10.6: Contraception
Purpose and Effectiveness of Contraceptives
Using Contraceptives has two main purposes:
- Reduce the chance of unwanted pregnancies
- Reduce the transmission of Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Some birth control methods may be more effective for reducing unwanted pregnancies, whereas other methods may be more effective for reducing the transmission of STD’s. There are many different types of contraceptives, it is important to know and understand the effectiveness from both perspectives in order to make the best decision.
In terms of reducing unwanted pregnancies, the effectiveness is also impacted by the way in which the contraceptive method is used. If a person uses the method perfectly, Perfect Use Effectiveness , it will have a higher effectiveness than those who are considered typical users, Typical Use Effectiveness .
The contraceptive effectiveness rate, or failure rate, is calculated based on typical use as the percentage of typical couples who use the method for one full year and experience an unintended pregnancy.
There are two main categories for birth control methods, reversible methods and permanent methods . Reversible methods may use hormones, a barrier, or fertility awareness to reduce the chance of pregnancy.
Reversible Methods for Birth Control
Reversible methods for birth control refer to birth control methods where users can stop using the method and become pregnant. There are three main types of reversible contraceptives, hormonal methods, barrier methods, and Fertility-Awareness Methods.
Hormonal Methods
When a woman is pregnant they no longer release an egg each month and if there is no egg released, they cannot become pregnant. Hormonal methods reduce the chance of pregnancy by providing hormones to the woman that tricks the woman’s body into thinking they are pregnant, thus the egg is not released each month. There are several different hormonal methods that each provide the hormones to the woman in a different way.
HORMONAL METHODS DO NOT PROTECT AGAINST SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES BUT ARE EFFECTIVE FOR BIRTH CONTROL.
Barrier Methods
In order for pregnancy to occur the egg from a woman and the sperm from a man must meet. If the sperm fertilizes the egg then conception, or pregnancy, occurs. Barrier methods of birth control work by creating a barrier in which the egg and sperm cannot meet.
Permanent Methods of Birth Control
Permanent methods of birth control are also referred to as sterilization. These methods are for those who are sure that they do not want to conceive a child. Women choosing a permanent method can have their fallopian tubes tied or closed off, called a tubal ligation, or they can choose to have a small tube inserted into the fallopian tubes, called transcervical sterilization, which irritates the fallopian tubes causing scar tissue to form and close off the tubes. Men commonly get a vasectomy which is an outpatient procedure in which the tube that carries sperm it cut.
Highly Effective Reversible Birth Control Methods
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Abstinence
- Description: The only 100% effective means of unintended pregnancy and STD transmission is abstinence from oral, anal, or vaginal intercourse
- Contraceptive Effectiveness Rate, or Typical Use Failure Rate: 0%
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IntraUterine Device (IUD), Copper IUD ( ParaGard ), Levonorgestrel-Releasing IUD (Mirena)
- Description: As the name suggests, this is a device that goes inside (intra) the woman’s uterus. There are two types of IUD’s, one contains hormones and the other does not. The IUD is a T-shaped device that is inserted into the uterus. The Copper IUD can stay in the uterus up to 10 years and the hormonal IUD, the levonorgetrel-releasing IUD, can remain in the uterus for 5 years.
- Type: Reversible, some are hormonal methods
- Use: The IUD is inserted into the Uterus by a physician during a routine office visit through a non-surgical procedure.
- Contraceptive Effectiveness Rate, or Typical Use Failure Rate: less than 1%
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The Implant, Implanon
- Description: The hormonal implant is a small match sized stick that is inserted into the woman’s upper arm and releases hormones (progestin only) for 3 years.
- Type: Reversible, hormonal method
- Use: The implant is a minor surgical procedure. Woman choosing the implant must make an appointment with their doctor for the procedure. The stick is inserted into the inside upper arm just under the skin.
- Contraceptive Effectiveness Rate, or Typical Use Failure Rate: 0.05%
Moderately Effective Reversible Birth Control Methods
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The Pill, combination pill, mini-pill
- Description: The pill is an oral contraceptive. The combination pill includes both estrogen and progestin, however the mini-pill contains only progestin. The Progestin only mini-pill may be a good option for woman who cannot take estrogen. Pill packs contain 28 pills. For three weeks, 21 days, the pills contain hormones and the fourth week the pills are placebo pills without hormones. The week with no hormones is when the menstrual cycle occurs.
- Type: Reversible, hormonal method
- Use: Women who choose to use the pill swallow a single pill every day. It is very important that the pill is taken at the same time each day. The effectiveness of the pill is lowered if it is not used correctly. If the pill is ingested at different times each day or if the woman forgets to take a pill and takes two the next day it will not be as effective at reducing the chance for pregnancy.
- Contraceptive Effectiveness Rate, or Typical Use Failure Rate: 9%
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The Shot, Injectable contraceptives, Depo-Provera
- Description: The shot is an injectable contraceptive which means the woman has to go to the doctor to receive an injection of hormones.
- Type: Reversible, hormonal method
- Use: Woman who choose an injectable contraceptive get a shot either once every three months.
- Contraceptive Effectiveness Rate, or Typical Use Failure Rate: 6%
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The Patch, dermal (placed on the skin for absorption), Ortho Evra
- Description: The skin patch provides hormones to women by means of absorption through the skin.
- Type: Reversible, hormonal method
- Use: Woman using the patch place it on their body typically on the buttocks, stomach, or upper body. The patch is replaced every week for three weeks and the fourth week no patch is used.
- Contraceptive Effectiveness Rate, or Typical Use Failure Rate: 9%
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The Ring, Hormonal Vaginal Contraceptive Ring, NuvaRing
- Description: The vaginal ring is a soft silicon ring closely resembling a bracelet in size. The Ring contains hormones that are absorbed into the woman’s body for 3 weeks.
- Type: Reversible, hormonal method
- Use: The ring is inserted into the vagina, similarly to the way a tampon is inserted, and stays in place for 3 weeks while slowly releasing hormones. The ring is removed for the fourth week and menstrual flow begins.
- Contraceptive Effectiveness Rate, or Typical Use Failure Rate: 9%
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Diaphragm or cervical cap
- Description: The diaphragm and Cervical Cap both have the same purpose, to cover the entrance to the uterus by providing a barrier to prevent sperm from entering the woman’s body. Both are shaped like a small cup and used along with spermicide. A consultation with a doctor is important to ensure the proper size is used. If a woman gains or loses significant weight or gives birth the woman will need to see a doctor again to ensure the correct size is used.
- Type: Reversible, barrier method
- Use: The woman inserts the diaphragm or cervical cap along with spermicide.
- Contraceptive Effectiveness Rate, or Typical Use Failure Rate: 12%
Least Effective Reversible Birth Control Methods
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Male Condom
- Description: The male condom is a thin sheath that covers the penis, thus creating a barrier that should not allow the sperm to enter the woman’s body. Male condoms are usually made from latex, however there alternative materials such as “natural” or “lambskin”. Research shows latex are more effective for reducing STD’s and pregnancies.
- Type: Reversible, barrier method
- Use: It is very important to use male condoms correctly! Correct use means purchasing the appropriate size, checking to make sure they are stored correctly and used before the expiration date, putting the condom on before any penetration, opening the condom carefully and ensuring to pinch the tip of the condom prior to carefully rolling the condom onto the erect penis, not using oil based lubricants, not reusing a condom, and not using more than one condom at a time.
- Contraceptive Effectiveness Rate, or Typical Use Failure Rate: 18%
- STD Protection: When used correctly, the male condom can be an effective method to reduce the transmission of STD’s. Studies have been conducted comparing HIV infection rates between condom users and non-condom user and have shown high effectiveness in reducing the transmission of HIV.
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Female Condom
- Description: The female condom is a thin pouch that is inserted into the vagina in order to create a barrier to stop the sperm from entering the woman’s body.
- Type: Reversible, barrier method
- Use: The female condom is used with a lubricant and can be inserted into the vagina up to 8 hours before intercourse.
- Contraceptive Effectiveness Rate, or Typical Use Failure Rate: 21%
- STD Protection: In terms of HIV transmission, when used correctly, the female condom can be as effective as the male condom to reduce the transmission of STD’s.
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Fertility Awareness Method (FAM)
- Description: Fertility Awareness is a natural method of birth control that is based on understanding a woman’s reproductive cycle. Beginning in puberty and until menopause, women typically release one egg each month from their ovaries. The time around when the egg is released is considered the fertile time of the month. Couples who use the Fertility Awareness Method, and do not want to conceive a child, abstain from intercourse during the fertile days. Many couples use the Fertility Awareness Method when they are trying to conceive as well.
- Type: Reversible, Natural
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Use: Women who choose to use FAM must spend several months, or up to a year, tracking their menstrual cycle. Two common ways to track fertility are the Calendar Method and Basal Body Temperature Method.
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The Calendar Method:
- Woman choosing the calendar method must track their menstrual cycle using a calendar to identify the length of their cycle. Women typically track their cycle for 8-12 months. The average length of the menstrual cycle is 28 days, but normal cycles vary between 21 to 35 days. Day 1 of the menstrual cycle is the first day of menstruation (bleeding). To calculate the day the egg is released take your total cycle length and subtract 14. For example, if the total cycle length is 28 days, then the date of ovulation (egg released) is on day 14. If the total cycle length is 31 days, ovulation occurs around day 17. Abstaining from intercourse on day of ovulation is not enough, you must take into account days preceding ovulation and the days after ovulation. After the egg is released (ovulation) it has two days to become fertilized by a sperm. If the egg does not get fertilized by a sperm then it dies and is shed during menstrual flow. Sperm can live inside a woman’s body about 4 days, so you must account for these possible fertile days prior to ovulation.
- Because most women have varying cycle lengths, to calculate the fertile days, subtract 18 from your shortest cycle and subtract 11 from your longest cycle.
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Basal Body Temperature Method:
- Basal Body Temperature is your body temperature when you wake up in the morning. During ovulation a woman’s body temperature rises slightly. Women who use this method record their basal body temperature every morning and note then there is a slight increase. The slight increase indicates ovulation, the release of the egg. Women using this method abstain from intercourse 2-3 days prior to ovulation and 12-24 hours after ovulation.
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The Calendar Method:
- Contraceptive Effectiveness Rate, or Typical Use Failure Rate: 24%
- STD Protection: There is no protection against STD’s.
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Emergency Birth Control
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The Morning After Pill, Emergency Contraception,
Plan B
- Description: As the name suggests, Emergency Contraceptives are for emergencies and are not a regular method of birth control. If a woman has unprotected sex or if the birth control method used failed, emergency contraceptives may be a good option for reducing the chances of an unintended pregnancy. Emergency Contraception may include taking a pill or choosing to insert an IntraUterine Device, also called an IUD.
- Use: Emergency Contraceptives can be obtained from a pharmacy. Some emergency contraceptives can be taken up to 5 days after intercourse, but the sooner they are taken the more effective it will be. Plan B, a common Emergency Contraceptive, should be taken within 3 days, or 72 hours.
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Contraceptive Effectiveness Rate, or Typical Use Failure Rate:
varying
- The effectiveness is impacted by the type of Emergency Contraceptive used and the time between taking the contraceptive and intercourse.
Contributors and Attributions
Public Domain Content
- Image of Effectiveness of Family Planning. Authored by: CDC. Located at: https://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/contraception/index.htm . License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- How Effective are Birth Control methods? Authored by: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Provided by: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Located at: https://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/contraception/index.htm . License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- US Selected Practice recommendations for Contraceptive Use, 2016. Authored by: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Provided by: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Located at: https://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/contraception/mmwr/spr/index.html License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Condom Effectiveness. Authored by: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Provided by: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Located at: https://www.cdc.gov/condomeffectiveness/index.html License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Image of The Right way to Use a Male Condom. Authored by: CDC. Located at: https://www.cdc.gov/condomeffectiveness/male-condom-use.html . License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Image of The Right way to Use a Female Condom. Authored by: CDC. Located at: https://www.cdc.gov/condomeffectiveness/Female-condom-use.html . License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- HIV/AIDS Prevention. Authored by: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Provided by: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Located at: https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/basics/prevention.html License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Preventing Unintended Pregnancy During the Zika Virus Outbreak. Authored by: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Provided by: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Located at: www.cdc.gov/zika/pregnancy/preventing-pregnancy.html License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Trying to Conceive. Authored by: Women’s Health. Provided by: Office on Women’s Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Located at: https://www.womenshealth.gov/pregnancy/you-get-pregnant/trying-conceive License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Emergency Contraceptives. Authored by: Human Health and Services. Provided by: Office of Population Affairs, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Located at: https://www.hhs.gov/opa/pregnancy-prevention/hormonal-methods/emergency-contraception/index.html License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Image of emergency Contraceptive Quick Facts. Authored by HHS. Located at: https://www.hhs.gov/opa/pregnancy-prevention/hormonal-methods/emergency-contraception/index.html


