1.5.1: From A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia (1588)
Preface
TO THE RIGHT WORTHIE AND HONORABLE, SIR WALTER RALEGH, KNIGHT, SENESCHAL OF THE DVCHIES OF CORNEWALL AND EXETER, AND L. WARDEN OF THE STANNARIES IN DEUON AND CORNEWALL, T.B. WISHETH TRUE FELICITIE.
SIR, seeing that the parte of the Worlde, which is betwene the FLORIDA and the Cap BRETON nowe nammed VIRGINIA, to the honneur of yours most souueraine Layde and Queene ELIZABETZ, hath ben descouuerd by yours meanes. And great chardges. And that your Collonye hath been theer established to your great honnor and prayse, and noelesser proffit vnto the common welth: Yt ys good raison that euery man euertwe him selfe for to showe the benefit which they haue receue of yt. Theerfore, for my parte I haue been allwayes Desirous for to make yow knowe the good will that I haue to remayne still your most humble særuant. I haue thincke that I cold faynde noe better occasion to declare yt, then takinge the paines to cott in copper (the most diligent ye and well that wear in my possible to doe) the Figures which doe leuelye represent the forme and maner of the Inhabitants of the sane countrye with theirs ceremonies, sollemne feastes, and the manner and situation of their Townes of Villages. Addinge vnto euery figure a brief declaration of the same, to that ende that cuerye man cold the better vnderstand that which is in liuely represented. Moreouer I haue thincke that the aforesaid figures wear of greater commendation, If somme Histoire which traitinge of the commodites and fertillitye of the rapport which Thomas Hariot hath lattely sett foorth, and haue causse them booth togither to be printed for to dedicated vnto you, as a thiuge which by reigtte dooth allreadye apparteyne vnto you. Therfore doe I creaue that you will accept this little Booke, and take yt In goode partte. And desiring that fauor that you will receue me in the nomber of one of your most humble seruantz, besechinge the lord to blese and further you in all yours good doinges and actions, and allso to preserue, and keepe you allwayes in good helthe. And so I comitt you unto the almyhttie, from Franckfort the first of Apprill 1590.
Your most humble seruant,
THEODORVS de BRY.
TO THE ADVENTVRERS, FAVORERS, AND VVELVVILLERS OF THE ENTERPRISE FOR THE INHABITTING AND PLANTING IN VIRGINIA.
SINCE the first vndertaking by Sir Walter Ralegh to deale in the action of discouering of that Countrey which is now called and known by the name of VIRGINIA; many voyages hauing bin thiter made at sundrie times to his great charge; as first in the yeere 1584. and afterwardes in the yeeres 1585. 1586. and now of late this last yeare of 1587. There haue bin diuers and variable reportes with some slaunderous and shamefull speeches bruited abroade by many that returned from thence. Especially of that discouery which was made by the Colony transported by Sir Richard Greinuile in the yeare 1585. being of all the others the most principal and as yet of most effect, the time of their abode in the countrey beeing a whole yeare, when as in the other voyage before they staied but sixe weekes; and the others after were onelie for supply and transportation, nothing more being discouered then had been before. Which reports haue not done a litle wrong to many that otherwise would have also fauoured & aduentured in the action, to the honour and benefite of our nation, besides the particular profite and credite which would redound to them selues the dealers therein; as I hope by the sequele of euents to the shame of those that haue auouched the contrary shalbe manifest: if you the aduenturers, fauourers, and welwillers do but either encrease in number, or in opinion continue, or hauing bin doubtfull renewe your good liking and furtherance to deale therein according to the worthinesse thereof alreadye found and as you shall vnderstand hereafter to be requisite. Touching which woorthines through cause of the diuersitie of relations and reportes, manye of your opinions coulde not bee firme, nor the mindes of some that are well disposed, bee setled in any certaintie.
I haue therefore thought it good beeing one that haue beene in the discouerie and in dealing with the natuall inhabitantes specially imploied; and hauing therefore seene and knowne more then the ordinaire: to imparte so much vnto you of the fruites of our labours, as that you may knowe howe iniuriously the enterprise is slaundered. And that in publike manner at this present chiefelie for two respectes.
First that some of you which are yet ignorant or doubtfull of the state thereof, may see that there is sufficiêt cause why the cheefe enterpriser with the fauour of her Maiestie, notwithstanding suche reportes; hath not onelie since continued the action by sending into the countrey againe, and replanting this last yeere a new Colony; but is also readie, according as the times and meanes will affoorde, to follow and prosecute the same.
Secondly, that you seeing and knowing the continuance of the action by the view hereof you may generally know & learne what the countrey is; & therevpon cõsider how your dealing therein if it proceede, may returne you profit and gaine; bee it either by inhabitting & planting or otherwise in furthering thereof.
And least that the substance of my relation should be doubtful vnto you, as of others by reason of their diuersitie: I will first open the cause in a few wordes wherefore they are so different; referring my selue to your fauourable constructions, and to be adiudged of as by good consideration you shall finde cause.
Of our companie that returned some for their misdemenour and ill dealing in the countrey, haue beene there worthily punished; who by reason of their badde natures, haue maliciously not onelie spoken ill of their Gouernours; but for their sakes slaundered the countrie it selfe. The like also haue those done which were of their confort.
Some beeing ignorant of the state thereof, nothwithstanding since their returne amongest their friendes and acquaintance and also others, especially if they were in companie where they might not be gainesaide; woulde seeme to know so much as no men more; and make no men so great trauailers as themselues. They stood so much as it maie seeme vppon their credite and reputation that hauing been a twelue moneth in the countrey, it woulde haue beene a great disgrace vnto them as they thought, if they coulde not haue saide much wheter it were true or false. Of which some haue spoken of more then euer they saw or otherwise knew to bee there; othersome haue not bin ashamed to make absolute deniall of that which although not by thê, yet by others is most certainely ãd there plêtifully knowne. And othersome make difficulties of those things they haue no skill of.
