6.3: Modulo Arithmetic
What time is four hours later than 10 o’clock?
When we make calculations like this, we are doing modular arithmetic . Modular arithmetic is like regular arithmetic, except that the numbers “wrap around” or restart when they reach a certain value, called the modulus . In the case of our 12-hour clock, the modulus is 12.
Musical structures can often be best understood using this modular arithmetic. Think of the C-major scale. We begin on C, then D, E, F, G and back to A before B and returning to C. This is a modular system — we might call it modulo-G because after G we go back to the beginning (A).
In post-tonal music, once we assume octave and enharmonic equivalence, our pitch-class environment includes twelve unique pitch classes, just like the twelve hours on the clock. In this universe, modular arithmetic is a very useful way to imagine getting around.
Counting in this modulo 12 (or mod12 ) universe works just as in basic math [“1, 2, 3, …”], but after 11, we “begin again” at 0. (Note that while clocks start at 1 and end on 12, modular arithmetic always (re)starts with zero.) Conversely, when counting down [“10, 9, 8, …”], we follow 0 with 11.
While we are used to thinking of numbers on an infinite line, modular thinking wraps them into a finite number, generally represented by a circle. On this circle, all values are a number from 0 to 11.
Pitch-Class Space
Addition and Subtraction
To add or subtract in mod12, perform the calculation in the usual manner (7 + 15 = 22) and then add or subtract 12s until you get a number from 0 to 11 (22 - 12 = 10).
Adding and subtracting can represent many musical ideas: moving seven half steps above D takes you to A (2 + 7 = 9); combining 2 half steps and 11 half steps produces 1 half step (2 + 11 = 1; or starting with C, moving up 2 half steps reaches D, and 11 more C-sharp — 1 higher than the original C).
Modular arithmetic is a quick way to calculate various intervals between pitches or pitch classess. Some examples:
What is the interval class from pitch class 7 (G) to pitch class 10 (B-flat)? 10 - 7 = 3 What is the pitch class 5 semitones above B-natural (11)? 11 + 5 = 4. That is, E.


8.7: An Iterative Approach to Setting Parameters
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Many researchers use a preset artifact detection threshold for all participants, but this is not optimal. A threshold that works well for one participant might fail to flag all the blinks for another participants and might lead many non-blink epochs to be flagged in a yet another participant. I therefore recommend the interactive and iterative approach shown in Figure 8.1. It involves starting with an initial set of best-guess parameters, seeing whether these parameters adequately flag the epochs that should be rejected, and then adjusting the parameters as necessary until you are satisfied. As will be described in the next section, it also involves using the standardized measurement error (SME) to help you determine which parameters lead to the best balance of eliminating noisy trials while still having enough trials to obtain a good averaged ERP waveform.
Make sure you keep a record of the parameters you choose for each participant. I recommend using a spreadsheet for this. The example script at the end of the chapter shows you how a script can read the artifact detection parameters from a spreadsheet and then perform the artifact detection with these parameters. That will keep you from having a meltdown when you need to reprocess your data the seventh time. In fact, it’s a good idea to set the parameters manually and then immediately reprocess the data using a script with those parameters. It’s easy to make a mistake when you’re processing data by pointing and clicking in a GUI, and this approach of manually selecting the parameters and then implementing them in a script gives you the customized parameters that you want while avoiding point-and-click errors.
I find this iterative approach to be reasonably quick (5-10 minutes for most participants once you’ve become well practiced). And it does an excellent job of addressing the three types of problems that were described at the beginning of the chapter. However, other approaches may be better in certain cases.
If you have a small number of trials per participant (as in many infant studies) or a small number of highly valuable participants (as in some studies of lesion patients), you may want to manually mark epochs for rejection during the visual inspection process. That is, you can mark an epoch for rejection by simply clicking on it (select EEGLAB > Tools > Reject data epochs > Reject by inspection ; see the ERPLAB documentation for information about how to integrate these marks with ERPLAB). However, this approach is slow and awkward when you have more than ~20 trials per participant or more than ~20 participants.
Another alternative is to use one of the algorithms that automatically set the parameters for each participant (e.g., Jas et al., 2017; Nolan et al., 2010; Talsma, 2008). This approach is best suited for very large datasets (e.g., >100 participants), and it should be followed by manual verification for each participant. Note that most current algorithms assess the overall noise level of the data rather than assessing the data quality for the specific amplitude or latency measure that you will be using as the main dependent variable to test your scientific hypotheses (which is what the SME does). As a result, these algorithms may not actually select optimal parameters in terms of statistical power.


4: Health Hazards
“If you think in terms of a year, plant a seed; if in terms of ten years, plant trees; if in terms of 100 years, teach the people.” - Confucious
Overview
Our health is important, period. Humans no matter where they live have much better health outcomes from what was typical 500, 200, or even 100 years ago. We study and research natural elements in our physical world, our environment, and the health impacts resulting from immediate and long term exposures to those elements. This continuous study and education on health hazards is actually part of our educational infrastructure. This inclusion in the educational infrastructure is seen and felt. For example, “Over the last 200 years, U.S. life expectancy has more than doubled to almost 80 years (78.8 in 2015), with vast improvements in health and quality of life. However, while most people imagine medical advancements to be the reason for this increase, the largest gain in life expectancy occurred between 1880 and 1920 due to public health improvements such as control of infectious diseases, more abundant and safer foods, cleaner water, and other nonmedical social improvements.” (Life Expectancy)
In this chapter you will connect some of what you learned about natural hazards in our physical world in both K-12 education, and the general education requirements of your secondary institutions to occupational health. Health hazards include those associated with biological and physical hazards. Take a moment to reflect on courses you may have taken in high school or college such as health science or life science, biology, physics, and chemistry as you review environmental health standards broadly, and specifically those encountered in general industry and construction work.
Chapter Objective
- Determine the medical and first aid service required for construction sites in 1926 Subpart D.
- Identify workplace sanitation requirements under 1926 Subpart D
- Review requirements for occupational noise exposure, heat, non ionizing radiation, ventilation, and minimum illumination.
- Review and understand the dangers of construction related health hazards such as silica, asbestos, cadmium, and lead.
- Discuss typical PPE requirements for construction health hazards.
- Decide if a construction site is covered by the Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response Standard and what training is required to work on such sites.
Learning Outcome
- Recognize and describe physical health hazards and methods for controlling those hazards.
- Recognize and understand the requirements for preventing unsanitary, unhealthful, and unsafe and hazardous conditions on construction sites.
- Identify provisions for the availability of medical facilities and HAZMAT Operations.
Standards: 1926 Subpart D, 1926.62 Lead, 1926.65(1910.120) HAZWOP, 1926.1101 Asbestos, 1926.1127 Cadmium, 1926.1153 Respirable Crystalline Silica, 1926 Subpart E and 1910 Subpart I Personal Protective Equipment
Key Terms
HAZMAT,Decibel, First Aid, Foot-Candle, Laser, Potable, Respirable, Vector
Mini-Lecture: Physical Health Hazards and PPE
Topic Required Time: 2 hrs; Independent Study and reflection 1 3/4 hour.
Thumbnail: Road Work, attribution, Stux Pixabay


2.23: Mean and Median (1 of 2)
Learning Objectives
- Use mean and median to describe the center of a distribution.
Recall that when we describe the distribution of a quantitative variable, we describe the overall pattern (shape, center, and spread) in the data and deviations from the pattern (outliers). In our previous discussion of patterns in quantitative data, we identified a typical value in the distribution. We used this single value of the variable to represent the entire group. This is an informal way to think about the center of the distribution. In “Measures of Center,” we focus on describing the center of a distribution more precisely.
We develop two different measurements for identifying the center of a distribution: the mean and the median. Each measure has special properties.
Mean
The mean is the average. It is written as and pronounced “x-bar.” To calculate the mean, we add the data values and divide by the number of data points.
We can write this as a formula.
In this formula, the symbol means sum (add up the values). The x represents the data values. The letter “n” represents the number of data values.
Example
Calculating the Mean
Let’s find the mean of a set of three quiz scores: 70, 85, 82. In this situation, n is 3 because there are 3 quiz scores. We add the “x” values, 70 + 85 + 82 to get 237, then divide by 3 to get a mean of 79.
We could write this calculation using the formula:
Example
Average Homework Score
Suppose Beth’s homework scores are70, 80, 80, 80, 85, 86, 90, 90, 95. There is variability in her homework scores, but the mean represents her typical performance on homework.
The mean of her scores is
So Beth’s performance on homework varies, but on average, she makes an 84 on each assignment. In other words, we can understand the mean as the score Beth would have on every assignment if she always made the same grade – that is, if she made an 84 on all nine homework assignments.