1.5.4: Pregnancy
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Pregnancy is the term used to describe the period in which a fetus develops inside a womb or uterus. Pregnancy usually lasts about 40 weeks, or just over 9 months, as measured from the last menstrual period. Health care providers refer to three segments of pregnancy, called trimesters.
Pregnancy begins when a males sperm fertilizes a females egg. When fertilization occurs it is called conception. On average, females release one egg each month, which is called ovulation. Thus, for pregnancy to occur, sperm only has a few days each month where it can meet the egg and attempt to fertilize it. It is important to understand a females menstrual cycle to understand the days where pregnancy is most likely to occur.
It is very important to note that many women have irregular cycle lengths, might ovulate more then once in a month, and might ovulate more than one egg at a time, thus the fertility cycle is not an exact science.
The following description of the fertility cycle is for an average cycle of 28 days.
These biologic realities mean the actual period of viable fertility can last anywhere from 5 to 8 days. In general, you’re most fertile during the following times:


7.4: Course Development
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Course development is also referred to as course authoring. Courses made available on the Web are simply collections of web pages designed to help people learn. They may be a group of resources to which a learner is referred, or they may be carefully crafted sequences of learning events that include interactivity, tests and assessments, animations, screen simulations, video, and audio. It is possible to create web-based learning courses by using templates or by programming directly in HTML or Flash but there are course authoring tools available which are designed to simplify the process.
In education LMSs some course authoring capability is usually included. Some instructors may prefer to use additional tools. Course authoring is not usually included in corporate LMSs, but is available separately. as part of an LCMS or as part of a suite of products.
Course authoring tools like Adobe/Macromedia Authorware and SumTotal ToolBook have been around since before the World Wide Web, and have evolved with it. Not all the tools do everything. The more complex ones require considerable expertise and can benefit from programming experience. Simpler ones are easier to use but may be somewhat limited in capability. Some are tools for converting PowerPoint presentations or Word documents to web code. They are often referred to as “rapid e-learning” development tools. Others are specialized to produce software simulations, or tests, and assessments.
In education LMSs course development tools provide the means for teachers to perform the following types of activities:
- Provide and organize resources related to the learning objectives: Most education solutions allow instructors to create simple text pages or web pages. These can be used for a syllabus, a project outline, assignment instructions, grading guidelines, and much more. LMSs usually provide support for multi-media materials such as video and audio streaming or modules or simulations built in other software tools. If instructors are using tools such as Dreamweaver, Flash, or other authoring tools, it is important to obtain an LMS that supports the code generated by these products particularly for any rich media, interactivity, and for recording scores on tests.
- Set up communication tools for the students to use: LMSs often give instructors and students the ability to send email to one another via the LMS. Instructors can also set up group areas, discussion forums, wikis, and other tools to allow students to communicate about general topics with little to no facilitation by the instructor or teaching assistant. For example, you can use a discussion forum as a way for students to introduce themselves, to provide technical support to each other, or to continue an interesting discussion if you run out of time in the classroom. Many LMSs also provide a calendar to which students, instructors, and the LMS itself can add events. Students can schedule study groups, instructors can remind students of special events such as field trips, and the LMS itself will mark events such as quiz dates or assignment due dates.
- Facilitate and manage online interactivity related to the learning objectives: Those same communication tools, and several others, can be used to facilitate online interactivity related to coursework. Depending on the LMS, instructors can use single-question polls to gauge student attitudes or knowledge about a reading, discussion forums to have students analyze a lab procedure before entering the lab, wikis to have students collaboratively solve a problem or work on a project, or chat to let small groups discuss required field work in real time.
- Assess student performance (skills, knowledge, and attitudes): LMSs provide avenues for students to submit assignments and for instructors to evaluate different types of student performance. For example, students can submit written essays in several ways, including, but not limited to, digital drop boxes, discussion forum threads, discussion forum attachments, wikis, or “assignment” modules. Instructors can require students to use different submission pathways to create different types of assignments. You might use a discussion forum to allow peer review, wikis to engage students in collaborative writing exercises, or assignment modules to make it easy to collect all the essays. LMSs usually provide tools for creating and delivering quizzes as part of the courses. Instructors may also use other tools for this purpose such as Questionmark Perception, Respondus, Hot Potatoes, and test banks that publishers provide. If you plan to use these tools, it is important to be sure that your LMS can work with the code generated by these third-party software solutions.
- Assess teaching effectiveness: Many LMSs contain survey tools to allow instructors to collect feedback about specific topics, including teaching effectiveness (see Chapter 24, Evaluating and Improving Your Online Teaching Effectiveness, for more information on this topic). The different LMSs vary the possibilities for instructors and students. Some allow anonymous student responses and some contain specific survey instruments for teaching effectiveness. If the LMS does not do everything you want, you can always link to an external survey tool on the Web. For example, the Free Assessment Summary Tool ( http://getfast.ca ) allows instructors to use a database of more than 350 teaching effectiveness questions, to create twenty questions per survey, and to download the results as an Excel spreadsheet, all for free.
Tip
Be sure your LMS will work with the additional tools that instructors are likely to use for course development.
Course Development in Corporate LMSs
Course authoring tools are not usually included as part of a corporate LMS, but are available separately or as part of an LCMS.
For corporate training there is a strong reliance on pre-packaged, self-directed courses. These can be purchased from third-party vendors like Skillsoft, Thomson NETg (now a part of Skillsoft, making Skillsoft the single largest vendor of such courseware by a substantial margin), ElementK (now owned by NIIT), and Harvard Business School Publishing. Generic courseware is available for learning skills in communication, business, leadership, management, finance, information technology (IT), sales, health and safety, and more specialized topics.
Most companies also have a need to develop courses on for unique situations and proprietary products and services. There are many tools available for this purpose. Most of these are designed primarily for creating self-directed online courses, but they can also be used to develop classroom materials.
Some examples of popular course authoring tools:
- SumTotal ToolBook
- Adobe Authorware, Flash, Dreamweaver, and Acrobat Connect Presenter
- Trivantis Lectora
- ReadyGo Web Course Builder
- MaxIT DazzlerMax
- Outstart Trainer
Course development can be very time consuming. There is a lot of material already available in Microsoft Word or PowerPoint. So-called rapid development, or rapid e-learning tools are designed to quickly convert these documents to e-learning courses. Examples include:
- Articulate
- Impatica
- Adobe Presenter (formerly Macromedia Breeze Presenter)
- KnowledgePresenter
Most of these tools (with the exception of Impatica) convert PowerPoint and Word documents to Flash because it is web-friendly and so widespread. (According to Adobe, Flash is already installed in 97 percent of browsers.)


9: Thermochemistry
Useful forms of energy are also available from a variety of chemical reactions other than combustion. For example, the energy produced by the batteries in a cell phone, car, or flashlight results from chemical reactions. This chapter introduces many of the basic ideas necessary to explore the relationships between chemical changes and energy, with a focus on thermal energy.
Contributors and Attributions
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Paul Flowers (University of North Carolina - Pembroke), Klaus Theopold (University of Delaware) and Richard Langley (Stephen F. Austin State University) with contributing authors. Textbook content produced by OpenStax College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license. Download for free at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>).


29.8: Untitled
While African-American characters are the heroes of Uncle Tom’s Cabin , it is also important to note the fact that the novel supports quite a few 19th-century black stereotypes. Stowe’s overall message about abolition and the true immoral nature of slavery was revolutionary for her time, especially when compared to previous works of literature depicting African-American characters (such as Benito Cereno ), but that didn’t stop her from working in various stereotypes that were simply second nature at that time.
In Benito Cereno , African American characters, such as Babo, are portrayed as being quiet, obedient, perfect servants; that is, until they are given the chance to take control. They then are vicious killers who must be kept under the control of white men, lest they rise up and massacre every white individual in sight. Babo, who is decidedly the most important African American character in Benito Cereno , is presented as such a perfect slave that other men envy his master, continuously commenting on how wonderful it must be to have such a dedicated slave. However, it is revealed later that Babo was running everything the whole time, and he is undoubtedly morphed into a villainous creature bent on killing all of the white individuals and taking control of the ship.
In Uncle Tom’s Cabin , the African American characters are portrayed as being equal to the white characters; at least, in theory. They are not separated from the white characters when it comes to having real personality characteristics, but they do fall into stereotypes of their time. The stereotypical black characters (such as “Mammy”) are not portrayed negatively, but are stereotypical nonetheless. And, while many of the African American characters are much more noble and, well, human, than many of the white characters, they are still subservient and almost childlike in comparison.
So, while Uncle Tom’s Cabin was a huge step forward for African American characters in literature, the steps forward do not negate the racial stereotypes that keep the novel at a standstill.


