8.1: Earth’s Heat Budget
The balance of incoming and outgoing heat on Earth is referred to as its heat budget . As with any budget, to maintain constant conditions the budget must be balanced so that the incoming heat equals the outgoing heat. The heat budget of Earth appears below (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)).
Of all of the solar energy reaching the Earth, about 30% is reflected back into space from the atmosphere, clouds, and surface of the Earth. Another 23% of the energy is absorbed by the water vapor, clouds, and dust in the atmosphere, where it is converted into heat. Just under half (47%) of the incoming solar radiation is absorbed by the land and ocean, and this energy heats up the Earth’s surface. The energy absorbed by the Earth returns to the atmosphere through three processes; conduction, radiation, and latent heat (phase change)(Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)).
Conduction is the transfer of heat through direct contact between the surface and the atmosphere. Air is a relatively poor thermal conductor (which means it is a good insulator), so conduction represents only a small part of the energy transfer between the Earth and the atmosphere; equal to about 7% of the incoming solar energy.
All bodies with a temperature above absolute zero (-273 o C) radiate heat in the form of longwave, infrared radiation (see the electromagnetic spectrum in section 6.5). The warmed Earth is no exception, and about 16% of the original solar energy is radiated from the Earth to the atmosphere (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Some of this radiated energy will dissipate into space, but a significant amount of heat will be absorbed by the atmosphere. This is the basis for the greenhouse effect (Figure 8.12). In the greenhouse effect, shortwave solar radiation passes through the atmosphere and reaches the Earth’s surface where it gets absorbed. When the radiation is re-emitted by the Earth, it is now in the form of long wavelength, infrared radiation, which does not easily pass through the atmosphere. Instead, this infrared radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere, particularly by the greenhouse gases such as CO 2 , methane, and water vapor. As a result, the atmosphere heats up. Without the greenhouse effect, the average temperature on Earth would be about -18 o C, which is too cold for liquid water, and therefore life as we know it could not exist!
There is a great deal of concern about the greenhouse effect across the globe; not because of the presence of the effect itself, but because the effect is intensifying, causing climate change or global warming. Since the Industrial Revolution the atmospheric concentrations of the major greenhouse gases, particularly CO 2 and methane, have increased dramatically due to industrialization, the burning of fossil fuels, and deforestation. At the same time, there has been rapid warming of the global climate; CO 2 concentrations have increased more than 25% and global temperature has risen by 0.5 o C over the past century. Unless production of these greenhouse gases is curbed, this rapid warming trend may continue, with potentially dire consequences. See section 8.5 for detailed information on the causes and effects of climate change.
The largest pathway for heat exchange between the land or oceans and the atmosphere is latent heat transferred through phase changes ; heat released or absorbed when water moves between solid, liquid, and vapor forms (see section 5.1). Heat must be added to liquid water to make it evaporate, and when water vapor is formed, that heat is removed from the ocean and transferred to the atmosphere along with the water vapor. When water vapor condenses into rain, that heat is then returned to the oceans. The same process happens with the formation and melting of ice. Heat is absorbed by ice when it melts, and heat is released when ice forms, and these phase changes transfer heat between the oceans and the atmosphere.
To complete the heat budget, the heat that is absorbed by the atmosphere either directly from solar radiation or as a result of conduction, radiation and latent heat, is eventually radiated back into space (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)).
Differential Heating of Earth’s Surface
If the Earth was a flat surface facing the sun, every part of that surface would receive the same amount of incoming solar radiation. However, because the Earth is a sphere, sunlight is not equally distributed over the Earth’s surface, so different regions of Earth will be heated to different degrees. This differential heating of Earth’s surface occurs for a number of reasons. First, because of the curvature of Earth, sunlight only falls perpendicularly to the surface at the center of the sphere (equatorial regions). At any other point on Earth, the angle between the surface and the incoming solar radiation is less than 90 o . Because of this, the same amount of incoming solar radiation will be concentrated in a smaller area at the equator, but will be spread over a much larger area at the poles (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). Thus the tropics receive more intense sunlight and a greater amount of heating per unit of area than the polar regions.
The angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth contributes to differential heating of the surface in an additional way. At the poles, because of the angle at which the solar energy strikes the surface, more of the light will glance off of the surface and the atmosphere and be reflected back into space. At the equator, the direct angle with which light reaches the surface results in more of the energy being absorbed rather than reflected. Finally, the poles reflect more solar energy than other parts of the Earth because the poles have a higher albedo . The albedo refers to reflectivity of a surface. Lighter surfaces are more reflective than darker surfaces (which absorb more energy), and therefore have a higher albedo. At the poles, the ice, snow and cloud cover create a much higher albedo, and the poles reflect more and absorb less solar energy than the lower latitudes. Through all of these mechanisms, the poles absorb much less solar radiation than equatorial regions, which is why the poles are cold and the tropics are very warm.
But there is an interesting twist to this global distribution of heat. The tropical regions actually receive more radiant heat than they emit, and the poles emit more heat than they receive (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). We should therefore expect that the tropics will be getting continually warmer, while the poles become increasingly cold. Yet this is not the case; so what is happening? Rather than the heat remaining isolated near the equator, about 20% of the heat from the tropics is transported to the poles before it is emitted. This large scale transport of energy moderates the climates at both extremes. The mechanisms for this heat transfer are ocean and atmospheric circulation, the topic of the next section.
The idea of differential heating of the Earth’s surface is fundamental to understanding a wide range of oceanographic and atmospheric processes. This differential heating leads to atmospheric convection, which creates winds, which blow over the water and create waves and surface currents, and these currents influence nutrient distribution, which promotes primary production, which then supports the rest of the ocean ecosystem. So there’s a lot riding on the simple fact that more light reaches the tropics than the poles!


16.1: Prelude to Therapy and Treatment
Learning Objectives
- Explore therapy for psychological problems
What comes to mind when you think about therapy for psychological problems? You might picture someone lying on a couch talking about his childhood while the therapist sits and takes notes, à la Sigmund Freud. But can you envision a therapy session in which someone is wearing virtual reality headgear to conquer a fear of snakes?
In this chapter, you will see that approaches to therapy include both psychological and biological interventions, all with the goal of alleviating distress. Because psychological problems can originate from various sources—biology, genetics, childhood experiences, conditioning, and sociocultural influences—psychologists have developed many different therapeutic techniques and approaches. The Ocean Therapy program shown in Figure uses multiple approaches to support the mental health of veterans in the group.