Her mean score is 84, since
From this viewpoint, the mean is the fair share measure of center.
Notice, however, that Beth did not actually make an 84 on any assignment. The mean does not give us information about any individual homework score or about how the homework scores vary. It only gives us a sense of her performance by averaging the values across all the assignments.
Here is the mean marked on a dotplot of the distribution of homework scores. For this set of scores, the mean appears to be a pretty good measure of how Beth performed overall.
The mean is also referred to as the balancing point of a distribution. If we measure the distance between each data point and the mean, the distances are balanced on each side of the mean.
For example, a homework score of 95 is 11 points above the mean, as shown.
A homework score of 80 is 4 points below the mean. In the table, we calculate the sum of the distances above and below the mean. Notice that the sum of the distances above and below the mean are equal. In this way, the mean is a balancing point for the distribution.
We can also view the distances below the mean as negative and the distances above the mean as positive. When we add these “signed” distances together, we get 0
(−14) + (−4) + (−4) + (−4) + 1 + 2 + 6 + 6 + 11
(−26) + 26
The mean is the only measure of center with this special property.
Median
The median is another way to identify a typical value. The median is the middle of the data when all the values are listed in order. The median divides the data into two equal-sized groups. There is as much data below the median as above it.
Example
Median Homework Score
Let’s return to Beth’s homework scores: 70, 80, 80, 80, 85 , 86, 90, 90, 95.
The median score is 85. This is the center score. There are four homework scores below 85 and four homework scores above 85.
For this data set, the median was one of the homework scores. This will not always be the case. So, like the mean, the median does not give us information about any individual homework score or about how the homework scores vary. It only gives us a sense of Beth’s performance by locating a value that is the middle of the actual scores.
Here is the median marked on a dotplot of the distribution of homework scores. For this set of scores, the median is also a pretty good measure of how Beth performed overall.
Contributors and Attributions
- Concepts in Statistics. Provided by : Open Learning Initiative. Located at : http://oli.cmu.edu . License : CC BY: Attribution


1.5: William Beckford, excerpt from Vathek (1786)
Vathek and his mother Caranthus consult the planets as smoke from a small fire rises into the night sky.A deathlike stillness reigned over the mountain, and through the air. The moon dilated, on a vast platform, the shades of the lofty columns, which reached from the terrace almost to the clouds. The gloomy watch-towers, whose number could not be counted, were veiled by no roof: and their capitals, of an architecture unknown in the records of the earth, served as an asylum for the birds of darkness, which, alarmed at the approach of such visitants, fled away croaking.
The chief of the eunuchs, trembling with fear, besought Vathek that a fire might be kindled.
“No!” replied he, “there is no time left to think of such trifles; abide where thou art, and expect my commands.”
Having thus spoken, he presented his hand to Nouronihar, and ascending the steps of a vast staircase, reached the terrace, which was flagged with squares of marble, and resembled a smooth expanse of water, upon whose surface not a leaf ever dared to vegetate. On the right rose the watch-towers, ranged before the ruins of an immense palace, whose walls were embossed with various figures. In front stood forth the colossal forms of four creatures, composed of the leopard and the griffin; and though but of stone, inspired emotions of terror. Near these were distinguished by the splendour of the moon, which streamed full on the place, characters like those on the sabres of the Giaour, that possessed the same virtue of changing every moment. These, after vacillating for some time, at last fixed in Arabic letters, and prescribed to the Caliph the following words:
“Vathek! thou hast violated the conditions of my parchment, and deservest to be sent back; but in favour to thy companion, and as the meed for what thou hast done to obtain it, Eblis permitteth that the portal of his palace shall be opened, and the subterranean fire will receive thee into the number of its adorers.”
He scarcely had read these words before the mountain, against which the terrace was reared, trembled; and the watch-towers were ready to topple headlong upon them. The rock yawned, and disclosed within it a staircase of polished marble, that seemed to approach the abyss. Upon each stair were planted two large torches, like those Nouronihar had seen in her vision, the camphorated vapour ascending from which gathered into a cloud under the hollow of the vault.
This appearance, instead of terrifying, gave new courage to the daughter of Fakreddin. Scarcely deigning to bid adieu to the moon and the firmament, she abandoned without hesitation the pure atmosphere, to plunge into these infernal exhalations. The gait of those impious personages was haughty and determined. As they descended, by the effulgence of the torches, they gazed on each other with mutual admiration, and both appeared so resplendent, that they already esteemed themselves spiritual intelligences. The only circumstance that perplexed them, was their not arriving at the bottom of the stairs. On hastening their descent, with an ardent impetuosity, they felt their steps accelerated to such a degree, that they seemed not walking, but falling from a precipice. Their progress, however, was at length impeded by a vast portal of ebony, which the Caliph without difficulty recognized. Here the Giaour awaited them, with the key in his hand,
“Ye are welcome!” said he to them, with a ghastly smile, “in spite of Mahomet, and all his dependents. I will now admit you into that palace, where you have so highly merited a place.”
Whilst he was uttering these words, he touched the enamelled lock with his key, and the doors at once expanded with a noise still louder than the thunder of mountains, and as suddenly recoiled the moment they had entered.
The Caliph and Nouronihar beheld each other with amazement, at finding themselves in a place which, though roofed with a vaulted ceiling, was so spacious and lofty, that at first they took it for an immeasurable plain. But their eyes at length growing to the grandeur of the objects at hand, they extended their view to those at a distance, and discovered rows of columns and arcades, which gradually diminished, till they terminated in a point, radiant as the sun, when he darts his last beams athwart the ocean. The pavement, strewed over with gold dust and saffron, exhaled so subtile an odour, as almost overpowered them. They, however, went on, and observed an infinity of censers, in which ambergris and the wood of aloes were continually burning. Between the several columns were placed tables, each spread with a profusion of viands, and wines of every species, sparkling in vases of chrystal. A throng of Genii, and other phantastic spirits, of each sex, danced lasciviously in troops, at the sound of music which issued from beneath.
In the midst of this immense hall, a vast multitude was incessantly passing, who severally kept their right hands on their hearts, without once regarding any thing around them. They had all the livid paleness of death. Their eyes, deep sank in their sockets, resembled those phosphoric meteors, that glimmer by night in places of interment. Some stalked slowly on, absorbed in profound reverie; some shrieking with agony, ran furiously about, like tigers wounded with poisoned arrows; whilst others, grinding their teeth in rage, foamed along, more frantic than the wildest maniac. They all avoided each other, and though surrounded by a multitude that no one could number, each wandered at random unheedful of the rest, as if alone on a desert which no foot had trodden.
Vathek and Nouronihar, frozen with terror at a sight so baleful, demanded of the Giaour what these appearances might mean, and why these ambulating spectres never withdrew their hands from their hearts.
“Perplex not yourselves,” replied he bluntly, “with so much at once, you will soon be acquainted with all; let us haste and present you to Eblis.”
They continued their way through the multitude, but notwithstanding their confidence at first, they were not sufficiently composed to examine with attention the various perspectives of halls, and of galleries, that opened on the right hand and left, which were all illuminated by torches and braziers, whose flames rose in pyramids, to the centre of the vault. At length they came to a place where long curtains, brocaded with crimson and gold, fell from all parts, in striking confusion. Here the choirs and dances were heard no longer. The light which glimmered came from afar.
After some time Vathek and Nouronihar perceived a gleam brightening through the drapery, and entered a vast tabernacle, carpeted with the skins of leopards. An infinity of elders, with streaming beards, and afrits, in complete armour, had prostrated themselves before the ascent of a lofty eminence, on the top of which, upon a globe of fire, sat the formidable Eblis. His person was that of a young man, whose noble and regular features seemed to have been tarnished by malignant vapours. In his large eyes appeared both pride and despair; his flowing hair retained some resemblance to that of an angel of light. In his hand, which thunder had blasted, he swayed the iron sceptre, that causes the monster Ouranabad, the afrits, and all the powers of the abyss to tremble. At his presence the heart of the Caliph sank within him, and, for the first time, he fell prostrate on his face. Nouronihar, however, though greatly dismayed, could not help admiring the person of Eblis, for she expected to have seen some stupendous giant. Eblis, with a voice more mild than might be imagined, but such as transfused through the soul the deepest melancholy, said:
“ Creatures of clay , I receive you into mine empire. Ye are numbered amongst my adorers. Enjoy whatever this palace affords—the treasures of the preadimite sultans, their bickering sabres, and those talismans that compel the Dives to open the subterranean expanses of the mountain of Kaf, which communicate with these. There, insatiable as your curiosity may be, shall you find sufficient to gratify it. You shall possess the exclusive privilege of entering the fortress of Aherman, and the halls of Argenk, where are portrayed all creatures endowed with intelligence, and the various animals that inhabited the earth prior to the creation of that contemptible being, whom ye denominate the Father of Mankind.”
