4.9.E: Problems on the Darboux Property and Related Topics
Prove Note 1.
Prove Note 3.
Prove continuity at 0 in Example \((\mathrm{c})\).
Prove Theorem 1 for polygon-connected sets.
[Hint: If
\[
B \supseteq \bigcup_{i=0}^{m-1} L\left[\overline{p}_{i}, \overline{p}_{i+1}\right]
\]
with
\[
f\left(\overline{p}_{0}\right)<c<f\left(\overline{p}_{m}\right) ,
\]
show that for at least one \(i,\) either \(c=f\left(\overline{p}_{i}\right)\) or \(f\left(\overline{p}_{i}\right)<c<f\left(\overline{p}_{i+1}\right) .\) Then replace \(\left.B \text { in the theorem by the convex segment } L\left[\overline{p}_{i}, \overline{p}_{i+1}\right] .\right]\)
Show that, if \(f\) is strictly increasing on \(B \subseteq E,\) then \(f^{-1}\) has the same property on \(f[B],\) and both are one to one; similarly for decreasing functions.
For functions on \(B=[a, b] \subset E^{1},\) Theorem 1 can be proved thusly: If
\[
f(a)<c<f(b) ,
\]
let
\[
P=\{x \in B | f(x)<c\}
\]
and put \(r=\sup P\).
Show that \(f(r)\) is neither greater nor less than \(c,\) and so necessarily \(f(r)=c .\)
[Hint: If \(f(r)<c\), continuity at \(r\) implies that \(f(x)<c\) on some \(G_{r}(\delta)\) (§2, Problem 7), contrary to \(r=\sup P\). (Why?)]
Continuing Problem \(4,\) prove Theorem 1 in all generality, as follows.
Define
\[
g(t)=\overline{p}+t(\overline{q}-\overline{p}), \quad 0 \leq t \leq 1 .
\]
\(\text { Then } g \text { is continuous (by Theorem } 3 \text { in } §3)\), and so is the composite function \(h=f \circ g,\) on \([0,1] .\) By Problem \(4,\) with \(B=[0,1],\) there is a \(t \in(0,1)\) with \(h(t)=c .\) Put \(\overline{r}=g(t),\) and show that \(f(\overline{r})=c\).
Show that every equation of odd degree, of the form
\[
f(x)=\sum_{k=0}^{n} a_{k} x^{k}=0 \quad\left(n=2 m-1, a_{n} \neq 0\right) ,
\]
has at least one solution for \(x\) in \(E^{1}\).
[Hint: Show that \(f\) takes both negative and positive values as \(x \rightarrow-\infty\) or \(x \rightarrow+\infty\); thus by the Darboux property, \(f\) must also take the intermediate value 0 for some \(\left.x \in E^{1} .\right]\)
Prove that if the functions \(f : A \rightarrow(0,+\infty)\) and \(g : A \rightarrow E^{1}\) are both continuous, so also is the function \(h : A \rightarrow E^{1}\) given by
\[
h(x)=f(x)^{g(x)} .
\]
\(\text { [Hint: See Example }(\mathrm{c})]\).
Using Corollary 2 in §2, and limit properties of the exponential and log functions, prove the "shorthand" Theorems \(11-16\) of §4.
Find \(\lim _{x \rightarrow+\infty}\left(1+\frac{1}{x}\right)^{\sqrt{x}}\).
Similarly, find a new solution of Problem 27 in Chapter 3, §15, reducing it to Problem \(26 .\)
Show that if \(f : E^{1} \rightarrow E^{*}\) has the Darboux property on \(B(\mathrm{e} . g ., \text { if } B \text { is }\) \(\text { convex and } f \text { is relatively continuous on } B)\) and if \(f\) is one to one on \(B\), then \(f\) is necessarily strictly monotone on \(B\).
Prove that if two real functions \(f, g\) are relatively continuous on \([a, b]\) \((a<b)\) and
\[
f(x) g(x)>0 \text { for } x \in[a, b] ,
\]
then the equation
\[
(x-a) f(x)+(x-b) g(x)=0
\]
has a solution between \(a\) and \(b ;\) similarly for the equation
\[
\frac{f(x)}{x-a}+\frac{g(x)}{x-b}=0 \quad\left(a, b \in E^{1}\right) .
\]
Similarly, discuss the solutions of
\[
\frac{2}{x-4}+\frac{9}{x-1}+\frac{1}{x-2}=0 .
\]


