10.11: Photoelectron Spectroscopy
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Learning Objectives
- Demonstrate how photoelectron spectroscopy can be used to resolve the absolute energies of molecular orbitals.
Photoelectron spectroscopy (PES) utilizes photo-ionization and analysis of the kinetic energy distribution of the emitted photoelectrons to study the composition and electronic state of the surface region of a sample.
- X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) uses soft x-rays (with a photon energy of 200-2000 eV) to examine electrons in core -levels.
- Ultraviolet Photoelectron Spectroscopy (UPS) using vacuum UV radiation (with a photon energy of 10-45 eV) to examine electrons in valence levels.
Both photoelectron spectroscopies are based upon a single photon in/electron out process. The energy of a photon of all types of electromagnetic radiation is given by the Planck–Einstein relation:
\[E = h \nu \label{5.3.1} \]
where \(h\) is Planck constant and \(\nu\) is th e frequency (Hz) of the radiation. UPS is a powerful technique to exam molecular electron structure since we are interested in the molecular orbitals from polyatomic molecules (especially the valence orbitals) and is the topic of this page.
Photoelectron spectroscopy uses monochromatic sources of radiation (i.e. photons of fixed energy). In UPS the photon interacts with valence levels of the molecule or solid, leading to ionization by removal of one of these valence electrons. The kinetic energy distribution of the emitted photoelectrons (i.e. the number of emitted photoelectrons as a function of their kinetic energy) can be measured using any appropriate electron energy analyzer and a photoelectron spectrum can thus be recorded.
The process of photoionization can be considered in several ways. One way is to look at the overall process for a species \(A\):
\[A + \text{photon} \rightarrow A^+ + e^- \label{5.3.2} \]
Conservation of energy then requires that (after using Equation \(\ref{5.3.1}\)):
\[E(A) + h\nu = E(A^+ ) + E(e^-) \label{5.3.3} \]
Since the free electron's energy is present solely as kinetic energy (\(KE\)) (i.e., there is no internal energy in a free electron)
\[ E(e^-) = KE \nonumber \]
Equation \(\ref{5.3.3}\) can then be rearranged to give the following expression for the KE of the photoelectron:
\[KE = h\nu - \left[ E(A^+ ) - E(A) \right] \label{5.3.4} \]
The final term in brackets represents the difference in energy between the ionized and neutral species and is generally called the vertical ionization energy (\(IE\)) of the ejected electron; this then leads to the following commonly quoted equations:
\[KE = h\nu - IE \label{5.3.5} \]
or
\[IE= h\nu - KE \label{Big} \]
The vertical ionization energy is a direct measure of the energy required to just remove the electron concerned from its initial level to the vacuum level (i.e., a free electron). Photoelectron spectroscopy measures the relative energies of the ground and excited positive ion states that are obtained by removal of single electrons from the neutral molecule.
Note
Equation \ref{5.3.5} may look familiar to you as it the same equation Einstein used to describe the photoelectric effect except the vertical ionization energy (\(IE\)) is substituted for workfunction \(\Phi\). Both vertical ionization energy and workfunctions are metrics for the binding energy of an electron in the sample.
At a fundamental level, ionization energies are well-defined thermodynamic quantities related to the heats of protonation, oxidation/reduction chemistry, and ionic and covalent bond energies. Ionization energies are closely related to the concepts of electronegativity, electron-richness, and the general reactivity of molecules. The energies and other characteristic features of the ionization bands observed in photoelectron spectroscopy provide some of the molecular orbitals detailed and specific quantitative information regarding the electronic structure and bonding in molecules.
Ionization is explicitly defined in terms of transitions between the ground state of a molecule and ion states as shown in Equation \(\ref{Big}\) and as illustrated in the Figure 10.4.2 . Nonetheless, the information obtained from photoelectron spectroscopy is typically discussed in terms of the electronic structure and bonding in the ground states of neutral molecules, with ionization of electrons occurring from bonding molecular orbitals, lone pairs, antibonding molecular orbitals, or atomic cores. These descriptions reflect the relationship of ionization energies to the molecular orbital model of electronic structure.
Ionization energies are directly related to the energies of molecular orbitals by Koopmans' theorem, which states that the negative of the eigenvalue of an occupied orbital from a Hartree-Fock calculation is equal to the vertical ionization energy to the ion state formed by removal of an electron from that orbital (Figure 10.4.3 ), provided the distributions of the remaining electrons do not change (i.e., frozen).
\[ I_j = - \epsilon_j \label{Koopman} \]
There are many limitations to Koopmans' theorem, but in a first order approximation each ionization of a molecule can be considered as removal of an electron from an individual orbital. The ionization energies can then be considered as measures of orbital stabilities, and shifts can be interpreted in terms of orbital stabilizations or destabilizations due to electron distributions and bonding. Koopmans' theorem is implicated whenever an orbital picture is involved, but is not necessary when the focus is on the total electronic states of the positive ions.
Koopmans' Theorem
Koopmans' theorem argues that the negative of the eigenvalue of an occupied orbital from a Hartree-Fock calculation is equal to the vertical ionization energy to the ion state formed by removal of an electron from that orbital.
Several different ionization energies can be defined, depending on the degree of vibrational excitation of the cations. In general, the following two types of ionization energies are considered (Figure 10.4.4 ):
- Adiabatic ionization energy corresponds to the ionization energy associated with this transition \[M(X, v” = 0) + h\nu \rightarrow M^+(x, v’ = 0) + e^- \nonumber \] Adiabatic ionization energy that is, the minimum energy required to eject an electron from a molecule in its ground vibrational state and transform it into a cation in the lowest vibrational level of an electronic state x of the cation.
- Vertical ionization energy corresponds to the ionization energy associated with this transition \[ M(X, v” = 0) + h\nu \rightarrow M^+(x, v’ = n) + e^- \nonumber \] where, the value n of the vibrational quantum number v’ corresponds to the vibrational level whose wavefunction gives the largest overlap with the v” = 0 wavefunction. This is the most probable transition and usually corresponds to the vertical transition where the internuclear separations of the ionic state are similar to those of the ground state.
The geometry of an ion may be different from the neutral molecule. The measured ionzation energy in a PES experiment can refer to the vertical ionization energy, in which case the ion is in the same geometry as the neutral, or to the adiabatic ionzaiton energy, in which case the ion is in its lowest energy, relaxed geometry (mostly the former though). This is illustrated in the Figure 10.4.4 . For a diatomic the only geometry change possible is the bond length. The figure shows an ion with a slightly longer bond length than the neutral. The harmonic potential energy surfaces are shown in green (neutral) and red (ion) with vibrational energy levels. The vertical ionzation energy is always greater than the adiabatic ionzation energy.
Differing Ionization Energies
You have been exposed to three metrics of ionization energies already, which are similar, but with distinct differences:
- The ionization energy (also called adiabatic ionization energy ) is the lowest energy required to effect the removal of an electron from a molecule or atom, and corresponds to the transition from the lowest electronic, vibrational and rotational level of the isolated molecule to the lowest electronic, vibrational and rotational level of the isolated ion.
- The binding energy (also called vertical ionization energy ) is the energy change corresponding to an ionization reaction leading to formation of the ion in a configuration which is the same as that of the equilibrium geometry of the ground state neutral molecule.
- The workfunction is the minimum energy needed to remove an electron from a (bulk) solid to a point in the vacuum.
Example 10.4.1 : Molecular Hydrogen
As you remember, the molecular orbital description of hydrogen involves two \(|1s \rangle\) atomic orbitals generating a bonding \(1\sigma_g\) and antibonding \(2\sigma_u^*\) molecular orbitals. The two electrons that are responsible for the \(\ce{H_2}\) bond are occupied in the \(1\sigma_g\).
The PES spectrum has a single band that corresponds to the ionization of a 1σ g electron. The multiple peaks are due to electrons ejecting from a range of stimulated vibrational energy levels. When extensive vibrational structure is resolved in a PES molecular orbital, then the removal of an electron from that molecular orbital induces a significant change in the bonding (in this case an increase in the bond length since the bond order has been reduced).
Example 10.4.2 : Molecular Nitrogen
Diatomic nitrogen is more complex than hydrogen since multiple molecular orbitals are occupied. Four molecular orbitals are occupied (the two \(1\pi_u\) orbitals are both occupied). The UV photoelectron spectrum of \(N_2\), has three bands corresponding to \(3σ_g\), \(1π_u\) and \(2σ_u\) occupied molecular orbitals. Both \(3σ_g\) and \(2σ_u\) are weakly bonding and antibonding. The \(1\sigma_g\) orbital is not resolved in this spectrum since the incident light \(h\nu\) used did not have sufficient energy to ionize electrons in that deeply stabilized molecular orbital.