Vathek and Nouronihar feeling themselves revived and encouraged by this harangue, eagerly said to the Giaour:
“Bring us instantly to the place which contains these precious talismans.”
“Come,” answered this wicked Dive, with his malignant grin, “come, and possess all that my sovereign hath promised, and more.”
He then conducted them into a long aisle adjoining the tabernacle, preceding them with hasty steps, and followed by his disciples with the utmost alacrity. They reached at length a hall of great extent, and covered with a lofty dome, around which appeared fifty portals of bronze, secured with as many fastenings of iron. A funereal gloom prevailed over the whole scene. Here, upon two beds of incorruptible cedar, lay recumbent the fleshless forms of the preadimite kings, who had been monarchs of the whole earth. They still possessed enough of life to be conscious of their deplorable condition. Their eyes retained a melancholy motion; they regarded each other with looks of the deepest dejection, each holding his right hand motionless on his heart. At their feet were inscribed the events of their several reigns, their power, their pride, and their crimes. Soliman Raad, Soliman Daki, and Soliman Di Gian Ben Gian, who, after having chained up the Dives in the dark caverns of Kaf, became so presumptuous, as to doubt of the Supreme Power. All these maintained great state, though not to be compared with the eminence of Soliman Ben Daoud.
This king, so renowned for his wisdom, was on the loftiest elevation, and placed immediately under the dome. He appeared to possess more animation than the rest, though, from time to time, he laboured with profound sighs, and, like his companions, kept his right hand on his heart; yet his countenance was more composed, and he seemed to be listening to the sullen roar of a vast cataract, visible in part through the grated portals. This was the only sound that intruded on the silence of these doleful mansions. A range of brazen vases surrounded the elevation.
“Remove the covers from these cabalistic depositaries,” said the Giaour to Vathek, “and avail thyself of the talismans, which will break asunder all these gates of bronze, and not only render thee master of the treasures contained within them, but also of the spirits by which they are guarded.”
The Caliph, whom this ominous preliminary had entirely disconcerted, approached the vases with faltering footsteps, and was ready to sink with terror, when he heard the groans of Soliman. As he proceeded, a voice from the livid lips of the prophet articulated these words:
“In my lifetime, I filled a magnificent throne, having on my right hand twelve thousand seats of gold, where the patriarchs and prophets heard my doctrines; on my left the sages and doctors, upon as many thrones of silver, were present at all my decisions. Whilst I thus administered justice to innumerable multitudes, the birds of the air librating over me, served as a canopy from the rays of the sun. My people flourished, and my palace rose to the clouds. I erected a temple to the Most High, which was the wonder of the universe; but I basely suffered myself to be seduced by the love of women, and a curiosity that could not be restrained by sub-lunary things. I listened to the counsels of Aherman, and the daughter of Pharaoh; and adored fire, and the host of heaven. I forsook the holy city, and commanded the Genii to rear the stupendous palace of Istakar, and the terrace of the watch-towers, each of which was consecrated to a star. There for a while I enjoyed myself in the zenith of glory and pleasure. Not only men, but supernatural existences were subject also to my will. I began to think, as these unhappy monarchs around had already thought, that the vengeance of heaven was asleep, when at once the thunder burst my structures asunder, and precipitated me hither; where, however, I do not remain like the other inhabitants totally destitute of hope, for an angel of light hath revealed, that in consideration of the piety of my early youth, my woes shall come to an end when this cataract shall for ever cease to flow. Till then I am in torments, ineffable torments, an unrelenting fire preys on my heart.”
Having uttered this exclamation, Soliman raised his hands towards heaven, in token of supplication, and the Caliph discerned through his bosom, which was transparent as crystal, his heart enveloped in flames.  Allow us to depart, and I will relinquish all thou hast promised. O Mahomet! remains there no more mercy!”
“None! none!” replied the malicious Dive. “Know, miserable prince, thou art now in the abode of vengeance, and despair. Thy heart, also, will be kindled, like those of the other votaries of Eblis. A few days are allotted thee previous to this fatal period: employ them as thou wilt. Recline on these heaps of gold: command the Infernal Potentates: range at thy pleasure through these immense subterranean domains. No barrier shall be shut against thee. As for me, I have fulfilled my mission. I now leave thee to thyself.”
At these words he vanished.
The Caliph and Nouronihar remained in the most abject affliction. Their tears unable to flow, scarcely could they support themselves. At length, taking each other despondingly by the hand, they went faltering from this fatal hall, indifferent which way they turned their steps. Every portal opened at their approach. The Dives fell prostrate before them. Every reservoir of riches was disclosed to their view, but they no longer felt the incentives of curiosity, pride, or avarice. With like apathy they heard the chorus of Genii, and saw the stately banquets prepared to regale them. They went wandering on from chamber to chamber, hall to hall, and gallery to gallery; all without bounds or limit; all distinguishable by the same lowering gloom; all adorned with the same awful grandeur; all traversed by persons in search of repose and consolation, but who sought them in vain, for every one carried within him a heart tormented in flames. Shunned by these various sufferers, who seemed by their looks to be upbraiding the partners of their guilt, they withdrew from them, to wait in direful suspense the moment which should render them to each other the like objects of terror.
“What,” exclaimed Nouronihar, “will the time come, when I shall snatch my hand from thine!”
“Ah!” said Vathek, “and shall my eyes ever cease to drink from thine long draughts of enjoyment! Shall the moments of our reciprocal ecstasies be reflected on with horror! It was not thou that broughtest me hither; the principles by which Carathis perverted my youth have been the sole cause of my perdition!”
Having given vent to these painful expressions, he called to an Afrit, who was stirring up one of the braziers, and bade him fetch the Princess Carathis from the palace of Samarah.
After issuing these orders, the Caliph and Nouronihar continued walking amidst the silent crowd, till they heard voices at the end of the gallery. Presuming them to proceed from some unhappy beings, who like themselves were awaiting their final doom, they followed the sound, and found it to come from a small square chamber, where they discovered sitting on sofas, five young men of goodly figure, and a lovely female, who were all holding a melancholy conversation, by the glimmering of a lonely lamp. Each had a gloomy and forlorn air, and two of them were embracing each other with great tenderness. On seeing the Caliph and the daughter of Fakreddin enter they arose, saluted, and gave them place. Then he who had appeared the most considerable of the group, addressed himself thus to Vathek:
“Strangers! who doubtless are in the same state of suspense as ourselves, as you do not yet bear your hand on your heart, if you are come hither to pass the interval allotted previous to the infliction of our common punishment, condescend to relate the adventures that have brought you to this fatal place; and we in return will acquaint you with ours; which deserves but too well to be heard. We will trace back our crimes to their source, though we are not permitted to repent. This is the only employment suited to wretches like us.”
The Caliph and Nouronihar assented to the proposal, and Vathek began, not without tears and lamentations, a sincere recital of every circumstance that had passed. When the afflicting narrative was closed, the young man entered on his own. Each person proceeded in order, and when the fourth prince had reached the midst of his adventures, a sudden noise interrupted him, which caused the vault to tremble, and to open.
Immediately a cloud descended, which gradually dissipating, discovered Carathis, on the back of an Afrit, who grievously complained of his burden. She, instantly springing to the ground, advanced towards her son, and said:
“What dost thou here, in this little square chamber? As the Dives are become subject to thy beck, I expected to have found thee on the throne of the preadimite kings.”
“Execrable woman!” answered the Caliph; “cursed be the day thou gavest me birth! Go! follow this Afrit; let him conduct thee to the hall of the Prophet Soliman; there thou wilt learn to what these palaces are destined, and how much I ought to abhor the impious knowledge thou hast taught me.”
“The height of power to which thou art arrived, has certainly turned thy brain,” answered Carathis; “but I ask no more, than permission to show my respect for the prophet. It is, however, proper thou shouldst know, that, as the Afrit has informed me neither of us shall return to Samarah, I requested his permission to arrange my affairs, and he politely consented. Availing myself, therefore, of the few moments allowed me, I set fire to the tower, and consumed in it the mutes, negresses, and serpents, which have rendered me so much good service; nor should I have been less kind to Morakanabad, had he not prevented me, by deserting at last to thy brother. As for Bababalouk, who had the folly to return to Samarah, and all the good brotherhood to provide husbands for thy wives, I undoubtedly would have put them to the torture, could I but have allowed them the time. Being, however, in a hurry, I only hung him, after having caught him in a snare with thy wives; whilst them I buried alive by the help of my negresses, who thus spent their last moments, greatly to their satisfaction. With respect to Dilara, who ever stood high in my favour, she hath evinced the greatness of her mind, by fixing herself near, in the service of one of the Magi, and, I think, will soon be our own.”
