5.1: Stugard Family Plant Stand: A Rustic Handicraft Tradition
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Plant Stand
American Neighbor of Stugard Family, 1899 Wood (willow sapling) Gift of Lucille (Stugard) McKee MHAHS 2001.101.0121 |
On November 9, 2001, the Mount Horeb Historical Society received a gift of late 19th and early 20th century farmhouse objects from Lucille McKee (Stugard), whose family has owned a homestead in the Springdale Township for over a century. On February 2, 1899, the donor’s grandparents, Harold H. Stugard, whose surname was sometimes written Stugaarden, (b. June 9, 1871; Springdale, WI) married Miss Betsy Rue and the couple was given a black willow plant stand as a wedding gift from an unidentified neighbor. [1] With his new wife, Mr. Stugard, the son of pioneers, settled down in Springdale and managed a farm. Twenty years later, the couple moved to Mount Horeb while their son, Banford Stugard took over the Springdale property. Harold Stugard died on June 9, 1871, but was survived by his wife, son Banford, and granddaughter Lucille.
Untouched over the decades, the farm house and its contents, from spice cabinets to vases and a Lefse stick to a quilt, were preserved, retaining the material essence of a former way of life. In many ways, the household has operated as a time capsule; undisturbed since the Great Depression and uninfluenced by technology; it has never even had running water. The stand, thereby, introduces the opportunity for viewers to contemplate rural handicrafts and the household economy in the Midwest circa 1900. Furthermore, it speaks to a sort of 19th century do-it-yourself or D.I.Y. culture, not entirely different from our own in 2016, as well as contemporary style preferences. This essay will examine the practice and ideology of rural handicrafts, such as the production of twig furniture like the plant stand, as contributing to a sense of connectedness to a place and to a prosperous community as suggested by writer Helen Albee and countless others who advocated for the transformative power of crafts for the well-being of the rural community. [2]
The plant stand, dated to 1899, is composed of rustic blackened nails, barely visible against the aged bent creek willow. Standing 31” in height and 16” by 16” around, the stand is a complex interweaving of short twigs around which long curving branches wrap and add decorative appeal. The stand possesses evidence for frontality as one side of the stand is striated with the subtle remnants of gold paint. Sturdily propped by three crossing legs, the stand is topped with a basket-like container designed to support a potted plant.
Twig furniture, occasionally referenced in home fashion magazines, is typically associated with anonymous craftsmen and rustic styles, appealing to consumers’ desire for local and natural materials. In the case of the Stugard plant stand, the craftsman is unidentified; even the craftsman’s sex is unknown. In this sense, the works have a humble yet mysterious quality, unclaimed and unnamed, they nonetheless speak of a long craft tradition and the cooperative efforts of rural community members.
A short article in House Beautiful titled “Origins of Style: Rustic Style: Rural Twig Furniture” identified 4 primary movements or trends in free-form twig style furnishings, which reference 18th c. English garden furniture made from tree roots. Beginning from the 1840’s, the trends developed from the East Coast fashionable rustic designs possessing rural and urban appeal: 1. Gothic Revival primarily laurel or rhododendron, 2. Civil War period ladder-back chairs, 3. 1870s Basket Work made from willow, 4. Adaptations of 18th c. colonial chairs. [3] Despite changing style preferences, retaining the original identity of the material has remained central to twig furniture.
In her book, Rustic Furniture , Sue Honacker Stephenson argues that twig furniture possesses a “decorative symbolism” that functions as a rebellion against commercial and industrial excess. She goes on to interpret the furniture as a statement against modern consumption though the objects denial of industrial facture and its embrace of unfinished material. “As a decorative symbol, a rustic seat is astonishingly literal, being constructed of the bare roots of trees.” [4] However, her argument weakens when it is tested against class and the differing experiences of urban and rural consumers and makers. For the urban consumer fighting dirty and increasingly crowded cities, bringing natural elements into the home, in a sense, constructed a contrasting refuge from the noise and hurry of the city whereas the rural consumer seems more connected to their local resources and community support.
According to early 20th century writers on the rural craftsman, the twig tradition likely stemmed from the desire for a productive household economy and a prosperous community achieved by the practice and perfecting of handicraft skills as well as a deep personal connection to the land and materials, in this case, the willow. In his essay “The Scope and Drift of the American Arts and Crafts Movement,” Alvan Sanborn describes the contrast between machinery’s artificiality and the movement against it toward naturalism and authenticity. He quotes William Morris before criticizing him for “crudities, exaggerations, extravagances, affectations and absurdities which offer incomparable material to the humorist or social satirist, but which it is quite unnecessary to enlarge upon.” [5] The writer argues for the beginning of a new epoch of applied arts in America in which even elite households are decorated in a way that is simple and devoid of pretention and avoids magnificence, but upon closer inspection, what appears to be simple is in fact extraordinarily well crafted and possesses incredible value. [6] Such finely crafted yet simple works are described as art, rather than craft throughout this essay, advocating for the creative agency and practiced skill of the craftsman, less interested in reacting against industrialization and more interested in applying his or her skill to the benefit of the community.
Woven into the twists and folds of willow furniture is a craft tradition that is still performed today, whether by practicing as a craftsman in the creation of a plant stand or as a consumer drawn by the rustic charm of a simple yet elegant unrefined accessory. Such craftsman share in the 19th century experience of gathering resources from the land and using it in aesthetic and utilitarian ways. Today, a web search for willow or twig furniture returns dozens of do-it-yourself samples from popular craft sites such as Etsy, Pinterest, and HGTV announcing nostalgic descriptors such as “homemade” and “rustic.” Similarly, antique and vintage goods stores, advertise vintage willow plant stands as Folk Americana.
One manufacturer titled Twig Factory produces a variety of twig furnishings from chairs, to arbors, bed frames and plant stands. Its web home page describes its product as possessing a sense of tranquility that mimics the feeling of being in nature. The works transform the domestic space into an experience that feels more like a retreat, simultaneously disconnecting the consumer from the rush of industry and reconnecting them to nature: “there is something immediately familiar about willow twig and birch bark, that embraces you and connects your spirit to nature. Rustic willow furniture allows you to bring the spirit of nature into your home, into your hearts, so you can enjoy it year-round.” [7] By retaining the original texture of the outdoors, twig furniture is particularly disposed to attract consumers seeking domestic objects that, by purposely retaining all of the texture of the original plant, connect the user to nature and recall their fond memories of exploring and experiencing nature.
Upon first sight, the Twig Factory ’s plant stands [8] are nearly indistinguishable in design from the Stugard family plant stand; however, extended looking begins to establish some important differences, which suggest changes in stylistic references. Unlike the Stugard stand, the Twig Factory stand is primarily made from straight branches from an unidentified plant source and they are not painted. In his video introducing consumers to his practice and product, Gary, the self-identified twigologist [9] , introduces himself as a master builder and then discusses his experience in upholstery, which helped him think about how best to construct works that support the human body comfortably and contribute to good posture. He also prioritizes the durability of his product and the combined strength of twigs producing a slightly different aesthetic than the Stugard plant stand’s style. [10] However, similar to the stand, Gary emphasizes his individuality, describing each work as being uniquely crafted and incorporating excellent quality materials that are mindful of sustainability. Though he calls himself a builder, he subtly hints at the artistic or creative quality of his work, particularly when he uses his materials and craft to build non-functional pieces such as frames and other sculptural twig decorations.
Far more elaborate in his designs, Bill Perkins, builder and owner of Sleeping Bear Twig Furniture based out of Leelanau, Michigan, describes his first encounter with twig furniture and what inspired him to take up building:
I was first introduced as a child to the idea of making furniture from branches, twigs and bark in their natural state. This happened when some neighbors took me along on one of their visits to a friend’s grandmother’s “Up North” cottage, which was furnished in the rustic style. I was really impressed by these twisting and gnarly chairs and tables. My previous experiences with this style had been building tree forts and hideouts as a kid.
Years later, when I moved to northern Michigan in my twenties, I remembered those willow pieces and began to make them myself. I liked the idea of bringing trees inside the house and shaping them into beautiful and functional objects, without losing the character and identity of the materials. [11]
He goes on to describe plant stands as his initial voyage into the art of twig furniture, contrasting the ricketiness of his first attempts to the elaborate and solid pieces his 25 years of experience has qualified him to produce. In describing his individual style, he identifies the Arts and Crafts movement and Art Nouveau as most influential on his designs, creating an artistic heritage for his functional works.
Perkins goes on to expound upon the centrality of material to his work ultimately tying the quickly renewable willow to the land and the land to his furniture. As willow furniture builder couple Rick and Denise Pratt describe the importance of material, they identify the work sprouting from the swampy landscape, ideal for cultivating willow. Furthermore, they suggest their preference for willow stems from it being an exceptionally renewable resource, making it difficult to exhaust and ideal for efficient furniture production and desirable to today’s consumer interested in sustainability. [12] The couple need not travel far to avoid exhausting their local resources, because the willow on their property is enough to sustain their craft. Their experience with gathering materials directly from the land is shared by each twig furniture builder mentioned; each shares a deep connection to their nearby environment, suggesting the same from the anonymous Stugard family plant stand maker who likewise must have engaged his or her local resources and skill to produce artistic and utilitarian goods.