4.7: Periodic Trends in π Bonding
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As we noted in Section 2.3, pπ-bonding almost always involves a second-row element.
We encounter π-bonding from the sideways overlap of p-orbitals in the MO diagrams of second-row diatomics (B 2 …O 2 ). It is important to remember that π-bonds are weaker than σ bonds made from the same AOs, and are especially weak if they involve elements beyond the second row.
Example:
Ethylene: Stable molecule, doesn't polymerize without a catalyst.
Silylene: Never isolated, spontaneously polymerizes. Calculations indicate 117 kJ/mol stability in the gas phase relative to singly-bonded (triplet) H 2 Si-SiH 2 .
The large Ne core of Si atoms inhibits sideways overlap of 3p orbitals → weak π-bond.
Other examples: P 4 vs. N 2
P cannot make π-bonds with itself, so it forms a tetrahedral molecule with substantial ring strain. This allotrope of P undergoes spontaneous combustion in air. Solid white phosphorus very slowly converts to red phosphorus, a more stable allotrope that contains sheets of pyramidal P atoms, each with bonds to three neighboring atoms and one lone pair.
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White phosphorus (P 4 ) is a soft, waxy solid that ignites spontaneously in air, burning with a bright flame and generating copious white P 4 O 10 smoke. The sample shown here is photographed under water to prevent the oxidation reaction |
N can make π-bonds, so N 2 has a very strong triple bond and is a relatively inert diatomic gas.
(CH 3 ) 2 SiO vs. (CH 3 ) 2 CO
“RTV” silicone polymer (4 single bonds to Si) vs. acetone (C=O double bond). Silicones are soft, flexible polymers that can be heated to high temperatures (>300 °C) without decomposing. Acetone is a flammable molecular liquid that boils at 56 °C.
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Silicone polymers (R 2 SiO) n are used in non-stick cookware like these muffin cups, in Silly Putty, soft robotics, and many other applications. |
Exceptions:
2nd row elements can form reasonably strong π-bonds with the smallest of the 3rd row elements, P, S, and Cl. Thus we find S=N bonds in sulfur-nitrogen compounds such as S 2 N 2 and S 3 N 3 - , P=O bonds in phosphoric acid and P 4 O 10 (shown above), and a delocalized π-molecular orbital in SO 2 (as in ozone).


28.6.0: Review Questions
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Review Questions
1 .
What best describes the purpose of the CJMM?
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to help new graduates become critical care nurses after graduation
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to measure the ability of nursing students to take the NCLEX exam
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to help nursing students develop their clinical judgment skills
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to make sure that new nurses know how to run a code blue
2 .
The emergency room nurse is caring for a patient who presents with cough and shortness of breath. The nurse asks the patient about their medical history and notes they have a history of heart failure. The nurse determines that the cough and shortness of breath are likely related to heart failure exacerbation. What cognitive skill of the CJMM is the nurse exhibiting in this situation?
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recognize cues
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analyze cues
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prioritize hypotheses
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take action
3 .
Which situation best reflects the nursing student prioritizing hypotheses?
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The student measures a patient’s blood pressure.
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The student checks the patient’s chart to look at laboratory test results.
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The student determines that the patient’s wound is infected and needs intervention.
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The student performs skin care on the patient’s open wound.
4 .
The nursing student is working within an interdisciplinary care team to establish care goals for a patient. The student is actively engaging in what part of the CJMM?
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recognize cues
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analyze cues
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generate solutions
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evaluate outcomes
5 .
What individual factor should the nurse consider when making clinical judgment calls in practice?
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care setting
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resource availability
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cultural preferences
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nurse skill level
6 .
The student nurse is caring for a patient and, realizing they are unsure about how to perform a skill, they ask the supervising nurse for help. What attitude is the student exhibiting?
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independence of thought
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intellectual humility
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perseverance
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sociocentricity
7 .
What would a nursing student exhibiting egocentricity in practice be doing?
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The student nurse takes a lunch break before giving a patient pain medication.
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The student nurse provides care for a patient who has religious beliefs different from the student’s own.
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The student nurse asks the supervising nurse why certain medications are being given.
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The student nurse realizes they are unsure about how to turn a patient in bed and asks for help.
8 .
The nurse assesses a patient and notes that they are clammy and fatigued. On the basis of the patient’s history, the nurse determines the patient is experiencing a hypoglycemic emergency. What kind of reasoning did the nurse use to come to this conclusion?
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deductive reasoning
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inductive reasoning
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reductive reasoning
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productive reasoning
9 .
The nurse suspects a patient’s cough is related to their underlying heart failure. What term describes the nurse’s conclusion?
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generalization
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inductive reasoning
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hypothesis
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recognizing cues
10 .
What action represents an intellectual skill included in the 4-Circle CT Model?
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The nurse can place a peripheral intravenous catheter.
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The nurse recognizes there is missing information and obtains more data.
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The nurse describes various nursing models and theories.
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The nurse addresses a workplace conflict fairly.


2.2.3: Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (1838-1894)
The Poison Tree Indian Realism Benkim Chandra Chatterjee was an Indian author born in Bengal. His education was largely British, and he was one of the first to graduate from the University of Calcutta. His writing is groundbreaking for his work using European style prose in the Benagli language, something that had not been done before. He incorporates nationalist themes into his writing. He wrote Anandamath , a novel widely considered one of the most important works of literature in India, which contained "Bande Mataram" ("Hail to Thee, Mother"). "Bande Mataram" was so inspiring to the people that it was adopted by the nationalist movement. In his efforts, he combined Hindu heroes and patriotism that, in turn, inspired national pride in some of his countrymen, but did alienate some Muslim Indians. He serialized some of his writing in monthly magazine he founded, Bangodarshan . His novel The Poison Tree ( Bishabriksha ) first appeared serialized in that publication in 1873. His novel explores the moral dilemma of a love triangle between a man, his wife, and a young widow, which also explores of idea of widow remarriage. Consider while reading:
- How does Chatterjee's protagonist incorporate Hindu ideas and beliefs? Why is that significant?
- What social norms is Chatterjee questioning in his work? Why?
- What alternative does Chatterjee offer for widows? Why is that significant?
Written by Laura Ng


6.4: Conclusions and Review
In this final chapter, we became very familiar with the concepts of reaction efficiency and design from a green chemistry perspective. We more or less employed the totality of the green chemistry principles to understanding what goes into maximizing the environmental, social, and economic benefits associated with scientific enterprises. We thoroughly explored the nature of the various types of reactions done in both fundamental and applied settings and how to evaluate them using very useful mathematical constructs. This chapter serves to cement the concepts we learned in this magnificent discipline and to provide a platform for understanding how to best approach the chemistry, chemical engineering, and the biological transformations of reactions and processes.
Review Questions
1. Indicate by drawings what the addition products are for the following reaction and what type of reaction it is:
2. Please indicate what the products are of the reaction of 2-phenyl isopropyl iodide with sodium methoxide.
3. Does the non-salt product in (2) retain its stereochemical configuration? Why?
4. Please explain how the minor product is formed in the E2 reaction below and why it is minor?
5. Using the Diels-Alder Reaction shown below, draw the transition state that will lead to the adduct.
6. Using the redox diagram below, indicate why the process cannot go on forever
7. Define the following terms
a. atom economy
b. percent atom economy
c. percent yield
d. percent experimental atom economy
e. percent atom economy x experimental atom economy
8. Which of the terms in question 7 are only meaningful with experimental results? What experimental result is necessary to make these terms meaningful?
9. Consider the following four (4) reactions shown below:
a. Label each reaction as a substitution, elimination, addition or rearrangement.
b. Rewrite each reaction making sure that the reaction is balanced. Show all the reactant atoms that are incorporated into the desired product, and the atoms of the desired product in green, and all other atoms in brown.
c. Set up a table of atom economy whose headings are: formula, formula weight, number of utilized atoms, weight of utilized atoms, unutilized atoms, and weight of unutilized atoms.
d. Calculate the %-atom economy of each reaction
10. In the Further Reading section (#3), Roger Sheldon has developed a term very similar to the %-atom economy termed % atom utilization. The % atom utilization can be calculated according to the following equation: % Atom Utilization = (MW of desired product/MW of all products) X 100
a. Compare and contrast this with the %-atom economy
b. What concept that you learned in freshman chemistry makes the actual percentages calculated for the % atom utilization, and % atom economy equal (in most circumstances). Prove this by calculating the % atom utilization for each of the reactions in questions 9—13 and comparing your results to the %-atom economy that you calculated in question 9.
Further Reading
- Williamson, Kenneth L., Macroscale and Microscale Organic Experiments, 2nd ed., D. C. Heath and Co., 1994, 247-252.
- Trost, Barry M., The Atom Economy-A Search for Synthetic Efficiency. Science 1991, 254, 1471-1477.
- Cann, Michael C.; Connelly, Marc E. Real-World Cases in Green Chemistry; ACS, Washington, 2000. Roger Sheldon of Delft University has developed a very similar concept called % atom utilization. Sheldon, Roger A. Organic Synthesis- Past, Present and Future. Chem. Ind. (London), 1992, (Dec), 903-906.
- Anastas, Paul T., and Warner, John C. Green Chemistry Theory and Practice, Oxford University Press, New York, 1998.
- Westheimer, T. The Award Goes to BHC. Chem. Eng. 1993, (Dec.), 84-95