Vathek, too much cast down to express the indignation excited by such a discourse, ordered the Afrit to remove Carathis from his presence, and continued immersed in thought, which his companions durst not disturb.
Carathis, however, eagerly entered the dome of Soliman, and, without regarding in the least the groans of the Prophet, undauntedly removed the covers of the vases, and violently seized on the talismans. Then, with a voice more loud than had hitherto been heard in these mansions, she compelled the Dives to disclose to her the most secret treasures, the most profound stores, which the Afrit himself had not seen. She passed by rapid descents known only to Eblis and his most favoured Potentates, and thus penetrated the very entrails of the earth, where breathes the Sansar, or icy wind of death. Nothing appalled her dauntless soul. She perceived, however, in all the inmates who bore their hands on their heart, a little singularity not much to her taste. As she was emerging from one of the abysses, Eblis stood forth to her view, but, notwithstanding he displayed the full effulgence of his infernal majesty, she preserved her countenance unaltered, and even paid her compliments with considerable firmness.
This superb monarch thus answered:
“ Princess , whose knowledge and whose crimes have merited a conspicuous rank in my empire, thou doest well to employ the leisure that remains, for the flames and torments which are ready to seize on thy heart, will not fail to provide thee with full employment.”
He said this, and was lost in the curtains of his tabernacle.
Carathis paused for a moment with surprise, but, resolved to follow the advice of Eblis, she assembled all the choirs of Genii, and all the Dives, to pay her homage. Thus marched she in triumph through a vapour of perfumes, amidst the acclamations of all the malignant spirits; with most of whom she had formed a previous acquaintance. She even attempted to dethrone one of the Solimans, for the purpose of usurping his place, when a voice, proceeding from the Abyss of Death, proclaimed:
“ All is accomplished !”
Instantaneously, the haughty forehead of the intrepid princess became corrugated with agony; she uttered a tremendous yell, and fixed—no more to be withdrawn—her right hand upon her heart, which was become a receptacle of eternal fire.
In this delirium, forgetting all ambitious projects, and her thirst for that knowledge which should ever be hidden from mortals, she overturned the offerings of the Genii; and, having execrated the hour she was begotten, and the womb that had borne her, glanced off in a whirl that rendered her invisible, and continued to revolve without intermission.
At almost the same instant, the same voice announced to the Caliph, Nouronihar, the five princes, and the princess, the awful and irrevocable decree. Their hearts immediately took fire, and they at once lost the most precious of the gifts of heaven— hope . These unhappy beings recoiled, with looks of the most furious distraction. Vathek beheld in the eyes of Nouronihar nothing but rage and vengeance; nor could she discern ought in his but aversion and despair. The two princes who were friends, and till that moment had preserved their attachment, shrunk back, gnashing their teeth with mutual and unchangeable hatred. Kalilah and his sister made reciprocal gestures of imprecation; whilst the two other princes testified their horror for each other by the most ghastly convulsions, and screams that could not be smothered. All severally plunged themselves into the accursed multitude, there to wander in an eternity of unabating anguish.
Such was, and such should be, the punishment of unrestrained passions, and atrocious actions. Such is, and such should be, the chastisement of blind ambition, that would transgress those bounds which the Creator hath prescribed to human knowledge, and by aiming at discoveries reserved for pure intelligence, acquire that infatuated pride, which perceives not the condition appointed to man is, to be ignorant and humble .
Thus the Caliph Vathek who, for the sake of empty pomp and forbidden power, hath sullied himself with a thousand crimes, became a prey to grief without end, and remorse without mitigation; whilst the humble and despised Gulchenrouz passed whole ages in undisturbed tranquillity, and the pure happiness of childhood.


 Depending upon a person’s culture and background, one or more ways were already enculturated before that person came in contact with any formal education system that taught music. Young children are exposed to music through their parents, either singing to them or playing it for them in a variety of mediums. In today’s society, toddlers can manipulate a smart phone to play a youtube video of toddler tunes. A person is exposed to music in some form anytime there is interaction with the outside world. You can hear music in commercials, in stores, video games, even rings of a cell phone. With that said, what are the typical ways most people learn a song?
First, the general population of people learns by ear. For many generations, music was not written down, but passed on by rote (someone who knew the song would sing or play it for others, and they would copy it). Today, one hears the piece of music on some media device, and over time can sing along with the song. There are advantages and disadvantages to this method. First, an advantage is the ability to practice wherever the person is, with access to the song a smart phone away. Second, the body of music out there to hear is nearly infinite; access has never been easier than today with many ways to freely listen. Also, one can listen to different singers performing the same piece to get different takes on how to perform the piece. One disadvantage of this method is the singer’s desire to try and copy the original artist’s voice. No matter who it is, that performer’s voice is unique, as is the singer trying to copy. In order for the singer to copy the original artist, a contrived sound is created with tension in the throat. Try singing like Louie Armstrong for more than 10 seconds and you will instantly feel the extreme of this issue. Another disadvantage of this method is lack of creativity on the part of the learner. If one only learns from someone else’s style of singing, one’s own interpretation of the text and music is lost. If you have ever listened to the same song with different singers, you will notice variations in the performance. Finally, a disadvantage of learning by ear is time. If a piece of music must be sung in a great hurry for an event, then the ability to read the music fast becomes invaluable. To put this in perspective, imagine you become a famous singer. A large media corporation such as Disney calls you up and wants you to perform on the soundtrack of their next movie. The company flies you to their studio, send you to the booth with the sheet music, sets up the microphone, and is ready to record. You ask to hear a recording of the song first, and are met with blank stares. There is no recording, because you are the first. Now a great gig was lost, and your reputation is tarnished.
There is nothing wrong with learning music by ear. However, being able to learn a song several different ways gives the singer an edge over other singers, and increases the learning curve. Here are other methods to learn a song other than by a recording with the vocals: 1. Learn by rote; 2. Speak the text out loud; 3. Use sheet music; 4. Sing along with a karaoke track; 5. Sing a cappella; 6. Record yourself; and 7. Solfedge.
Learning by rote simply means someone sings a line of the song and you sing it back. Cultures have taught music in this way for millennia, and some religious groups still use this method today in services where a leader sings a line, and the congregation responds. If learning a song by rote, typically a person sings a line (or phrase), then sings a second phrase, puts them together, sings a third, adds that, and so on. Many people who teach groups to sing use this method.
Speaking the text of the song out loud is a technique for understanding the meaning of the lyrics, as well as a way to decide what is the most important word of each phrase (more on that later). The act of speaking it audibly is important for this technique to have its full effect. Try looking up the lyrics to a song you know already somewhat well. Speak the text, and then listen to the song. You may notice the meanings of parts of the song seem different. You are now linking meaning to words that were not important before you underwent this exercise. This can also help with memorization of songs.
Using sheet music to learn a song is standard practice in most formal voice lessons. Music reading literacy is like reading literacy; it opens up new ways to learn material, sometimes more quickly. If you have never read music before, it can be daunting to look at a piece of music. There are many instructional methods out there to learn how to read music. Just learning the note names and how long you hold a note (rhythm) is just the beginning (like learning the alphabet). A simple open resource can be found here: http://www.wikihow.com/Read-Music
Singing along with a karaoke track is a method to utilize after you feel comfortable singing the song with the vocals behind you. Some singers feel very confident singing with the vocal track behind them, and then when it is removed, suddenly their voice goes away. This is due to a subconscious method for singing where the singer is hearing the voice and then following it a split second later. I call it “cheat-singing.” You are only cheating yourself when using this, because as soon as the other vocal is not there, you are stuck. Singing with a karaoke track, or a live accompaniment if available, eliminates cheat singing as an option (unless the accompanist is playing your notes and you are cheat-singing to that). The track also assists the singer in reminding them of the right pitch centers, something not available if the singer sings without any accompaniment, or a cappella.
There is an advantage to singing a cappella. Without anything to use as a crutch, the singer is forced to sing solo. This exposes any vocal issues that were hiding behind either the accompaniment or the other vocalist. It can be hard to diagnose all issues listening and singing at the same time. That’s where recording yourself is useful. Very few people actually enjoy listening to themselves sing.  In a recording, the singer hears how he or she sounds to everyone else. This can be discouraging, but useful as a tool to improve. Video recording is a better method than just audio, because any physical issues that occur can be diagnosed as well (ex. You see your head leaning forward when trying to sing a high note).