A 1987 issue of Metropolitan Home features an article on twig furniture builder’s Michael and Ronna Emmons of Partington Ridge, CA, titled “Laughing Willows’ Whimsical Willow Craft, a Mix of Memory and Modernity, Has Sent Twig Furniture Branching out on a New Path.” The author describes the duo as builder and upholsterer; Michael builds the willow furniture, chairs, headboards, love-seats, tables, and stands, with both the tradition of rustic twig furniture associated to resourceful interaction with their local environment and a reference to contemporary geometric designs, while Ronna uses her fine art experience to design and paint upholstered parts including chair seats. Similar to Bill Perkin’s nostalgic experience, they identify the important role of memory or recalling the objects from one’s past as both inspiring their work and their customer’s interest noting that customers frequently share stories with them about how they recognize twig furniture in relation to their grandparents or other earlier generations. It reminds them of their childhood and their loved ones past, loved ones that also shared an affinity for the natural. [13]
In the essay “A Toolkit of Dreams: Conversations with American Craft Artists,” woodworker Jere Osgood describes the centrality of nature in his performance of woodworking. Osgood explains,
that sense of being with the things that are going on with the things outside, is very important to me. I don’t have that in the city. The city, of course, would have all sorts of wonderful things, particularly New York City or Boston, the buildings, the things in the museums are priceless. They’re the result of other persons’ profound understanding of things. And it’s important to me just to get out, maybe where the basic things are, and to be out in nature where things are in a formative stage, whereas we see the complete collections at the Museum of Fine Arts. They’re completed of finished, whereas it’s an ongoing, living process being with the trees and the plants. [14]
Osgood’s affinity for local rootedness and the land, drawing both inspiration and material from things that grow from the ground and continue to grow into his work, are clearly evident in the work of the twig or willow furniture builder in his or her choice to utilize a material that retains all of its original character, as though their works continue to grow up from the floor, incorporating the outdoor experience and closeness to nature within the domestic space.
This awareness of nature and industry is also recognized in the 1897 essay “Rural Prosperity” by Edmund Verney in which he describes the territory of Württemberg [15] , a once impoverished and overpopulated German territory that was transformed into a production center for blankets, carpets, paper, wood-carving, furniture, and clocks. He attributes this transformation to Dr. Von Steinbeis, the President of the Board of Trade in Württemberg, who was inspired by the handicraft presence of rural communities showcased in the 1851 London Exhibition. Steinbeis saw the same potential to create within his own national population. After instituting various schools and centers for trades and handicrafts, the industrious people of Württ emberg worked hand-in-hand with both industry and agriculture to produce all manner of goods for both domestic and international consumers. “The secret of…prosperity is the association of industrial with agricultural life, as in Württemberg. The Swiss farmer is very often also a wood-carver or a maker of watch-springs; at times, too, he will act as a guide for tourists.” [16] Verney describes Württemberg’s prosperous union of industry and craft as a model for rural communities. He emphasizes the moral nature of “honest” work tracing the area’s handicraft tradition alongside the communities’ prioritization of hand labor as opposed to mechanical labor:
“The readiness with which the people will adapt themselves to any honest means of livelihood is shown in the case of wood carving. It is recorded that in the year 1819 the first wood carver arrived in Berne, one Christian Fischer, who taught this art to the young men for the employment of their winter’s evenings, and now it is the constant occupation of 6,000 persons.” [17]
For Verney, a prosperous community is both agricultural and industrial; it is productive and educated in trades and arts in order to produce goods that activate the full range of the community’s resources and skills. In the same way, the plant stand tradition utilizes local renewable resources in a craft simple enough to be taken up as a productive evening activity, but specialized enough to require practice and skill like Bill Perkins developing his trade from his first rickety plant stands to solid, substantial works of furniture.
While arguing for the pivotal importance education has on rural prosperity, Verney also advocated for the moral impact of handiwork on the individual. He asserted that “first, it makes work real; secondly, it teaches accuracy; and, thirdly, the pupil learns that moral qualities like patience and determination are essential to progress.” [18] He continues by listing the virtues of handicraft: “diligence, perseverance, love of order, neatness, dexterity, caution, a love of construction, a respect for the work of men’s hands, and a contempt for wanten destruction.” [19] Similar to the ways in which 19th c. middle-class women were encouraged to perform various forms of fancy work for its moralizing quality, Verney exhorts his reader to learn and master handicrafts, which instill in the student certain moral virtues necessary for learning and thoughtfully executing quality works. He identified characteristics such as diligence as likely associated with the education and perfection of a craft, neatness necessary to produce works with both efficiency and simplicity, and respect developed from understanding and appreciating the time and skill required of a craftsman. All such qualities are carefully constructive to producing effective members of a fruitful rural society.
A similar essay published in 1902 identifies an Arts and Crafts Movement in rural Deerfield, MA as exemplar for rural prosperity. Titled “May Solve a Rural Problem: How the Art Handicraft Movement at Deerfield Mass., May Spread to Other Towns – Success Meets the Associated Workers in Beaten Brass, Colonial Furniture and ‘Grandmother’ Rugs,” the article posits a solution to the decaying rural village, suggesting that the handicraft movement in Deerfield may envisage similar movements westward. The author contrasts the resident’s former “hap-hazard sort of fashion” from when they were a decaying town to the new serious, livelihood sustaining pursuit of craft. The author describes how Deerfield’s female embroiderers began to “realize the dignity of a craft” and male woodworkers, though a minority of the Deerfield Arts and Craft Society, as competent producers of Colonial furniture. [20] For the embroiderer, the work was no longer merely craft, it was artistic. Instead it was transformed in their minds and level of dedication to a serious trade to the degree that it might be said, “in Deerfield…everything is artistic.” [21] Further advocating for the self-sufficiency and economy of the rural town, the author writes, “everything that is making the fame of the village was found, in embryo at least, within it. Nothing has been imported,” which echoes the concern of even twig furniture builders today who emphasize the importance of producing work from the local environment.
Describing the Arts and Crafts Movement in America, Rho Fisk Zueblin highlights the importance of association and inheritance in his essay “The Arts and Crafts Movement: The Production of Industrial Art in America II”: “Home industries always have the alluring claims of association and inheritance, and bear the ‘tool-marks’ of personality.” [22] The 19th century craftsman felt connected to rich cultural pasts by practicing folk traditions or looking to great artworks of the past for inspiration. Most art historical texts define the Arts and Crafts movement as a direct response against industry and the romanticizing of nature a response against overcrowded, dirty cities. [23] Zueblin writes, “art work that is springing up on the mountains and in the sleepy hollows…may represent some eager soul who is finding it helpful and happy to work out art problems alone and in close touch with nature.” [24] For him, the pursuit of nature is equated with happy isolation that leads to creative clarity. In other words, the craftsman removes him or herself from the bustling and distracting cities in order to find artistic inspiration. He continues: “Thus are fashioned objects to be cherished and valued on account of their personal feeling and character, and such are the fireside arts done by talented individuals.” [25] Zueblin finishes this section of his essay by emphasizing the individual’s talent and character as requisite to produce cherished works. His highly sentimental writing on the Arts and Crafts movement shows how romantically people thought of handicrafts toward the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century.
Though the plant stand’s anonymous maker leaves viewers with little assurance as to his professional skill, experience, and intention, the plant stand, preserved for over 100 years, likely possessed the sense of “cherished and valued” personal character that this 1903 author describes. Furthermore, the author connects rural handicraft with ties to both nature and personal feeling along with the satisfaction of working out technical problems and developing their skill. Viewers might perceive the plant stand as both representing the Springdale community’s natural resources as well as its resident’s esteem for handicrafts, particularly given that the craft was appropriate gift for a wedding. However, as Zueblin writes, “the interest in home industries has a broader outlook and deeper social significance than is found in the work of individual artists,” proceeding to reiterate the same conclusion as the previous two sources writing, “The revival of cottage crafts in most cases has meant either the renewal of traditional arts or the introduction of a handicraft for community betterment.” [26] In this case, the community betterment is exercised in the support and well-wishes of a young couple embarking on their journey as neighbor Springdale farmers.
Quoted in Zueblin’s text, Oscar Lovell Trigg rejects the notion of the Arts and Crafts movement as simply an aversion to machinery as quoted in “Chapters in the Arts and Crafts Movement.” Contrary to much art historical literature, Trigg writes, “[the Arts and Crafts Movement is not] a fanatical protest against machinery or a revival of the domestic system of the middle ages.” In scholarship, 19th century medievalism is closely tied to the Arts and Crafts movement. But this writer suggests that the Arts and Crafts movement in not about looking back to medieval systems, but looking forward to “the first stages of a new industrialism answering to the demand of the works for more individual expression and of consumers for the satisfaction of their individual and higher wants.” [27] Instead of placing the greatest weight on a medieval inheritance, he pivots toward individual expression, aligning with the growing middle class eager to incorporate artistic objects in their homes.
Twig willow furniture clearly fits into this philosophy as the sense of place and self-sufficiency are primary themes to each of these author’s arguments. Each has a clear concern for community betterment by activating and ennobling the local resources through artistic means. The twig plant stand achieves this mission by both acting as the embodiment of a learned skill requiring moral diligence and appreciation for handiwork. It also embodies the place in which the craftsmen live, a place in which they cultivate and develop deep meaningful connections to one another and to the land.
In addition to speaking to the 19th and early 20th century philosophies on the qualities of a prosperous rural town and the participation and skill specialization of its population, the plant stand is an interesting impression of a much larger 19th and early-20th century interest in wicker or rattan furnishings often made from willow twigs, reeds, and other pliant twig plants. In his book The Collector’s Guide to American Wicker Furniture , Richard Saunders claims that wicker furniture “captured the mood of the times to a ‘T,’ reveling in the adoration of the home as an island of refuge that celebrated any handmade or eclectic decoration.” [28] Likewise, countless primary sources, from advertisements to articles on home decoration, emphasize the appeal of willow furnishings. Between 1911 and 1915, the periodical Art & Decoration published articles by various authors titled “The Informal Note in Summer Furniture,” “The Use and Beauty of Willow Furniture,” and “The Adaptable Willow: Its Appeal of Structure Line and Form.” [29] At the same time, advertisements use language such as “The Final Note of Comfort,” “Hand – Wrought Willow Furniture commands a place in even the most lavish home,” “no other investment insures artistic results at such a low cost,” (Figure 6.) [30] and “see these unique pieces to realize the home-like atmosphere they impart.” [31] Advertisements highlight desirable qualities inherent in willow furnishings including being handmade, artistic, and low cost.
Many authors have discussed the far-reaching trends of wicker and Adirondack styles. Jeremy Adamson’s American Wicker: Woven Furniture from 1850 to 1930 published in 1993 and accompanied by an exhibition hosted by the Renwick Gallery of the National Museum of American Art and Craig Gilborn’s 1987 book Adirondack Furniture and the Rustic Tradition, which features a large selection of twig furniture, both set the atmosphere for willow furnishing’s design. [32] [33] However, they fail to answer questions about the tradition of crafting home-made furniture as addressed by the ideologies of the rural community economy. Perceiving both the class implications of curating an aesthetic domestic environment by incorporating popular wicker trends along with the rural community’s emphasis on resourcefulness suggest that the plant stand might at once be the product of contemporary home décor styles as well as the preservation of the rural economy.