5.2: Linear Equations in One Variable with Applications
- Solve linear equations in one variable using properties of equations.
- Construct a linear equation to solve applications.
- Determine equations with no solution or infinitely many solutions.
- Solve a formula for a given variable.
In this section, we will study linear equations in one variable. There are several real-world scenarios that can be represented by linear equations: taxi rentals with a flat fee and a rate per mile; cell phone bills that charge a monthly fee plus a separate rate per text; gym memberships with a monthly fee plus a rate per class taken; etc. For example, if you join your local gym at $10 per month and pay $5 per class, how many classes can you take if your gym budget is $75 per month?
Linear Equations and Applications
Solving any equation is like discovering the answer to a puzzle. The purpose of solving an equation is to find the value or values of the variable that makes the equation a true statement. Any value of the variable that makes the equation true is called a solution to the equation. It is the answer to the puzzle! There are many types of equations that we will learn to solve. In this section, we will focus on a linear equation , which is an equation in one variable that can be written as
\[a x+b=0 \nonumber \]
where and are real numbers and , such that is the coefficient of \(x\) and is the constant.
To solve a linear equation, it is a good idea to have an overall strategy that can be used to solve any linear equation. In the Example 5.12, we will give the steps of a general strategy for solving any linear equation. Simplifying each side of the equation as much as possible first makes the rest of the steps easier.
Solve \(7(n-3)-8=-15\)
- Answer
-
Step 1: Simplify each side of the equation as much as possible. Use the Distributive Property. Notice that each side of the equation is now simplified as much as possible. \[\begin{aligned}
7(n-3)-8 & =-15 \\
7 n-21-8 & =-15 \\
7 n-29 & =-15
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]Step 2: Collect all variable terms on one side of the equation. Nothing to do; all terms are on the left side. \[7 n-29=-15 \nonumber \] Step 3: Collect constant terms on the other side of the equation. To get constants only on the right, add 29 to each side.
Simplify.
\[\begin{aligned}
7 n-\mathbf{2 9}+29 & =-15+\mathbf{2 9} \\
7 n & =14
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]Step 4: Make the coefficient of the variable term equal to 1. Divide each side by 7.
Simplify.
\[\frac{7 n}{7}=\frac{14}{7} \nonumber \]
\[n=2 \nonumber \]
Step 5: Check the solution. Let
Subtract.
Check:
\[\begin{aligned}
7(n-3)-8 & =-15 \\
7(2-3)-8 & \stackrel{?}{=}-15 \\
7(-1)-8 & \stackrel{?}{=}-15 \\
-7-8 & \stackrel{?}{=}-15 \\
-15 & =-15
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]
Solve \(2(x+1)-3=5\)
In Example
, we used both the addition and division property of equations. All the properties of equations are summarized in table below. Basically, what you do to one side of the equation, you must do to the other side of the equation to preserve equality.| Operation | Property | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Addition |
If \(a=b\)
Then \(a+c=b+c\) |
\[
\begin{aligned} 2 & =2 \\ 2+3 & =2+3 \\ 5 & =5 \end{aligned} \nonumber \] |
| Subtraction |
If \(a=b\)
Then \(a-c=b-c\) |
\[
\begin{aligned} 5 & =5 \\ 5-2 & =5-2 \\ 3 & =3 \end{aligned} \nonumber \] |
| Multiplication |
If \(a=b\)
Then \(a \bullet c=b \bullet c\) |
\[
\begin{aligned} 3 & =3 \\ 3 \bullet 4 & =3 \bullet 4 \\ 12 & =12 \end{aligned} \nonumber \] |
| Division |
If \(a=b\)
Then \(a \div c=b \div c\) for \(c \neq 0\) |
\[
\begin{aligned} 8 & =8 \\ 8 \div 2 & =8 \div 2 \\ 4 & =4 \end{aligned} \nonumber \] |
Be careful to multiply and divide every term on each side of the equation. For example, \(2+x=\frac{x}{3}\) is solved by multiplying BOTH sides of the equation by 3 to get \(3(2+x)=3\left(\frac{x}{3}\right)\) which gives \(6+3 x=x\). Using parentheses will help you remember to use the distributive property! A division example, such as \(3(x+2)=6 x+9\), can be solved by dividing BOTH sides of the equation by 3 to get \(\frac{3(x+2)}{3}=\frac{6 x+9}{3}\), which then will lead to \(x+2=2 x+3\).
Solve \(9(y-2)-y=16+7 y\).
- Answer
-
Step 1 : Simplify each side.
\[\begin{aligned}
9(y-2)-y & =16+7 y \\
9 y-18-y & =16+7 y \\
8 y-18 & =16+7 y
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]Step 2 : Collect all variables on one side.
\[\begin{aligned}
8 y-18-7 y & =16+7 y-7 y \\
y-18 & =16
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]Step 3 : Collect constant terms on one side.
\[\begin{aligned}
y-18+\mathbf{1 8} & =16+\mathbf{1 8} \\
y & =34
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]Step 4 : Make the coefficient of the variable 1. Already done!
Step 5 : Check.
\[\begin{aligned}
9(34)-18-(34) & \stackrel{?}{=} 16+7(34) \\
306-18-34 & \stackrel{?}{=} 16+238 \\
288-34 & \stackrel{?}{=} 254 \\
254 & =254 \checkmark
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]
Solve \(6(y-2)-5 y=4(y+3)-4(y-1)\).
Before the creation of a symbol for equality, it was usually expressed with a word that meant equals, such as aequales (Latin), esgale (French), or gleich (German). Welsh mathematician and physician Robert Recorde is given credit for inventing the modern sign. It first appears in writing in The Whetstone of Witte , a book Recorde wrote about algebra, which was published in 1557. In this book, Recorde states, "I will set as I do often in work use, a pair of parallels, or Gemowe (twin) lines of one length, thus: ===, because no two things can be more equal." Although his version of the sign was a bit longer than the one we use today, his idea stuck and "=" is used throughout the world to indicate equality in mathematics.
In Algebraic Expressions, you translated an English sentence into an equation. In this section, we take that one step further and translate an English paragraph into an equation, and then we solve the equation. We can go back to the opening question in this section: If you join your local gym at $10 per month and pay $5 per class, how many classes can you take if your gym budget is $75 per month? We can create an equation for this scenario and then solve the equation (see Example 5.15).
The Beaudrie family has two cats, Basil and Max. Together, they weigh 23 pounds. Basil weighs 16 pounds. How much does Max weigh?
- Answer
-
Let \(b=\) Basil's weight and \(m=\) Max's weight.
\[b+m=23 \nonumber \]
We also know that Basil weighs 16 pounds so:
Steps 1 and 2 : \(16+m=23\)
Since both sides are simplified, the variable is on one side of the equation, we start in Step 3 and collect the constants on one side:
Step 3 :
\[\begin{aligned}
16+m-\mathbf{1 6} & =23-\mathbf{1 6} \\
m & =7
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]Step 4: is already done so we go to Step 5:
Step 5:
\[\begin{aligned}
16+7 & \stackrel{?}{=} 23 \\
23 & =23 \checkmark
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]Basil weighs 16 pounds and Max weighs 7 pounds.
Sam and Henry are roommates. Together, they have 68 books. Sam has 26 books. How many books does Henry have?
If you join your local gym at $10 per month and pay $5 per class, how many classes can you take if your gym budget is $75 per month?
- Answer
-
If we let \(x=\) number of classes, the expression \(5 x+10\) would represent what you pay per month if each class is \(\$ 5\) and there's a \(\$ 10\) monthly fee per class. \(\$ 10\) is your constant. If you want to know how many classes you can take if you have a \(\$ 75\) monthly gym budget, set the equation equal to 75 . Then solve the equation \(5 x+10=75\) for \(x\).
Steps 1 and 2:
\[5 x+10=75 \nonumber \]
Step 3:
\[\begin{aligned}
5 x+10-10 & =75-10 \\
5 x & =65
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]Step 4:
\[\begin{aligned}
\frac{5 x}{5} & =\frac{65}{5} \\
x & =13
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]Step 5:
\[\begin{aligned}
5(13)+10 & \stackrel{?}{=} 75 \\
65+10 & \stackrel{?}{=} 75 \\
75 & =75
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]The solution is 13 classes. You can take 13 classes on a \(\$ 75\) monthly gym budget.
On June 7, 2021, the national average price for regular gasoline was $3.053 per gallon. If Aiko fills up his car with 16 gallons, how much is the total cost? Round to the nearest cent.
Write an application that can be solved using the equation
- Answer
-
Answers will vary. Let's say you want to rent a snowblower for a huge winter storm coming up. If \(x=\) the number of days you rent a snowblower, then the expression \(50 x+35\) represents what you pay if, for each day, it costs \(\$ 50\) to rent the snowblower and there is a \(\$ 35\) flat rental fee. \(\$ 35\) is the constant. To find out how many days you can rent a snowblower for \(\$ 185\), set the expression equal to 185.
Then solve the equation \(50 x+35=185\) for \(x\).Steps 1 and 2:
\[50 x+35=185 \nonumber \]
Step 3:
\[\begin{aligned}
50 x+35-\mathbf{3 5} & =185-\mathbf{3 5} \\
50 x & =150
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]Step 4:
\[\begin{aligned}
\frac{50 x}{\mathbf{5 0}} & =\frac{150}{\mathbf{5 0}} \\
x & =3
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]Step 5:
\[\begin{aligned}
50(3)+35 & \stackrel{?}{=} 185 \\
150+35 & \stackrel{?}{=} 185 \\
185 & =185 \checkmark
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]The equation is \(50 x+35=185\) and the solution is 3 days. You can rent a snowblower for 3 days on a \(\$ 185\) budget.
Write an application that can be solved using the equation \(25 x+75=200\). Then solve your application.
Linear Equations with No Solutions or Infinitely Many Solutions
Every linear equation we have solved thus far has given us one numerical solution. Now we'll look at linear equations for which there are no solutions or infinitely many solutions.
Solve \(3(x+4)=4 x+8-x\).
- Answer
-
Step 1 : Simplify each side. \(3(x+4)=4 x+8-x\)
\[3 x+12-\mathbf{3} x=3 x+8-\mathbf{3} x \nonumber \]
Step 2 : Collect all variables to one side. \(3 x+12-\mathbf{3 x}=3 \boldsymbol{x}+8-\mathbf{3} \boldsymbol{x}\)
\[12=8 \nonumber \]
The variable \(x\) disappeared! When this happens, you need to examine what remains. In this particular case, we have \(12=8\), which is not a true statement. When you have a false statement, then you know the equation has no solution; there does not exist a value for \(x\) that can be put into the equation that will make it true.
Solve \(2(x+6)=3 x+4-(x+5)\).
Solve \(2(x+5)=4(x+3)-2 x-2\).
- Answer
-
Step 1:
\[\begin{aligned}
2(x+5) & =4(x+3)-2 x-2 \\
2 x+10 & =4 x+12-2 x-2 \\
2 x+10 & =2 x+10
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]Step 2:
\[\begin{aligned}
2 x+10-\mathbf{2 x} & =2 x+10-\mathbf{2 x} \\
10 & =10
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]As with the previous example, the variable disappeared. In this case, however, we have a true statement \((10=10)\). When this occurs we say there are infinitely many solutions; any value for \(x\) will make this statement true.
Solve \(3 x-7-(x+5)=2(x-6)\).
Solving a Formula for a Given Variable
You are probably familiar with some geometry formulas. A formula is a mathematical description of the relationship between variables. Formulas are also used in the sciences, such as chemistry, physics, and biology. In medicine they are used for calculations for dispensing medicine or determining body mass index. Spreadsheet programs rely on formulas to make calculations. It is important to be able to manipulate formulas and solve for specific variables.
To solve a formula for a specific variable means to isolate that variable on one side of the equal sign with a coefficient of 1. All other variables and constants are on the other side of the equal sign. To see how to solve a formula for a specific variable, we will start with the distance, rate, and time formula.
Solve the formula \(d=r t\) for \(t\). This is the distance formula where \(d=\) distance, \(r=\) rate, and \(t=\) time.
- Answer
-
Divide both sides by \(r: d / \boldsymbol{r}=r t / \boldsymbol{r}\)
\[d / r=t \nonumber \]
Solve the formula \(I=P r t\) for \(t\). This formula is used to calculate simple interest \(I\), for a principal \(P\), invested at a rate \(r\), for \(t\) years.
Solving for a Variable in an Equation
Solve the formula \(A=1 / 2 b h\) for \(h\). This is the area formula of a triangle where \(A=\) area, \(b=\) base,
-
Step 1 : Multiply both sides by 2.
\[\begin{array}{l}
2 A=2(1 / 2 b h) \\
2 A=b h
\end{array} \nonumber \]Step 2: Divide both sides by \(b\).
\[\begin{aligned}
\frac{2 A}{b} & =\frac{b h}{b} \\
\frac{2 A}{b} & =h \\
h & =\frac{2 A}{b}
\end{aligned} \nonumber \]
Solve the formula \(V=\frac{1}{3} \pi r^2 h\) for \(h\). This formula is used to calculate the volume \(V\) of a right circular cone with radius \(r\) and height \(h\).
You will need to perform this card trick with another person. Before you begin, the two people must first decide which of the two will be the Dealer and which will be the Partner , as each will do something different. Once you have decided upon that, follow the steps here:
Step 1: Dealer and Partner: Take a regular deck of 52 cards, and remove the face cards and the 10s.
Step 2: Dealer and Partner: Shuffle the remaining cards
Step 3: Dealer and Partner: Select one card each, but keep them face down and don’t look at them yet.
Step 4: Dealer: Look at your card (just the Dealer!). Multiply its value by 2 (Aces = 1).
Step 5: Dealer: Add 2 to this result.
Step 6: Dealer: Multiply your answer by 5.
Step 7: Partner: Look at your card.
Step 8: Partner: Calculate: 10 - your card, and tell this information to the dealer.
Step 9: Dealer: Subtract the value the Partner tells you from your total to get a final answer.
Step 10: Dealer: verbally state the final answer.
Step 11: Dealer and Partner: Turn over your cards. Now, answer the following questions
- Did the trick work? How do you know?
- Why did this occur? In other words, how does this trick work?
Check Your Understanding
1. Is the solution strategy used in solving the linear equation correct? If it is correct, show the final step (check the solution). If it is not correct, explain why.
\[
\begin{aligned}
8(x-2) & =6(x+10) \\
8 x-16 & =6 x+60 \\
8 x-16-6 x & =6 x+60-6 x \\
2 x-16+16 & =60+16 \\
2 x & =76 \\
x & =38
\end{aligned}
\nonumber \]
2. Is the solution strategy used in solving the linear equation correct? If it is correct, show the final step (check the solution). If it is not correct, explain why.
\[
\begin{aligned}
7+4(2+5 x) & =3(6 x+7)-(13 x+36) \\
7+8+20 x & =18 x+21-13 x-36 \\
15+20 x & =5 x-15 \\
15+20 x-\mathbf{5 x} & =5 x-15-\mathbf{5 x} \\
15+15 x-\mathbf{1 5} & =-15-\mathbf{1 5} \\
15 x & =-30 \\
x & =-2
\end{aligned}
\nonumber \]
3. Is the solution strategy used in solving the linear equation correct? If it is correct, show the final step (check the solution). If it is not correct, explain why.
\[
\begin{aligned}
8 x+7-(2 x-9) & =22-(4 x-4) \\
8 x+7-2 x-9 & =22-4 x-4 \\
6 x-2 & =18-4 x \\
6 x-2+4 x & =18-4 x+4 x \\
10 x-2+2 & =18+2 \\
10 x & =20 \\
x & =2
\end{aligned}
\nonumber \]
For the following exercises, use this scenario: The Nice Cab Company charges a flat rate of \(\$ 3.00\) for each fare, plus \(\$ 1.70\) per mile. A competing taxi service, the
Enjoyable Cab Company, charges a flat rate of \(\$ 5.00\) for each fare, plus \(\$ 1.60\) per mile.
4. Using the variable \(x\) for number of miles, write the equation that would allow you to find the total fare ( \(T\) ) using the Nice Cab Company.
5. It is 22 miles from the airport to your hotel. What would be your total fare using the Nice Cab Company?
6. Using the variable \(y\) for number of miles, write the equation that would allow you to find the total fare \((T)\) using the Enjoyable Cab Company.
7. Using the same 22-mile trip from the airport to the hotel, how much would the total fare be for using the Enjoyable Cab Company?
8. Based on the cost of each cab ride, which cab company should you use for the trip from the airport to the hotel? Why?
9. After solving the linear equation \(3(2 x-3)=12(x-3)-3(2 x-9)\), Nancy says there is no solution. Luis believes there are infinitely many solutions. Who is right?
10. The conversion formula between the Fahrenheit temperature scale and the Celsius temperature scale is given by this formula: \(C=\frac{5}{9}(F-32)\), where \(C\) is the temperature in degrees Celsius and \(F\) is the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit. What is the correct formula when solved for \(F\) ?
a. \(F=\frac{5}{9} C-32\)
b. \(F=\frac{9}{5} C-32\)
c. \(F=\frac{5}{9} C+32\)
d. \(F=\frac{9}{5} C+32\)
11. To find a temperature on the Kelvin temperature scale, add 273 degrees to the temperature in Celsius. Which formula illustrates this?
a. \(C=K+273\)
b. \(K=C+273\)
c. \(K=C-273\)
d. \(C=K-273\)
To find a temperature on the Kelvin temperature scale, add 273 degrees to the temperature in Celsius. Which formula illustrates this?
- \(C = K + 273\)
- \(K = C + 273\)
- \(K = C-273\)
- \(C = K-273\)
a. \(K=\frac{5}{9}(F-32)+273\)
b. \(K=\frac{5}{9} F+241\)
c. \(K=\frac{9}{5}(F-32)+273\)
d. \(K=\frac{9}{5} F+241\)
a. \(R=\frac{5}{9} C-492\)
b. \(R=\frac{9}{5} C+492\)
c. \(R=C+492\)
d. \(R=\frac{5}{9}(C-492)\)