Lumen Learning and Linda (Bruce) Hill
“The most important tool you have on a résumé is language.”
– Jay Samit
A résumé is a “selfie” for business purposes. It is a written picture of who you are—it’s a marketing tool, a selling tool, and a promotion of you as an ideal candidate for any job you may be interested in.
The word
résumé
comes from the French word
résumé
, which means “a summary.” Leonardo da Vinci is credited with writing one of the first known résumés, although it was more of a letter that outlined his credentials for a potential employer, Ludovico Sforza. The résumé got da Vinci the job, though, and Sforza became a longtime patron of da Vinci and later commissioned him to paint
The Last Supper
.
Résumés and cover letters work together to represent you in the most positive light to prospective employers. With a well-composed résumé and cover letter, you stand out—which may get you an interview and then a good shot at landing a job.
In this section, we discuss résumés and cover letters as key components of your career development tool kit. We explore some of the many ways you can design and develop them for the greatest impact in your job search.
Your Résumé: Purpose and Contents
Your résumé is an inventory of your education, work experience, job-related skills, accomplishments, volunteer history, internships, residencies, and/or more. It’s a professional autobiography in outline form to give the person who reads it a quick, general idea of who you are, and what skills, abilities, and experiences you have to offer. With a better idea of who you are, prospective employers can see how well you might contribute to their workplace.
As a college student or recent graduate, though, you may be unsure about what to put in your résumé, especially if you don’t have much employment history. Still, employers don’t expect recent grads to have significant work experience. And even with little work experience, you may still have a host of worthy accomplishments to include. It’s all in how you present yourself.
The following video is an animated look at why résumés are so important. Read a transcript of the video.
Video:
Why Do I Need a Resume?
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: press.rebus.community/blueprint2/?p=66
Elements of Your Successful R
ésumé
Perhaps the hardest part of writing a résumé is figuring out what format to use to organize and present your information in the most effective way. There is no correct format, per se, but most résumés follow one of the four formats below. Which format do you think will best represent your qualifications?
-
Reverse chronological résumé
: A reverse chronological résumé (sometimes also simply called a chronological résumé) lists your job experiences in reverse chronological order—that is, starting with the most recent job and working backward toward your first job. It includes starting and ending dates. Also included is a brief description of the work duties you performed for each job, and highlights of your formal education. The reverse chronological résumé may be the most common and perhaps the most conservative résumé format. It is most suitable for demonstrating a solid work history, and growth and development in your skills. It may not suit you if you are light on skills in the area you are applying to, or if you’ve changed employers frequently, or if you are looking for your first job. Reverse Chronological Résumé Examples
-
Functional résumé
: A functional résumé is organized around your talents, skills, and abilities (more so than work duties and job titles, as with the reverse chronological résumé). It emphasizes specific professional capabilities, like what you have done or what you can do. Specific dates may be included but are not as important. So if you are a new graduate entering your field with little or no actual work experience, the functional résumé may be a good format for you. It can also be useful when you are seeking work in a field that differs from what you have done in the past. It’s also well suited for people in unconventional careers. Functional Résumé Examples
-
Hybrid résumé
: The hybrid résumé is a format reflecting both the functional and chronological approaches. It’s also called a combination résumé. It highlights relevant skills, but it still provides information about your work experience. With a hybrid résumé, you may list your job skills as most prominent and then follow with a chronological (or reverse chronological) list of employers. This résumé format is most effective when your specific skills and job experience need to be emphasized. Hybrid Résumé Examples
-
Video, infographic, and website résumé
: Other formats you may wish to consider are the video résumé, the infographic résumé, or even a website résumé. These formats may be most suitable for people in multimedia and creative careers. Certainly with the expansive use of technology today, a job seeker might at least try to create a media-enhanced résumé. But the paper-based, traditional résumé is by far the most commonly used—in fact, some human resource departments may not permit submission of any format other than paper based. Video Resume Examples; Infographic Résumé Examples; Website Résumé Examples
An important note about formatting is that, initially, employers may spend only a few seconds reviewing each résumé—especially if there is a big stack of them or they seem tedious to read. That’s why it’s important to choose your format carefully so it will stand out and make the first cut.
Résumé Contents and Structure
For many people, the process of writing a résumé is daunting. After all, you are taking a lot of information and condensing it into a very concise form that needs to be both eye-catching and easy to read. Don’t be scared off, though! Developing a good résumé can be fun, rewarding, and easier than you think if you follow a few basic guidelines. In the following video, a résumé-writing expert describes some keys to success.
Video:
Resume Tutorial
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: press.rebus.community/blueprint2/?p=66
Contents and Components To Include
-
Your contact information
: name, address (note that some recommend not sharing for security purposes, others recommend sharing to be complete), phone number, professional email address
-
A summary of your skills
: 5–10 skills you have gained in your field
-
Work experience
: depending on the résumé format you choose, you may list your most recent job first; include the title of the position, employer’s name, location, employment dates (beginning, ending); Working for a family business is valid work experience and should definitely be on a resume.
-
Volunteer experience:
can be listed in terms of hours completed or months/years involved. Use the same format as that used to list work experience.
-
Education and training
: formal and informal experiences matter; include academic degrees, professional development, certificates, internships, etc.
-
Other sections
: may include a job objective, a brief profile, a branding statement, a summary statement, additional accomplishments, and any other related experiences
Caution
Résumés resemble snowflakes in as much as no two are alike. Although you can benefit from giving yours a stamp of individuality, you will do well to steer clear of personal details that might elicit a negative response. It is advisable to omit any confidential information or details that could make you vulnerable to discrimination, for instance. Your résumé will likely be viewed by a number of employees in an organization, including human resource personnel, managers, administrative staff, etc. By aiming to please all reviewers, you gain maximum advantage.
-
Do not mention your age, gender, height or weight.
-
Do not include your social security number.
-
Do not mention religious beliefs or political affiliations, unless they are relevant to the position.
-
Do not include a photograph of yourself or a physical description.
-
Do not mention health issues.
-
Do not use first-person references (I, me).
-
Do not include wage/salary expectations.
-
Do not use abbreviations.
-
Proofread carefully—absolutely no spelling mistakes are acceptable.
Top Ten Tips for a Successful Résumé
-
Aim to make a résumé that’s 1–2 pages long on letter-size paper.
-
Make it visually appealing.
-
Use action verbs and phrases.
-
Proofread carefully to eliminate any spelling, grammar, punctuation, and typographical errors.
-
Include highlights of your qualifications or skills to attract an employer’s attention.
-
Craft your letter as a pitch to people in the profession you plan to work in.
-
Stand out as different, courageous.
-
Be positive and reflect only the truth.
-
Be excited and optimistic about your job prospects!
-
Keep refining and reworking your résumé; it’s an ongoing project.
Remember that your résumé is your professional profile. It will hold you in the most professional and positive light, and it’s designed to be a quick and easy way for a prospective employer to evaluate what you might bring to a job. When written and formatted attractively, creatively, and legibly, your résumé is what will get your foot in the door. You can be proud of your accomplishments, even if they don’t seem numerous. Let your résumé reflect your personal pride and professionalism. A resume is also a “living document” and will change as your experiences and skills change.
In the following video,
Résumé Tips for College Students From Employers
, several college graduate recruiters summarize the most important points about crafting your résumé. Download a transcript of the video.
Video:
Résumé Tips for College Students From Employers
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: press.rebus.community/blueprint2/?p=66
Résumé Writing Resources
|
|
WEBSITE
|
DESCRIPTION
|
|
2
|
The Online Resume Builder (from My Perfect resume)
|
The online résumé builder is easy to use. Choose your résumé design from the library of professional designs, insert prewritten examples, then download and print your new résumé.
|
|
3
|
Résumé Builder (from Live Career)
|
This site offers examples and samples, templates, tips, videos, and services for résumés, cover letters, interviews, and jobs.
|
|
4
|
Résumé Samples for College Students and Graduates (from About Careers)
|
This site offers a plethora of sample résumés for college students and graduates. Listings are by type of student and by type of job. Résumé templates are also provided.
|
|
5
|
Job Search Minute Videos (from College Grad)
|
This site offers multiple to-the-point one-minute videos on topics such as print résumés, video résumés, cover letters, interviewing, tough interview questions, references, job fairs, and Internet job searching.
|
|
7
|
42 Résumé Dos and Don’ts Every Job Seeker Should Know (from The Muse)
|
A comprehensive list of résumé dos and don’ts, which includes traditional rules as well as new rules to polish your résumé.
|
Activity: Create Your Résumé
Objectives:
-
Compile data reflecting your professional and educational skills and accomplishments.
-
Assess the main résumé formats and select one that meets your needs.
-
Create a first draft of your professional résumé.
Directions:
-
Compile all needed information for your résumé, including your contact information, a summary of your skills, your work experience and volunteer experience, education and training (including your intended degree, professional development activities, certificates, internships, etc.). Optionally you may wish to include job objective, a brief profile, a branding statement, additional accomplishments, and any other related experiences.
-
Select one of the résumé builder tools listed above in the Résumé Writing Resources table.
-
Create your résumé, following instructions at your selected site.
-
Save your document as a PDF file.
-
Follow instructions from your instructor on how to submit your work.
Your Cover Letter
A cover letter is a letter of introduction, usually 3–4 paragraphs in length, that you attach to your résumé. It’s a way of introducing yourself to a potential employer and explaining why you are suited for a position. Employers may look for individualized and thoughtfully written cover letters as an initial method of screening out applicants who may who lack necessary basic skills, or who may not be sufficiently interested in the position.
Cover Letter Examples
Often an employer will request or require that a cover letter be included in the materials an applicant submits. There are also occasions when you might submit a cover letter uninvited (also called a letter of interest). For example, if you are initiating an inquiry about possible work or asking someone to send you information or provide other assistance.
With each résumé you send out, always include a cover letter specifically addressing your purposes.
Characteristics of an Effective Cover Letter
Cover letters should accomplish the following:
-
Get the attention of the prospective employer
-
Set you apart from any possible competition
-
Identify the position you are interested in
-
Specify how you learned about the position or company
-
Present highlights of your skills and accomplishments
-
Reflect your genuine interest
-
Please the eye and ear
The following video features Aimee Bateman, founder of Careercake.com, who explains how you can create an incredible cover letter. Download a transcript of the video.
Cover Letter Resources
|
|
WEBSITE
|
DESCRIPTION
|
|
1
|
Student Cover Letter Samples (from About Careers)
|
This site contains sample student/recent graduate cover letters (especially for high school students and college students and graduates seeking employment) as well as cover letter templates, writing tips, formats and templates, email cover letter examples, and examples by type of applicant.
|
|
2
|
How to Write Cover Letters (from CollegeGrad)
|
This site contains resources about the reality of cover letters, using a cover letter, the worst use of the cover letter, the testimonial cover letter technique, and a cover letter checklist.
|
|
4
|
Cover Letters (from the Yale Office of Career Strategy)
|
This site includes specifications for the cover letter framework (introductory paragraph, middle paragraph, concluding paragraph), as well as format and style.
|
Licenses and Attributions:
CC licensed content, Original:
All rights reserved content:
-
WHY DO I NEED A RESUME? Authored by: Leinard Tapat. Located at:
https://youtu.be/Yc4pgOsUJfA
. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License.
-
Resume Tips for College Students From Employers. Authored by: Clarkson University. Located at:
https://youtu.be/fYavOr8Gnac
. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License.
-
5 Steps to an Incredible Cover Letter. Authored by: Aimee Bateman. Located at:
https://youtu.be/mxOli8laZos
. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License.
-
Resume Tutorial. Authored by: Cameron Cassidy. Located at:
https://youtu.be/O5eVMaPZWmM
. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License.
Foundations of Academic Success: Words of Wisdom essay removed (exists elsewhere in this work).
Adaptions: Relocated learning objectives. Image of helping write a resume removed. Image of piles of paper on a table removed.


3.2: Blood Pressure Basics
What is Blood Pressure?
A blood pressure reading is the measurement of the force of blood against the walls of the arteries as the heart pumps blood through the body. It is reported in millimeters of mercury (mmHg). This pressure changes in the arteries when the heart is contracting compared to when it is resting and filling with blood. Blood pressure is typically expressed as the reflection of two numbers, systolic pressure and diastolic pressure. The systolic blood pressure is the maximum pressure on the arteries during systole, the phase of the heartbeat when the ventricles contract. Systole causes the ejection of blood out of the ventricles and into the aorta and pulmonary arteries. The diastolic blood pressure is the resting pressure on the arteries during diastole , the phase between each contraction of the heart when the ventricles are filling with blood. [1]
 To obtain a manual blood pressure reading, the blood pressure cuff is placed around a patient’s extremity, and a stethoscope is placed over an artery. For most blood pressure readings, the cuff is usually placed around the upper arm, and the stethoscope is placed over the brachial artery. The cuff is inflated to constrict the artery until the pulse is no longer palpable, and then it is deflated slowly. The American Heart Association (AHA) recommends that the blood pressure cuff be inflated at least 30 mmHg above the point at which the radial pulse is no longer palpable. The first appearance of sounds, called Korotkoff sounds , are noted as the systolic blood pressure reading. Korotkoff sounds are named after Dr. Korotkoff, who first discovered the audible sounds of blood pressure when the arm is constricted. [2] The blood pressure cuff continues to be deflated until Korotkoff sounds disappear. The last Korotkoff sounds reflect the diastolic blood pressure reading. [3] It is important to deflate the cuff slowly at no more than 2-3 mmHg per second to ensure that the absence of pulse is noted promptly and that the reading is accurate. Blood pressure readings are documented as systolic blood pressure/diastolic pressure, for example, 120/80 mmHg.
Abnormal blood pressure readings can signify an area of concern and a need for intervention. Normal adult blood pressure is less than 120/80 mmHg. Hypertension is the medical term for elevated blood pressure readings of 130/80 mmHg or higher. See Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) for blood pressure categories according to the 2017 American College of Cardiology and American Heart Association Blood Pressure Guidelines. [4] Prior to diagnosing a person with hypertension, the health care provider will calculate an average blood pressure based on two or more blood pressure readings obtained on two or more occasions.
For more information about hypertension and blood pressure medications, visit the “ Cardiovascular and Renal System ” chapter in Open RN Nursing Pharmacology.
Hypotension is the medical term for low blood pressure readings less than 90/60 mmHg. [5] Hypotension can be caused by dehydration, bleeding, cardiac conditions, and the side effects of many medications. Hypotension can be of significant concern because of the potential lack of perfusion to critical organs when blood pressures are low. Orthostatic hypotension is a drop in blood pressure that occurs when moving from a lying down (supine) or seated position to a standing (upright) position. When measuring blood pressure, orthostatic hypotension is defined as a decrease in blood pressure by at least 20 mmHg systolic or 10 mmHg diastolic within three minutes of standing. When a person stands, gravity moves blood from the upper body to the lower limbs. As a result, there is a temporary reduction in the amount of blood in the upper body for the heart to pump, which decreases blood pressure. Normally, the body quickly counteracts the force of gravity and maintains stable blood pressure and blood flow. In most people, this transient drop in blood pressure goes unnoticed. However, some patients with orthostatic hypotension can experience light-headedness, dizziness, or fainting. This is a significant safety concern because of the increased risk of falls and injury, particularly in older adults. [6]
Table \(\PageIndex{1}\): Blood Pressure Categories [7]
| Blood Pressure Category | Systolic mm Hg (upper #) | Diastolic mm Hg (lower #) |
|---|---|---|
| Normal | < 120 | < 80 |
| Stage 1 | 130-139 | 80-89 |
| Stage 2 | At least 140 | At least 90 |
| Hypertensive Crisis | > 180 | > 120 |
Equipment to Measure Blood Pressure
Manual Blood Pressure
A sphygmomanometer, commonly called a blood pressure cuff, is used to measure blood pressure while Korotkoff sounds are auscultated using a stethoscope. See Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) [9] for an image of a sphygmomanometer.
There are various sizes of blood pressure cuffs. It is crucial to select the appropriate size for the patient to obtain an accurate reading.  See Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) [10] for an image of various sizes of blood pressure cuffs ranging in size for a large adult to an infant.
The width of the cuff should be 40% of the person’s arm circumference, and the length of the cuff’s bladder should be 80–100% of the person’s arm circumference. Keep in mind that only about half of the blood pressure cuff is the bladder and the other half is cloth with a hook and loop fastener to secure it around the arm.
Automatic Blood Pressure Equipment
Automatic blood pressure monitors are often used in health care settings to efficiently measure blood pressure for multiple patients or to repeatedly measure a single patient’s blood pressure at a specific frequency such as every 15 minutes. See Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\) [12] for an image of an automatic blood pressure monitor. To use an automatic blood pressure monitor, appropriately position the patient and place the correctly sized blood pressure cuff on their bare arm or other extremity. Press the start button on the monitor. The cuff will automatically inflate and then deflate at a rate of 2 mmHg per second. The monitor digitally displays the blood pressure reading when done. If the blood pressure reading is unexpected, it is important to follow up by obtaining a reading using a manual blood pressure cuff. Additionally, automatic blood pressure monitors should not be used if the patient has a rapid or irregular heart rhythm, such as atrial fibrillation, or has tremors as it may lead to an inaccurate reading.
Query \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Query \(\PageIndex{2}\)
- This work is a derivative of Vital Sign Measurement Across the Lifespan - 1st Canadian Edition by Ryerson University licensed under CC BY 4.0 ↵
- This work is a derivative of StatPearls by Campbell and Pillarisetty licensed under CC BY 4.0 ↵
- This work is a derivative of Clinical Procedures for Safer Patient Care by British Columbia Institute of Technology licensed under CC BY 4.0 ↵
- American College of Cardiology. Whelton, P. K., Carey, R. M., Aronow, W. S.., et al. (2018, May 7). 2017 guidelines for high blood pressure in adults. https://www.acc.org/latest-in-cardiology/ten-points-to-remember/2017/11/09/11/41/2017-guideline-for-high-blood-pressure-in-adults ↵
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. (n.d.). Low blood pressure . https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/low-blood-pressure ↵
- U.S. National Library of Medicine. (2020, June 23). Orthostatic hypotension . https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/orthostatic-hypotension ↵
- American College of Cardiology. Whelton, P. K., Carey, R. M., Aronow, W. S.., et al. (2018, May 7). 2017 guidelines for high blood pressure in adults . https://www.acc.org/latest-in-cardiology/ten-points-to-remember/2017/11/09/11/41/2017-guideline-for-high-blood-pressure-in-adults ↵
- Alzawi, A. (2015, November 19). Korotkoff+Blood+Pressure+Sights+and+Sounds SD . [Video]. YouTube. All rights reserved. https://youtu.be/UfCr_wUepxo ↵
- “ Sphygmomanometer&Cuff.JPG ” by ML5 is in the Public Domain ↵
- “BP-Multiple-Cuff-Sizes.jpg” by British Columbia Institute of Technology (BCIT) is licensed under CC BY 4.0 . Access for free at https://opentextbc.ca/vitalsign/chapter/how-is-blood-pressure-measured/ ↵
- Ryerson University. (2018, March 21). Blood pressure - Accurate cuff sizing . [Video]. YouTube. All rights reserved. https://youtu.be/uNTMwoJTfFE ↵
- “ Automatische bloeddrukmeter (0).jpg ” by Harmid is in the Public Domain ↵