In conclusion, the plant stand speaks to the resourcefulness and skill of the 19th century rural community and the anonymous individuals that contributed to binding and supportive relationships that created a prosperous community unit. Aesthetically appealing wicker furnishings introduced nature to the home through its rustic, natural finish and simple, plantlike structure, resonating with both ideals of natural beauty and tranquility as well as contemporary home fashions with their class implications. In developing and exercising their skill, the rural craftsman supported both the utilitarian as well as aesthetically moralizing needs of his or her community.
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The Mt Horeb Historical Society’s accession report provides four family names without identifying their relation to one another. First, it indicates that the estate was once farmed by Kathryn and Banford Stugard. Per the U.S. Social Security Death Index, Banford Stugard died in Dane Co. in the year 1996, while Kathryn Stugard died in 1976. According to Heritage.com, which bases data on the United States Federal Census, Howard Banford Stugard was born in 1900 to Harald Stugaarden and Betsy Ann Stugaarden. The census also indicates that Howard Banford Stugard had two siblings. Based on this preliminary search, it seems that the plant stand originally belonged to the donor’s grandparents, Betsy Ann and Harold Stugard, and has remained in the family’s care, passing on to Banford and Kathryn Stugard and finally to Lucille McKee Stugard before entering the Historical Society’s care.
↵
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Albee, Helen R. “What Women in Your Town Can Do: How to Organize and Conduct a Home Industry.” Ladies Home Journal (June 1916): 30.
↵
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Garey, Carol Cooper. “Origins of Style: Rustic Style: Rural Twig Furniture.”
House Beautiful
125 (1983): 93.
↵
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Stephenson, Sue Honacker.
Rustic Furniture.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1979.
↵
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Sanborn, Alvan P. “The Scope and Drift of the American Arts and Crafts Movement.”
Forum
(September 1908): 254.
↵
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Ibid
. (September 1908): 254.
↵
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“Home.”
Twig Factory.
Accessed online at
http://www.twigfactory.com
on December 10, 2016. ↵
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Twig Factory plant stands are located within their “Garden Décor” category: “Garden Decor.”
Twig Factory.
Accessed online at
http://www.twigfactory.com
on December 10, 2016. ↵
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Twigology is defined as the study of twigs and is used in the occasional non-professional gardening book such as Calvo, Janit.
Gardening in Miniature: Create Your Own Tiny Living World.
Portland, OR: Timber Press Inc., 2013: 212. And Fox, Ann Ramp.
Rustic Accents for Your Home: 45 Projects from Vines, Twigs and Branches (Rustic Home Series.)
In
Rustic Accents for Your Home
North Adams, MA: Storey Publishing LLC., 1999. Twigologist Ann Ramp Fox teaches readers how to make whimsical home decorations out of twigs and vines. ↵
-
“Gary the Twigologist Explains How to Sit in a Twig Chair”
Twig Factory.
Accessed December 12, 2016
http://twigfactory.com/twig-chairs-c-7.html
. ↵
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Perkins, Bill. “About.”
Sleeping Bear Twig Furniture.
accessed December 10, 2016 at
http://www.sleepingbeartwigfurniture.com/about
. ↵
-
Pratt, Rick and Denise. “About Us.”
Around the Bent Willow Furniture. A
ccessed December 12, 2016 at
http://www.aroundthebendwillowfurnit...bout_us/7.html
↵
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Freiman, Ziva. “Laughing Willows’ Whimsical Willow Craft, a Mix of Memory and Modernity, Has Sent Twig Furniture Branching out on a New Path.”
Metropolitan Home
19 (1987): 27.
↵
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Kirwin, Liza and Joan Lord. “A Toolkit of Dreams: Conversations with American Craft Artists.”
Archives of American Art Journal
43 (2003): 13.
↵
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Württemberg was an independent German kingdom responsible for internal administration of its education, industry, and religious affairs until approximately 1919. It was absorbed into German state administration during World War I, losing many privileges under the new republican constitution. In 1952, Württemberg was merged with Baden, to form the territory Baden-Württemberg as it remains today.
↵
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Verney, Edmund. “Rural Prosperity.”
The Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature (1844-1898).
65 (June 1897): 747.
↵
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Verney, Edmunc. “Rural Prosperity.”
The Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature (1844-1898).
65 (June 1897): 747.
↵
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Ibid
. (June 1897): 747.
↵
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Ibid
. (June 1897): 747.
↵
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McL, M.D. “May Solve a Rural Problem: How the Art Handicraft Movement at Deerfield Mass., May Spread to Other Towns – Success Meets the Associated Workers in Beaten Brass, Colonial Furniture and ‘Grandmother’ Rugs,”
The New York Times
(Sept 7, 1902): 29.
↵
-
Ibid
. (Sept 7, 1902): 29.
↵
-
Zueblin, Rho Fisk. “The Arts and Crafts Movement: The Production of Industrial Art in America II.”
The Chautauquan; A Weekly Newsmagazine (1880-1914)
37 (April 1903): 59.
↵
-
See Roche, John F. 1995. "The culture of pre-modernism: Whitman, Morris, & the American arts and crafts movement."
Atq
9, no. 2: 103.: “Broadly speaking, this movement began in opposition to the nineteenth-century factory system, under which the worker was subservient to the machine process, the consumer dependent on machine-made items of questionable quality.”
↵
-
Zueblin, Rho Fisk. “The Arts and Crafts Movement: The Production of Industrial Art in America II.”
The Chautauquan; A Weekly Newsmagazine (1880-1914)
37 (April 1903): 59.
↵
-
Zueblin, Rho Fisk. “The Arts and Crafts Movement: The Production of Industrial Art in America II.”
The Chautauquan; A Weekly Newsmagazine (1880-1914)
37 (April 1903): 59.
↵
-
Ibid
. (April 1903): 59.
↵
-
Ibid
. (April 1903): 59.
↵
-
Saunders, Richard.
The Collector’s Guide to American Wicker Furniture
. New York: Hearst Books, 1983.
↵
-
Price, Matlock. “The Adaptable Willow: Its Appeal of Structural Line and Form.”
Arts & Decoration (1910-1911)
1 (October 1911): 482-483.; McCall, D. D. “The Use and Beauty of Willow Furniture.”
Arts & Decoration (1910-1911)
1 (March 1911): 221-222.; Marke, Mortimer. “The Informal Note in Summer Furniture.”
Arts & Decoration (1910-1918)
10 (April 1915): 232-233.
↵
-
“Back Matter.”
Arts & Decoration.
(September 1911): 456.
↵
-
Advertisement by Joseph P. McHugh & Son of New York.
↵
-
Adamson, Jeremy.
American Wicker: Woven Furniture from 1850 to 1930
. New York: Rizolli
↵
-
International Publication, 1993.; Gilborn, Craig A.
Adirondack Furniture and the Rustic Tradition.
1987.
↵


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10.1: The Rate of a Chemical Reaction
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The rate, or speed, at which a reaction occurs depends on the frequency of successful collisions. Remember, a successful collision occurs when two reactants collide with enough energy and with the right orientation. That means if we can do things that will increase the number of collisions, increase the number of particles that have enough energy to react and/or increase the number of particles with the correct orientation we will increase the rate of a reaction.
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10.2: The Idea of Dynamic Chemical Equilibrium
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Some reactions are reversible, meaning the reaction can go backwards in which products react to form reactants. If the forward and reverse reactions are happening at the same rate, the reaction is said to be at equilibrium or dynamic equilibrium. At this point, the concentrations of reactants and products are not changing (or are constant) and we would see no difference in our reaction container. However, reactions are still occurring in both directions.
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10.3: The Equilibrium Constant - A Measure of How Far a Reaction Goes
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In the previous section, you learned about reactions that can reach a state of equilibrium, in which the concentration of reactants and products aren't changing. If these amounts are changing, we should be able to make a relationship between the amount of product and reactant when a reaction reaches equilibrium.
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10.4: Disturbing a Reaction at Equilibrium- Le Châtelier’s Principle
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10.5: The Effect of a Concentration Change on Equilibrium
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10.6: The Effect of a Volume Change on Equilibrium
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Changing the pressure or volume of a container enclosing an equilibrium system will only affect the reaction if gases are present.
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10.7: The Effect of Temperature Changes on Equilibrium
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When temperature is the stress that affects a system at equilibrium, there are two important consequences: (1) an increase in temperature will favor that reaction direction that absorbs heat (i.e. the endothermic reaction) and (2) the value of Keq will change
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10.8: The Path of a Reaction and the Effect of a Catalyst
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Adding a catalyst to this, or any other equilibrium system, will not affect the position of an equilibrium. A catalyst speeds up both the forward and the reverse reactions, so there is no uneven change in reaction rates. Generally, a catalyst will help a reaction to reach the point of equilibrium sooner, but it will not affect the equilibrium otherwise.


14.1: Introduction
This bee and Echinacea flower (Figure 20.1) could not look more different, yet they are related, as are all living organisms on Earth. By following pathways of similarities and changes—both visible and genetic—scientists seek to map the evolutionary past of how life developed from single-celled organisms to the tremendous collection of creatures that have germinated, crawled, floated, swum, flown, and walked on this planet.
Contributors and Attributions
Remixed and/or curated from the following works:
Fowler, S., Roush, R., & Wise, J. (2013). 12 Introduction . In Concepts of Biology . OpenStax (CC BY 4.0; Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/1-introduction ).


18.1: Architecture of the Immune System
- Define memory, primary response, secondary response, and specificity
- Distinguish between humoral and cellular immunity
- Differentiate between antigens, epitopes, and haptens
- Describe the structure and function of antibodies and distinguish between the different classes of antibodies
Olivia, a one-year old infant, is brought to the emergency room by her parents, who report her symptoms: excessive crying, irritability, sensitivity to light, unusual lethargy, and vomiting. A physician feels swollen lymph nodes in Olivia’s throat and armpits. In addition, the area of the abdomen over the spleen is swollen and tender.
