5.3: Writing the Essay Draft
Drafting is the stage of the writing process in which you develop a complete first version of a piece of writing.
Even professional writers admit that an empty page scares them because they feel they need to come up with something fresh and original every time they open a blank document on their computers. Because you have completed the first two steps in the writing process, you have already recovered from empty page syndrome. You have hours of prewriting and planning already done. You know what will go on that blank page: what you wrote in your outline.
Getting Started
Your objective here is to draft the body paragraphs of your essay. Although in college you generally want to move beyond the five-paragraph essay you probably learned in high school, we will review the basics. A five-paragraph essay contains an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion. If you are more comfortable starting on paper than on the computer, you can start on paper and then type it before you revise. You can also use a voice recorder to get yourself started, dictating a paragraph or two to get you thinking. In this lesson, Andi does all their work on the computer, but you may use pen and paper or the computer to write a rough draft.
Making the Writing Process Work for You
What makes viewing writing as a process so beneficial to writers is that it encourages alternative strategies and processes to the standard step-by-step view of writing while motivating you to develop your best ideas. For instance, the following approaches, done alone or in combination with others, may improve your writing and help you move forward in your writing process:
- Begin writing with the part you know the most about. You can start with the third paragraph in your outline if ideas come easily to mind. You can start with the second paragraph or the first paragraph, too. Although paragraphs may vary in length, keep in mind that short paragraphs may contain insufficient support. Readers may also think the writing is abrupt. Long paragraphs may be wordy and may lose your reader’s interest. As a guideline, try to write paragraphs that are between one-half and three-fourth of a page, double spaced.
- Write one paragraph at a time and then stop. As long as you complete the assignment on time, you may choose how many paragraphs you complete in one sitting. Pace yourself. On the other hand, try not to procrastinate. Writers should always meet their deadlines.
- Take short breaks to refresh your mind. This tip might be most useful if you are writing a multi-page report or essay. Still, if you are antsy or cannot concentrate, take a break to let your mind rest. But do not let breaks extend too long. If you spend too much time away from your essay, you may have trouble starting again. You may forget key points or lose momentum. Try setting an alarm to limit your break, and when the time is up, return to your desk to write. One tip that writer Stephen King suggests in his book, On Writing, is to stop in the middle of a paragraph so you can keep going with what's already in your head at your next sitting without sitting and staring at the screen.
- Be reasonable with your goals. If you decide to take ten-minute breaks, try to stick to that goal. If you told yourself that you need more facts, then commit to finding them. Holding yourself to your own goals will create successful writing assignments.
- Keep your audience and purpose in mind as you write. These aspects of writing are just as important when you are writing a single paragraph for your essay as when you are considering the direction of the entire essay.
Of all of these considerations, keeping your purpose and your audience at the front of your mind is the most important key to writing success. If your purpose is to persuade, you will, for example, present your facts and details in the most logical and convincing way you can.
Your purpose will guide your mind as you compose your sentences. Your audience will guide word choice. Are you writing for experts, for a general audience, for other college students, or for people who know very little about your topic? Keep asking yourself what your readers, with their background and experience, need to be told in order to understand your ideas. How can you best express your ideas so they are totally clear and your communication is effective?
Tip
You may want to identify your purpose and audience on an index card or write on sticky notes that you clip or stick to your paper (or keep next to your computer). On that card, you may want to write notes to yourself—perhaps about what that audience might not know or what it needs to know—so that you will be sure to address those issues when you write. It may be a good idea to also state exactly what you want to explain to that audience, or to inform them of, or to persuade them about.
Writing at Work
Many of the documents you produce at work target a particular audience for a particular purpose. You may find that it is highly advantageous to know as much as you can about your target audience and to prepare your message to reach that audience, even if the audience is a coworker or your boss. Menu language is a common example. Descriptions like “organic romaine” and “free-range chicken” are intended to appeal to a certain type of customer though perhaps not to the same customer who craves a thick steak. Similarly, mail-order companies research the demographics of the people who buy their merchandise. Successful vendors customize product descriptions in catalogs to appeal to their buyers’ tastes. For example, the product descriptions in a skateboarder catalog will differ from the descriptions in a clothing catalog for mature adults.
Exercise 1
Using the topic for the essay that you outlined in Section 4.7, describe your purpose and your audience as specifically as you can. Use your own sheet of paper to record your responses. Then keep these responses near you during future stages of the writing process.
My purpose: ____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
My audience: ____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
Setting Goals for Your First Draft
A draft is a complete version of a piece of writing, but it is not the final version. The step in the writing process after drafting, as you may remember, is revising. During revising, you will have the opportunity to make changes to your first draft before you put the finishing touches on it during the editing and proofreading stage. A first draft gives you a working version that you can later improve.
Writing at Work
Workplace writing in certain environments is done by teams of writers who collaborate on the planning, writing, and revision of documents, such as long reports, technical manuals, and the results of scientific research. Collaborators do not need to be in the same room, the same building, or even the same city. Many collaborations are conducted over the Internet.
In a perfect collaboration, each contributor has the right to add, edit, and delete text. Strong communication skills, in addition to strong writing skills, are important in this kind of writing situation because disagreements over style, content, process, emphasis, and other issues may arise.
The collaborative software, or document management systems, that groups use to work on common projects is sometimes called groupware or workgroup support systems. New, improved programs are continually being developed.
The reviewing tool on some word-processing programs also gives you access to a collaborative tool that many smaller workgroups use when they exchange documents. You can also use it to leave comments to yourself.
Tip
If you invest some time now to investigate how the reviewing tool in your word processor works, you will be able to use it with confidence during the revision stage of the writing process. Then, when you start to revise, set your reviewing tool to track any changes you make, so you will be able to tinker with text and commit only those final changes you want to keep.
Discovering the Basic Elements of a First Draft
If you have been using the information in this and the previous chapter step by step to help you develop an assignment, you already have both a formal topic outline and a formal sentence outline to direct your writing. Knowing what a first draft looks like will help you make the creative leap from the outline to the first draft. A first draft should include the following elements:
- An introduction that piques the audience’s interest, tells what the essay is about, and motivates readers to keep reading;
- A thesis statement that presents the main point, or controlling idea, of the entire piece of writing;
- A topic sentence in each paragraph that states the main idea of the paragraph and implies how that main idea connects to the thesis statement;
- Supporting sentences in each paragraph that develop or explain the topic sentence; these can be specific facts, examples, anecdotes, or other details that elaborate on the topic sentence; and
- A conclusion that reinforces the thesis statement and leaves the audience with a feeling of completion.
 This basic format--introduction, body with multiple paragraphs, and conclusion--is valid for most essays you will write in college, even much longer ones. For now, however, Andi focuses on writing the three body paragraphs from their outline. Section 5.4, " Introduction and Conclusion Paragraphs " covers writing introductions and conclusions, and you will read Andi's introduction and conclusion there.
The Role of Topic Sentences
Topic sentences make the structure of a text and the writer’s basic arguments easy to locate and comprehend. In college writing, using a topic sentence in each paragraph of the essay is the standard rule. However, the topic sentence does not always have to be the first sentence in your paragraph even if it the first item in your formal outline (though it should be in workplace writing).
Tip
When you begin to draft your paragraphs, you should follow your outline fairly closely. After all, you spent valuable time developing those ideas. However, as you begin to express your ideas in complete sentences, it might strike you that the topic sentence might work better at the end of the paragraph or in the middle. Try it. Writing a draft, by its nature, is a good time for experimentation.
The topic sentence is generally the first or final sentence in a paragraph. It's possible that it can appear in the middle, but that can be confusing for a reader. Many times it appears as the second sentence in a paragraph is a transition sentence precedes it. The assignment’s audience and purpose will often determine where a topic sentence belongs.
Choosing where to position the topic sentence depends not only on your audience and purpose but also on whether you are including counter-arguments. The placement of a topic sentence may vary from paragraph to paragraph depending on the purpose of that particular paragraph and the relation between that purpose and the audience. Please see Section 2.6, " Rhetorical Analysis ," and Section 6.1, " Strategies for Developing Paragraph s."
Tip
As you read critically throughout the writing process, keep topic sentences in mind. You may discover topic sentences that are not always located at the beginning of a paragraph. For example, fiction writers customarily use topic ideas, either expressed or implied, to move readers through their texts. In nonfiction writing, such as popular magazines, topic sentences are often used when the author thinks it is appropriate (based on the audience and the purpose, of course). A single topic sentence might even control the development of a number of paragraphs. For more information on topic sentences, please see Chapter 6.
Paragraphs
Learning how to develop a good topic sentence is the first step toward writing a solid paragraph. Once you have composed your topic sentence, you have a guideline for the rest of the paragraph. To complete the paragraph, a writer must support the topic sentence with additional information and summarize the main point with a concluding sentence. This section identifies the three major structural parts of a paragraph and covers how to develop a paragraph using transitional words and phrases.
Identifying Parts of a Paragraph
An effective paragraph contains three main parts: a topic sentence, the body, and the concluding sentence. A topic sentence is often the first sentence of a paragraph. This chapter has already discussed its purpose—to express a main idea combined with the writer’s attitude about the subject. The body of the paragraph usually follows, containing supporting details. Supporting sentences help explain, prove, or enhance the topic sentence. The concluding sentence is the last sentence in the paragraph. It reminds the reader of the main point by restating it in different words. Figure 5.3.1 shows one graphic organizer for paragraph structure.
Figure 5.3.1
Let's look at a fairly casual example. Read the following paragraph. The topic sentence is underlined for you.
After reading the new TV Guide this week, I had just one thought—why are we still being bombarded with reality shows? This season, the plague of reality television continues to darken our airwaves. Along with the return of viewer favorites, we are to be cursed with yet another mindless creation. Prisoner follows the daily lives of eight suburban housewives who have chosen to be put in jail for the purposes of this fake psychological experiment. A preview for the first episode shows the usual tears and tantrums associated with reality television. I dread to think what producers will come up with next season, but if any of them are reading this blog—stop it! We’ve had enough reality television to last us a lifetime!
The first sentence of this paragraph is the topic sentence. It tells the reader that the paragraph will be about reality television shows, and it expresses the writer’s distaste for these shows through the use of the word bombarded .
Each of the following sentences in the paragraph supports the topic sentence by providing further information about a specific reality television show. The final sentence is the concluding sentence. It reiterates the main point that viewers are bored with reality television shows by using different words from the topic sentence.
Paragraphs that begin with the topic sentence move from the general to the specific. They open with a general statement about a subject (reality shows) and then discuss specific examples (the reality show Prisoner ). Most academic essays contain the topic sentence at the beginning of the first paragraph.
Now take a look at the following paragraph. The topic sentence is underlined for you.
Last year, a cat traveled 130 miles to reach its family, which had moved to another state and had left their pet behind. Even though it had never been to their new home, the cat was able to track down its former owners. A dog in my neighborhood can predict when its person is about to have a seizure. It makes sure that he does not hurt himself during an epileptic fit. Compared to many animals, our own senses are almost dull.
This is an inductive paragraph. It begins with details that lead to the point, or main idea. The last sentence of this paragraph is the topic sentence. It draws on specific examples (a cat that tracked down its owners and a dog that can predict seizures) and then makes a general statement that draws a conclusion from these examples (animals’ senses are better than humans’). In this case, the supporting sentences are placed before the topic sentence and the concluding sentence is the same as the topic sentence.
This technique is frequently used in persuasive writing. The writer produces detailed examples as evidence to back up his or her point, preparing the reader to accept the concluding topic sentence as the truth.
Sometimes, the topic sentence appears in the middle of a paragraph. Read the following example. The topic sentence is underlined for you.
For many years, I suffered from severe anxiety every time I took an exam. Hours before the exam, my heart would begin pounding, my legs would shake, and sometimes I would become physically unable to move. Last year, I was referred to a specialist and finally found a way to control my anxiety—breathing exercises . It seems so simple, but by doing just a few breathing exercises a couple of hours before an exam, I gradually got my anxiety under control. The exercises help slow my heart rate and make me feel less anxious. Better yet, they require no pills, no equipment, and very little time. It’s amazing how just breathing correctly has helped me learn to manage my anxiety symptoms.
In this paragraph, the topic sentence expresses the main idea—that breathing exercises can help control anxiety. The preceding sentences enable the writer to build up to his main point (breathing exercises can help control anxiety) by using a personal anecdote (how he used to suffer from anxiety). The supporting sentences then expand on how breathing exercises help the writer by providing additional information. The last sentence is the concluding sentence and restates how breathing can help manage anxiety.
Placing a topic sentence in the middle of a paragraph is often used in creative writing. If you notice that you have used a topic sentence in the middle of a paragraph in an academic essay, read through the paragraph carefully to make sure that it contains only one major topic. You might need to break apart two ideas and develop them separately into two different paragraphs.
The paragraph is the main structural component of an essay as well as other forms of writing. Each paragraph of an essay adds another related main idea to support the writer’s thesis, or controlling idea. Each related main idea is supported and developed with facts, examples, and other details that explain it. By exploring and refining one main idea at a time, writers build a strong case for their thesis. For more specific help on developing body paragraphs, please see Section 6.1, " Developing Body Paragraphs. "
Paragraph Length
How long should a paragraph be?
One answer to this important question may be “long enough”—long enough for you to address your points and explain your main idea. To grab attention or to present succinct supporting ideas, a paragraph can be fairly short and consist of two to three sentences. A paragraph in a complex essay about some abstract point in philosophy or archaeology can be three-quarters of a page or more in length. As long as the writer maintains close focus on the topic and does not ramble, a long paragraph is acceptable -- and even encouraged-- in college-level writing. In general, try to keep the paragraphs between one-half and three-fourths of a double-spaced page.
Tip
Journalistic style often calls for brief two- or three-sentence paragraphs because of how people read the news, both online and in print. Blogs and other online information sources often adopt this paragraphing style, too. Readers often skim the first paragraphs of a great many articles before settling on the handful of stories they want to read in detail.
You may find that a particular paragraph you write may be longer than one that will hold your audience’s interest. In such cases, you should divide the paragraph into two or more shorter paragraphs, adding a topic statement or some kind of transitional word or phrase at the start of the new paragraph. Transition words or phrases show the connection between the two ideas.
In all cases, however, be guided by what you instructor wants and expects to find in your draft. Generally, instructors will expect you to develop a mature college-level style as you progress through the semester’s assignments.
Exercise 2
To build your sense of appropriate paragraph length, use the Internet to find examples of the following items. Copy them into a file, identify your sources, and present them to your instructor with your annotations, or notes.
- A news article written in short paragraphs. Take notes on, or annotate, your selection with your observations about the effect of combining paragraphs that develop the same topic idea. Explain how effective those paragraphs would be.
- A long paragraph from a scholarly work that you identify through an academic search engine. Annotate it with your observations about the author’s paragraphing style.
Starting Your First Draft
Now we are finally ready to look over Andi's shoulder as they begin to write their essay about digital technology and the confusing choices that consumers face. Follow along with your own outline, with its thesis statement and topic sentences, and the notes you wrote earlier in this lesson on your purpose and audience. Reviewing these will put both you and Andi in the proper mind-set to start.
The following is Mariah’s thesis statement:
Everyone wants the newest and the best digital technology, but the choices are many, and the specifications are often confusing.
Here are the notes that Andi wrote to themselves to characterize their purpose and audience.
Andi then looked at their key sentence outline because it includes the topic sentences. The following is the portion of their outline for the first body paragraph. The Roman numeral II identifies the topic sentence for the paragraph, capital letters indicate supporting details, and Arabic numerals label subpoints.
Tip
If you write your first draft on the computer, consider creating a new file folder for each course with a set of subfolders inside the course folders for each assignment you are given. Label the folders clearly with the course names, and label each assignment folder and word processing document with a title that you will easily recognize. The assignment name is a good choice for the document. Then use that subfolder to store all the drafts you create. When you start each new draft, do not just write over the last one. Instead, save the draft with a new tag after the title—draft 1, draft 2, and so on—so that you will have a complete history of drafts in case your instructor wishes you to submit them. Also, it can be a good idea to use a program, such as Google docs, that stores your files in the cloud. That way, you will still have access to your documents in case something happens to your computer. However, because these many times overwrite your previous work, and the internet or WiFi could have problems, it's also good to save each draft with a separate number on it both in the cloud and on your personal computer.
In your documents, observe any formatting requirements (such as MLA formatting) for margins, headers, placement of page numbers, and other layout matters—that your instructor requires.
Continuing the First Draft
Andi continued writing her essay, moving to the second and third body paragraphs. They had supporting details but no numbered subpoints in ther outline, so they had to consult the prewriting notes for specific information to include.
Tip
If you decide to take a break between finishing your first body paragraph and starting the next one, do not start writing immediately when you return to your work. Put yourself back in context and in the mood by rereading what you have already written. If you stop writing in the middle of writing the paragraph, she could have jotted down some quick notes to herself about what she would write next.
Preceding each body paragraph that Andi wrote is the appropriate section of their sentence outline. Notice how they expanded Roman numeral III from the outline into a first draft of the second body paragraph. As you read, ask yourself how closely they stayed on purpose and how well they paid attention to the needs of the audience.
Andi then began the third and final body paragraph using Roman numeral IV from her outline.
Exercise 3
Reread body paragraphs two and three of the essay that Andi is writing. Then answer the questions on your own sheet of paper.
- In body paragraph two, Andi decided to develop the paragraph as a nonfiction narrative. Do you agree with their decision? Explain. How else could they have chosen to develop the paragraph? Why is that better?
- Compare the writing styles of paragraphs two and three. What evidence do you have that Andi was getting tired or running out of steam? What advice would you give them? Why?
- Choose one of these two body paragraphs. Write a version of your own that you think better fits Andi's audience and purpose.
Writing a Title
A writer’s best choice for a title is one that alludes to the main point of the entire essay. Do not make your title the type of assignment your teacher assigned. Like the headline in a newspaper or the big, bold title in a magazine, an essay’s title gives the audience a first peek at the content. If readers like the title, they are likely to keep reading.
After carefully crafting each paragraph of their essay, based on the outline, Andi finished the draft and even included a brief concluding paragraph. They then decided, as the final touch for the writing session, to add an engaging title.
Contributors and Attributions
Adapted from Writing for Success . Provided by: The Saylor Foundation. License: CC-NC-SA 3.0 .
This page most recently updated on June 4, 2020.


