By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
Describe each of the five ways illness is transmitted.
Explain how immunization prevents illness.
Identify standard precautions to prevent illness.
Discuss practices to protect children from environmental hazards.
WI Department of Children and Families Licensing Rules for Group Child Care Centers
DCF 251 Administrative Code regulations that relate to this chapter include:
251.07(6)
ISOLATION FOR ILLNESS
A center shall have an isolation area or the care of children who appear to be ill. If the area is not a separate room, it shall be separated from space used by other children by a partition, screen, or other means to keep other children away from the ill child.
The child shall be isolated until the child can be removed from the center.
The child in isolation areas shall be within sight and sound supervision of a staff member.
251.06(2)(h)
SMOKING PROHIBITION
Smoking is prohibited on the premises of a Child Care Center or in a vehicle used to transport children.
251.06 (2)(a-o)
BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS
The center shall be clean, safe, sanitary and in good repair at all times.
251.07(3)(h)
There shall be sufficient storage space for the clothing and personal belongings of each child in attendance.
251.07(4)
NAPPING EQUIPMENT
Sleeping surface may be a bed, cot, padded mat, sleeping bag, crib or playpen.
The sleeping surface must be clean, safe, washable and placed at least 2 feet from the nearest sleeping child.
Bedding must be maintained and stored in a clean and sanitary manner.
Bedding shall be washed after every 5 uses
251.09
INFANT CARE PERSONAL SERVICES
Plan toilet training in cooperation with the parent for consistency between the center and the child’s home.
Change wet or soiled diaper promptly
Soiled or wet clothing provided by the infant’s representative shall be placed in a labeled plastic bag and given to the representative at the end of the day.
Towels and washcloths used for cleaning infants shall not be shared and shall be washed after each use.
The changing table shall be cleaned with soap & water and disinfectant solution after each use.
251.06(10)2.
Whenever a potty chair is used, it shall be emptied, rinsed, and disinfected immediately after use
251.06(6)(i)
Children’s hands shall be washed with soap and warm running water. Hands and face washed when soiled. Children under one year of age, hands may be washed with a wet fabric or paper washcloth that is used once and discarded.
251.07(6)(g)
INFANT CARE GENERAL SANITATION
Surfaces exposed to bodily secretions including walls, floors, toys, equipment and furnishings shall be washed with soap & water and disinfected.
251.09(2)
The non-walking child who can creep or crawl shall have a safe, clean, open, warm and uncluttered area to move freely.
Place disposable soiled diapers and gloves, if used, I a plastic-lined, hands-free, covered container immediately.
Remove soiled diapers from containers at least daily. Containers shall be washed and disinfected daily.
Objects that are used by infants that are mouthed shall be washed and disinfected.
251.07(6)(i)2.
Persons shall wash their hands with soap and warm running water before handling food, before & after assisting with toileting and diapering, after wiping bodily secretions from a child with a disposable tissue, and after exposure to blood or bodily fluids.
Introduction
Science and experience tell us that infectious disease, especially gastrointestinal disease, which means vomiting and diarrhea, and respiratory disease, including coughs, colds, sore throats, and runny noses, are increased among children who are cared for in out-of-home group settings. In addition, such children may be at increased risk for certain other infections that may be transmitted by insects or by body fluids. It's also true that children who are cared for in group out-of-home settings are more likely to experience infectious illnesses that are more severe and more prolonged (although 90% of those infections are mild and self-limited, requiring no special treatment).
But there's good news, too. Infectious illnesses such as pneumonia and influenza, which together were the leading causes of death among U.S. children in the early 20th century, have declined 99.7 percent. Common childhood illnesses such as diphtheria, whooping cough, measles, mumps, and rubella are rare except in communities where immunization rates are low, and polio is unheard of in our country today.
Although younger children are more susceptible to infectious illness because their immune systems are immature, as they grow older, the incidents of infectious disease decreases as their immune systems mature. Furthermore, children who experience more infectious disease at an early age in group out-of-home care have a decreasing incidence of infectious disease as they grow older. In fact, they have less infectious illnesses in kindergarten than children who were taken care of exclusively at home. Illness also decreases with years of attendance in out-of-home early care and education settings.
There are negative consequences of childhood illness, including:
It’s unpleasant to be sick (for children or the adults that may also become infected).
Illnesses that are minor in children can be much more serious for adults and pregnant women.
Some illnesses have severe effects (and can even be life-threatening).
There are short-term medical costs.
There may also be additional child care costs or lost wages for parents/caregivers of children that must be excluded from group care.
Overuse of antibiotics in an effort to get children well contributes to antibiotic resistance among common bacteria.
To prevent illness we need to understand the different ways illness is spread, how immunizations protect children, and what universal precautions early care and education program staff can take to prevent the spread of illness.
How Illnesses are Transmitted
Bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites that cause illness can be transmitted in five ways, including through:
the respiratory route
the fecal-oral route
the direct contact route
the bodily fluid route (including blood, urine, vomit, and saliva)
the vector-borne route
Respiratory Transmission
Most respiratory germs stay in the nose, sinuses, mouth and throat, or possibly the middle ear. Upper respiratory illnesses (colds) are the most common and the most likely to be transmitted in early care and education settings.
The more common respiratory illnesses include:
Sinusitis
Sore throat
Common cold
Recurrent middle ear infection
Strep throat
RSV
Pneumonia
Bronchitis
Pneumonia and bronchitis are rarely the result of an infection picked up in an early education setting. We also have immunizations for many respiratory diseases that are rarely transmitted in early care and education settings today, including:
Mumps
Measles
Bacterial meningitis
Chicken pox
Diphtheria
Pertussis
Pneumonia
Seasonal flu
If we could actually see what comes out of a child's mouth along with a cough or a sneeze, we might appreciate the respiratory route of infectious disease transmission more.
The germs that are in this contaminated cloud of exhalation can wind up on surfaces and hands and be transmitted to others. Staff and children who are able to are encouraged to cough into their sleeves.  This will be addressed more in depth later in the chapter.
Fecal-Oral Transmission
When organisms that live in our intestines get into our mouths they can cause illness. Usually, this happens via someone's hands, usually our own. Fecal-oral routes diseases include:
Hepatitis A
diarrhea
hand, foot, and mouth disease
pinworms
rotavirus
norovirus
giardia
shigella
cryptosporidiosis
That is why it is so important that everyone wash hands after using the bathroom, changing diapers, when preparing food, and before eating.
Food Poisoning
E. coli and salmonella are two of the germs that you may also have heard mentioned in the news when grocery stores send back fresh vegetables, meat, or poultry. These organisms originate with farm animals themselves and they can cause diarrhea and vomiting if children or staff eat contaminated food. Properly preparing and serving fresh produce, meat, and poultry is essential to prevent food poisoning.
Direct Contact Transmission
Direct contact with another person's skin (or hair) puts infants and children at risk of illnesses such as:
cold sores
conjunctivitis
pink eye
impetigo
lice
scabies
ringworm (a fungus, not a worm).
Bodily Fluid Transmission
Bodily fluids, including saliva, urine, vomit, and blood, can cause illness, such as:
Dental caries (by saliva)
Cytomegalovirus or CMV (by urine)
Hepatitis B (preventable by vaccine)
Hepatitis C (rare in children)
HIV (no cases of transmission in an early education setting)
Vector-Borne Transmission
A vector is a living thing that can transmit disease. We know, for example, that ticks can transmit Lyme disease and Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Fleas are known to transmit Bubonic plague and typhus. Mosquitoes can infect people with St. Louis encephalitis (SLE), dengue fever, Zika virus, and West Nile disease. Rats and mice can transmit leptospirosis, trichinosis, hantavirus, and bacterial food poisoning. Raccoons can spread raccoon roundworm.
While these illnesses are relatively uncommon, the risk reminds us of the importance of
utilizing integrated pest management techniques to keep insects and rodents out of buildings (covered later in this chapter)
using insect repellant specifically recommended for children during outdoor activities
removing standing water in which mosquitoes can lay their eggs
checking for and removing ticks (addressed in Figure 4.10) in centers when children come back in after playing in or near heavily wooded areas
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Pandemic/COVID Resources
We don’t know when another global or regional health threat may occur so child care professionals should follow the best health practices of the time to keep children and staff healthy.
Where should you turn to for information on best practices during a pandemic? During a pandemic take guidance from the Center for Disease Control. This organization will provide over-all guidance procedures for preventing the spread of disease. The second organization to turn to is the Wisconsin Department of Children and Families (DCF). This organization will have information on procedures specific to regulated child care programs. The WI Department of Children and Families (DCF) will determine if there is a need to adjust child care regulations based on the current health threat
Precautions for the most recent pandemic Covid-19.
Individuals who are exposed to Covid-19 should follow CDC’s quarantine guidance based on their vaccine status and symptoms.
Child care programs that have a positive case, staff and/or child, are required to report the case to their local health department and licensing specialist.
Why is it important to understand how illnesses and diseases are spread?