- What do these symptoms suggest?
- What tests might be ordered to try to diagnose the problem?
Adaptive immunity is defined by two important characteristics: specificity and memory. Specificity refers to the adaptive immune system’s ability to target specific pathogens, and memory refers to its ability to quickly respond to pathogens to which it has previously been exposed. For example, when an individual recovers from chickenpox, the body develops a memory of the infection that will specifically protect it from the causative agent, the varicella-zoster virus, if it is exposed to the virus again later.
Specificity and memory are achieved by essentially programming certain cells involved in the immune response to respond rapidly to subsequent exposures of the pathogen. This programming occurs as a result of the first exposure to a pathogen or vaccine, which triggers a primary response. Subsequent exposures result in a secondary response that is faster and stronger as a result of the body’s memory of the first exposure (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). This secondary response, however, is specific to the pathogen in question. For example, exposure to one virus (e.g., varicella-zoster virus) will not provide protection against other viral diseases (e.g., measles, mumps, or polio).
Adaptive specific immunity involves the actions of two distinct cell types: B lymphocytes (B cells) and T lymphocytes (T cells). Although B cells and T cells arise from a common hematopoietic stem cell differentiation pathway, their sites of maturation and their roles in adaptive immunity are very different.
B cells mature in the bone marrow and are responsible for the production of glycoproteins called antibodies, or immunoglobulins. Antibodies are involved in the body’s defense against pathogens and toxins in the extracellular environment. Mechanisms of adaptive specific immunity that involve B cells and antibody production are referred to as humoral immunity. The maturation of T cells occurs in the thymus. T cells function as the central orchestrator of both innate and adaptive immune responses. They are also responsible for destruction of cells infected with intracellular pathogens. The targeting and destruction of intracellular pathogens by T cells is called cell-mediated immunity, or cellular immunity.
- List the two defining characteristics of adaptive immunity.
- Explain the difference between a primary and secondary immune response.
- How do humoral and cellular immunity differ?
Antigens
Activation of the adaptive immune defenses is triggered by pathogen-specific molecular structures called antigens. Antigens are similar to the pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) discussed in Pathogen Recognition and Phagocytosis ; however, whereas PAMPs are molecular structures found on numerous pathogens, antigens are unique to a specific pathogen. The antigens that stimulate adaptive immunity to chickenpox, for example, are unique to the varicella-zoster virus but significantly different from the antigens associated with other viral pathogens.
The term antigen was initially used to describe molecules that stimulate the production of antibodies; in fact, the term comes from a combination of the words anti body and gen erator, and a molecule that stimulates antibody production is said to be antigenic. However, the role of antigens is not limited to humoral immunity and the production of antibodies; antigens also play an essential role in stimulating cellular immunity, and for this reason antigens are sometimes more accurately referred to as immunogens. In this text, however, we will typically refer to them as antigens.
Pathogens possess a variety of structures that may contain antigens. For example, antigens from bacterial cells may be associated with their capsules, cell walls, fimbriae, flagella, or pili. Bacterial antigens may also be associated with extracellular toxins and enzymes that they secrete. Viruses possess a variety of antigens associated with their capsids, envelopes, and the spike structures they use for attachment to cells.
Antigens may belong to any number of molecular classes, including carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, proteins, and combinations of these molecules. Antigens of different classes vary in their ability to stimulate adaptive immune defenses as well as in the type of response they stimulate (humoral or cellular). The structural complexity of an antigenic molecule is an important factor in its antigenic potential. In general, more complex molecules are more effective as antigens. For example, the three-dimensional complex structure of proteins make them the most effective and potent antigens, capable of stimulating both humoral and cellular immunity. In comparison, carbohydrates are less complex in structure and therefore less effective as antigens; they can only stimulate humoral immune defenses. Lipids and nucleic acids are the least antigenic molecules, and in some cases may only become antigenic when combined with proteins or carbohydrates to form glycolipids, lipoproteins, or nucleoproteins.
One reason the three-dimensional complexity of antigens is so important is that antibodies and T cells do not recognize and interact with an entire antigen but with smaller exposed regions on the surface of antigens called epitopes. A single antigen may possess several different epitopes (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)), and different antibodies may bind to different epitopes on the same antigen (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). For example, the bacterial flagellum is a large, complex protein structure that can possess hundreds or even thousands of epitopes with unique three-dimensional structures. Moreover, flagella from different bacterial species (or even strains of the same species) contain unique epitopes that can only be bound by specific antibodies.
An antigen’s size is another important factor in its antigenic potential.  Such molecules, called haptens, are essentially free epitopes that are not part of the complex three-dimensional structure of a larger antigen. For a hapten to become antigenic, it must first attach to a larger carrier molecule (usually a protein) to produce a conjugate antigen. The hapten-specific antibodies produced in response to the conjugate antigen are then able to interact with unconjugated free hapten molecules. Haptens are not known to be associated with any specific pathogens, but they are responsible for some allergic responses. For example, the hapten urushiol, a molecule found in the oil of plants that cause poison ivy, causes an immune response that can result in a severe rash (called contact dermatitis). Similarly, the hapten penicillin can cause allergic reactions to drugs in the penicillin class.
- What is the difference between an antigen and an epitope?
- What factors affect an antigen’s antigenic potential?
- Why are haptens typically not antigenic, and how do they become antigenic?
Antibodies
Antibodies (also called immunoglobulins) are glycoproteins that are present in both the blood and tissue fluids. The basic structure of an antibody monomer consists of four protein chains held together by disulfide bonds (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). A disulfide bond is a covalent bond between the sulfhydryl R groups found on two cysteine amino acids. The two largest chains are identical to each other and are called the heavy chains. The two smaller chains are also identical to each other and are called the light chains. Joined together, the heavy and light chains form a basic Y-shaped structure.
The two ‘arms’ of the Y-shaped antibody molecule are known as the Fab region, for “fragment of antigen binding.” The far end of the Fab region is the variable region, which serves as the site of antigen binding. The amino acid sequence in the variable region dictates the three-dimensional structure, and thus the specific three-dimensional epitope to which the Fab region is capable of binding. Although the epitope specificity of the Fab regions is identical for each arm of a single antibody molecule, this region displays a high degree of variability between antibodies with different epitope specificities. Binding to the Fab region is necessary for neutralization of pathogens, agglutination or aggregation of pathogens, and antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity.
The constant region of the antibody molecule includes the trunk of the Y and lower portion of each arm of the Y. The trunk of the Y is also called the Fc region, for “fragment of crystallization,” and is the site of complement factor binding and binding to phagocytic cells during antibody-mediated opsonization.
Describe the different functions of the Fab region and the Fc region.
Antibody Classes
The constant region of an antibody molecule determines its class, or isotype. The five classes of antibodies are IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE. Each class possesses unique heavy chains designated by Greek letters γ, μ, α, δ, and ε, respectively. Antibody classes also exhibit important differences in abundance in serum, arrangement, body sites of action, functional roles, and size (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)).
IgG is a monomer that is by far the most abundant antibody in human blood, accounting for about 80% of total serum antibody. IgG penetrates efficiently into tissue spaces, and is the only antibody class with the ability to cross the placental barrier, providing passive immunity to the developing fetus during pregnancy. IgG is also the most versatile antibody class in terms of its role in the body’s defense against pathogens.
IgM is initially produced in a monomeric membrane-bound form that serves as an antigen-binding receptor on B cells. The secreted form of IgM assembles into a pentamer with five monomers of IgM bound together by a protein structure called the J chain. Although the location of the J chain relative to the Fc regions of the five monomers prevents IgM from performing some of the functions of IgG, the ten available Fab sites associated with a pentameric IgM make it an important antibody in the body’s arsenal of defenses. IgM is the first antibody produced and secreted by B cells during the primary and secondary immune responses, making pathogen-specific IgM a valuable diagnostic marker during active or recent infections.
IgA accounts for about 13% of total serum antibody, and secretory IgA is the most common and abundant antibody class found in the mucus secretions that protect the mucous membranes. IgA can also be found in other secretions such as breast milk, tears, and saliva. Secretory IgA is assembled into a dimeric form with two monomers joined by a protein structure called the secretory component. One of the important functions of secretory IgA is to trap pathogens in mucus so that they can later be eliminated from the body.
Similar to IgM, IgD is a membrane-bound monomer found on the surface of B cells, where it serves as an antigen-binding receptor. However, IgD is not secreted by B cells, and only trace amounts are detected in serum. These trace amounts most likely come from the degradation of old B cells and the release of IgD molecules from their cytoplasmic membranes.
IgE is the least abundant antibody class in serum. Like IgG, it is secreted as a monomer, but its role in adaptive immunity is restricted to anti-parasitic defenses. The Fc region of IgE binds to basophils and mast cells. The Fab region of the bound IgE then interacts with specific antigen epitopes, causing the cells to release potent pro-inflammatory mediators. The inflammatory reaction resulting from the activation of mast cells and basophils aids in the defense against parasites, but this reaction is also central to allergic reactions (see Diseases of the Immune System .)
- What part of an antibody molecule determines its class?
- What class of antibody is involved in protection against parasites?
- Describe the difference in structure between IgM and IgG.
Antigen-Antibody Interactions
Different classes of antibody play important roles in the body’s defense against pathogens. These functions include neutralization of pathogens, opsonization for phagocytosis, agglutination, complement activation, and antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity. For most of these functions, antibodies also provide an important link between adaptive specific immunity and innate nonspecific immunity.
Neutralization involves the binding of certain antibodies (IgG, IgM, or IgA) to epitopes on the surface of pathogens or toxins, preventing their attachment to cells. For example, Secretory IgA can bind to specific pathogens and block initial attachment to intestinal mucosal cells. Similarly, specific antibodies can bind to certain toxins, blocking them from attaching to target cells and thus neutralizing their toxic effects. Viruses can be neutralized and prevented from infecting a cell by the same mechanism (Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\)).