2.3: Campus Involvement as a Resident
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Living on campus can be one of the most fulfilling and rewarding experiences of your college experience. According to Blimling (2003), living on campus has a positive influence on student retention, participation in co-curricular activities, perception of campus social climate, satisfaction with college, personal growth and development, intrapersonal relationships, and faculty interaction. It is recommended that first-time, first-year freshmen live in the residence halls to assist students’ transition from high school to college (Benjamin & Chartiland, 2008).
Students choose to live on campus for a variety of reasons: to meet new people, to participate in events, for convenience, and for cost savings. Students are encouraged to select where they live based on their individual needs and interests. On-campus residents typically have more convenient access to services such as the library, dining facilities, recreation activities, and computer labs. By living on campus you can save time and money by walking to class instead of dealing with the hassle of finding a well-located parking space. It is easier and usually more affordable to live in a residence hall because they are fully furnished, and rent, utilities, and meal plans are rolled into tuition and fees.
Thought Question
- Why do students choose to live on campus?
- What are the factors students should consider before choosing a place to live?
What to Expect from Living in a Residential Community
There are many benefits to living in an on-campus residential community, whether you are living in a residence hall, such as Kalpana Chawla Hall, Vandergriff Hall, West Hall, or Arlington Hall, or in a campus apartment, like Meadow Run or University Village. Typically these communities have smaller staff-to- student ratios and many resources available to help students succeed academically. Each residence hall and apartment community is staffed with student Resident Assistants (RAs). The RA’s job is to meet residents, to connect with others in the community, and to help you maneuver life on campus. RAs also provide programs and events in the community for students to learn new skills and meet new friends. Each community also has a Residence Director, a full- time, professional staff member that lives and works in the community. Other resources in the community include study lounges, computer labs, and community spaces.
Academic success is the cornerstone of the residential experience. All residential staff is thoroughly trained to know the variety of academic resources available on campus. Some residential communities have specialized academic programs, called Learning Communities. Some students who live in Arlington Hall, K.C. Hall, West Hall and Vandergriff Hall live in learning communities based on their interests or major. Learning Communities are smaller cohorts, approximately 15 to 25 first-year students, assigned to live together in a specific learning community. Learning Community students take classes together and a taught specifically for their major. Special programming and events are geared to these Learning Communities. According to Dunkel and Carodine (2008), “Learning communities integrate the academic community with the residential environment. The main purpose is to expand the learning experience for college students beyond the classroom” (p. 101).
Residential communities also offer a number of ways for students to take on leadership positions. Some leadership development opportunities available to residential students are floor or hall councils/government, Residence Hall Association (RHA), departmental committees, Apartment Life Association, as well as employment opportunities as a resident assistant or office assistant. Each of these experiences creates “involvement opportunities where students can increase their understanding of leadership theory, practice specific skills, and apply their knowledge in a supportive environment” (Dunkel and Carodine, 2008, p. 97).
Thought Question
What is the role of the Student Resident Assistant (RA), and when might it be important to seek out your RA?
Living with a Roommate
Living with a roommate can be exciting and challenging and may have a significant influence on your overall college experience. According to Blimling (2003), “Living with one another allows residence hall students to have greater interaction with each other and make more and stronger friendships than students who live off campus” (p. 65). The person you live with will influence your study and sleeping habits, social activities, and living environment.
The communication lines that roommates develop are the key to a comfortable and enjoyable living arrangement. In order to maintain a serene living environment you should set clear expectations for cleaning, guests, quiet hours, and safety (locking doors and setting alarms). If there are differences in living expectations between roommates, they will eventually surface. It is best to discuss these differences right away. Roommates are encouraged to fill out a Roommate Agreement that is intended to set up basic ground rules and boundaries for sharing space and personal items.
Conflict is common between students living in the same space. Students need to communicate their concerns clearly and offer suggestions for resolving the issue and at the same time be willing to compromise. If residents are unable to resolve their differences on their own they should involve a staff member to assist in mediating the situation. In the event that the conflict does not get resolved, students often have the ability to change their location to another room, residence hall, or apartment.
Tips for Getting Along with Your Roommate
- Try to get to know each other.
- Don’t expect too much; you don’t have to be best friends.
- Ask, listen, and discuss. Filling out a Roommate Agreement early on sets ground rules and boundaries for sharing personal items and space.
- Be sensitive to each other’s moods. Everybody has good and bad days, so try to be understanding.
- When things go wrong, discuss them. If things can’t be worked out between the two of you, seek assistance from someone else, such as a Resident Assistant.
Thought Question
What would be important to you to include in a Roommate Agreement?
Relationships in the Greater Community
Maintaining positive relationships within the community as a whole is equally as important as maintaining positive roommate relations. In order for the community to promote academic and personal success, residents living within the community must engage respectfully with one another. Expectations and policies are developed to guide the behavior of the students living together in the residential environment. Blimling (2003) states that “Policies regulating quiet hours, conduct in the hallways, noise, and similar environmental concerns are designed to enable all students to benefit from the environment without infringing on the rights of other students” (p. 153). Each resident is expected to know and to understand what behavior is expected in order to ensure the success and safety of all residents.
Being respectful to others in the community also requires residents to understand diversity. “Cultural biases exist when people have limited experience with people of other cultural heritages. The residence hall environment helps break down cultural stereotypes by allowing students to experience cultural diversity” (Blimling, 2003, p. 65). Living in a residential community provides excellent opportunities to learn about others who come from different backgrounds. The successful residential student is open and willing to learn about all types of individuals regardless of their ability, race, ethnicity, and background.
Living in a community on campus is more than just a place to sleep. Students feel more connected to their community by meeting others, participating in activities, and learning the community history and traditions. By living in a residence hall or on-campus apartment, students have easy and convenient access to campus resources and events. Getting involved is an integral part of the college and university experience. “Involvement is essential to advancing the growth and development of students because it requires them to invest something of themselves in the process” (Blimling, 2003, p. 70).
Thought Question
- What leadership opportunities are available for residential students?
- What are three benefits of living on campus?