12: Crane and Hoists Safety
“You don’t need to know the whole alphabet of Safety. The A, B, C of it will save you if you follow it: Always Be Careful.” – Colorado School of Mines Magazine
Overview
Cranes and hoists continue the discussion on materials handling. As equipment goes, they are the heavy lifters and very versatile. Cranes are typically used to lift loads that are critical for some important application, expensive, and needing to be placed in unique or hard to reach locations. Hoists like cranes can be mobile or fixed. There are hoists that lift people although mostly today they are often referred to as aerial or man lifts.
Much of the focus on crane safety targets equipment inspection and maintenance. Crane operators must also be qualified having received extensive training and certification of competency. Crane operators are competent persons. Together the material rigger and crane operator bear the ultimate responsibility for a safe lift.
Lastly, a special type of crane, the derrick, is often associated with oil drilling on land and in the ocean. They typically resemble a tripod with the lift or hoist mechanism in the center of the equipment. Many of the standards discussed in this chapter apply to both crane and derrick although the focus will be on cranes in construction environments.
Chapter Objective:
- Identify the acceptable approach distances for cranes and derricks working in the vicinity of electrical transmission and distribution.
- Review the requirements for the hoisting of personnel platforms from cranes or derricks.
- Discuss the various systems and practices that ensure crane, hoist, and aerial lift safety.
Learning Outcome:
- Describe the proper implementation of safety requirements for cranes and derricks under 1926.550
- Describe conformance requirements of Subpart N for aerial lifts used to elevate personnel to jobsites above-ground.
- Summarize the major safety concerns for material and personnel hoists and jobsite elevators.
Standards: 1926 Subpart CC-Cranes and Derricks in Construction, 1926 Subpart N Helicopters, Hoists, Elevators, and Conveyors, 1910 Subpart F Powered Platforms, Man lifts, Vehicle-Mounted Work Platforms, 1910 Subpart N Materials Handling and Storage
Key Terms:
Clearance, gauge, proof test, sling, tag line
Mini-Lecture: Crane Safety
Topic Required Time: 2 hrs; Independent Study and reflection 1 3/4 hour.
Thumbnail: Tower Cranes, Pixabay, Free License