3.8: III Glossary
Ambulating: Walking.
Angina: Sudden chest pain beneath the sternum (breastbone) associated with a heart attack (myocardial infarction), often radiating down the left arm in male patients.
Assistive devices: Devices such as gait belts and walkers that are used when moving a patient.
Blood-borne pathogens: Pathogenic microorganisms present in blood and body fluids that can cause disease such as hepatitis B (HBV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
Cardiac arrhythmias: Irregularities in a person’s heart rate and/or rhythm.
Cerebrovascular attack (CVA): The medical term for what is commonly referred to as a “stroke,” caused by a lack of blood flow and oxygen to the brain.
FAST: An acronym used to remember the early signs of a stroke: Facial drooping, Arm weakness, Slurred speech, and Time (meaning the quicker the response, the better the outcome).
Heimlich maneuver: A procedure used for someone who is choking that uses abdominal thrusts to clear the airway so they can breathe.
Incontinence: A lack of voluntary control over urination or defecation.
Myocardial infarction (MI): The medical term for what is commonly referred to as a “heart attack,” caused by a lack of blood flow and oxygen to the heart.
Nonskid footwear: Shoes or socks with rubberized soles used to prevent falls.
PASS: An acronym for using a fire extinguisher that stands for the following:
- P: Pull the pin on the fire extinguisher.
- A: Aim the extinguisher nozzle at the base of the fire.
- S: Squeeze or press the handle.
- S: Sweep from side to side at the base of the flame until the fire appears to be out.
Personal protective equipment (PPE): Equipment used to prevent transmission of blood-borne pathogens and infection, including gloves, masks, goggles, gowns, and other types of protective equipment.
RACE: An acronym for responding to a fire that stands for the following:
- R: Rescue anyone in immediate danger from the fire if it doesn’t endanger your life.
- A: Activate the alarm by pulling the nearest fire alarm or calling 911.
- C: Contain the fire by closing all doors and windows.
 Evacuate patients and oneself if the fire cannot be extinguished.
Resident mentor: A resident who can answer questions and encourage interaction for a new resident recently admitted to a long-term care facility.
Seizure: A transient occurrence of signs and/or symptoms due to abnormal neuronal activity in the brain.
Sharps injury: A penetrating wound from a needle, scalpel, or other sharp object that may result in exposure to blood-borne pathogens.
Shortness of breath (SOB): Difficulty breathing or a feeling of not being able to catch one’s breath.
Skin breakdown: Damage to the skin due to common preventable causes like immobility and incontinence.
SPICES: An acronym that stands for observing the following aspects of well-being for older adults: Sleep, Problems eating, Incontinence, Confusion, Evidence of falls, and Skin breakdown.
Thrombolytic medication: Medication (such as tPA) used to dissolve clots in arteries.
Transient ischemic attack (TIA): A medical term for what is commonly referred to as a ministroke.
Work-related musculoskeletal symptoms (WRMS): Symptoms from musculoskeletal injuries experienced at work, such as lower back pain, that are attributed to manual handling of clients, heavy physical loads, frequent awkward positions, and repetitive movements.


21.4.7: Convergent Evolution
-
- Last updated
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Learning Objectives
- Predict the circumstances supporting convergent evolution of two species
Convergent Evolution
Sometimes, similar phenotypes evolve independently in distantly related species. For example, flight has evolved in both bats and insects, and they both have wings, which are adaptations to flight. However, the wings of bats and insects have evolved from very different original structures. This phenomenon is called convergent evolution, where similar traits evolve independently in species that do not share a recent common ancestry.
Examples of Convergent Evolution
Convergent evolution describes the independent evolution of similar features in species of different lineages. The two species came to the same function, flying, but did so separately from each other. They have “converged” on this useful trait. Both sharks and dolphins have similar body forms, yet are only distantly related: sharks are fish and dolphins are mammals. Such similarities are a result of both populations being exposed to the same selective pressures. Within both groups, changes that aid swimming have been favored. Thus, over time, they developed similar appearances (morphology), even though they are not closely related.
One of the most well-known examples of convergent evolution is the camera eye of cephalopods (e.g., octopus), vertebrates (e.g., mammals), and cnidaria (e.g., box jellies). Their last common ancestor had at most a very simple photoreceptive spot, but a range of processes led to the progressive refinement of this structure to the advanced camera eye. There is, however, one subtle difference: the cephalopod eye is “wired” in the opposite direction, with blood and nerve vessels entering from the back of the retina, rather than the front as in vertebrates.
Convergent evolution is similar to, but distinguishable from, the phenomenon of parallel evolution. Parallel evolution occurs when two independent but similar species evolve in the same direction and thus independently acquire similar characteristics; for example, gliding frogs have evolved in parallel from multiple types of tree frog.
Analogous Structures
Traits arising through convergent evolution are analogous structures, in contrast to homologous structures, which have a common origin, but not necessarily similar function. The British anatomist Richard Owen was the first scientist to recognize the fundamental difference between analogies and homologies. Bat and pterosaur wings are an example of analogous structures, while the bat wing is homologous to human and other mammal forearms, sharing an ancestral state despite serving different functions.
Divergent Evolution
The opposite of convergent evolution is divergent evolution, whereby related species evolve different traits. On a molecular level, this can happen due to random mutation unrelated to adaptive changes.
Key Points
- Examples of convergent evolution include the relationship between bat and insect wings, shark and dolphin bodies, and vertebrate and cephalopod eyes.
- Analogous structures arise from convergent evolution, but homologous structures do not.
- Convergent evolution is the opposite of divergent evolution, in which related species evolve different traits.
- Convergent evolution is similar to parallel evolution, in which two similar but independent species evolve in the same direction and independently acquire similar characteristics.
Key Terms
- parallel evolution : the development of a similar trait in related, but distinct, species descending from the same ancestor, but from different clades
- convergent evolution : a trait of evolution in which species not of similar recent origin acquire similar properties due to natural selection
- divergent evolution : the process by which a species with similar traits become groups that are tremendously different from each other over many generations
- morphology : the form and structure of an organism