Note that extensive vibrational structure for the \(1π_u\) band indicates that the removal of an electron from this molecular orbital causes a significant change in the bonding.
Hydrogen Chloride
The molecular energy level diagram for \(\ce{HCl}\) is reproduced in Figure 10.4.5
Important aspects of molecular orbital diagram in Figure 10.4.5 :
- The H 1 s energy lies well above the Cl 2 s and 2 p atomic orbitals;
- The valence electron configuration can be written 3σ 2 1π 4 ;
- The H 1 s orbital contributes only to the σ molecular orbitals, as does one of the Cl 2 p orbitals (hence the lines in Figure 10.4.5 connecting these atomic orbitals and the 3σ and 4σ molecular orbitals);
- The remaining Cl 2 p orbitals (ie those perpendicular to the bond axis) are unaffected by bonding, and these form the 1π molecular orbitals;
- The 1π orbitals are nonbonding - they are not affected energetically by the interaction between the atoms, and are hence neither bonding nor antibonding;
- The 3σ orbital is weakly bonding, and largely Cl 2 p ;
- The 3σ* orbital is antibonding, and primarily of H 1 s character;
Figure 10.4.6 shows the analogous MO diagram and photoelectron spectrum for \(\ce{HCl}\). The spectrum has two bands corresponding to non-bonding 1 p (or \(1\pi\)) molecular orbitals (with negligible vibrational structure) and the 3 s bonding molecular orbital (vibrational structure).
The higher energy (more stabilized) core molecular orbitals are not observed since the incident photon energy \(h\nu\) is below their ionization energies.
Water
In the simplified valence bond theory perspective of the water molecule, the oxygen atom form four \(sp^3\) hybrid orbitals. Two of these are occupied by the two lone pairs on the oxygen atom, while the other two are used for bonding. Within the molecular orbital picture, the electronic configuration of the \(\ce{H_2O^{+}}\) molecule is \((1a_1)^2 (2a_1)^2 (1b_2)^2 (3a_1)^2 (1b_1)^2\) where the symbols \(a_1\), \(b_2\) and \(b_1\) are orbital labels based on molecular symmetry that will be discussed later (Figure 10.4.7 ). Within Koopmans' theorem:
- The energy of the 1b 1 HOMO corresponds to the ionization energy to form the \(\ce{H_2O^{+}}\) ion in its ground state \((1a_1)^2 (2a_1)^2 (1b_2)^2 (3a_1)^2 (1b_1)^1\).
- The energy of the second-highest molecular orbitals \(3a_1\) refers to the ion in the excited state \((1a_1)^2 (2a_1)^2 (1b_2)^2 (3a_1)^1 (1b_1)^2\).
The Hartree–Fock orbital energies (with sign changed) of these orbitals are tabulated below and compared to the experimental ionization energies.
| Molecular orbital | Hartree–Fock orbital Energies (eV) | Experimental Ionization Energies (eV) |
|---|---|---|
| 2a 1 | 36.7 | 32.2 |
| 1b 2 | 19.5 | 18.5 |
| 3a 1 | 15.9 | 14.7 |
| 1b 1 | 13.8 | 12.6 |
As explained above, the deviations between orbital energy and ionization energy is small and due to the effects of orbital relaxation as well as differences in electron correlation energy between the molecular and the various ionized states.
The molecular orbital perspective has the lone pair in different orbitals (one in a non-bonding orbital (\(1b_1\) and one in the bonding orbitals). We tern to the photoelectron spectroscopy to help identify which theory is more accurate (i.e., describes reality better). The photoelectron spectrum of water in Figure 10.4.6 can be interpreted as having three major peaks with some fine structure arises from vibrational energy changes. The light source used in this experiment is not sufficiently energetic to ionize electrons from the lowest lying molecular orbitals.
If water was formed two identical O-H bonds and two lone pairs on the oxygen atom line valence bond theory predicts, then the PES in Figure 10.4.8 would have two (degenerate) peaks, one for the two bonds and one for the two lone pairs. The photoelectron spectrum clearly shows three peaks in the positions expected for the molecular orbitals in Figure 10.4.8 .
If the molecular orbitals in Figure 10.4.7 represent the real electronic structure, how do we view the bonding? These molecular orbitals are delocalized and bare little relationship to the familiar 2-center bonds used in valence bond theory. For example, the \(2a_1\) \(1b_1\) and \(3a_1\) molecular orbitals all have contributions from all three atoms, they are really 3-centered molecular orbitals. The bonds however can be thought of as representing a build up of the total electron density which loosely put is a total of all the orbital contributions. Despite this, we keep the ideas of hybridization and 2-center bonds because they are useful NOT because they represent reality
Summary
A photoelecton spectrum can show the relative energies of occupied molecular orbitals by ionization. (i.e. ejection of an electron). A photoelectron spectrum can also be used to determine energy spacing between vibrational levels of a given electronic state. Each orbital energy band has a structure showing ionization to different vibrational levels.


1.2: What’s College For?
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- Alise Lamoreaux
- Lane Community College via OpenOregon
Learning is a treasure that will follow its owner everywhere
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~Chinese Proverb
What’s college for? That’s a little question with a big answer! A college education comes in many shapes and sizes. A 2010 report from the National Center for Education Statistics estimates that there are 4,500 different post-secondary degree- granting institutions exist in the US.
These schools may be public, private, religious, small, large, for-profit, community colleges, junior colleges. Considering the variety of college options, there is no single answer to the question, “What is college for?” Brenda Hellyer, Chancellor of San Jacinto College in Houston and Pasadena, Texas, wrote in the Chronicle of Higher Education that students “are seeking more than an education—they are seeking options, opportunities, and guidance.”
How do you view college?
What will define college success for you?
People go to college for a variety of reasons. The type of college you select will help set parameters and expectations for your experiences. Before jumping into the details of going to college, it’s important to stop and think about the purpose college has in your life. Traditionally, college was a place young adults went after high school to explore courses and majors before settling into a job path. Today, most people generally go to college for one of 5 main reasons:
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- Job Opportunities : A college degree is seen as a minimum qualification for entry into the skilled labor market. Higher education can better prepare you for work, but also increase your flexibility to change jobs and locations. A degree or certificate can act as a springboard for employment.
- Security in a Changing Economy : College experience may give you the ability to better adapt to changing business conditions.
- More Money : a degree or certificate may mean greater expertise to an employer and result in higher wages. Investing in a college degree may make it easier to maintain employment in economically challenging times.
- Better Health: Many jobs that require college degrees are less physically demanding in terms of the labor requirements to preform them. In addition, health insurance options may be better through employers.
- Learning Things of Interest : college is a pathway to exploring new studies and finding personal passions leading to alternative career paths.
What impression does this TED Talk leave you with? Which generation are you?
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/collegetransition/?p=5
Video Link: https://youtu.be/sgbzbdxTm4E
An article from 2015 in the Washington Post, What’s the purpose of college: A job or an education? says that students entering college today list getting a better job as the most important reason to attend college. In the past, learning about things that interested them was listed as the top reason to attend college. When did the change in priority occur? In his article The Day The Purpose of College Changed , Dan Berrett says the change in priority can be linked to Ronald Reagan, when he was Governor of California.
Economic times were tough in 1967 for California. Everyone needed to “tighten their belts.” At that time, California was known for excellent higher educational system. In a speech Reagan gave on Feb. 28, 1967, a month into his term as Governor, Reagan assured people that he wouldn’t do anything to harm the quality of their public education system. “But,” he added, “We do believe that there are certain intellectual luxuries that perhaps we could do without.” Taxpayers should not be “subsidizing intellectual curiosity,” he said. By the time Reagan won the presidency, in 1980, practical degrees had become the popular choice. In the 1930s, around the time Reagan went to college, about 8% of students majored in “business and commerce.” When he was elected Governor, that share was 12%. By the time he moved into the White House, more students majored in business than anything else. Business, as a major, has held that top spot ever since.
What frames your value of education?
What kind of return on your investment do you expect from college?
Deciding to go to college has an “ opportunity cost .” An opportunity cost is based on the economic principle that there are limited resources available and choices must be made. Examples of resources would be things like time and money. If you are spending time doing something, you must give up doing something else you want to do. That is the opportunity cost of your choice. Going to college will have an opportunity cost in your life. An important question to ask in the beginning of your college venture is: what are you willing to trade off for going to college?
Opportunity costs are tied to the idea of return on investment. Once you make an investment of your time and money in college, what investment are you hoping to get in return? How you define success in relationship to your college experience impacts how you see the concept of return on investment. Some ways to gauge return on investment include: job opportunities after college, immediate financial benefit to earned wages, social network/connections made while attending college, development of communication and other “soft skills,” and personal enrichment and/or happiness.