Magnesium
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Learning Objectives
- Learn about the role of magnesium in our body
Magnesium’s Functional Role
Approximately 60 percent of magnesium in the human body is stored in the skeleton, making up about 1 percent of mineralized bone tissue. Magnesium is not an integral part of the hard mineral crystals, but it does reside on the surface of the crystal and helps maximize bone structure. Observational studies link magnesium deficiency with an increased risk for osteoporosis. A magnesium-deficient diet is associated with decreased levels of parathyroid hormone and the activation of vitamin D, which may lead to an impairment of bone remodeling. A study in nine hundred elderly women and men did show that higher dietary intakes of magnesium correlated to an increased BMD in the hip.[1] Only a few clinical trials have evaluated the effects of magnesium supplements on bone health and their results suggest some modest benefits on BMD.
In addition to participating in bone maintenance, magnesium has several other functions in the body. In every reaction involving the cellular energy molecule, ATP, magnesium is required. More than three hundred enzymatic reactions require magnesium. Magnesium plays a role in the synthesis of DNA and RNA, carbohydrates, and lipids, and is essential for nerve conduction and muscle contraction. Another health benefit of magnesium is that it may decrease blood pressure.
Many Americans do not get the recommended intake of magnesium from their diets. Some observational studies suggest mild magnesium deficiency is linked to increased risk for cardiovascular disease. Signs and symptoms of severe magnesium deficiency may include tremor, muscle spasms, loss of appetite, and nausea.
Dietary Reference Intake and Food Sources for Magnesium
The RDAs for magnesium for adults between ages nineteen and thirty are 400 milligrams per day for males and 310 milligrams per day for females. For adults above age thirty, the RDA increases slightly to 420 milligrams per day for males and 320 milligrams for females.
Table \(\PageIndex{1}\): Dietary Reference Intakes for Magnesium.
| Age Group | RDA (mg/day) | UL from non-food sources (mg/day) |
|---|---|---|
| Infants (0–6 months) | 30* | – |
| Infants (6–12 months) | 75* | – |
| Children (1–3 years) | 80 | 65 |
| Children (4–8 years) | 130 | 110 |
| Children (9–13 years) | 240 | 350 |
| Adolescents (14–18 years) | 410 | 350 |
| Adults (19–30 years) | 400 | 350 |
| Adults (> 30 years) | 420 | 350 |
| * denotes Adequate Intake |
Source: Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Magnesium. National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Mag...hProfessional/ . Updated July 13, 2009. Accessed November 12, 2017.
Dietary Sources of Magnesium
Magnesium is part of the green pigment, chlorophyll, which is vital for photosynthesis in plants; therefore green leafy vegetables are a good dietary source for magnesium. Magnesium is also found in high concentrations in fish, dairy products, meats, whole grains, and nuts. Additionally chocolate, coffee, and hard water contain a good amount of magnesium. Most people in America do not fulfill the RDA for magnesium in their diets. Typically, Western diets lean toward a low fish intake and the unbalanced consumption of refined grains versus whole grains.
Table \(\PageIndex{2}\): Magnesium Content of Various Foods.
| Food | Serving | Magnesium (mg) | Percent Daily Value |
|---|---|---|---|
| Almonds | 1 oz. | 80 | 20 |
| Cashews | 1 oz. | 74 | 19 |
| Soymilk | 1 c. | 61 | 15 |
| Black beans | ½ c. | 60 | 15 |
| Edamame | ½ c. | 50 | 13 |
| Bread | 2 slices | 46 | 12 |
| Avocado | 1 c. | 44 | 11 |
| Brown rice | ½ c. | 42 | 11 |
| Yogurt | 8 oz. | 42 | 11 |
| Oatmeal, instant | 1 packet | 36 | 9 |
| Salmon | 3 oz. | 26 | 7 |
| Chicken breasts | 3 oz. | 22 | 6 |
| Apple | 1 medium | 9 | 2 |
Source: Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Magnesium. National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Mag...hProfessional/ . Updated July 13, 2009. Accessed November 12, 2017.
Footnotes
- Tucker KL, Hannan MT, et al. Potassium, Magnesium, and Fruit and Vegetable Intakes Are Associated with Greater Bone Mineral Density in Elderly Men and Women. Am J ClinNutr. 1999; 69(4), 727–36. www.ajcn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?v...&pmid=10197575. Accessed October 6, 2017.
Contributors and Attributions
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University of Hawai’i at Mānoa Food Science and Human Nutrition Program : Allison Calabrese, Cheryl Gibby, Billy Meinke, Marie Kainoa Fialkowski Revilla, and Alan Titchenal


1.4: Islamic Expanision
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As we mentioned in the section on Arabic’s influence, above, the expansion of Islam entailed integrating Arabic into local cultural milieus. Arabic soon became a way to gain influence in government, society and economics. This is a linguistic phenomenon which takes place gradually over time, and is based, in part, on the prestige of a language. Arabic gained this status in many countries due to the power of the Islamic Empire, which spanned from Spain in the West to Afghanistan and Central Asia in the East. Its impact on culture and language has been profound. Additionally, because of Islam, Arabic remains a dominant language in these countries today, regardless of what language is spoken at home. Because of its importance in education, administration and commerce, it gained prestige in societies and gradually took hold in people’s homes as their mother tongue.
Key Concept: Prestige Language Because of its importance in education, administration and commerce, a language may gain more prestige in a society. Gradually this may take hold in people’s homes as they increasingly adopt it as their mother tongue. This happened in many of the countries which became Muslim (but not all). This is a concept from the field of socio-linguistics.
For example, in Egypt, Arabic, Arab cultural practices and Islam, were not forced on Egyptians by the original Arab settlers and rulers. Egyptians, however, gradually became Arabic-speaking. Advantages could be gained from speaking Arabic and participating in Arab culture; jobs in government became possible, more favorable laws, and generally access to better opportunities came with both speaking Arabic and/or converting to Islam.
The Coptic Christians, however, remain a large community in Egypt (at least 10% of the population), and have preserved the language of Coptic, “an offshoot of Old Egyptian” (Versteegh,2001,p.15). The language is written in a form of Ancient Greek.  Greek was the language of prestige during the Ptolemaic and Roman eras, which lasted for over a thousand years prior to Islamic rule. Old Egyptian, Greek, Arab, Turkish, and Persian (Persian empires also ruled briefly, and were hugely influential in the region as a whole) cultural influences are evident in Egyptian colloquial Arabic.
EARLY ISLAMIC EXPANSION UNDER THE FIRST FOUR CALIPHS
TIMELINE
622-632 – Islamic Empire under Mohammad. The early state began in Medina and gradually gained Mecca, Hunayn, Tabouk, and a large majority of the populated regions of the Arabian Peninsula. Abu Bakr, who ruled from 632 to 634, secured the entirety of the Peninsula and extended into present-day southern Iraq, Kuwait, Syria, Jordan, and Palestine.
634-644 – Islamic Empire under ‘Umar. The state then expanded dramatically under the leadership of ‘Umar. Lands claimed under his rule include the entirety of the Levant, most of modern Iran, slight expansion into present-day Turkmenistan, and entry into the northern coast of Africa in present-day Egypt and Libya.
644-656 – Islamic Empire under Uthman. The state extends slightly past the extent of ‘Umar’s rule. Modern-day south East Tunisia, most of Egypt, half of Afghanistan, and south West Pakistan were all brought under the Islamic rule. There was also increased incursion into south East Turkey and the Caucuses.
656-661 – Islamic Empire under Ali. The state experienced a decline due to the growing prominence of other emerging Islamic states, particularly the ‘Umayyad, and various factors of internal strife. The light sections of the map on Egypt and the Levant indicate the de facto leadership of Amr ibn al-As and Mu’awiya in each area. The dark green indicates the pre-existing eastern regions conquered under ‘Umar and ‘Uthman, with slight eastern expansion in modernday Afghanistan and Pakistan, that Ali firmly controlled.