8.2: The Third Law
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For entropy on the other hand, the fact that the heat capacity goes to zero as the temperature decreases has important consequences. Consider the change in the entropy of a pure substance whose heat capacity approaches some finite limiting value as its temperature decreases to absolute zero. For such a substance, \({C_P}/{T}\) becomes arbitrarily large as the temperature decreases, and the entropy integral \[\int^0_T{\frac{C_P}{T}}dT \nonumber \]
approaches minus infinity as the temperature approaches zero. For real substances, this does not occur. In the neighborhood of absolute zero, heat capacities decrease more rapidly than temperature. The entropy change approaches zero as the temperature approaches zero.
The idea that the entropy change for a pure substance goes to zero as the temperature goes to zero finds expression as the third law of thermodynamics. In 1923, Lewis and Randall \({}^{1}\) gave a statement of the third law that is particularly convenient in chemical applications:
If the entropy of each element in some crystalline state be taken as zero at the absolute zero of temperature, every substance has a positive finite entropy; but at the absolute zero of temperature the entropy may become zero, and does so become in the case of perfect crystalline substances.
Implicitly, the Lewis and Randall statement defines the entropy of any substance, at any temperature, \(T\), to be the difference between the entropy of the constituent elements, at absolute zero, and the entropy of the substance at temperature \(T\). Equivalently, we can say that it is the entropy change when the substance is formed at temperature \(T\) from its constituent elements at absolute zero. Arbitrarily, but very conveniently, the statement sets the entropy of an element to zero at absolute zero.
The distinction between perfect crystalline substances and less-than-perfect crystalline substances lies in the regularity of the arrangement of the molecules within the crystal lattice. In any lattice, each molecule of the substance is localized at a specific site in the lattice. In a perfect crystal, all of the molecules are in oriented the same way with respect to the lattice. Some substances form crystals in which the molecules are not all oriented the same way. This can happen when the molecule can fit into a lattice site of the same shape in more than one way. For example, in solid carbon monoxide, the individual molecules occupy well-defined lattice sites. If the carbon monoxide crystal were perfect, all of the molecules would point in the same direction, as diagrammed in Figure 2. Instead, they point randomly in either of two possible directions.


8.8: Exercise- Data Quality and Confounds
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When deciding on artifact rejection parameters, a key question is whether the data quality will be increased or decreased by making the rejection threshold more liberal (rejecting fewer trials) or more conservative (rejecting more trials). We can answer that question quantitatively by looking at the SME values that result from different rejection parameters. However, we also need to determine whether the artifacts are creating confounds, which involves inspecting the averaged ERP waveforms in several ways. In this exercise, we’ll go through the steps needed to check both the data quality and the waveforms.
Let’s start by looking at the SME values and waveforms that we get without any rejection. Select the dataset with the ±100 µV threshold ( 1_MMN_preprocessed_interp_be_ar100 ) and then select EEGLAB > ERPLAB > Compute averaged ERPs . Near the top of the averaging GUI, select Include ALL epochs (ignore artifact detections) . This will allow us to see what we would get without any artifact rejection. As described in the preceding chapter, select On – custom parameters in the Data Quality Quantification section and add a time window of 125 to 225 ms (the time window we will ultimately use to measure MMN amplitude). Click RUN , and name the resulting ERPset 1_ar_off .
If you look at the data quality table, you’ll see that the aSME at FCz during the custom time period of 125-225 ms is 0.5524 for the deviant stimuli (Bin 1) and 0.3641 for the standards (Bin 2). (Leave the data quality window open for comparison with later steps.)
Now plot the ERP waveforms. You can see some relatively large, slow deviations in the Fp2, VEOG-lower, and VEOG-bipolar channels. The key channels are shown in Figure 8.2.A, but I’ve applied a 20 Hz low-pass filter to more easily see the blink-related activity. If you look closely at the FCz channel, which will be the primary channel for our MMN analyses, you can see some of this same blink-related activity (i.e., the “tilt” in the prestimulus period).
Are the large, slow voltage deviations in Figure 8.2.A a result of blinks that are confounding the ERPs, or are they brain activity? One way to answer this question is to look for a polarity reversal under versus over the eyes. The activity prior to ~200 ms is more negative for deviants than for standards both under the eyes (VEOG-lower) and above the eyes (Fp2), so this experimental effect is probably not blink-related. However, the later voltage is more negative for deviants than for standards under the eyes but more positive for deviants than for standards above the eyes. This polarity inversion is suggestive of a blink confound (although it is possible for brain-generated activity to invert in polarity above versus below the eyes).
Another way to address this question is to reverse the usual artifact rejection procedure and include only the flagged trials in our averages, leaving out the unflagged trials. Any blink-related confounds should be much bigger in these averages, whereas brain activity should not. To do this, run the averaging tool again, but this time select Include ONLY epochs marked with artifact rejection . If you look at the resulting waveforms, you’ll see that the differences between deviants and standards prior to ~200 ms are about the same as before, but the differences after 200 ms are now much larger (see Figure 8.2.B). This provides additional evidence that the participant was more likely to blink following deviant stimuli than following rare stimuli (even though the auditory stimuli were task-irrelevant). Thus, blinking is not just a source of noise in this experiment; it's a confound that could create artifactual differences between conditions during the latter part of the epoch.
Now let’s look at the data quality and waveforms when we reject trials that were flagged for blinks. You can just repeat the averaging process, but select Exclude epochs marked during artifact detection so that the flagged epochs are excluded. If you keep the previous table of data quality values open, and open a new table for the current ERPset, you’ll see that the aSME at FCz from 125-225 ms has dropped from 0.5524 to 0.5436 for the deviant stimuli and from 0.3641 to 0.3377 for the standards. We have fewer trials as a result of artifact rejection, but the data quality has improved. The improvement isn’t very large, because we now have fewer trials and because the blinks that we’ve removed are not huge at the FCz site. But it’s still good to see that we get better data quality even though we have fewer trials in the averages. (There is a much larger improvement in data quality at Fp1 and Fp2, where the blinks were a large source of trial-to-trial variation.)
Even though rejecting epochs with blinks hasn’t improved our data quality much, at least it hasn’t hurt our data quality. And rejecting blinks helps us avoid blink-related confounds: if you plot the waveforms, you’ll see that we’ve reduced the slow voltage deviations in the VEOG, Fp2, and FCz channels. You can see this quite clearly in Figure 8.2.C, where the voltage deviations are now reduced relative to the no-rejection data shown in Figure 8.2.A. You can see substantial differences between the standards and the deviants in the VEOG-bipolar channel in the absence of artifact rejection, which suggests that the blinks were not random and differed systematically between trial types. These difference are largely eliminated by artifact rejection.
As described at the beginning of the chapter, artifact rejection is designed to deal with three specific problems: reduced statistical power, systematic confounds, and sensory input problems. The artifact rejection procedure that you’ve performed has achieved the first two of these goals: you’ve slightly reduced the noise (as evidenced by the lower aSME values) and thereby increased the statistical power, and you’ve minimized a confound (differential blink activity between standards and deviants).
Figure 8.2.D shows the results with ICA-based correction of blink artifacts (which will be covered in the next chapter). You can see that this approach eliminated blink-related activity better if you look at the VEOG-bipolar channel, which largely isolates blink-related activity. This channel is nearly flat in the corrected data but not in the rejected data. However, the corrected and rejected waveforms look nearly identical at the FCz site—which is what we really care about—except that the rejected waveforms are noisier because we’ve lost some trials in the rejection process. This shows that rejection is working reasonably well: We’re eliminating confounding activity from the blinks without a huge reduction in data quality. However, the waveforms appear to be cleaner for the corrected data (because we’ve retained all the epochs), and I confirmed this by computing SME values (which were 0.4992 for the deviants and 0.2815 for the standards). Because of this better data quality, I usually prefer ICA-based artifact correction instead of rejection for blinks. However, we still reject trials with blinks that occur near the time of the stimulus in visual experiments, because we want to exclude trials on which the participant could not see the stimulus.
An important take-home message of this exercise is that artifact rejection is designed to address three specific problems, and you want to choose the parameters that best solve these problems. You can assess data quality and statistical power by examining the SME values. You can assess confounds by looking for polarity inversions above versus below the eyes in the averaged ERP waveforms. It also helps to view the waveforms for averages of all epochs, averages of just the epochs with artifacts, and averages that exclude epochs with artifacts. Blinks and eye movements don’t create obvious problems with the sensory input in most auditory paradigms, but we will see how they impact a visual paradigm near the end of the chapter.


1.6: Conflict View
Conflict view sees society as a collection of diverse groups that can include owners, workers, wealthy, poor, students, professionals, younger older, and more. This view recognizes that the creation of laws is unequal and may not have consensus like in the example discussed previously. [1]
[2] There are many examples we use in the criminal justice field that demonstrates the conflict view in action.
Edwin Sutherland: White Collar Crime
[3] Specifically, he was concerned with the criminological community’s preoccupation with the low-status offender and “street crimes” and the lack of attention given to crimes that were perpetrated by people in higher status occupations.
White Collar Crime , that sparked lots of debate. [4] However, there is a limited focus on white-collar crime and even less enforcement of it in the United States. From the conflict view, this would be because white-collar and corporate crime is committed by the ‘haves’ and they write their laws and define what is or is not a crime. Going back to how we define crime in society, white-collar crime is still a contested one.
[5] However, there is a limited focus on white-collar crime and even less enforcement of it in the United States. From the conflict view, white-collar and corporate crime gets committed by the ‘haves,’ and they write the laws and define what is or is not a crime. Going back to how we define crime in society, white-collar crime is still a contested one.
ucr.fbi.gov/nibrs/nibrs_wcc.pdf[6]
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Hawkins, D. (1987). Beyond anomalies: Rethinking the conflict perspective on race and criminal punishment.
Social Forces,
65(3), 719–745, doi.org/10.1093/sf/65.3.719
↵
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Boundless. (2016). The conflict perspective.
Sociology – Cochise College Boundless, 26
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Sutherland, E. (1940). White collar criminality.
American Sociological Review,
5
(1), 1-12.
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Sutherland, E. (1949).
White collar crime.
Dryden Press.
↵
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Sutherland, E. (1949).
White collar crime.
Dryden Press.
↵
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Barnett, C. (N.D.). The measurement of white-collar crime using: Uniform crime reporting (UCR) data.
U.S. Department of Justice.
Federal Bureau of Investigation
↵