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Contributors and Attributions
-
Rose M. Spielman with many significant contributors. The OpenStax name, OpenStax logo, OpenStax book covers, OpenStax CNX name, and OpenStax CNX logo are not subject to the creative commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written consent of Rice University. For questions regarding this license, please contact<EMAIL_ADDRESS>.Textbook content produced by OpenStax College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license. Download for free at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>.


14.4: Import and Export Options
Learning Objectives
- Differentiate among import and export options
- Import external data
- Export data
Access provides several options that support exchanging data with external sources.
- Linking. Using this option entails creating a permanent connection to the external source. The data stays in the source location. The location cannot be moved without modifying the link or else Access will not be able to find it.
- Importing. This method physically moves data from the outside source into the current Access database. The data is then converted to an Access data type, stored in an Access table, and remains in Access from that point on.
- Exporting. Exporting copies data from an Access table into either a text file or some other format that is readable by the destination application.
PRactice Question
Importing External Data
Remember that importing external data makes a copy of the data within Access and does not affect the data in the external source. After the import, no connection remains between the current database and the external source.
One of the keys to a viable business system is the ease in which it can work with other applications and data sources. In this regard, Access is unmatched.
Access provides two groups of data sources as seen in the example below: “Import & Link” and “Export.” Within “Import & Link” we have “New Data Source,” “Saved Imports,” and “Linked Table Manager.”
Selecting “New Data Source” opens a drop-down which exposes 4 options: “From File,” “From Database,” “From Online Services,” and “From Other Sources,” as seen below.
Choosing “From File” reveals “Excel,” “HTML Document,” “XML File,” and “Text File” as data formats. “From Database” reveals 4 database formats “Access,” “From SQL Server,” “From Azure Database,” “dBase File.” “From Online Services” represents “SharePoint List” and “Data Services” and “From Other Sources” yields “ODBC Database” and “Outlook Folder.”
It is obvious that Access has rich capabilities by virtue of its many options in which to process external data.
Practice Question
Exporting Data
Exporting data from Access is a fairly straightforward operation. The “External Data” export group is shown below. As an example, to export the contents of the Supplier table in the current database as a .PDF file, select “PDF or XPS.”
Access then asks for a destination for the .PDF file.
Since most devices have an application that displays .PDF files, the exported data is populated in .PDF format as the example below.
Practice Question
Contributors and Attributions
- Import and Export Options. Authored by : Robert Danielson. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


7.5: Bones of the Lower Limb
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Identify the divisions of the lower limb and describe the bones of each region
- Describe the bones and bony landmarks that articulate at each joint of the lower limb
Like the upper limb, the lower limb is divided into three regions. The thigh is that portion of the lower limb located between the hip joint and knee joint. The leg is specifically the region between the knee joint and the ankle joint. Distal to the ankle is the foot . The lower limb contains 30 bones. These are the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsal bones, metatarsal bones, and phalanges. The femur is the single bone of the thigh. The patella is the kneecap and articulates with the distal femur. The tibia is the larger, weight-bearing bone located on the medial side of the leg, and the fibula is the thin bone of the lateral leg. The bones of the foot are divided into three groups. The posterior portion of the foot is formed by a group of seven bones, each of which is known as a tarsal bone , whereas the mid-foot contains five elongated bones, each of which is a metatarsal bone . The toes contain 14 small bones, each of which is a phalanx bone of the foot .
Femur
The femur , or thigh bone, is the single bone of the thigh region (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)) . It is the longest and strongest bone of the body, and accounts for approximately one-quarter of a person’s total height. The rounded, proximal end is the head of the femur , which articulates with the acetabulum of the hip bone to form the hip joint . The fovea capitis is a minor indentation on the medial side of the femoral head that serves as the site of attachment for the ligament of the head of the femur . This ligament spans the femur and acetabulum, but is weak and provides little support for the hip joint. It does, however, carry an important artery that supplies the head of the femur.
The narrowed region below the head is the neck of the femur . This is a common area for fractures of the femur. The greater trochanter is the large, upward, bony projection located above the base of the neck. Multiple muscles that act across the hip joint attach to the greater trochanter, which, because of its projection from the femur, gives additional leverage to these muscles. The greater trochanter can be felt just under the skin on the lateral side of your upper thigh. The lesser trochanter is a small, bony prominence that lies on the medial aspect of the femur, just below the neck. A single, powerful muscle attaches to the lesser trochanter. Running between the greater and lesser trochanters on the anterior side of the femur is the roughened intertrochanteric line . The trochanters are also connected on the posterior side of the femur by the larger intertrochanteric crest .
The elongated body, or shaft of the femur has a slight anterior bowing or curvature. At its proximal end, the posterior shaft has the gluteal tuberosity , a roughened area extending inferiorly from the greater trochanter. More inferiorly, the gluteal tuberosity becomes continuous with the linea aspera (“rough line”). This is the roughened ridge that passes distally along the posterior side of the mid-femur. Multiple muscles of the hip and thigh regions make long, thin attachments to the femur along the linea aspera.
The distal end of the femur has medial and lateral bony expansions. On the lateral side, the smooth portion that covers the distal and posterior aspects of the lateral expansion is the lateral condyle of the femur . The roughened area on the outer, lateral side of the condyle is the lateral epicondyle of the femur . Similarly, the smooth region of the distal and posterior medial femur is the medial condyle of the femur , and the irregular outer, medial side of this is the medial epicondyle of the femur . The lateral and medial condyles articulate with the tibia to form the knee joint. The epicondyles provide attachment for muscles and supporting ligaments of the knee. The adductor tubercle is a small bump located at the superior margin of the medial epicondyle. Posteriorly, the medial and lateral condyles are separated by a deep depression called the intercondylar fossa . Anteriorly, the smooth surfaces of the condyles join together to form a wide groove called the patellar surface , which provides for articulation with the patella bone. The combination of the medial and lateral condyles with the patellar surface gives the distal end of the femur a horseshoe (U) shape.
Patella
The patella (kneecap) is largest sesamoid bone of the body (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)) . A sesamoid bone is a bone that is incorporated into the tendon of a muscle where that tendon crosses a joint. The sesamoid bone articulates with the underlying bones to prevent damage to the muscle tendon due to rubbing against the bones during movements of the joint. The patella is found in the tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle, the large muscle of the anterior thigh that passes across the anterior knee to attach to the tibia. The patella articulates with the patellar surface of the femur and thus prevents rubbing of the muscle tendon against the distal femur. The patella also lifts the tendon away from the knee joint, which increases the leverage power of the quadriceps femoris muscle as it acts across the knee. The patella does not articulate with the tibia.
