5.5: Complex Fractions
- be able to distinguish between simple and complex fractions
- be able to convert a complex fraction to a simple fraction
Simple Fractions and Complex Fractions
Simple Fraction
A
simple fraction
is any fraction in which the numerator is any whole number and the denominator is any nonzero whole number. Some examples are the following:
\(\dfrac{1}{2}, \dfrac{4}{3}, \dfrac{763}{1,000}\)
Complex Fraction
A
complex fraction
is any fraction in which the numerator and/or the denominator is a fraction; it is a fraction of fractions. Some examples of complex fractions are the following:
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{3}{4}}{\dfrac{5}{6}}, \dfrac{\dfrac{1}{3}}{2}, \dfrac{6}{\dfrac{9}{10}}, \dfrac{4 + \dfrac{3}{8}}{7 - \dfrac{5}{6}}\)
Converting Complex Fractions to Simple Fractions
The goal here is to convert a complex fraction to a simple fraction. We can do so by employing the methods of adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing fractions. Recall from [link] that a fraction bar serves as a grouping symbol separating the fractional quantity into two individual groups. We proceed in simplifying a complex fraction to a simple fraction by simplifying the numerator and the denominator of the complex fraction separately. We will simplify the numerator and denominator completely before removing the fraction bar by dividing. This technique is illustrated in problems 3, 4, 5, and 6 of Sample Set A.
Convert each of the following complex fractions to a simple fraction.
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{3}{8}}{\dfrac{15}{16}}\)
Convert this complex fraction to a simple fraction by performing the indicated division.
Solution
\(\begin{array} {rcll} {\dfrac{\dfrac{3}{8}}{\dfrac{15}{16}}} & = & {\dfrac{3}{8} \div \dfrac{15}{16}} & {\text{The divisor is } \dfrac{15}{16}. \text{Invert } \dfrac{15}{16} \text{ and multiply.}} \\ {} & = & {\dfrac{\begin{array} {c} {^1} \\ {\cancel{3}} \end{array}}{\begin{array} {c} {\cancel{8}} \\ {^1} \end{array}} \cdot \dfrac{\begin{array} {c} {^2} \\ {\cancel{16}} \end{array}}{\begin{array} {c} {\cancel{15}} \\ {^5} \end{array}} = \dfrac{1 \cdot 2}{1 \cdot 5} = \dfrac{2}{5}} & {} \end{array}\)
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{4}{9}}{6}\) Write 6 as \(\dfrac{6}{1}\) and divide.
Solution
\(\begin{array} {rcl} {\dfrac{\dfrac{4}{9}}{\dfrac{6}{1}}} & = & {\dfrac{4}{9} \div \dfrac{6}{1}} \\ {} & = & {\dfrac{\begin{array} {c} {^2} \\ {\cancel{4}} \end{array}}{9} \cdot \dfrac{1}{\begin{array} {c} {\cancel{6}} \\ {^3} \end{array}} = \dfrac{2 \cdot 1}{9 \cdot 3} = \dfrac{2}{27}} \end{array}\)
\(\dfrac{5 + \dfrac{3}{4}}{46}\) Simplify the numerator.
Solution
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{4 \cdot 5 + 3}{4}}{46} = \dfrac{\dfrac{20 + 3}{4}}{46} = \dfrac{\dfrac{23}{4}}{46}\) Write 46 as \(\dfrac{46}{1}\).
\(\begin{array} {rcl} {\dfrac{\dfrac{23}{4}}{\dfrac{46}{1}}} & = & {\dfrac{23}{4} \div \dfrac{46}{1}} \\ {} & = & {\dfrac{\begin{array} {c} {^1} \\ {\cancel{23}} \end{array}}{4} \cdot \dfrac{1}{\begin{array} {c} {\cancel{46}} \\ {^2} \end{array}} = \dfrac{1 \cdot 1}{4 \cdot 2} = \dfrac{1}{8}} \end{array}\)
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{1}{4} + \dfrac{3}{8}}{\dfrac{1}{2} + \dfrac{13}{24}} = \dfrac{\dfrac{2}{8} + \dfrac{3}{8}}{\dfrac{12}{24} + \dfrac{13}{24}} = \dfrac{\dfrac{2 + 3}{8}}{\dfrac{12 + 13}{24}} = \dfrac{\dfrac{5}{8}}{\dfrac{25}{24}} = \dfrac{5}{8} \div \dfrac{25}{24}\)
\(\dfrac{5}{8} \div \dfrac{25}{24} = \dfrac{\begin{array} {c} {^1} \\ {\cancel{5}} \end{array}}{\begin{array} {c} {\cancel{8}} \\ {^1} \end{array}} \cdot \dfrac{\begin{array} {c} {^3} \\ {\cancel{24}} \end{array}}{\begin{array} {c} {\cancel{25}} \\ {^5} \end{array}} = \dfrac{1 \cdot 3}{1 \cdot 5} = \dfrac{3}{5}\)
\(\begin{array} {rcl} {\dfrac{4 + \dfrac{5}{6}}{7 - \dfrac{1}{3}} = \dfrac{\dfrac{4 \cdot 6 + 5}{6}}{\dfrac{7 \cdot 3 - 1}{3}} = \dfrac{\dfrac{29}{6}}{\dfrac{20}{3}}} & = & {\dfrac{29}{6} \div \dfrac{20}{3}} \\ {} & = & {\dfrac{29}{\begin{array} {c} {\cancel{6}} \\ {^2} \end{array}} \cdot \dfrac{\begin{array} {c} {^1} \\ {\cancel{3}} \end{array}}{20} = \dfrac{29}{40}} \end{array}\)
\(\dfrac{11 + \dfrac{3}{10}}{4 \dfrac{4}{5}} = \dfrac{\dfrac{11 \cdot 10 + 3}{10}}{\dfrac{4 \cdot 5 + 4}{5}} = \dfrac{\dfrac{110 + 3}{10}}{\dfrac{20 + 4}{5}} = \dfrac{\dfrac{113}{10}}{\dfrac{24}{5}} = \dfrac{113}{10} \div \dfrac{24}{5}\)
\(\dfrac{113}{10} \div \dfrac{24}{5} = \dfrac{113}{\begin{array} {c} {\cancel{10}} \\ {^2} \end{array}} \cdot \dfrac{\begin{array} {c} {^1} \\ {\cancel{5}} \end{array}}{24} = \dfrac{113 \cdot 1}{2 \cdot 24} = \dfrac{113}{48} = 2 \dfrac{17}{48}\)
Practice Set A
Convert each of the following complex fractions to a simple fraction.