Immunizations
Prevention of infectious disease starts with immunizations (or vaccines). Immunizations are considered the number one public health intervention of the 20th century and one of the top 10 interventions of the first decade of the 21st century.
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On-time vaccination throughout childhood is essential because it helps provide immunity before children are exposed to potentially life-threatening diseases. Vaccines are tested to ensure that they are safe and effective for children to receive at the recommended ages.
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See Figure 8.X for the current schedule of immunizations.
Fully vaccinated children in the U.S. are protected against sixteen potentially harmful diseases (see Figure 8.X). Vaccine-preventable diseases can be very serious, may require hospitalization, or even be deadly — especially in infants and young children.
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Here is the schedule from the CDC to ensure a child is fully vaccinated:
The current schedule of vaccines (see Figure 8.6) protects children from the illnesses listed in Table 8.1)
Chronic liver infection, liver failure, liver cancer
Influenza (Flu)
Flu vaccine protects against influenza.
Air, direct contact
Fever, muscle pain, sore throat, cough,
extreme fatigue
Pneumonia (infection in the lungs)
Measles
MMR* vaccine protects against measles.
Air, direct contact
Rash, fever, tough, runny nose, pinkeye
Encephalitis (brain swelling), pneumonia (infection in
the lungs). death
Mumps
MMR* vaccine protects against mumps.
Air, direct contact
Swollen salivary glands (under the jaw), fever,
headache, tiredness, muscle pain
Meningitis (infection of the covering around the brain
and spinal cord) , encephalitis (brain swelling), inflammation Of testes or ovaries, deafness
Pertussis
DTap* vaccine protects against pertussis
(whooping cough).
Air, direct contact
Severe cough, runny nose, apnea (a pause in
breathing in infants)
Pneumonia (infection in the lungs), death
Polio
IPV vaccine protects against polio.
Air. direct contact, through
the mouth
May be no symptoms, sore throat, fever,
nausea. headache
Paralysis, death
Pneumococcal
POII 3 vaccine protects against pneumococcus.
Air, direct contact
May be no symptoms -. pneumonia (infection
in the lungs)
Bacteremia (blood infection), meningitis (infection of
the covering around the brain and spinal cord). death
Rotavirus
RV vaccine protects against rotavirus.
Through the mouth
Diarrhea, fever, vomiting
Severe diarrhea, dehydration
Rubella
MMR* vaccine protects against rubella.
Air, direct contact
Children infected with rubella virus sometimes
have a rash, fever. swollen nodes
Very serious in pregnant women—can lead to miscarriages, stillbirth, premature delivery, birth defects
Tetanus
DTap* vaccine protects against tetanus.
Exposure through cuts in skin
Stiffness in neck and muscles,
difficulty swallowing, muscle spasms, fever
Broken bones, breathing difficulty, death
How Vaccines Work
The immune system helps the human body fight germs by producing substances to combat them. Once it does, the immune system “remembers” the germ and can fight it again. Vaccines contain germs that have been killed or weakened. When given to a healthy person, the vaccine triggers the immune system to respond and thus build immunity.
Before vaccines, people became immune only by actually getting a disease and surviving it.
Vaccines are the best defense we have against serious, preventable, and sometimes deadly contagious diseases. Vaccines are some of the safest medical products available, but like any other medical product, there may be risks. Accurate information about the value of vaccines as well as their possible side effects helps people to make informed decisions about vaccination.
Potential Side Effects
Vaccines, like all medical products, may cause side effects in some people. Most of these side effects are minor, such as redness or swelling at the injection site. Read further to learn about possible side effects of vaccines.
Any vaccine can cause side effects. For the most part, these are minor (for example, a sore arm or low-grade fever) and go away within a few days.
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Serious side effects after vaccination, such as severe allergic reaction, are very rare.
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Remember, vaccines are continually monitored for safety, and like any medication, vaccines can cause side effects. However, a decision not to immunize a child also involves risk and could put the child and others who come into contact with him or her at risk of contracting a potentially deadly disease.
How Well Do Vaccines Work?
Vaccines work really well. No medicine is perfect, of course, but most childhood vaccines produce immunity about 90–100% of the time.
What about the argument made by some people that vaccines don’t work that well and that diseases would be going away on their own because of better hygiene or sanitation, even if there were no vaccines?
That simply isn’t true. Certainly better hygiene and sanitation can help prevent the spread of disease, but the germs that cause disease will still be around, and as long as they are they will continue to make people sick.
All vaccines must be licensed (approved) by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) before being used in the United States, and a vaccine must go through extensive testing to show that it works and that it is safe before the FDA will approve it. Among these tests are clinical trials, which compare groups of people who get a vaccine with groups of people who get a control. A vaccine is approved only if FDA makes the determination that it is safe and effective for its intended use.
If you look at the history of any vaccine-preventable disease, you will virtually always see that the number of cases of disease starts to drop when a vaccine is licensed. Vaccines are the most effective tool we have to prevent infectious diseases.
Opposition to Vaccines
In 2010, a pertussis (whooping cough) outbreak in California sickened 9,143 people and resulted in 10 infant deaths: the worst outbreak in 63 years (Centers for Disease Control 2011b). Researchers, suspecting that the primary cause of the outbreak was the waning strength of pertussis vaccines in older children, recommended a booster vaccination for 11–12-year-olds and also for pregnant women (Zacharyczuk 2011). Pertussis is most serious for babies; one in five needs to be hospitalized, and since they are too young for the vaccine themselves, it is crucial that people around them be immunized (Centers for Disease Control 2011b). Several states, including California, have been requiring the pertussis booster for older children in recent years with the hope of staving off another outbreak.
But what about people who do not want their children to have this vaccine, or any other? That question is at the heart of a debate that has been simmering for years. Vaccines are biological preparations that improve immunity against a certain disease. Vaccines have contributed to the eradication and weakening of numerous infectious diseases, including smallpox, polio, mumps, chickenpox, and meningitis.
However, many people express concern about the potential negative side effects of vaccines. These concerns range from fears about overloading the child’s immune system to controversial reports about devastating side effects of the vaccines.
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Although children continue to get several vaccines up to their second birthday, these vaccines do not overload the immune system. Every day, an infant’s healthy immune system successfully fights off thousands of antigens – the parts of germs that cause their immune system to respond.
This is the case even if your child receives combination vaccines. Combination vaccines take two or more vaccines that could be given individually and put them into one shot. Children get the same protection as they do from individual vaccines given separately—but with fewer shots.
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One misapprehension is that the vaccine itself might cause the disease it is supposed to be immunizing against.
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Vaccines help develop immunity by imitating an infection, but this “imitation” infection does not cause illness. Instead, it causes the immune system to develop the same response as it does to a real infection so the body can recognize and fight the vaccine-preventable disease in the future. Sometimes, after getting a vaccine, the imitation infection can cause minor symptoms, such as fever. Such minor symptoms are normal and should be expected as the body builds immunity.
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Another commonly circulated concern is that vaccinations, specifically the MMR vaccine (MMR stands for measles, mumps, and rubella), are linked to autism. The autism connection has been particularly controversial. In 1998, a British physician named Andrew Wakefield published a study in Great Britain’s Lancet magazine that linked the MMR vaccine to autism. The report received a lot of media attention, resulting in British immunization rates decreasing from 91 percent in 1997 to almost 80 percent by 2003, accompanied by a subsequent rise in measles cases (Devlin 2008). A prolonged investigation by the British Medical Journal proved that not only was the link in the study nonexistent, but that Dr. Wakefield had falsified data in order to support his claims (CNN 2011). Dr. Wakefield was discredited and stripped of his license, but the doubt still lingers in many parents’ minds.
In the United States, many parents still believe in the now-discredited MMR-autism link and refuse to vaccinate their children. Other parents choose not to vaccinate for various reasons like religious or health beliefs. In one instance, a boy whose parents opted not to vaccinate returned home to the U.S. after a trip abroad; no one yet knew he was infected with measles. The boy exposed 839 people to the disease and caused 11 additional cases of measles, all in other unvaccinated children, including one infant who had to be hospitalized.
According to a study published in Pediatrics (2010), the outbreak cost the public sector $10,376 per diagnosed case. The study further showed that the intentional non-vaccination of those infected occurred in students from private schools, public charter schools, and public schools in upper-socioeconomic areas (Sugerman et al. 2010).
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Note
What about the Flu Vaccine?
There are many reasons to get an influenza (flu) vaccine each year. Below is a summary of the benefits of flu vaccination, and selected scientific studies that support these benefits.
Flu vaccination can keep you from getting sick with flu.
Flu vaccination can reduce the risk of flu-associated hospitalization.
Flu vaccination is an important preventive tool for people with chronic health conditions.
Flu vaccination helps protect women during and after pregnancy and helps protect the baby from flu for several months after birth.
Flu vaccination can be life-saving in children.
Flu vaccination has been shown in several studies to reduce the severity of illness in people who get vaccinated but still get sick.