DISORDER OF THE ......
Skeletal System: Runner's Knee
Runner’s knee, also known as patellofemoral syndrome, is the most common overuse injury among runners. It is most frequent in adolescents and young adults, and is more common n females. It often results from excessive running, particularly downhill, but may also occur in athletes who do a lot of knee bending, such as jumpers, skiers, cyclists, weight lifters, and soccer players. It is felt as a dull, aching pain around the front of the knee and deep to the patella. The pain may be felt when walking or running, going up or down stairs, kneeling or squatting, or after sitting with the knee bent for an extended period.
Patellofemoral syndrome may be initiated by a variety of causes, including individual variations in the shape and movement of the patella, a direct blow to the patella, or flat feet or improper shoes that cause excessive turning in or out of the feet or leg. These factors may cause in an imbalance in the muscle pull that acts on the patella, resulting in an abnormal tracking of the patella that allows it to deviate too far toward the lateral side of the patellar surface on the distal femur.
Because the hips are wider than the knee region, the femur has a diagonal orientation within the thigh, in contrast to the vertically oriented tibia of the leg (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)) . The Q-angle is a measure of how far the femur is angled laterally away from vertical. The Q-angle is normally 10–15 degrees, with females typically having a larger Q-angle due to their wider pelvis. During extension of the knee, the quadriceps femoris muscle pulls the patella both superiorly and laterally, with the lateral pull greater in women due to their large Q-angle. This makes women more vulnerable to developing patellofemoral syndrome than men. Normally, the large lip on the lateral side of the patellar surface of the femur compensates for the lateral pull on the patella, and thus helps to maintain its proper tracking.
However, if the pull produced by the medial and lateral sides of the quadriceps femoris muscle is not properly balanced, abnormal tracking of the patella toward the lateral side may occur. With continued use, this produces pain and could result in damage to the articulating surfaces of the patella and femur, and the possible future development of arthritis. Treatment generally involves stopping the activity that produces knee pain for a period of time, followed by a gradual resumption of activity. Proper strengthening of the quadriceps femoris muscle to correct for imbalances is also important to help prevent reoccurrence.
Tibia
The tibia (shin bone) is the medial bone of the leg and is larger than the fibula, with which it is paired (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)) . The tibia is the main weight-bearing bone of the lower leg and the second longest bone of the body, after the femur. The medial side of the tibia is located immediately under the skin, allowing it to be easily palpated down the entire length of the medial leg.
The proximal end of the tibia is greatly expanded. The two sides of this expansion form the medial condyle of the tibia and the lateral condyle of the tibia . The tibia does not have epicondyles. The top surface of each condyle is smooth and flattened, which forms an articular surface. These areas articulate with the medial and lateral condyles of the femur to form the knee joint . Between the articulating surfaces of the tibial condyles is the intercondylar eminence , an irregular, elevated area that serves as the inferior attachment point for two supporting ligaments of the knee.
The tibial tuberosity is an elevated area on the anterior side of the tibia, near its proximal end. It is the final site of attachment for the muscle tendon associated with the patella. More inferiorly, the body, or shaft of the tibia , becomes triangular in shape. The anterior apex of this triangle forms the anterior border of the tibia , which begins at the tibial tuberosity and runs inferiorly along the length of the tibia. Both the anterior border and the medial side of the triangular shaft are located immediately under the skin and can be easily palpated along the entire length of the tibia. A small ridge running down the lateral side of the tibial shaft is the interosseous border of the tibia . This is for the attachment of the interosseous membrane of the leg , the sheet of dense connective tissue that unites the tibia and fibula bones. Located on the posterior side of the tibia is the soleal line , a diagonally running, roughened ridge that begins below the base of the lateral condyle, and runs down and medially across the proximal third of the posterior tibia. Muscles of the posterior leg attach to this line.
The large expansion found on the medial side of the distal tibia is the medial malleolus (“little hammer”). This forms the large bony bump found on the medial side of the ankle region. Both the smooth surface on the inside of the medial malleolus and the smooth area at the distal end of the tibia articulate with the talus bone of the foot as part of the ankle joint. On the lateral side of the distal tibia is a wide groove called the fibular notch . This area articulates with the distal end of the fibula, forming the distal tibiofibular joint .
Fibula
The fibula is the slender bone located on the lateral side of the leg (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)) . The fibula does not bear weight. It serves primarily for muscle attachments and thus is largely surrounded by muscles. Only the proximal and distal ends of the fibula can be palpated.
The head of the fibula is the small, knob-like, proximal end of the fibula. It articulates with the inferior aspect of the lateral tibial condyle, forming the proximal tibiofibular joint . The thin shaft of the fibula has the interosseous border of the fibula , a narrow ridge running down its medial side for the attachment of the interosseous membrane that spans the fibula and tibia. The distal end of the fibula forms the lateral malleolus , which forms the easily palpated bony bump on the lateral side of the ankle. The deep (medial) side of the lateral malleolus articulates with the talus bone of the foot as part of the ankle joint. The distal fibula also articulates with the fibular notch of the tibia.
Tarsal Bones
The posterior half of the foot is formed by seven tarsal bones (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)) . The most superior bone is the talus . This has a relatively square-shaped, upper surface that articulates with the tibia and fibula to form the ankle joint . The talus has distinct bone markings that allow for easy identification of the three articulation areas that form the ankle joint. Found on the superomedial surface of the talus is a facet for the medial malleolus of the tibia. Another facet for the lateral malleolus of the fibula can be found on the lateral side of the talus. The trochlea of the talus can be found on top of the bone, and is the structure that articulates with the distal end of the tibia. Inferiorly, the talus articulates with the calcaneus (heel bone), the largest bone of the foot, which forms the heel. Body weight is transferred from the tibia to the talus to the calcaneus, which rests on the ground. The medial calcaneus has a prominent bony extension called the sustentaculum tali (“support for the talus”), also known as the talar shelf, that supports the medial side of the talus bone. The posterior inferior portion of the calcaneus is formed by the calcaneal tuberosity , which serves as the insertion point for several muscles of the lower leg.
The cuboid bone articulates with the anterior end of the calcaneus bone. The cuboid has a deep groove running across its inferior surface, which provides passage for a muscle tendon. The talus bone articulates anteriorly with the navicular bone, which in turn articulates anteriorly with the three cuneiform (“wedge-shaped”) bones. These bones are the medial cuneiform , the intermediate cuneiform , and the lateral cuneiform . Each of these bones has a broad superior surface and a narrow inferior surface, which together produce the transverse (medial-lateral) curvature of the foot. The navicular and lateral cuneiform bones also articulate with the medial side of the cuboid bone.