As described in Chemical Defenses , opsonization is the coating of a pathogen with molecules, such as complementfactors, C-reactive protein, and serum amyloid A, to assist in phagocyte binding to facilitate phagocytosis. IgG antibodies also serve as excellent opsonins, binding their Fab sites to specific epitopes on the surface of pathogens. Phagocytic cells such as macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils have receptors on their surfaces that recognize and bind to the Fc portion of the IgG molecules; thus, IgG helps such phagocytes attach to and engulf the pathogens they have bound (Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\)).
Agglutination or aggregation involves the cross-linking of pathogens by antibodies to create large aggregates (Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\)). IgG has two Fab antigen-binding sites, which can bind to two separate pathogen cells, clumping them together. When multiple IgG antibodies are involved, large aggregates can develop; these aggregates are easier for the kidneys and spleen to filter from the blood and easier for phagocytes to ingest for destruction. The pentameric structure of IgMprovides ten Fab binding sites per molecule, making it the most efficient antibody for agglutination.
Another important function of antibodies is activation of the complement cascade. As discussed in the previous chapter, the complement system is an important component of the innate defenses, promoting the inflammatory response, recruiting phagocytes to site of infection, enhancing phagocytosis by opsonization, and killing gram-negative bacterial pathogens with the membrane attack complex (MAC). Complement activation can occur through three different pathways (see Figure 17.2.2 ), but the most efficient is the classical pathway, which requires the initial binding of IgG or IgM antibodies to the surface of a pathogen cell, allowing for recruitment and activation of the C1 complex.
Yet another important function of antibodies is antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC), which enhances killing of pathogens that are too large to be phagocytosed. This process is best characterized for natural killer cells (NK cells), as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\), but it can also involve macrophages and eosinophils. ADCC occurs when the Fab region of an IgG antibody binds to a large pathogen; Fc receptors on effector cells (e.g., NK cells) then bind to the Fc region of the antibody, bringing them into close proximity with the target pathogen.
- Where is IgA normally found?
- Which class of antibody crosses the placenta, providing protection to the fetus?
- Compare the mechanisms of opsonization and antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity.
Key Concepts and Summary
- Adaptive immunity is an acquired defense against foreign pathogens that is characterized by specificity and memory. The first exposure to an antigen stimulates a primary response , and subsequent exposures stimulate a faster and strong secondary response.
- Adaptive immunity is a dual system involving humoral immunity (antibodies produced by B cells) and cellular immunity (T cells directed against intracellular pathogens).
- Antigens , also called immunogens , are molecules that activate adaptive immunity. A single antigen possesses smaller epitopes , each capable of inducing a specific adaptive immune response.
- An antigen’s ability to stimulate an immune response depends on several factors, including its molecular class, molecular complexity, and size.
- Antibodies ( immunoglobulins ) are Y-shaped glycoproteins with two Fab sites for binding antigens and an Fc portion involved in complement activation and opsonization.
- The five classes of antibody are IgM , IgG , IgA , IgE , and IgD , each differing in size, arrangement, location within the body, and function. The five primary functions of antibodies are neutralization, opsonization, agglutination, complement activation, and antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC).


4.1: The Reading-Writing Process
Reading and Writing in History
Compared to speaking and listening, writing and reading are much more recent phenomena. For many centuries it was assumed that the best way to learn to write well was either to pray, entreat the muses, or carefully imitate writings that were already considered great. In England in the Middle Ages, reading was reserved for those in the clergy, nobles, and other elites , and "in 1820, only 12% of the world population could read and write."
In the Middle Ages, the invention of the printing press revolutionized the accessibility of books and pamphlets, and laws that had previously prevented people from learning to read were revoked, so more people learned to read. As more people read, more people wanted to write. Later, as more people went to school, teachers created rules to help them write "correctly." Unfortunately, this heavy emphasis on correctness and writing with a narrow set of rules did little to improve student writing. Simply knowing how to write grammatically correct prose is important, but it is not enough, by itself, to make writing effective or persuasive. Indeed, too much attention to correctness can result in unintentionally rigid or even comical writing. Legend has it that Winston Churchill grew so irritated at pedants telling him not to end his sentences with prepositions that he said to one of them, "Madame, that is a rule up with which I shall not put." Really, the best way to learn to become a better writer is to read more and note what the writer says.
Since the 1970s, writing instructors have been teaching writing, not as the following of fixed rules but rather as a dynamic process: a series of steps that writers can follow to produce texts. At first, these steps were taught as a somewhat rigid sequence. Since then, however, writing teachers began to emphasize "recursivity"--moving forward through some steps and then circling back to redo previous steps--as the more natural way to write. These steps involve both reading (someone else's or your own work) and writing throughout the composition process. In other words, while we still think of writing as a process taking place in a series of steps, we now understand that good writers tend to switch frequently among the different steps as they work, and each of these steps involve both reading and writing. An insight gained while editing (reading) one chapter might convince the writer that an additional chapter is needed; as a result, she might start another drafting phase--or even decide to divide one chapter into two or three, and begin reorganizing and developing new drafts. Likewise, failure to satisfy a publisher--whether it is your boss looking at a pamphlet you've written, or a book publisher deciding whether to print and sell your book--might lead the author all the way back to the idea-development or organizing stages. In short, while it is very useful to think of writing as a process, the process is not a clear, always-the-same series of steps. Instead, it is sometimes a forward-and-backward process in which you strive for simplicity while appealing to your audience, create but also organize, go crazy but follow some rules, and eventually create a product that works.
Product versus Process Approach to Writing
How do you develop an essay? The first and most important concept to understand is this: Essays do not happen all at once. An essay writer rarely creates an essay (the product) in one sitting due to the nature of essay writing. Essay writing is a process and, like any process, there are several stages or steps that you can learn and apply so that eventually you will develop your own process or processes for writing.
The chart below offers a fuller comparison of process versus product writing.
|
Product-Based Writing
Example: writing a news story under a deadline for a blog post |
Process-Based Writing
Example: writing a college essay |
|---|---|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Process-Based Writing and Reading
In order to learn to see reading and writing as processes, it is first important to understand that the meaning of any text is created during the act of writing itself, not before. This is not to say that meaning is completely determined by the writer. A reader can also help conjure the meaning of a text, and -- during the drafting process -- can help the writers develop meanings that they may not have seen on their own.
In addition, reading is also a process that -- when a person reads actively -- involves writing. For example, when readers annotate texts, they think about their own experiences, the meaning of the words, and the connections between what the text says and other aspects of their lived experiences. Readers may annotate -- or take notes -- on the text, which in itself, is an act of creation.
Here are some basic principles of process-based reading and writing:
- Writing is a process and practice. The meaning of any text is created and evolves during composing and revision.
- In order to develop meaning fully, multiple drafts (which a writer and others read and re-read), are necessary. Writing is much more than a transcription tool. It is a means of making knowledge, learning, and critical thinking.
- The reading-writing process can be divided into stages that include research, invention, revision, and editing.
- Writing is a non-linear process, and its stages often overlap.
- Writers actively seek feedback from readers and judiciously use that feedback in their revisions.
- The process model empowers writers by encouraging them to understand and refine their writing strategies and techniques, and it encourages readers to look at texts and ideas from different points of view and revisit their original understanding.
Most writers do not begin a new piece with a set meaning in their minds. We may have an initial idea for a piece of writing, but in order to implement that idea, we have to shape and re-shape it constantly as we write, read, and re-write. The meaning of any text is an ever-evolving entity. Thinking does not precede writing, but happens simultaneously with writing. This shaping and re-shaping of the text’s meaning takes place through drafting, re-reading, and revision. For example, all of the chapters in this book went through several reads and drafts with multiple revisions before it was published.
Common Misconceptions about the Reading-Writing Process
Most people have used this creative process in one way or another, but many have misconceptions about how to use it to write. Here are a few of the most common misconceptions students have about the writing process:
- “I do not have to waste time on prewriting if I understand the assignment.” Even if the task is straightforward and you feel ready to start writing, take some time to develop ideas before you plunge into your draft. Freewriting —writing about the topic non-stop for a set period of time—is one prewriting technique
- “It is important to complete a formal, numbered outline for every writing assignment.” For some assignments, such as lengthy research papers, proceeding without a formal outline can be very difficult. However, for other assignments, a structured set of notes or a detailed graphic organizer may suffice. The important thing is to have a solid plan for organizing ideas and details.
- “My draft will be better if I write it when I am feeling inspired.” By all means, take advantage of those moments of inspiration. However, understand that sometimes you will have to write when you are not in the mood. Sit down and start your draft even if you do not feel like it. If necessary, force yourself to write for just one hour. By the end of the hour, you may be far more engaged and motivated to continue. If not, at least you will have accomplished part of the task.
- “My instructor will tell me everything I need to revise.” If your instructor chooses to review drafts, the feedback can help you improve. However, it is still your job, not your instructor’s, to transform the draft into a final, polished piece. That task will be much easier if you give your best effort to the draft before submitting it. During revision, do not just go through and implement your instructor’s corrections, see where else the comments written by your instructor apply. Remember, instructors are not editors; instructors guide you to learn to edit your own work. Take time to determine what you can change to make the work the best it can be.
- “I am a good writer, so I do not need to revise or edit.” Even the best writers need to revise and edit their work.( It could help you catch an embarrassing typo or two). Revising and editing are the two steps that make good writers into great writers.
Contributors and Attributions
- Adapted from Writing for Success. Provided by: The Saylor Foundation. License: CC-NC-SA 3.0 .
- Adapted from Methods of Discovery: A Guide to Research Writing . Authored by : Pavel Zemliansky. License : CC BY: Attribution .
- Adapted from College Writing . Provided by: Lumen Learning. License: CC-BY-NC.
This page most recently updated June 3, 2020.


7.5: Concert Attendance Activity
For this activity, you are required to attend a concert and write a review following the instructions below. A Word document of this assignment can be downloaded here.
Concert Review Guidelines
Please include the following:
- A brief biography on one of the composers of a particular piece or song included in the concert.
- A review of the concert going into detail on descriptions of specific pieces via each of the elements of music. Use musical terms learned in class.
LENGTH: 1 full page, single spaced/ 12-14 size font or 2 full pages double spaced/l2-14 size font.