Getting vaccinated yourself may also protect people around you, including those who are more vulnerable to serious flu illness, like babies and young children, older people, and people with certain chronic health conditions.
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Pause to Reflect
Using the information that has been provided about immunizations, think of ways you could respond to the following:
“I don’t believe in giving all of the vaccines, like chicken pox. It’s better for children to just get the disease like we all did when we were kids.”
“Why do they have to give vaccines so early? It seems like it’s too much, too quickly.”
“I have heard that vaccines give some kids autism. And even if they don’t, the side effects are just too scary.”
Universal Precautions to Prevent the Spread of Illness
There are some standard practices that prevent, or reduce the risk of, the spread of illness in early care and education programs. These are modeled after practices in health care, where everyone is treated as being potentially infected with something that is contagious. Many illnesses are actually contagious before the infected person is symptomatic, so waiting until you see signs of illness is an ineffective way of preventing its spread. Child care providers can practice these four things to help control the spread of illness.
Hand washing
Use of disposable nonporous gloves when working with bodily fluids
Disinfecting potentially contaminated surfaces
Proper disposal of potentially contaminated waste
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Handwashing
Regular handwashing is an important step to minimizing the spread of germs. Hands pick up germs from all of the things they touch and then spread them from one place to another. Germs that are on hands can also enter the body when a person eats or when they touch their eyes, nose, mouth, or any area on the body where the skin is broken (because of a cut, rash, etc.).
All that is needed for handwashing is soap and clean, running water. Handwashing with soap and water removes visible dirt and hidden germs. Studies have demonstrated that handwashing reduced the number of diarrheal illnesses by 31 percent and respiratory illnesses by 21 percent.
Hands should be washed:
before eating, feeding, or preparing food. This prevents germs from getting into the mouth from hands. (Hygiene practices related specifically to food safety will be addressed in Chapter 15.)
after touching saliva (after feeding or eating), mucus (wiping a nose, using a tissue), bodily fluids (toileting, diapering), food, or animals
when visibly dirty, after touching garbage, or after cleaning
The Center for Disease Control recommends the following handwashing steps:
“Wet your hands with clean, running water (warm or cold) and apply soap.”
“Rub your hands together to make a lather and scrub your hands well; be sure to scrub the backs of your hands, between your fingers, and under your nails.”
“Continue rubbing your hands for at least 20 seconds. Need a timer? Hum the “Happy Birthday” song from beginning to end twice.”
“Rinse your hands well under running water.”
“Dry your hands using a clean towel or air dry them.”
Infants and young children will need help with handwashing.
Caring for Our Children
recommends that caregivers:
Safely cradle an infant in one arm to wash their hands at a sink.
Provide assistance with handwashing for young children that cannot yet wash their hands independently.
Offer a stepping stool to young children so they may safely reach the sink.
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Wearing Disposable Gloves
Teachers and caregivers should wear gloves when they anticipate coming into contact with any of the following (on a child’s body or a contaminated surface)
Blood or bodily substances (i.e., fluids or solids)
Non-intact skin (e.g., rashes or cuts and scrapes)
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Once the gloves are soiled, it’s important to remove them carefully.
Using a gloved hand, grasp the palm area of the other gloved hand and peel off the first glove.
Hold the removed glove in the gloved hand.
Slide fingers of the ungloved hand under the remaining glove at the wrist and peel off the second glove over the first glove.
 “Do not reuse the gloves: this can spread germs from one child to another…Gloves provide added protection from communicable disease only if used correctly. If you use gloves incorrectly, you actually risk spreading more germs than if you don’t use gloves at all. Pay attention to your gloving technique so that you do not develop a false sense of security (and carelessness) when wearing gloves.”
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Cleaning and Disinfecting
Washing Surfaces Germs spread onto surfaces from hands and objects (tissues or mouthed toys) or from a sneeze or cough. It is important to clean all surfaces well, including toys and any surface that a young child puts in his mouth, because germs cannot be seen and it is easy to overlook surfaces that do not look soiled or dirty.
Toileting and diapering involve germs from bodily fluids and fecal material. These germs spread easily in a bathroom onto hands, flushers, and faucets. Routinely washing bathroom surfaces removes most germs and prevents them from spreading. The kitchen is another area of the home where it is important to clean surfaces well.
The terms “cleaning,” “sanitizing,” and “disinfecting” deserve close attention.
Cleaning
removes visible soil, dirt, and germs. Soap and water will clean most surfaces.
Sanitizing
reduces, but does not totally get rid of, germs to a level that is unlikely to cause disease.  It is important to follow the instructions on the label, which may also include rinsing surfaces after using the sanitizing product.
Disinfecting
destroys or inactivates infectious germs on surfaces. Disinfectants may be used on diaper-changing tables, toilets, and counter tops.
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Early care and education programs can create a bleach and water solution of one tablespoon household bleach to one quart water for surfaces that need to be sanitized or disinfected. To use effectively, the surface must be wetted with the solution and allowed to air dry. A fresh bleach solution should be made each day to maintain effectiveness, and stored in a clearly labeled spray bottle out of children’s reach. Research shows that other chemicals (e.g., ammonia, vinegar, baking soda, Borax) are not effective against some bacteria.
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“Items that can be washed in a dishwasher or hot cycle of a washing machine do not have to be disinfected because these machines use water that is hot enough for a long enough period of time to kill most germs.”
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Cleaning and disinfecting are essential. Studies have shown that some germs, including influenza virus, can survive on surfaces for two to eight hours; rotavirus can survive up to 10 days.
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Table 8.2 – Schedule for Cleaning and Disinfecting
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Surface/Item
Clean
Disinfect
Frequency
Countertops and Tabletops
X
X
Daily and when soiled
Food prep and service areas
X
X
Before and after use; between prep of raw and cooked food
Floors
X
X
Daily and when soiled
Door and cabinet handles
X
X
Daily and when soiled
Carpets and large rugs
X
Vacuum daily; clean monthly for infants, every 3 months for other ages and when soiled
Small rugs
X
Shake or vacuum daily; launder weekly
Utensils, surfaces, and toys that go in the mouth or have been in contact with bodily fluids
X
X
After each child’s use
Toys not contaminated with bodily fluids
X
Weekly
Dress up clothes not worn on the head
X
Weekly
Hats
X
After each child’s use
Sheets and pillowcases
X
Weekly and when visibly soiled
Blankets and sleeping bags
X
Monthly and when visibly soiled
Cubbies
X
Weekly
Cribs
X
Weekly
Handwashing sinks including faucet, soap dispenser, and surrounding area
X
X
Daily or when soiled
Toilet seats, handles, door knobs or handles in toileting area, floors
X
X
Daily and immediately is soiled
Toilet bowls
X
X
Daily
Changing tables
X
X
After each child’s use
Potty chairs (discouraged in child care because of contamination risks)
X
X
After each child’s use
Any surface contaminated with bodily fluids (saliva, mucus, vomit, urine, stool, or blood)
X
X
Immediately
Water containers
X
X
Daily
Disposal of Waste
Proper disposal and storage of garbage waste prevent the spread of disease, odors, and problems with pests. Disposable items (diapers, gloves, paper towels, and facial tissues) should be thrown away immediately in an appropriate container. Make sure the container is water and rodent-proof, operated with a foot pedal, is lined with a plastic bag, within reach of diaper changing area, handwashing sink, and food preparation areas, out-of-reach of and unable to be knocked over by infants and toddlers. The containers should be emptied, cleaned, and sanitized daily.
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Diaper Changing
Diaper changing areas should be smooth and nonporous (such as a plastic-covered pad), have a raised edge to prevent children from falling, be near a sink, be out of reach from children, and away from food preparation areas.
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The following diaper changing procedure should be posted in the changing area and followed to protect the health and safety of children and staff:
Step 1
: Before bringing the child to the diaper changing area, perform hand hygiene (including putting on gloves, if using) and bring supplies to the diaper changing area, and place a disposable liner on the changing area.
Step 2
: Carry/bring the child to the changing table/surface, keeping soiled clothing away from you and any surfaces you cannot easily clean and sanitize after the change. Always keep a hand on the child.
Step 3:
Remove the soiled diaper and clothing without contaminating any surface not already in contact with stool or urine. Put soiled diaper in covered waste container. Put any soiled clothing in a plastic bag that is securely closed to give to family.
Step 4
: Clean the child's diaper area with disposable wipes and place soiled wipes into a covered waste container.
Step 5:
Removed the disposable liner and gloves and place in waste container
Step 6
: Use facial tissue to apply any creams or ointments. Slide clean diaper under the child and fasten it and dress the child.
Step 6
: Wash the child's hands and return the child to a supervised area.
Step 7
: Clean and disinfect the diaper-changing surface and any equipment or supplies that were touched (and any other area child soiled before changed).
Step 8
: Perform hand hygiene and record the diaper change, diaper contents, and/or any problems.
Caregivers/teachers should never leave a child unattended on a table or countertop. A safety strap or harness should not be used on the diaper changing table/surface.