Short-term rewards compared to long-term rewards are another way to look at return on investment. For example, it takes much longer to become a CEO (Chief Executive Officer) of a company than it does to get a well-paid job at the same company. Different skills would be required from the CEO and it may require more investment to acquire those skills. Frances Bronet, the Dean of the School of Architecture at the University of Oregon, conducted a survey of former engineering graduates when she taught at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. She asked former graduates what they felt they had missed in their education. The results were very different depending on how recent their graduation was. Students who had graduated 1 year ago felt that they needed more technical skills. People who had graduated 5 years ago felt that they needed more management skills, and people who had graduated 10-20 years ago felt that they needed more cultural literacy because their work now involved more working with other cultures.
Deciding to go to college is a big decision and choosing a course of study can seem overwhelming to many students. Considering the changing world we live in, knowing what direction to go is not easy. According to Richard Riley, secretary of education under Bill Clinton, “We are currently preparing students for jobs that don’t exist using technology that haven’t been invented in order to solve problems that we don’t even know.”
Sir Ken Robinson: Do Schools Kill Creativity? (TED Talk)
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/collegetransition/?p=5
Video link: https://youtu.be/iG9CE55wbtY
Personal Inventory Questions:
- Why are you here?
- Why college, why now?
- How do you define college?
- What do you imagine college life to be like?
- How do you know when you are ready for college?
- What have you done to prepare for college?
- What do you think college expects from students?
- What does going to college mean for your future?
- Using the list of 5 reasons students attend college provided in this chapter, rank your reasons for going to college.
- In your opinion, is it a good idea for academic counselors to steer high school kids towards either a 4-year degree or vocational training? Should students be steered towards careers that would be a good “fit” for them?
- Opportunity Cost Analysis: Create a pie chart identifying how you currently spend your time (daily/weekly).
Suggested Readings:
The Day The Purpose of College Changed by Dan Berrett (1/26/2015)
What’s College For? Commentary Chronicle of Higher Education (4/22/2013)
How To Assess The Real Pay Off Of A College Degree by Scott Carlson (4/22/2013)
What’s The Purpose of College: A Job or An Education by Jeffery J. Selingo (2/2/2015)


4.1: Introduction to Weight Management
It is highly likely that you have seen weight loss ads in the newspaper, magazines, or in your social media feed. With about 50% of the U.S. population saying they tried to lose weight in the last 12 months [1] , it is not surprising that the weight loss industry is estimated to be a $3 billion dollar industry.
Although this chapter will address those who are underweight, the predominance of information will relate to persons who are overweight or obese. Overweight and obesity are linked to more deaths worldwide than underweight; most of the world’s population live in countries where overweight and obesity kills more people than underweight. In the U.S., an estimated 1.5% of adults aged 20 and over are underweight [2] , compared to about 42% of adults who are considered obese. The goal is to strive for a healthy weight since persons who are underweight or overweight have negative health implications.
This chapter focuses on body weight and body composition. Both body weight and body composition are important measurements to understand your health. Body weight is typically measured in pounds or kilograms and is simply your body’s total mass. Body composition is what your weight is made of (muscle, bone, water, and fat) and is typically measured as a percentage. For example, a person might have a body weight of 200 lbs and a percentage body fat of 25%, in this example, 50lbs of their body weight comes from fat. Although body weight is the measurement most commonly used to assess the health of our body size, body composition is a more accurate look at our body size by understanding what the body is made up of. It is quick and easy to step on a scale and measure your body weight, but measuring body composition is much more challenging, thus body weight is the standard used to address overweight and obesity.
Fat is not bad, we need fat for healthy cellular function, energy, cushioning for vital organs, insulation, long term energy storage, and absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. The minimum about of body fat needed by males is about 3% and females is about 12%. It is generally accepted that an overall range of 10-22 percent for men and 20-32 percent for women is considered satisfactory for good health. This necessary body fat for health is considered essential body fat. When the body stores additional body fat above the essential amount it is called non-essential body fat.
The Calorie Balance Equation and Metabolism
In chapter 3 (Nutrition) you were introduced to the energy (Calorie) balance equation, which simply means to compare energy in versus energy out, or how many Calories we are eating each day compared to the amount of Calories we expend. If a persons consumes an excess of 3,500 Calories that is the equivalent of gaining one pound of weight. That means if you reduce your daily calorie intake by 500 calories or burn 500 more calories each day than you consume, you may be able to lose a pound a week. Caloric expenditure is most often associated with exercise, however most of our daily caloric expenditure is to maintain bodily functions, like breathing, circulating our blood, and digesting food.
The term used to describe the chemical processes in the body that convert Calories into energy is Metabolism. Your body needs a minimum number of Calories to sustain these functions. Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) and Resting Metabolic Rate (RMR) are measurements used to estimate how many calories your body burns when you’re not exercising. These two measurements are often used interchangeably, however they do have a slight difference. A BMR measurement is slightly more accurate because it is measured when you are doing nothing, just upon waking up, while laying down in a dark room after sleeping for for at least eight hours and fasting for 12 hours. RMR is taking without the strict conditions of the BMR; BMR is usually slightly lower than your RMR. Both Basal metabolic rate (BMR) and resting metabolic rate (RMR) measure the amount of energy (C alories) that your body needs to stay alive and function properly. It is helpful to understand your BMR/RMR since it accounts for about 60-80% of total energy expenditure each day. Your BMR/RMR is effected by your weight, height, age, gender, and genetics. A key component of your weight that impacts BMR/RMR is the amount of muscle you have; muscle mass increases BMR/RMR.
Defining Overweight and Obese
The measurement used across the world to identify if a person is overweight or obese is called the Body Mass Index (BMI), which is based on a persons weight versus their height. BMI is used because it is an inexpensive and easy screening method to identify weight categories (underweight, healthy weight, overweight, and obesity). It is important to recognize that BMI does not assess body composition or body fatness, it is simply a measurement of body size and is used as a screening tool. Although it may not be accurate for some of the population, for example athletes with high muscle mass, it has been shown to be correlated to other more accurate measures of body fatness and to various weight related diseases.
BMI is a person’s weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters:
BMI= weight (kg) / [height (m)]2
| BMI | Weight Status |
|---|---|
| Below 18.5 | Underweight |
| 18.5 – 24.9 | Healthy Weight |
| 25.0 – 29.9 | Overweight |
| 30.0 and Above | Obesity |
| Height | Weight Range | BMI | Weight Status |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5’9″ | 124 lbs or less | Below 18.5 | Underweight |
| 5’9″ | 125 lbs to 168 lbs | 18.5 to 24.9 | Healthy Weight |
| 5’9″ | 169 lbs to 202 lbs | 25.0 to 29.9 | Overweight |
| 5’9″ | 203 lbs or more | 30 or higher | Obesity |
As noted previously, BMI is the most commonly used tool to assess health weight, but for many people it is not an accurate measurement because it does not assess your body composition. For example, two people can have the exact same height and weight, thus the same BMI, but one could be a professional athlete who is very active with low body fat and the other could be sedentary with high body fat. Using the example in Table
, a person who is 5’9″ and 203 pounds is considered obese using the BMI, it does not matter whether that person is a 203 pound professional weight lifter or a sedentary person with high body fat.There are many BMI calculators available online to quickly calculate your BMI.
Take a minute and go to the CDC’s Adult BMI Calculator and enter your height and weight.
Evaluate your BMI results:
- Are you considered underweight, healthy weight, overweight, and obese?
- Does the BMI result seem accurate for you and your body composition?


Jean Piaget is the most noted theorist when it comes to children's cognitive development. He believed that children's cognition develops in stages. He explained this growth in the following stages:
Sensory Motor Stage (Birth through 2 years old)
Preoperational Stage (2-7 years old)
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years old)
Formal Operational Stage (12 years old- adulthood)
In this cognitive chapter we will focus on his first stage which occurs in infancy.
1
Piaget and Sensorimotor Intelligence
Piaget describes intelligence in infancy as
sensorimotor
or based on direct, physical contact. Infants taste, feel, pound, push, hear, and move in order to experience the world. Let’s explore the transition infants make from responding to the external world reflexively as newborns to solving problems using mental strategies as two years old.
Table \(\PageIndex{1}\): Substages of Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
2
Substage
Age
Description
Substage One: Simple Reflexes
Birth to 1 month
This active learning begins with automatic movements or reflexes. A ball comes into contact with an infant’s cheek and is automatically sucked on and licked.