Metatarsal Bones
The anterior half of the foot is formed by the five metatarsal bones, which are located between the tarsal bones of the posterior foot and the phalanges of the toes (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)) . These elongated bones are numbered 1–5, starting with the medial side of the foot. The first metatarsal bone is shorter and thicker than the others. The second metatarsal is the longest. The base of the metatarsal bone is the proximal end of each metatarsal bone. These articulate with the cuboid or cuneiform bones. The base of the fifth metatarsal has a large, lateral expansion that provides for muscle attachments. This expanded base of the fifth metatarsal can be felt as a bony bump at the midpoint along the lateral border of the foot. The expanded distal end of each metatarsal is the head of the metatarsal bone . Each metatarsal bone articulates with the proximal phalanx of a toe to form a metatarsophalangeal joint . The heads of the metatarsal bones also rest on the ground and form the ball (anterior end) of the foot.
Phalanges
The toes contain a total of 14 phalanx bones (phalanges), arranged in a similar manner as the phalanges of the fingers (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)) . The toes are numbered 1–5, starting with the big toe, known as the hallux . The hallux has two phalanx bones, the proximal and distal phalanges. The remaining toes all have proximal, middle, and distal phalanges. A joint between adjacent phalanx bones is called an interphalangeal joint.
Arches of the Foot
When the foot comes into contact with the ground during walking, running, or jumping activities, the impact of the body weight puts a tremendous amount of pressure and force on the foot. During running, the force applied to each foot as it contacts the ground can be up to 2.5 times your body weight. The bones, joints, ligaments, and muscles of the foot absorb this force, thus greatly reducing the amount of shock that is passed superiorly into the lower limb and body. The arches of the foot play an important role in this shock-absorbing ability. When weight is applied to the foot, these arches will flatten somewhat, thus absorbing energy. When the weight is removed, the arch rebounds, giving “spring” to the step. The arches also serve to distribute body weight side to side and to either end of the foot.
The foot has a transverse arch, a medial longitudinal arch, and a lateral longitudinal arch (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)) . The transverse arch forms the medial-lateral curvature of the mid-foot. It is formed by the wedge shapes of the cuneiform bones and bases (proximal ends) of the first to fourth metatarsal bones. This arch helps to distribute body weight from side to side within the foot, thus allowing the foot to accommodate uneven terrain.
The longitudinal arches run down the length of the foot. The lateral longitudinal arch is relatively flat, whereas the medial longitudinal arch is larger (taller). The longitudinal arches are formed by the tarsal bones posteriorly and the metatarsal bones anteriorly. These arches are supported at either end, where they contact the ground. Posteriorly, this support is provided by the calcaneus bone and anteriorly by the heads (distal ends) of the metatarsal bones. The talus bone, which receives the weight of the body, is located at the top of the longitudinal arches. Body weight is then conveyed from the talus to the ground by the anterior and posterior ends of these arches. Strong ligaments unite the adjacent foot bones to prevent disruption of the arches during weight bearing. On the bottom of the foot, additional ligaments tie together the anterior and posterior ends of the arches. These ligaments have elasticity, which allows them to stretch somewhat during weight bearing, thus allowing the longitudinal arches to spread. The stretching of these ligaments stores energy within the foot, rather than passing these forces into the leg. Contraction of the foot muscles also plays an important role in this energy absorption. When the weight is removed, the elastic ligaments recoil and pull the ends of the arches closer together. This recovery of the arches releases the stored energy and improves the energy efficiency of walking.
Stretching of the ligaments that support the longitudinal arches can lead to pain. This can occur in overweight individuals, with people who have jobs that involve standing for long periods of time (such as a waitress), or walking or running long distances. If stretching of the ligaments is prolonged, excessive, or repeated, it can result in a gradual lengthening of the supporting ligaments, with subsequent depression or collapse of the longitudinal arches, particularly on the medial side of the foot. This condition is called pes planus (“flat foot” or “fallen arches”).
Concept Review
The lower limb is divided into three regions. These are the thigh, located between the hip and knee joints; the leg, located between the knee and ankle joints; and distal to the ankle, the foot. There are 30 bones in each lower limb. These are the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, seven tarsal bones, five metatarsal bones, and 14 phalanges.
The femur is the single bone of the thigh. Its rounded head articulates with the acetabulum of the hip bone to form the hip joint. The head has the fovea capitis for attachment of the ligament of the head of the femur. The narrow neck joins inferiorly with the greater and lesser trochanters. Passing between these bony expansions are the intertrochanteric line on the anterior femur and the larger intertrochanteric crest on the posterior femur. On the posterior shaft of the femur is the gluteal tuberosity proximally and the linea aspera in the mid-shaft region. The expanded distal end consists of three articulating surfaces: the medial and lateral condyles, and the patellar surface. The outside margins of the condyles are the medial and lateral epicondyles. The adductor tubercle is on the superior aspect of the medial epicondyle.
The patella is a sesamoid bone located within a muscle tendon. It articulates with the patellar surface on the anterior side of the distal femur, thereby protecting the muscle tendon from rubbing against the femur.
The leg contains the large tibia on the medial side and the slender fibula on the lateral side. The tibia bears the weight of the body, whereas the fibula does not bear weight. The interosseous border of each bone is the attachment site for the interosseous membrane of the leg, the connective tissue sheet that unites the tibia and fibula.
The proximal tibia consists of the expanded medial and lateral condyles, which articulate with the medial and lateral condyles of the femur to form the knee joint. Between the tibial condyles is the intercondylar eminence. On the anterior side of the proximal tibia is the tibial tuberosity, which is continuous inferiorly with the anterior border of the tibia. On the posterior side, the proximal tibia has the curved soleal line. The bony expansion on the medial side of the distal tibia is the medial malleolus. The groove on the lateral side of the distal tibia is the fibular notch.
The head of the fibula forms the proximal end and articulates with the underside of the lateral condyle of the tibia. The distal fibula articulates with the fibular notch of the tibia. The expanded distal end of the fibula is the lateral malleolus.
The posterior foot is formed by the seven tarsal bones. The talus articulates superiorly with the distal tibia, the medial malleolus of the tibia, and the lateral malleolus of the fibula to form the ankle joint. The talus articulates inferiorly with the calcaneus bone. The sustentaculum tali of the calcaneus helps to support the talus. Anterior to the talus is the navicular bone, and anterior to this are the medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiform bones. The cuboid bone is anterior to the calcaneus.