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Note
If Using Potty Chairs
Due to being hard to clean and disinfect, potty chairs are not ideal in a child care environment. If they are used, they should be used in the bathroom only. After each use:
Empty contents immediately into the toilet
Rinse with water and dump water into the toilet
Wash with soap and water (with a paper towel) and empty soapy water into the toilet
Rinse again and empty into the toilet
Spray with bleach solution
Air dry
Wash and disinfect sink
Wash hands (child and adult)
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Pause to Reflect
You are at a job interview to become a teacher in an infant room and the director asks you what you would do to prevent the spread of illness in your classroom. What might you want to mention?
Environmental Health
Sometimes the threat to health comes from the environment itself. Air quality, chemical hazards, drinking water, mold, and pest management are all topics early care and education providers should be aware of.
Outdoor Air Quality
Children are more susceptible to the effects of contaminated air because they breathe in more oxygen relative to their body weight than adults.
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Therefore, they “can be exposed to a lot of pollution. Children should be kept inside when air quality is poor, or should at least be discouraged from intense outdoor activity. Educators and parents should be aware that nearby construction and traffic can increase pollution. Mowing school lawns should never occur during school hours since this can cause an allergy or asthma attack. Insecticides should never be sprayed while children are in care. Outdoor air can include odors, pollutants from vehicles, and fumes from stored trash, chemicals, and plumbing vents.”
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Indoor Air Quality
There are so many sources of indoor air pollution in childcare facilities that the air is considered to be two to five times more polluted than outdoor air. Common sources of indoor air pollution include combustion sources such as oil, gas, kerosene, coal, wood, and tobacco products; building materials and furnishings as diverse as deteriorated, asbestos-containing insulation, wet or damp carpet, and cabinetry or furniture made of certain pressed wood products; products for household cleaning and maintenance, personal care, or hobbies; central heating and cooling systems and humidification devices; and outdoor sources such as radon, pesticides, and outdoor air pollution.
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Note
Environmental Tobacco Smoke & Dangers of E-Cigarettes
Scientists are still working to understand more fully the health effects and harmful doses of e-cigarette contents when they are heated and turned into an aerosol, both for active users who inhale from a device and for those who are exposed to the aerosol secondhand. Another risk to consider involves defective e-cigarette batteries that have been known to cause fires and explosions, some of which have resulted in serious injuries. Most of the explosions happened when the e-cigarette batteries were being charged.
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Mold
Mold is a fungus that thrives indoors when excessive moisture or water accumulates indoors or when moisture problems remain undiscovered or un-addressed. There are molds that can grow on wood, paper, carpet, and foods. There is no practical way to eliminate all mold and mold spores in the indoor environment. The way to control indoor mold growth is to control moisture.
Mold needs to be controlled in childcare settings to avoid possible health impacts for infants and children, including allergic reactions, asthma, and other respiratory issues.
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Integrated Pest Management
Exposure to pests such as cockroaches, rodents, ants, and stinging insects in childcare centers may place children at risk for disease, asthma attacks, bites, and stings. Improper use of pesticides can also place children at risk. A recent study of pesticide use in child care centers revealed that 75% of centers reported at least one pesticide application in the last year. Several factors increase both children's exposures and their vulnerability to these exposures compared to adults. Children spend more time on the floor, where residues can transfer to skin and be absorbed.
Young children also frequently place their hands and objects in their mouths, resulting in the non-dietary ingestion of pesticides. Children are less developed immunologically, physiologically, and neurologically, and therefore may be more susceptible to the adverse effects of chemicals and toxins. There is increasing evidence of adverse effects of pesticides on young children, particularly on neurodevelopment.
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Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an effective and environmentally sensitive approach to pest management that relies on a combination of common-sense practices. IPM programs use current, comprehensive information on the life cycles of pests and their interaction with the environment.
Integrated Pest Management “(IPM) is a safer, more effective, longer-lasting method of pest control that emphasizes pest prevention by eliminating pests' access to food, water, and shelter. When using IPM, properly identify the pest and know why it's there so an appropriate combination of different pest control methods can be used for better effectiveness in controlling the pest.”
398
This information, in combination with the last toxic available pest control methods, is used to manage pest damage by the most economical means, and with the least possible hazard to people, property, and the environment.
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Chemical Hazards
A child born today will grow up exposed to more chemicals than a child from any other generation in our nation's history. Of the 85,000 synthetic chemicals in commerce today, only a small fraction has been tested for toxicity on human health.
A 2005 study found 287 different chemicals in cord blood of 10 newborn babies - chemicals from pesticides, fast food packaging, coals, gasoline emissions, and trash incineration. Children are more vulnerable to toxic chemicals because their bodies are still growing and developing.
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Plastics in Child Care Settings
Certain types of plastics contain chemicals such as phthalates, bisphenol A (BPA), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polystyrene that may be toxic to children. These plastics can be found in baby bottles, sippy cups, teething rings, pacifiers, and toys. When these items are in a child's mouth or when they are heated (such as in a microwave), children can be exposed to harmful chemicals that have the potential to mimic or suppress hormones and disrupt normal growth and development.
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Drinking Water
The United States has one of the safest public drinking water supplies in the world. Over 286 million Americans get their tap water from a community water system. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates drinking water quality in public water systems and sets maximum concentration levels for water chemicals and pollutants.
Sources of drinking water are subject to contamination and require appropriate treatment to remove disease-causing contaminants. Contamination of drinking water supplies can occur in the source water as well as in the distribution system after water treatment has already occurred. There are many sources of water contamination, including naturally occurring chemicals and minerals (for example, arsenic, radon, uranium), local land use practices (fertilizers, pesticides, concentrated feeding operations), manufacturing processes, and sewer overflows or wastewater releases.
The presence of contaminants in water can lead to adverse health effects, including gastrointestinal illness, reproductive problems, and neurological disorders.
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Young children are at particular risk for exposure to contaminants in drinking water because, pound for pound, they drink more water than adults (including water used to prepare formula), and because their immature body systems are less efficient at detoxification. Exposure to lead in drinking water is a serious health concern, especially for young children and infants since elevated lead levels in children may result in delays in physical or mental development, lower IQ, and even brain damage.
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Under the federal regulations of the Safe Drinking Water Act, all water suppliers must notify consumers quickly when there is a serious problem with water quality. Water systems serving the same people year-round must provide annual consumer confidence reports on the source and quality of their tap water. National drinking water standards are legally enforceable, which means that both U.S. EPA and states can take enforcement actions against water systems not meeting safety standards.
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Pause to Reflect
What are five important things that early care and education programs should remember about environmental health to keep children healthy?
Summary
Understanding how illness is spread, helps early care and education programs prevent the spread of illness. Immunizations also play an important role in preventing illness. And when program staff use universal precautions, including handwashing, cleaning and disinfecting, and proper disposal of waste, they also prevent the spread of illness.
Programs must also be aware of environmental hazards that present a threat to children’s health. These include both indoor and outdoor air quality, mold, and chemicals. Programs should use integrated pest management and make sure that their drinking water is safe as well.
Engaging Families
Teachers can use the following strategies to help families to develop their children’s health habits:
Provide families with concise, accurate information about ways to promote and develop good health habits in children; information should be presented in English and the families’ home languages. Capture their interest by addressing topics related to their children’s age and development, as well as topics related to common health risks for children, such as childhood obesity, asthma, and dental caries. Injury prevention and first-aid topics, such as treating burns, bleeding, and choking, are also relevant. Provide written informational materials that are brief and easy to read.
Provide individualized information, as well as general health information, to all families through daily contact, workshops, and parent meetings. All information should be presented in English and in the families’ home languages. Accommodate family schedules by providing workshops and meetings at various times (e.g., morning, afternoon, evening), and arrange for child care during meetings.
Show family members what the children are learning by sending home examples of work, encouraging families to visit the preschool and observe children in action, and sharing children’s portfolios during home visits. Reinforce children’s learning about health habits through take-home activities, lending libraries of read-aloud books in the languages of the families in the group, and displays of children’s work.
As you introduce health routines (e.g., handwashing, tooth brushing), invite family members to participate and model. Encourage families to contribute ideas or materials to interest areas that reflect diverse health habits at home.
Identify community resources related to health habits (e.g., handwashing, tooth brushing) and invite community personnel to participate in and bring resources to family workshops or parent meetings. Emphasize the role of home and family members in helping children to develop health habits, and inform all parents of the availability of free and low-cost community resources.
Be sensitive to and respectful of different values or beliefs, as well as varying levels of access to health products and services. Gather information on available and accessible resources in the community, including those for children with special needs, and provide this information to all families, translated into their home languages.


2.6: Earthlike Planets - Venus and Mars
The Moon and Mercury are geologically dead. In contrast, the larger terrestrial planets—Earth, Venus, and Mars—are more active and interesting worlds. We have already discussed Earth, and we now turn to Venus and Mars. These are the nearest planets and the most accessible to spacecraft. Not surprisingly, the greatest effort in planetary exploration has been devoted to these fascinating worlds. In the chapter, we discuss some of the results of more than four decades of scientific exploration of Mars and Venus. Mars is exceptionally interesting, with evidence that points to habitable conditions in the past. Even today, we are discovering things about Mars that make it the most likely place where humans might set up a habitat in the future. However, our robot explorers have clearly shown that neither Venus nor Mars has conditions similar to Earth. How did it happen that these three neighboring terrestrial planets have diverged so dramatically in their evolution?