Page 9.2: Water Supply Problems and Solutions
Water Supply Problems: Resource Depletion
As groundwater is pumped from water wells, there usually is a localized drop in the water table around the well called a cone of depression. When there are a large number of wells that have been pumping water for a long time, the regional water table can drop significantly. This is called groundwater mining , which can force the drilling of deeper, more expensive wells that commonly encounter more saline groundwater. Rivers, lakes, and artificial lakes (reservoirs) can also be depleted due to overuse. Some large rivers, such as the Colorado in the U.S. and Yellow in China, run dry in some years. The case history of the Aral Sea discussed later in this chapter involves depletion of a lake. Finally, glaciers are being depleted due to accelerated melting associated with global warming over the past century.
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). Formation of a Cone of Depression around a Pumping Water Well Source: Fayette County Groundwater Conservation District, TXAnother water resource problem associated with groundwater mining is saltwater intrusion, where overpumping of fresh water aquifers near ocean coastlines causes saltwater to enter fresh water zones. The drop of the water table around a cone of depression in an unconfined aquifer can change the direction of regional groundwater flow, which could send nearby pollution toward the pumping well instead of away from it. Finally, problems of subsidence (gradual sinking of the land surface over a large area) and sinkholes (rapid sinking of the land surface over a small area) can develop due to a drop in the water table.
Water Supply Crisis
The water crisis refers to a global situation where people in many areas lack access to sufficient water, clean water, or both. This section describes the global situation involving water shortages, also called water stress . In general, water stress is greatest in areas with very low precipitation (major deserts), large population density (e.g., India), or both. Future global warming could worsen the water crisis by shifting precipitation patterns away from humid areas and by melting mountain glaciers that recharge rivers downstream. Melting glaciers will also contribute to rising sea level, which will worsen saltwater intrusion in aquifers near ocean coastlines.
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\). Countries Facing Water Stress in 1995 and Projected in 2025 Water stress is defined as having a high percentage of water withdrawal compared to total available water in the area. Source: Philippe Rekacewicz (Le Monde diplomatique), February 2006According to a 2006 report by the United Nations Development Programme, 700 million people (11% of the world’s population) lived with water stress. Most of them live in the Middle East and North Africa. By 2025, the report projects that more than 3 billion people (about 40% of the world’s population) will live in water-stressed areas with the large increase coming mainly from China and India. The water crisis will also impact food production and our ability to feed the ever-growing population. We can expect future global tension and even conflict associated with water shortages and pollution. Historic and future areas of water conflict include the Middle East (Euphrates and Tigris River conflict among Turkey, Syria, and Iraq; Jordan River conflict among Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, and the Palestinian territories), Africa (Nile River conflict among Egypt, Ethiopia, and Sudan), Central Asia (Aral Sea conflict among Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan), and south Asia (Ganges River conflict between India and Pakistan).
Sustainable Solutions to the Water Supply Crisis?
The current and future water crisis described above requires multiple approaches to extending our fresh water supply and moving towards sustainability. Some of the longstanding traditional approaches include dams and aqueducts.
Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\). Hoover Dam, Nevada, U.S. Hoover Dam, Nevada, U.S.. Behind the dam is Lake Mead, the largest reservoir in U.S.. White band reflects the lowered water levels in the reservoir due to drought conditions from 2000 – 2010. Source: Cygnusloop99 at Wikimedia CommonsReservoirs that form behind dams in rivers can collect water during wet times and store it for use during dry spells. They also can be used for urban water supplies. Other benefits of dams and reservoirs are hydroelectricity, flood control, and recreation. Some of the drawbacks are evaporative loss of water in arid climates, downstream river channel erosion, and impact on the ecosystem including a change from a river to lake habitat and interference with migration and spawning of fish.
Aqueducts can move water from where it is plentiful to where it is needed. Aqueducts can be controversial and politically difficult especially if the water transfer distances are large. One drawback is the water diversion can cause drought in the area from where the water is drawn. For example, Owens Lake and Mono Lake in central California began to disappear after their river flow was diverted to the Los Angeles aqueduct. Owens Lake remains almost completely dry, but Mono Lake has recovered more significantly due to legal intervention.
One method that can actually increase the amount of fresh water on Earth is desalination , which involves removing dissolved salt from seawater or saline groundwater. There are several ways to desalinate seawater including boiling, filtration, and electrodialysis. All of these procedures are moderately to very expensive and require considerable energy input, making the water produced much more expensive than fresh water from conventional sources. In addition, the process creates highly saline wastewater, which must be disposed of and creates significant environmental impact. Desalination is most common in the Middle East, where energy from oil is abundant but water is scarce.
Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\). The California Aqueduct California Aqueduct in southern California, U.S. Source: David Jordan at en.WikipediaConservation means using less water and using it more efficiently. Around the home, conservation can involve both engineered features, such as high-efficiency clothes washers and low-flow showers and toilets, as well as behavioral decisions, such as growing native vegetation that require little irrigation in desert climates, turning off the water while you brush your teeth, and fixing leaky faucets.
Rainwater harvesting involves catching and storing rainwater for reuse before it reaches the ground. Another important technique is efficient irrigation, which is extremely important because irrigation accounts for a much larger water demand than public water supply. Water conservation strategies in agriculture include growing crops in areas where the natural rainfall can support them, more efficient irrigation systems such as drip systems that minimize losses due to evaporation, no-till farming that reduces evaporative losses by covering the soil, and reusing treated wastewater from sewage treatment plants. Recycled wastewater has also been used to recharge aquifers.
Suggested Supplementary Reading:
Weiss, K.R. 2018. Drying Lakes . National Geographic. March. p. 108-133.
This article documents how many lakes across the globe are drying up, the reasons why, and the effect on humans. Overuse and a warming climate threaten lakes that provide sustenance and jobs for humans, while also providing critical habitat for animals.
Contributors and Attributions
- Essentials of Environmental Science by Kamala Doršner is licensed under CC BY 4.0. Modified from the original by Matthew R. Fisher.


2.5: Review Exercises
1. Determine whether the following are statements for the purposes of logic. For each statement, tell whether it is simple or compound.

- Houston is a city in Texas.
- There are 7 hours in a day and there are 24 days in a week.
- \(2 + 3 = 6\)
- What time is it?
- If Darren passes the course, then he will graduate.
2. Translate each statement from symbolic notation into a word sentence, where \(a\) represents “ Elvis is alive ” and let \(g\) represents “ Elvis gained weight. ”
- \(\sim g\)
- \(a \vee g\)
- \(\sim(a \wedge g)\)
- \(g \rightarrow \; \sim a\)
- \(a \leftrightarrow \; \sim g\)
3. Use simple statements \(p\), \(q\), and \(r\) to translate each word sentence into symbolic notation.
\(p\): " The lasagna is hot. " \(q\): " The breadsticks are cold. " \(r\): " The pizza will be delivered ."
- The pizza will not be delivered.
- The lasagna is hot or the breadsticks are cold.
- If the breadsticks are cold, then the pizza will be delivered.
- If the pizza won't be delivered, then the lasagna is hot and the breadsticks are cold.
- The breadsticks aren't cold if and only if the lasagna isn't hot.
- It is not true that if the pizza is delivered, then the breadsticks are cold.
4. Use simple statements \(p\), \(q\), \(r\), and \(s\) to translate each symbolic statement into a word sentence. Then, determine the truth value of the resulting statement.
\(p\): The moon is made of cheese. \(q\): We live on Earth. \(r\): Earth has one moon. \(s\): Earth is flat.
- \(\sim p\)
- \(p \vee q\)
- \(q \wedge r\)
- \(\sim(p \wedge r)\)
- \(r \rightarrow p\)
- \(p \rightarrow q\)
- \(p \leftrightarrow s\)
5. Complete the partial truth tables below to determine the truth value of the statements in the last column.
a.
\(\begin{array}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|}
\hline p & q & r & p \vee q & (\sim p \vee q) & \sim r & {\sim(p \vee q) \rightarrow \sim r} \\
\hline \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{} & \mathrm{} & \mathrm{} & \mathrm{}\\
\hline
\end{array}\)
b.
\(\begin{array}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|}
\hline p & q & \sim q & p \rightarrow q & \sim (p \rightarrow q) & p \ \wedge \sim q & {\sim(p \rightarrow q) \leftrightarrow (p \ \wedge \sim q)} \\
\hline \mathrm{T} & \mathrm{F} & \mathrm{} & \mathrm{} & \mathrm{} & \mathrm{} & \mathrm{}\\ \hline
\end{array}\)
6. Create a complete truth table for each compound statement. Then tell whether the statement is a tautology, self-contradiction , or neither .
- \(p \; \wedge \sim q\)
- \(q \ \wedge \sim(\sim p \vee q)\)
- \(p \rightarrow (\sim q \vee p)\)
- \((\sim p \ \vee \sim q) \leftrightarrow q\)
- \((p \ \vee q) \rightarrow \; \sim r\)
7. Use the order of logical operations to determine the truth value of each compound statement.
- \(\sim q \rightarrow \sim p \vee q\) when \(p\) is true and \(q\) is false.
- \(\sim (p \ \wedge q) \leftrightarrow \sim p \ \vee \sim r\) when \(p\) is true, \(q\) is false, and \(r\) is false.
8. Use a truth table to determine whether the two statements are logically equivalent.
\(\sim (p \wedge q)\) and \(\sim p \; \wedge \sim q\)
9. Use one of DeMorgan’s Laws to rewrite each statement.
- It is not true that Tina likes Sprite or 7-Up.
- It is not the case that you need a dated receipt and your credit card to return this item.
- I am not going or she is not going.
10. Use one of DeMorgan's Laws to select the statement that is equivalent to the negation of " Today is Monday and it isn't raining. "
- Today isn't Monday and it isn't raining.
- Today isn't Monday or it isn't raining.
- Today isn't Monday or it is raining.
- Today isn't Monday and it is raining.
11. Rewrite each statement using the logical equivalency provided.
- If you were talking, then you missed the instructions.
- It is not true that if Luke faces Vader, then Obi-Wan cannot interfere.
- If you don’t look both ways before crossing the street, then you will get hit by a car.
12. Select the statement that is logically equivalent to " If we get a pay raise, then we will be happy. "
- We don't get a pay raise or we are happy.
- We get a pay raise and we are happy.
- We get a pay raise and we aren't happy.
- We don't get a pay raise or we aren't happy.
13. Select the statement that is logically equivalent to the negation of " If you know the password, then you can get in ."
- You know the password and you can get in.
- You don't know the password or you can get in.
- You don't know the password and you can't get in.
- You know the password and you can't get in.
14. Consider the conditional statement “ If you read a newspaper, then you will learn something. ”
- Write its converse.
- Write its inverse.
- Write its contrapositive.
15. Consider the conditional statement “ If you are under age 17, then you cannot attend this movie. ”
- Write its converse.
- Write its inverse.
- Write its contrapositive.
16. Select the statement that is logically equivalent to “ If you eat that day-old burrito, you will use lots of hot sauce .”