Solfedge is a system to learn music developed by a Hungarian named Zoltan Kodály. He created a system of syllables for notes in the scale (Do-re-mi-fa-sol-la-ti-do), which in turn help the singer know what direction the note tends to move. It helped save Hungarian folk music, which was in danger of disappearing altogether. Once a singer learns the system, singing a phrase for the first time becomes easier (cue Sound of Music). This is an excellent method for sight reading music. Excellent sight readers can look at a piece of music, and sing it correctly the first time without hearing it. Professional sight readers are employed all around the world, in church choirs, radio choirs in Europe, and media companies.
One method of learning a song by itself is not better or worse than another. However, if the singer uses the best of all methods, he or she can learn music well and quickly.
Supplemental Videos
Assignment on Videos
After watching the demonstration video, enter the secret number at the top of your assignment.
Write in complete sentences answers to the following questions.
1. In your own words, what was the content of the video?
2. What are two things you found most interesting about the content of the video?
3. Think of a singer you have seen and heard. Who are they, and what do they demonstrate in terms of this concept?
4. Name 3 positive things you do while singing that relate to this concept.
5. What 2 things can you improve on relating to this concept?


7: Classroom Management
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Learning Objectives
When you think about your school days, what are your fond memories?  But, did you ever think how do the teachers make this all happen? How was this teaching and learning possible, given the array of subjects you learn at school, the variety of topics you cover in each subject, and the need to teach diverse students with different learning abilities and needs? How did the teachers make their teaching effective?
Many of you will agree that if you are to teach effectively and for students to learn, you may need to have plan to deliver your class. But keep in mind that you may have the best content-wise lesson plan for your class and you may even have the best resources to deliver your instruction, however, if you want to be a successful teacher, you need to also create the atmosphere for teaching and learning. Hence, in order to create an atmosphere for learning, classroom management plan serves as a prerequisite for effective teaching and learning (Allen, 1996).
In this chapter you will learn the significance of classroom management, briefly study the models of classroom management, learn the characteristics of effective classroom management and draft your own classroom management plan to be reflective of and consistent with your teaching philosophy.


5.1: What is Inclusion?
 (Tomko,1996)
Introduction
After working as a special education aide for a year, I have developed an interest in this topic. Loneliness and fear are something we all feel when we are different from everyone else. When everyone else seems to get along and understand one another, and we are left out, we feel inferior and worthless. We would feel even more worthless if someone told us that we were not good enough to be with everyone else. We cannot talk and play with the other kids because we slow them down. The practice of inclusion attempts to help students with disabilities avoid these feelings of fear, isolation and worthlessness. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), updated in 2004, provides students with disabilities the right to a free and appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment possible. Inclusion attempts to provide this education for students with disabilities and now many school systems throughout the country practice it. Inclusive education comes with benefits as well as downsides.
Definition
Schools are not required to include students with disabilities in the general education classroom, but are required to provide them with the most appropriate education in the least restrictive environment. Including a student in the general education classroom is the best solution, if possible. This means the student is taught with his non-disabled peers and has full access to the general education curriculum, extracurricular activities and other programs available to non-disabled students. If a student is capable of being successful in this environment, it is difficult for schools to justify isolating him in a special classroom or special school. A team of educators, specialists and parents construct an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) to ensure that the student’s educational needs are being met. If the decision is made to keep the student from the general education classroom, this team must have valid reasons why that environment is not appropriate for the student (Stout 2007). In order to allow students to be successful in the least restrictive environment, schools use paraprofessionals or co teaching to help the student integrate into the general education classroom (Scruggs, Mastropieri, & Mcduffie, 2007). The idea of inclusion does not relate to academics alone. Students with disabilities are included in the community of the class and school as well. Inclusion encourages students to be a part of the classroom both academically and socially (Burke & Sutherland, 2004).
What does Inclusion Look Like?
A student who attends an inclusive school spends the majority of his school day in the general education classroom, with other students his age. Depending on the level of his disability, he will have an aide assigned to shadow him throughout the day and help him when necessary. The job of the aide is to help enable the student to be successful, while allowing the student to gain independence and confidence in the process. The aide helps to adapt materials and find resources that will help the child function well in the general education classroom. A school practicing inclusion seeks to adapt the classroom in order to meet the needs of students with disabilities (Burke & Sutherland, 2004). A student is not thrown into a classroom and expected to function like everyone else. His teachers must adapt their curriculum and practices to ensure his success. In order for inclusion to be successful, teachers must be comfortable teaching students with disabilities. Many general education teachers do not feel equipped to handle the issues associated with these students. In the article, “Attitudes Toward Inclusion: Knowledge vs. Experience”, authors Burke and Sutherland (2004) explain that many teachers will leave the teaching profession after being exposed to an inclusive classroom they feel unequipped to handle. The authors later stated that teachers who received the most intense training to work with students with disabilities were the most successful in an inclusive classroom. The general classroom teacher must be willing to help include the student, for inclusive education, to work. Authors Griffin, Otis-Wilborn and Winn (2005)in their article, “Beginning Special Educators' Forays into General Education”, also stress the importance of preparing teachers to be successful in an inclusive setting. They explain that many special education teachers are not prepared for inclusion either. The article states, “many special education teachers are lacking knowledge of general classroom curriculum and pedagogy, skills to accommodate resources effectively for their students and strategies for clarifying roles and for collaborating with general classroom teachers”. In order for inclusive education to be successful, all members of a student’s educational team must be equipped to deal with that student’s needs.
Inclusion Impacts all Members of the School Community
Many wonder what effect inclusion has on non-disabled students in an inclusive classroom. In the article “Parent Perception of the Impacts of Inclusion on their Nondisabled Child” authors Gallucci, Peck, and Staub (2004) report a study done to find out what impact inclusion has on non-disabled students. The authors cite a study that surveyed eighty-one parents whose children were in elementary classrooms with students with severe disabilities. Eighty percent of these parents reported that they believed their children were gaining positive social and emotional growth. Over ninety percent believed their child’s experience with a classmate with a disability was positive. Not all parents or community members agree with the parents surveyed, however. While working as an aide I had a student with autism who tended to display extremely aggressive behavior. He began the year in the general classroom, but after biting and scratching the same child twice, he was removed.  The decision was made to remove the child with autism from his general education classroom and place him in the special education classroom alone. For the second half of the year, this child spent the majority of his school day being educated by aides and isolated from his classmates. He spent thirty minutes a day with a licensed teacher. Inclusion causes a problem when the student is unable to function successfully in the general classroom, or when the parents of the non-disabled children are unwilling to cooperate with the efforts of the teachers and aides to include that student.
Issues with Inclusion
Authors Griffin et al. (2005) speak to other issues that arise in an inclusive classroom. Some teachers are unwilling to dedicate the extra energy and work necessary to include a student with disabilities in their classroom. In addition, confusion can arise over who is primarily responsible for the student’s education. General classroom teachers do not necessarily take responsibility for the student and the collaboration of all members of a student’s educational team is crucial to that student’s success. Effective communication between general and special education teachers can be another challenge of inclusion. The student may not feel safe or supported in the classroom and will not be as successful as a result. At the beginning of the school year, one of my students with autism communicated to his teacher that he did not want to do his work because he did not think she believed he was smart. The student learned to trust her, and things improved overall. Students with disabilities need to feel wanted in the general education classroom or they will be less successful. If the teachers involved do not communicate, or if the general education teacher refuses to reach out to the student, he will not be successful in an inclusive environment.According to Margaret Hoban a couple of the problems faced by teachers that teach inclusion classes is the little teacher prep time and limited resources and the need for extra professional development dealing with inclusion. As well as, the officials applying more effort to developing the inclusion model and monitor their success more efficiently. http://escholarship.bc.edu ). The states are now requiring more and more standardized and comprehensive testing. Teachers are already overwhelmed and are sometimes unable to meet the schools and states request for academic accountability and achievement. When teacers have an inclusive classroom, they are put under more pressure and strain. Another problem that is dealt with inclusion is labeling. You hear that a child for instance has ADHD the child is automatically seen as a problem child, and the teacher usually has a low learning expectation of the student. This can and does affect the child’s learning and behavior. According yo Deloney and Thompkins, regular students in inclusive classes do not get the full learning time allotted to them. A lot of the time, their education is interrupted because of the students with disabilities. Either the teacher has to stop their teaching process because of behavior problems, outbursts/distractions, or explaining thngs over and over. You also have the teachers that really do not understand or really want to teach in such an environment could do much to undermine the potentially positive benefits of inclusion.