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- 2.6.1: The Nearest Planets - An Overview
- Venus, the nearest planet, is a great disappointment through the telescope because of its impenetrable cloud cover. Mars is more tantalizing, with dark markings and polar caps. Early in the twentieth century, it was widely believed that the “canals” of Mars indicated intelligent life there. Mars has only 11% the mass of Earth, but Venus is nearly our twin in size and mass. Mars rotates in 24 hours and has seasons like Earth; Venus has a retrograde rotation period of 243 days.
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- 2.6.2: The Geology of Venus
- Venus has been mapped by radar, especially with the Magellan spacecraft. Its crust consists of 75% lowland lava plains, numerous volcanic features, and many large coronae, which are the expression of subsurface volcanism. The planet has been modified by widespread tectonics driven by mantle convection, forming complex patterns of ridges and cracks and building high continental regions such as Ishtar. The surface is extraordinarily inhospitable, with pressure of 90 bars and temperature of 730 K.
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- 2.6.3: The Massive Atmosphere of Venus
- The atmosphere of Venus is 96% CO2. Thick clouds at altitudes of 30 to 60 kilometers are made of sulfuric acid, and a CO2greenhouse effect maintains the high surface temperature. Venus presumably reached its current state from more earthlike initial conditions as a result of a runaway greenhouse effect, which included the loss of large quantities of water.
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- 2.6.4: The Geology of Mars
- Most of what we know about Mars is derived from spacecraft: highly successful orbiters, landers, and rovers. We have also been able to study a few martian rocks that reached Earth as meteorites. Mars has heavily cratered highlands in its southern hemisphere, but younger, lower volcanic plains over much of its northern half. The Tharsis bulge, as big as North America, includes several huge volcanoes; Olympus Mons is more than 20 kilometers high and 500 kilometers in diameter.
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- 2.6.5: Water and Life on Mars
- The martian atmosphere has a surface pressure of less than 0.01 bar and is 95% CO2. It has dust clouds, water clouds, and carbon dioxide (dry ice) clouds. Liquid water on the surface is not possible today, but there is subsurface permafrost at high latitudes. Seasonal polar caps are made of dry ice; the northern residual cap is water ice, whereas the southern permanent ice cap is made predominantly of water ice with a covering of carbon dioxide ice.
Thumbnail: This May 2004 image shows the tracks made by the Mars Exploration Spirit rover on the surface of the red planet. Spirit was active on Mars between 2004 and 2010, twenty times longer than its planners had expected. It “drove” over 7.73 kilometers in the process of examining the martian landscape. (credit: modification of work by NASA/JPL/Cornell).


3.7: Product Rule
Okay, but what about \(\frac{d}{dx} x \cdot e^x\)? Can we just take the derivative of each like this?
\[\begin{align*} \frac{d}{dx} x \cdot e^x & = \left( \frac{d}{dx} x \right) \cdot \left( \frac{d}{dx} e^x \right) \\ & = 1 \cdot e^x = e^x \end{align*}\]
Unfortunately, no. Just to be clear: the above calculation is false!
Think about \(\frac{d}{dx} x \cdot x\). We know \(\frac{d}{dx} x = 1\), so therefore you might think
\(\frac{d}{dx} x \cdot x = 1 \cdot 1 = 1\)
But we also know that \(\frac{d}{dx} x \cdot x = \frac{d}{dx} x^2 = 2x\). So what do we make of this? Well, we just have to give up on the idea of “taking the derivative of each” with products. Luckily, there is a rule called the product rule that works great:
\(\boxed{\cfrac{d}{dx} f \cdot g = f g' + g f'}\)
The motto for this rule is “the first times the derivative of the second, plus the second times the derivative of the first.”
Where does this rule come from? Well, consider this picture:
Here we have a rectangle. The height is \(f\), the width is \(g\). The area of the rectangle is \(f \cdot g\). If we were to make \(f\) bigger by a little bit, by say \(\Delta f\), and \(g\) bigger by \(\Delta g\), then the rectangle would become bigger too. We want to find out how quickly the area is increasing. So how quickly is it increasing? You can see in the picture we add three sections on: \(f \cdot \Delta g\), \(g \cdot \Delta f\), and \(\Delta f \cdot \Delta g\). If you think of \(\Delta f\) and \(\Delta g\) as being really small, though, the \(\Delta f \cdot \Delta g\) terms is incredibly tiny — so tiny it does not affect the answer in the limit. Therefore, the new area is \(f \cdot \Delta g + g \cdot \Delta f\). This is where the product rule comes from — it’s how an area changes as you change each side length.
Let’s see this rule in action.
In this case, we can attack this using the product rule with \({\color{blue} f = x}\), and \({\color{red} g = e^x}\). We can easily take the derivative of each part: \({\color{blue} f' = 1}\), and \({\color{red} g' = e^x}\). Hence, using the formula \(\frac{d}{dx} {\color{blue} f} {\color{red} g} = {\color{blue} f} {\color{red} g'} + {\color{red} g} {\color{blue} f'}\), we have
\({\color{blue} f} {\color{red} g'} + {\color{red} g} {\color{blue} f'} = {\color{blue} x} {\color{red} e^x} + {\color{red} e^x} {\color{blue} (1)} = \boxed{x e^x + e^x}.\)
We see \({\color{red} f = x^2, f' = 2x}\) and \({\color{blue} g = \cos(x), g' = -\sin(x)}\). Hence, we have
\[\begin{align*} \frac{d}{dx} {\color{red} x^2} {\color{blue} \cos(x)} & = {\color{red} f} {\color{blue} g'} + {\color{blue} g} {\color{red} f'} \\ & = {\color{red} x^2} {\color{blue} (-\sin(x))} + {\color{blue} \cos(x)} {\color{red} 2x} \\ & = \boxed{-2x^2 \sin(x) + 2x \cos(x)}. \end{align*}\]
Using the power rule, we see \(\frac{d}{dx} x \cdot x = \frac{d}{dx} x^2 = 2x\). Using the product rule, we set \(f = x\) and \(g = x\). In which case, \(f' = 1\) and \(g' = 1\). Thus
\(f g' + g f' = (x)(1) + (x)(1) = \boxed{2x}.\)
Hurray! The same answer! Isn’t it great when math just plain works.
We see \(f = \sqrt{x}\), \(g = \ln(x)\). For \(f'\), we rewrite \(f' = \frac{1}{2 \sqrt{x}}\). As we saw in the exponents and logarithms section, \(g' = \frac{1}{x}\). Hence
\[\begin{align*} \frac{d}{dx} \sqrt{x} \ln(x) & = f g' + g f' \\ & = \sqrt{x} \frac{1}{x} + \ln(x) \frac{1}{2 \sqrt{x}} \\ & = \frac{\sqrt{x}}{x} + \frac{\ln(x)}{2 \sqrt{x}} \end{align*}\]
Now if you want to be a bit fancy with the algebra, we can simplify \(\frac{\sqrt{x}}{x}\) using rational exponents. It is equal to \(\frac{1}{\sqrt{x}}\). From here, we can find a common denominator and add the two fractions.
\[\begin{align*} \frac{d}{dx} \sqrt{x} \ln(x) & = \frac{1}{\sqrt{x}} + \frac{\ln(x)}{2 \sqrt{x}} \\ & = \frac{2}{2 \sqrt{x}} + \frac{\ln(x)}{2 \sqrt{x}} \\ & = \boxed{\frac{\ln(x) + 2}{2 \sqrt{x}}}. \end{align*}\]
There you go.


1.2: Theorizing Lived Experiences
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- Miliann Kang, Donovan Lessard, Laura Heston, and Sonny Nordmarken
- University of Massachusetts Amherst via UMass Amherst Libraries
You may have heard the phrase “the personal is political” at some point in your life. This phrase, popularized by feminists in the 1960s, highlights the ways in which our personal experiences are shaped by political, economic, and cultural forces within the context of history, institutions, and culture. Socially-lived theorizing means creating feminist theories and knowledge from the actual day-to-day experiences of groups of people who have traditionally been excluded from the production of academic knowledge. A key element to feminist analysis is a commitment to the creation of knowledge grounded in the experiences of people belonging to marginalized groups, including for example, women, people of color, people in the Global South, immigrants, indigenous people, gay, lesbian, queer, and trans people, poor and working-class people, and disabled people.