- If you used lots of hot sauce, then you ate that day-old burrito.
- All three statements are equivalent to the given statement.
17. Select the statement that is logically equivalent to " If I don't invest wisely, then I'll lose my money. "
- If I lose my money, then I didn't invest wisely.
- If I don't lose my money, then I invested wisely.
- If I invest wisely, then I won't lose my money.
18.  Rewrite each argument symbolically. Then, determine whether the argument is valid or invalid.
- If you are a triathlete, then you have outstanding endurance. LeBron James is not a triathlete. Therefore, LeBron does not have outstanding endurance.
 Jamie refuses to scrub the toilets.
- If I don’t change my oil regularly, then my engine dies. My engine died. Therefore, I didn’t change my oil regularly.


9.20: Reading- Types of Brands
There Are Many Types of Brands
Many kinds of things can become brands. Different types of brands include individual products, product ranges, services, organizations, individual persons, groups, events, geographic places, private label brands, media, and e-brands.
Individual Brands
The most common type of brand is a tangible, individual product, such as a car or drink. This can be very specific, such as the Kleenex brand of tissues, or it can encompass a wide range of products. Product brands can also be associated with a range of offerings, such as the Mercedes S-class cars or all varieties of Colgate toothpaste.
Service Brands
A service brand develops as companies move from manufacturing products to delivering complete solutions and intangible services. Service brands are characterized by the need to maintain a consistently high level of service delivery. This category includes the following:
- Classic service brands (such as airlines, hotels, car rentals, and banks)
- Pure service providers (such as member associations)
- Professional service brands (such as advisers of all kinds—accountancy, management consultancy)
- Agents (such as travel agents and estate agents)
- Retail brands (such as supermarkets, fashion stores, and restaurants)
Organization Brands
Organization brands are companies and other entities that deliver products and services. Mercedes and the U.S. Senate each possess strong organization brands, and each has associated qualities that make up their brand. Organizations can also be linked closely with the brand of an individual. For example, the U.S. Democratic party is closely linked with Bill and Hillary Clinton and Barack Obama.
Personal Brands
A person can be considered a brand. It can be comprised of one individual, as in the cases of Oprah Winfrey or Mick Jagger. Or it may be composed of a few individuals, where the branding is associated with different personalities. With the advent of the Internet and social media, the phenomenon of personal branding offers tools and techniques for virtually anyone to create a brand around themselves.
Group Brands
Group branding happens when there is a small group of branded entities that have overlapping, interconnected brand equity. For example, the OWN group brand of the Oprah Winfrey Network and the brand of its known members (Oprah and her team) are strongly connected. Similarly, the Rolling Stones represents a group brand that is strongly associated with the personal brands of its members (most enduringly, Mick Jagger, Keith Richards, Ronnie Wood, and Charlie Watts).
Event Brands
Events can become brands when they strive to deliver a consistent experience that attracts consumer loyalty. Examples include conferences the TED series; music festivals like Coachella or SXSW; sporting events like the Olympics or NASCAR; and touring Broadway musicals like Wicked . The strength of these brands depends on the experience of people attending the event. Savvy brand managers from product, service, and other types of brands realize the power of event brands and seek to have their brands associated with the event brands through sponsorships. Event sponsorship is now a thriving big business.
Geographic Place Brands
Many places or areas of the world seek to brand themselves to build awareness of the essential qualities they offer. Branded places can range from countries and states to cities, streets, and even buildings. Those who govern or represent these geographies work hard to develop the brand. Geographic branding is used frequently to attract commerce and economic investment, tourism, new residents, and so on.
Private-Label Brands
Private-label brands, also called own brands, or store brands, exist among retailers that possess a particularly strong identity (such as Save-A-Lot). Private labels may denote superior, “select” quality, or lower cost for a quality product.
Media Brands
Media brands include newspapers, magazines, and television channels such as CNN.
E-Brands
E-brands exist only in the virtual world. Many e-brands, such as Amazon.com, have a central focus on providing an online front end for delivering physical products or services. Others provide information and intangible services to benefit consumers. Typically a common denominator among e-brands is the focus on delivering a valued service or experience in the virtual environment.
Contributors and Attributions
- Revision and adaptation. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Licensing, Chapter 6: Marketing in global markets in Introducing Marketing. Authored by : John Burnett. Provided by : Global Text. Located at : solr.bccampus.ca:8001/bcc/file/ddbe3343-9796-4801-a0cb-7af7b02e3191/1/Core%20Concepts%20of%20Marketing.pdf. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Branding, from Introduction to Business. Authored by : Linda Williams and Lumen Learning. Located at : courses.candelalearning.com/masterybusiness2xngcxmasterfall2015/chapter/reading-branding-labeling-and-packaging/. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


16.6: Appendix 1 Homework Problems
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Determine the \(x\) and \(y\) components of the force vector shown below.
- Solution:
-
\(F_x = 692.8 \ N\)
\(F_y = 400 N\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\)
Determine the \(x\), \(y\), and \(z\) components of the vector shown below.
- Solution:
-
\(F_x = 4.17 \ kN\)
\(F_y = 2.54 \ kN\)
\(F_z = -3.50 \ kN\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\)
An 80-lb tension acts along a cable stretching from point O to point A. Based on the dimensions given, break the tension force shown into \(x\), \(y\), and \(z\) components.
- Solution:
-
\(F_x = 56.47 \ lbs\)
\(F_y = -37.64 \ lbs\)
\(F_z = 42.35 \ lbs\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{4}\)
Determine the \(x\) and \(y\) components of the sum of the two vectors shown below.
- Solution:
-
\(F_{total} = [58.2, 41.7] \ lbs\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{5}\)
There are two forces acting on a barge as shown below (\(\vec{F}_1\) and \(\vec{F}_2\)). The magnitude and direction of \(\vec{F}_1\) is known, but the magnitude and direction of \(\vec{F}_2\) is not. If the sum of the two forces is 600 N along the \(x\)-axis, what must the magnitude and direction of \(\vec{F}_2\) be?
- Solution:
-
\(\vec{F}_2 = 390.3 \ N\), at 41.2° below the x-axis


2.8: §14. Patterns of Change in Form
The vocabulary of this chapter has shown various degrees of change that Latin nouns may undergo in becoming English words. We can establish a sort of spectrum of MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGE , ranging from the least modified to the totally transformed.
1.
The Latin word appears in English without any change in form
:
arena
,
camera
,
campus
,
circus
,
forum
,
odium
2.
The Latin noun base becomes the English derivative
:
L.
forma
> E
form
, L
campus
> E
camp
, L
signum
E
sign
3.
The Latin word is modified on consistent principles
:
a. The English word is the Latin base plus silent -e
L
causa
> E
cause
, L
fortuna
> E
fortune
, L
modus
> E mode
b. Latin
-tia
or –
tium
or –
cium
becomes English –
ce
[1]
L
gratia
> E
grace
, L
vitium
> E
vice
, L
officium
> E
office
c. Latin –
ia
or –
ium
becomes English –
y
L
gloria
> E
glory,
L
lilium
>
E
lily
4.
The Latin word undergoes a major and unpredictable change in form
:
L.
camera
> E
chamber
, L
radius
> E
ray
, L.
granum
> E
grain
As you may have surmised, most of the changes in types 2 to 4 occurred during and after transmission through French. Many lst declension nouns, for example, survive as French words in – e (type 3.a); cf. L terra > F terre , L luna > F lune . In the Old French period (12th century), words like gloria , memoria , and victoria had assumed the form glorie , mémorie , and victorie , whence English glory , memory , and victory (type 3.c). Later they evolved into modern French gloire , mémoire , and victoire . At a fairly recent date, English borrowed the word memoir from modern French. Thus memoir and memory are English doublets.
-
Latin
-gium
might also become English
-ge
, as L
vestigium
(“footprint”) > E
vestige
, and L
collegium
(“guild”) > E.
college
. ↵