The cause of their ignorance was, in that they were of that many that were neuer out of the Iland where wee were seated, or not farre, or at the leastwise in few places els, during the time of our aboade in the countrey; or of that many that after golde and siluer was not so soone found, as it was by them looked for, had little or no care of any other thing but to pamper their bellies; or of that many which had little vnderstanding, lesse discretion, and more tongue then was needfull or requisite.
Some also were of a nice bringing vp, only in cities or townes, or such as neuer (as I may say) had seene the world before. Because there were not to bee found any English cities, norsuch faire houses, nor at their owne wish any of their olde accustomed daintie food, nor any soft beds of downe or fethers: the countrey was to them miserable, & their reports thereof according.
Because my purpose was but in briefe to open the cause of the varietie of such speeches; the particularities of them, and of many enuious, malicious, and slaûderous reports and deuises els, by our owne countrey men besides; as trifles that are not worthy of wise men to bee thought vpon, I meane not to trouble you withall: but will passe to the commodities, the substance of that which I haue to make relation of vnto you.
The treatise where of for your more readie view & easier vnderstanding I will diuide into three speciall parts. In the first I will make declaration of such commodities there alreadie found or to be raised, which will not onely serue the ordinary turnes of you which are and shall bee the plãters and inhabitants, but such an ouerplus sufficiently to bee yelded, or by men of skill to bee prouided, as by way of trafficke and exchaunge with our owne nation of England, will enrich your selues the prouiders; those that shal deal with you; the enterprisers in general; and greatly profit our owne countrey men, to supply them with most things which heretofore they haue bene faine to prouide, either of strangers or of our enemies: which commodities for distinction sake, I call Merchantable.
In the second, I will set downe all the cõmodities which wee know the countrey by our experience doeth yeld of its selfe for victuall, and sustenance of mans life; such as is vsually fed vpon by the inhabitants of the countrey, as also by vs during the time we were there.
In the last part I will make mention generally of such other cõmodities besides, as I am able to remember, and as I shall thinke behoofull for those that shall inhabite, and plant there to knowe of; which specially concerne building, as also some other necessary vses: with a briefe description of the nature and maners of the people of the countrey.
Third Part
THE THIRD AND LAST PART, OF SVCH OTHER THINGES AS IS BE HOOFULL FOR THOSE WHICH SHALL PLANT AND INHABIT TO KNOW OF; WITH A DESCRIPTION OF THE NATURE AND MANNERS OF THE PEOPLE OF THE COUNTREY.
Of commodities for building and other necessary uses.
THOSE other things which I am more to make rehearsall of, are such as concerne building, and other mechanicall necessarie vses; as diuers sortes of trees for house & ship timber, and other vses els: Also lime, stone, and brick, least that being not mentioned some might haue bene doubted of, or by some that are malicious reported the contrary.
Okes , there are as faire, straight, tall, and as good timber as any can be, and also great store, and in some places very great.
Walnut trees , as I haue saide before very many, some haue bene seen excellent faire timber of foure & fiue fadome, & aboue fourescore foot streight without bough.
Firre trees fit for masts of ships, some very tall & great. [Rakíock]
Rakíock , a kind of trees so called that are sweet wood of which the inhabitans that were neere vnto vs doe commonly make their boats or Canoes of the form of trowes; only with the helpe of fire, harchets of stones, and shels; we haue known some so great being made in that sort of one tree that they haue carried well xx. men at once, besides much baggage: the timber being great, tal, streight, soft, light, & yet tough enough I thinke (besides other vses) to be fit also for masts of ships.
Cedar , a sweet wood good for seelings, Chests, Boxes, Bedsteedes, Lutes, Virginals, and many things els, as I haue also said before. Some of our company which haue wandered in some places where I haue not bene, haue made certaine affirmation of Cyprus which for such and other excellent vses, is also a wood of price and no small estimation.
Maple , and also Wich-hazle ; wherof the inhabitants vse to make their bowes.
Holly a necessary thing for the making of birdlime.
Willowes good for the making of weares and weeles to take fish after the English manner, although the inhabitants vse only reedes, which because they are so strong as also flexible, do serue for that turne very well and sufficiently.
Beech and Ashe , good for caske, hoopes: and if neede require, plow worke, as also for many things els.
Elme .
Sassafras trees.
Ascopo a kinde of tree very like vnto Lawrell, the barke is hoat in tast and spicie, it is very like to that tree which Monardus describeth to bee Cassia Lignea of the West Indies.
There are many other strange trees whose names I knowe not but in the Virginian language, of which I am not nowe able, neither is it so conuenient for the present to trouble you with particular relatiõ: seeing that for timber and other necessary vses I haue named sufficient: And of many of the rest but that they may be applied to good vse, I know no cause to doubt.
Now for Stone, Bricke and Lime, thus it is. Neere vnto the Sea coast where wee dwelt, there are no kind of stones to bee found (except a fewe small pebbles about foure miles off) but such as haue bene brought from farther out of the maine. In some of our voiages wee haue seene diuers hard raggie stones, great pebbles, and a kinde of grey stone like vnto marble, of which the inhabitants make their hatchets to cleeue wood. Vpon inquirie wee heard that a little further vp into the Countrey were all sortes verie many, although of Quarries they are ignorant, neither haue they vse of any store whereupon they should haue occasion to seeke any. For if euerie housholde haue one or two to cracke Nuttes, grinde shelles, whet copper, and sometimes other stones for hatchets, they haue enough: neither vse they any digging, but onely for graues about three foote deepe: and therefore no maruaile that they know neither Quarries, nor lime stones, which both may bee in places neerer than they wot of.
In the meane time vntill there bee discouerie of sufficient store in some place or other cõuenient, the want of you which are and shalbe the planters therein may be as well supplied by Bricke: for the making whereof in diuers places of the countrey there is clay both excellent good, and plentie; and also by lime made of Oister shels, and of others burnt, after the maner as they vse in the Iles of Tenet and Shepy, and also in diuers other places of England: Which kinde of lime is well knowne to bee as good as any other. And of Oister shels there is plentie enough: for besides diuers other particular places where are abundance, there is one shallowe sounde along the coast, where for the space of many miles together in length, and two or three miles in breadth, the grounde is nothing els beeing but halfe a foote or a foote vnder water for the most part.