Feminist theorists and activists argue for theorizing beginning from the experiences of the marginalized because people with less power and resources often experience the effects of oppressive social systems in ways that members of dominant groups do not. From the “bottom” of a social system, participants have knowledge of the power holders of that system as well as their own experiences, while the reverse is rarely true. Therefore, their experiences allow for a more complete knowledge of the workings of systems of power. For example, a story of the development of industry in the 19th century told from the perspective of the owners of factories would emphasize capital accumulation and industrial progress. However, the development of industry in the 19th century for immigrant workers meant working sixteen-hour days to feed themselves and their families and fighting for employer recognition of trade unions so that they could secure decent wages and the eight-hour work day. Depending on which point-of-view you begin with, you will have very different theories of how industrial capitalism developed, and how it works today.

In the video below, “Barbie explains feminist theories,” Cristen, of “Ask Cristen,” defines feminisms generally as a project that works for the “political, social, and economic equality of the sexes,” and suggests that different types of feminist propose different sources of gender inequality and solutions. Cristen (with Barbie’s help) identifies and defines 11 different types of feminism and the solutions they propose:
- Liberal feminism
- Marxist feminism
- Radical feminism
- Anti-porn feminism
- Sex positive feminism
- Separatist feminism
- Cultural feminism
- Womanism (intersectional feminism)
- Postcolonial feminism
- Ecofeminism
- Girlie feminism
What types of feminism do Cristen and Barbie leave out of this list? Do you agree with how they characterize these types of feminism? Which issues across these feminisms do you think are most important?
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: http://openbooks.library.umass.edu/introwgss/?p=24
Stuff Mom Never Told You – HowStuffWorks. (2016, March 3). Barbie Explains Feminist Theories | Radical, Liberal, Black, etc . Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V3D_C-Nes60 .
The common thread in all these feminist theories is the belief that knowledge is shaped by the political and social context in which it is made (Scott 1991). Acknowledging that all knowledge is constructed by individuals inhabiting particular social locations, feminist theorists argue that reflexivity —understanding how one’s social position influences the ways that they understand the world—is of utmost necessity when creating theory and knowledge. As people occupy particular social locations in terms of race, class, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, age, and ability, these multiple identities in combination all at the same time shape their social experiences. At certain times, specific dimensions of their identities may be more salient than at others, but at no time is anyone without multiple identities. Thus, categories of identity are intersectional, influencing the experiences that individuals have and the ways they see and understand the world around them.
In the United States, we often are taught to think that people are self-activating, self-actualizing individuals. We repeatedly hear that everyone is unique and that everyone has an equal chance to make something of themselves. While feminists also believe that people have agency —or the ability to influence the direction of their lives—they also argue that an individual’s agency is limited or enhanced by their social position. A powerful way to understand oneself and one’s multiple identities is to situate one’s experiences within multiple levels of analysis—micro – (individual), meso- (group), macro- (structural), and global . These levels of analysis offer different analytical approaches to understanding a social phenomenon. Connecting personal experiences to larger, structural forces of race, gender, ethnicity, class, sexuality, and ability allows for a more powerful understanding of how our own lives are shaped by forces greater than ourselves, and how we might work to change these larger forces of inequality. Like a microscope that is initially set on a view of the most minute parts of a cell, moving back to see the whole of the cell, and then pulling one’s eye away from the microscope to see the whole of the organism, these levels of analysis allow us to situate day-to-day experiences and phenomena within broader, structural processes that shape whole populations. The micro level is that which we, as individuals, live everyday—interacting with other people on the street, in the classroom, or while we are at a party or a social gathering. Therefore, the micro-level is the level of analysis focused on individuals’ experiences. The meso level of analysis moves the microscope back, seeing how groups, communities and organizations structure social life. A meso level-analysis might look at how churches shape gender expectations for women, how schools teach students to become girls and boys, or how workplace policies make gender transition and recognition either easier or harder for trans and gender nonconforming workers. The macro level consists of government policies, programs, and institutions, as well as ideologies and categories of identity. In this way, the macro level involves national power structures as well as cultural ideas about different groups of people according to race, class, gender, and sexuality spread through various national institutions, such as media, education and policy. Finally, the global level of analysis includes transnational production, trade, and migration, global capitalism, and transnational trade and law bodies (such as the International Monetary Fund, the United Nations, the World Trade Organization)—larger transnational forces that bear upon our personal lives but that we often ignore or fail to see.
How Macro Structures Impact People: Maquiladoras
Applying multiple levels of analysis, let’s look at the experiences of a Latina working in a maquiladora , a factory on the border of the US and Mexico. These factories were built to take advantage of the difference in the price of labor in these two countries. At the micro level, we can see the worker’s daily struggles to feed herself and her family. We can see how exhausted she is from working every day for more than eight hours and then coming home to care for herself and her family. Perhaps we could examine how she has developed a persistent cough or skin problems from working with the chemicals in the factory and using water contaminated with run-off from the factory she lives near. On the meso-level, we can see how the community that she lives within has been transformed by the maquiladora , and how other women in her community face similar financial, health, and environmental problems. We may also see how these women are organizing together to attempt to form a union that can press for higher wages and benefits. Moving to the macro and global levels, we can situate these experiences within the Mexican government’s participation within global and regional trade agreements such as the North American Free Trade Act (NAFTA) and the Central American Free Trade Act (CAFTA) and their negative effects on environmental regulations and labor laws, as well as the effects of global capitalist restructuring that has shifted production from North America and Europe to Central and South America and Asia. For further discussion, see the textbook section on globalization.
Recognizing how forces greater than ourselves operate in shaping the successes and failures we typically attribute to individual decisions allows us see how inequalities are patterned by race, class, gender, and sexuality—not just by individual decisions. Approaching these issues through multiple levels of analysis—at the micro, meso, and macro/global levels—gives a more integrative and complete understanding of both personal experience and the ways in which macro structures affect the people who live within them. Through looking at labor in a maquiladora through multiple levels of analysis we are able to connect what are experienced at the micro level as personal problems to macro economic, cultural, and social problems. This not only gives us the ability to develop socially-lived theory, but also allows us to organize with other people who feel similar effects from the same economic, cultural, and social problems in order to challenge and change these problems.


17.5: Truth Tables: Conjunction (and), Disjunction (or), Negation (not)
Before we focus on truth tables, we’re going to introduce some symbols that are commonly used for and , or , and not .
The symbol \(\wedge\) is used for and: \( A\) and \(B\) is notated \(A \wedge B\)
The symbol \(\vee\) is used for or: \(A\) or \(B\) is notated \(A \vee B\)
The symbol \(\sim\) is used for not: not \(A\) is notated \(\sim A\)
You can remember the first two symbols by relating them to the shapes for the union and intersection. \(A \wedge B\) would be the elements that exist in both sets, in \(A \cap B\). Likewise, \(A \vee B\) would be the elements that exist in either set, in \(A \cup B\). When we are working with sets, we use the rounded version of the symbols; when we are working with statements, we use the pointy version.
Translate each statement into symbolic notation. Let \(P\) represent "I like Pepsi" and let Crepresent\(^{\text {"I like Coke" }}\).
- I like Pepsi or I like Coke.
- I like Pepsi and I like Coke.
- I do not like Pepsi.
- It is not the case that I like Pepsi or Coke.
- I like Pepsi and I do not like Coke.
Solution
- \(P \vee C\)
- \(P \wedge C\)
- \(\sim P\)
- \(\sim(P \vee C)\)
- \(P \wedge \sim C\)
As you can see, we can use parentheses to organize more complicated statements.
Translate “We have carrots or we will not make soup” into symbols. Let \(C\) represent “we have carrots” and let \(S\) represent “we will make soup”.
- Answer
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\(C \vee \sim S\)
Because complex Boolean statements can get tricky to think about, we can create a truth table to keep track of what truth values for the simple statements make the complex statement true and false.
A table showing what the resulting truth value of a complex statement is for all the possible truth values for the simple statements.
Suppose you’re picking out a new couch, and your significant other says “get a sectional or something with a chaise”.
This is a complex statement made of two simpler conditions: “is a sectional”, and “has a chaise”. For simplicity, let’s use S to designate “is a sectional”, and C to designate “has a chaise”.
A truth table for this situation would look like this:
\(\begin{array}{|c|c|c|}
\hline S & C & S \text { or } C \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} \\ \hline
\end{array}\)
In the table, T is used for true, and F for false. In the first row, if S is true and C is also true, then the complex statement “ S or C ” is true. This would be a sectional that also has a chaise, which meets our desire. (Remember that or in logic is not exclusive; if the couch has both features, it meets the condition.)
In the previous example about the couch, the truth table was really just summarizing what we already know about how the or statement work. The truth tables for the basic and , or , and not statements are shown below.
Conjunction
\(\begin{array}{|c|c|c|}
\hline A & B & A \wedge B \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline
\end{array}\)
Disjunction
\(\begin{array}{|c|c|c|}
\hline A & B & A \vee B \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline
\end{array}\)
Negation
\(\begin{array}{|c|c|}
\hline A & \sim A \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline
\end{array}\)
Truth tables really become useful when we analyze more complex Boolean statements.
