermata: small-plate exoskeleton, secondary radial, water-vascular appendages (E)
Phylum 5. Chordata: head and tail, gills in pharynx, axial skeleton (B)
Subphylum Vertebrata : vertebral column
Pisces : fish-like, gills
Classis 2. Chondrichtyes : cartilaginous, live in ocean
3. Actinopterygii : boned, rayed fins
4. Dipnoi : boned, thick fins, gills and lungs
Tetrapoda : four legs
Superclassis Anamnia : water eggs
Superclassis Amniota : terrestrial eggs
Classis 6. Reptilia : no feathers, four-pedal
7. Aves : feathers, bipedal
8. Mammalia : grinding jaws, fur, milk
Infraregnum Protostomia : specific embryogenesis
Superphylum Spiralia : worms, mollusks and alike
Phylum 6. Mollusca: shell, body straight (F)
Phylum 7. Lophophorata: shell and alike, body curved (J)
Phylum 8. Annelida: naked, segmented (G)
Superphylum Ecdysozoa : molting, with chitinous cuticle
Phylum 9. Nemathelminthes: worms with bending motion and primary cavity (C)
Phylum 10. Arthropoda: both body and appendages segmented (D)
Classis 1. Chelicerata : spiders, ticks, mites, scorpions
2. Malacostraca : crabs, lobsters, shrimp
3. Hexapoda : insects and alike


3.4: Naming acids
Acids donate produce protons and anions when dissolved in water. The naming is different for acids that have oxyanions and the others.
Naming acid that does not contain oxyanion
There are two nomenclatures, first as ionic compounds and second as acids.
Naming acids as ionic compounds
Wright the name of the cation element, i.e., hydrogen, followed by the name of anion without ion at the end. For example, HCl is hydrogen chloride, and HCN is hydrogen cyanide. The ionic name is preferred when the compound is not acting as an acid, e.g., pure HCl in the gas phase.
Naming as acids
Add prefix hydro- to the name of anion and replace the last syllable from –ide to –ic acid. For example, HCl is hydrochloric acid, HCN is hydrocyanic acid, HI is hydroiodic acid. The acid name is preferred when the compound acts as an acid, particularly when it is in solution form in water.
Naming acid that contains oxyanion
Begin the name with the name of oxyanion and change the last syllable from -ate to -ic acid or from -ite to -ous acid. If there is prefix per- or hypo to the name of the oxyanion, it stays in the acid name. For example: (\(\ce{NO3^-}\)) is nitrate and (\(\ce{HNO3}\)) is nitric acid ; (\(\ce{NO2^-}\)) is nitrite and (\(\ce{HNO2}\)) is nitrous acid; (\(\ce{SO4^2-}\)) is sulfate and {H2SO4}\)) sulfuric acid; (\(\ce{ClO4^-}\)) is perchlorate and (\(\ce{HClO4}\)) is perchloric acid; and (\(\ce{ClO^-}\)) is hypochlorite and (\(\ce{HClO}\)) is hypochlorous acid.
One of the commonly encountered oxyacid is acetic acid. Acetic acid is an organic acid with the formula CH 3 COOH, where the last hydrogen attached with oxygen is the acidic proton, and the other three oxygen attached with carbon are not acidic. The anion from acetic acid is called acetate ion that has a formula CH 3 COO - which may also be written as C 2 H 3 O 2 - .


12.1: Capturing Variable Evolution
As we discovered in Chapter 11, there are times and places where the tree of life has grown more rapidly than others. For example, islands and island-like habitats are sometimes described as hotspots of speciation (Losos and Schluter 2000; Hughes and Eastwood 2006) , and diversification rates in such habitats can proceed at an extremely rapid pace. On a broader scale, many studies have shown that speciation rates are elevated and/or extinction rates depressed following mass extinctions (e.g. Sepkoski 1984) . Finally, some clades seem to diversity much more rapidly than others. In my corner of the world, the Pacific Northwest of the United States, this variation is best seen in our local amphibians. We have species like the spotted frog and the Pacific tree frog, which represent two very diverse frog lineages with high diversification rates (Ranidae and Hylidae, respectively; Roelants et al. 2007) . At the same time, if one drives a bit to the high mountain streams, you can find frogs with tiny tails. These Inland Tailed Frogs are members of Ascaphidae , a genus with only two species, one coastal and one inland. (As an aside, the tail, found only in males, is an intromittent organ used for internal fertilization - analogous to a penis, but different!) These two tailed frog species are the sister group to a small radiation of four species frogs in New Zealand (Leopelmatidae, which have no tails). These two clades together - just six species - make up the sister clade to all other frogs, nearly 7000 species (Roelants et al. 2007; Jetz and Pyron 2018) . We seek to explain patterns like this contrast in the diversity of two groups which decend from a common ancestor and are, thus, the same age.
Simple, constant-rate birth-death models are not adequate to capture the complexity and dynamics of speciation and extinction across the tree of life. Speciation and extinction rates vary through time, across clades, and among geographic regions. We can sometimes predict this variation based on what we know about the mechanisms that lead to speciation and/or extinction.
In this chapter, I will explore some extensions to birth-death models that allow us to explore diversification in more detail. This chapter also leads naturally to the next, chapter 13, which will consider the case where diversification rates depend on species’ traits.