The five metatarsal bones form the anterior foot. The base of these bones articulate with the cuboid or cuneiform bones. The metatarsal heads, at their distal ends, articulate with the proximal phalanges of the toes. The big toe (toe number 1) has proximal and distal phalanx bones. The remaining toes have proximal, middle, and distal phalanges.
Review Questions
Q. Which bony landmark of the femur serves as a site for muscle attachments?
A. fovea capitis
B. lesser trochanter
C. head
D. medial condyle
- Answer
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Answer: B
Q. What structure contributes to the knee joint?
A. lateral malleolus of the fibula
B. tibial tuberosity
C. medial condyle of the tibia
D. lateral epicondyle of the femur
- Answer
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Answer: C
Q. Which tarsal bone articulates with the tibia and fibula?
A. calcaneus
B. cuboid
C. navicular
D. talus
- Answer
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Answer: D
Q. What is the total number of bones found in the foot and toes?
A. 7
B. 14
C. 26
D. 30
- Answer
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Answer: C
Q. The tibia ________.
A. has an expanded distal end called the lateral malleolus
B. is not a weight-bearing bone
C. is firmly anchored to the fibula by an interosseous membrane
D. can be palpated (felt) under the skin only at its proximal and distal ends
- Answer
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Answer: C
Critical Thinking Questions
Q. Define the regions of the lower limb, name the bones found in each region, and describe the bony landmarks that articulate together to form the hip, knee, and ankle joints.
- Answer
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A. The lower limb is divided into three regions. The thigh is the region located between the hip and knee joints. It contains the femur and the patella. The hip joint is formed by the articulation between the acetabulum of the hip bone and the head of the femur. The leg is the region between the knee and ankle joints, and contains the tibia (medially) and the fibula (laterally). The knee joint is formed by the articulations between the medial and lateral condyles of the femur, and the medial and lateral condyles of the tibia. Also associated with the knee is the patella, which articulates with the patellar surface of the distal femur. The foot is found distal to the ankle and contains 26 bones. The ankle joint is formed by the articulations between the talus bone of the foot and the distal end of the tibia, the medial malleolus of the tibia, and the lateral malleolus of the fibula. The posterior foot contains the seven tarsal bones, which are the talus, calcaneus, navicular, cuboid, and the medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiform bones. The anterior foot consists of the five metatarsal bones, which are numbered 1–5 starting on the medial side of the foot. The toes contain 14 phalanx bones, with the big toe (toe number 1) having a proximal and a distal phalanx, and the other toes having proximal, middle, and distal phalanges.
Q. The talus bone of the foot receives the weight of the body from the tibia. The talus bone then distributes this weight toward the ground in two directions: one-half of the body weight is passed in a posterior direction and one-half of the weight is passed in an anterior direction. Describe the arrangement of the tarsal and metatarsal bones that are involved in both the posterior and anterior distribution of body weight.
- Answer
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A. The talus bone articulates superiorly with the tibia and fibula at the ankle joint, with body weight passed from the tibia to the talus. Body weight from the talus is transmitted to the ground by both ends of the medial and lateral longitudinal foot arches. Weight is passed posteriorly through both arches to the calcaneus bone, which forms the heel of the foot and is in contact with the ground. On the medial side of the foot, body weight is passed anteriorly from the talus bone to the navicular bone, and then to the medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiform bones. The cuneiform bones pass the weight anteriorly to the first, second, and third metatarsal bones, whose heads (distal ends) are in contact with the ground. On the lateral side, body weight is passed anteriorly from the talus through the calcaneus, cuboid, and fourth and fifth metatarsal bones. The talus bone thus transmits body weight posteriorly to the calcaneus and anteriorly through the navicular, cuneiform, and cuboid bones, and metatarsals one through five.
Glossary
- adductor tubercle
- small, bony bump located on the superior aspect of the medial epicondyle of the femur
- ankle joint
- joint that separates the leg and foot portions of the lower limb; formed by the articulations between the talus bone of the foot inferiorly, and the distal end of the tibia, medial malleolus of the tibia, and lateral malleolus of the fibula superiorly
- anterior border of the tibia
- narrow, anterior margin of the tibia that extends inferiorly from the tibial tuberosity
- base of the metatarsal bone
- expanded, proximal end of each metatarsal bone
- calcaneal tuberosity
- posterior, inferior portion of the calcaneus bone, which serves as the insertion point for lower leg muscles
- calcaneus
- heel bone; posterior, inferior tarsal bone that forms the heel of the foot
- cuboid
- tarsal bone that articulates posteriorly with the calcaneus bone, medially with the lateral cuneiform bone, and anteriorly with the fourth and fifth metatarsal bones
- distal tibiofibular joint
- articulation between the distal fibula and the fibular notch of the tibia
- facet for lateral malleolus
- flat surface on the lateral side of the talus where it articulates with the fibula
- facet for medial malleolus
- flat surface on the superomedial portion of the talus it where articulates with the tibia
- femur
- thigh bone; the single bone of the thigh
- fibula
- thin, non-weight-bearing bone found on the lateral side of the leg
- fibular notch
- wide groove on the lateral side of the distal tibia for articulation with the fibula at the distal tibiofibular joint
- foot
- portion of the lower limb located distal to the ankle joint
- fovea capitis
- minor indentation on the head of the femur that serves as the site of attachment for the ligament to the head of the femur
- gluteal tuberosity
- roughened area on the posterior side of the proximal femur, extending inferiorly from the base of the greater trochanter
- greater trochanter
- large, bony expansion of the femur that projects superiorly from the base of the femoral neck
- hallux
- big toe; digit 1 of the foot
- head of the femur
- rounded, proximal end of the femur that articulates with the acetabulum of the hip bone to form the hip joint
- head of the fibula
- small, knob-like, proximal end of the fibula; articulates with the inferior aspect of the lateral condyle of the tibia
- head of the metatarsal bone
- expanded, distal end of each metatarsal bone
- hip joint
- joint located at the proximal end of the lower limb; formed by the articulation between the acetabulum of the hip bone and the head of the femur
- intercondylar eminence
- irregular elevation on the superior end of the tibia, between the articulating surfaces of the medial and lateral condyles
- intercondylar fossa
- deep depression on the posterior side of the distal femur that separates the medial and lateral condyles
- intermediate cuneiform
- middle of the three cuneiform tarsal bones; articulates posteriorly with the navicular bone, medially with the medial cuneiform bone, laterally with the lateral cuneiform bone, and anteriorly with the second metatarsal bone
- interosseous border of the fibula
- small ridge running down the medial side of the fibular shaft; for attachment of the interosseous membrane between the fibula and tibia
- interosseous border of the tibia
- small ridge running down the lateral side of the tibial shaft; for attachment of the interosseous membrane between the tibia and fibula