2.11: The relevance and implications of the modular view
Understanding the capability approach as having a modular structure leads to a number of insights. Let me highlight three important ones: countering the risk of inflation, whereby we have no criteria for deciding when a theory is or is not a capability theory; appreciating the diversity of capability theories that are possible; and getting a better sense of how Sen’s and Nussbaum’s writings relate to each other.
First, the modular view can help us to contain the risk of inflation : too many things being labelled as belonging to the ‘capability approach’, whereas they do not meet the essential characteristics of the A-module. The modular view of the capability approach which I presented gives us a description that includes all the work in the capability approach that should legitimately be included. There are, of course, other descriptions of the capability approach available in the literature. Yet to my mind most of these descriptions (including my own previous attempts at describing the approach) were insufficiently detailed and illuminating. If a description is too vague, we run the risk of inflation.
For example, one could aim to work on multi-dimensional poverty analysis and highlight the fact that we should be interested in the combination of achievements that people are able to have. This would point at two important insights in the capability approach — namely its multidimensional character, as well as focussing on opportunity sets rather than on outcomes. But if the opportunities one focusses on are not capabilities, but rather opportunities to access certain bundles of commodities, then it would be an unjustified inflation to call this a capability application; rather, it would be another type of opportunity-based multidimensional inequality measure.
Second, to understand that capability theories have a modular structure is crucial in understanding the diversity of capability theories that are possible. Let me try to illustrate this. Module C4 states that additional normative principles may be part of a capability theory, and property A6 that functionings and capabilities are not necessarily all that matters in a capability theory. From this it does not follow that all capability scholars have to endorse each and every capability theory. Surely there will be capability theorists who will take issue with the normative principles that are added in module C4 by other capability theorists when they design their theory. That is perfectly fine, as long as both theorists recognise that (a) the capability approach entails the possibility to add such additional normative principles in module C4, and (b) the normative principles they have added in module C4 are not thereby required for each and every other capability theory. 40
Take the following example. One may defend a political theory of disadvantage which states that no-one should live in poverty, no matter whether people are partly causally responsible for having ended up in that situation. Such a theory would endorse a principle (in module C4) that there should be, at the level of outcomes (and hence not at the level of opportunities) institutionally enforced solidarity via redistribution. Let us call those who endorse this principle the S-theorists (S for solidarity).  Let us call these theorists the O-theorists (O for opportunity). Both the S-theorists and the O-theorists can agree that we should understand people’s wellbeing in terms of functionings and capabilities. The S-theorists and the O-theorists are both capabilitarians. They have to acknowledge that the other group’s theory is a capability theory, without having to endorse the other theory. In other words, a capability theorist can agree that the normative position or theory that someone else is defending is a capability theory, without having to endorse that specific theory. There is absolutely no inconsistency in this situation.
Thirdly, the modular view of the capability approach endorses the view that Martha Nussbaum’s work on the capability approach should be understood as a capability theory, that is, a theory in which specific choices are made regarding the modules. It is not, as Nussbaum (2011) suggests in her Creating Capabilities , a version of the capability approach structurally on a par with Sen’s more general capability approach. What Sen has tried to do in his work on the capability approach, is to carve out the general capability approach, as well as to give some more specific capability applications. Admittedly, Sen’s work on the capability approach (rather than his work on a variety of capability applications) would have benefited from a more systematic description of how he saw the anatomy of the capability approach. To my mind, that has been missing from his work, and that is what I have tried to develop here and in an earlier paper (Robeyns 2016b). Yet everything put together, I agree with the understanding of Mozaffar Qizilbash, who concludes an analysis of the difference between Nussbaum’s and Sen’s work on the capability approach by saying that “On this reading […] Nussbaum’s capabilities approach emerges as one particular application or development of Sen’s original formulation of the approach” (Qizilbash 2013, 38).
It is a mistake to understand the capability literature as a field with two major thinkers who have each proposed one version of the capability approach , which have then inspired the work by many other scholars. Rather, there is only one capability approach which is a generalisation of the work by Sen together with further developments by many others. In addition, there are many dozens capability theories — about justice, human rights, social choice theory, welfare economics, poverty measurement, relational egalitarianism, curriculum design, development project assessment, technological design, and so forth. Clearly, Nussbaum has been one of the most prolific and important contributors; she has pushed the boundaries of capabilitarian theories and has rightly advanced the agenda to achieve more clarity on the essential characteristics that any capability theory should meet. However, she has offered us a more specific capability theory , rather than another version of the approach , even if it is the capability theory that is by far the most influential capability theory among philosophers. Establishing the anatomy of the capability approach and its relation to particular capability theories is very important, because it vastly expands the scope of the capability approach, and increases the potential types of capability applications and capabilitarian theories.
In sum, there is much pluralism within the capability approach . Someone who considers herself a capabilitarian or capability thinker does not need to endorse all capability theories. In fact, it is impossible to endorse all capability theories, since different choices made in module C1 (ontological and explanatory theories that are endorsed) and module C4 (additional normative principles) can be in conflict with each other. It is presumably coherent to be a Marxist capabilitarian, and it is presumably also coherent to be a libertarian capabilitarian, but it is not coherent to endorse the views taken by those two positions, since they are incompatible.
40 I believe that Martha Nussbaum makes a mistake when she argues that a commitment to the normative principle of political liberalism is essential to the capability approach, hence to each and every capability theory. For my arguments why this is a mistake, see Robeyns (2016b). Political liberalism is an additional normative commitment that is not a property of the A-module, but rather a choice in module C4.


2.8: Mood Disorders
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Major mood disorders are depression, bipolar disorder, and dysthymic disorder. Like anxiety, depression might seem like something that everyone experiences at some point, and it is true that most people feel sad or “blue” at times in their lives. A true depressive episode, however, is more than just feeling sad for a short period. It is a long-term, debilitating illness that usually needs treatment to cure. And bipolar disorder is characterized by dramatic shifts in energy and mood, often affecting the individual’s ability to carry out day-to-day tasks. Bipolar disorder used to be called manic depression because of the way that people would swing between manic and depressive episodes.


9.3: Pressure Dependence of ΔG
\[ \left(\dfrac{\partial G}{\partial P} \right)_{T,\{n_i\}}=V \nonumber \]
We can now turn the attention to the second coefficient that gives how the Gibbs free energy changes when the pressure change. To do this, we put the system at constant \(T\) and \(\{n_i\}\), and then we consider infinitesimal variations of \(G\). From Equation 8.2.6 :
\[ dG = VdP -SdT +\sum_i\mu_i dn_i \quad \xrightarrow{\text{constant}\; T,\{n_i\}} \quad dG = VdP, \label{9.3.1} \]
which is the differential equation that we were looking for. To study changes of \(G\) for macroscopic changes in \(P\), we can integrate Equation \(\ref{9.3.1}\) between initial and final pressures, and considering an ideal gas, we obtain:
\[\begin{equation} \begin{aligned} \int_i^f dG &= \int_i^f VdP \\ \Delta G &= nRT \int_i^f \dfrac{dP}{P} = nRT \ln \dfrac{P_f}{P_i}. \end{aligned} \end{equation} \label{9.3.2} \ \]
If we take \(P_i = P^{-\kern-6pt{\ominus}\kern-6pt-}= 1 \, \text{bar}\), we can rewrite Equation \ref{9.3.2} as:
\[ G = G^{-\kern-6pt{\ominus}\kern-6pt-}+ nRT \ln \dfrac{P_f}{P^{-\kern-6pt{\ominus}\kern-6pt-}}, \label{9.3.3} \]
which is useful to convert standard Gibbs free energies of formation at pressures different than standard pressure, using:
\[ \Delta_{\text{f}} G = \Delta_{\text{f}} G^{-\kern-6pt{\ominus}\kern-6pt-}+ nRT \ln \dfrac{P_f}{\underbrace{P^{-\kern-6pt{\ominus}\kern-6pt-}}_{=1 \; \text{bar}}} = \Delta_{\text{f}} G^{-\kern-6pt{\ominus}\kern-6pt-}+ nRT \ln P_f \label{9.3.4} \]
For liquids and solids, \(V\) is essentially independent of \(P\) (liquids and solids are incompressible), and Equation \ref{9.3.1} can be integrated as:
\[ \Delta G = \int_i^f VdP = V \int_i^f dP = V \Delta P.\label{9.3.5} \]
The plots in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) show the remarkable difference in the behaviors of \(\Delta_{\text{f}} G\) for a gas and for a liquid, as obtained from eqs. \ref{9.3.2} and \ref{9.3.5}.