Those Who Like It
Although, there are parents, teachers and administrators who are not in favor of the inclusive classroom, there are those who think that inclusion has a lot of positive benefits. socialization is a key factor to this. Many parents, teachers and administrators feel that students with disabilities that are in inclusive classrooms have higher self concept about themselves and achieve at higher levels when with their peers (Deloney, Thonpkins). They have "normal" role models and therefore, know what age appropriate behavior is supposed to be. Children learn from each other and will learn how to act and how not to act during certain settings and situations. Scholars also think that the regular students benefit from being in an inclusive class. They will learn to accept differences among people, and become more accepting towards peoples differences as they get older. This acceptance may cause them to have a diverse set of friends. Having students with disabilities in their class will encourage cooperation and patience. Traits that will be good to have growing up.
Improving the Inclusion Model
Some improvements that can be made on existing models can be made to better the quality of learning for both the special ed and the non special ed students. Such as “increasing, the quality time spent with getting disability children to focus on material through enhanced and stimulating communications”. This can be by using power points. Children are growing up on computers and to just teach via lecture and note taking may not be right for a special needs student. I have found jeopardy websites dealing with topics that I have taught in classes and the students really love these. They are all done via power point. I noticed an increase in test grades dealing with the topics that I have played the jeopardy games with as well as other games. The students really enjoy competing with one another. We have hangman and spelling word whomps with our spelling words every week. This as well has increased the spelling test grades. Teachers can also allow more time for the organization of information just received. It is proven that students with disabilities need more time to organize and apply the information that they just learned.
Conclusion
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act requires that a free and appropriate education in the least restrictive environment be provided to all students with disabilities. As a result, general and special education teachers must work together to provide the best education for their students with disabilities. This process can be rewarding for everyone involved if they are willing to expand their comfort zones and are willing to work at including the student. Inclusion is not an easy process. As with all educational practices, inclusion has strengths and weaknesses. In light of this reality, educators and parents must determine what educational plan will best meet the individual student’s needs and work to successfully implement that plan. Ideally, the student will feel included in the general education classroom both socially and academically and will receive the best education possible.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
1. Which student goes to school in an inclusive setting?
a. Sally goes to a special school for students with autism
b. Mark goes to public school with his peers, but he spends his day in a classroom full of other students with autism
c. Tom has a tutor who comes to his home to educate him
d. Beth spends her day in the general education classroom with her peer without disabilities
2. Sally spent a successful year in the general education classroom with her peers. She is now isolated because the teacher did not like having a student with a disability in her classroom. What law is Sally’s school violating?
a. Least Restrictive Environment Act
b. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
c. Brown vs Board of Education
d. Fair Treatment of Students Act
3. Which does NOT explain why Sally’s situation is a violation of the law above?
a. Students with disabilities must not receive individual attention from teachers
b. Students with disabilities must be educated in the least restrictive environment
c. Students with disabilities must be given access to the same resources as their peers without disabilities
d. Students with disabilities must be provided with a free and appropriate education
4. Smith Elementary has decided to include all students with disabilities in their general education classrooms. What are NOT some problems the school community may face when this occurs?
a. General education teachers who are unwilling or unequipped to relate to the students with disabilities
b. General and special education teachers who fail to communicate
c. Parents of the students without disabilities who refuse to support change
d. Students with disabilities who have a different learning style than everyone else
5. Mark refuses to complete his assignments. Which is NOT a way his teacher can encourage his educational success?
a. She can make sure he knows he is accepted and appreciated by his teacher and classmates
b. She can adapt Mark’s work so that the format is easier for him to understand
c. She can state that Mark is not being successful in the general education classroom and have him removed
d. She can attend training session and workshops that will educate her on ways to better reach students with autism
- Answer
-
1) D
2) B
3) A
4) D
5) C
References
Improvements on Inclusion in Schools retrieved April 14, 2008 from curry.edschool.virginia.edu/go/cise/ose/information/uvald/inclusion.html
Burke, K., & Sutherland, C. (2004). Attitudes Toward Inclusion: Knowledge vs. Experience. Education 125(2). Retrieved January 31, 2008 from WilsonWeb database.
Deloney, Pat, and Richard Thonpkins. Inclusion: The Pros and Cons: Issues About Change 4 (3). Retrieved April 18, 2008 from http://www.sedl.org/pubs/catalog/items/cha05.html .
Gallucci, C., Peck, C. A., & Staub, D. (2004). Parent Perception of the Impacts of Inclusion on their Nondisabled Child. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities 29 (2). Retrieved January 31, 2008 from WilsonWeb database.
Griffin, C., Otis-Wilborn, A., & Winn, J. (2005). Beginning Special Educators' Forays into General Education. Teacher Education and Special Education 28 (3/4). Retrieved January 31, 2008 from WilsonWeb database.
Hoban, Margaret 2007 retrieved April 3, 2008 from ( http://escholarship.bc.edu )
Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M. A., & Mcduffie, K. A. (2007). Co-Teaching in Inclusive Classrooms: A Metasynthesis of Qualitative Research. Exceptional Children, 73 (4). Retrieved January 31, 2008 from WilsonWeb database.
Stout, K. S. (2007). Special Education Inclusion. Wisconsin Education Association Council. Retrieved February 15 from www.weac.org/resource/june96/speced.htm
Tomko, C. F. (1996) What is Inclusion? Kids Together Inc. Retrieved February 15 from http://www.kidstogether.org/inclusion.htm .
Wikipedia (2007). Least Restrictive Environment. Retrieved January 31, 2008 from http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_Restrictive_Environment .


3.4: Statistical Literacy
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Are Commercial Vehicles in Texas Unsafe?
Prerequisites
Graphing Distributions
A news report on the safety of commercial vehicles in Texas stated that one out of five commercial vehicles have been pulled off the road in \(2012\) because they were unsafe. In addition, \(12,301\) commercial drivers have been banned from the road for safety violations.
The author presents the bar chart below to provide information about the percentage of fatal crashes involving commercial vehicles in Texas since \(2006\). The author also quotes DPS director Steven McCraw:
Commercial vehicles are responsible for approximately \(15\) percent of the fatalities in Texas crashes. Those who choose to drive unsafe commercial vehicles or drive a commercial vehicle unsafely pose a serious threat to the motoring public.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Based on what you have learned in this chapter, does this bar chart below provide enough information to conclude that unsafe or unsafely driven commercial vehicles pose a serious threat to the motoring public? What might you conclude if \(30\) percent of all the vehicles on the roads of Texas in \(2010\) were commercial and accounted for \(16\) percent of fatal crashes?
Solution
This bar chart does not provide enough information to draw such a conclusion because we don’t know, on the average, in a given year what percentage of all vehicles on the road are commercial vehicles. For example, if \(30\) percent of all the vehicles on the roads of Texas in \(2010\) are commercial ones and only \(16\) percent of fatal crashes involved commercial vehicles, then commercial vehicles are safer than non-commercial ones. Note that in this case \(70\) percent of vehicles are non-commercial and they are responsible for \(84\) percent of the fatal crashes.
Linear By Design
Example \(\PageIndex{2}\)
Fox News aired the line graph below showing the number unemployed during four quarters between \(2007\) and \(2010\).
Does Fox News' line graph provide misleading information? Why or Why not?
Solution:
There are major flaws with the Fox News graph. First, the title of the graph is misleading. Although the data show the number unemployed, Fox News’ graph is titled "Job Loss by Quarter." Second, the intervals on the \(X\)-axis are misleading. Although there are \(6\) months between September \(2008\) and March \(2009\) and \(15\) months between March \(2009\) and June \(2010\), the intervals are represented in the graph by very similar lengths. This gives the false impression that unemployment increased steadily.
The graph presented below is corrected so that distances on the \(X\)-axis are proportional to the number of days between the dates. This graph shows clearly that the rate of increase in the number unemployed is greater between September \(2008\) and March \(2009\) than it is between March \(2009\) and June \(2010\).
Contributors and Attributions
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Online Statistics Education: A Multimedia Course of Study ( http://onlinestatbook.com/ ). Project Leader: David M. Lane, Rice University.
- Seyd Ercan and David Lane


9.1: Human Rights
Human rights are defined by the United Nations as rights inherent to all human beings, whatever nationality, place of residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, language, or any other status. The United Nations replaced the League of Nations in 1945, it is tasked to promote international co-operation and to create and maintain international order.