Substage Two: Primary Circular Reactions
1 to 4 months
The infant begins to discriminate between objects and adjust responses accordingly as reflexes are replaced with voluntary movements. An infant may accidentally engage in a behavior and find it interesting such as making a vocalization. This interest motivates trying to do it again and helps the infant learn a new behavior that originally occurred by chance. At first, most actions have to do with the body, but in months to come, will be directed more toward objects.
Substage Three: Secondary Circular Reactions
4 to 8 months
The infant becomes more and more actively engaged in the outside world and takes delight in being able to make things happen. Repeated motion brings particular interest as the infant is able to bang two lids together from the cupboard when seated on the kitchen floor.
Substage Four: Coordination of circular reactions
8 to 12 months
The infant can engage in behaviors that others perform and anticipate upcoming events. Perhaps because of continued maturation of the prefrontal cortex, the infant becomes capable of having a thought and carrying out a planned, goal-directed activity such as seeking a toy that has rolled under the couch. The object continues to exist in the infant’s mind even when out of sight and the infant now is capable of making attempts to retrieve it.
Substage Five: Tertiary Circular Reactions
12 to 18 months
The infant more actively engages in experimentation to learn about the physical world. Gravity is learned by pouring water from a cup or pushing bowls from high chairs. The caregiver tries to help the child by picking it up again and placing it on the tray. And what happens? Another experiment! The child pushes it off the tray again causing it to fall and the caregiver to pick it up again!
Substage Six: Internalization of Schemes and Early Representational thought
18 months to 2 years
The child is now able to solve problems using mental strategies, to remember something heard days before and repeat it, to engage in pretend play, and to find objects that have been moved even when out of sight. Take for instance, the child who is upstairs in a room with the door closed, supposedly taking a nap. The doorknob has a safety device on it that makes it impossible for the child to turn the knob. After trying several times in vain to push the door or turn the doorknob, the child carries out a mental strategy learned from prior experience to get the door opened-he knocks on the door! The child is now better equipped with mental strategies for problem- solving.
Evaluating Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
Piaget opened up a new way of looking at infants with his view that their main task is to coordinate their sensory impressions with their motor activity. However, the infant’s cognitive world is not as neatly packaged as Piaget portrayed it, and some of Piaget’s explanations for the cause of change are debated. In the past several decades, sophisticated experimental techniques have been devised to study infants, and there have been a large number of research studies on infant development. Much of the new research suggests that Piaget’s view of sensorimotor development needs to be modified (Baillargeon, 2014; Brooks & Meltzoff, 2014; Johnson & Hannon, 2015).
Object Permanence
One necessary modification would be to when children develop object permanence. Infants seem to be able to recognize that objects have permanence at much younger ages than Piaget proposed (even as young as 3.5 months of age).
The A-not-B Error
The data does not always support Piaget’s claim that certain processes are crucial in transitions from one stage to the next. For example, in Piaget’s theory, an important feature in the progression into substage 4, coordination of secondary circular reactions, is an infant’s inclination to search for a hidden object in a familiar location rather than to look for the object in a new location. Thus, if a toy is hidden twice, initially at location A and subsequently at location B, 8- to 12-month-old infants search correctly at location A initially. But when the toy is subsequently hidden at location B, they make the mistake of continuing to search for it at location A.
A-not-B error
is the term used to describe this common mistake. Older infants are less likely to make the A-not-B error because their concept of object permanence is more complete.
Researchers have found, however, that the A-not-B error does not show up consistently (Sophian, 1985). The evidence indicates that A-not-B errors are sensitive to the delay between hiding the object at B and the infant’s attempt to find it (Diamond, 1985). Thus, the A-not-B error might be due to a failure in memory. Another explanation is that infants tend to repeat a previous motor behavior (Clearfield & others, 2006; Smith, 1999).


Both the IMF and the World Bank act as global outreach partners to assist both developed and developing countries in areas that range from Economic Management to Rule of Law to Human Development. Although controversial at times, these two organizations and their over 180 members have touched almost every country on the globe, either directly or indirectly. In this module we will examine the difference between the two organizations and look at some of the projects they have undertaken.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After you complete the required assignments you will be able to:
-
Illustrate the history of the WTO and its contribution to international business
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Identify ways that the World Bank and IMF provide support to global business ventures
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Identify the impact global organizations have on business decisions to trade internationally
CC licensed content, Original
-
International Business.
Authored by
: Linda Williams.
Provided by
: Tidewater Community College.
Located at
:
http://www.tcc.edu
.
Project
: Z Degree Project.
License
:
CC BY: Attribution


13.5: 2013 - Caroline Shaw, Partita for 8 Voices
The 2013 Pulitzer Prize attracted an unusual amount of attention. To begin with, at 30 years old, Caroline Shaw (b. 1982) was the youngest composer ever to win a Pulitzer. In addition to that, she was only the fifth woman to win in the seventy years of the competition. (Ellen Taaffe Zwilich was the first, in 1983.) Finally, the work itself was out of the ordinary. Partita requires amplified singers to employ unusual and non-Western vocal techniques, and at the time of the award only one vocal ensemble—Roomful of Teeth, of which Shaw herself is a founding member—had ever performed it. In fact, Roomful of Teeth had not even premiered the complete work, but had programmed individual movements as they were completed. Partita had also not been published and could only be heard on Roomful of Teeth’s eponymous 2012 album, which itself won a Grammy for Best Chamber Music/Small Ensemble Performance in 2013. In this way, Partita was more like a pop song than a classical composition. As a result, it inspired discussion not only about whether or not it was “good” but about whether it even had the necessary characteristics to satisfy the criteria used to evaluate compositional quality.
Roomful of Teeth
We can’t understand Partita without understanding the history and mission of Roomful of Teeth. The group was founded in 2009 by Brad Wells, who had a vision for an eight-part vocal ensemble that would break new ground in the world of art music. Most choirs adopt a uniform vocal production technique derived from the European tradition. However, the human voice is capable of producing an extraordinary range of sounds, and there is boundless variety in the techniques used by non-Western and popular singers. The members of Roomful of Teeth learn these techniques from world-renowned experts. In the past decade, the group has studied Tuvan throat singing , yodeling, Broadway belting , Inuit throat singing, Korean P’ansori, Georgian singing, Sardinian cantu a tenore, Hindustani music, Persian classical singing, and Death Metal singing. All of these techniques have been incorporated into their performances. To accomplish this, Wells commissions composers to write music expressly for the group. Much of this work takes place during an annual gathering at the Massachusetts Museum of Contemporary Art (MASS MoCA) in North Adams, Massachusetts, where teachers, singers, and composers come together to create new music.
As you can imagine, not just any choir can sing the repertoire that is created for Roomful of Teeth. Although the music is notated, the techniques required to perform it are highly specialized, and any vocal ensemble that wants to take on the challenge will require training. For this reason, few other choirs have ever performed Partita . Roomful of Teeth, on the other hand, continues to perform the work regularly. Some of their concerts are traditional in format, but they also engage with experimental performance techniques. In January of 2019, for example, they performed Partita outdoors in Times Square to the accompaniment of the LEIMAY Ensemble, a contemporary dance troupe.
Shaw and her Inspirations
Caroline Shaw (b. 1982) was among the first composers to write for Roomful of Teeth. Her training at the time she began work on Partita , however, was oriented towards violin performance, not composition (or even vocal performance). She only entered a PhD program in composition in 2010. This also makes her unusual. Most previous Pulitzer winners were established figures with degrees, university positions, and long lists of major works. Shaw was essentially unknown.
The inspiration for Partita came from several sources. The first was Sol LeWitt’s Wall Drawing 305 , which can be viewed at the MASS MoCA, where Roomful of Teeth completes an annual residency. Wall Drawing 305 is not a work of visual art in the traditional sense (just as Shaw’s Partita is not a traditional choir piece), and might be categorized as conceptual art . The “work”
is, in fact, a set of instructions intended to guide draftsmen in placing one hundred points on a wall. These instructions can be followed by anyone in any space to create the drawing. LeWitt was interested in randomness, and he sought to prevent the emergence of patterns in the visual product. No two realizations of any work in his Wall Drawing series will be the same.
Shaw was attracted to LeWitt’s artistic vision, and she used several of his instructive texts in Partita . Her description of the work also ties it to Wall Drawing 305 : “Partita is a simple piece. Born of a love of surface and structure, of the human voice, of dancing and tired ligaments, of music, and of our basic desire to draw a line from one point to another.” However, she also cites Times Square as a source for the work:
Since my very first years living in New York City, I have spent a lot of time in Times Square. I used to walk through the area right after I moved there just to take in its unique combination of chaos and magic.  I love to see how many people come to the city and visit Times Square, who are always looking up in awe and confusion and wonder. It is that mix of confusion and wonder that is also deeply in Partita. . . I also like to think about the traffic patterns that move through Times Square, intersecting, crossing, and pausing in different ways, just like the text in the first movement. . .