10.3: Details of Transcription
Find a well-written summary of transcription in prokaryotes and eukaryotes at an NIH website (Transcription in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes). Here (and at this link), you will encounter proteins that bind DNA. Some proteins bind DNA to regulate transcription, inducing or silencing transcription of a gene. We will discuss their role in the regulation of gene expression later. Other proteins interact with DNA simply to allow transcription. These include one or more that, along with RNA polymerase itself, that must bind to the gene promoter to initiate transcription. We will look at bacterial transcription first.
A. Transcription in Prokaryotes
In E. coli, a single RNA polymerase transcribes all kinds of RNA, associating with one of several sigma factor proteins ( \(\sigma \) -factors ) to initiate transcription. It turns out that different promoter sequences and corresponding \(\sigma \) -factors play roles in the transcription of different genes (illustrated below).
In the absence of the \(\sigma \)-factor, the E. coli RNA polymerase can transcribe RNA, but does so at a high rate, and from random sequences in the chromosome. In contrast, when the \(\sigma \)-factor is bound to the RNA polymerase, the complex seems to scan the DNA, recognize and then bind to the promoter sequence of a gene. In this case, the overall transcription rate is slower, but only genes are transcribed, rather than random bits of the bacterial genome! The Pribnow box, named for its discoverer, was the first promoter sequence characterized.
Elongation is the successive addition of nucleotides complementary to their DNA templates, forming phosphodiester linkages. The enzymatic reactions of elongation are similar to the DNA polymerase-catalyzed elongation during replication.
There are two ways that bacterial RNA polymerase ‘knows’ when it has reached the end of a transcription unit. In one case, as the RNA polymerase nears the 3’ end of the nascent transcript, it transcribes a 72 base, C-rich region. At this point, a termination factor called the rho protein binds to the nascent RNA strand. Rho is an ATP-dependent helicase that breaks the H-bonds between the RNA and the template DNA strand, thereby preventing further transcription.
Rho-dependent termination is illustrated below.
In the other mechanism of termination, the polymerase transcribes RNA whose termination signal assumes a secondary hairpin loop structure that causes the dissociation of the RNA polymerase, template DNA and the new RNA transcript. The role of the hairpin loop in rho-independent termination is illustrated below.
B. Transcription in Eukaryotes
Whereas bacteria rely on a single RNA polymerase for their transcription needs, eukaryotes use three different RNA polymerases to synthesize the three major different kinds of RNA, as shown below.
Note that catalysis of the synthesis of most of the RNA in a eukaryotic cell (rRNAs) is by RNA polymerase I. With the help of initiation proteins, each RNA polymerase initiates transcription at a promoter sequence. Once initiated, the RNA polymerases then catalyze the successive formation of phosphodiester bonds to elongate the transcript. Recall that mRNAs are the least abundant in eukaryotes as they are in bacterial cells.
Unfortunately, the details of the termination of transcription in eukaryotes are not as well understood as they are in bacteria. Therefore, we will focus on initiation, and then consider the processing of different eukaryotic RNAs into ready-to-use molecules.
1. Eukaryotic mRNA Transcription
The multiple steps of eukaryotic mRNA transcription are shown on the next page.
Transcription of eukaryotic mRNAs by RNA polymerase II begins with the sequential assembly of a eukaryotic initiation complex at a gene promoter. The typical eukaryotic promoter for a protein-encoding gene contains a TATA box DNA sequence motif as well as additional short upstream sequences. TATA-binding protein (TBP) first binds to the TATA box along with TFIID ( transcription initiation factor IID ).
This intermediate recruits TFIIA and TFIIB . Next, TFGIIE , TFIIF and TFIIH , several other initiation factors and RNA polymerase II bind to form the transcription initiation complex . Phosphorylation adds several phosphates to the aminoterminus of the RNA polymerase, after which some of the TF’s dissociate from the initiation complex. The remaining RNA polymerase-TF complex can now start making the mRNA.
Unlike prokaryotic RNA polymerase, eukaryotic RNA Polymerase II does not have an inherent helicase activity. For this, eukaryotic gene transcription relies on the multi-subunit TFIIH protein, in which two subunits have helicase activity. Consistent with the closer relationship of archaea to eukaryotes (rather to prokaryotes), archaeal mRNA transcription initiation resembles that of eukaryotes, albeit requiring fewer initiation factors during formation of an initiation complex.
192 Eukaryotic mRNA Transcription
A significant difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription is that RNA polymerase and other proteins involved at a gene promoter do not see naked DNA. Instead, they must recognize specific DNA sequences through chromatin proteins. On the other hand, all proteins that interact with DNA have in common a need to recognize the DNA sequences to which they must bind…, within the double helix. In other words, they must see the bases within the helix, and not on its uniformly electronegative phosphate backbone surface. To this end, they must penetrate the DNA, usually through the major groove of the double helix. We will see that DNA regulatory proteins face the same problems in achieving specific shape-based interactions!
2. Eukaryotic tRNA and 5SRNA Transcription
Transcription of 5S rRNA and tRNAs by RNA Polymerase III is unusual in that the promoter sequence to which it binds (with the help of initiation factors) is not upstream of the transcribed sequence, but lies within the transcribed sequence. After binding to this internal promoter, the polymerase re-positions itself to transcribe the RNA from the transcription start site so that the final transcript thus contains the promoter sequence!
5S rRNA by RNA polymerase III is shown below.
3. Transcription of the Other Eukaryotic rRNAs
tRNAs are also transcribed by RNA polymerase III in much the same way as the 5S rRNA. The other rRNAs are transcribed by RNA polymerase I, which binds to an upstream promoter along with transcription initiation factors. We know less of the details of this process compared to our understanding of mRNA transcription. We’ll explore what we do know next. As already noted, transcription termination is not as well understood in eukaryotes as in prokaryotes. Coupled termination and polyadenylation steps common to most prokaryotic mRNAs are discussed in more detail below, with a useful summary at the NIH-NCBI website here.


7.9: Standard Molar Quantities of a Gas
A standard molar quantity of a substance is the molar quantity in the standard state at the temperature of interest. We have seen (Sec. 7.7) that the standard state of a pure liquid or solid is a real state, so any standard molar quantity of a pure liquid or solid is simply the molar quantity evaluated at the standard pressure and the temperature of interest.
The standard state of a gas , however, is a hypothetical state in which the gas behaves ideally at the standard pressure without influence of intermolecular forces. The properties of the gas in this standard state are those of an ideal gas. We would like to be able to relate molar properties of the real gas at a given temperature and pressure to the molar properties in the standard state at the same temperature.
We begin by using Eq. 7.8.7 to write an expression for the chemical potential of the real gas at pressure \(p'\): \begin{equation} \begin{split} \mu(p') & = \mu\st\gas + RT \ln \frac{\fug(p')}{p\st} \ & = \mu\st\gas + RT \ln \frac{p'}{p\st} + RT \ln \frac{\fug(p')}{p'} \end{split} \tag{7.9.1} \end{equation} We then substitute from Eq. 7.8.14 to obtain a relation between the chemical potential, the standard chemical potential, and measurable properties, all at the same temperature: \begin{gather} \s{ \mu(p') = \mu\st\gas + RT\ln\frac{p'}{p\st} + \int_0^{p'}\!\! \left( V\m - \frac{RT}{p} \right)\difp } \tag{7.9.2} \cond{(pure gas)} \end{gather} Note that this expression for \(\mu\) is not what we would obtain by simply integrating \(\dif\mu=V\m \difp\) from \(p\st\) to \(p'\), because the real gas is not necessarily in its standard state of ideal-gas behavior at a pressure of \(1\br\).
Recall that the chemical potential \(\mu\) of a pure substance is also its molar Gibbs energy \(G\m=G/n\). The standard chemical potential \(\mu\st\gas\) of the gas is the standard molar Gibbs energy, \(G\m\st\gas\). Therefore Eq. 7.9.2 can be rewritten in the form \begin{equation} G\m(p') = G\m\st\gas + RT\ln\frac{p'}{p\st} + \int_0^{p'}\!\! \left( V\m - \frac{RT}{p} \right)\difp \tag{7.9.3} \end{equation} The middle column of Table 7.5 contains an expression for \(G\m(p')-G\m\st\gas\) taken from this equation. This expression contains all the information needed to find a relation between any other molar property and its standard molar value in terms of measurable properties. The way this can be done is as follows.
The relation between the chemical potential of a pure substance and its molar entropy is given by Eq. 7.8.3: \begin{equation} S\m=-\Pd{\mu}{T}{\!p} \tag{7.9.4} \end{equation} The standard molar entropy of the gas is found from Eq. 7.9.4 by changing \(\mu\) to \(\mu\st\gas\): \begin{equation} S\m\st\gas = -\Pd{\mu\st\gas }{T}{\!p} \tag{7.9.5} \end{equation} By substituting the expression for \(\mu\) given by Eq. 7.9.2 into Eq. 7.9.4 and comparing the result with Eq. 7.9.5, we obtain \begin{equation} S\m(p') = S\m\st\gas - R\ln\frac{p'}{p\st} - \int_{0}^{p'}\left[ \Pd{V\m}{T}{\!p}- \frac{R}{p} \right] \difp \tag{7.9.6} \end{equation} The expression for \(S\m-S\m\st\gas\) in the middle column of Table 7.5 comes from this equation. The equation, together with a value of \(S\m\) for a real gas obtained by the calorimetric method described in Sec. 6.2.1, can be used to evaluate \(S\m\st\gas\).
Now we can use the expressions for \(G\m\) and \(S\m\) to find expressions for molar quantities such as \(H\m\) and \(\Cpm\) relative to the respective standard molar quantities. The general procedure for a molar quantity \(X\m\) is to write an expression for \(X\m\) as a function of \(G\m\) and \(S\m\) and an analogous expression for \(X\m\st\gas\) as a function of \(G\m\st\gas\) and \(S\m\st\gas\). Substitutions for \(G\m\) and \(S\m\) from Eqs. 7.9.3 and 7.9.6 are then made in the expression for \(X\m\), and the difference \(X\m-X\m\st\gas\) taken.
For example, the expression for \(U\m-U\m\st\gas\) in the middle column Table 7.5 was derived as follows. The equation defining the Gibbs energy, \(G=U-TS+pV\), was divided by the amount \(n\) and rearranged to \begin{equation} U\m = G\m + TS\m - pV\m \tag{7.9.7} \end{equation} The standard-state version of this relation is \begin{equation} U\m\st\gas =G\m\st\gas +TS\m\st\gas -p\st V\m\st\gas \tag{7.9.8} \end{equation} where from the ideal gas law \(p\st V\m\st\gas\) can be replaced by \(RT\). Substitutions from Eqs. 7.9.3 and 7.9.6 were made in Eq. 7.9.7 and the expression for \(U\m\st\gas\) in Eq. 7.9.8 was subtracted, resulting in the expression in the table.
For a real gas at low to moderate pressures, we can approximate \(V\m\) by \((RT/p)+B\) where \(B\) is the second virial coefficient (Eq. 7.8.17). Equation 7.9.2 then becomes \begin{equation} \mu \approx \mu\st\gas + RT\ln\frac{p}{p\st} + Bp \tag{7.9.9} \end{equation} The expressions in the last column of Table 7.5 use this equation of state. We can see what the expressions look like if the gas is ideal simply by setting \(B\) equal to zero. They show that when the pressure of an ideal gas increases at constant temperature, \(G\m\) and \(A\m\) increase, \(S\m\) decreases, and \(U\m\), \(H\m\), and \(\Cpm\) are unaffected.