MARGINS: Must be reasonable standard margins.
HEADS:
1) Headings are to take up no more than 6 single spaced lines; however, feel free to have a title page if you would like.
2) Headings will include your name, date, my name, MUS 121, and Concert Review # on front page of papers.
WRITING SKILLS: Strong college level writing skills are expected on each paper.
PROGRAMS: Your paper must be accompanied by a program or ticket to receive credit. Please scan a program or a ticket and email to the instructor.
To find a performance to attend:
- Look in the Preview Section of Thursday’s Virginian Pilot under the Classical Music heading. The Beacon and Clipper will list some performances.
- Check the online arts calendar at www.artsongupdate.org/calendar . You may subscribe for free and automatically receive weekly notices.
- Look in Portfolio Magazine.
- Listen to WHRO FM, 90.3 for announcements.
- http://hamptonroads.com/events
- www.virginiasymphony.org


14.3: Adding New Assignments
Add New Assignment
Assignments in Adapt normally consist of one or more assessments (questions). You can learn how to add assessments here (coming soon). To create a new assignment:
- Log in to your instructors account and select the course that you want to add a new assignment to.
- Click “New Assignment”
- In the opened overlay window fill out assignment properties. Click “Submit” to save the assignment.
- Name - The name of the assignment that will be displayed for instructors and students
-
Assignment group
- You can choose an existing group or create a new group for this assignment.
Note: you can assign Group score weights in Course Properties → Assignment Group Weights
-
Source
- Select “Internal” if you are using LibreTexts database or Query Library.
- Select “External” if you are planning on adding/importing scores from another source manually.
-
Scoring Type
- Performance - students get credit for correct answers. Partial credit is possible with delayed grading.
- Completion - with Real Time Grading, students get full credit for completing the assessment regardless of whether the answer they provided is correct. Open-ended questions are graded manually. If the assignment has both types of questions (open-ended and auto-graded) students will get full credit for auto-graded assessments and the open-ended questions will require manual grading.
- Default Points/Question will be applied to all questions by default, but can be changed for each question manually later on.
-
Assessment
type
- Real Time - works best for auto-graded questions, students are provided with the feedback immediately after submitting their answer. Scores are also released at the time of submission.
- Delayed Graded Assessments: this type will require manual grading. Students won’t get their scores and feedback until the scores are released.
- Learning Tree Assessments: this type is only appropriate for learning trees.
- Clicker Assessments: this type is only appropriate for clicker questions.
-
Default Open-ended Submission Type:
- Rich Text has additional formatting options compare to plain text
- Plain Text has no additional formatting options available
- File - lets students upload submissions as PDF, TXT, PNG, JPEG, JPG
- Audio - this type of submission allows students to record audio as their answer and submit it. Note: Audio feedback from graders is also available (see tutorial for grading).
- None - students won’t have any additional field for submission. Works well for auto-graded questions (H5P, WeBWorK, etc.)
-
Late Policy
- Do not accept late - once the deadline has passed students cannot submit their answers.
- Accept but mark late - in this case the assignment will be marked late, but no points will automatically be deducted. You will need to set the final submission deadline before saving the settings.
- Accept late with a deduction - The most flexible way to apply credit deduction. You can set deduction percent and choose whether you want it deducted once or periodically (i.e. every 10 minutes, 2 hours, 1 day).
-
Include in Final Score
- Include the assignment in computing a final weighted score - the score will be included in the final score calculation
- Do not include the assignment in computing a final weighted score - the score will not be included in the final score
- Instructions (Optional) - these instructions will be shown to students before they see the first question of the assignment.
-
Randomization
- No - show all questions added to the assignment to students
- Yes - only show a specific number of questions out of all questions you’ve added to this assignment. You will need to indicate the number of randomized assessments. The bigger the pool of questions, the greater the chance that all students will get a different set of randomized questions.
- Notifications - if students opted-in to receive notifications they will be notified if you select “Yes”
- Assign to - select one or several students, specific section or all students enrolled in this course
- Available on - date when the assignment will be first available to students
- Due Date - Deadline for the assignment
- Final submission Deadline - If you select “Accept but mark late” or “Accept late with a deduction” you will be asked to provide this deadline after which the submissions will not be accepted anymore.
- Add Assign to - use this option to assign special deadlines for a specific student/section
Import assignments
- Log in to your instructors account and select the course that you want to add a new assignment to.
- Click "Import Assignment".
- You can choose to import Just the properties from another of your assignment (see the list above) and add different questions to it or import Properties and questions from one of your assignments.
- Click "Yes, Import Assignment" to complete the import.


5.6: Sage Exercises
These exercises are designed to help you become familiar with permutation groups in Sage.
Create the full symmetric group \(S_{10}\) with the command
G = SymmetricGroup(10)
.
Create elements of
G
with the following (varying) syntax. Pay attention to commas, quotes, brackets, parentheses. The first two use a string (characters) as input, mimicking the way we write permuations (but with commas). The second two use a list of tuples.
-
a = G("(5,7,2,9,3,1,8)")
-
b = G("(1,3)(4,5)")
-
c = G([(1,2),(3,4)])
-
d = G([(1,3),(2,5,8),(4,6,7,9,10)])
- Compute \(a^3\text{,}\) \(bc\text{,}\) \(ad^{-1}b\text{.}\)
-
Compute the orders of each of these four individual elements (
a
throughd
) using a single permutation group element method. -
Use the permutation group element method
.sign()
to determine if \(a,b,c,d\) are even or odd permutations. -
Create two cyclic subgroups of \(G\) with the commands:
-
H = G.subgroup([a])
-
K = G.subgroup([d])
List, and study, the elements of each subgroup. Without using Sage, list the order of each subgroup of \(K\text{.}\) Then use Sage to construct a subgroup of \(K\) with order 10.
-
-
More complicated subgroups can be formed by using two or more generators. Construct a subgroup \(L\) of \(G\) with the command
L = G.subgroup([b,c])
. Compute the order of \(L\) and list all of the elements of \(L\text{.}\)
Construct the group of symmetries of the tetrahedron (also the alternating group on 4 symbols, \(A_4\)) with the command
A=AlternatingGroup(4)
. Using tools such as orders of elements, and generators of subgroups, see if you can find
all of
the subgroups of \(A_4\) (each one exactly once). Do this without using the
.subgroups()
method to justify the correctness of your answer (though it might be a convenient way to check your work).
Provide a nice summary as your answer—not just piles of output. So use Sage as a tool, as needed, but basically your answer will be a concise paragraph and/or table. This is the one part of this assignment without clear, precise directions, so spend some time on this portion to get it right. Hint: no subgroup of \(A_4\) requires more than two generators.
The subsection Motion Group of a Cube describes the \(24\) symmetries of a cube as a subgroup of the symmetric group \(S_8\) generated by three quarter-turns. Answer the following questions about this symmetry group.
- From the list of elements of the group, can you locate the ten rotations about axes? (Hint: the identity is easy, the other nine never send any symbol to itself.)
-
Can you identify the six symmetries that are a transposition of diagonals? (Hint:
[g for g in cube if g.order() == 2]
is a good preliminary filter.) -
Verify that any two of the quarter-turns (
above
,front
,right
) are sufficient to generate the whole group. How do you know each pair generates the entire group? - Can you express one of the diagonal transpositions as a product of quarter-turns? This can be a notoriously difficult problem, especially for software. It is known as the “word problem.”
- Number the six faces of the cube with the numbers \(1\) through \(6\) (any way you like). Now consider the same three symmetries we used before (quarter-turns about face-to-face axes), but now view them as permutations of the six faces. In this way, we construct each symmetry as an element of \(S_6\text{.}\) Verify that the subgroup generated by these symmetries is the whole symmetry group of the cube. Again, rather than using three generators, try using just two.
Save your work, and then see if you can crash your Sage session by building the subgroup of \(S_{10}\) generated by the elements
b
and
d
of orders \(2\) and \(30\) from above.
Do not submit
the list of elements of
N
as part of your submitted worksheet.
What is the order of \(N\text{?}\)


1.28: The English Madrigal
This reading on the madrigal in England briefly describes how the madrigal spread from Italy to England. It also details some of the best known composers of English Madrigals. While this genre is not nearly as historically significant as its Italian predecessor, English madrigals are more widely performed today by amateur musicians (school choirs, community ensembles, etc.) because of their lighthearted nature and ease of performance.
The English Madrigal School was the brief but intense flowering of the musical madrigal in England, mostly from 1588 to 1627, along with the composers who produced them. The English madrigals were a cappella, predominantly light in style, and generally began as either copies or direct translations of Italian models. Most were for three to six voices.
Style and Characteristics
Most likely the impetus for writing madrigals came through the influence of Alfonso Ferrabosco, who worked in England in the 1560s and 1570s in Queen Elizabeth’s court; he wrote many works in the form, and not only did they prove popular but they inspired some imitation by local composers. The development that caused the explosion of madrigal composition in England, however, was the development of native poetry—especially the sonnet—which was conducive to setting to music in the Italian style. When Nicholas Yonge published Musica transalpina in 1588, it proved to be immensely popular, and the vogue for madrigal composition in England can be said to truly have started then.
Musica transalpina was a collection of Italian madrigals, mostly by Ferrabosco and Marenzio, fitted with English words. They were well-loved, and several similar anthologies followed immediately after the success of the first. Yonge himself published a second Musica transalpina in 1597, hoping to duplicate the success of the first collection.
While William Byrd, probably the most famous English composer of the time, experimented with the madrigal form, he never actually called his works madrigals, and shortly after writing some secular songs in madrigalian style returned to writing mostly sacred music.
The most influential composers of madrigals in England, and the ones whose works have survived best to the present day, were Thomas Morley, Thomas Weelkes and John Wilbye. Morley is the only composer of the time who set verse by Shakespeare for which the music has survived. His style is melodic, easily singable, and remains popular with a cappella singing groups.
The last line of Gibbons’ “The Silver Swan” of 1612,
- “More Geese than Swans now live, more Fools than Wise.”
is often considered to be a lament for the death of the English tradition.