Finally, Shaw took the title and form of Partita from the tradition of Baroque dance suites . Bach used the terms partita and suite almost interchangeably, although his partitas are somewhat looser in form. Shaw would have encountered the term partita as a violinist, since that is how Bach labelled his suites for solo violin. Three of Shaw’s movements share the names of typical Baroque dances: “Allemande,” “Sarabande,” and “Courante.” The final movement, titled “Passacaglia,” links Partita with a different Baroque form, for a passacaglia is a set of variations over a repeating bass line. We do not find passacaglias in genuine Baroque dance suites.
Passacaglia
To get a sense of how Partita sounds, we will consider the last of the four movements, “Passacaglia.”7 The movement opens with the ensemble presenting a cycle of harmonies. They sing the same chord progression three times, but each time using a different vocal timbre. The first time through, they produce warm, rounded sounds. The second time, they shift timbres mid-pitch, switching from bright to subtle. The third time, they sing in a chest style derived from Bulgarian choral practice, producing a piercing and aggressive sound followed by a gasping sigh.
|
“Passacaglia” from Partita for 8 Voices. 7. Composer: Caroline Shaw Performance: Roomful of Teeth (2013) |
Next we hear the chord progression again, but this time it is overlaid with oscillating figures in half of the voices. These carry into the subsequent section, providing the backdrop for a high melody sung in octaves and then for spoken text extracted from LeWitt’s Wall Drawing 305 . During this passage we also hear harmonic overtone singing from the men, who manipulate low pedal tones to produce a rainbow of high-pitched sounds. One by one, the singers switch to reciting LeWitt’s text, until we are left with a cacophony of speaking voices. Isolated pitches extracted from the opening chord progression occasionally pierce the texture.
The cacophony is only resolved by the production of a grating sound derived from Korean pansori singing. This builds in strength before transforming into the opening chord, which inaugurates one final pass through the harmonic progression in chest voice. A second pass begins, but is derailed by the introduction of new chords. More overtone singing ornaments the final harmony of the piece.


2: Benzene and Aromaticity
After you have completed Chapter 2, you should be able to
- fulfillall of the detailed objectives listed under each individual section.
- use the information presented in this chapter, along with material from earlier chapters, to solve problems, particularly road-map problems and those requiring an understanding of spectroscopy.
- explain the concept of aromaticity and the stability of aromatic compounds.
- define, and use in context, the key terms introduced.
In Chapter 1, we identified an aromatic compound as being a compound which contains a benzene ring (or phenyl group). It is now time to define aromaticity in a more sophisticated manner. In this chapter, we discuss the stability of benzene and other aromatic compounds, explaining it in terms of resonance and molecular orbital theory. You will study the nomenclature of aromatic compounds and the Hückel (4 n + 2) rule for predicting aromaticity. The chapter concludes with a brief summary of the spectroscopic properties of arenes.
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- 2.4: Aromaticity and the Hückel 4n + 2 Rule
- In 1931, German chemist and physicist Erich Hückel proposed a theory to help determine if a planar ring molecule would have aromatic properties. His rule states that if a cyclic, planar molecule has 4n+2 π electrons, it is considered aromatic. This rule would come to be known as Hückel's Rule.


2.12: The Importance of the Israelites and Ancient Israel
The Israelites left an extraordinary religious and ethical legacy. They were some of the first monotheists, worshipping a single god, whom they referred to as Yahweh. Their religious texts from the ancient world, including the Hebrew Scriptures, served as the foundational texts of Judaism. The Hebrew Scriptures were also the basis of the Christian Old Testament, and Islam recognizes parts of the scriptures as divine revelations. There were other, widespread religious influences as well. For example, Christians and Muslims consider many of the figures, including Abraham, Moses, and David, and teachings, like the Ten Commandments, from the Hebrew Scriptures to be very important. Furthermore, the Hebrew Scriptures contained the idea that everyone, regardless of status, was bound to obey the law.
The United Kingdom of Israel was a “golden age,” associated with the creation of a unified, wealthy state with its new capital in Jerusalem. This civilization had well-developed religious traditions, political power vested in a king, monumental architecture, and administrative innovations. It also maintained a strong military, multiple tributary states, long-distance trade networks, and well-established diplomatic relationships with foreign states.


9.8: Discussion- Color Blind or Color Brave?
Post 1: Initial Post
Instructions
This posting should be a minimum of one short paragraph and a maximum of two paragraphs. Word totals for this post should be in the 100–200-word range. Whether you agree or disagree, explain why with supporting evidence and concepts from the readings or a related experience. Include a reference, link, or citation when appropriate.
Preparation
This discussion is based on a TED Talk by Mellody Hobson, president of money management firm Ariel Investments. In it, Hobson discusses the difference between being “color blind” and “color brave” when it comes to the subject of race. She contends that diversity in hiring makes for better businesses, products, and research.
Watch Hobson’s TED Talk, below:
You can view the transcript for “Color Blind or Color Brave?” (opens in new window) .
For Discussion
- Hobson says, “Now, race is one of those topics in America that makes people extraordinarily uncomfortable. You bring it up at a dinner party or in a workplace environment, it is literally the conversational equivalent of touching the third rail. There is shock, followed by a long silence.” Why do you think it’s so difficult to talk about race and diversity in our workplaces and institutions?
- Hobson says, “We cannot afford to be color blind. We have to be color brave. We have to be willing, as teachers and parents and entrepreneurs and scientists, we have to be willing to have proactive conversations about race with honesty and understanding and courage, not because it’s the right thing to do, but because it’s the smart thing to do, because our businesses and our products and our science, our research, all of that will be better with greater diversity.” Identify opportunities you have to be “color brave.” Why do you think Hobson says diversity will make our businesses and products better?
- Your reading discussed influences on organizational culture and methods for maintaining or changing culture. How do you think these influences and methods could work to foster open discussion about race and diversity in an organization?
Posts 2 and 3: Respond to Classmates’ Posts
Instructions
After you have created your initial post, look over the discussion posts of your classmates and give at least two thoughtful responses to two different classmates (one per classmate).
A response posting should be a minimum of one short paragraph. Word totals for these posts should be in the 75–100-word range. Whether you agree or disagree, explain why with supporting evidence and concepts from the readings or a related experience. Include a reference, link, or citation when appropriate. The goal of your response posts is to extend discussions already taking place or pose new possibilities or opinions not previously voiced. Your goal should be to motivate the group discussion and present a creative approach to the topic.
Contributors and Attributions
- Discussion: Color Blind or Color Brave?. Authored by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Mellody Hobson: Color Blind or Color Brave?. Provided by : TED Talks. Located at : https://www.ted.com/talks/mellody_hobson_color_blind_or_color_brave . License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives


38.2: Constructing the Coordinate Plane
Lesson
Let's investigate different ways of creating a coordinate plane.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\): English Writer
The following data were collected over one December afternoon in England.
| time after noon (hours) | temperature (\(^{\circ}\text{C}\)) |
|---|---|
| \(0\) | \(5\) |
| \(1\) | \(3\) |
| \(2\) | \(4\) |
| \(3\) | \(2\) |
| \(4\) | \(1\) |
| \(5\) | \(-2\) |
| \(6\) | \(-3\) |
| \(7\) | \(-4\) |
| \(8\) | \(-4\) |
- Which set of axes would you choose to represent these data? Explain your reasoning.
- Explain why the other two sets of axes did not seem as appropriate as the one you chose.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\): Axes Drawing Decisions
- Here are three sets of coordinates. For each set, draw and label an appropriate pair of axes and plot the points.
- \((1,2), (3,-4), (-5,-2), (0, 2.5)\)
- \((50,50), (0,0), (-10, -30), (-35,40)\)
- \(\left(\frac{1}{4},\frac{3}{4}\right), \left(\frac{-5}{4},\frac{1}{2}\right), \left(-1\frac{1}{4},\frac{-3}{4}\right), \left(\frac{1}{4},\frac{-1}{2}\right)\)
- Discuss with a partner:
- How are the axes and labels of your three drawings different?
- How did the coordinates affect the way you drew the axes and label the numbers?
Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\): Positively A-maze-ing
Here is a maze on a coordinate plane. The black point in the center is (0, 0). The side of each grid square is 2 units long.
- Enter the above maze at the location marked with a green segment. Draw line segments to show your way through and out of the maze. Label each turning point with a letter. Then, list all the letters and write their coordinates.