Across history, in the many cultures of the world, human rights have varied significantly. With triumphs and setbacks ranging from the American Civil Rights Movement to the genocide committed by the Khmer Rouge. One of the first notable civil rights leaders was Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, played an intricate role in the formation of India’s Constitution, he campaigned against the discrimination of the Dalits class (AKA"The untouchables"), and for more woman’s labor rights. In America, we see notable civil rights leaders such as Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. who was the most visible spokesperson of the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960's or Susan B Anthony, leading the American Equal rights Association campaigning for equal rights for women and other minority groups. These famous leaders only scratch the surface of the history of thousands of leaders and activists fighting the never ending battle of inequality where one group of people are treated significantly worse than another group of people because of a trait that may deem that group of people as lesser. However, cultures bias, whether it be racial, socioeconomic or gender based, has always halted the many social groups of the world from achieving equal human rights. It is in observing these former leaders' triumphs and cultures' failures that it is possible to understand the movement of social progress throughout the globe.[2]
History
It would appear that all cultures, have some form of human rights whether written or unwritten. However, what is considered a human right and who benefits from these human rights has varied drastically over time.
Prior to the 20 th century, there were no international written documents that would declare that all people have rights, simply based on their status as human.
Before the formation of the United Nations, many different countries had documents outlining the rights of its citizens, such as; the US Constitution, the English Bill of Rights, and many others. A major problem arises when one realizes that these documents do not assure rights for all people, often omitting women, people of color, and/or people of a certain religion or social class. The League of Nations, the first world intergovernmental organization whose goal was maintaining world peace, tried to create protections for minority groups, but the League ultimately failed, and so these protections never came to pass.[3] After the events of World War II, many countries became committed to the idea of universal human rights. Franklin Delano Roosevelt called for four essential freedoms: freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from want, and freedom from fear. One of the oldest known human rights activism groups is called the Amnesty International group. This group was founded in 1961 in London.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights outlines that all people are born free and equal, and that they have certain rights including the right to life and security, the right to not be enslaved or tortured, and the right to be recognized as a person before the law, among others. Originally written by the United Nations -an intergovernmental organization that replaced the League of Nations in 1945. The United Nations was tasked to promote international co-operation and to create and maintain international order. Representatives from all over with different legal and cultural backgrounds wrote the Declaration, and it was drafted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. The Declaration supports that all people have rights, no matter their race, gender, religion, or social status. Some of these rights guaranteed by the UDHR come into conflict with the traditions of some cultures, and has been the cause of certain conflicts (rights of a culture vs. right of the individual) and many of the articles in the document are vague, and leave room for interpretation, but it is this document that declares that there are some rights that are inherent in all people. Individual counties have created additional documents that further dedicate themselves to the ideals of the UDHR while also granting their citizens additional rights.[3] However, some question and fight these rights since they were written with only with western society in mind. They do not take into account how other cultures may see rights or what needs other cultures prioritize.
Civil and Political Rights
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a document representing the foundation of established human rights laws. The document, a set of civil principles, was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948. This document was written in response to the travesties of WWII and the Holocaust as an agreement between the UN Nations to hold higher standards of human rights. This document was a commitment by countries to abide by certain humane regulations regarding political, social, economic, and cultural rights of humans inside of a system.
The Civil and political rights form the original and main part of international human rights. It is a class of rights that restrict the higher power of authority, such as the government, social organizations and private individuals from discriminating or repressing the freedom an individual. Civil rights ensure protection from discrimination and protect the physical and mental well-being of an individual such as privacy and freedom of speech. Political rights include fairness in law, fair trial and other civil rights in the judicial system.
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) is a United Nations treaty based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, created in 1966 and entered into force on 23 March 1976.
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights is monitored by the Human Rights Committee (a separate body to the Human Rights Council which replaced the Commission on Human Rights under the UN Charter in 2006) with permanent standing, to consider periodic reports submitted by member States on their compliance or following with the treaty. Members of the Human Rights Committee are elected by member states, but do not represent any State. The Covenant contains two Optional Protocols. The first optional protocol creates an individual complaints mechanism whereby individuals in member States can submit complaints, known as communications, to be reviewed by the Human Rights Committee. Its rulings under the first optional protocol have created the most complex jurisprudence or the theory or philosophy of law in the UN international human rights law system. The second optional protocol abolishes the death penalty; however, countries were permitted to make a reservation allowing for use of death penalty for the most serious crimes of a military nature, committed during wartime.[4]
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
states parties
non-state parties signatories
non-state parties non-signatories
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) is a multilateral treaty adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 16, 1966, and in force from January 3, 1976. It commits its parties to granting economic, social, and cultural rights (ESCR) to individuals; including labor rights, rights to health, education, and an adequate standard of living. The United Nations replaced the League of Nations in 1945, as of December 2008, the Covenant had 159 parties.[5] A further seven countries have signed, but have yet to ratify the Covenant.
The United Nation's many attempts to create peace in Northern Uganda example of the ICESCR's efforts to advance human rights. As discussed in Sverker Finnstrom's article in American Ethnologist, The Acholi peoples of Uganda, whose rights have been at stake for over two decades, have continued to make steps toward a more stable economy despite having been largely displaced into refuge camps . The UN in its attempt to regain this cultures natural human rights programs are working to put the rebel forces out .[6]
The ICESCR is part of the International Bill of Human Rights, along with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), including the latter's first and second Optional Protocols.[7]
Labor Rights
As more nations participate in global trade, labor rights issues continue to arise. In the interest of globalization, companies continue to move their production to underdeveloped countries with less regulation and cheaper labor. Globalization can be defined as the process through which businesses or other organizations develop international influence or operate on an international scale. Exploitation of laborers can include long hours, unsafe working conditions, lack of sick leave, vacation, or compensation. Compensations usually refers to money, awarded to someone as a recompense for loss, injury or suffering. This all renders the chances of upward mobility non-existent. Manufacturing industries of apparel and agriculture are some of the industries with the worst of these problems.
The International Labor Organization (ILO) is a UN agency founded in the early 20th century. It is dedicated to tackling international labor issues and is composed of 187 member states of the UN. The organization received the 1969 Noble Peace Prize.[8]
The ILO defines decent working conditions as:[9]
- Need for daily, weekly and perhaps annual limits on working hours
- Importance of keeping overtime acceptable, limiting the number of additional hours and providing compensation
- Right to regular and uninterrupted weekly rest
- Right to paid annual leave
- Need to keep night-time work acceptable and warranting special protection
- Importance of enterprises’ needs in respect of flexible working-time arrangements
- Right to collective bargaining and the full and genuine consultation of employers’ and workers’ representatives on working time regulation
- Need for an effective labor inspection system or other enforcement measures to prevent and punish abusive practices
An example of a labor rights may be portrayed in within the apparel industry. Violations of worker’s rights in the apparel industry typically manifest in developing nations, where labor regulation is not enforced or hasn't caught up with the developed world. The popular term “sweatshop”, is used to label factories/workplaces that routinely exploit and under-provide for the employees. Because of the higher profit margins to be made with production in developing countries, labor is moved abroad, and fiercely competed for. This effectively causes what is known as “race to the bottom” practices. Though awareness of these practices has become more publicized, the demand for inexpensive goods has only risen with time.[10]
Reproductive Rights
Reproductive rights were first established as a subset of human rights at the United Nation's 1968 International Conference on Human Rights.[3] The sixteenth article of the resulting Proclamation of Teheran states, "Parents have a basic human right to determine freely and responsibly the number and the spacing of their children."[4][5] Reproduction rights revolve around the decision of an individual to reproduce and maintain reproductive health. This includes the right to plan a family, terminate a pregnancy, use contraceptives, receive sex education in public schools, and gain access to reproductive health services [1] . As reproduction rights are more clearly defined later in this section, the main question to be asked is: to what extent should women have control, or rights, over their reproductive systems?
Pro-life and Pro-choice
Most people when asked whether they are pro-life or pro-choice supporters could give an answer that's a mixture of both because the topic itself is very complex. If someone considers themselves to be pro-life, that does not automatically mean that they are anti-choice (and vice versa). Pro-choice supporters support the movement or idea that women have the right to choose whether or not they will bring a child into the world. Pro-choice gives the opportunity for people to have a safe abortion. It allows them to make their own "choice". Abortions were originally illegal until the late 1960's and early 1970's due to repealing the laws within some states. Pro-life, on the other hand, is usually categorized as not being in favor of abortions because they violate the babies rights. For some it goes as far as to wanting abortions to be illegal in the United States again. The main reason behind this is that babies in the womb are still considered to be humans, and it is illegal to kill another human being. This is where both men and women's perspectives are considered because it becomes a conversation about killing another human, not just about a woman and if she is having a baby or not. However many pro-choice supporters counter this and would argue that if a woman does not have the financial stability, health care, support, etc. ,then it is her right to a healthy and safe abortion. Overall, this topic is still an issue that the United States is facing today and perhaps one way to solving it is an understanding of both perspectives before preconceived judgment makes the decision first.
Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act
On 16 November 1990, a United States federal law passed that requires federal agencies and institutions to return Native American human remains and cultural items to their respective peoples. This federal law was called the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, also known as NAGPRA. Some of these cultural artifacts include funeral objects, religious objects, and objects of cultural patrimony. Patrimony is property that is passed down from father to son, or from one male ancestor to another. These federal agencies and institutions receive funding in order to do this. With this act, people are entitled to their culture both during life and after death. A NAGPRA outline allows us to know who should gain ownership of the remains if it is unclear to who it should belong to.
NAGPRA and Ownership
- Ownership resides with any lineal descendants
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If no lineal descendants, ownership resides with (in order):
- The tribe on whose land the remains or objects were found or
- The tribe who has closest cultural affiliation with the remains and who stakes a claim or if undetermined
- The tribe who is recognized as aboriginally occupying land that was determined to be traditionally theirs by the Indian Claims Commission, unless
- Preponderance of the evidence shows that another tribe has a stronger cultural affiliation that the tribe id’ed by the ICC
Rights versus Culture, Rights to Culture
Rights to Culture ensure that an individual, or a group of individuals, all have the rights to participate in, and enjoy their culture. This includes aspects such as the right to take part in cultural life, a guarantee of cultural conservation but still development, and protection from harmful cultural practices.
In discussing rights and culture there are two assumptions that people often make:
- Cultures are unchanging.
- In a given society there is only one acceptable culture that everyone must abide by.
These assumptions may cause problems within a group of people in multiple ways. When new rights are accepted in a culture that is normally unchanging, that new right may create conflict within the culture due to many of the varying viewpoints within the group. For example the issue of unveiling Muslim women so that they would no longer be oppressed. While Westerners are using the etic point of view without understanding fully what the veil means to the Muslim women as part of their culture and their religion. This is where rights and culture may not agree. Culture and human rights sometimes disagree, and new human rights may contradict accepted norms within a culture.


8.5: Carbon Fixation- The Calvin Cycle
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After the energy from the sun is converted and packaged into ATP and NADPH, the cell has the fuel needed to build food in the form of carbohydrate molecules. The carbohydrate molecules made will have a backbone of carbon atoms. Where does the carbon come from? The carbon atoms used to build carbohydrate molecules come from carbon dioxide, the gas that animals exhale with each breath. The Calvin cycle is the term used for the reactions of photosynthesis that use the energy stored by the light-dependent reactions to form glucose and other carbohydrate molecules.
The Interworkings of the Calvin Cycle
In plants, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) enters the chloroplast through the stomata and diffuses into the stroma of the chloroplast—the site of the Calvin cycle reactions where sugar is synthesized. The reactions are named after the scientist who discovered them, and reference the fact that the reactions function as a cycle. Others call it the Calvin-Benson cycle to include the name of another scientist involved in its discovery (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)).
The Calvin cycle reactions (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)) can be organized into three basic stages: fixation, reduction, and regeneration. In the stroma, in addition to CO 2 , two other chemicals are present to initiate the Calvin cycle: an enzyme abbreviated RuBisCO, and the molecule ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP). RuBP has five atoms of carbon and a phosphate group on each end.
RuBisCO catalyzes a reaction between CO 2 and RuBP, which forms a six-carbon compound that is immediately converted into two three-carbon compounds. This process is called carbon fixation, because CO 2 is “fixed” from its inorganic form into organic molecules.
ATP and NADPH use their stored energy to convert the three-carbon compound, 3-PGA, into another three-carbon compound called G3P. This type of reaction is called a reduction reaction, because it involves the gain of electrons. A reduction is the gain of an electron by an atom or molecule. The molecules of ADP and NAD + , resulting from the reduction reaction, return to the light-dependent reactions to be re-energized.
One of the G3P molecules leaves the Calvin cycle to contribute to the formation of the carbohydrate molecule, which is commonly glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ). Because the carbohydrate molecule has six carbon atoms, it takes six turns of the Calvin cycle to make one carbohydrate molecule (one for each carbon dioxide molecule fixed). The remaining G3P molecules regenerate RuBP, which enables the system to prepare for the carbon-fixation step. ATP is also used in the regeneration of RuBP.
In summary, it takes six turns of the Calvin cycle to fix six carbon atoms from CO 2 . These six turns require energy input from 12 ATP molecules and 12 NADPH molecules in the reduction step and 6 ATP molecules in the regeneration step.
CONCEPT IN ACTION
The following is a link to an animation of the Calvin cycle. Click Stage 1, Stage 2, and then Stage 3 to see G3P and ATP regenerate to form RuBP.
EVOLUTION IN ACTION: Photosynthesis
The shared evolutionary history of all photosynthetic organisms is conspicuous, as the basic process has changed little over eras of time. Even between the giant tropical leaves in the rainforest and tiny cyanobacteria, the process and components of photosynthesis that use water as an electron donor remain largely the same. Photosystems function to absorb light and use electron transport chains to convert energy. The Calvin cycle reactions assemble carbohydrate molecules with this energy.
However, as with all biochemical pathways, a variety of conditions leads to varied adaptations that affect the basic pattern. Photosynthesis in dry-climate plants (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)) has evolved with adaptations that conserve water. In the harsh dry heat, every drop of water and precious energy must be used to survive. Two adaptations have evolved in such plants. In one form, a more efficient use of CO 2 allows plants to photosynthesize even when CO 2 is in short supply, as when the stomata are closed on hot days. The other adaptation performs preliminary reactions of the Calvin cycle at night, because opening the stomata at this time conserves water due to cooler temperatures. In addition, this adaptation has allowed plants to carry out low levels of photosynthesis without opening stomata at all, an extreme mechanism to face extremely dry periods.
Photosynthesis in Prokaryotes
The two parts of photosynthesis—the light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle—have been described, as they take place in chloroplasts. However, prokaryotes, such as cyanobacteria, lack membrane-bound organelles. Prokaryotic photosynthetic autotrophic organisms have infoldings of the plasma membrane for chlorophyll attachment and photosynthesis (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). It is here that organisms like cyanobacteria can carry out photosynthesis.
The Energy Cycle
Living things access energy by breaking down carbohydrate molecules. However, if plants make carbohydrate molecules, why would they need to break them down? Carbohydrates are storage molecules for energy in all living things. Although energy can be stored in molecules like ATP, carbohydrates are much more stable and efficient reservoirs for chemical energy. Photosynthetic organisms also carry out the reactions of respiration to harvest the energy that they have stored in carbohydrates, for example, plants have mitochondria in addition to chloroplasts.
You may have noticed that the overall reaction for photosynthesis:
\[\ce{6CO2 + 6H2O→C6H12O6 + 6O2}\nonumber\]
is the reverse of the overall reaction for cellular respiration:
\[\ce{6O2 + C6H12O6→6CO2 + 6H2O}\nonumber\]
Photosynthesis produces oxygen as a byproduct, and respiration produces carbon dioxide as a byproduct.
In nature, there is no such thing as waste. Every single atom of matter is conserved, recycling indefinitely. Substances change form or move from one type of molecule to another, but never disappear (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)).
CO 2 is no more a form of waste produced by respiration than oxygen is a waste product of photosynthesis. Both are byproducts of reactions that move on to other reactions. Photosynthesis absorbs energy to build carbohydrates in chloroplasts, and aerobic cellular respiration releases energy by using oxygen to break down carbohydrates. Both organelles use electron transport chains to generate the energy necessary to drive other reactions. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration function in a biological cycle, allowing organisms to access life-sustaining energy that originates millions of miles away in a star.
Summary
Using the energy carriers formed in the first stage of photosynthesis, the Calvin cycle reactions fix CO 2 from the environment to build carbohydrate molecules. An enzyme, RuBisCO, catalyzes the fixation reaction, by combining CO 2 with RuBP. The resulting six-carbon compound is broken down into two three-carbon compounds, and the energy in ATP and NADPH is used to convert these molecules into G3P. One of the three-carbon molecules of G3P leaves the cycle to become a part of a carbohydrate molecule. The remaining G3P molecules stay in the cycle to be formed back into RuBP, which is ready to react with more CO 2 . Photosynthesis forms a balanced energy cycle with the process of cellular respiration. Plants are capable of both photosynthesis and cellular respiration, since they contain both chloroplasts and mitochondria.
Glossary
- Calvin cycle
- the reactions of photosynthesis that use the energy stored by the light-dependent reactions to form glucose and other carbohydrate molecules
- carbon fixation
- the process of converting inorganic CO 2 gas into organic compounds
Contributors and Attributions
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Samantha Fowler (Clayton State University), Rebecca Roush (Sandhills Community College), James Wise (Hampton University). Original content by OpenStax (CC BY 4.0; Access for free at https://cnx.org/contents/b3c1e1d2-83...4-e119a8aafbdd ).