Create a truth table for the statement \(A \vee \sim B\)
Solution
When we create the truth table, we need to list all the possible truth value combinations for \(A\) and \(B\). Notice how the first column contains 2 Ts followed by \(2 ~\mathrm{Fs}\), and the second column alternates \(\mathrm{T}, \mathrm{F}, \mathrm{T}\), F. This pattern ensures that all 4 combinations are considered.
\(\begin{array}{|c|c|}
\hline A & B \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline
\end{array}\)
After creating columns with those initial values, we create a third column for the expression \(\sim B\). Now we will temporarily ignore the column for \(A\) and write the truth values for \(\sim B\)
\(\begin{array}{|c|c|c|}
\hline A & B & \sim B \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline
\end{array}\)
Next we can find the truth values of \(A \vee \sim B,\) using the first and third columns.
\(\begin{array}{|c|c|c|c|}
\hline A & B & \sim B & A \vee \sim B \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline
\end{array}\)
The truth table shows that \(A \vee \sim B\) is true in three cases and false in one case. If you're wondering what the point of this is, suppose it is the last day of the baseball season and two teams, who are not playing each other, are competing for the final playoff spot. Anaheim will make the playoffs if it wins its game or if Boston does not win its game. (Anaheim owns the tie-breaker; if both teams win, or if both teams lose, then Anaheim gets the playoff spot.) If \(A=\) Anaheim wins its game and \(B=\) Boston wins its game, then \(A \vee\) \(\sim B\) represents the situation "Anaheim wins its game or Boston does not win its game". The truth table shows us the different scenarios related to Anaheim making the playoffs. In the first row, Anaheim wins its game and Boston wins its game, so it is true that Anaheim makes the playoffs. In the second row, Anaheim wins and Boston does not win, so it is true that Anaheim makes the playoffs. In the third row, Anaheim does not win its game and Boston wins its game, so it is false that Anaheim makes the playoffs. In the fourth row, Anaheim does not win and Boston does not win, so it is true that Anaheim makes the playoffs.
Create a truth table for this statement: \(\sim A \wedge B\)
- Answer
-
\(\begin{array}{|c|c|c|c|}
\hline A & B & \sim A & \sim A \wedge B \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline
\end{array}\)
Create a truth table for the statement \(A \wedge \sim(B \vee C)\)
Solution
It helps to work from the inside out when creating a truth table, and to create columns in the table for intermediate operations. We start by listing all the possible truth value combinations for \(A, B,\) and \(C .\) Notice how the first column contains 4 Ts followed by \(4 \mathrm{Fs}\), the second column contains \(2 \mathrm{Ts}, 2 \mathrm{Fs}\), then repeats, and the last column alternates \(\mathrm{T}, \mathrm{F}, \mathrm{T}, \mathrm{F} \ldots\) This pattern ensures that all 8 combinations are considered. After creating columns with those initial values, we create a fourth column for the innermost expression, \(B \vee C .\) Now we will temporarily ignore the column for \(A\) and focus on \(B\) and \(C\), writing the truth values for \(B \vee C\)
\(\begin{array}{|c|c|c|}
\hline A & B & C \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline
\end{array}\)
\(\begin{array}{|c|c|c|c|}
\hline A & B & C & B \vee C \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline
\end{array}\)
Next we can find the negation of \(B \vee C\), working off the \(B \vee\) Ccolumn we just created. (Ignore the first three columns and simply negate the values in the \(B \vee C\) column.)
\(\begin{array}{|c|c|c|c|c|}
\hline A & B & C & B \vee C & \sim(B \vee C) \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline
\end{array}\)
Finally, we find the values of \(A\) and \(\sim(B \vee C)\). (Ignore the second, third, and fourth columns.)
\(\begin{array}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|}
\hline A & B & C & B \vee C & \sim B \vee C) & A \wedge \sim B \vee C \text { ) } \\
\hline \text { T } & \text { T } & \text { T } & \text { T } & \text { F } & \text { F } \\
\hline \text { T } & \text { T } & \text { F } & \text { T } & \text { F } & \text { F } \\
\hline \text { T } & \text { F } & \text { T } & \text { T } & \text { F } & \text { F } \\
\hline \text { T } & \text { F } & \text { F } & \text { F } & \text { T } & \text { T } \\
\hline \text { F } & \text { T } & \text { T } & \text { T } & \text { F } & \text { F } \\
\hline \text { F } & \text { T } & \text { F } & \text { T } & \text { F } & \text { F } \\
\hline \text { F } & \text { F } & \text { T } & \text { T } & \text { F } & \text { F } \\
\hline \text { F } & \text { F } & \text { F } & \text { F } & \text { T } & \text { F } \\
\hline
\end{array}\)
It turns out that this complex expression is true in only one case: when \(A\) is true, \(B\) is false, and \(C\) is false. To illustrate this situation, suppose that Anaheim will make the playoffs if: (1) Anaheim wins, and (2) neither Boston nor Cleveland wins. IFF is the only scenario in which Anaheim will make the playoffs.
Create a truth table for this statement: \((\sim A \wedge B) \vee \sim B\)
- Answer
-
\(\begin{array}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|}
\hline A & B & \sim A & \sim A \wedge B & \sim B & (\sim A \wedge B) \vee \sim B \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{T} \\
\hline
\end{array}\)


6.9: Summary
- Barriers to Entry
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Industry factors (such as high start-up costs) that can prevent new firms from successfully launching new operations in that industry.
- Buyer Power
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In the relationship between a firm and its customers, buyers with high power can negotiate product price or features, while buyers with low power cannot.
- Capabilities
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A firm’s skill at coordinating and leveraging resources to create value.
- Competition
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Business actions a firm undertakes to attract customers to its products and away from competitors’ products.
- Competitive Advantage
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When a firm successfully attracts more customers, earns more profit, or returns more value to its shareholders than rival firms do.
- Competitive Environment
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Factors and situations both inside the firm and outside the firm that have the potential to impact its operations and success.
- Cost-leadership Strategy
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A generic business-level strategy in which a firm tightly controls costs throughout its value chain activities in order to offer customers low-priced goods and services at a profit.
- Demographics
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Part of PESTEL that includes facts about the income, education, age, and ethnic and racial composition of a population.
- Differentiation Strategy
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A generic business-level strategy in which firms add value to their products and services in order to attract customers who are willing to pay a higher price.
- Economic Factors
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PESTEL category that includes facts (such as unemployment rates, interest rates, and commodity prices) about the state of the local, national, or global economy.
- Environmental Factors
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PESTEL category that examines a firm’s external situation with respect to the natural environment, including pollution, natural resource availability and preservation, and alternative energy.
- Environmental Scanning
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The systematic and intentional analysis of a firm’s internal state and its external environment.
- External Environment
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The aspects of the world at large and of a firm’s industry that can impact its operations
- External Factors
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Things in the world or industry environments that may impact a firm’s operations or success, such as the economy, government actions, or supplier power. Strategic decisions can be made in response to these things but normally cannot directly influence or change them.
- Focus Strategy
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A generic business-level competitive strategy that firms use in combination with either a cost-leadership or differentiation strategy in order to target a smaller demographic or geographic market with specialized products or services.
- Generic Business-Level Strategies
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Basic methods of organizing firm value chain activities to compete in a product market that can be used by any sized firm in any industry
- Industry
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A group of firms all offering products or services in a single category, for example restaurants or athletic equipment.
- Industry Rivalry
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One of Porter’s Five Forces; refers to the intensity of competition between firms in an industry.
- Internal Environment
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Innermost layer of a firm’s competitive environment, including members of the firm itself (such as employees and managers), investors in the firm, and the resources and capabilities of a firm.
- Internal Factors
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Characteristics of a firm itself, such as resources and capabilities, that the firm can use to successfully compete against its rivals.
- Legal Factors
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In PESTEL, the laws impacting business, such as those governing contracts, intellectual property rights, and illegal activities, such as online piracy.
- Macro Environment
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The outermost layer of elements in a firm’s external environment that can impact a business but are generally beyond the firm’s direct control, such as the economy and political activity.
- Micro Environment
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The middle layer of elements in a firm’s external environment, primarily concerned with a firm’s industry situation.
- New Entrants
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One of Porter’s Five Forces, the threat of new entrants, assesses the potential that a new firm will start operations in an industry.
- Opportunity
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A situation that a firm has the resources and capabilities to take advantage of.
- PESTEL
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A strategic analysis tool that examines several distinct categories in the macro environment: p olitical, e conomic, s ociocultural, t echnological, e nvironmental, and l egal.
- Political Factors
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PESTEL factor that identifies political activities in the macro environment that may be relevant to a firm’s operations.
- Porter's Five Forces
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Evaluates the interconnected relationships between various actors in an industry, including competing firms, their suppliers, and their customers, by examining five forces: industry rivalry, threat of new entrants, threat of substitutes, supplier power, and buyer power.
- Primary Activities
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Firm activities on the value chain that are directly responsible for creating, selling, or servicing a product or service, such as manufacturing and marketing.
- Resources
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Things a firm has, such as cash and skilled employees, that it can use to create products or services.