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{4}{9}}{\dfrac{8}{15}}\)
- Answer
-
\(\dfrac{5}{6}\)
Practice Set A
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{7}{10}}{28}\)
- Answer
-
\(\dfrac{1}{40}\)
Practice Set A
\(\dfrac{5 + \dfrac{2}{5}}{3 + \dfrac{3}{5}}\)
- Answer
-
\(\dfrac{3}{2}\)
Practice Set A
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{1}{8} + \dfrac{7}{8}}{6 - \dfrac{3}{10}}\)
- Answer
-
\(\dfrac{10}{57}\)
Practice Set A
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{1}{6} + \dfrac{5}{8}}{\dfrac{5}{9} - \dfrac{1}{4}}\)
- Answer
-
\(2 \dfrac{13}{22}\)
Practice Set A
\(\dfrac{16 - 10 \dfrac{2}{3}}{11 \dfrac{5}{6} - 7 \dfrac{7}{6}}\)
- Answer
-
\(1 \dfrac{5}{11}\)
Exercises
Simplify each fraction.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{3}{5}}{\dfrac{9}{15}}\)
- Answer
-
1
Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\)
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{1}{3}}{\dfrac{1}{9}}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\)
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{1}{4}}{\dfrac{5}{12}}\)
- Answer
-
\(\dfrac{3}{5}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{4}\)
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{8}{9}}{\dfrac{4}{15}}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{5}\)
\(\dfrac{6 + \dfrac{1}{4}}{11 + \dfrac{1}{4}}\)
- Answer
-
\(\dfrac{5}{9}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{6}\)
\(\dfrac{2 + \dfrac{1}{2}}{7 + \dfrac{1}{2}}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{7}\)
\(\dfrac{5 + \dfrac{1}{3}}{2 + \dfrac{2}{15}}\)
- Answer
-
\(\dfrac{5}{2}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{8}\)
\(\dfrac{9 + \dfrac{1}{2}}{1 + \dfrac{8}{11}}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{9}\)
\(\dfrac{4 + \dfrac{10}{13}}{\dfrac{12}{39}}\)
- Answer
-
\(\dfrac{31}{2}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{10}\)
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{1}{3} + \dfrac{2}{7}}{\dfrac{26}{21}}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{11}\)
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{5}{6} - \dfrac{1}{4}}{\dfrac{1}{12}}\)
- Answer
-
7
Exercise \(\PageIndex{12}\)
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{3}{10} + \dfrac{4}{12}}{\dfrac{19}{90}}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{13}\)
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{9}{16} + \dfrac{7}{3}}{\dfrac{139}{48}}\)
- Answer
-
1
Exercise \(\PageIndex{14}\)
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{1}{288}}{\dfrac{8}{9} - \dfrac{3}{16}}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{15}\)
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{27}{429}}{\dfrac{5}{11} - \dfrac{1}{13}}\)
- Answer
-
\(\dfrac{1}{6}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{16}\)
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{1}{3} + \dfrac{2}{5}}{\dfrac{3}{5} + \dfrac{17}{45}}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{17}\)
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{9}{70} + \dfrac{5}{42}}{\dfrac{13}{30} - \dfrac{1}{21}}\)
- Answer
-
\(\dfrac{52}{81}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{18}\)
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{1}{16} + \dfrac{1}{14}}{\dfrac{2}{3} - \dfrac{13}{60}}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{19}\)
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{3}{20} + \dfrac{11}{12}}{\dfrac{19}{7} - 1 \dfrac{11}{35}}\)
- Answer
-
\(\dfrac{16}{21}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{20}\)
\(\dfrac{2 \dfrac{2}{3} - 1 \dfrac{1}{2}}{\dfrac{1}{4} + 1 \dfrac{1}{16}}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{21}\)
\(\dfrac{3 \dfrac{1}{5} + 3 \dfrac{1}{3}}{\dfrac{6}{5} - \dfrac{15}{63}}\)
- Answer
-
\(\dfrac{686}{101}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{22}\)
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{1 \dfrac{1}{2} + 15}{5 \dfrac{1}{4} - 3 \dfrac{5}{12}}}{\dfrac{8 \dfrac{1}{3} - 4 \dfrac{1}{2}}{11 \dfrac{2}{3} - 5 \dfrac{11}{12}}}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{23}\)
\(\dfrac{\dfrac{5 \dfrac{3}{4} + 3 \dfrac{1}{5}}{2 \dfrac{1}{5} + 15 \dfrac{7}{10}}}{\dfrac{9 \dfrac{1}{2} - 4 \dfrac{1}{6}}{\dfrac{1}{8} + 2 \dfrac{1}{120}}}\)
- Answer
-
\(\dfrac{1}{3}\)
Exercises for Review
Exercise \(\PageIndex{24}\)
Find the prime factorization of 882.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{25}\)
Convert \(\dfrac{62}{7}\) to a mixed number.
- Answer
-
\(8 \dfrac{6}{7}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{26}\)
Reduce \(\dfrac{114}{342}\) to lowest terms.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{27}\)
Find the value of \(6 \dfrac{3}{8} - 4 \dfrac{5}{6}\)
- Answer
-
\(1 \dfrac{13}{24}\) or \(\dfrac{37{24}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{28}\)
Arrange from smallest to largest: \(\dfrac{1}{2}\), \(\dfrac{3}{5}\), \(\dfrac{4}{7}\).


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1.2.2: Introduction to Evaluating Art
1.2: Introduction
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5.5: Open Systems
An open system of one substance in one phase, with expansion work only, has three independent variables. The total differential of \(U\) is given by Eq. 5.2.5: \begin{equation} \dif U = T \dif S - p \dif V + \mu \dif n \tag{5.5.1} \end{equation} In this open system the natural variables of \(U\) are \(S\), \(V\), and \(n\). Substituting this expression for \(\dif U\) into the expressions for \(\dif H\), \(\dif A\), and \(\dif G\) given by Eqs. 5.3.4–5.3.6, we obtain the following total differentials: \begin{equation} \dif H = T \dif S + V \difp + \mu \dif n \tag{5.5.2} \end{equation} \begin{equation} \dif A = -S \dif T - p \dif V + \mu \dif n \tag{5.5.3} \end{equation} \begin{equation} \dif G = -S \dif T + V \difp + \mu \dif n \tag{5.5.4} \end{equation} Note that these are the same as the four Gibbs equations (Eqs. 5.4.1–5.4.4) with the addition of a term \(\mu \dif n\) to allow for a change in the amount of substance.
Identification of the coefficient of the last term on the right side of each of these equations shows that the chemical potential can be equated to four different partial derivatives: \begin{equation} \mu = \Pd{U}{n}{S,V} = \Pd{H}{n}{S,p} = \Pd{A}{n}{T,V} = \Pd{G}{n}{T,p} \tag{5.5.5} \end{equation} All four of these partial derivatives must have the same value for a given state of the system; the value, of course, depends on what that state is.
The last partial derivative on the right side of Eq. 5.5.5, \(\pd{G}{n}{T,p}\), is especially interesting because it is the rate at which the Gibbs energy increases with the amount of substance added to a system whose intensive properties remain constant. Thus, \(\mu\) is revealed to be equal to \(G\m\), the molar Gibbs energy of the substance.
Suppose the system contains several substances or species in a single phase (a mixture) whose amounts can be varied independently. We again assume the only work is expansion work. Then, making use of Eq. 5.2.6, we find the total differentials of the thermodynamic potentials are given by
\begin{equation} \dif U = T \dif S - p \dif V + \sum_i\mu_i\dif n_i \tag{5.5.6} \end{equation} \begin{equation} \dif H = T \dif S + V \difp + \sum_i\mu_i\dif n_i \tag{5.5.7} \end{equation} \begin{equation} \dif A = -S \dif T - p \dif V + \sum_i\mu_i\dif n_i \tag{5.5.8} \end{equation} \begin{equation} \dif G = -S \dif T + V \difp + \sum_i\mu_i\dif n_i \tag{5.5.9} \end{equation} The independent variables on the right side of each of these equations are the natural variables of the corresponding thermodynamic potential. Section F.4 shows that all of the information contained in an algebraic expression for a state function is preserved in a Legendre transform of the function. What this means for the thermodynamic potentials is that an expression for any one of them, as a function of its natural variables, can be converted to an expression for each of the other thermodynamic potentials as a function of its natural variables.