7.7: Transitions- Developing Relationships between Ideas
Once you have a main idea, and supporting ideas, how can you be sure that your readers will understand the relationships between them? How are the ideas connected? One way to emphasize these relationships and logical connections is using clear transitions between ideas as illustrated in Figure 7.4 .
Figure 7.4: Transitioning between ideas
Think of transitions as segues that help the reader move from one idea to another . Rather than leaping to a new idea, a transition weaves thoughts together. Transitions signal the order of ideas, highlight relationships, unify concepts, let readers know what’s coming next, or remind them about what’s already been covered. When instructors or peers comment that your writing is choppy, abrupt, or needs to flow better, you might need to work on building some better transitions into your writing. If a reader comments that they are not sure how something relates to your thesis or main idea, a transition is probably the right tool for the job. You should build solid transitions during the drafting phase. See Film Clip 7.1 about transitional words.
Film Clip 7.1 : Transitional words [1:23]
Sentence-level transitions
Transitions between sentences often use connecting words to emphasize relationships between one sentence and another. See Table 7.3 for examples of how to show connections between ideas in adjacent sentences.
Table 7.3: Examples of showing connections between sentences.
| Showing connections | Examples |
|---|---|
|
Words that indicate similarity include: also, similarly, and likewise. |
In my practice, I have observed nurses demonstrate empathy by engaging in active listening with clients. In the same way , I have practiced empathetic behaviours by acknowledging clients’ feelings and probing further about their emotions. |
|
Words that indicate contrast include: despite, on the other hand, in contrast, and yet. |
Mortecai (2019) found that handwashing is vital to reducing nosocomial infections. However , Barton (2020) and Latai and Leung (2020) have indicated that only 75% of healthcare providers effectively practice hand hygiene. |
|
Words that indicate examples include: for instance, for example, specifically, and to illustrate. |
The cost of college tuition is higher than ever, so students are becoming increasingly motivated to keep costs as low as possible. For example , some students are renting books instead of buying books. |
|
Words that indicate cause and effect include: therefore, so, and thus. |
Davaine notes that sugar leads to ill-health effects. Therefore , it is important to examine sugar consumption and read food labels. |
|
Words that indicate additional support include: also, besides, equally important, and additionally. |
Researchers have noted that sugar leads to ill-health effects. Equally important , it has been noted that foods high in saturated fats increase risks for cardiovascular disease. |
Paragraph- or section-level transitions
It’s important to consider how to emphasize the relationships not just between sentences but also between paragraphs . See Table 7.4 for strategies to help you show your readers how the main ideas of your paragraphs relate to each other and also to your paper’s main idea/thesis.
Table 7.4: Examples of showing connections between paragraphs
| Showing connections | Examples |
|---|---|
|
Signposts are words or phrases that indicate where you are in the process of organizing an idea. They might indicate that you are introducing a new concept, summarizing an idea, or concluding your thoughts. They may include words like: first, then, next, finally, in sum, and in conclusion. |
The first problem with this practice is… The next thing to consider is… Some final thoughts about this topic are… |
|
As you conclude a paragraph, you may want to give a hint about what’s coming in the next paragraph or section. Forward-looking sentences at the end of paragraphs can help provide a transition and prepare your readers for the next paragraphs. Don’t leave your readers hanging by introducing a completely new or unrelated topic. |
Walking has positive effects on physical health, but it also offers other benefits. |
|
Rather than concluding a paragraph by looking forward, you might instead begin a paragraph by looking back. Backward-looking sentences at the beginning of paragraphs can be helpful as a review. |
While the physical benefits of walking are great, the benefits of walking to mental health cannot be overlooked. |
A word of caution
Be careful not to overuse transitions in your writing – your readers will quickly find them tiring or obvious. Try to find creative ways to let your readers know where they are situated within the ideas presented in your writing. Here is an example of the overuse of transitions:
Sugar is a common additive in many foods. Historically, it was socialized as a luxury food item (let them eat cake!). Today, sugar is highly pervasive. Similarly, it is also highly addictive, as research has demonstrated tolerances to sugar and the desire to consume more, the more one eats. Consequently, we are seeing ill-health effects from the overconsumption of sugar.
Attribution statement
Content from this page was remixed with our own original content, and adapted, with editorial and organizational changes, from:
The Word on College Reading and Writing by Carol Burnell, Jaime Wood, Monique Babin, Susan Pesznecker, and Nicole Rosevear, licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.Download for free at: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/wrd/


2.2.3: The Corporate Veil- The Corporation as a Legal Entity
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Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Know what rights a corporate “person” and a natural person have in common.
- Recognize when a corporate “veil” is pierced and shareholder liability is imposed.
- Identify other instances when a shareholder will be held personally liable.
In comparing partnerships and corporations, there is one additional factor that ordinarily tips the balance in favor of incorporating: the corporation is a legal entity in its own right, one that can provide a “veil” that protects its shareholders from personal liability.
This crucial factor accounts for the development of much of corporate law. Unlike the individual actor in the legal system, the corporation is difficult to deal with in conventional legal terms. The business of the sole proprietor and the sole proprietor herself are one and the same. When a sole proprietor makes a decision, she risks her own capital. When the managers of a corporation take a corporate action, they are risking the capital of others—the shareholders. Thus accountability is a major theme in the system of law constructed to cope with legal entities other than natural persons.
The Basic Rights of the Corporate “Person”
To say that a corporation is a “person” does not automatically describe what its rights are, for the courts have not accorded the corporation every right guaranteed a natural person. Yet the Supreme Court recently affirmed in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010) that the government may not suppress the First Amendment right of political speech because the speaker is a corporation rather than a natural person. According to the Court, “No sufficient governmental interest justifies limits on the political speech of nonprofit or for-profit corporations.” Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission , 558 U.S. ___ (2010).
The courts have also concluded that corporations are entitled to the essential constitutional protections of due process and equal protection. They are also entitled to Fourth Amendment protection against unreasonable search and seizure; in other words, the police must have a search warrant to enter corporate premises and look through files. Warrants, however, are not required for highly regulated industries, such as those involving liquor or guns. The Double Jeopardy Clause applies to criminal prosecutions of corporations: an acquittal cannot be appealed nor can the case be retried. For purposes of the federal courts’ diversity jurisdiction, a corporation is deemed to be a citizen of both the state in which it is incorporated and the state in which it has its principal place of business (often, the corporate “headquarters”).
Until relatively recently, few cases had tested the power of the state to limit the right of corporations to spend their own funds to speak the “corporate mind.” Most cases involving corporate free speech address advertising, and few states have enacted laws that directly impinge on the freedom of companies to advertise. But those states that have done so have usually sought to limit the ability of corporations to sway voters in public referenda. In 1978, the Supreme Court finally confronted the issue head on in First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti (Section 21.7.1 “Limiting a Corporation’s First Amendment Rights”). The ruling in Bellotti was reaffirmed by the Supreme Court in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission . In Citizens United , the Court struck down the part of the McCain-Feingold Act The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (BCRA, McCain–Feingold Act, Pub.L. 107-155, 116 Stat. 81, enacted March 27, 2002, H.R. 2356). that prohibited all corporations, both for-profit and not-for-profit, and unions from broadcasting “electioneering communications.”
Absence of Rights
Corporations lack certain rights that natural persons possess. For example, corporations do not have the privilege against self-incrimination guaranteed for natural persons by the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments. In any legal proceeding, the courts may force a corporation to turn over incriminating documents, even if they also incriminate officers or employees of the corporation. As we explore in Chapter 25, corporations are not citizens under the Privileges and Immunities Clause of the Constitution, so that the states can discriminate between domestic and foreign corporations. And the corporation is not entitled to federal review of state criminal convictions, as are many individuals.
Piercing the Corporate Veil
Given the importance of the corporate entity as a veil that limits shareholder liability, it is important to note that in certain circumstances, the courts may reach beyond the wall of protection that divides a corporation from the people or entities that exist behind it. This is known as piercing the corporate veil, and it will occur in two instances: (1) when the corporation is used to commit a fraud or an injustice and (2) when the corporation does not act as if it were one.
Fraud
The Felsenthal Company burned to the ground. Its president, one of the company’s largest creditors and also virtually its sole owner, instigated the fire. The corporation sued the insurance company to recover the amount for which it was insured. According to the court in the Felsenthal case, “The general rule of law is that the willful burning of property by a stockholder in a corporation is not a defense against the collection of the insurance by the corporation, and…the corporation cannot be prevented from collecting the insurance because its agents willfully set fire to the property without the participation or authority of the corporation or of all of the stockholders of the corporation.” D. I. Felsenthal Co. v. Northern Assurance Co., Ltd. , 284 Ill. 343, 120 N.E. 268 (1918). But because the fire was caused by the beneficial owner of “practically all” the stock, who also “has the absolute management of [the corporation’s] affairs and its property, and is its president,” the court refused to allow the company to recover the insurance money; allowing the company to recover would reward fraud. Felsenthal Co. v. Northern Assurance Co., Ltd. , 120 N.E. 268 (Ill. 1918).
Failure to Act as a Corporation
In other limited circumstances, individual stockholders may also be found personally liable. Failure to follow corporate formalities, for example, may subject stockholders to personal liability. This is a special risk that small, especially one-person, corporations run. Particular factors that bring this rule into play include inadequate capitalization, omission of regular meetings, failure to record minutes of meetings, failure to file annual reports, and commingling of corporate and personal assets. Where these factors exist, the courts may look through the corporate veil and pluck out the individual stockholder or stockholders to answer for a tort, contract breach, or the like. The classic case is the taxicab operator who incorporates several of his cabs separately and services them through still another corporation. If one of the cabs causes an accident, the corporation is usually “judgment proof” because the corporation will have few assets (practically worthless cab, minimum insurance). The courts frequently permit plaintiffs to proceed against the common owner on the grounds that the particular corporation was inadequately financed.
When a corporation owns a subsidiary corporation, the question frequently arises whether the subsidiary is acting as an independent entity (see Figure 21.2). The Supreme Court addressed this question of derivative versus direct liability of the corporate parent vis-à-vis its subsidiary in United States v. Bestfoods , (see Section 21.7.2 “Piercing the Corporate Veil”).
Other Types of Personal Liability
Even when a corporation is formed for a proper purpose and is operated as a corporation, there are instances in which individual shareholders will be personally liable. For example, if a shareholder involved in company management commits a tort or enters into a contract in a personal capacity, he will remain personally liable for the consequences of his actions. In some states, statutes give employees special rights against shareholders. For example, a New York statute permits employees to recover wages, salaries, and debts owed them by the company from the ten largest shareholders of the corporation. (Shareholders of public companies whose stock is traded on a national exchange or over the counter are exempt.) Likewise, federal law permits the IRS to recover from the “responsible persons” any withholding taxes collected by a corporation but not actually paid over to the US Treasury.
Key Takeaway
Corporations have some of the legal rights of a natural person. They are entitled to the constitutional protections of due process and equal protection, Fourth Amendment protection against unreasonable search and seizure, and First Amendment protection of free speech and expression. For purposes of the federal courts’ diversity jurisdiction, a corporation is deemed to be a citizen of both the state in which it is incorporated and the state in which it has its principal place of business. However, corporations do not have the privilege against self-incrimination guaranteed for natural persons by the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments. Further, corporations are not free from liability. Courts will pierce the corporate veil and hold a corporation liable when the corporation is used to perpetrate fraud or when it fails to act as a corporation.
Exercises
- Do you think that corporations should have rights similar to those of natural persons? Should any of these rights be curtailed?
- What is an example of speaking the “corporate mind”?
- If Corporation BCD’s president and majority stockholder secretly sells all of his stock before resigning a few days later, and the corporation’s unexpected change in majority ownership causes the share price to plummet, do corporate stockholders have a cause of action? If so, under what theory?