This much can I say further more of stones, that about 120. miles from our fort neere the water in the side of a hill was founde by a Gentleman of our company, a great veine of hard ragge stones, which I thought good to remember vnto you.
Of the nature and manners of the people.
It resteth I speake a word or two of the naturall inhabitants, their natures and maners, leauing large discourse thereof vntill time more conuenient hereafter: nowe onely so farre foorth, as that you may know, how that they in respect of troubling our inhabiting and planting, are not to be feared; but that they shall haue cause both to feare and loue vs, that shall inhabite with them.
They are a people clothed with loose mantles made of Deere skins, & aprons of the same rounde about their middles; all els naked; of such as difference of statures only as wee in England; hauing no edge tooles or weapons of yron or steele to offend vs withall, neither know they how to make any: those weapõs that they haue, are onlie bowes made of Witch hazle, & arrowes of reeds; flat edged truncheons also of wood about a yard long, neither haue they any thing to defend themselues but targets made of barcks; and some armours made of stickes wickered together with thread.
Their townes are but small, & neere the sea coast but few, some cõtaining but 10. or 12. houses: some 20. the greatest that we haue seene haue bene but of 30. houses: if they be walled it is only done with barks of trees made fast to stakes, or els with poles onely fixed vpright and close one by another.
Their houses are made of small poles made fast at the tops in rounde forme after the maner as is vsed in many arbories in our gardens of England, in most townes couered with barkes, and in some with artificiall mattes made of long rushes; from the tops of the houses downe to the ground. The length of them is commonly double to the breadth, in some places they are but 12. and 16. yardes long, and in other some wee haue seene of foure and twentie.
In some places of the countrey one onely towne belongeth to the gouernment of a Wiróans or chiefe Lorde; in other some two or three, in some sixe, eight, & more; the greatest Wiróans that yet we had dealing with had but eighteene townes in his gouernmêt, and able to make not aboue seuen or eight hundred fighting men at the most: The language of euery gouernment is different from any other, and the farther they are distant the greater is the difference.
Their maner of warres amongst themselues is either by sudden surprising one an other most commonly about the dawning of the day, or moone light; or els by ambushes, or some suttle deuises: Set battels are very rare, except if fall out where there are many trees, where eyther part may haue some hope of defence, after the deliuerie of euery arrow, in leaping behind some or other.
If there fall out any warres betweê vs & them; what their fight is likely to bee, we hauing aduantages against them so many maner of waies, as by our discipline, our strange weapons and deuises els; especially by ordinance great and small, it may be easily imagined; by the experience we haue had in some places, the turning vp of their heeles against vs in running away was their best defence.
In respect of vs they are a people poore, and for want of skill and iudgement in the knowledge and vse of our things, doe esteeme our trifles before thinges of greater value: Notwithstanding in their proper manner considering the want of such meanes as we haue, they seeme very ingenious; For although they haue no such tooles, nor any such craftes, sciences and artes as wee; yet in those thinges they doe, they shewe excellencie of wit. And by howe much they vpon due consideration shall finde our manner of knowledges and craftes to exceede theirs in perfection, and speed for doing or execution, by so much the more is it probable that they shoulde desire our friendships & loue, and haue the greater respect for pleasing and obeying vs. Whereby may bee hoped if meanes of good gouernment bee vsed, that they may in short time be brought to ciuilitie, and the imbracing of true religion.
Some religion they haue alreadie, which although it be farre from the truth, yet beyng as it is, there is hope it may bee the easier and sooner reformed.
They beleeue that there are many Gods which they call Mantóac, but of different sortes and degrees; one onely chiefe and great God, which hath bene from all eternitie. Who as they affirme when hee purposed to make the worlde, made first other goddes of a principall order to bee as meanes and instruments to bee vsed in the creation and gouernment to follow; and after the Sunne, Moone, and Starres, as pettie goddes and the instruments of the other order more principall. First they say were made waters, out of which by the gods was made all diuersitie of creatures that are visible or inuisible.
For mankind they say a woman was made first, which by the woorking of one of the goddes, conceiued and brought foorth children: And in such sort they say they had their beginning.
But how manie yeeres or ages haue passed since, they say they can make no relation, hauing no letters nor other such meanes as we to keepe recordes of the particularities of times past, but onelie tradition from father to sonne.
They thinke that all the gods are of humane shape, & therfore they represent them by images in the formes of men, which they call Kewasowok one alone is called Kewás ; Them they place in houses appropriate or temples which they call Mathicómuck ; Where they woorship, praie, sing, and make manie times offerings vnto them. In some Machicómuck we haue seene but on Kewas , in some two, and in other some three; The common sort thinke them to be also gods.
They beleeue also the immortalitie of the soule, that after this life as soone as the soule is departed from the bodie according to the workes it hath done, it is eyther carried to heauê the habitacle of gods, there to enioy perpetuall blisse and happiness, or els to a great pitte or hole, which they thinke to bee in the furthest partes of their part of the worlde towarde the sunne set, there to burne continually: the place they call Popogusso.
For the confirmation of this opinion, they tolde mee two stories of two men that had been lately dead and reuiued againe, the one happened but few yeres before our comming in the countrey of a wicked man which hauing beene dead and buried, the next day the earth of the graue beeing seene to moue, was takê vp againe; Who made declaration where his soule had beene, that is to saie very neere entring into Popogusso, had not one of the gods saued him & gaue him leaue to returne againe, and teach his friends what they should doe to auiod that terrible place of tormenr.
The other happened in the same yeere wee were there, but in a towne that was threescore miles from vs, and it was tolde mee for straunge newes that one beeing dead, buried and taken vp againe as the first, shewed that although his bodie had lien dead in the graue, yet his soule was aliue, and had trauailed farre in a long broade waie, on both sides whereof grewe most delicate and pleasaût trees, bearing more rare and excellent fruites then euer hee had seene before or was able to expresse, and at length came to most braue and faire houses, neere which hee met his father, that had beene dead before, who gaue him great charge to goe backe againe and shew his friendes what good they were to doe to enioy the pleasures of that place, which when he had done he should after come againe.