12.1: Introduction to the Central and Peripheral Nervous System
Chapter Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
- Describe the structures that support and protect the brain and spinal cord
- Identify the regions and anatomical landmarks of the brain and spinal cord
- Describe the functions of the regions of the cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem, cerebellum and limbic system
- List the cranial nerves in order of anatomical location and provide the central and peripheral connections
- List the spinal nerves by vertebral region and by which nerve plexus each supplies
Fresh, unstained nervous tissue can be described as gray or white matter, and within those two types of tissue it can be very hard to see any detail. However, as specific regions and structures have been discovered, they were related to specific functions. Understanding these structures and the functions they perform requires a detailed description of the anatomy of the nervous system, delving deep into what the central and peripheral structures are. While the structures are discovered thanks to dissections of cadavers, the functions of the individual part of our nervous system are gathered by lesion case studies which are part of cognitive neuroscience. In these studies, injuries or illnesses of the nervous system are studied to understand the relationship between the injured area and the function of it. The first, and most known, lesion case is the one of Phineas Gage (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)), an American railroad worker. Phineas Gage was working on a railroad when an iron rod he was using exploded and went through his head, damaging the left prefrontal cortex. He survived the accident, but according to second-hand accounts, some aspects of his personality changed, suggesting that the prefrontal cortex is an area of the brain responsible for personality.
In this chapter, you will look at the structures that make the central and peripheral nervous system and correlate them with their functions. The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system includes the cranial and spinal nerves, as well as the ganglia. First, you will take a look at how these structures are protected and supported.
Contributors and Attributions
OpenStax Anatomy & Physiology (CC BY 4.0). Access for free at openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology


12.8: Qualitative Factors
Learning Outcomes
- Analyze qualitative factors that can also affect managerial decisions
Your boss just walked into your office and offered you a new position within the company! The money is great, including a 20 percent raise and a company car. The position includes 50 percent travel and at least 10 more hours per week than you are currently working. Oh, and you get to work from home, rather than coming into the office! You call your spouse and explain this great opportunity to him! He is less than excited, even with the raise in income. Why? Well, let’s look at the non-monetary components of this offer:
- Less time at home with the additional hours and travel.
- Home office reduces the commute time, but also takes up space in your home.
So, these are decisions that are called qualitative. They affect the quality of your life, rather than your bank account. Sometimes a decision that looks great from a financial standpoint, may cause quality changes that make the choice not as attractive. We talked a bit about this in our unit about a vacation or working. Sometimes, even with a loss of a week’s paycheck, the vacation is better!
Qualitative decisions are different from quantitative decisions. Let’s first define those terms to clarify.
Qualitative decisions are based more on the quality of a particular situation. For example, if you were planning to drive or fly when you go on your next vacation, you might not make your final decision based on which option is cheaper. Flying may have the qualitative advantage of being a quicker way to get to your destination, even though it costs more. On the other hand, driving may let you see many more sites on the way, even though it takes longer.
So you can see, sometimes we have to look beyond the cost savings to other factors when we make our decisions.
Quantitative decisions are just about the money. So, if it is cheaper to drive, and you are only concerned about the dollars spent, then you will drive!
So let’s practice our skills.
Example
You are graduating from college, and would like to have a party for 50 of your closest friends.  Let’s look at the details of each option to see what makes the most sense. Here are the details.
Option 1
Restaurant meal with one drink per guest: $30 x 50 guests = $1,500.00
Home meal with one drink per guest : $12 (groceries) x 50 guests = $600.00
Option 2
Savings to cook dinner at home $900.00
However, there are some qualitative advantages be to choosing the restaurant even though it costs more:
- More time to talk with your friends if you have the meal prepared at the restaurant.
- Less time involved if you go the restaurant, as you won’t have to cook and clean up after.
- You won’t need to clean your house, after just finishing finals and doing all the cooking if you have the party at the restaurant.
So which would you pick?
Practice Questions


4.15: Works Consulted and Further Reading
Barnes, Gina L. State Formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th Century Ruling Elite . London and New York: Routledge, 2007.
Benn, Charles. China’s Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty . Cambridge: Oxford University Press, 2002.
Ebrey, Patricia. The Inner Quarters: Marriage and the Lives of Women in the Sung Period . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
Ebrey, Patricia, James B. Palais, and Anne Walthall. East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History . Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company 2006.
Hardy, Grant and Anne Behnke Kinney. The Establishment of the Han Empire and Imperial China . Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2005.
Hwang, Kyung Moon. A History of Korea . Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.
Keally, Charles. “Jōmon Culture.” http://www.t-net.ne.jp/~keally/jomon.html
Keally, Charles. “Kofun Culture.” http://www.t-net.ne.jp/~keally/kofun.html
Keally, Charles. “Yayoi Culture.” http://www.t-net.ne.jp/~keally/yayoi.html
Kuhn, Dieter. The Age of Confucian Rule: The Song Transformation of China . Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009.
Lee, Ki-baik. A New History of Korea . Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984.
Lewis, Mark Edward. C hina between Empires: The Northern and Southern Dynasties . Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010.
Lewis, Mark Edward. China’s Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009.
Lewis, Mark Edward. Sanctioned Violence in Early China . Albany: Statue University of New York Press, 1989
Li Feng. Early China: A Social and Cultural History. Cambridge University Press, 2013.
Loewe, Michael. Everyday Life in Imperial China. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2005.
Mote, Frederick. Imperial China ,900 – 1800. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999
Peers, C.J. Soldiers of the Dragon: Chinese Armies 1500 BC – AD 1850. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2006.
Pines, Yuri et al. eds. Birth of an Empire: The State of Qin Revisited . Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014.
Robinet, Isabelle. Taoism: Growth of a Religion . Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997.
Rossabi, Morris. “The Mongols in World History.” afe.easia.columbia.edu/mongols/index.html
Tanner, Harold M. China: A History, Volume I: From Neolithic Cultures through the Great Qing Empire . Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 2010.
Temple, Robert. The Genius of China: 3,000 years of Science, Discovery and Invention . Rochester: Inner Traditions, 2007.
Totman, Conrad. A History of Japan . Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2000.


3.9: Introduction to Pros and Cons of Planning
What you’ll learn to do: explain the pros and cons of planning
Of the four management functions—planning, organizing, leading, and controlling—planning is usually the first step. It sets the foundation that everything else rests upon. But planning is also controversial. Why make plans when the environment changes so rapidly that plans are likely to be obsolete before they are completed? In this section we will look at planning and why it helps and possibly hinders organizations.
Contributors and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Introduction to Pros and Cons of Planning. Authored by : John/Lynn Bruton and Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


9.17: Discussion- Infographics and Custom Shapes
In this PowerPoint module, we discussed a variety of visual tricks and tips such as inserting images and creating SmartArt graphics. With these tools and a little cleverness, you can also create your very own infographics!
Watch the first video below:
You can also view the transcript for the video “How to Create Infographic Elements in PowerPoint” here (opens in new window).
Discussion Questions
- What applications might the techniques in this video have?
- How can you improve your presentations with this feature?
Share your opinions below and respond to two of your classmates’ thoughts.
Learn More
If you are interested in learning more, here are some other videos that build upon the first video to finish creating the infographic:
You can view the transcript for “Step 2: Creating and Masking Effect for Your Graphics” here (opens in new window) .
You can view the transcript for “Step 3: Creating the Percentages” here (opens in new window).
Contributors and Attributions
- Discussion: Infographics and Custom Shapes. Authored by : Shelli Carter. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- How to Create Infographic Elements in PowerPoint. Authored by : Articulate. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rmuqp1HiPgM . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Step 2: Creating the Masking Effect for Your Graphics. Authored by : Articulate. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DMszS1xvHSs . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Step 3: Creating the Percentages. Authored by : Articulate. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YXnE5VtPaxg . License : CC BY: Attribution


<IP_ADDRESS>: Web Search Engines
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Web search engines use special software programs (called robots, spiders, or crawlers) to find Web pages and list (or index) all words within each one to make searching large quantities of page faster. Indexes capture the largest amount of information on the Web, but no index lists everything on the Internet.
Commonly used search engines include Google ( https://www.google.com ) and Bing ( http://www.bing.com ).
In addition to search engines, there are also:
Web Search Engines and related web search tools are helpful for locating background information, news (especially if it’s recent), and public opinion.
However, scholarly information is often not available through a regular web search. If you do find scholarly information through a web search engine, especially if you are off campus, you may be asked for payment to access it. Ohio State Libraries can usually get you what you need without additional payment.
Remember to follow the advice in Source Evaluation to determine whether information you locate online is suitable for your information needs.
See links above. Use of each tool varies. If a search engine has an advanced search, it may include options such as specifying format, language, domain, or date range.