- interosseous membrane of the leg
- sheet of dense connective tissue that unites the shafts of the tibia and fibula bones
- intertrochanteric crest
- short, prominent ridge running between the greater and lesser trochanters on the posterior side of the proximal femur
- intertrochanteric line
- small ridge running between the greater and lesser trochanters on the anterior side of the proximal femur
- knee joint
- joint that separates the thigh and leg portions of the lower limb; formed by the articulations between the medial and lateral condyles of the femur, and the medial and lateral condyles of the tibia
- lateral condyle of the femur
- smooth, articulating surface that forms the distal and posterior sides of the lateral expansion of the distal femur
- lateral condyle of the tibia
- lateral, expanded region of the proximal tibia that includes the smooth surface that articulates with the lateral condyle of the femur as part of the knee joint
- lateral cuneiform
- most lateral of the three cuneiform tarsal bones; articulates posteriorly with the navicular bone, medially with the intermediate cuneiform bone, laterally with the cuboid bone, and anteriorly with the third metatarsal bone
- lateral epicondyle of the femur
- roughened area of the femur located on the lateral side of the lateral condyle
- lateral malleolus
- expanded distal end of the fibula
- leg
- portion of the lower limb located between the knee and ankle joints
- lesser trochanter
- small, bony projection on the medial side of the proximal femur, at the base of the femoral neck
- linea aspera
- longitudinally running bony ridge located in the middle third of the posterior femur
- medial condyle of the femur
- smooth, articulating surface that forms the distal and posterior sides of the medial expansion of the distal femur
- medial condyle of the tibia
- medial, expanded region of the proximal tibia that includes the smooth surface that articulates with the medial condyle of the femur as part of the knee joint
- medial cuneiform
- most medial of the three cuneiform tarsal bones; articulates posteriorly with the navicular bone, laterally with the intermediate cuneiform bone, and anteriorly with the first and second metatarsal bones
- medial epicondyle of the femur
- roughened area of the distal femur located on the medial side of the medial condyle
- medial malleolus
- bony expansion located on the medial side of the distal tibia
- metatarsal bone
- one of the five elongated bones that forms the anterior half of the foot; numbered 1–5, starting on the medial side of the foot
- metatarsophalangeal joint
- articulation between a metatarsal bone of the foot and the proximal phalanx bone of a toe
- navicular
- tarsal bone that articulates posteriorly with the talus bone, laterally with the cuboid bone, and anteriorly with the medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiform bones
- neck of the femur
- narrowed region located inferior to the head of the femur
- patella
- kneecap; the largest sesamoid bone of the body; articulates with the distal femur
- patellar surface
- smooth groove located on the anterior side of the distal femur, between the medial and lateral condyles; site of articulation for the patella
- phalanx bone of the foot
- (plural = phalanges) one of the 14 bones that form the toes; these include the proximal and distal phalanges of the big toe, and the proximal, middle, and distal phalanx bones of toes two through five
- proximal tibiofibular joint
- articulation between the head of the fibula and the inferior aspect of the lateral condyle of the tibia
- shaft of the femur
- cylindrically shaped region that forms the central portion of the femur
- shaft of the fibula
- elongated, slender portion located between the expanded ends of the fibula
- shaft of the tibia
- triangular-shaped, central portion of the tibia
- soleal line
- small, diagonally running ridge located on the posterior side of the proximal tibia
- sustentaculum tali
- also known as the talar shelf; bony ledge extending from the medial side of the calcaneus bone
- talus
- tarsal bone that articulates superiorly with the tibia and fibula at the ankle joint; also articulates inferiorly with the calcaneus bone and anteriorly with the navicular bone
- tarsal bone
- one of the seven bones that make up the posterior foot; includes the calcaneus, talus, navicular, cuboid, medial cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform, and lateral cuneiform bones
- thigh
- portion of the lower limb located between the hip and knee joints
- tibia
- shin bone; the large, weight-bearing bone located on the medial side of the leg
- tibial tuberosity
- elevated area on the anterior surface of the proximal tibia
- trochlea of talus
- pulley-like structure on the top portion of the talus where it articulates with the tibia
Contributors and Attributions
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OpenStax Anatomy & Physiology (CC BY 4.0). Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology


4.6: Language Development
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Vocabulary Growth
A child’s vocabulary expands between the ages of 2 to 6 from about 200 words to over 10,000 words through a process called fast-mapping. Words are easily learned by making connections between new words and concepts already known. The parts of speech that are learned depend on the language and what is emphasized. Children speaking verb-friendly languages such as Chinese and Japanese, tend to learn nouns more readily. But, those learning less verb-friendly languages such as English, seem to need assistance in grammar to master the use of verbs (Imai, et al, 2008).
Literal Meanings
Children can repeat words and phrases after having heard them only once or twice. But they do not always understand the meaning of the words or phrases. This is especially true of expressions or figures of speech that are taken literally. For example, two preschool-aged girls began to laugh loudly while listening to a tape-recording of Disney’s “Sleeping Beauty” when the narrator reports, “Prince Phillip lost his head!” They imagine his head popping off and rolling down the hill as he runs and searches for it. Or a classroom full of preschoolers hears the teacher say, “Wow! That was a piece of cake!” The children began asking “Cake? Where is my cake? I want cake!”
Overregularization
Children learn rules of grammar as they learn a language but may apply these rules inappropriately at first. For instance, a child learns to add “ed” to the end of a word to indicate past tense. Then form a sentence such as “I goed there. I doed that.” This is typical at ages 2 and 3. They will soon learn new words such as “went” and “did” to be used in those situations.
The Impact of Training
Remember Vygotsky and the zone of proximal development? Children can be assisted in learning language by others who listen attentively, model more accurate pronunciations and encourage elaboration. The child exclaims, “I goed there!” and the adult responds, “You went there? Say, ‘I went there.’ Where did you go?” Children may be ripe for language as Chomsky suggests, but active participation in helping them learn is important for language development as well. The process of scaffolding is one in which the adult (or more skilled peer) provides needed assistance to the child as a new skill is learned.
Language Milestones
The prior aspects of language development in early childhood can also be summarized into the progression of milestones children typically experience from ages 3 to 5. Here is a table of those.
| Typical Age | What Most Children Do By This Age |
| 3 years |
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| 4 years |
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| 5 years |
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Now that we have addressed some of the cognitive areas of growth in early childhood, let’s take a look at the topic of school and its various applications.