Willard Gibbs, after whom the Gibbs energy is named, called Eqs. 5.5.6–5.5.9 the fundamental equations of thermodynamics, because from any single one of them not only the other thermodynamic potentials but also all thermal, mechanical, and chemical properties of the system can be deduced (J. Willard Gibbs, in Henry Andrews Bumstead and Ralph Gibbs Van Name, editors, The Scientific Papers of J. Willard Gibbs , Vol. I, Ox Bow Press, Woodbridge, Connecticut, 1993, p. 86). Problem 5.4 illustrates this useful application of the total differential of a thermodynamic potential.
In Eqs. 5.5.6–5.5.9, the coefficient \(\mu_i\) is the chemical potential of species \(i\). The equations show that \(\mu_i\) can be equated to four different partial derivatives, similar to the equalities shown in Eq. 5.5.5 for a pure substance: \begin{equation} \mu_i = \Pd{U}{n_i}{S,V,n_{j \ne i}} = \Pd{H}{n_i}{S,p,n_{j \ne i}} = \Pd{A}{n_i}{T,V,n_{j \ne i}} = \Pd{G}{n_i}{T,p,n_{j \ne i}} \tag{5.5.10} \end{equation} The partial derivative \(\pd{G}{n_i}{T,P,n_{j \ne i}}\) is called the partial molar Gibbs energy of species \(i\), another name for the chemical potential as will be discussed in Sec. 9.2.6.


9.1: Breaking the Whole into Its Parts
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Identify and explain ethos, logos, pathos, and kairos.
- Identify and analyze logical fallacies used in persuasion.
- Explain how rhetorical strategies are used in real-life situations.
Communicative situations nearly always contain rhetoric , the craft of persuading through writing or speaking. Think of your earliest instances of communication with parents or caregivers. Before you were proficient in language, you learned to navigate situations with your other senses, such as sight, sound, and touch. Consider people’s facial expressions and tones of voice. How did you know when they were pleased, displeased, or confused by your actions? The emphasis is on the word how , because the how is what starts you on the path of analyzing the forms, intent, and effectiveness of communication. The point is that even facial expressions and tones of voice serve communicative functions and contain a rhetoric that one can observe, process, and analyze.
Now, as an adult, you have learned to use rhetoric to be persuasive and to recognize when others are trying to persuade you. Imagine the following situation. A basic question arises among roommates: Where should we go for dinner? Your roommates want to go to Emiliano’s Pizza Pavilion again, and their reasoning seems sound. First, having tried all pizza places in town, they know Emiliano makes the tastiest pizza—just the right combination of spices, vegetables, and cheese, all perfectly baked in the right oven at the right temperature. Furthermore, the pizza is fairly cheap and probably will provide leftovers for tomorrow. And they add that you don’t really want to stay home all alone by yourself.
You, on the other hand, are less keen on the idea; maybe you’re tired of Emiliano’s pizza or of pizza in general. You seem resistant to their suggestion, so they continue their attempts at persuasion by trying different tactics. They tell you that “everyone” is going to Emiliano’s, not only because the food is good but because it’s the place to be on a Thursday evening, hoping that others’ decisions might convince you. Plus, Emiliano’s has “a million things on the menu,” so if you don’t want pizza, you can have “anything you want.” This evidence further strengthens their argument, or so they think.
Your roommates continue, playing on your personal experience, adding that the last time you didn’t join them, you went somewhere else and then got the flu, so you shouldn’t make the same mistake twice. They add details and try to entice you with images of the pizza—a delicious, jeweled circle of brilliant color that tastes like heaven, with bubbling cheese calling out to you to devour it. Finally, they try an extreme last-ditch accusation. They claim you could be hostile to immigrants such as Emiliano and his Haitian and Dominican staff, who are trying to succeed in the competitive pizza market, so your unwillingness to go will hurt their chances of making a living.
However, because you know something about rhetoric and how your roommates are using it to persuade, you can deconstruct their reasoning, some of which is flawed or even deceptive. Your decision is up to you, of course, and you will make it independent of (or dependent on) these rhetorical appeals and strategies.
Rhetorical Strategies
As part of becoming familiar with rhetorical strategies in real life, you will recognize three essential building blocks of rhetoric:
- Ethos is the presentation of a believable, authoritative voice that elicits an audience’s trust. In the case of the pizza example, the roommates have tried all other pizzerias in town and have a certain expertise.
- Pathos is the use of appeals to feelings and emotions shared by an audience. Emiliano’s pizza tastes good, so it brings pleasure. Plus, you don’t want to be all alone when others are enjoying themselves, nor do you want to feel responsible for the pizzeria’s economic decline.
- Logos is the use of credible information—facts, reasons, examples—that moves toward a sensible and acceptable conclusion. Emiliano’s is good value for the money and provides leftovers.
In addition to these strategies, the roommates in the example use more subtle ones, such as personification and sensory language. Personification is giving an inanimate object human traits or abilities (the cheese is calling out). Sensory language appeals to the five senses (a delicious, jeweled circle of brilliant color).
Logical Fallacies
Familiar with the three main rhetorical strategies and literary language, you also recognize the “sneakier” uses of flawed reasoning, also known as logical fallacies. Some of the roommates’ appeals are based on these fallacies:
- Bandwagon: argument that everyone is doing something, so you shouldn’t be left behind by not doing it too. “Everyone” goes to Emiliano’s, especially on Thursdays.
- Hyperbole: exaggeration. Emiliano’s has “a million things on the menu,” and you can get “anything you want.”
- Ad hominem: attacking the person, not the argument.
- Causal fallacy: claiming or implying that an event that follows another event is the result of it. Because you ate elsewhere, you got the flu.
- Slippery slope: argument that a single action could lead to disastrous consequences. If Emiliano’s misses your business, they may go bankrupt.
In a matter of minutes, your roommates use all these strategies to try to persuade you to act or to agree with their thinking. Identifying and understanding such strategies, and others, is a key element of critical thinking. You can learn more about logical fallacies at the Purdue University Online Writing Lab ( https://openstax.org/r/ Purdue_University_Online).
Kairos
As a whole, rhetoric also depends on another Greek rhetorical strategy, kairos . Kairos is the idea that timing is important in trying to persuade an audience. An appeal may succeed or fail depending on when it is made. The moment must be right, and an effective communicator needs to be aware of their audience in terms of kairos. Going back to the roommates and pizza example, kairos might be an influence in your decision; if you were tired of pizza, had to save money, or wanted to study alone, your roommates would have less chance of persuasion. As a more serious example, if a recent series of car accidents has caused serious injuries on the freeway, an audience might be more receptive to a proposal to reassess speed limits and road signage. Awareness of rhetorical strategies in everyday situations such as this will help you recognize and evaluate them in matters ultimately more significant than pizza.


12.2E: Sex-Linked Traits
- Distinguish between sex-linked traits and other forms of inheritance
Sex Determination
In humans, as well as in many other animals and some plants, the sex of the individual is determined by sex chromosomes. However, there are other sex determination systems in nature.   In tropical clown fish, the dominant individual in a group becomes female while the others are male.