5.8: Bibliography
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Acreman, M.C. 1996. Environmental effects of hydro‐electric power generation in Africa and the potential for artificial floods. >Water and Environment Journal 10: 429–35. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.1996.tb00076.x
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Austin, K.G., M. González-Roglich, D. Schaffer-Smith, et al. 2017. Trends in size of tropical deforestation events signal increasing dominance of industrial-scale drivers. >Environmental Research Letters 12: 054009. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa6a88
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Feka, N.Z., G.B. Chuyong, and G.N. Ajonina. 2009. Sustainable utilization of mangroves using improved fish-smoking systems: A management perspective from the Douala-Edea wildlife reserve, Cameroon. >Tropical Conservation Science 2: 450–68. https://doi.org/10.1177/194008290900200406
FFI and FDA (Forestry Development Authority). 2013. >National action plan for the conservation of the pygmy hippopotamus in Liberia (Cambridge: FFI; Monrovia: FDA).
Freedman, A.H., W. Buermann, M. Lebreton, et al. 2009. Modeling the effects of anthropogenic habitat change on savanna snake invasions into African rainforest. >Conservation Biology 23: 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.01039.x
GFN (Global Footprint Network). 2017. >National Footprint Accounts. http://www.footprintnetwork.org
Giri, C., E. Ochieng, L.L. Tieszen, et al. 2011. Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using Earth observation satellite data. >Global Ecology and Biogeography 20: 154–59. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00584.x
Gockowski, J., and D. Sonwa. 2011. Cocoa intensification scenarios and their predicted impact on CO 2 emissions, biodiversity conservation, and rural livelihoods in the Guinea Rain Forest of West Africa. >Environmental Management 48: 307–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-010-9602-3
Gómez, C., N.J. Bayly, D.R. Norris, et al. 2017. Fuel loads acquired at a stopover site influence the pace of intercontinental migration in a boreal songbird. >Scientific Reports 7: 3405. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-03503-4
Gopal, B. 2013. Mangroves are wetlands, not forests: Some implications for their management. In: >Mangrove Ecosystems of Asia, ed. by I. Faridah-Hanum et al. (New York: Springer). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8582-7
Greger, M.M. 2012. >Traditional Healers as a Foundation Pillar of Medicinal Plant Conservation in Uganda. M.Sc . Thesis (Ås: Norwegian University of Life Sciences).
Haddad, N.M., L.A. Brudvig, J. Clobert, et al. 2015. Habitat fragmentation and its lasting impact on Earth’s ecosystems. >Science Advances 1: e1500052. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500052
Hansen, M.C., P.V. Potapov, R. Moore, et al. 2013. High-resolution global maps of 21st-century forest cover change. >Science 342: 850–53. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1244693 Data available on-line from: http://earthenginepartners.appspot.com/science-2013-global-forest
Harris, G., S. Thirgood, J.G.C. Hopcraft, et al. 2009. Global decline in aggregated migrations of large terrestrial mammals. >Endangered Species Research 7: 55–76. https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00173
Hillers A., G.M. Buchanan, J.C. Garteh, et al. 2017. A mix of community-based conservation and protected forests is needed for the survival of the Endangered pygmy hippopotamus >Choeropsis liberiensis. >Oryx 51: 230–39. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003060531600020X
Hoffmann, M., J.W. Duckworth, K. Holmes, et al. 2015. The difference conservation makes to extinction risk of the world’s ungulates. >Conservation Biology 29: 1303–13. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12519
Hopcraft, J.G.C., S.A.R. Mduma, M. Borner, et al. 2015. Conservation and economic benefits of a road around the Serengeti. >Conservation Biology 29: 932–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12470
Ibisch, P.L., M.T. Hoffmann, S. Kreft, et al. 2016. A global map of roadless areas and their conservation status. >Science 354: 1423–27. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaf7166
IBPES. 2019. Nature’s dangerous decline ‘unprecedented’: Species extinction rates accelerating. >IBPES media release. https://www.ipbes.net/news/Media-Release-Global-Assessment
IUCN. 2019. >The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. http://www.iucnredlist.org
Kalwij, J.M., M.P. Robertson, and B.J. Rensburg. 2008. Human activity facilitates altitudinal expansion of exotic plants along a road in montane grassland, South Africa. >Applied Vegetation Science 11: 491–98. https://doi.org/10.3170/2008-7-18555
Kariuki, M. and K. Ndang’ang’a, 2018. Can the Critically Endangered Liben lark be saved? Our latest update. >BirdLife News. https://www.birdlife.org/worldwide/news/can-critically-endangered-liben-lark-be-saved-our-latest-update
Kirby, J.S., A.J. Stattersfield, S.H.M. Butchart, et al. 2008. Key conservation issues for migratory land-and waterbird species on the world’s major flyways. >Bird Conservation International 18: S49–S73. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959270908000439
Kolbert, E., and D. Roberts. 2017. I’m an environmental journalist, but I never write about overpopulation. Here’s why. >Vox. https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2017/9/26/16356524/the-population-question
Koohafkan, P., M. Salman, and C. Casarotto. 2011. Investments in land and water. In: >The State of the World’s Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture (>SOLAW)>—Managing Systems at Risk (Rome: FAO; London: Earthscan). http://www.fao.org/docrep/017/i1688e/i1688e.pdf
Laurance, W.F., J. Sayer, and K.G. Cassman. 2014. Agricultural expansion and its impacts on tropical nature. >Trends in Ecology and Evolution 29: 107–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2013.12.001
Lehouck, V., T. Spanhove, L. Colson, et al. 2009. Habitat disturbance reduces seed dispersal of a forest interior tree in a fragmented African cloud forest. >Oikos 118: 1023–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2009.17300.x
Lewis, R.R. 2005. Ecological engineering for successful management and restoration of mangrove forests. >Ecological Engineering 24: 403–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2004.10.003
Luther, D.A., and R. Greenberg. 2009. Mangroves: A global perspective on the evolution and conservation of their terrestrial vertebrates. >BioScience 59: 602–12. https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2<IP_ADDRESS>
MacArthur, R.H., and E.O. Wilson. 2015. >Theory of Island Biogeography (Princeton: Princeton University Press).
Mahamued, B.A. 2016. >Designing a Rangeland to Preserve Africa’s Most Endangered Mainland Bird and a People’s Way of Life. Doctoral dissertation (Manchester: Manchester Metropolitan University).
Mertens, B., and E.F. Lambin. 1997. Spatial modelling of deforestation in southern Cameroon: Spatial disaggregation of diverse deforestation processes. >Applied Geography 17: 143–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0143-6228(97)00032-5
Moran, D., and K Kanemoto. 2017. Identifying species threat hotspots from global supply chains. >Nature Ecology and Evolution 1: 0023. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-016-0023
Morgan, B.J., E.E. Abwe, A.F. Dixson, et al. 2013. The distribution, status, and conservation outlook of the drill (>Mandrillus leucophaeus) in Cameroon. >International Journal of Primatology 34: 281–302. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-013-9661-4
Moss, T., and P. Agyapong. 2015. >US holiday lights use more electricity than El Salvador does in a year (London: Center for Global Development). http://www.cgdev.org/blog/us-holiday-lights-use-more-electricity-el-salvador-does-year
Neville, K. 2015. The contentious political economy of biofuels. >Global Environmental Politics 15: 21–40. https://doi.org/10.1162/GLEP_a_00270
Olson, D.M., and E. Dinerstein. 2002. The Global 200: Priority ecoregions for global conservation. >Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 89: 199–224. https://doi.org/10.2307/3298564
Potapov, P., M.C. Hansen, L. Laestadius, et al. 2017. The last frontiers of wilderness: Tracking loss of intact forest landscapes from 2000 to 2013. >Science Advances 3: e1600821. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1600821
Primack, R.B. 2012. >A Primer for Conservation Biology (Sunderland: Sinauer).
Ransom, C, P.T. Robinson, and B. Collen. 2015. >Choeropsis liberiensis. >The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T10032A18567171. http://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T10032A18567171.en
Rudel, T.K. 2013. The national determinants of deforestation in sub-Saharan Africa. >Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 368: 20120405. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0405
Runge, C.A., J.E.M. Watson, S.H.M. Butchart, et al. 2015. Protected areas and global conservation of migratory birds. >Science 350: 1255–58. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac9180
Rushworth, I., and S. Krüger. 2014. Wind farms threaten southern Africa’s cliff-nesting vultures. >Ostrich 8: 13–23. http://doi.org/10.2989/00306525.2014.913211
Sande, E., P.K. Ndang’ang’a, J. Wakelin, J., et al. 2008. International single species action plan for the conservation of the White-winged Flufftail >Sarothrura ayresi. >CMS Technical Series 19 (Bonn: CMS and AWEA). http://www.cms.int/sites/default/files/publication/Whitewinged_flufftail_3_0_0.pdf
Sayer, J. 1992. A future for Africa’s tropical forests. In: >The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests:> Africa, ed. by J.A. Sayer et al. (London: Palgrave Macmillan). https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/1992-063.pdf
Sedláček, O., M. Mikeš, T. Albrecht, et al. 2014. Evidence for an edge effect on avian nest predation in fragmented afromontane forests in the Bamenda-Banso Highlands, NW Cameroon. >Tropical Conservation Science 7: 720–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/194008291400700410
Smaller, C., Q. Wei, and L. Yalan. 2012. >Farmland and water:> China invests abroad (Winnipeg: IISD). https://www.iisd.org/pdf/2012/farmland_water_china_invests.pdf
Sokolow, S.H., E. Huttinger, N. Jouanard, et al. 2015. Reduced transmission of human schistosomiasis after restoration of a native river prawn that preys on the snail intermediate host. >Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112: 9650–55. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1502651112
Spottiswoode, C.N., M. Wondafrash, M. Gabremicheal, et al. 2009. Rangeland degradation is poised to cause Africa’s first recorded avian extinction. >Animal Conservation 12: 249–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2009.00246.x
Spottiswoode, C.N., U. Olsson, M.S. Mills, et al. 2013. Rediscovery of a long-lost lark reveals the conspecificity of endangered >Heteromirafra populations in the Horn of Africa. >Journal of Ornithology 154: 813–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-013-0948-1
Stabach, J.A., G. Wittemyer, R.B. Boone, et al. 2016. Variation in habitat selection by white‐bearded wildebeest across different degrees of human disturbance. >Ecosphere 7: e01428. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.1428
Tabuti, J.R.S. 2006. Traditional knowledge in Bulamogi County - Uganda: Importance to sustainable livelihoods. In: >African Knowledge and Sciences:> Understanding and Supporting the Ways of Knowing in Sub-Saharan Africa, ed. by D. Millar et al. (Leusden: Compas).
Tucker, M.A., K. Böhning-Gaese, W.F. Fagan, et al. 2018. Moving in the Anthropocene: Global reductions in terrestrial mammalian movements. >Science 359: 466–69. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aam9712
Tyukavina, A., M.C. Hansen, P. Potapov, et al. 2018. Congo Basin forest loss dominated by increasing smallholder clearing. >Science Advances 4: eaat2993. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aat2993
van Bochove, J., E. Sullivan, and T. Nakamura. 2014. >The Importance of Mangroves to People:> A Call to Action (Cambridge: UNEP). http://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/9300
van der Hoeven, C.A., W.F. de Boer, and H.H. Prins. 2010. Roadside conditions as predictor for wildlife crossing probability in a Central African rainforest. >African Journal of Ecology 48: 368–77. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01122 .
van Wilgen, B.W., J.L. Nel, and M. Rouget. 2007. Invasive alien plants and South African rivers: A proposed approach to the prioritization of control operations. >Freshwater Biology 52: 711–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2427.2006.01711.x
Vickery, J.A., S.R. Ewing, K.W. Smith, et al. 2014. The decline of Afro‐Palaearctic migrants and an assessment of potential causes. >Ibis 156: 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/ibi.12118
Vogt, T. 2011. >Results of Sapo National Park bio-monitoring program 2007–2009. FFI-FDA Biomonitoring and Research Report (Cambridge: FFI; Monrovia: FDA).
von Braun, J., and R.S. Meinzen-Dick. 2009. “>Land grabbing”> by foreign investors in developing countries:> Risks and opportunities (Washington: IFPRI). http://ebrary.ifpri.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15738coll2/id/14853
Wallenfang, J., M. Finckh, J. Oldeland, et al, 2015. Impact of shifting cultivation on dense tropical woodlands in southeast Angola. >Tropical Conservation Science 8: 863–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/194008291500800402
Weisse, M., and E.D. Goldman. 2019. The world lost a Belgium-sized area of primary rainforest last year. >World Resources Institute Blog. https://www.wri.org/blog/2019/04/world-lost-belgium-sized-area-primary-rainforests-last-year
Woodborne, S., K.D.A. Huchzermeyer, D. Govender, et al. 2012. Ecosystem change and the Olifants River crocodile mass mortality events. >Ecosphere 3: 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1890/ES12-00170.1
World Bank. 2019. >World Bank Open Data. http://data.worldbank.org/region/sub-saharan-africa
WRI (World Resources Institute). 2019. >Climate Analysis Indicators Tool:> WRI’s Climate Data Explorer. http://cait2.wri.org
Ykhanbai, H., R. Garg, A. Singh, et al. 2014. >Conservation and “>land grabbing”> in rangelands:> Part of the problem or part of the solution? (Rome: International Land Coalition). http://www.landcoalition.org/sites/default/files/documents/resources/conservation%20and%20land%20grabbing%20in%20rangelands_web_en_0.pdf