One of the more notable compilations of English madrigals was The Triumphs of Oriana, a collection of madrigals compiled by Thomas Morley, which contained 25 different madrigals by 23 different composers. Published in 1601 as a tribute to Elizabeth I of England, each madrigal contains a reference to Oriana, a name used to reference the Queen.
Madrigals continued to be composed in England through the 1620s, but the air and “recitative music” rendered the style obsolete; somewhat belatedly, characteristics of the Baroque style finally appeared in England. While the music of the English Madrigal School is of generally high quality and has endured in popularity, it is useful to remember that the total output of the composers was relatively small: Luca Marenzio in Italy alone published more books of madrigals than the entire sum of madrigal publications in England, and Philippe de Monte wrote more madrigals (over 1100) than were written in England during the entire period.
Composers
The following list includes almost all of the composers of the English Madrigal School who published works. Many of these were amateur composers, some known only for a single book of madrigals, and some for an even smaller contribution.
- Thomas Bateson (c. 1570-1630)
- John Bennet (c. 1575–after 1614)
- John Bull (1562–1628)
- William Byrd (1543–1623)
- Thomas Campion (1567–1620)
- Richard Carlton (c. 1558–?1638)
- Michael Cavendish (c. 1565–1628)
- John Dowland (1563–1626)
- Michael East (c. 1580–c 1648)
- John Farmer (c. 1565–1605)
- Giles Farnaby (c. 1560–c 1620)
- Alfonso Ferrabosco (1543–1588) (Italian, but worked in England for two decades)
- Ellis Gibbons (1573–1603)
- Orlando Gibbons (1583–1625)
- Thomas Greaves (fl. c. 1600)
- William Holborne (fl. 1597)
- John Holmes (d. 1629)
- John Jenkins (1592–1678)
- Robert Jones (fl. 1597–1615)
- George Kirbye (c. 1565–1634)
- Henry Lichfild (fl. 1613, d. after 1620)
- John Milton (1562–1647)
- Thomas Morley (1557–1603)
- John Mundy (c. 1555–1630)
- Peter Philips (c. 1560–1628) (lived and published in the Netherlands, but wrote in an English style)
- Francis Pilkington (c. 1570–1638)
- Thomas Tomkins (1572–1656)
- Thomas Vautor (c. 1580–?)
- John Ward (1571–1638)
- Thomas Weelkes (1576–1623)
- John Wilbye (1574–1638)
Contributors and Attributions
- Authored by : Elliott Jones. Provided by : Santa Ana College. Located at : http://www.sac.edu . License : CC BY: Attribution
- English Madrigal School. Provided by : Wikipedia . Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Madrigal_School . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


19: The Evolution of Populations
Natural selection is one of the most dominant evolutionary forces. Natural selection acts to promote traits and behaviors that increase an organism’s chances of survival and reproduction, while eliminating those traits and behaviors that are to the organism’s detriment. But natural selection can only, as its name implies, select—it cannot create. The introduction of novel traits and behaviors falls on the shoulders of another evolutionary force—mutation. Mutation and other sources of variation among individuals, as well as the evolutionary forces that act upon them, alter populations and species. This combination of processes has led to the world of life we see today.
-
- 19.0: Introduction
- All life on Earth is related. Evolutionary theory states that humans, beetles, plants, and bacteria all share a common ancestor, but that millions of years of evolution have shaped each of these organisms into the forms seen today. Scientists consider evolution a key concept to understanding life. Natural selection is one of the most dominant evolutionary forces.
-
- 19.1: Population Evolution
- Initially, the newly discovered particulate nature of genes made it difficult for biologists to understand how gradual evolution could occur. But over the next few decades genetics and evolution were integrated in what became known as the modern synthesis—the coherent understanding of the relationship between natural selection and genetics that took shape by the 1940s and is generally accepted today.
-
- 19.2: Population Genetics
- Individuals of a population often display different phenotypes, or express different alleles of a particular gene, referred to as polymorphisms. Populations with two or more variations of particular characteristics are called polymorphic. The distribution of phenotypes among individuals, known as the population variation, is influenced by a number of factors, including the population’s genetic structure and the environment.
-
- 19.3: Adaptive Evolution
- Fitness is often quantifiable and is measured by scientists in the field. However, it is not the absolute fitness of an individual that counts, but rather how it compares to the other organisms in the population. This concept, called relative fitness, allows researchers to determine which individuals are contributing additional offspring to the next generation, and thus, how the population might evolve.


9: Emotions
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Have you ever been at a movie and let out a bellowing laugh and snort only to realize no one else is laughing? Have you ever gotten uncomfortable when someone cries in class or in a public place? Emotions are clearly personal because they often project what we’re feeling on the inside to those around us, whether we want it to show or not. Emotions are also interpersonal in that another person’s show of emotion usually triggers a reaction from us—perhaps support if the person is a close friend or awkwardness if the person is a stranger. Emotions are central to any interpersonal relationship, and it’s important to know what causes and influences emotions so we can better understand and express our own emotions and better respond to others when they display emotions. In this chapter, we will discuss the dimensions of emotions, perspectives on emotions, and ways to more effectively understand, express, and respond to emotions. We will also explore some contextual considerations, and reflect on the impact of our own emotional expression.
Successful students will be able to:


1.37: Redshifts
We introduced expanding, non-Euclidean spacetimes in the previous chapter. Now we begin to work out observational consequences of living in such a spacetime. In this and the next two chapters we will derive Hubble's Law, \(v=H_0 d\). In fact, we will derive a more general version of it valid for arbitrarily large distances.
In Minkowski space, the invariant distance, \(ds\), between spacetime point \((t,x,y,z)\) and another one at \((t+dt,x+dx,y+dy,z+dz)\) is given by:
\[ds^2 = -c^2 dt^2 + dx^2 + dy^2 + dz^2\]
We call it invariant because it is invariant under Lorentz transformations. Physically, for \(ds^2 > 0\), \(ds\) is the length of a ruler with one end on each of the two space-time points, if the ruler is at rest in a frame in which the two space-time points are simultaneous. For \(ds^2 < 0\), \(\sqrt{-ds^2}/c\) is the amount of time that elapses on a clock that passes from one space-time point to the other.
In spherical coordinates the above expression for the invariant distance becomes:
\[ds^2 = -c^2 dt^2 + dr^2 + r^2 \left(d\theta^2 + \sin^2\theta d\phi^2\right) \]
More generally, the invariant distance in a spatially homogeneous and isotropic Universe can be written as:
\[ds^2 = -c^2 dt^2 + a^2(t)\left[\frac{dr^2}{1-kr^2} + r^2 \left(d\theta^2 + \sin^2\theta d\phi^2\right)\right] \label{eqn:FRWds} \]
Such spacetimes are known as Friedmann-Robertson-Walker (FRW) models, or sometimes just Robertson-Walker, and sometimes Friedmann-Robertson-Walker-Lemaitre models.
We are now ready to define "redshift" and derive the relationship between it and the expansion of space. Redshift is a quantification of the stretching of the wavelength of light. We use the symbol \(z\) to denote redshift and define it as:
\[z \equiv (\lambda_{\rm received} - \lambda_{\rm emitted})/\lambda_{\rm emitted}.\]
We see in the figure below (from NASA and Space Telescope Science Institute) some model spectra of galaxies with redshifts of 10, 11, and 12. One can see in the image that the same spectral features appear at longer wavelengths as the redshift increases. These features all had the same wavelength when emitted, but those wavelengths get stretched by the expansion to longer wavelengths. The further away the objects, the greater the stretching that occurs. We will explore this relationship between distance and redshift in chapter 8.
Next we will derive the relationship between redshift and expansion for light that leaves an object at rest at time \(t_e\) and is observed today by an observer at rest at time \(t_r\). We'll get there with the following two exercises.
Note
By "at rest" we mean at rest in the coordinate system that has an invariant distance of the form in Equation \ref{eqn:FRWds}. This frame is called "cosmic rest." Note that for a frame that is moving with respect to cosmic rest, slices of constant time would be different, and we'd no longer have this simple form where the scale factor only depends on the time coordinate.
Box \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Exercise 6.1.1: Show that if \(\Delta t_e\) is the time interval between emitted light pulses (as measured by a stationary observer located where the emission is happening) and if \(\Delta t_r\) is the time interval between reception of first pulse and second pulse (as measured by a stationary observer located where the reception is occurring) then \(\Delta t_r/\Delta t_e = a(t_r)/a(t_e)\). To do so, use conformal time defined by \(d\tau = dt/a(t)\) and draw the pulse trajectories on an \(x\) vs. \(\tau\) diagram. By stationary observer we mean one that is at a constant value of \(x\); i.e., is at rest in the cosmic rest frame. You can assume that \(\Delta t_r\) and \(\Delta t_e\) are very short time scales compared to the time scale over which \(a(t)\) changes appreciably. Practical applications of this result often have \(a(t)\) changing on billion-year time scales and the \(\Delta t\)s shorter than nanoseconds so this assumption is well justified!
Box \(\PageIndex{2}\)
Exercise 6.2.1: Imagine propagation of electromagnetic waves. Use the above result to show that the wavelength of the waves emitted at time \(t_r\) and observed at time \(t_e\) is stretched so that:
\[\begin{equation*}
\begin{aligned}
z \equiv (\lambda_{\rm received} - \lambda_{\rm emitted})/\lambda_{\rm emitted} = a(t_r)/a(t_e) - 1
\end{aligned}
\end{equation*}\]
Hint: think about what happens to the period of the wave first, and then go from that to wavelength using the fact that wavelength is proportional to period.
Box \(\PageIndex{3}\)
Exercise 6.3.1: The most distant object for which a redshift has been measured is called a gamma-ray burst and it has a redshift of \(z=8.2\). By what factor has the universe expanded since light left that object?
We have just worked out the amazing fact that if we can identify a spectral line and measure its wavelength, then we can directly determine how much the universe has expanded since light left the object. Rearranging the result from Exercise 6.2.1 a little we can express this amazing fact as an equation:
\[1+ z = \lambda_{r}/\lambda_{e} = a(t_r)/a(t_e). \]
Look again at the figure above and notice that the more distant the object, the higher the redshift. This is because the more distant the object, the more time it took light to get to us from the object, and therefore the smaller the scale factor was at the time the light left the object, \(t_e\).