What subtilty soeuer be in the Wiroances and Priestes, this opinion worketh so much in manie of the common and simple sort of people that it maketh them haue great respect to their Gouernours, and also great care what they do, to auoid torment after death, and to enjoy blisse; although nothwithstanding there is punishment ordained for malefactours, as stealers, whoremoongers, and other sortes of wicked doers; some punished with death, some with forfeitures, some with beating, according to the greatnes of the factes.
And this is the summe of their religion, which I learned by hauing special familiarity [miliarity] with some of their priestes. Wherein they were not so sure grounded, nor gaue such credite to their traditions and stories but through conuersing with vs they were brought into great doubts of their owne, and no small admiratiõ of ours, with earnest desire in many, to learne more than we had meanes for want of perfect vtterance in their language to expresse.
Most thinges they sawe with vs, as Mathematicall instruments, sea compasses, the vertue of the loadstone in drawing yron, a perspectiue glasse whereby was shewed manie strange sightes, burning glasses, wildefire woorkes, gunnes, bookes, writing and reading, spring clocks that seeme to goe of themselues, and manie other thinges that wee had, were so straunge vnto them, and so farre exceeded their capacities to comprehend the reason and meanes how they should be made and done, that they thought they were rather the works of gods then of men, or at the leastwise they had bin giuen and taught vs of the gods. Which made manie of them to haue such opinions of vs, as that if they knew not the trueth of god and religion already, it was rather to be had from vs, whom God so specially loued then from a people that were so simple, as they found themselues to be in comparison of vs. Whereupon greater credite was giuen vnto that we spake of concerning such matters.
Manie times and in euery towne where I came, according as I was able, I made declaration of the contentes of the Bible; that therein was set foorth the true and onelie GOD, and his mightie woorkes, that therein was contayned the true doctrine of saluation through Christ, which manie particularities of Miracles and chiefe poyntes of religion, as I was able then to vtter, and thought fitte for the time. And although I told them the booke materially & of itself was not of anie such vertue, as I thought they did conceiue, but onely the doctrine therein cõtained; yet would many be glad to touch it, to embrace it, to kisse it, to hold it to their brests and heades, and stroke ouer all their bodie with it; to shew their hungrie desire of that knowledge which was spoken of.
The Wiroans with whom we dwelt called Wingina , and many of his people would be glad many times to be with vs at our praiers, and many times call vpon vs both in his owne towne, as also in others whither he sometimes accompanied vs, to pray and sing Psalmes; hoping thereby to bee partaker in the same effectes which wee by that meanes also expected.
Twise this Wiroans was so greiuously sicke that he was like to die, and as hee laie languishing, doubting of anie helpe by his owne priestes, and thinking he was in such daunger for offending vs and thereby our god, sent for some of vs to praie and bee a meanes to our God that it would please him either that he might liue or after death dwell with him in blisse; so likewise were the requestes of manie others in the like case.
On a time also when their corne began to wither by reason of a drouth which happened extraordinarily, fearing that it had come to passe by reason that in some thing they had displeased vs, many woulde come to vs & desire vs to praie to our God of England, that he would perserue their corne, promising that when it was ripe we also should be partakers of the fruite.
There could at no time happen any strange sicknesse, losses, hurtes, or any other crosse vnto them, but that they would impute to vs the cause or meanes therof for offending or not pleasing vs.
One other rare and strange accident, leauing others, will I mention before I ende, which mooued the whole countrey that either knew or hearde of vs, to haue vs in wonderfull admiration.
There was no towne where we had any subtile deuise practised against vs, we leauing it vnpunished or not reuenged (because wee sought by all meanes possible to win them by gentlenesse) but that within a few dayes after our departure from euerie such towne, the people began to die very fast, and many in short space; in some townes about twentie, in some fourtie, in some sixtie, & in one sixe score, which in trueth was very manie in respect of their numbers. This happened in no place that wee could learne but where wee had bene, where they vsed some practise against vs, and after such time; The disease also so strange, that they neither knew what it was, nor how to cure it; the like by the report of the oldest men in the countrey neuer happened before, time out of minde. A thing specially obserued by vs as also by the naturall inhabitants themselues.
Insomuch that when some of the inhabitantes which were our friends & especially the Wiroans Wingina had obserued such effects in foure or fiue towns to follow their wicked practises, they were preswaded that it was the worke of our God through our meanes, and that wee by him might kil and slai whom we would without weapons and not come neere them.
And thereupon when it had happened that they had vnderstanding that any of their enemies had abused vs in our iourneyes, hearing that wee had wrought no reuenge with our weapons, & fearing vpon some cause the matter should so rest: did come and intreate vs that we woulde bee a meanes to our God that they as others that had dealt ill with vs might in like sort die; alleaging howe much it would be for our credite and profite, as also theirs; and hoping furthermore that we would do so much at their requests in respect of the friendship we professe them.
Whose entreaties although wee shewed that they were vngodlie, affirming that our God would not subiect him selfe to anie such praiers and requestes of mê: that in deede all thinges haue beene and were to be done according to his good pleasure as he had ordained: ãd that we to shew ourselues his true seruãts ought rather to make petition for the contrarie, that they with them might liue together with vs, bee made partakers of his truth & serue him in righteousnes; but notwitstanding in such sort, that wee referre that as all other thinges, to bee done according to his diuine will & pleasure, ãd as by his wisedome he had ordained to be best.
Yet because the effect fell out so sodainly and shortly after according to their desires, they thought neuertheless it came to passe by our meanes, and that we in vsing such speeches vnto them did but dissemble in the matter, and therefore came vnto vs to giue vs thankes in their manner that although wee satisfied them not in promise, yet in deedes and effect we had fulfilled their desires.