- Sociocultural Factors
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PESTEL category that identifies trends, facts, and changes in society’s composition, tastes, and behaviors, including demographics.
- Strategic Analysis
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Process that firms use to study and understand their competitive environment.
- Strategic Group
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Businesses offering similar products or services and following the same generic competitive strategy.
- Strategic Positioning
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Firm’s decisions on how to organize its actions and operate to effectively serve customers and compete against rivals.
- Strategy
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Process of planning and implementing actions that will lead to success in competition.
- Strengths
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Resources and capabilities of a firm; what it is good at.
- Substitutes
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One of Porter’s Five Forces; products or services outside a firm’s industry that can satisfy the same customer needs as industry products or services can.
- Supplier Power
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One of Porter’s Five Forces; describes the balance of power in the relationship between firms in an industry and their suppliers.
- Support Activities
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Value chain activities that a firm performs to sustain itself; do not directly create a product or service but are necessary to support the firm’s existence, such as accounting and human resources.
- Switching Costs
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Penalty, financial or otherwise, that a consumer bears when giving up the use of a product currently being used to select a competing product or service.
- SWOT
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Strategic analysis tool used to examine a firm’s situation by looking at its s trengths, w eaknesses, o pportunities, and t hreats
- Technological Factors
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PESTEL category that includes factors such as the Internet, social media, automation, and other innovations that impact how businesses compete or how they manufacture, market, or sell their goods or services.
- Threat
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Anything in the competitive environment that would make it harder for a firm to be successful.
- Value Chain
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Sequence of activities that firms perform to turn inputs (parts or supplies) into outputs (goods or services).
- VRIO
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An analytical tool that evaluates a firm’s resources and capabilities to determine whether or not it can support an advantage for the firm in the competitive environment: v alue, r arity, i mitation, and o rganization.
- Weaknesses
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Things that a firm does not have good capabilities to perform or gaps in firm resources.
Summary of Learning Outcomes
Gaining Advantages by Understanding the Competitive Environment
- What is strategic analysis, and why do firms need to analyze their competitive environment?
Strategic analysis is a systematic evaluation of a firm’s situation, both internally and with respect to what is happening in the outside world. This analysis examines what the firm itself is good or bad at, how rivals in its industry are competing against it for customers, and what factors in the world environment, such as economic indicators or demographic changes, might impact the firm’s ability to be successful.
Firms need to conduct this analysis in order to be aware of and prepared for changes in their competitive environment and to maximize their chance of successfully competing against rivals and sustaining their profitability and market share in their industry.
Using SWOT for Strategic Analysis
- What is a SWOT analysis, and what can it reveal about a firm?
SWOT is a traditional analytical tool that identifies a firm’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT is an acronym of these four factors). It is useful for conducting a quick look at the internal capabilities (strengths and weaknesses) and external events and situations (opportunities and threats) a firm is facing.
SWOT is not a comprehensive analytical tool, because the four categories for analysis are too broad and will not necessarily identify all of the factors important to a firm’s success that a more thorough analysis would.
A Firm's External Macro Environment: PESTEL
- What makes up a firm’s external macro environment, and what tools do strategists use to understand it?
The external environment of a firm is composed of two primary layers: the macro environment and the micro environment. The macro environment includes facts and situations that a firm must be aware of but cannot always influence. The macro environment is analyzed using the PESTEL analytical tool that considers a firm’s political and legal aspects, economic indicators, sociocultural trends, demographic facts, technological changes, and environmental aspects.
A Firm's Micro Environment: Porter's Five Forces
- What makes up a firm’s external micro environment, and what tools do strategists use to understand it?
The second layer of a firm’s external environment is its micro environment, which includes the components of a firm’s industry, such as competitors, suppliers, and customers. Porter’s Five Forces of industry competition (industry rivalry, threat of new entrants, threat of substitutes, supplier power, and buyer power) capture the dynamic relationships between these components.
The Internal Environment
- How and why do managers conduct an internal analysis of their firms?
Managers cannot lead their firms to success without understanding what the firm is able to do. An analysis of the firm’s resources and capabilities, as well as its gaps, is essential in determining the best path forward for the firm. A good strategy for competitive advantage capitalizes on a firm’s key resources and capabilities, as identified and evaluated using the VRIO (value, rarity, imitation, and organization) analytical tool.
Resources and capabilities that satisfy VRIO criteria are the key things that a firm is best at, and these should be leveraged so the firm can compete against rivals.
Competition, Strategy, and Competitive Advantage
- What does it mean to compete with other firms in a business environment, and what does it mean when a firm has a competitive advantage over its rivals and what generic strategies can a firm implement to gain advantage over its rivals?
Competition is the battle for customers. Firms compete against rivals offering similar products and services and try to attract customers by making sure their product or service is a little better or less expensive than those of their competitors. The firm that is most successful in this battle, measured in terms of profitability or in terms of market share, has a competitive advantage.
Generic competitive strategies are the basic templates for organizing firm activities in order to achieve competitive advantage in an industry. A firm will perform value chain activities, such as marketing and research and development, in order to support the overall competitive strategy it has chosen.
Following a generic cost-leadership strategy requires that a firm try to save money throughout the value chain so that it can offer customers low-priced goods and services. In contrast, differentiators add value to their products and services while performing value chain activities so that they can charge premium prices to consumers.
A third generic competitive strategy, focus, is chosen in combination with one of the other two strategies by firms who decide to target smaller geographic or demographic customer groups.
Strategic Positioning
- What elements go into determining a firm’s strategic position?
A firm develops a strategic position in response to the factors present in its competitive environment. Strategic analysis is essential in identifying and understanding the factors that a strategic position must address. The choice of strategic position factors in a firm’s key resources and capabilities when choosing a generic competitive strategy, product or service to be offered, target market, and geographic reach to compete successfully against rivals in an industry. To be successful in allowing a firm to achieve a competitive advantage in its industry, a firm’s strategic position should be different from its competitors’ positions in the same industry and should be hard for competitors to copy so that the firm’s competitive advantage lasts.
- Why do managers use strategic analysis?
- What information does a SWOT analysis provide managers? What information might it miss?
- Describe a firm’s macro environment and how managers use PESTEL to understand it.
- What is a firm’s micro environment, and why is it important?
- What is an industry, and how do Porter’s Five Forces help a manager trying to understand a firm’s industry environment?
- What are firm resources and capabilities, and what information does VRIO provide about them?
- When does a firm have a competitive advantage over its rivals?
- What are generic competitive strategies, and how are they implemented in a firm’s value chain activities?
- What do strategic group members have in common with each other? What impact do firms outside a strategic group have on those in that group?
- How does strategic analysis help a firm develop its own strategic position? Why should that position be unique?


7.5: Looking Ahead
-
- Last updated
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- Elizabeth B. Pearce
- Linn-Benton Community College via OpenOregon
People who have experienced marginalization in this country continue to work to raise their families, ensure their children have better lives, and toward equity. We have attempted to demonstrate this via the analysis of the feminist movement and the ways it intersects with other needs and activism.
The nation is focused on the Black Lives Matter social movement in 2020. Black people have been actively seeking change for hundreds of years. We have described some of those changes in the voting section. The year 2020 saw increased activity both amongst Black people and among individuals who are not Black. Nationally there is increased understanding of the discrimination and bias that Black people continue to experience. This is a time of enlightenment and understanding, and rapid change and we encourage readers to continue to understand how past and current practices affect the experiences of Black and multi-racial families.
One aspect of the current Black Lives Matter movement is the increased involvement of people from other races and ethnicities. Listen here to one young Korean American’s experience with speaking up.
https://www.npr.org/2020/07/20/892974604/one-korean-americans-reckoning
Allyship is critical to changing systems of bias, discrmination, and the corresponding privilege that other groups experience. The focus of the story should continue to be Black individuals who have experienced ongoing systemic harm to their families. They have continued to advocate for understanding of their experience, representation, belonging, and an equal opportunity to participate in society and institutions.
You have likely heard of Dr. Martin Luther King Junior’s “I Have Dream” speech delivered in Washington, D.C. on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial on August 28, 1963. Maybe you have heard these famous lines,
I say to you today, my friends [applause], so even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow (Uh-huh), I still have a dream. (Yes) It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream. (Yes)
I have a dream (Mhm) that one day (Yes) this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed (Hah): “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal.” (Yeah, Uh-huh, Hear hear) [applause]
I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia (Yes, Talk), the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood.
I have a dream (Yes) [applause] that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice (Yeah), sweltering with the heat of oppression (Mhm), will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice.
I have a dream (Yeah) [applause] that my four little children (Well) will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. (My Lord) I have a dream today. [enthusiastic applause]”
You can read the full text here, at the King Institute’s website.
You can watch the whole speech here, with subtitles (although there are occasional places where the audio has been lost).
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/families/?p=615
It’s worth reading and listening to, and reflecting on your viewpoint about whether and how the country has progressed and changed since this speech in 1963.