 Until now, we have only considered inheritance patterns among non-sex chromosomes, or autosomes. In addition to 22 homologous pairs of autosomes, human females have a homologous pair of X chromosomes, whereas human males have an XY chromosome pair. Although the Y chromosome contains a small region of similarity to the X chromosome so that they can pair during meiosis, the Y chromosome is much shorter and contains many fewer genes. When a gene being examined is present on the X chromosome, but not on the Y chromosome, it is said to be X-linked.
X-Linked Traits
Insects also follow an XY sex-determination pattern and like humans, Drosophila males have an XY chromosome pair and females are XX. Eye color in Drosophila was one of the first X-linked traits to be identified, and Thomas Hunt Morgan mapped this trait to the X chromosome in 1910.
In fruit flies, the wild-type eye color is red (X W ) and is dominant to white eye color (X w ). Because this eye-color gene is located on the X chromosome only, reciprocal crosses do not produce the same offspring ratios. Males are said to be hemizygous, because they have only one allele for any X-linked characteristic. Hemizygosity makes the descriptions of dominance and recessiveness irrelevant for XY males because each male only has one copy of the gene. Drosophila males lack a second allele copy on the Y chromosome; their genotype can only be X W Y or X w Y. In contrast, females have two allele copies of this gene and can be X W X W , X W X w , or X w X w .
X-Linked Crosses
In an X-linked cross, the genotypes of F 1 and F 2 offspring depend on whether the recessive trait was expressed by the male or the female in the P 1 generation. With regard to Drosophila eye color, when the P 1 male expresses the white-eye phenotype and the female is homozygous red-eyed, all members of the F 1 generation exhibit red eyes.
A subsequent cross between the X W X w female and the X W Y male would produce only red-eyed females (with X W X W or X W X w genotypes) and both red- and white-eyed males (with X W Y or X w Y genotypes).  The F 1 generation would exhibit only heterozygous red-eyed females (X W X w ) and only white-eyed males (X w Y). Half of the F 2 females would be red-eyed (X W X w ) and half would be white-eyed (X w X w ). Similarly, half of the F 2 males would be red-eyed (X W Y) and half would be white-eyed (X w Y).
X-Linked Recessive Disorders in Humans
Sex-linkage studies provided the fundamentals for understanding X-linked recessive disorders in humans, which include red-green color blindness and Types A and B hemophilia. Because human males need to inherit only one recessive mutant X allele to be affected, X-linked disorders are disproportionately observed in males. Females must inherit recessive X-linked alleles from both of their parents in order to express the trait.
Recessive Carriers
When they inherit one recessive X-linked mutant allele and one dominant X-linked wild-type allele, they are carriers of the trait and are typically unaffected. Carrier females can manifest mild forms of the trait due to the inactivation of the dominant allele located on one of the X chromosomes. However, female carriers can contribute the trait to their sons, resulting in the son exhibiting the trait, or they can contribute the recessive allele to their daughters, resulting in the daughters being carriers of the trait. Although some Y-linked recessive disorders exist, typically they are associated with infertility in males and are, therefore, not transmitted to subsequent generations.
Key Points
- In mammals, females have a homologous pair of X chromosomes, whereas males have an XY chromosome pair.
- The Y chromosome contains a small region of similarity to the X chromosome so that they can pair during meiosis, but the Y is much shorter and contains fewer genes.
- Males are said to be hemizygous because they have only one allele for any X-linked characteristic; males will exhibit the trait of any gene on the X-chromosome regardless of dominance and recessiveness.
- Most sex-linked traits are actually X-linked, such as eye color in Drosophila or color blindness in humans.
Key Terms
- hemizygous : Having some single copies of genes in an otherwise diploid cell or organism.
- X-linked : Associated with the X chromosome.
- carrier : A person or animal that transmits a disease to others without itself contracting the disease.
- sex chromosomes : A chromosome involved with determining the sex of an organism, typically one of two kinds.


1.3: Standards of Maternal, Newborn, and Gynecologic Nursing Care
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Define the patients seeking gynecologic and obstetric care
- Discuss the history of gynecologic and obstetric care in the United States
- Contrast the history of childbirth to contemporary childbirth in the United States
Women’s health care was defined in 1997 by the Expert Panel on Women’s Health of the American Academy of Nursing as health promotion, maintenance, and restoration of physical, psychologic, and social well-being of women throughout the lifespan (Nichols, 2000). Maternal, newborn, and gynecologic nursing has evolved over the last century. Reproductive care became more accessible and persons AFAB fought for equity in health-care research, treatment, and shared decision making. Nurses and nursing organizations supported this evolution in standards for women’s health care.
Who Are the Patients Seeking Gynecologic and Obstetric Care?
People seeking gynecologic and obstetric care can be of any age, race, education level, or marital status. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) suggests persons AFAB see a gynecologic health-care provider between the ages of 13 and 15 to discuss normal hormonal changes and menstrual cycle issues (Cummings, 2022). The American Academy of Pediatrics and ACOG (2017) also suggest that people should see an obstetric health-care provider at or before the 12th week of pregnancy. Older persons AFAB will seek care for menopause and screening exams.
Most OB-GYN patients are cisgender (that is, their gender identity aligns with their sex assigned at birth) and heterosexual. But LGBTQIA+, including transgender, and nonbinary persons can seek care with an OB-GYN provider. In practice, only about 50 percent of transgender men routinely see a gynecologic provider (Aliabadi, 2022). A transgender man is a man who was assigned female at birth. Gynecologic providers can provide testosterone , birth control, STI testing and treatment, Pap smears, breast exam s, and health promotion education (Aliabadi, 2022). Obstetric providers can care for transgender men if they choose to become pregnant and start a family. Nurses can provide education on health-care screening, hormones, support groups, and birth control options, along with the interactions those medications can have when taken with other medications (Hanson & Haddad, 2023). For more information on caring for transgender patients, see Chapter 2 Culturally Competent Nursing Care.
History of Women’s Reproductive Rights in the United States
The history of women’s reproductive rights in the United States began in the 1900s when Margaret Sanger fought for women to have the right to access contraception (Nichols, 2020). This fight for reproductive rights continued in the 1960s and 1970s as The Women’s Health Movement and other activist groups supported the Supreme Court decision of Roe v. Wade , allowing the legalization of abortion (Nichols, 2000), though that ruling was later overturned in June 2022. The common goal of those activists in the 1970s was the demand for improved, nonsexist health care for all women (Nichols, 2000). Activists also advocated for inclusion of persons AFAB in research to provide new treatments, medications, and vaccinations. Consequently, in 2006, the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination was produced ( National Institutes of Health [NIH], n.d.-a).
History of Childbirth in the United States
Birth among pioneer women in the 1700s took place in homes and was attended by a woman’s lay female friends and relatives and a midwife or nurse (McCool & Simeone, 2002). Childbirth for the Mohawk and Mohican Indians was more solitary. People of these tribes would go to a secluded place near a stream and prepare a shelter with provisions as they waited for the birth alone (Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media, 2018).
Birth was noninterventional, and maternal deaths during childbirth declined in the 1800s and 1900s; however, when birth moved into hospitals, postpartum infection occurred more often and was traced back to contamination from physicians’ unwashed hands (McCool & Simeone, 2002). In the 1900s, birthing persons who wanted labor pain relief gave birth in hospitals and had an increased risk of dying from infection. Many of the infectious risks were mitigated with the utilization of evidence-based practice and emphasizing hand washing. The transition of birth from home to the hospital changed the focus of supporting the birthing person during unmedicated labor to pain control and disease care (McCool & Simeone, 2002). This medical model is the same model used in most U.S. hospitals today.