This maruelous accident in all the countrie wrought so strange opinions of vs, that some people could not tel whether to think vs gods or men, and the rather because that all the space of their sicknesse, there was no man of ours knowne to die, or that was specially sicke: they noted also that we had no women amongst vs, neither that we did care for any of theirs.
Some therefore were of opinion that wee were not borne of women, and therefore not mortall, but that wee were men of an old generation many yeeres past then risen againe to immortalitie.
Some woulde likewise seeme to prophesie that there were more of our generation yet to come, to kill theirs and take their places, as some thought the purpose was by that which was already done.
Those that were immediatly to come after vs they imagined to be in the aire, yet inuisible & without bodies, & that they by our intreaty & for the loue of vs did make the people to die in that sort as they did by shooting inuisible bullets into them.
To confirme this opinion their phisitions to excuse their ignorance in curing the disease, would not be ashemed to say, but earnestly make the simple people beleue, that the strings of blood that they sucked out of the sicke bodies, were the strings wherewithal the inuisible bullets were tied and cast.
Some also thought that we shot them ourselues out of our pieces from the place where we dwelt, and killed the people in any such towne that had offended vs as we listed, how farre distant from vs soeuer it were.
And other some saide that it was the speciall woorke of God for our sakes, as wee our selues haue cause in some sorte to thinke no lesse, whatsoeuer some doe or maie imagine to the contrarie, specially some Astrologers knowing of the Eclipse of the Sunne which wee saw the same yeere before in our voyage thytherward, which vnto them appeared very terrible. And also of a Comet which beganne to appeare but a few daies before the beginning of the said sicknesse. But to exclude them from being the speciall an accident, there are farther reasons then I thinke fit at this present to bee alleadged.
These their opinions I haue set downe the more at large that it may appeare vnto you that there is good hope they may be brought through discreet dealing and gouernement to the imbracing of the trueth, and nsequently to honour, obey, feare and loue vs.
And although some of our companie towardes the ende of the yeare, shewed themselues too fierce, in slaying some of the people, in some towns, vpon causes that on our part, might easily enough haue been borne withall: yet notwithstanding because it was on their part iustly deserued, the alteration of their opinions generally & for the most part concerning vs is the lesse to bee doubted. And whatsoeuer els they may be, by carefulnesse of our selues neede nothing at all to be feared.
The best neuerthelesse in this as in all actions besides is to be endeuoured and hoped, & of the worst that may happen notice to bee taken with consideration, and as much as may be eschewed.
The Conclusion.
NOW I haue as I hope made relation not of so fewe and smal things but that the countrey of men that are indifferent & wel disposed maie be sufficiently liked: If there were no more knowen then I haue mentioned, which doubtlesse and in great reason is nothing to that which remaineth to bee discouered, neither the soile, nor commodities. As we haue reason so to gather by the difference we found in our trauails: for although all which I haue before spoken of, haue bin discouered & experiemented not far from the sea coast where was our abode & most of our trauailing: yet somtimes as we made our iourneies farther into the maine and countrey; we found the soyle to bee fatter; the trees greater and to growe thinner; the grounde more firme and deeper mould; more and larger champions; finer grasse and as good as euer we saw any in England; in some places rockie and farre more high and hillie ground; more plentie of their fruites; more abondance of beastes; the more inhabited with people, and of greater pollicie & larger dominions, with greater townes and houses.
Why may wee not then looke for in good hope from the inner parts of more and greater plentie, as well of other things, as of those which wee haue alreadie discouered? Vnto the Spaniardes happened the like in discouering the maine of the West Indies. The maine also of this countrey of Virginia, extending some wayes so many hundreds of leagues, as otherwise then by the relation of the inhabitants wee haue most certaine knowledge of, where yet no Christian Prince hath any possession or dealing, cannot but yeeld many kinds of excellent commodities, which we in our discouerie haue not yet seene.
What hope there is els to be gathered of the nature of the climate, being answerable to the Iland of Iapan, the land of China, Persia, Jury, the Ilandes of Cyprus and Candy, the South parts Greece, Italy, and Spaine, and of many other notable and famous countreis, because I meane not to be tedious, I leaue to your owne consideration.
Whereby also the excellent temperature of the ayre there at all seasons, much warmer then in England, and neuer so violently hot, as sometimes is vnder & between the Tropikes, or neere them; cannot bee vnknowne vnto you without farther relation.
For the holsomnesse thereof I neede to say but thus much: that for all the want of prouision, as first of English victuall; excepting for twentie daies, wee liued only by drinking water and by the victuall of the countrey, of which some sorts were very straunge vnto vs, and might haue bene thought to haue altered our temperatures in such sort as to haue brought vs into some greeuous and dãgerous diseases: secondly the wãt of English meanes, for the taking of beastes, fishe, and foule, which by the helpe only of the inhabitants and their meanes, coulde not bee so suddenly and easily prouided for vs, nor in so great numbers & quantities, nor of that choise as otherwise might haue bene to our better satisfaction and contentment. Some want also wee had of clothes. Furthermore, in all our trauailes which were most speciall and often in the time of winter, our lodging was in the open aire vpon the grounde. And yet I say for all this, there were but foure of our whole company (being one hundred and eight) that died all the yeere and that but at the latter ende thereof and vpon none of the aforesaide causes. For all foure especially three were feeble, weake, and sickly persons before euer they came thither, and those that knewe them much marueyled that they liued so long beeing in that case, or had aduentured to trauaile.
Seing therefore the ayre there is so temperate and holsome, the soyle so fertile and yeelding such commodities as I haue before mentioned, the voyage also thither to and fro beeing sufficiently experimented, to bee perfourmed thrise a yeere with ease and at any season thereof: And the dealing of Sir Walter Raleigh so liberall in large giuing and graûting lande there, as is alreadie knowen, with many helpes and furtherances els: (The least that hee hath graunted hath beene fiue hundred acres to a man onely for the aduenture of his person): I hope there reamine no cause whereby the action should be misliked.