- Choose any 2 turning points that share the same line segment. What is the same about their coordinates? Explain why they share that feature.
Are you ready for more?
To get from the point \((2,1)\) to \((-4,3)\) you can go two units up and six units to the left, for a total distance of eight units. This is called the “taxicab distance,” because a taxi driver would have to drive eight blocks to get between those two points on a map.
Find as many points as you can that have a taxicab distance of eight units away from \((2,1)\). What shape do these points make?
Summary
The coordinate plane can be used to show information involving pairs of numbers.
When using the coordinate plane, we should pay close attention to what each axis represents and what scale each uses.
Suppose we want to plot the following data about the temperatures in Minneapolis one evening.
| time (hours from midnight) | temperature (degrees C) |
|---|---|
| \(-4\) | \(3\) |
| \(-1\) | \(-2\) |
| \(0\) | \(-4\) |
| \(3\) | \(-8\) |
We can decide that the \(x\)-axis represents number of hours in relation to midnight and the \(y\)-axis represents temperatures in degrees Celsius.
- In this case, \(x\)-values less than 0 represent hours before midnight, and and \(x\)-values greater than 0 represent hours after midnight.
- On the \(y\)-axis, the values represents temperatures above and below the the freezing point of 0 degrees Celsius.
The data involve whole numbers, so it is appropriate that the each square on the grid represents a whole number.
- On the left of the origin, the \(x\)-axis needs to go as far as -4 or less (farther to the left). On the right, it needs to go to 3 or greater.
- Below the origin, the \(y\)-axis has to go as far as -8 or lower. Above the origin, it needs to go to 3 or higher.
Here is a graph of the data with the axes labeled appropriately.
On this coordinate plane, a point at \((0,0)\) would mean a temperature of 0 degrees Celsius at midnight. The point at \((-4,3)\) means a temperature of 3 degrees Celsius at 4 hours before midnight (or 8 p.m.).
Glossary Entries
Definition: Quadrant
The coordinate plane is divided into 4 regions called quadrants. The quadrants are numbered using Roman numerals, starting in the top right corner.
Practice
Exercise \(\PageIndex{4}\)
Draw and label an appropriate pair of axes and plot the points.
\(\left(\frac{1}{5},\frac{4}{5}\right)\)
\(\left(-\frac{3}{5},\frac{2}{5}\right)\)
\(\left(-1\frac{1}{5},-\frac{4}{5}\right)\)
\(\left(\frac{1}{5},-\frac{3}{5}\right)\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{5}\)
Diego was asked to plot these points: \((-50,0), (150,100), (200,-100), (350, 50), (-250, 0)\). What interval could he use for each axis? Explain your reasoning.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{6}\)
- Name 4 points that would form a square with the origin at its center.
- Graph these points to check if they form a square.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{7}\)
Which of the following changes would you represent using a negative number? Explain what a positive number would represent in that situation.
- A loss of 4 points
- A gain of 50 yards
- A loss of $10
- An elevation above sea level
(From Unit 7.1.5)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{8}\)
Jada is buying notebooks for school. The cost of each notebook is $1.75.
- Write an equation that shows the cost of Jada’s notebooks, \(c\), in terms of the number of notebooks, \(n\), that she buys.
- Which of the following could be points on the graph of your equation?
\((1.75, 1)\qquad (2, 3.50)\qquad (5,8.75)\qquad (17.50,10)\qquad (9, 15.35)\)
(From Unit 6.4.1)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{9}\)
A corn field has an area of 28.6 acres. It requires about 15,000,000 gallons of water. About how many gallons of water per acre is that?
- \(5,000\)
- \(50,000\)
- \(500,000\)
- \(5,000,000\)
(From Unit 5.4.5)


2.2.4: The pressure-temperature relationship
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Consider a gas in a cylinder with a piston in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). Increasing temperature increases the average kinetic energy (KE) and the average velocity of the gas molecules resulting in more frequent and more forceful collisions which result in increased gas pressure applied on the piston or the walls of the gas container.
Gay-Lussac's law
Gay-Lussac’s law states that the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature provided the volume and amount of gas are not changed.
The mathematical forms of Gay-Lussac’s law are the following.
\[P\propto{T}\nonumber\], or \[P=\mathrm{k}T\nonumber\], or \[\frac{P}{T}=\mathrm{k}, \nonumber\]
where \(k\) is a constant, \(P\) is pressure, and \(T\) is the temperature (in kelvin scale) of the gas. Since Since \(\frac{P}{T}\) is a constant, it implies that
\[\frac{P_{1}}{T_{1}}=\frac{P_{2}}{T_{2}}=\mathrm{k}, \nonumber\]
where \(P_1\) is the initial pressure, \(T_1\) is the initial temperature in Kelvin, \(P_2\) is the final pressure, and \(T_2\) is the final temperature in Kelvin, provided the amount of gas and volume do not change.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)
The pressure of an oxygen tank containing 15.0 L oxygen is 965 Torr at 55 o C. What will be the pressure when the tank is cooled to 16 o C.
Solution
First, convert the temperatures to the Kelvin scale before applying gas laws.
Given: T 1 = 55 o C + 273.15 = 328.15 K, T 2 = 16 o C + 273.15 = 289.15 K, P 1 = 965 Torr, P 2 = ?
Formula:
\[\frac{P_{1}}{T_{1}}=\frac{P_{2}}{T_{2}}, \nonumber\]
rearrange the formula to isolate the desired variable:
\[P_{2}=\frac{P_{1} T_{2}}{T_{1}} \nonumber\]
Plug in the values in the rearranged formula and calculate:
\[P_{2}=\frac{965 \mathrm{~Torr} \times 298.15\mathrm{~K}}{328.15 \mathrm{~K}}=850 \mathrm{~Torr} \nonumber\]


15.11: Discussion Questions
Why should the entrepreneurial team begin with the end in mind?
2 .How can a Gantt chart help in the preparation for starting the new venture?
3 .Why would an angel investor stress to the startup team the importance of not getting too attached to the venture?
4 .Should employees who are not part of the startup team receive an equity position in the venture? What are the benefits and drawbacks that inform this decision?
5 .What biases might an entrepreneur encounter in starting the venture?
6 .What actions can the entrepreneur take to avoid these biases?
7 .What can be done to avoid personnel problems that occur after the venture has opened?
8 .How can brainstorming and creating a mindmap improve problem recognition and follow through actions?
9 .What are three methods you could use to find support for your new venture?
10 .Why is it important to analyze and discuss decisions?
11 .Why is it important to feel comfortable with a decision?
12 .What are the benefits in becoming a mentor, consultant or champion?
13 .What are the risks or drawbacks in becoming a mentor, consultant or champion?
14 .How does a philanthropic desire align with entrepreneurship?
15 .What can you do to avoid the challenges presented through Gino and Staats’ research?
16 .What can you do to role model behavior that reflects your learning of the material in this chapter?


5.9: Ethics around the Globe
- What are ethical issues we encounter in the global environment?
Organizations operating globally often face particularly tough ethical challenges because of various cultural, political, economic, technological, and market factors. The greater the complexity of the environment, the greater the potential for ethical problems and misunderstandings for global organizations (Digital Marketing Institute, 2024; Daft, 2016). “Think … of the ethical value systems that shape behavior within and between countries, and the unpredictability that can result when there is a re-evaluation of what is acceptable and unacceptable.” Recent and reoccurring global ethical problems and risks that organizations face include cybersecurity, artificial intelligence, political threats, international conflict and warfare, income inequality, planetary climate and environmental pollution and instability, corruption, and human and diversity rights violations. Exhibit 5.9 illustrates the wide range of stakeholders and issues related to several of the risks in this figure that MNEs ( multinational enterprises ) must either prevent from occurring or manage when doing business across and within different country borders.
Following laws related to doing business abroad is an added challenge for global firms. For example, the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) prohibits American firms from accepting or offering bribes to foreign government officials and helps promote transparency and fair play while also contributing to profitability. U.S. individuals who cannot defend their actions with regard to the FCPA’s antibribery provisions can face harsh penalties. “U.S. companies can be fined up to $2 million while U.S. individuals (including officers and directors of companies that have willfully violated the FCPA) can be fined up to $100,000 and imprisoned for up to five years, or both. In addition, civil penalties may be imposed" (Weiss, 2014). The U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) have been more aggressive in enforcing and prosecuting the bribery section of the FCPA. Halliburton Company in 2017 paid the SEC $29.2 million for bribing a friend of an official in Angola to negotiate seven oil-field services contracts. The result was a disgorgement fine (i.e., a repayment of illegal gains with penalties imposed on wrongdoers by the courts) for violating the FCPA’s records and internal accounting controls provisions (Cassin, 2017).