Evolution of Maternal Health Care
The Women’s Health Movement helped change childbirth practices in the 1960s and 1970s; it focused on less medical intervention and encouraged husbands or partners to be present during childbirth (Nichols, 2020). This movement was part of the larger women’s movement in the United States (Figure 1.3). During this time, Lamaze International and the International Childbirth Education Association were formed with the goals of advocating for choice during childbirth and preparing parents for birth through education (Nichols, 2000). In the 1980s, many hospitals changed from traditional maternity care to a more family-centered care and began to offer childbirth education classes (Nichols, 2000).
Evolution of Maternal-Newborn Nursing
The Association of Women’s Health, Obstetric and Neonatal Nurses (AWHONN) has been a leader in the evolution of maternal-newborn nursing practices. The organization focuses on promoting diversity in the profession and advocates regarding issues that impact nurses that care for women and newborns while maintaining a commitment to research and education in the field. The mission is to “Empower and support nurses caring for women, newborns, and their families through research, education, and advocacy” (AWHONN, 2021a, para 2). Nichols (2000) described the core concepts in women’s health nursing as:
- recognizing the diversity of women’s health needs
- emphasizing empowerment through informed participation in one’s health care
- acknowledging the importance of research in gender differences in disease and response to drugs
- recognizing the need for a multidisciplinary team approach
- striving for symmetry in provider-patient relationships
- providing access to information
- engaging in shared decision making
- striving for change
Providers caring for women increased in number and demand. Nurses were able to become certified in their respective specialties.
Contemporary Childbirth
When birth moved from home to the hospital setting, those giving birth were no longer supported by grandmothers, sisters, friends, or partners. Instead, they were alone without their partner in an unfamiliar medical space and possibly under the influence of a powerful medication (a mixture of morphine and scopolamine that caused memory loss in the birthing parent and neonatal respiratory depression in the newborn) referred to as “twilight sleep.” The combination of these factors caused birthing patients to feel vulnerable and afraid. Therefore, in the 1960s, childbirth education became a way to empower pregnant persons and prepare them for what to expect in childbirth (Walker et al, 2009).
The Age of First Pregnancy
In the 1970s, the average age of a person’s first pregnancy was 21.4 years, whereas the average age of first pregnancy in 2021 was 27.3 years (CDC, 2002; Schaeffer & Aragao, 2023). Speculation is that people delay pregnancy to stay in the workforce or to attend college. In the 1970s, people had more than three children, while in 2020, the average was two children (Schaeffer & Aragao, 2023).
Moving from the rigidity of the 1950s and 1960s, gender roles have given way to more flexible approaches to parenting. Fathers are more involved in childrearing and household chores, while many mothers hold leadership positions and are the primary breadwinners for their families (Jensen, 2023). Birthing families have become more educated and desire more supportive, family-centered care during labor and birth.
Contemporary childbirth has become more medicalized, as seen in increased labor induction s, planned cesarean birth s, and routine use of medical interventions (Jansen et al., 2013). Some pregnant persons became dissatisfied with this type of pregnancy care, and up to 50 percent of pregnant persons seek adjunct care from complementary medicine practitioners (Steel et al., 2019). Reasons for patients using complementary medicine practitioners include lack of continuity in care provider, lack of empowerment, lack of personal autonomy and decision making, and increased use of medications and interventions in childbirth (Steel et al., 2019). The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (2019a) released a committee opinion regarding approaches to limit interventions during labor and birth. The committee opinion acknowledged that laboring patients who have continuous one-to-one emotional care have improved labor outcomes; routine interventions such as amniotomy, continuous electronic fetal monitoring, and continuous intravenous fluid administration are not necessary for low-risk patients; and birthing facilities should have family-centric interventions, such as clear drapes during a cesarean birth. Contemporary childbirth educators, nurses, and health-care providers are working to improve autonomy and individualized care for the laboring person. For further information on childbirth education , see Chapter 14 Childbirth Education Options.
Family-Centered Care
The set of principles that guide health-care delivery according to the strengths and needs of the person, family, and community, promoting involvement of family in informed decision making is considered family-centered care (Franck & O’Brien, 2019). This model views the birthing parent and infant as a couplet cared for as one unit. Family-centered care can be seen in multiple areas of maternal-child nursing. For example, neonatal intensive care unit s (NICUs) adopted family-centered care and found that by focusing on parent-NICU team communication and education, parents’ stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms decreased (Franck & O’Brien, 2019). Family-centered cesarean births were introduced to increase maternal satisfaction, breast-feeding initiation, and maternal physical well-being (Schorn et al., 2015). Family-centered cesarean birth includes preparing the laboring person and partner prior to the cesarean, encouraging the birthing parent to bring music of their choice, making sure the support person is present, allowing the birthing person and support person to view the birth, placing the newborn skin-to-skin on the birthing parent, and initiating breastfeeding if possible (Schorn et al., 2015).
Culturally Competent Care
In the United States, maternal, fetal, and infant mortality rates differ greatly among races, with Black people having the highest mortality rates (Hoyert, 2023). Transgender men and nonbinary persons have poorer outcomes than cisgender persons and higher rates of discrimination in the health care system. To address these issues, health-care providers, nurses, and hospitals have adopted standards to improve cultural competence, such as using gender-affirming language, nurse/health-care provider training, and use of the four major components of cultural competence . Cultural sensitivity components consist of awareness of personal bias, attitude of openness to differing views or opinions, knowledge of different cultures, and skills to manage differences effectively (BCT Partners, 2021). You can read more about cultural competence in Chapter 2 Culturally Competent Nursing Care.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) uses a monitoring system to share and better understand the risk factors for pregnancy-related deaths. Visit the CDC website to review its data on pregnancy-related deaths from 1987 through 2019 and mortality ratio by race/ethnicity from 2017 through 2019.


5.2: Organs and Organ Systems
Vegetabilia (Figure 6.1.1) have three different types of body construction (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). The most primitive plants have thallus body, more advanced is the shoot (unipolar) plant body, and most land plants have the bipolar plant body. The thallus flat , non-differentiated body plant body is flat, similar to leaf but do not differentiated into particular organs. Most gametophytes (except true mosses) have this type, and also few sporophytes (which mostly are reduced water plants). Shoot (unipolar) plant body consists only of branching shoots, roots are absent. This is typical to all Bryophyta sporophytes, mosses (Bryopsida) gametophytes, and also to sporophytes of Psilotopsida (whisk ferns). Finally, bipolar plant body present has both shoots and roots (Figure 5.3.1). Most bipolar plants have shoots consist of stems and leaves, but this is not an absolute requirement since young plant stems are normally green and can do photosynthesis.
Typical organs of bipolar plant are stems (axial aerial organs with continuous growth), leaves (flat lateral organ with restricted growth), roots (axial soil organ modified for absorption) and floral units (FU) which are elements of the generative system (fructifications) such as a pine cone or any flower.
Buds, fruits, seeds and specific to seedlings hypocotyl and epicotyl are non-organs for different reasons: buds are just young shoos, fruit is the ripe flower, hypocotyl is a part of stem between first leaves of the seedling (cotyledons) and root (i.e., stem/root transition place), epicotyl first internode of the stem is first internode of stem (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)), and finally, seed is a chimeric structure with three genotypes so it is impossible to call it “organ”.