If that those which shall thither trauaile to inhabite and plant bee but reasonably prouided for the first yere as those are which were transported the last, and beeing there doe vse but that diligence and care as is requisite, and as they may with eese: There is no doubt but for the time following they may haue victuals that is excellent good and plentie enough; some more Englishe sortes of cattaile also hereafter, as some haue bene before, and are there yet remaining, may and shall bee God willing thiter transported: So likewise our kinde of fruites, rootes, and hearbes may bee there planted and sowed, as some haue bene alreadie, and proue wel: And in short time also they may raise of those sortes of commodities which I haue spoken of as shall both enrich theselues, as also others that shall deale with them.
And this is all the fruites of our labours, that I haue thought necessary to aduertise you of at this present: what els concerneth the nature and manners of the inhabitants of Virginia : The number with the particularities of the voyages thither made; and of the actions of such that haue bene by Sir Walter Raleigh therein and there imployed, many worthy to bee remembered; as of the first discouerers of the Countrey: of our generall for the time Sir Richard Greinuile; and after his departure, of our Gouernour there Master Rafe Lane; with diuers other directed and imployed vnder theyr gouernement: Of the Captaynes and Masters of the voyages made since for transporation; of the Gouernour and assistants of those alredie transported, as of many persons, accidêts, and thinges els, I haue ready in a discourse by it selfe in maner of a Chronicle according to the course of times, and when time shall bee thought conuenient shall be also published.
This referring my relation to your fauourable constructions, expecting good successe of the action, from him which is to be acknowledged the authour and gouernour not only of this but of all things els, I take my leaue of you, this moneth of Februarii, 1588.
FINIS .


2.15: Dotplots (1 of 2)
Learning Objectives
- Describe the distribution of quantitative data using a dot plot.
Introduction
When we work with data, the data is usually in a table. In this form, we can easily see the variable value for each individual. But when we analyze data, we are not focused on information about an individual. We want to describe a group of individuals. In data analysis, our goal is to describe patterns in the data and create a useful summary about a group. A table is not a useful way to view data because patterns are hard to see in a table. For this reason, our first step in data analysis is to create a graph of the distribution of the variable.
In a graph that summarizes the distribution of a variable, we can see
- the possible values of the variable.
- the number of individuals with each variable value or interval of values.
In this module, Summarizing Data Graphically and Numerically , we focus on summarizing the distribution of a quantitative variable. We discuss the distribution of a categorical variable in depth in the module Relationships in Categorical Data with Intro to Probability .
Example
Breakfast Cereals
Here are two graphs of the variable protein for a group of breakfast cereals targeted at children.
In both graphs, the individuals and the variable are the same:
- Individuals: Children’s cereals
- Variable: Grams of protein in a serving of cereal
Let’s compare the graphs to determine which graph is a better summary of the distribution of protein.
This graph is called a case-value graph . You can see the names of the individual cereals (the cases) and the amount of protein in a serving of each cereal (the variable values). For example, Apple Jacks has 2 grams of protein in a serving. This graph is NOT a good way to summarize the distribution of protein values because we cannot easily determine the number of cereals with each protein amount.
For example, how many cereals have 2 grams of protein in a serving? This graph does not make it easy to answer this question. We have to move across the graph and count the cereals with 2 grams of protein. In this way, a case-value graph is like a table. We cannot easily see patterns in the data or determine the number of individuals with a given variable value.
Here is a second graph of the same data. This graph is called a dotplot . A dotplot gives a better summary of the distribution of protein.
In a dotplot, each dot represents one individual. Here, each dot is a children’s cereal. The numbers on the horizontal axis are the variable values. The vertical axis gives the count of cereals. We can easily see that 10 children’s cereals have 2 grams of protein in a serving.
From the dotplot, we can easily describe the distribution of protein. Here are some observations about this distribution:
- The amount of protein in a serving varies from 1 to 6 grams.
- Most of the cereals have 1 or 2 grams of protein in a serving.
- Larger amounts of protein are less typical.
- One cereal has 6 grams of protein. This much protein is unusual for this group of children’s cereals.
These observations are a good summary of the data.
Contributors and Attributions
- Concepts in Statistics. Provided by : Open Learning Initiative. Located at : http://oli.cmu.edu . License : CC BY: Attribution


1: Essential Ideas of Chemistry
Most everything you do and encounter during your day involves chemistry. Making coffee, cooking eggs, and toasting bread involve chemistry. The products you use—like soap and shampoo, the fabrics you wear, the electronics that keep you connected to your world, the gasoline that propels your car—all of these and more involve chemical substances and processes. Whether you are aware or not, chemistry is part of your everyday world. In this course, you will learn many of the essential principles underlying the chemistry of modern-day life.
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- 1.1: Introduction to Chemistry
- Chemistry is a very universal and dynamically-changing subject to be confined to a fixed definition; it might be better to think of chemistry more as a point of view that places its major focus on the structure and properties of substances— particular kinds of matter— and especially on the changes they undergo.
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- 1.2: Physical and Chemical Properties
- All substances have distinct physical and chemical properties, and may undergo physical or chemical changes. Physical properties, such as hardness and boiling point, and physical changes, such as melting or freezing, do not involve a change in the composition of matter. Chemical properties, such flammability and acidity, and chemical changes, such as rusting, involve production of matter that differs from that present beforehand.
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- 1.3: Measurements
- Measurements provide quantitative information that is critical in studying and practicing chemistry. Each measurement has an amount, a unit for comparison, and an uncertainty. Measurements can be represented in either decimal or scientific notation. Scientists primarily use the SI (International System) or metric systems. We use base SI units such as meters, seconds, and kilograms, as well as derived units, such as liters (for volume) and g/cm3 (for density).
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- 1.4: Measurement Uncertainty, Accuracy, and Precision
- Quantities can be exact or measured. Measured quantities have an associated uncertainty that is represented by the number of significant figures in the measurement. The uncertainty of a calculated value depends on the uncertainties in the values used in the calculation and is reflected in how the value is rounded. Measured values can be accurate (close to the true value) and/or precise (showing little variation when measured repeatedly).