U.S.-based firms are also expected to not engage in unethical or illegal activities such as discriminating against local populations, violating local laws and norms, and disrespecting property and the environment. MNEs can also assist and add value to local countries. For example, the following practices are encouraged:
- Hiring local labor
- Creating new jobs
- Co-venturing with local entrepreneurs and companies
- Attracting local capital to projects
- Providing for and enhancing technology transfer
- Developing particular industry sectors
- Providing business learning and skills
- Increasing industrial output and productivity
- Helping decrease the country’s debt and improve its balance of payments and standard of living (Weiss, 2014).
Globalization
According to Dutton (1999), the increasing phenomenon of globalization (an integrated global economy consisting of free trade, capital flows, and cheaper foreign labor markets) also pressures global firms facing international risks to rely on governments, NGOs (nongovernmental organizations), the UN (United Nations), and other business and stakeholder alliances and relationships to help meet non-market threats. For example, the ten principles of the UN Global Compact serve as guidelines for international firms doing business in LDCs (least developed countries), and abroad, businesses should:
- support and respect the protection of internationally proclaimed human rights
- ensure that they are not complicit in human rights abuses
- uphold the freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining
- eliminate of all forms of forced and compulsory labor
- abolish child labor
- eliminate the discrimination of employment and occupation
- support a precautionary approach to environmental challenges
- promote greater environmental responsibility through initiatives
- encourage the development and diffusion of environmentally friendly technologies
- work against corruption, including extortion and bribery (United Nations Global Compact, 2024).
While these principles seem universal as to be unattainable, they stand as ethical milestones that protect human life, dignity, and personal welfare and values. However, when companies operate in LDCs and other cultures, it is often necessary to negotiate a balance between fairness, equality, and different local values and standards. U.S. and Western values, such as child labor and employee rights, may differ from local cultural norms in many countries. Donaldson and Dunfee offer methods for such negotiations (Fort, 2000). A classic example was Levi Strauss doing business in Bangladesh several years ago . Children in that country under the age of 14 were working in two of Levi’s local suppliers. This employment practice violated Levi’s norms but not the local cultural norms. Firing the children would have prevented the children from being able to get an education and would have placed hardships on their families, who depended on the children’s wages. A negotiated agreement (between Levi’s universal values and local country norms) involved the suppliers agreeing to pay the children regular wages while they went to school and then hiring them when they turned 15. Levi agrees to provide the children’s tuition, books, and uniforms.
Globalization: Post-Pandemic
There's no denial that the COVID-19 pandemic also affected globalization in terms of travel reduction, trade, and healthcare inequalities. While most individuals may say that the pandemic is "over" as of 2024, cracks are occurring in the success of globalization.
MNEs Corporate Cultures
MNEs must also create inclusive, ethical corporate cultures while managing both external and internal complexities, such as hiring and training a diverse workforce, adapting to local cultura norms while balancing home country ethics and values, and ensuring a multicultural approach to doing business across countries.
Hanna identified five strategic questions that relate to organizational cultural sensitivities when doing business abroad as well as in a home country:
- What do customers and stakeholders in our market expect from our organization? (Will their standard of living be raised? Will their cultural expectations be violated?)
- What is our strategy to be successful in this competitive marketplace? (What can we realistically hope to achieve? What results are we willing to commit to?)
- What are our governing values that define how we will work with stakeholders and with each other?
- What organizational capabilities do we need in order to achieve these results?
- What do our work processes, roles, and systems need to do so that we are consistent with all of the above? (Hanna, 2016)
The author maintains that these questions will help bring an awareness to cultural differences and help organizational leaders and staff reach agreement on customizing decisions to fit a particular market while balancing company principles with local values.
Global firms are also sensitized to the #MeToo movement in the United States that raises women’s awareness and courage to speak out about sexual harassment and assault in companies and workplaces. This movement further highlights the need to diversify and integrate workforces based on gender and other traits that match customers’ and population characteristics. This need is not only based on ethical factors such as fairness, equality, rights, and justice, but also on competitive advantage and marketing awareness. To that end, organizational leaders are implementing more gender-balanced talent pools, especially at the early-to mid-career levels and the mid-to-upper levels globally. Gender balance is now seen as “a broader, more strategic cultural shift that includes developing leadership teams representing geographically diffuse markets. These leaders recognize that this balance drives the innovation and market understanding they need for other key business transformations. Without balance, they simply won’t understand the world that’s emerging" (Wittenberg-Cox, 2017).
For example, Dutch-based Royal DSM—the $8 billion global company in health, nutrition, and materials science—has shifted from a male-run organization to a gender-balanced leadership team in three steps: (1) setting a vision connecting the goal to business success, (2) engaging men of the firm’s dominant nationality, and (3) building competencies while working across nationality and gender differences. In 2000, DSM’s top 350 executives were 75% Dutch and over 99% male. In 2017, the firm was 40% Dutch and 83% male. The CEO, Feike Sijbesma, plans to decrease the male ratio by 2% per year and down below 75% by 2025. He is prioritizing sustainability and credibility more than speed (Wittenberg-Cox, 2017).
Govindarajan’s research indicated that even though organizational cultures may vary widely, there are specific components that characterize a global culture. These include an emphasis on multicultural rather than national values, basing status on merit rather than nationality, being open to new ideas from other cultures, showing excitement rather than trepidation when entering new cultural environments, and being sensitive to cultural differences without being limited by them (Dutton, 1999). Managers must also think more broadly in terms of ethical issues. Companies are using a wide variety of mechanisms to support and reinforce their ethics initiatives on a global scale. A useful mechanism for building global ethics in an organization is the social audit, which measures and reports a company's operations' ethical, social, and environmental impact (Johnson, 2003).
Also, as noted earlier in the chapter, Ethisphere—a renowned organization that evaluates the effectiveness of an organization’s communication, training, ethics, culture, and compliance efforts to gain insights into employee concerns—continues to survey and publish annual results of “ The World’s Most Ethical Companies " (Ethisphere, 2020). These surveys offer benchmarks of global and national companies’ best ethical practices. A major finding from one of that organization’s conferences stated that “[o]ut of the 644 respondents to the NAVEX Global 2016 Ethics & Compliance Training Benchmark Report, 70 percent said that ‘creating a culture of ethics and respect’ was one of their top training objectives. When it comes to CEOs, 92 percent agree that a strong corporate culture is important.”
Post-Pandemic and Ethics around the Globe
Although COVID-19 was a new global virus, healthcare ethical issues prompted by the pandemic were not. Ethics must be integrated into emergency decision-making before the actual emergence of a global emergency, ensuring that ethics expertise is present before an emergency response is conceived and is effectively integrated into decision making. Ethicists should be at the table when policies are formulated rather than merely serving as external critics. Achieving these aims will require a sustained, focused effort to enhance ethics capacity at key global, national, and local public health organizations, academic institutions, and governmental agencies. Ultimately, the pandemic made ethical thinking and discussion more common than ever — a change that might well outlast the virus itself (Ross, 2021; Emanuel et al., 2022).
- What ways can and do some MNEs demonstrate social responsibility in foreign countries?
- What are some specific ethical business practices other countries (besides the United States) and regional governing bodies (such as the European Union) practice and demonstrate regarding the environment and competition?


8.E: Earth as a Planet (Exercises)
For Further Exploration
Articles
Earth
Collins, W., et al. “The Physical Science behind Climate Change.” Scientific American (August 2007): 64. Why scientists are now confident that human activities are changing our planet’s climate.
Glatzmaier, G., & Olson, P. “Probing the Geodynamo.” Scientific American (April 2005): 50. Experiments and modeling that tell us about the source and reversals of Earth’s magnetic field.
Gurnis, M. “Sculpting the Earth from Inside Out.” Scientific American (March 2001): 40. On motions that lift and lower the continents.
Hartmann, W. “Piecing Together Earth’s Early History.” Astronomy (June 1989): 24.
Jewitt, D., & Young, E. “Oceans from the Skies.” Scientific American (March 2015): 36. How did Earth get its water after its initial hot period?
Impacts
Boslaugh, M. “In Search of Death-Plunge Asteroids.” Astronomy ( July 2015): 28. On existing and proposed programs to search for earth-crossing asteroids.
Brusatte, S. “What Killed the Dinosaurs?” Scientific American (December 2015): 54. The asteroid hit Earth at an already vulnerable time.
Chyba, C. “Death from the Sky: Tunguska.” Astronomy (December 1993): 38. Excellent review article.
Durda, D. “The Chelyabinsk Super-Meteor.” Sky & Telescope (June 2013): 24. A nice summary with photos and eyewitness reporting.