Root, stem, leaf and FU are four basic plant organs (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)) which in bipolar plant could be grouped in root and shoot system; the latter is frequently split into generative shoot system (bearing FU), and vegetative shoot system (without FU).
Vegetative shoot system usually consists of main and secondary shoots; shoots contain terminal buds, axillary (lateral) buds, stem (nodes and internodes) and leaves. We will start from leaves.


7: Carboxylic Acid Derivatives- Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution Reactions
The compounds discussed in this chapter are all considered to be derived from carboxylic acids, and include acid halides, acid anhydrides, esters and amides (thioesters and acyl phosphates are also briefly mentioned). As you proceed through the chapter, you should be looking for similarities in behaviour among the various classes of compounds. These similarities can be readily understood once you appreciate the fact that, in most of their reactions, carboxylic acid derivatives react via the nucleophilic acyl substitution mechanism.
In this chapter, we describe the nomenclature of the various types of carboxylic acid derivatives, and explain the relative reactivity of these compounds in terms of resonance contributions to the ground state of each type of compound.
We describe the reactions of carboxylic acids, acid halides, acid anhydrides, esters, amides, polyamides and polyesters in detail, and discuss the biological importance of thiol esters briefly. The chapter concludes with a look at how infrared spectroscopy and NMR spectroscopy can be used in the identification of unknown carboxylic acid derivatives.
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- 7.3: Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution Reactions
- This page explores nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions, a key process in organic chemistry where a nucleophile attacks a carbonyl carbon of a carboxylic acid derivative. The mechanism involves the formation of a tetrahedral intermediate, followed by the departure of a leaving group. The discussion includes examples with various derivatives like esters and amides, highlighting factors that influence reaction rates and outcomes.
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- 7.4: Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution Reactions of Carboxylic Acids
- This page discusses the reactions of carboxylic acids, focusing on their behavior in nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions. It covers the reactivity of carboxylic acids, their derivatives, and the conditions that influence these reactions. Key reactions include esterification, acid chloride formation, and the hydrolysis of esters. The significance of the functional groups present and their impact on reactivity is also highlighted. Understanding these reactions is crucial for organic synthesis


14.7: Medical Imaging and Diagnostics
Learning Objectives
- Explain the working principle behind an anger camera.
- Describe the SPECT and PET imaging techniques.
A host of medical imaging techniques employ nuclear radiation. What makes nuclear radiation so useful? First, \(\gamma\) radiation can easily penetrate tissue; hence, it is a useful probe to monitor conditions inside the body. Second, nuclear radiation depends on the nuclide and not on the chemical compound it is in, so that a radioactive nuclide can be put into a compound designed for specific purposes. The compound is said to be tagged . A tagged compound used for medical purposes is called a radiopharmaceutical . Radiation detectors external to the body can determine the location and concentration of a radiopharmaceutical to yield medically useful information. For example, certain drugs are concentrated in inflamed regions of the body, and this information can aid diagnosis and treatment as seen in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). Another application utilizes a radiopharmaceutical which the body sends to bone cells, particularly those that are most active, to detect cancerous tumors or healing points. Images can then be produced of such bone scans. Radioisotopes are also used to determine the functioning of body organs, such as blood flow, heart muscle activity, and iodine uptake in the thyroid gland.
Medical Application
Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) lists certain medical diagnostic uses of radiopharmaceuticals, including isotopes and activities that are typically administered. Many organs can be imaged with a variety of nuclear isotopes replacing a stable element by a radioactive isotope. One common diagnostic employs iodine to image the thyroid, since iodine is concentrated in that organ. The most active thyroid cells, including cancerous cells, concentrate the most iodine and, therefore, emit the most radiation. Conversely, hypothyroidism is indicated by lack of iodine uptake. Note that there is more than one isotope that can be used for several types of scans. Another common nuclear diagnostic is the thallium scan for the cardiovascular system, particularly used to evaluate blockages in the coronary arteries and examine heart activity. The salt TlCl can be used, because it acts like NaCl and follows the blood. Gallium-67 accumulates where there is rapid cell growth, such as in tumors and sites of infection. Hence, it is useful in cancer imaging. Usually, the patient receives the injection one day and has a whole body scan 3 or 4 days later because it can take several days for the gallium to build up.
Note that Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) lists many diagnostic uses for \({ }^{99 \mathrm{m}} \mathrm{Tc}\), where “m” stands for a metastable state of the technetium nucleus. Perhaps 80 percent of all radiopharmaceutical procedures employ \({ }^{99 \mathrm{m}} \mathrm{Tc}\) because of its many advantages. One is that the decay of its metastable state produces a single, easily identified 0.142-MeV γ ray. Additionally, the radiation dose to the patient is limited by the short 6.0-h half-life of \({ }^{99 \mathrm{m}} \mathrm{Tc}\). And, although its half-life is short, it is easily and continuously produced on site. The basic process for production is neutron activation of molybdenum, which quickly \(\beta\) decays into \({ }^{99 \mathrm{m}} \mathrm{Tc}\). Technetium-99m can be attached to many compounds to allow the imaging of the skeleton, heart, lungs, kidneys, etc.
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) shows one of the simpler methods of imaging the concentration of nuclear activity, employing a device called an Anger camera or gamma camera . A piece of lead with holes bored through it collimates \(\gamma\) rays emerging from the patient, allowing detectors to receive \(\gamma\) rays from specific directions only. The computer analysis of detector signals produces an image. One of the disadvantages of this detection method is that there is no depth information (i.e., it provides a two-dimensional view of the tumor as opposed to a three-dimensional view), because radiation from any location under that detector produces a signal.
Imaging techniques much like those in x-ray computed tomography (CT) scans use nuclear activity in patients to form three-dimensional images. Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\) shows a patient in a circular array of detectors that may be stationary or rotated, with detector output used by a computer to construct a detailed image. This technique is called single-photon-emission computed tomography(SPECT) or sometimes simply SPET. The spatial resolution of this technique is poor, about 1 cm, but the contrast (i.e. the difference in visual properties that makes an object distinguishable from other objects and the background) is good.
Images produced by \(\beta^{+}\) emitters have become important in recent years. When the emitted positron ( \(\beta^{+}\)) encounters an electron, mutual annihilation occurs, producing two γ rays. These γ rays have identical 0.511-MeV energies (the energy comes from the destruction of an electron or positron mass) and they move directly away from one another, allowing detectors to determine their point of origin accurately, as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\). The system is called positron emission tomography (PET) . It requires detectors on opposite sides to simultaneously (i.e., at the same time) detect photons of 0.511-MeV energy and utilizes computer imaging techniques similar to those in SPECT and CT scans. Examples of \(\beta^{+}\) -emitting isotopes used in PET are \({ }^{11} \mathrm{C}\), \({ }^{13} \mathrm{N}\), \({ }^{15} \mathrm{O}\), and \({ }^{18} \mathrm{F}\), as seen in Table \(\PageIndex{1}\). This list includes C, N, and O, and so they have the advantage of being able to function as tags for natural body compounds. Its resolution of 0.5 cm is better than that of SPECT; the accuracy and sensitivity of PET scans make them useful for examining the brain’s anatomy and function. The brain’s use of oxygen and water can be monitored with \({ }^{15} \mathrm{O}\). PET is used extensively for diagnosing brain disorders. It can note decreased metabolism in certain regions prior to a confirmation of Alzheimer’s disease. PET can locate regions in the brain that become active when a person carries out specific activities, such as speaking, closing their eyes, and so on.