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- 1.5: Mathematical Treatment of Measurement Results
- Measurements are made using a variety of units. It is often useful or necessary to convert a measured quantity from one unit into another. These conversions are accomplished using unit conversion factors, which are derived by simple applications of a mathematical approach called the factor-label method or dimensional analysis. This strategy is also employed to calculate sought quantities using measured quantities and appropriate mathematical relations.
Contributors and Attributions
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Paul Flowers (University of North Carolina - Pembroke), Klaus Theopold (University of Delaware) and Richard Langley (Stephen F. Austin State University) with contributing authors. Textbook content produced by OpenStax College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license. Download for free at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>).


3.3: The Nature of Leadership
- What is the nature of leadership and the leadership process?
The many definitions of leadership each have a different emphasis. Some definitions consider leadership an act or behavior, such as initiating structure so group members know how to complete a task. Others consider a leader to be the center or nucleus of group activity, an instrument of goal achievement who has a certain personality, a form of persuasion and power, and the art of inducing compliance (Bass, 1990). Some look at leadership in terms of the management of group processes. In this view, a good leader develops a vision for the group, communicates that vision, orchestrates the group’s energy and activity toward goal attainment, “[turns] a group of individuals into a team,” and “[transforms] good intentions into positive actions" (Bennis, 1989; Pickens, Jr., 1992).
Leadership is frequently defined as a social (interpersonal) influence relationship between two or more persons who depend on each other to attain certain mutual goals in a group situation (Hollander & Julian, 1969). Effective leadership helps individuals and groups achieve their goals by focusing on the group’s maintenance needs (the need for individuals to fit and work together by having, for example, shared norms) and task needs (the need for the group to make progress toward attaining the goal that brought them together).
Exhibit 3.2 Joe Maddon, manager of the Chicago Cubs baseball team, is lauded for both his managerial and leadership skills. Maddon is a role model for managers competing in the business world. Managers can learn and profit from the Cubs skipper's philosophy of instilling an upbeat attitude with the team, staying loose but staying productive, and avoiding being the center of attention.
Leader versus Manager
The two dual concepts, leader and manager, leadership and management, are not interchangeable, nor are they redundant. The differences between the two can, however, be confusing. In many instances, to be a good manager, one needs to be an effective leader. Many CEOs have been hired in the hope that their leadership skills, their ability to formulate a vision and get others to “buy into” that vision, will propel the organization forward. In addition, effective leadership often necessitates the ability to manage—to set goals; plan, devise, and implement strategy; make decisions and solve problems; and organize and control. For our purposes, the two sets of concepts can be contrasted in several ways.
First, we define the two concepts differently. In previous chapters, we defined management as a process consisting of planning, organizing, directing, and controlling. Here, we define leadership as a social (interpersonal) influence relationship between two or more people who are dependent on each another for goal attainment.
Second, managers and leaders are commonly differentiated in terms of the processes through which they initially come to their positions. Managers are generally appointed to their roles. Although many organizations appoint people to positions of leadership, leadership per se is a relationship that revolves around the followers’ acceptance or rejection of the leader (Hollander, 1964). Thus, leaders often emerge from events that unfold among members of a group.
Third, managers and leaders often differ in terms of the types and sources of the power they exercise. Managers commonly derive their power from the larger organization. Virtually all organizations legitimize the use of certain “carrots and sticks” (rewards and punishments) to secure their employees' compliance. In other words, by virtue of the position that a manager occupies (president, vice president, department head, supervisor), certain “rights to act” (schedule production, contract to sell a product, hire and fire) accompany the position and its place within the hierarchy of authority. Leaders can also secure power and the ability to exercise influence using carrots and sticks; however, it is much more common for leaders to derive power from followers’ perception of their knowledge (expertise), their personality and attractiveness, and the working relationship that has developed between leaders and followers.
From the perspective of those under the leader’s and manager’s influence, the motivation to comply often has a different base. The subordinate to a manager frequently complies because of the sole authority of the manager and because of the carrots and sticks that managers have at their disposal. The followers of a leader comply because they want to. Thus, leaders motivate primarily through intrinsic processes, while managers motivate primarily through extrinsic processes.
Finally, it is important to note that while managers may be successful in directing and supervising their subordinates, they often succeed or fail because of their ability or inability to lead (Fiedler, 1996). As noted above, effective leadership often calls for the ability to manage, and effective management often requires leadership.
- What is the nature of leadership and the leadership process?


7.2: Cognition in Middle Childhood
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Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Identify the cognitive milestones of middle childhood
- Evaluate the impact of Piaget’s concrete operational stage on middle childhood
- Describe the information-processing perspective on middle childhood
Ayanna is a new second grade teacher and is thinking about her lesson plans. She has a seven-year-old student, Sarah, who struggles with attention and focus in the classroom. Sarah often gets distracted during lessons and has difficulty staying on task. Nonetheless, Sarah seems to thrive during classroom learning games and artistic activities.
Ayanna also teaches James, who has been diagnosed with dyslexia. He struggles with reading and writing tasks; he reverses letters and has trouble with phonemic awareness. James's cognitive challenges impact his confidence and self-esteem, as he feels discouraged by his struggles in comparison to his peers. However, James loves the hands-on science experiments in class and is always eager to help his classmates.
Ayanna knows that all her students are making incredible gains in their abilities to think logically and process information. She can ask children to solve problems that include concrete information. She has also started to teach them basic strategies for memorizing information, but may need to use a variety of teaching strategies to meet the individualized needs of her students.
Children’s abilities to think logically and process information changes throughout middle childhood as they pass through various stages of cognitive development.