8.12: Exercise- Commonly Recorded Artifactual Potentials (C.R.A.P.)
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By this point, I hope you have a good idea of how to detect and reject blinks and eye movements. Now we’ll shift to a class of miscellaneous artifacts that I like to call Commonly Recorded Artifactual Potentials (C.R.A.P.). Whereas virtually all participants in all experiments exhibit blinks and eye movements, which have a predictable waveshape and scalp distribution, C.R.A.P. artifacts tend to be idiosyncratic in their waveshape and scalp distribution. This category includes EMG bursts, movement artifacts, skin potentials, and sudden voltage changes of unknown origin.
In the ERP CORE experiments, our approach to C.R.A.P. was to apply both a simple voltage threshold and the moving window peak-to-peak algorithm to all EEG channels. The simple voltage threshold is particularly good for detecting large drifts in voltage, and a threshold of ±200 µV works well for most participants. The moving window peak-to-peak algorithm is good for detecting muscle bursts and idiosyncratic artifacts that involve sudden voltage changes. The threshold for this routine needs to be adjusted for each participant to ensure that large artifacts are detected without throwing out too many epochs. In most participants, we used a threshold between 100 and 150 µV.
Let’s try the absolute voltage threshold of ±200 µV with Subject 10 from the MMN experiment. Make the dataset named 10_MMN_preprocessed_filt_be_noblinks active, and select EEGLAB > ERPLAB > Artifact detection in epoched data > Simple voltage thresholds . Set the channels to 3:28 , the voltage limits to -200 200 , and the Flag 5 button. We’re leaving out Fp1, Fp2, and the EOG channels so that we don’t end up flagging blinks. (I would ordinarily include Fp1 and Fp2, but it will be easier to see how the artifact detection is working in this exercise without them.) Click ACCEPT to run the routine.
Now look at the artifact table in the Matlab command window. You’ll see that only 17 epochs were flagged by this new artifact test (see the #F5 column in the table). We often catch a relatively small number of artifacts with this test, but that’s okay. Our goal here is to get rid of rare but large artifacts.
Now scroll through the EEG. All of the epochs that were previously flagged for blinks are still flagged, but you’ll also see occasional epochs that are flagged from our new absolute threshold test. The blinks are indicated by a red waveform for the VEOG-bipolar channel, and the new artifacts are indicated by a red waveform for any of the channels between 3 and 28. For example, Epoch 44 was flagged because of large voltage changes in the F7 and F8 channels. Epochs 43, 63, and 64 were also flagged because of the F7 channel. If you keep scrolling, you’ll see a lot of large, sudden voltage changes in F7 (and to a lesser extent F8). But not all of these sudden voltage changes were large enough to be flagged. There are also some fairly large artifacts of this nature in PO4 that were too small to be flagged (but are still quite large). Our threshold of ±200 µV is designed to flag only very large artifacts.
I don’t know what caused these artifacts in F7, F8, and PO4. They’re not biological in origin: With the exception of saccadic eye movements, I don’t know of any biological signals that look like this, changing suddenly from one voltage level to another. However, they’re about 100 times larger than the MMN, so they seem like a significant source of noise that will degrade our data quality (i.e., increase the SME).
To verify this, go ahead and check the aSME values, using a custom window of 125-225 ms as before. As shown in Table 8.2, the aSME values for the F7 channel were improved by removing the C.R.A.P. artifacts. Only 17 trials were rejected, but the artifacts were quite large on those trials, so the rejection produced a noticeable improvement in the aSME values. Our main concern, however, is the FCz channel, which will be used to quantify the MMN in our main analyses. Because the artifacts detected by the absolute threshold test were not present in FCz, rejecting those 17 trials reduced the data quality in this channel, but only slightly.
Now let’s add a moving window peak-to-peak amplitude test to get rid of more C.R.A.P. epochs. Save the dataset created with the absolute threshold test as 10_MMN_preprocessed_filt_be_noblinks_CRAP200 . We’re going to add onto the flags in this dataset, so make sure it’s the active dataset. Select EEGLAB > ERPLAB > Artifact detection in epoched data > Moving window peak-to-peak threshold , set the threshold to 125 , set the channels to 3:28 , set the window length to 200 , set the window step to 100 , and select the Flag 6 button. Note that the choice of 125 µV as the threshold was somewhat arbitrary. It’s just a reasonable starting point that works well for the basic science studies in my lab.
If you look at the artifact table in the Matlab command window, you’ll see that 77 epochs were flagged by this test. However, many of those epochs had previously been flagged for blinks and/or C.R.A.P., and the total number of flagged epochs has increased from 259 to 291. So, we’ve flagged an additional 32 epochs.
If you look at the EEG, you’ll see that we’ve now flagged many trials with sudden voltage shifts that were missed before, including several in the PO4 channel. All of the epochs that were flagged certainly seemed to have pretty large artifacts in them. We’re not flagging trials with “ordinary” EEG noise. If you check the data quality, you’ll see that the aSME for the F7 channel has improved considerably, and we’ve produced only a small reduction of data quality at FCz (see Table 8.2).
I also looked at the effects of reducing the threshold from 125 µV to 100 µV. When I inspected the EEG, more trials with clear artifacts were flagged. The data quality for F7 also improved a bit, with only a small reduction in data quality at FCz (see Table 8.2). I tried decreasing the threshold to 75 and even 50 µV, and this resulted in slight improvements at F7 but further worsening at FCz.
|
Rejection |
aSME at F7 for Deviants |
aSME at F7 for Standards |
aSME at FCz for Deviants |
aSME at FCz for Standards |
|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Blinks Only |
1.9480 |
0.9115 |
0. 8264 |
0.5353 |
|
Blinks + Voltage Threshold (±200) |
1.6381 |
0.9038 |
0.8345 |
0.5410 |
|
Blinks + Voltage Threshold (±200) + Moving Window (125) |
1.1711 |
0.7890 |
0.8443 |
0.5493 |
|
Blinks + Voltage Threshold (±200) + Moving Window (100) |
1.1158 |
0.7368 |
0.8504 |
0.5449 |
So, what threshold is best? Compared to rejection only of blinks, rejecting C.R.A.P. with an absolute threshold of ±200 caused a fairly substantial drop in aSME for F7, and adding the moving window peak-to-peak test with a threshold of 125 caused another large drop in aSME at F7 (and other channels, as well). This rejection of C.R.A.P. caused the aSME at FCz to rise only slightly. Dropping the threshold further caused only minor decreases at F7, along with small increases at FCz. Given that FCz will be the main channel used for measuring the MMN, with the other channels only being used to quantify the scalp topography, the threshold of 125 µV seems like a good compromise for this particular experiment.
The optimal threshold, and even the optimal set of test to apply, will vary across participants and across experimental paradigms. The key is to ask what set of parameters will be most likely to bring you to a true conclusion about your primary scientific hypothesis. In almost all experiments, this means rejecting artifacts to the extent that they degrade your data quality at the key electrode sites (which you can assess with aSME values) and ensuring that any remaining artifacts are not producing differences between conditions.
A third issue—which does not typically arise in auditory experiments like our MMN experiment—is whether blinks and eye movements produced changes in the sensory input. We will turn to that issue in a later set of exercises.


1.S: Overview, DNA, and Genes (Summary)
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- Ying Liu
- City College of San Francisco
- Mendel demonstrated that heredity involved discrete, heritable factors that affected specific traits.
- A gene can be defined abstractly as a unit of inheritance.
- The ability of DNA from bacteria and viruses to transfer genetic information into bacteria demonstrated that DNA is the genetic material.
- DNA is a double helix made of two anti-parallel strands of bases on a sugar-phosphate backbone.
- Specific bases on opposite strands pair through hydrogen bonding, ensuring complementarity of the strands.
- The Central Dogma explains how DNA dictates heritable traits.
- Not all DNA in an organism contains genes.
- Model organisms accelerate the use of genetics in basic and applied research in biology, agriculture and medicine.
Key Terms
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blending inheritance particulate inheritance Mendel gene allele trait P, F1, F2 Griffith Avery, MacLeod, & McCarty Hershey and Chase Meselson & Stahl DNase proteinase 35 S 32 P bacteriophage semi-conservative conservative dispersive E. coli Nitrogen-14 Nitrogen-15 |
heavy vs light CsCl gradient Beadle & Tatum auxotroph prototroph metabolic pathway Neurospora crassa Chargaff’s Rules Watson and Crick DNA bases sugar-phosphate backbone anti-parallel complementary hydrogen bond minor groove major groove adenine cytosine thymine guanine Central Dogma transcription reverse transcription |
translation RNA prion one-gene:one-enzyme minimal medium complete medium arginine genetic screen nuclear genome c-value paradox model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae Caenorhabditis elegans Drosophila melanogaster Mus musculus Danio rerio Arabidopsis thaliana Escherichia coli |