7.7: Culture War
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For all of its cultural ferment, however, the 1920s were also a difficult time for radicals and immigrants and anything “modern.” Fear of foreign radicals led to the executions of Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, two Italian anarchists, in 1927. In May 1920, the two had been arrested for robbery and murder connected with an incident at a Massachusetts factory. Their guilty verdicts were appealed for years as the evidence surrounding their convictions was slim. For instance, while one eyewitness claimed that Vanzetti drove the getaway car, accounts of others described a different person altogether. Nevertheless, despite worldwide lobbying by radicals and a respectable movement among middle-class Italian organizations in the United States, the two men were executed on August 23, 1927. Vanzetti conceivably provided the most succinct reason for his death, saying, “This is what I say . . . . I am suffering because I am a radical and indeed I am a radical; I have suffered because I was an Italian, and indeed I am an Italian.” 31
Many Americans expressed anxieties about the changes that had remade the United States and, seeking scapegoats, many middle-class white Americans pointed to Eastern European and Latin American immigrants (Asian immigration had already been almost completely prohibited), African Americans who now pushed harder for civil rights, and, after migrating out of the American South to northern cities as a part of the Great Migration, the mass exodus that carried nearly half a million blacks out of the South between 1910 and 1920. Protestants, meanwhile, continued to denounce the Roman Catholic Church and charged that American Catholics gave their allegiance to the pope and not to their country.
In 1921, Congress passed the Emergency Immigration Act as a stopgap immigration measure and then, three years later, permanently established country-of-origin quotas through the National Origins Act. The number of immigrants annually admitted to the United States from each nation was restricted to 2 percent of the population who had come from that country and resided in the United States in 1890. (By pushing back three decades, past the recent waves of “new” immigrants from southern and Eastern Europe, Latin America, and Asia, the law made it extremely difficult for immigrants outside northern Europe to legally enter the United States.) The act also explicitly excluded all Asians, although, to satisfy southern and western growers, it temporarily omitted restrictions on Mexican immigrants. The Sacco and Vanzetti trial and sweeping immigration restrictions pointed to a rampant nativism. A great number of Americans worried about a burgeoning America that did not resemble the one of times past. Many wrote of an American riven by a cultural war.


9.4: Fourier Sine and Cosine Series
The Fourier series simplifies if \(f(x)\) is an even function such that \(f(−x) = f(x)\), or an odd function such that \(f(−x) = −f(x)\). Use will be made of the following facts. The function \(\cos (n\pi x/L)\) is an even function and \(\sin (n\pi x/L)\) is an odd function. The product of two even functions is an even function. The product of two odd functions is an even function. The product of an even and an odd function is an odd function. And if \(g(x)\) is an even function, then \[\int_{-L}^Lg(x)dx=2\int_0^Lg(x)dx;\nonumber\] and if \(g(x)\) is an odd function, then \[\int_{-L}^Lg(x)dx=0.\nonumber\]
We examine in turn the Fourier series for an even or an odd function. First, if \(f(x)\) is even, then from (9.3.5) and (9.3.6) and our facts about even and odd functions, \[\begin{align}a_n&=\frac{2}{L}\int_0^L f(x)\cos\frac{n\pi x}{L}dx,\label{eq:1} \\ b_n&=0.\nonumber\end{align}\]
The Fourier series for an even function with period \(2L\) is thus given by the Fourier cosine series \[\label{eq:2}f(x)=\frac{a_0}{2}+\sum\limits_{n=1}^\infty a_n\cos\frac{n\pi x}{L},\quad f(x)\text{ even}.\]
Second, if \(f(x)\) is odd, then \[\begin{align} a_n&=0,\nonumber \\ b_n&=\frac{2}{L}\int_0^L f(x)\sin\frac{n\pi x}{L}dx;\label{eq:3}\end{align}\] and the Fourier series for an odd function with period \(2L\) is given by the Fourier sine series \[\label{eq:4}f(x)=\sum\limits_{n=1}^\infty b_n\sin\frac{n\pi x}{L},\quad f(x)\text{ odd.}\]
Examples of Fourier series computed numerically can be obtained using the Java applet found at http://www.falstad.com/fourier . Here, we demonstrate an analytical example.
Determine the Fourier cosine series of the even triangle function represented by Fig. \(\PageIndex{1}\).
Solution
The triangle function depicted in Fig. \(\PageIndex{1}\) is an even function of \(x\) with period \(2\pi\) (i.e., \(L =\pi\)). Its definition on \(0 < x <\pi\) is given by \[f(x)=1-\frac{2x}{\pi}.\nonumber\]
Because \(f(x)\) is even, it can be represented by the Fourier cosine series given by \(\eqref{eq:1}\) and \(\eqref{eq:2}\). The coefficient \(a_0\) is \[\begin{aligned}a_0&=\frac{2}{\pi}\int_0^\pi f(x)dx \\ &=\frac{2}{\pi}\int_0^{\pi}\left(1-\frac{2x}{\pi}\right)dx \\ &=\frac{2}{\pi}\left[x-\frac{x^2}{\pi}\right]_0^\pi \\ &=0.\end{aligned}\]
Note that \(a_0/2\) is the average value of \(f(x)\) over one period, and it is obvious from Fig. \(\PageIndex{1}\) that this value is zero. The coefficients for \(n > 0\) are \[\begin{aligned}a_n&=\frac{2}{\pi}\int_0^\pi f(x)\cos (nx)dx \\ &=\frac{2}{\pi}\int_0^\pi \left(1-\frac{2x}{\pi}\right)\cos (nx)dx \\ &=\frac{2}{\pi}\int_0^\pi \cos (nx)dx-\frac{4}{\pi^2}\int_0^\pi x\cos (nx)dx \\ &=\frac{2}{n\pi}\sin (nx)]_0^\pi -\frac{4}{\pi^2}\left\{\left[\frac{x}{n}\sin (nx)\right]_0^\pi -\frac{1}{n}\int_0^\pi \sin (nx)dx\right\} \\ &=\frac{4}{n\pi^2}\int_0^\pi \sin (nx)dx \\ &=-\frac{4}{n^2\pi^2}\cos (nx)]_0^\pi \\ &=\frac{4}{n^2\pi ^2}(1-\cos (n\pi )).\end{aligned}\]
Since \[\cos (n\pi )=\left\{\begin{array}{rl}-1,& \text{if }n\text{ odd;} \\ 1,&\text{if }n\text{ even;}\end{array}\right.\nonumber\] we have \[a_n=\left\{\begin{array}{rl}8/(n^2\pi^2),&\text{if }n\text{ odd;} \\ 0,&\text{if }n\text{ even.}\end{array}\right.\nonumber\]
The Fourier cosine series for the triangle function is therefore given by \[f(x)=\frac{8}{\pi^2}\left(\cos x+\frac{\cos 3x}{3^2}+\frac{\cos 5x}{5^2}+\cdots\right).\nonumber\]
Convergence of this series is rapid. As an interesting aside, evaluation of this series at \(x = 0\), using \(f(0) = 1\), yields an infinite series for \(\pi^2/8\): \[\frac{\pi^2}{8}=1+\frac{1}{3^2}+\frac{1}{5^2}+\cdots\nonumber\]
With Fourier series now included in our applied mathematics toolbox, we are ready to solve the diffusion and wave equations in bounded domains.