Gasperini, L., et al. “The Tunguska Mystery.” Scientific American (June 2008): 80. A more detailed exploration of the site of the 1908 impact over Siberia.
Kring, D. “Blast from the Past.” Astronomy (August 2006): 46. Six-page introduction to Arizona’s meteor crater.
Websites
Earth
Astronaut Photography of Earth from Space: earth.jsc.nasa.gov/. A site with many images and good information.
Exploration of the Earth’s Magnetosphere: http://phy6.org/Education/Intro.html . An educational website by Dr. Daniel Stern.
NASA Goddard: Earth from Space: Fifteen Amazing Things in 15 Years: https://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard...gs-in-15-years . Images and videos that reveal things about our planet and its atmosphere.
U.S. Geological Survey: Earthquake Information Center: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/
Views of the Solar System: http://www.solarviews.com/eng/earth.htm . Overview of Earth.
Impacts
B612 Foundation : https://b612foundation.org/ . Set up by several astronauts for research and education about the asteroid threat to Earth and to build a telescope in space to search for dangerous asteroids.
Lunar and Planetary Institute: Introduction to Terrestrial Impact Craters: http://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications...esets/craters/ . Includes images.
Meteor Crater Tourist Site: http://meteorcrater.com/ .
NASA/Jet Propulsion Lab Near Earth Object Program: http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/neo/ .
What Are Near-Earth-Objects: http://spaceguardcentre.com/what-are-neos/ . From the British Spaceguard Centre.
Videos
Earth
All Alone in the Night: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap120305.html . Flying over Earth at night (2:30).
Earth Globes Movies (including Earth at night): astro.uchicago.edu/cosmus/projects/earth/.
Earth: The Operator’s Manual: http://earththeoperatorsmanual.com/f...erators-manual . A National Science Foundation–sponsored miniseries on climate change and energy, with geologist Richard Alley (53:43).
PBS NOVA Videos about Earth: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/earth/ . Programs and information about planet Earth. Click full episodes on the menu at left to be taken to a nice array of videos.
U. S. National Weather Service: http://earth.nullschool.net . Real Time Globe of Earth showing wind patterns which can be zoomed and moved to your preferred view.
Impacts
Chelyabinsk Meteor: Can We Survive a Bigger Impact?: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y-e6xyUZLLs . Talk by Dr. David Morrison (1:34:48).
Large Asteroid Impact Simulation: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bU1QPtOZQZU . Large asteroid impact simulation from the Discovery Channel (4:45).
Meteor Hits Russia February 15, 2013: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dpmXyJrs7iU . Archive of eyewitness footage (10:11).
Sentinel Mission: Finding an Asteroid Headed for Earth: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=efz8c3ijD_A . Public lecture by astronaut Ed Lu (1:08:57).
Collaborative Group Activities
- If we can predict that lots of ground movement takes place along subduction zones and faults, then why do so many people live there? Should we try to do anything to discourage people from living in these areas? What inducement would your group offer people to move? Who would pay for the relocation? (Note that two of the original authors of this book live quite close to the San Andreas and Hayward faults. If they wrote this chapter and haven’t moved, what are the chances others living in these kinds of areas will move?)
- After your group reads the feature box on Alfred Wegener: Catching the Drift of Plate Tectonics in Section 8.2, discuss some reasons his idea did not catch on right away among scientists. From your studies in this course and in other science courses (in college and before), can you cite other scientific ideas that we now accept but that had controversial beginnings? Can you think of any scientific theories that are still controversial today? If your group comes up with some, discuss ways scientists could decide whether each theory on your list is right.
- Suppose we knew that a large chunk of rock or ice (about the same size as the one that hit 65 million years ago) will impact Earth in about 5 years. What could or should we do about it? (The film Deep Impact dealt with this theme.) Does your group think that the world as a whole should spend more money to find and predict the orbits of cosmic debris near Earth?
- Carl Sagan pointed out that any defensive weapon that we might come up with to deflect an asteroid away from Earth could be used as an offensive weapon by an unstable dictator in the future to cause an asteroid not heading our way to come toward Earth. The history of human behavior, he noted, has shown that most weapons that are built (even with the best of motives) seem to wind up being used. Bearing this in mind, does your group think we should be building weapons to protect Earth from asteroid or comet impact? Can we afford not to build them? How can we safeguard against these collisions?
- Is there evidence of climate change in your area over the past century? How would you distinguish a true climate change from the random variations in weather that take place from one year to the next?
Review Questions
- What is the thickest interior layer of Earth? The thinnest?
- What are Earth’s core and mantle made of? Explain how we know.
- Describe the differences among primitive, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rock, and relate these differences to their origins.
-
Explain briefly how the following phenomena happen on Earth, relating your answers to the theory of plate tectonics
- earthquakes
- continental drift
- mountain building
- volcanic eruptions
- creation of the Hawaiian island chain
- What is the source of Earth’s magnetic field?
- Why is the shape of the magnetosphere not spherical like the shape of Earth?
- Although he did not present a mechanism, what were the key points of Alfred Wegener’s proposal for the concept of continental drift?
- List the possible interactions between Earth’s crustal plates that can occur at their boundaries.
- List, in order of decreasing altitude, the principle layers of Earth’s atmosphere.
- In which atmospheric layer are almost all water-based clouds formed?
- What is, by far, the most abundant component of Earth’s atmosphere?
- In which domain of living things do you find humankind?
- Describe three ways in which the presence of life has affected the composition of Earth’s atmosphere.
- Briefly describe the greenhouse effect.
- How do impacts by comets and asteroids influence Earth’s geology, its atmosphere, and the evolution of life?
- Why are there so many impact craters on our neighbor world, the Moon, and so few on Earth?

Thought Questions
- If you wanted to live where the chances of a destructive earthquake were small, would you pick a location near a fault zone, near a mid ocean ridge, near a subduction zone, or on a volcanic island such as Hawaii? What are the relative risks of earthquakes at each of these locations?
- Which type of object would likely cause more damage if it struck near an urban area: a small metallic object or a large stony/icy one?
- If all life were destroyed on Earth by a large impact, would new life eventually form to take its place? Explain how conditions would have to change for life to start again on our planet.
- Why is a decrease in Earth’s ozone harmful to life?
- Why are we concerned about the increases in CO 2 and other gases that cause the greenhouse effect in Earth’s atmosphere? What steps can we take in the future to reduce the levels of CO2 in our atmosphere? What factors stand in the way of taking the steps you suggest? (You may include technological, economic, and political factors in your answer.)
- Do you think scientists should make plans to defend Earth from future asteroid impacts? Is it right to intervene in the same evolutionary process that made the development of mammals (including us) possible after the big impact 65 million years ago?
Figuring for Yourself
- Europe and North America are moving apart by about 5 m per century. As the continents separate, new ocean floor is created along the mid-Atlantic Rift. If the rift is 5000 km long, what is the total area of new ocean floor created in the Atlantic each century? (Remember that 1 km = 1000 m.)
- Over the entire Earth, there are 60,000 km of active rift zones, with average separation rates of 5 m/century. How much area of new ocean crust is created each year over the entire planet? (This area is approximately equal to the amount of ocean crust that is subducted since the total area of the oceans remains about the same.)
- With the information from the previous exercise, you can calculate the average age of the ocean floor. First, find the total area of the ocean floor (equal to about 60% of the surface area of Earth). Then compare this with the area created (or destroyed) each year. The average lifetime is the ratio of these numbers: the total area of ocean crust compared to the amount created (or destroyed) each year.
- What is the volume of new oceanic basalt added to Earth’s crust each year? Assume that the thickness of the new crust is 5 km, that there are 60,000 km of rifts, and that the average speed of plate motion is 4 cm/y. What fraction of Earth’s entire volume does this annual addition of new material represent?
- Suppose a major impact that produces a mass extinction takes place on Earth once every 5 million years. Suppose further that if such an event occurred today, you and most other humans would be killed (this would be true even if the human species as a whole survived). Such impact events are random, and one could take place at any time. Calculate the probability that such an impact will occur within the next 50 years (within your lifetime).
- How do the risks of dying from the impact of an asteroid or comet compare with other risks we are concerned about, such as dying in a car accident or from heart disease or some other natural cause? (Hint: To find the annual risk, go to the library or internet and look up the annual number of deaths from a particular cause in a particular country, and then divide by the population of that country.)
- What fraction of Earth’s volume is taken up by the core?
- Approximately what percentage of Earth’s radius is represented by the crust?
- What is the drift rate of the Pacific plate over the Hawaiian hot spot?
- What is the percent increase of atmospheric CO 2 in the past 20 years?
- Estimate the mass of the object that formed Meteor Crater in Arizona.