19.2: Springs
From Wikipedia : A spring is an elastic object that stores mechanical energy. Although real springs can be rather complicated, in physics we normally deal with idealized springs , which can be modeled relatively easily. In addition, this model is widely applicable for many other physical interactions, like between molecules or other fundamental particles. In fact, nearly every interaction in the universe looks like a spring if you consider just small displacements from equilibrium positions. In this section we will carefully outline how to model the interaction of a spring using forces - the chapter on potential energy has already discussed modeling the spring as an energy storage device.
A spring has an equilibrium position (see the figure above), at which it will stay until forces are applied to it. If we use a coordinate system with the origin at the fixed end of the spring, we will call this equilbrium position \(x_0\). When the end of the spring is moved to a different location \(x\), the response force from the spring is linear in the displacement \(x-x_0|\), with a constant of proportionality \(k\) ( the spring constant ). This constant of proportionality is different for every spring, but remains constant during all interactions. The basic observation of linear proportionality is the content of Hooke's Law .
There are several equivalent ways of representing the force mathematically. Using the quantities defined above, we can write the magnitude as simply
\[|F_{sp}|=k|x-x_0|.\]
Of course, this doesn't take into account the direction of the force, only the size. Since the direction of the force is opposite of the displacement (compressed springs push against the compression, whereas stretched springs pull back - this is why the spring force is often called a restoring force ), we need to be a little careful to get that right. One way to do this is to write the component of the force along the displacement as
\[F_{sp,x}=-k(x-x_0).\]
Notice the signs of the various quantities (the overall negative sign in particular) in comparison to the figure above. When the spring is stretched, we have \(x>x_0\) so \(x-x_0\) is positive, and the overall force is in the negative-x direction, as expected. When the spring is compressed, \(x<x_0\) so \(x-x_0\) is negative, but the overall negative sign ensures the force is now in the positive direction, as expected.
Generally, this is the most useful way to write the spring force. However, it is sometimes advantageous to set the equilibrium position of the spring as the origin of the coordinate system, \(x_0=0\). In this case, the spring force is simply
\[F_{sp,x}=-kx.\]
You can check yourself that the signs work out the same way as they did in the other expression.
It's also possible to write this force as a vector, but we have to be a bit more careful. In cases where the idealized spring model is expected to be valid, one can write
\[\vec{F}_{sp}=-k(\vec{r}-\vec{r}_0),\]
where \(\vec{r}_0\) is the equilibrium position of the end of the spring, and \(\vec{r}\) is the current position. However, this might start falling apart when considering various aspects of "real" springs. For example, if the end of the spring is allowed to rotate, the spring could find other equilbrium positions at distances \(|r_0|\) from the origin, but at a different location than the original position. These can all be dealt with, so long as we understand how to apply the basic model of Hooke's law.


3.2: Assignment- Using Google Earth to Visualize Plate Boundaries
Module 3 Assignment
Using Google Earth to Visualize Plate Boundaries
Overview
This week you will complete an exercise on plate boundaries using Google Earth tools and any other Internet or textbook resources at your disposal. Please make sure you have completed the module reading before you complete the assignment. Please write your answers in a separate document and submit it to Assignment 1 in the Assignments Tool.
Installation
You should have the Google Earth application downloaded on your computer.
If you haven’t done that yet, please visit https://www.google.com/earth/ to download it and install it on your machine.
It is not recommended to use an iPad or a Chrome book to do this assignment. The .kmz file may not load properly and you will be unable to do the assignment.
Downloading and opening the KMZ file:
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- Download this KMZ file: Plate Boundaries
- Launch the Google Earth application. Choose File —> Open… and navigate to the Downloads folder on your computer.
- Choose the“plate-boundaries.kmz” file to open it in Google Earth.
Instructions
When opening the “plate-boundaries.kmz” file in Google Earth, it should automatically zoom in on the San Andreas Fault Zone in California. Take some time to acquaint yourself with the Google Earth zoom and rotation tools on the right-hand side of the window and with legend on the left side of the Google Earth window. Explore the plate boundaries in this region and across the globe. To return to the original view, simply double-click on the name of the KMZ file (“Earth’s Tectonic Plates” in the Places legend on the left-hand side of the Google Earth window). The yellow arrows indicate relative relative movement between the plates. Your current view should look like this:
West Coast Tectonics
As you have learned, the San Andreas Fault is actually a transform boundary between the Pacific and North American plates.
- Name the two plates that form the San Andreas transform fault boundary. What direction is each plate moving relative to the other? Next, zoom in on the San Andreas Fault Zone until the cities of Los Angeles and San Francisco appear on your map. (Hint: They will appear as red labeled dots. Los Angeles may appear on the map first, then zoom in a bit more and San Francisco should appear, as well).
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On which tectonic plate are the following cities located (please include one screenshot of the general area that includes at least two of these cities):
- Los Angeles, CA
- Bakersfield, CA
- San Francisco, CA
- Based on the relative motion between these two plates, is the distance between San Francisco and Los Angeles becoming greater or shorter over time? Briefly explain. Next, return to the original map view by double-clicking the name of the KMZ file “Earth’s Tectonic Plates” under the Places Legend on the left side of the Google Earth window.
- Describe the names and types of plate boundaries, as well as their relative movement, along the West coast of North America, from the Gulf of California (Sea of Cortez) northward to British Columbia, Canada. Next, zoom in on the Juan de Fuca plate, just off the coast of Washington and Oregon.
- Based on the types of plate boundaries that form the perimeter of the Juan de Fuca plate, in addition to what you have learned in the textbook about their relative rate of movement, what is the ultimate fate of the Juan de Fuca plate?
- Describe the tectonic processes that formed the Cascade Range (which includes Mt. St. Helens) in the U.S. Pacific Northwest.
Divergent Plate Boundaries
Next, zoom out and take a few minutes to explore the other plate boundaries around the globe.
- Where are most of the divergent plate boundaries located around the globe— on landmasses or in ocean basins?
- Identify at least one location where a divergent boundary is situated in a shallow, narrow sea between landmasses. Include a screenshot. You might notice that divergent and transform boundaries often occur together in an alternating pattern. Zoom in on a region on Earth where this occurs.
- Why are mid-ocean ridges (divergent boundaries) usually offset by numerous transform faults along their length? Feel free to refer to your textbook or do some internet research (citing your sources) to determine this. Include a screenshot of the location you chose to zoom in on.
Spreading Rates
Please visit the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) website: 2008 Age of Oceans Plates)
Take a moment to study and zoom in on the map and its legend (see the screenshot of this image on the next page).
- Describe what this image is illustrating.
- Using data from the image, where is the oldest seafloor in the world and what is its age? How does this age compare to the oldest continental rocks?
- What is the reason for the discrepancy between these two ages?
Grading Rubric
10 points : All questions were answered thoroughly and accurately. Screenshots were included where requested.
8 points : All questions were answered and were mostly accurate. Screenshots were included where requested.
5 points : Answers were too brief and a 1-2 questions were unanswered. Screenshots were not included.
2 points : Only very partial information was given. Screenshots were not included.
0 points : Did not complete the assignment.


9.2.1: How to Save on Costs
How to Save on Grocery Costs
- Pack lunches and snacks for work, school, and trips to avoid spending money on fast food or junk food.
- Check expiration dates in the refrigerator and pantry and use items that will spoil sooner first.
- Use grocery circulars, advertisements, and coupons to select foods that are on sale to prepare for meals.
- Plan meals for the week and write a grocery list of items needed. Look through the refrigerator and pantry to see what items are on hand before buying them. Use those items to plan meals.
- Make and stick to a grocery list while shopping to avoid spending money on extra items. Don’t shop on an empty stomach as you will be more likely to be unnecessary items.
- Find protein sources in less expensive items such as dried beans and eggs.
- Buy bulk items. Larger amounts tend to be cheaper, but don’t buy extra if it will spoil before you can use it.
- Buy generic or store brands to cut your grocery bill.
- Shop at large supermarkets or discount grocery stores rather than convenience stores such as gas stations as you will get better prices and sales.
- Buy fresh foods when they are in season and incorporate seasonal fruits and vegetables into menu planning. Produce is cheaper when it is in season.
- Avoid processed and already prepared foods as these are not only less healthy, but tend to be more expensive than foods you must prepare.
How to Save on Household Costs
- Cancel unnecessary subscriptions to magazines, cable, and other services.
- Find cost saving plans for combining utilities such as cable, phone, and internet services.
- Pay bills on time. Many companies charge a late fee, which can add up significantly over time.
- Work with a consumer credit agency to effectively manage debts and consolidate credit card debts.
- Don’t use disposable paper products, such as paper plates.
- Use cloth diapers instead of disposable diapers.
- Buy clothes when out of season when stores discount them and shop at thrift or second hand stores.
- Keep clothing in good repair to avoid having to replace it.
- Look at store advertisements and weekly circulars to purchase cleaning and other household products that are on sale.
- Take advantage of pharmacy discount programs, such as purchasing a 3 month versus a 1 month supply of regularly used medications. Oftentimes, these types of programs can help save costs on prescription medicine.
- Use the generic brand of medication and over the counter medications when appropriate and after discussing this with a physician.
- Purchase gas for your car at the least expensive gas station and when there are gas sales.
How to Save on Energy Costs
Energy can create a substantial cost to a household. The following and other energy saving tips for each room in the house can be reviewed by visiting NYSEG at: http :// www . nyseg . com / UsageAndSafety / usingenergywisely / energywisechecklist / default . html
- Use electricity during off-peak hours whenever possible. It is often less expensive to do wash and run dishwashers at night during off-peak hours, when energy use is generally low.
- Lower energy bills by turning off lights in rooms when not in use or lowering or turning off the heat or AC when no one is home.
- Use a programmable thermostat to control heating and cooling costs. Set the thermostat to 65-70 degrees during the winter and 58 degrees when no one is home.
- Save energy costs by washing only full loads of clothing or dishes in washing machines and dishwashers.
- Use the cold or cool setting whenever possible when washing clothing.
- Check the lint screen in the dryer frequently. This prevents fires as well as allows the dryer to work more efficiently.
- Don’t over-dry clothing in the dryer. Dry only for the amount of time necessary to get clothing dry. Whenever possible, hang clothing to dry on a clothesline.
- Using energy efficient appliances whenever possible can help reduce costs.
- Have chimneys, heating, and cooling systems inspected and maintained on a regular basis to ensure they are working efficiently.
- Replace furnace or air conditioner ducts when dirty.
- Use fans instead of air conditioners.
- Use energy saving shower heads and faucets.
- Take shorter showers.
- Do not leave water running when unnecessary. Turn off the water while brushing teeth and in between washing dishes.
- Defrost your refrigerator on a regular basis. Ice build-up increases the cost of energy as the refrigerator has to work harder to be efficient.
- Open and close refrigerator and freezer doors infrequently and quickly. Plan for what you need prior to opening the doors.
By following these cost saving suggestions, making and sticking to a budget, and reducing debt, Home Health Aides/Personal Care Aides can help their patient and their family meet their expenses without having to feel anxious. Home Health Aides/Personal Care Aides should follow the Care Plan guidelines as to what ways they are expected to help their patient budget and manage money. Always document tasks completed and money that is spent. Whenever in doubt, seek guidance from a supervisor.
For more information, you can visit a resource such as the American Consumer Credit Counseling (ACCC) by following this link: http :// www . consumercredit . com / . The ACCC is a company which specializes in consumer credit counseling, and which provides free and low cost services to assist people budget and pay off debt. Budget worksheets and cost calculators are available free of charge on this website.