4.18: Information Used in Buying Decisions
- Describe how a customer finds information to make a buying decision
As you saw in the previous module, there is no shortage of ways that consumers can collect information to support their purchase decisions. This fact is underscored in the description of the buying process, as each model (AIDA, path-to-purchase, and the consumer buying process) includes a stage where consumers gather information or develop interest or consider options. Information can come directly through formal channels, such as from producers or retailers, as well informally, produced by advocates, influencers, and other consumers.
Consumers can commonly find information within advertising, in-store, online, and by word of mouth. Recall the examples we described earlier in the course:
Let’s imagine you’re planning to buy a new phone. How would you decide on the right one? Would you research online? Would you go to the manufacturers’ websites? What about blogs, where users give their feedback and product reviews, would you read them? Would you visit a store to see all the alternatives in-person, asking the associate questions about performance and how each phone compares to the others?
Perhaps you’re frequently in-store to see the products in-person. Maybe you shop online, visiting the store or brand’s websites? Are you connected with retailers or brands on Facebook? Do you follow them on Twitter to learn about new items, special releases or sales? Have you checked on Instagram to find them? Do you participate in fan boards or blogs to track updates or read reviews?
The reality is that we are constantly exposed to marketing messages. This is the other side of the omni-channel concept, meaning that marketers are communicating across a number of channels. Thus, as consumers, we’re inundated with messages– so many, in fact, that it’s impossible to recognize, categorize, and process them all. There is simply too much noise and clutter.
Think about your local supermarket and imagine walking down an aisle. Every single item on-shelf, through its packaging—the images and words, the colors and fonts—is trying to communicate to you. It’s trying to convey that it can provide the solution to your need. Now, add displays, floor and shelf graphics, and special tags. The volume of messages competing for your attention is massive. If you’re actively engaged, meaning you’re actively shopping or looking for a specific solution, you might become overwhelmed with the sheer volume of “noise.” If you’re passively shopping, you may “tune out” these marketing messages entirely.
Think again about driving in your car down a busy street in your area. You hear advertisements on the radio, you read billboards, you see store signs and marquees, offering specific specials, you notice attention grabbing displays like balloons, flags, and banners.
Online, the volume is no less. You search for a specific term and get served links that best fit that need, but are also served ads by marketers wanting to attract you. On-site, you might notice different “Calls to Action,” prompts urging you to complete specific actions or transactions. If you navigate to another site, you may find that you’re followed, as banner ads and videos appear where you go next.
And, of course, there’s the domain that’s often outside the marketer’s control- word of mouth. Certainly, some firms pay spokespeople and influencers to endorse their products and services. And, many consumer organizations have turned to social media, specifically Twitter, to manage customer service issues and resolution. But, there’s also a large volume of information directly from consumers available to influence future decisions. For example, many sites provide opportunities for users to leave ratings & reviews. Such sites can be associated with the product & service or independent like Yelp. Independent blogs and forums also allow consumers to provide feedback. In this way, consumers are empowered to share their experience and shoppers are enabled to learn from the experiences of others.
As we saw in the buying process, consumers collect information along the customer journey. It comes directly from marketers through advertising, in-store merchandising and online interaction on websites and through social media. It comes indirectly through consumer feedback in ratings & reviews, on social media and through word of mouth. But, regardless of the source, this information can directly influence consumer attitudes, beliefs and actions.
Contributors and Attributions
- Information Used in Buying Decisions. Authored by : Patrick Williams. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


5.8: Summary
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Key Takeaways
Newton’s Three Laws are a theory of classical physics that allow the motion of an object to be fully described by introducing the concepts of force and mass.
Newton’s First Law states that objects will not accelerate if no net force is exerted on the object. In particular, this allows inertial frames of reference to be defined as those frames of reference where Newton’s First Law holds true.
Newton’s Second Law connects dynamics and kinematics by relating the net force exerted on an object (i.e. the vector sum of the forces exerted on an object) to its acceleration and its mass:
\[\begin{aligned} \vec F^{net} = \sum_i \vec F_i = m\vec a\end{aligned}\]
Newton’s Third law states that forces always come in pairs that are exerted on different objects. If object A exerts a force on object B, then object B exerts a force that is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction on object A.
A force is a mathematical tool introduced in Newton’s theory to model how different objects can influence each other. Mass can be thought of as a quantity of matter and is an intrinsic property of an object. Inertial mass refers to how that quantity of matter resists acceleration, whereas gravitational mass refers to how that quantity of mass experiences the force of gravity. As far as we can tell, inertial and gravitational mass are the same.
When applying Newton’s theory, the most important part is to identify the forces that act on one object. This can be represented graphically by using a free-body diagram. The following is a common list of forces to consider when identifying the forces exerted on an object:
- Weight (is the object near the surface of a planet?).
- Normal forces (is the object in contact with any surface? There could be more than one!).
- Frictional forces (are there static or kinetic friction forces associated with the normal forces?).
- Tension forces (is something like a rope pulling on the object?).
- Drag forces (is the object moving through a fluid?).
- Spring forces (is there a spring pushing or pulling on the object?).
- Applied forces (is anything else pushing or pulling on the object?).
When applying Newton’s Second Law, one needs to choose a coordinate system so that Newton’s Second Law can be written out for each component. It is usually good to choose the coordinate system such that the \(x\) axis is parallel to the acceleration vector of the object.
When using Newton’s Laws to model the motion of an object of mass \(m\) in a non-inertial frame of reference that is accelerating with acceleration \(\vec a\) relative to an inertial frame of reference, an additional inertial force, \(\vec F_I=-m\vec a\) , must be included on the the object.
Important Equations
Newton’s Second Law, in vector form, can be written as:
\[\begin{aligned} \sum \vec F = m\vec a\end{aligned}\]
which is just a short-hand notation for the scalar equations written out for each component:
\[\begin{aligned} \sum F_x &= ma_x \\[4pt] \sum F_y &= ma_y \\[4pt] \sum F_z &= ma_z\end{aligned}\]
The force of gravity (or weight), \(\vec F_g\) , near the surface of the Earth is given by:
\[\begin{aligned} \vec F_g = m\vec g\end{aligned}\]
where Earth’s gravitational field has a magnitude of \(g=9.8\text{N/kg}\) .
The force of kinetic friction exerted by one surface on another is given by::
\[\begin{aligned} f_k=\mu_kN\end{aligned}\]
where \(N\) is the normal force between the two surfaces and \(\mu_k\) is the coefficient of kinetic friction. The force of kinetic friction on a object is in the opposite direction from its motion.