9.20: Putting It Together- Inference for Two Proportions
Let’s Summarize
In Inference for Two Proportions , we learned two inference procedures to draw conclusions about a difference between two population proportions (or about a treatment effect): (1) a confidence interval when our goal is to estimate the difference and (2) a hypothesis test when our goal is to test a claim about the difference. Both types of inference are based on the sampling distribution.
Distribution of the Differences in Sample Proportions
In the section “Distribution of Differences in Sample Proportions,” we learned about the sampling distribution of differences between sample proportions.
We used simulation to observe the behavior of sample differences when we select random samples from two populations. Every simulation began with an assumption about the difference between the two population proportions. From the simulated sampling distribution, we could determine if a sample difference observed in the data was likely or unlikely. A data result that is unlikely to occur in the sampling distribution provides evidence that our original assumption about the difference in the population proportions is probably incorrect. This logic is similar to the logic of hypothesis testing.
Because samples vary, we do not expect sample differences to always equal the population difference. Every sample difference has some error. We used simulations to observe the amount of error we expected to see in sample differences. The “typical” amount of error in the sampling distribution connects to the margin of error in a confidence interval.
We also used simulations to describe the shape, center, and spread of the sampling distribution. Later we developed a mathematical model for the sampling distribution with formulas for the mean of the sample differences and the standard deviation of the sample differences. We call this standard deviation the standard error because it represents an estimate for the average error we see in sample differences.
The mean of sample differences between sample proportions is equal to the difference between the population proportions, p 1 − p 2 .
The standard error of differences between sample proportions is related to the population proportions and the sample sizes.
A normal model is a good fit for the sampling distribution of differences between sample proportions under certain conditions. We use a normal model if the counts of expected successes and failures are at least 10. For those who like formulas, this translates into saying the following four calculations must all be at least 10.
- n 1 p 1
- n 1 (1 − p 1 )
- n 2 p 2
- n 2 (1 − p 2 )
Estimating the Difference between Two Population Proportions
In the section “Estimate the Difference between Population Proportions,” we learned how to calculate a confidence interval to estimate the difference between two population proportions (or to estimate a treatment effect).
Every confidence interval has the form:
To estimate a difference in population proportions (or a treatment effect), the statistic is a difference in sample proportions. So the confidence interval is
Also, since we do not know the values of the population proportions, we estimate the standard error by using sample proportions in the formula for the margin of error.
Here are the critical Z -values for commonly used confidence levels.
| Confidence Level | Critical Value Z c |
| 90% | 1.645 |
| 95% | 1.960 |
| 99% | 2.576 |
The connection between the confidence level and critical Z -value depends on the use of a normal model. We use a normal model if each sample has at least 10 successes and failures.
We practiced interpreting confidence intervals and confidence levels. For example, we say we are “95% confident” that the population difference lies within the calculated confidence interval. We do not say there is a 95% chance that the population difference lies within the calculated interval. 95% confident means that in the long run 95% of the confidence intervals will contain the population differences.
Hypothesis Test for a Difference in Two Population Proportions
In the section “Hypothesis Test for a Difference in Population Proportions,” we tested claims regarding the difference between two population proportions (or a treatment effect).
In testing such claims, the null hypothesis is
- H 0 : p 1 − p 2 = 0
The alternative hypothesis is one of three:
- H a : p 1 − p 2 < 0, or
- H a : p 1 − p 2 > 0, or
- H a : p 1 − p 2 ≠ 0
These are equivalent to the following comparisons of p 1 and p 2 .
- H a : p 1 < p 2
- H a : p 1 > p 2
- H a : p 1 ≠ p 2
We use the same criteria for determining if a normal model is a good fit for the sampling distribution: each sample must have at least 10 successes and failures.
In a hypothesis test, we assume the null hypothesis is true. Since we do not have values for p 1 and p 2 , we again use sample data to estimate them. In the null hypothesis the population proportions are equal, so we create a single-value estimate for the population proportions using the pooled proportion.
With this pooled proportion, we estimate the standard error to compute the Z -test statistic for the hypothesis test. We can always view the z -score as the error in the statistic divided by the standard error. In a hypothesis test, we predict the error on the basis of the null, and we estimate the standard error.
If the conditions for approximate normality are met, this standardized statistic is approximately normal. This fact allows us to determine a P-value using computer software.
Whenever the P-value is less than or equal to the level of significance, we reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative. Otherwise, we fail to reject (but do not support) the null hypothesis.
Because our conclusions are based on probability, there is always a chance that our data will lead us to an incorrect conclusion. We make a type I error when we reject a true null hypothesis. We make a type II error when we fail to reject a false null hypothesis. These errors are not the result of a mistake. They are due to chance.
The level of significance, α, is the probability of a type I error. The probability of a type II error is harder to calculate. We did not learn to calculate type II error. Small values of α increase the probability of a type II error. Larger samples sizes decrease the probability of a type II error.
Finally, we should always remember “garbage in, garbage out.” If random selection or random assignment is not used to produce the data, we should not do inference.
Contributors and Attributions
- Concepts in Statistics. Provided by : Open Learning Initiative. Located at : http://oli.cmu.edu . License : CC BY: Attribution


12.4: Contributing Existing Content (FAQ)
Is LibreTexts currently accepting proposals for new textbooks?
Yes. The LibreTexts is a community based project and always will accept new (quality) content.
Is there a cost to the author or organization to host a book on LibreTexts?
No .
Is there a process for authors to upload and maintain their material on the site?
Yes. All contributed content is stored in a wiki-based architecture which is the ideal technology for community-based construction and community-based curation.
The best practice to follow for integrating content depends strongly on the format of the content (e.g., handwritten notes, PDF, word doc, Google doc, latex etc). The LibreTexts development team will facility this process if the author(s) decides to personally contribute content and if the authors desire, the LibreTexts Development team will integrate the text direct into our platform if requested.
Curation is a simpler process and involves directly editing content on our platform via a GUI (graphical user interface) or direct editing of the underlying HTML code; most people chose the former option. Since the LibreTexts is the most visited OER platform on the internet today with over 80 million pageviews per year, we receive requests and concerns from faculty and students about content that we share with contributing authors to address. This feedback mechanism is an important tool in ensuring constant curation of contributed content.
How do authors get attribution for contributing content?
Each page of each book that is hosted on our platform can have an author bar added that includes author name (with a link to their individual webpage), their position and institution (with a link to their campus/dept. website) and if publishing source (if desired). Also, includes is a small avatar pic of the author. This template can be modified to address multiple authors. For example, Timon Idema's author bar below:
We also add author names to the textbook URL and textbook title
and if the content is remixable (i.e., does not have a No-Derivative clause), the we add a section at the bottom call "Contributors" to carry over in remixes.
How do authors get credit for contributing content?
Other than the "infinity glory and fame" associated with contributing content via the attribution aspects discussed above, the LibreTexts will track student activity on contributed content including how many student visit constituent pages, when student visited these pages, where the students are located and how long the students were reading these pages. This information can be used for both contributing authors' Merit and Promotions packets for demonstrating teaching impact. Moreover, if the contributed book were generated via a grant support, then this information can be used as a metric for deliverable (e.g. in grant reports or proposals like Broader Impacts in NSF proposals).
Remixing Control
There are many advantages to allowing for a dynamic on-line version of the book which can be updated by experts in the field. We understand that LibreTexts will provide the ability to reuse content from several books. How will LibreTexts handle author attribution for remixed books?
When authors remix existing content and do not change/customize that content, the page effectively gets copied over with authors preserved (i.e., an authorbar set to you with a meta-tag and we will add your name to the "Contributors" section at the bottom of each page. If someone edits the page (e.g., removes content that they do not care for) and adds something, then they can add their name to the contributor section. Your name in all those places will be preserved indefinitely.
Version Control
You are asking about revision control, which is an interesting topic. We are still working on the best workflow, but we intend to keep track of the original source page (or page #ID) so that we can compare the edits on each page. We have the capabilities of doing that with native tools on our platform, but we will set up a Gitlab instance that will bring arguably the best version control software into our platform and allow authors (both those that wrote the original content and those faculty that build remixes from the source material) to cherry pick changes they may or may not want to implement/share among the forked pages. I think this is really cool and I hope to have it operating natively on our platform by the end of this year.
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Unfortunately, zealots can hijack the website to promote their own propaganda or theories of the universe. I was told that the LibreTexts website will be curated to help maintain the quality and accuracy. Is this correct, and who will curate the LibreText website? Will it involve the original author?
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We currently do not stream from our servers. We can embed images via secondary servers like YouTube and can store the whole video (e.g., as MP4). We have had discussions of moving into streaming to avoid several issues with YouTube (e.g., ads).
Long-term Viability
Major books in Classical mechanics, such as Goldstein’s book, published in 1950, remain available in libraries and from book publishers, providing valuable long-term access. Such long-term availability of textbooks is important in science. LibreTexts is based on the proprietary closed platform maintained by Mindtouch. If that company goes out of business, will LibreTexts have the resources to migrate to an open platform to provide a viable long-term repository?
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2.1: Microbiology Regulations
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The Total Coliform Rule (TCR), a National Primary Drinking Water Regulation (NPDWR), rule sets a health goal (Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG)) and legal limits (Maximum Contaminant Levels, MCLs)) for the presence of total coliforms in drinking water.
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2.2: Water Chemistry and Standards
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Water treatment is a complex process that involves parts that the human eye cannot see. In this chapter, you will learn about the basic scientific principals related to the water treatment. We will also discuss drinking water standards in the United States and different community standards.
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2.3: Microorganisms
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The most important job of a Water Treatment Operator is providing reliable and quality water to the public. This is accomplished through chemical deactivation or physical removal of disease-causing microorganisms in the water. Microorganisms are deactivated by the addition of a chemical such as Chlorine or Ozone while physical removal is accomplished with the use of a filtration system.


17.5B: Food Spoilage by Microbes
- Describe the process of food spoilage
Food spoilage is the process in which food deteriorates to the point that it is not edible to humans or its quality of edibility becomes reduced. Various external forces are responsible for the spoilage of food. Food that is capable of spoiling is referred to as perishable food.
Harvested crops decompose from the moment they are harvested due to attacks from microorganisms.
Various bacteria can be responsible for the spoilage of food. When bacteria breaks down the food, acids and other waste products are created in the process. While the bacteria itself may or may not be harmful, the waste products may be unpleasant to taste or may even be harmful to one’s health.
Yeasts can be responsible for the decomposition of food with a high sugar content. The same effect is useful in the production of various types of food and beverages, such as bread, yogurt, cider, and alcoholic beverages.
Signs of food spoilage may include an appearance different from the food in its fresh form, such as a change in color, a change in texture, an unpleasant odor, or an undesirable taste. The item may become softer than normal. If mold occurs, it is often visible externally on the item.
Some spoiled foods are harmless to eat, and may simply be diminished in quality. But foods exhibiting certain types of spoilage may be harmful to consume. Uncooked or under-cooked animal flesh that spoils is typically quite toxic, and consumption can result in serious illness or death. The toxic effects from consuming spoiled food are known colloquially as “food poisoning”, and more properly as “foodborne illness. ”
Key Points
- Bacteria can cause food spoilage by breaking down the food, producing acids or other waste products during this process.
- Harvested crops decompose from the moment they are harvested due to attacks from microorganisms.
- Signs of food spoilage may include an appearance different from the food in its fresh form, such as a change in color, a change in texture, an unpleasant odor, or an undesirable taste.
Key Terms
- food spoilage : Food spoilage is the process in which food deteriorates to the point that it is not edible to humans or its quality of edibility becomes reduced.
- microorganisms : A microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism that comprises either a single cell (unicellular), cell clusters, or multicellular relatively complex organisms.
- bacteria : A type, species, or strain of bacterium.