PHET EXPLORATIONS: SIMPLIFIED MRI
Is it a tumor? Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) can tell.  In an MRI unit, these little radios can be made to broadcast their positions, giving a detailed picture of the inside of your head. Click to open media in new browser.
Section Summary
- Radiopharmaceuticals are compounds that are used for medical imaging and therapeutics.
- The process of attaching a radioactive substance is called tagging.
- Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) lists certain diagnostic uses of radiopharmaceuticals including the isotope and activity typically used in diagnostics.
- One common imaging device is the Anger camera, which consists of a lead collimator, radiation detectors, and an analysis computer.
- Tomography performed with \(\gamma\) -emitting radiopharmaceuticals is called SPECT and has the advantages of x-ray CT scans coupled with organ- and function-specific drugs.
- PET is a similar technique that uses \(\beta^{+}\) emitters and detects the two annihilation \(\gamma\) rays, which aid to localize the source.
Glossary
- Anger camera
- a common medical imaging device that uses a scintillator connected to a series of photomultipliers
- gamma camera
- another name for an Anger camera
- positron emission tomography (PET)
- tomography technique that uses \(\beta^{+}\) emitters and detects the two annihilation \(\gamma\) rays, aiding in source localization
- radiopharmaceutical
- compound used for medical imaging
- single-photon-emission computed tomography (SPECT)
- tomography performed with \(\gamma\)-emitting radiopharmaceuticals
- tagged
- process of attaching a radioactive substance to a chemical compound


11.2: Immigrant Rights
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- Erika Gutierrez, Janét Hund, Shaheen Johnson, Carlos Ramos, Lisette Rodriguez, & Joy Tsuhako
- Long Beach City College, Cerritos College, & Saddleback College via ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)
The Boundaries of Citizenship
In this modern era of globalization the boundaries of national citizenship have been challenged by multi-national trade agreements, offshore manufacturing and growing international migration. These forces have contributed to a domestic struggle to reassert the parameters of national identity, especially among many middle-class and white working class Americans. The perceived advances of outsider reference groups during this period such as immigrants and minorities further contribute to sense of crisis in the boundaries of national citizenship (Nicholls, 2019). These developments have led some Americans to feel like "strangers in their own land" as if they have been patiently waiting in line for their American Dream only to watch other historically marginalized groups cut in line ahead of them (Hochschild, 2016). At the same time, as Walter J. Nicholls (2019) notes, "The leading advocates (of the immigrant rights movement) from the mid-2000s onward embraced a liberal variant of nationalism that depicted America as welcoming and immigrants as highly deserving subjects. Rather than call for the dismantlement of borders or for post-national citizenship, the mainstream immigrant rights movement celebrated the nation and wrapped immigrants in the American flag" (p. 2). This struggle over who belongs and who doesn't is not a new one, but has become an central issue in modern politics as workers are squeezed by the rapidly accelerating forces of globalization, and politicians, both local and national, seize on these insecurities and promote "law and order" approaches to limiting immigrant rights.
Thinking Sociologically
Some have advocated for post-nationalism since today's world is very globalized with goods and services crossing borders on a daily basis. According to post-nationalism, the category of the nation is no longer sufficient to describe the fundamentals of political identity or state government. The concept of postnationalism seeks to break the tie between citizenship and ethnic identity or existential difference. One example of this is the European passport (Sassen, 2002). Do you think people should be able to move across borders on the American continent with some kind of postnationalist or denationalized passport? Why or why not?
Battleground: Suburbia
The first battleground of the contemporary struggles for immigrant rights was suburban America in the 1990s where immigrants began to be more visible as street corner vendors and day laborers seeking work in shopping center parking lots. Larger gateway cities were no strangers to immigrants and generally are characterized by more diversity and liberal political cultures (Walker & Leitner, 2011). Suburbia, however, characterized by the legacy of redlining policies made it less receptive to integrating outsiders who were perceived as threats to the culture and civic conditions (Massey & Denton, 1998). Xenophobic responses translated into policies that restricted immigrant assimilation such as bans on soliciting work in public, street vending, renting apartments to undocumented immigrants, and the use of foreign languages in public records (Nicholls, 2018). Various actors were employed in the enforcement of these policies including police, landlords, store owners, employers, and contractors. These repressive measures created a sense of out-group solidarity and elicited resistance from targeted immigrants and their supporters who argued that undocumented immigrants had a right to free speech, assembly. and due process.
Natural Allies
Because many other members of society were "entangled" with the lives of undocumented people, many natural allies have come to their defense. Many undocumented people live in mixed status families (as discussed earlier in Chapter 3.5 ) which means that even those with legal status have much to lose when their family members are targeted for deportation. Latinx immigrants with legal status or citizenship status were also targeted and discriminated against as illegal due to their racialized traits and cultural dispositions. Policies like Arizona's SB1070, the so-called "show-me-your-papers" statute, meant that law enforcement could ostensibly racially profile anyone of Latinx descent (discussed earlier in Chapter 3.4 ). Undocumented people have friends and neighbors, go to church, contribute to the local economy through their spending and taxation, thus dispersing the financial, psychic, and emotional costs of their repression. These social connections provide undocumented people with a reservoir of sympathy and solidarity for which to lean on for protection and support.
Dreamers
On June 15, 2012 President Barack Obama issued an executive branch memorandum known as Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) that allowed some individuals who were brought to the United States illegally as children to apply for a renewable two-year period of deferred action from deportation and to become eligible for a work permit in the United States. Recipients cannot have felonies or serious misdemeanors on their record and would not have a path to citizenship through this policy. This policy was a major victory for a young generation of activists dubbed Dreamers, after the failed DREAM Act (2001) which would have provided paths to citizenship through two years of military service or 2 years of college education. Though the policy did not apply to all who were brought as children as they had to be no older than 31 on the date it was signed and had to have been brought before June 2007 as a child no older than 15, the Migration Policy Institute estimates that over 1.3 million people qualified. As of March 2020, there are 643,560 DACA recipients who have been able to come out of the shadows and, at least temporarily have some sense of stability and opportunity that evaded them previously.
DACA would not have been possible if it weren't for the brave young organizers and activists, such as Jose Antonio Vargas featured in Video 11.2.5 below, and the various advocacy organizations who created spaces for young undocumented people to share their stories and realize that they were not alone. "This kind of political socialization helped shape how they thought and felt about their own "illegality." They learned that there was nothing to be ashamed of. They also learned that sticking together as a group allowed them to make powerful claims for equal rights" (Nicholls, 2014). They took their powerful claims and newfound strength in numbers to the offices of senators and the Department of Homeland Security to stage acts of civil disobedience. For this subgroup of undocumented immigrants, the narrative was compelling: they were socialized in U.S. schools, were not familiar with any other country, they played by the rules, and therefore had the right to pursue the American dream.