The maximum value of the magnitude of the force of static friction between two surfaces with a coefficient of static friction \(\mu_s\) between them, can be written as:
\[\begin{aligned} f_s\leq\mu_sN\end{aligned}\]
The force of static friction is exerted in the direction opposite of the impeding motion.
Hookes’ Law for the force exerted by a spring, is given by the following vector equation:
\[\begin{aligned} \vec F = -kx \hat x\end{aligned}\]
where \(x\) is the distance by which the spring is compressed or extended relative to its rest length.
Important Definitions
Mass: A property of matter which describes its resistance to acceleration. SI units: [kg]. Common variable(s): \(M\) , \(m\) .
Force: A mathematical object used to describe the interactions of an object with its environment. SI units: [N]. Common variable(s): \(\vec F\) .
Spring constant: A value which describes the stiffness of a spring, when the restoring force of the spring is modeled using Hooke’s Law. SI units: [Nm -1 ]. Common variable(s): \(k\) .
Gravitational field: The strength of the gravitational force per unit mass at a particular location. Under the equivalence principle, this is numerically equal to the acceleration of free-falling object. SI units: [N/kg (field), ms -2 (acceleration)]. Common variable(s): \(\vec g\) .
Coefficient of friction: A constant used to determine the magnitude (or maximal magnitude if static friction) of a friction force between two surfaces based on the normal force exerted perpendicular to those two surfaces. SI units: none. Common variable(s): \(\mu\) .


5.9: V Glossary
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Aspiration pneumonia: A type of lung infection caused by material from the stomach or mouth inadvertently entering the lungs that can be life-threatening.
Brain case: Eight bones that protect the brain in the cranial cavity.
Candidiasis: A fungal infection often referred to as “thrush” when it occurs in the oral cavity in children.
Cleft lip: A birth defect caused by a partial or complete failure of the right and left portions of the upper lip to fuse together, leaving a gap in the lip.
Cleft palate: A birth defect caused when two halves of the hard palate fail to completely come together and fuse at the midline, leaving a gap between them, and making it very difficult for an infant to generate the suckling needed for nursing.
Concussion: A type of traumatic brain injury caused by a bump, blow, or jolt to the head or by a hit to the body that causes the head and brain to move rapidly back and forth. This sudden movement can cause the brain to bounce around or twist in the skull, creating chemical changes in the brain and damaging brain cells.
Dysphagia: Difficulty swallowing.
Epiglottis: A flexible piece of cartilage that covers the opening of the trachea during swallowing to prevent ingested material from entering the trachea.
Epistaxis: Nosebleed.
Facial drooping: An asymmetrical facial expression that occurs due to damage of the nerve innervating a particular part of the face.
Goiter: An abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland that can occur with hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism.
Hematoma: Collection of blood.
Laryngopharynx: The portion of the pharynx inferior to the oropharynx and posterior to the larynx that is a passageway for ingested material and air until its inferior end where the digestive and respiratory systems diverge into the esophagus and the larynx.
Larynx: The structure connecting the pharynx to the trachea that helps regulate the volume of air that enters and leaves the lungs and contains the vocal cords.
Lymphadenopathy: Enlarged lymph nodes.
Lymph nodes: Structures in the lymphatic system that filter pathogens.
Mandible: Lower jaw bone.
Masseter: Main muscle used for chewing because it elevates the mandible to close the mouth.
Maxilla: Bone that forms the upper jaw and supports the upper teeth.
Nares: Nostril openings into the nasal cavity.
Nasal septum: Bone and cartilage that separate the nasal cavity into two compartments.
Nasopharynx: The upper region of the pharynx that connects to the nasal cavity and is a passageway for air.
Orbit: The bony socket that houses the eyeball and muscles that move the eyeball.
Oropharynx: The middle region of the pharynx bordered superiorly by the nasopharynx and anteriorly by the oral cavity that is a passageway for air and ingested material.
Pharyngitis: Infection and/or inflammation in the back of the throat (pharynx).
Pharynx: A tube lined with mucous membrane that begins at the nasal cavity and is divided into three major regions: the nasopharynx, the oropharynx, and the laryngopharynx.
Sinusitis: Inflamed sinuses caused by a viral or bacterial infection.
Sternocleidomastoid: The major muscle that laterally flexes and rotates the head.
Suture: An interlocking joint between adjacent bones of the skull.
Temporalis: Muscle that assists in chewing by retracting the mandible. The temporalis muscle can be felt moving by placing fingers on the patient’s temple as they chew.
Trachea: A tube lined with mucus membrane that carries air from the larynx to the lungs.
Trapezius: The muscle that elevates the shoulders (shrugs), pulls the shoulder blades together, and tilts the head backwards.
Uvula: A small, teardrop-shaped structure located at the apex of the soft palate that swings upward during swallowing to close off the nasopharynx and prevent ingested materials from entering the nasal cavity.


6.11: Writing a Thesis Statement
Readers always want to know “What is the big idea?” Every type of non-fiction writing – from a short essay to a 10-page term paper to a lengthy thesis or dissertation– needs a controlling idea as a “spine” that holds the paper together (see Figure 6.6 ). Look at Table 6.3 : Topics and Thesis Statements for a comparison of topics and thesis statements.
Table 6.3: Topics and thesis statements: A comparison
| Topic | Thesis Statement |
|---|---|
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Healthcare funding |
To plan and fund healthcare, local health networks are better at improving the patient experience and access to care than a large central body.
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Acute respiratory distress syndrome |
Positioning clients with acute respiratory distress syndrome in the prone position increases ventilation and decreases mortality rates.
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Figure 6.6: Thesis skeleton
Begin by writing a working thesis statement. You will need this working thesis statement when you begin to outline and organize your assignment. As you continue to develop your paper, you can limit the working thesis statement if it is too broad or expand it if it proves too narrow for what you want to say. Each draft of the thesis statement will bring you closer to the exact wording that expresses your controlling idea.
Student Tip
The Controlling Idea
The controlling idea should be broader for a longer piece of writing than for a shorter piece of writing. Make sure the controlling idea is appropriate for the length of the assignment. How many pages it will take to explain and explore the controlling or main idea in detail? Be reasonable with your estimate. Then expand or trim the controlling or main idea to match the required length.
Attribution statement
Content from this page was remixed with our own original contented and adapted, with editorial changes, from:
Writing for Success 1st Canadian Edition by Tara Horkoff is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted. Download for free at: https://opentextbc.ca/writingforsuccess/