6.7: Summary
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The field is committed to educating professionals and practitioners on implicit bias. Organizations such as the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), Administration for Children and Families (ACF) including Head Start, as well as the California Department of Education (CDE) have been working collaboratively to address this need that is rooted in social justice disparities. You may want to explore some of the documents and websites linked throughout this book in the footnote attributions.
Teaching can do many things to help increase equity in classrooms. This includes using an anti-bias curriculum, addressing power and oppression, keeping culture as a context when providing guidance for children and helping them work through conflict.
There are social justice issues in the field of early childhood education that lead in inequity in education. These include the disappearance of and inequitable access to play, meal time practices and access to nutritious food, and biased responses to children’s behavior.


12.4: Team Development Over Time
- How do teams develop over time?
If you have been a part of a team—as most of us have—then you intuitively have felt that there are different “stages” of team development. Teams and team members often start from a position of friendliness and excitement about a project or endeavor, but the mood can sour, and the team dynamics can go south very quickly once the real work begins. In 1965, educational psychologist Bruce Tuckman at Ohio State University developed a four-stage model to explain the complexities he had witnessed in team development. The original model was called Tuckman’s Stages of Group Development, and he added the fifth stage of “Adjourning” in 1977 to explain the disbanding of a team at the end of a project. The four stages of the Tuckman's (1965) model are:
- Forming
- Storming
- Norming
- Performing
- Adjourning
The forming stage begins with the introduction of team members. This is known as the “polite stage,” in which the team focuses on similarities and the group looks to the leader for structure and direction. The team members at this point are enthusiastic, and issues are still being discussed on a global, ambiguous level. This is when the informal pecking order begins to develop, but the team is still friendly.
The storming stage begins as team members begin vying for leadership and testing the group processes. This is known as the “win-lose” stage, as members clash for control of the group and people begin to choose sides. The attitude about the team and the project begins to shift to negative, and there is frustration around goals, tasks, and progress.
After what can be a very long and painful storming process for the team, the norming stage may slowly start to take root. During norming, the team starts to work well together, and buy-in to group goals occurs. The team establishes and maintains ground rules and boundaries, and there is a willingness to share responsibility and control. At this point in the team formation, members begin to value and respect each other and their contributions.
Finally, as the team builds momentum and starts to get results, it enters the performing stage. The team is completely self-directed and requires little management direction. The team has confidence, pride, and enthusiasm; vision, team, and self become congruent. As the team continues to perform, it may even succeed in becoming a high-performing team. High-performing teams have optimized both task and people relationships—they are maximizing performance and team effectiveness. Katzenberg and Smith, in their study of teams, have created a “team performance curve” that graphs the journey of a team from a working group to a high-performing team. The team performance curve is illustrated in Figure 12.2.3.
The process of becoming a high-performance team is not linear. Similarly, the four stages of team development in the Tuckman model are not linear, and some factors may cause the team to regress to an earlier stage of development. When a team member is added to the group, this may change the dynamic enough and be disruptive enough to cause a backward slide to an earlier stage. Similarly, if a new project task is introduced that causes confusion or anxiety for the group, this may also cause a backward slide to an earlier stage of development. Think of your own experiences with project teams and the backslide that the group may have taken when another team member was introduced. You may have found the same true when a leader or project sponsor changes the scope or adds a new project task. The team has to re-group and will likely re-storm and re-form before getting back to performing as a team.
CATCHING THE ENTREPRENEURIAL SPIRIT
Starting the Startup Team
Nothing is more exciting than a startup business. The enthusiasm is high, and people are excited about the new venture and the prospects that await. Depending on the situation, the startup may receive funding from investors, or the startup could grow and power itself organically. Either way, the startup faces many questions in the beginning that will tremendously impact its growth potential and performance down the road. One of the most critical questions that face a startup—or any business for that matter—is the question of who should be on the team. Human capital is the greatest asset that any company can have, and it is an especially critical decision in a startup environment when you have limited resources, and those resources will be responsible for building the company from the ground up.
In Noam Wasserman’s January 2012 HBSP article “Assembling the Startup Team,” Wasserman asserts,
“ Nothing can bedevil a high-potential startup more than its people problems. In research on startup performance, venture capitalists attributed 65% of portfolio company failures to problems within the startup’s management team. Another study asked investors to identify problems that might occur at their portfolio companies; 61% of the problems involved team issues. These problems typically result from choices that founders make as they add team members…”
These statistics are based on people problems in startups, and it isn’t quite clear what percent of larger company failures could be directly or indirectly attributed to people and team issues. I would imagine that the percentage is also significant. The impact of people problems and team issues in a startup organization that is just getting its footing and trying to make the right connections and decisions can be very significant. If you know anyone who has a company in startup mode, you may have noticed that some of the early team members who are selected to join the team are trusted family members, friends, or former colleagues. Once a startup company grows to a certain level, then it may acquire an experienced CEO to take the helm. In any case, the startup is faced early on with important questions on how to build the team to maximize the chance of success.
In “Assembling the Startup Team,” the author refers to the three Rs: relationships, roles, and rewards as being key elements that must be managed effectively to avoid problems in the long term. Relationships refers to the chosen team members, and there are several caveats to keep in mind. Hiring relatives or close friends because they are trusted may seem like the right idea initially, but the long-term hazards (per current research) outweigh the benefits. Family and friends may think too similarly, and the team misses the benefit of other perspectives and connections. Roles are important because you have to think about the division of labor and skills and who is in the right roles for decision-making. The startup team needs to think through the implications of assigning people to specific roles, as that may dictate their decision power and status. Finally, defining the rewards can be difficult for the startup team because it essentially means splitting the pie (i.e., short-term and long-term compensation). This can be a very difficult decision for startup founders when they have to weigh the balance of giving something away versus gaining human capital that may ultimately help the business succeed. Thinking through the tradeoffs and keeping alignment between the “three Rs” is important because it challenges the startup team to think of the long-term consequences of some of their early decisions. It is easy to bring family and friends into the startup equation due to trust factors, but carefully analyzing the “three Rs” will help a startup leadership team make decisions that will pay off in the long term.
- Why might it be a bad decision to hire someone for a key startup role based only on the fact that the person is close family or a friend? What are the potential tradeoffs to the business?
- What does it mean for the “three Rs” to be in alignment? What is the potential risk of these not being in alignment? What could go wrong?
- What are the four stages of team development?
- What can cause a team to regress in its development?