Before closing this section, we remind the reader of how redshifts due to the Dopper effect are related to speed -- a result we will use later in deriving Hubble's Law. If a source is moving away from you at speed v and emitting pulses with period \(T\), then the second pulse has to travel a distance \(vT\) further to get to you than was the case for the first pulse. So it's arrival will be delayed by a time \(vT/c\). Thus the period for the arriving pulses is \(T(1+v/c)\). Since wavelength is proportional to period this means the wavelength is stretched by a factor of \(1+v/c\), which means, by definition of the redshift \(z\), that \(z = v/c\). Note that our derivation has ignored the effect of relativistic time dilation. If the source had period \(T\) at rest, then if it were moving with speed \(v\) with respect to us, in our frame the period would be stretched to \(\gamma T\) and so the complete expression for \(z\) from the Doppler effect is \(1+z = \gamma (1+v/c)\). But we are only interested in this expression for small \(v/c\), for which \(\gamma \sim 1.\)
Summary
- In an expanding homogeneous and isotropic universe, the ratio between the wavelength of light emitted by an observer at cosmic rest, \(\lambda_e\) at time \(t_e\) and the wavelength as measured by an observer at cosmic rest \(\lambda_r\) at time \(t_r\) is given by \[1+z \equiv \lambda_r/\lambda_e = a(t_r)/a(t_e)\] where \(a(t)\) is the scale factor at time \(t\) and the above equation defines the redshift \(z\). We can think of this as the wavelength stretching with the expansion.
- In a non-expanding universe, a source moving away from an observer with \(v/c \ll 1\) has its light redshifted (wavelength stretched) by \[\lambda_r/\lambda_e= 1+v/c\] which is the normal Doppler effect you have studied before. What this implies is that if we interpret a small redshift \(z\) caused by the expansion of space as due to an ordinary motion-induced Dopper effect we will set \(z=v/c\). We will use this relationship later in our derivation of Hubble's Law: \(v = H_0 d\).
Additional Resources
You can look at images and spectra of galaxies in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey here . The spectra include identification of emission and absorption lines (with the atoms or ions responsible for them) and measurements of the redshift. To find the spectra and images, look for the table and click on the Object ID.
Quasar absorption line systems have particularly interesting spectra. You can read about them here .


75: Capturing Carbon to Fight Climate Change is Dividing Environmentalists (Táíwò and Buck)
Olúfẹ́mi O. Táíwò and Holly Jean Buck
#science #environment #climatechange #global #nature #technology
Environmental activists are teaming up with fresh faces in Congress to advocate for a Green New Deal , a bundle of policies that would fight climate change while creating new jobs and reducing inequality. Not all of the activists agree on what those policies ought to be.
Some 626 environmental groups , including Greenpeace, the Center for Biological Diversity and 350, recently laid out their vision in a letter they sent to U.S. lawmakers. They warned that they “vigorously oppose” several strategies, including the use of carbon capture and storage – a process that can trap excess carbon pollution that’s already warming the Earth, and lock it away .
In our view, as a political philosopher who studies global justice and an environmental social scientist , this blanket opposition is an unfortunate mistake. Based on the need to remove carbon from the atmosphere , and the risks in relying on land sinks like forests and soils alone to take up the excess carbon, we believe that carbon capture and storage could be a powerful tool for making the climate safer and even rectifying historical climate injustices .
Global inequality
We think the U.S. and other rich countries should accelerate negative emissions research for two reasons.
First, they can afford it. Second, they have a historical responsibility as they burned a disproportionate amount of the carbon causing climate change today. Global warming is poised to hit the least-developed countries, including dozens that were colonized by these wealthier nations , the hardest.
Consider this: The entire African continent emits less carbon than the U.S., Russia or Japan.
Yet Africa is likely to experience climate change impacts sooner and more intensely than any other region . Some African regions are already experiencing warming increases at more than twice the global rate . Coastal and island nations like Bangladesh, Madagascar and the Marshall Islands face near or total destruction .
But the world’s richest nations have been slow to endorse and support the necessary research, development and governance for negative emissions technologies.
Bad track record with coal
What explains the objections from climate justice advocates?
The U.S. has heavily funded experiments with carbon capture and storage to drastically reduce greenhouse gas emissions from new coal-fired power plants since George W. Bush’s presidency .
Those efforts have not paid off, partly because of economics. Natural gas and renewable energy have become cheaper and more popular than coal for generating electricity.
Only a handful of coal-fired power plants are under construction in the U.S., where closures are routine. The industry is in trouble everywhere, with few exceptions .
In addition, carbon capture with coal has a bad track record . The biggest U.S. experiment is the US$7.5 billion Kemper power plant in Mississippi . It ended in failure in 2017 when state power authorities ordered the plant operator to give up on this technology and rely on natural gas instead .
Other uses
Carbon capture and storage, however, isn’t just for fossil-fuel-burning power plants. It can work with industrial carbon dioxide sources , such as steel, cement and chemical plants and incinerators .
Then, one of two things can happen. The carbon can be turned into new products, such as fuels , cement , soft drinks or even shoes .
Carbon can also be stored permanently if it is injected underground , where geologists believe it can stay put for centuries.
Until now, a common use for captured carbon is extracting oil out of old wells. Burning that petroleum, however, can make climate change worse.
Captured carbon has a variety of industrial uses, including oil extraction and fire extinguisher manufacturing. U.S. Energy Department's National Energy Technology Laboratory, Public Domain.
Going carbon negative
This technology may potentially also remove more carbon than gets emitted – as long as it’s designed right.
One example is what’s called bioenergy with carbon capture and storage , where farm residues or crops like trees or grasses are grown to be burned to generate electricity. Carbon is separated out and stored at the power plants where this happens.
If the supply chain is sustainable , with cultivation, harvesting and transport done in low-carbon or carbon-neutral ways, this process can produce what scientists call negative emissions , with more carbon removed than released. Another possibility involves directly capturing carbon from the air.
Scientists point out that bioenergy with carbon capture and storage could require vast amounts of land for growing biofuels to burn. And climate advocates are concerned that both approaches could pave the way for oil, gas and coal companies and big industries to simply continue with business as usual instead of phasing out fossil fuels.
Many experts agree that limiting global warming to 1.5 or 2 degrees Celsius will require reducing the volume of carbon emissions through energy efficiency and renewable-energy generation and CO₂ removal. MCC , CC BY-SA
Natural solutions
Every pathway to limiting global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius in the most recent U.N. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report projected the use of carbon removal approaches.
Planting more trees, composting and farming in ways that store carbon in soils and protecting wetlands can also reduce atmospheric carbon. We believe the natural solutions many environmentalists might prefer are crucial . But soaking up excess carbon through afforestation on a massive scale could encroach on farmland .
To be sure, not all environmentalists are writing off carbon capture and storage.
The Sierra Club, Environmental Defense Fund and Natural Resources Defense Council, along with many other big green organizations, did not sign the letter , which objected not just to carbon capture and storage but also to nuclear power , emissions trading and converting trash into energy through incineration .
Rather than leave carbon removal technologies out of the Green New Deal, we suggest that more environmentalists consider their potential for removing carbon that has already been emitted. We believe these approaches could potentially create jobs, foster economic development and reduce inequality on a global scale – as long as they are meaningfully accountable to people in the world’s poorest nations.
____________________
Olúfẹmi Táíwò completed his Ph.D. at the University of California, Los Angeles, and teaches philosophy at Georgetown University. Holly Jean Buck is a NatureNet Science Fellow at UCLA’s Institute of the Environment and Sustainability and author of After Geoengineering , a look at best and worst-case futures under climate engineering.
Capturing Carbon to Fight Climate Change Is Dividing Environmentalistsby Olúfẹ́mi O. Táíwò and Holly Jean Buck is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License .


5.1: Population Ecology
Researchers study ecology at various levels. For example, at the organismal level, a scientist might be interested in the adaptations that enable individuals to live in specific habitats. These adaptations could be morphological (pertaining to the study of form or structure), physiological, or behavioral. In this chapter, we will focus on population ecology. A population is a group of interbreeding organisms that are members of the same species living in the same area at the same time. Organisms that are all members of the same species, a population, are called conspecifics (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). A population is identified, in part, by where it lives; its area of population may have natural or artificial boundaries. Natural boundaries might be rivers, mountains, or deserts, while examples of artificial boundaries include mowed grass or manmade structures such as roads. The study of population ecology focuses on the number of individuals in an area and how and why population size changes over time. Population ecologists are particularly interested in counting the Karner blue butterfly, for example, because it is classified as federally endangered.
Attributions
Modified by Kammy Algiers from the following sources:
- Population and Community Ecology from General Biology by OpenStax (licensed CC-BY )
- Organismal Ecology & Population Ecology from General Biology by Boundless (licensed CC-BY-SA )
-
- 5.1.1: Population Size and Density
- Populations are characterized by their population size and their population density. Various methods can be used to measure the size and density of a population. For example, scientists often use quadrats to do this for plants. Dispersion patterns can give scientists information about a particular population. Three common dispersion patters are uniform, random, and clumped.
-
- 5.1.2: Life Histories and Natural Selection
- All species have evolved a pattern of living, called a life history strategy, in which they partition energy for growth, maintenance, and reproduction. These patterns evolve through natural selection. There are different life strategies that species may exhibit. A species may reproduce early in life to ensure surviving to a reproductive age or reproduce later in life to become larger and healthier. A species may reproduce once (semelparity) or many times (iteroparity) in its life.
-
- 5.1.3: Environmental Limits to Population Growth
- Populations with unlimited resources grow exponentially, with an accelerating growth rate. When resources become limiting, populations follow a logistic growth curve. The population of a species will level off at the carrying capacity of its environment.
-
- 5.1.4: Population Dynamics and Regulation
- Populations are regulated by a variety of density-dependent and density-independent factors. Species are divided into two categories based on a variety of features of their life history patterns: r-selected species, which have large numbers of offspring, and K-selected species, which have few offspring.