According to a June 2020 Pew survey, 74% of Americans support granting legal status to immigrants who were brought to the U.S. illegally as children, but as is discussed later in Chapter 11.5 , white nationalist sentiments pervade the Trump White House which is why on September 5, 2017, President Trump announced an end to DACA (Edelman, 2017). Then Attorney General Jeff Sessions criticized DACA as "unilateral executive amnesty" and claimed that it "yielded terrible humanitarian consequences" in addition to making unsubstantiated claims that it "denied jobs to hundreds of thousands of Americans by allowing those same jobs to go to illegal aliens." This announcement sent the hundreds of thousands of DACA recipients into panic-mode as their futures were uncertain yet again. Luckily for them, on June 18, 2020 the Supreme Court ruled that the way DACA was rescinded was unlawful. Then, the most recent announcement from the Department of Homeland Security substantially limits the policy by only allowing those who have already received DACA previously to reapply for only one year of deferred action, placing additional financial burdens as the fee to renew is $495. Many local organizations have taken to raising funds for this renewal fee as most come from economically disadvantaged backgrounds again demonstrating the pivotal role that allies play in this struggle for immigrant rights. Most recently, on December 4th, 2020, a federal judge ordered a full restoration of DACA which means that first-time applicants will be accepted. Additional court cases challenging DACA are pending.
Asylum Seekers
The United States is a signatory to the United Nation's 1967 Protocol which defines a refugee as "as a person who is unable or unwilling to return to his or her home country, and cannot obtain protection in that country, due to past persecution or a well-founded fear of being persecuted in the future “on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion.” According to the American Immigration Council , from 2004-2019 upon arriving at the U.S. border an asylum seeker must undergo a credible fear and reasonable fear-screening which is a part of the expedited removal process. If the asylum officer deems that the person has a "significant possibility" of establishing eligibility for asylum, they are referred to immigration court to proceed with the defensive asylum process, otherwise the person is removed from the United States.
Under the Trump administration this process has been substantially changed. As of April 2018 asylees arriving at the U.S.' southern border are now told to wait in Mexico until Customs and Border Protection officers determine that a given port of entry has capacity to process them. Additionally, those fleeing domestic violence no longer qualify for asylum, and as of July 2019 anyone who transited through a third country must apply for asylum there before arriving in the United States. Under this rule, almost everyone who arrives at the U.S.-Mexico border is ineligible for asylum as many are fleeing violence and poverty in Central American countries such as Guatemala and El Salvador.
No change however has elicited more public outcry than that of family separation. As a part of President Trump's "zero-tolerance" approach a policy of separating children from the parents or guardians that they entered the U.S. with at the southern border Mexico was officially adopted in April of 2018, though later investigations showed that the practice was in place for an year prior to the announcement. According to the Southern Poverty Law Center , at least 4,368 children were separated as of January of 2020. In response, a coalition of 250 organizations led by the National Domestic Workers Alliance, Women’s Refugee Commission, MomsRising, FWD.us, United We Dream, People’s Action, ACLU, Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights, MoveOn called "Families Belong Together" formed. Even though President Trump signed an executive order ending the policy on June 20, 2018 - on June 30th, hundreds of thousands of people in all 50 states participated in a "Families Belong Together" protest showing the interest the general public has in immigration issues.
Migrant Detention Facilities
The outrage at family separation brought to light the existence of and conditions in immigrant detention centers. Images of children on cold cement floors in warehouses caged by chain linked fences and covered in metallic space blankets circulated widely on the internet eliciting shock and disgust at the Trump administration even though many of the photos were taken during the Obama administration (Gomez, 2019). In reality, migrant detention has been on the rise for the past 3 decades leading Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) to outsource the detention to private companies (Law, 2019). The conditions in these facilities have been characterized as "squalid conditions, overcrowding, cold temperatures, (and) inadequate medical care," leading to "tragic deaths." Many activists and civil rights organizations such as the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) have argued that the increase in immigrant detention is in reality an expansion of the prison-industrial complex (PIC) (Luan, 2018). The PIC is a term used by activists to characterize the mutually profitable relationships among private corporations that secure government contracts to build and maintain prison facilities, those that profit from the use of prison labor and the politicians they lobby for "tough on crime" and "zero tolerance" immigration policies. According to government data, over 70% of migrants are held in private detention facilities. In 2018, the U.S. awarded 6.8 billion dollars in federal contracts for private detention facilities run by companies like the two largest Geo Group and Core Civic (formerly Corrections Corporation of America). Just as in private prisons, migrants are held in some facilities where they are coerced to work for as little as a dollar a day, as has been alleged in 4 ongoing lawsuits. Rising awareness of these perceived abuses has led to nation-wide "Close the camps" protests and calls to "Abolish ICE." Other tactics include targeting the banks that finance private detention facilities. For example, the aforementioned Families Belong Together coalition collected over 1 million signature urging JP Morgan Chase to divest from Geo Group and Core Civic, and in March 2019 they announced they would be doing just that (Green, 2020). This successful campaign shows the importance of digital media in spreading awareness and in mobilizing people to bring about tangible progress towards social justice.
Contributors and Attributions
- Tsuhako, Joy. (Cerritos College)
- Johnson, Shaheen. (Long Beach City College)
Works Cited
- About us. (2020). Families Belong Together.
- American Oversight. (2020). Conditions in migrant detention centers. American Oversight.
- American Immigration Council. (2020). Asylum in the United States. American Immigration Council.
- Edelman, A. (2017, September 5). Trump ends DACA program, no new applications accepted. NBC News.
- Freedom for Immigrants. (2020). Detention by the numbers. Freedom for Immigrants.
- Gomez, A. (2019, February 7). Democrats grill Trump administration officials over family separation policy on the border. USA Today.
- Immigrant Legal Resource Center. (2020). DACA frequently asked questions. Immigrant Legal Resource Center.
- Law, V. (2019, Jan. 29). End forced labor in immigrant detention. New York Times.
- Law, V. (2019, May 29). Investigation: corporations are profiting from immigrant detainees’ labor. some say it’s slavery. In These Times.
- Luan, L. (2018, May 2). Profiting from enforcement: The role of private prisons in U.S. immigration detention. The Online Journal of the Migration Policy Institute.
- Massey, D.S. & Denton, N.A. (1993). American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Harvard University Press.
- Nicholls, W.J. (2013). Th e DREAMers: How the Undocumented Youth Movement Transformed the Immigrant Rights Debate in the United States. Stanford University Press.
- Nicholls, W.J. (2019). The Immigrant Rights Movement: The Battle over National Citizenship. Stanford University Press.
- Pew Research Center. (2020, June 17). American broadly support legal status for immigrants brought to U.S. illegally as children. Pew Resesarch Center.
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Sassen, S. (2002). Towards Post-National and Denationalized Citizenship. In: E. F. Isin, & B. S. Turner (Eds.), Handbook of Citizenship Studies (pp. 277-291). London: Sage.
https://doi.org/10.4135/9781848608276.n17


15.14: Websites
- http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense Wikipedia. The old faithful. You can explore here to your hearts desire. Try ‘eye’, ‘ear’, ‘taste’ etc. but also ‘equilibrioception’, and ‘echolocation’.
- http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/factfiles/smell/smell_ani_f5.swf BBC Science and Nature. BBC animation of (human) olfactory organ and smelling.
- http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/factfiles/taste/taste_ani_f5.swf BBC Science. BBC animation of (human) taste buds and tasting.
- http://web.archive.org/web/20071121213719/http://www.bishopstopford.com/faculties/science/arthur/Eye%20Drag%20%26%20Drop.swf Eye Diagram. A diagram of the eye to label and test your knowledge.
- http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/factfiles/hearing/hearing_animation.shtml BBC on Hearing. BBC animation of hearing. Well worth looking at.
- http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/index_tj.asp?objid=AP1502 Ear Animation. Another great animation of the ear and hearing.
- http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/factfiles/balance/balance_ani_f5.swf BBC Balance Animation. An animation of the action of the otolith organ (called macula in this animation)