Cognitive Milestones
During middle childhood, children make impressive gains in cognitive development . Their ability to think logically and flexibly and remember information increases dramatically. Although their thinking, problem-solving, and language use is becoming more sophisticated, they’re not yet adu -cognition-in-middle-childhood#table-00001">Table 7.2 shows some of the major cognitive achievements children will likely make by the end of middle childhood. Some of these milestones develop earlier in middle childhood, such as the ability to tell time, while other milestones develop later in middle childhood, such as the ability to understand and use fractions. Other important milestones are abilities that further develop across early and middle childhood, such as the ability to think symbolically or to recognize and understand the perspectives of others.
| Typical Cognitive Abilities | Example |
|---|---|
| Tell time | Children can learn to read an analog clock. |
| Recognize and understand the perspectives of others | Children can understand that other people may have different beliefs and opinions. |
| Think symbolically about their world | Children can use language and art to represent objects and events. |
| Understand cause-and-effect relationships | Children will understand that if you take an ice cream cone outside on a hot day, it will melt quickly. |
| Read a book and understand paragraphs | Children move from picture books to chapter books. |
| Begin thinking logically and apply improved problem-solving abilities | Children can solve logical problems that involve quantity, such as a math problem. |
| Have longer attention spans | Children’s attention spans increase with age and range from around twelve to thirty-six minutes depending on the task, such as practicing a musical instrument without needing a break. |
| Show significant improvements in memory | Children learn to apply memory strategies like rehearsal to remember information, such as learning a rhyme to remember the number or days in each month of the year. |
| Understand math principles, including manipulation of numbers and whole versus part | Children learn to count backwards, add and subtract whole numbers, and add and subtract fractions. |
| Understand conservation of objects | Children understand that breaking a cookie does not mean that there is more cookie just because there are two pieces instead of one. |
Child development is a dynamic process, influenced by the interactions children have with the world around them. So, a range of ages rather than a single point in time is typically considered “normal” for the development of various skills. The culture in which children develop and the way caregivers share information with children varies dramatically and influences children’s learning and skill development. For example, in the United States, parents use active teaching strategies such as praise to guide children, while parents in Vanuatu, a small island country in the southern Pacific Ocean, are more likely to collaborate with children as a form of teaching (Clegg et al., 2021). Language is another important aspect of cognitive development that is impacted by culture. For example, beginning in infancy, German mothers focus on the individual needs or desires of their child, which highlights their view of the child as a unique individual. Mothers of the Cameroonian Nso focus more on the social environment they and their child are in (Vierhaus et al., 2011). This means that children are likely to show individual and cultural differences in the timing of reaching cognitive milestones.
Families and peers are also important influences for cognitive development during middle childhood. For example, parents play an important role in providing a stimulating environment for their children by interacting with them verbally and providing structured activities that allows them to explore their world. Relatively new research has also shown that fathers, as well as mothers, play an important role in the cognitive development of their children by engaging with them through reading, the use of language during interactions, and responsive parenting (Varghese & Wachen, 2016). Whereas mothers tend to use words that are familiar to children, fathers tend to use a larger variety of words, which is helpful for developing the vocabulary of their children (Vernon-Feagans et al., 2010). Fathers also tend to use more affirmations and action directives than mothers (Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2012). Of course, as discussed in other chapters, there are many individual differences in families, caregivers, and the roles caregivers may play in fostering healthy cognitive development.
As you will learn in 8.3 Social Contexts: Peers, Family, and Media in Middle Childhood, children begin to spend more time with their peers, and their friendships become an increasingly important influence on cognitive development (Figure 7.7). Children learn new knowledge and skills from each other through interactions and play. They also develop new interests by observing the interests of their peers. In fact, children may learn a great deal from peers, and peer relationships play an important role in learning and cognitive development (Laursen & Veenstra, 2022; Leece et al., 2019). For example, working with peers can enhance problem-solving and creative thinking (Lew-Levy et al., 2023). This peer learning is consistent across cultures even in cultures that emphasize the importance of adult-child transmission of learning (Lew-Levy et al., 2023).
Concrete Operations in the Stage Theory of Cognitive Development
As you’ve learned, cognitive developmental theories focus on the way thought processes change with age, and how these changes in children’s thinking influence the way they understand the world and interact with it. Recall that theorist Jean Piaget proposed a cognitive developmental theory describing stages that reflect qualitatively different ways of thinking. Subsequent cross-cultural research studying areas including Bali, Indonesia, India, and Nepal, found that the sequence of stages is generally the same across cultures, and the cognitive processes within those stages are the same (Dasen, 2022).
Piaget’s concrete operational stage begins around age seven and continues until approximately age eleven, although cross-cultural research has found a fair amount of variation in the age at which children reach its various substages (Dasen, 2022). During this stage, children become capable of using logic to solve concrete problems they can directly experience and that involve tangible objects. For example, when comparing the sizes of objects, children will place them side-by-side to measure the size before lining them up by size. However, they are not yet able to apply logic to abstract or hypothetical situations, such as imagining the consequences of a world made from candy.
Concrete Operational Thought
In the stage of concrete operational thinking , children begin to understand basic logical principles and concepts such as cause-and-effect relationships, size, and distance (Piaget, 1971). They are now capable of operations, cognitive actions that use logic and are reversible, and can accurately imagine the consequences of various actions they observe or experience. One such operation is conservation , the property by which the amount of something does not change even if the appearance of that thing changes.
In Piaget’s famous most well-known example of conservation, a researcher poured liquid from one container into another of a different shape (5.3 Cognition in Early Childhood). Although we understand that the amount of liquid does not change, children who do not yet understand operations believe taller but thinner containers have more liquid than shorter, wider ones. Children in the concrete operational stage, however, understand that the amount of liquid remains the same, indicating they understand conservation of volume.
Children also demonstrate their understanding of conservation with quantities when they recognize that the number of candies does not change whether you spread them out or put them in a pile. They also know that stretching a ball of clay into the shape of a snake does not change the amount of clay. Although an understanding of conservation occurs at similar ages in most countries, the exact age at which children develop it and the type of conservation they first understand does differ across some cultures (Goldschmid et al., 1973). For example, they may learn conservation of shape before conservation of volume based on their experience with the objects around them.
One reason children in this age group come to understand conservation is that they can now focus on more than one aspect of the task, a skill referred to as decentration . In other words, in a conservation of volume task, children at this age can focus on both the height and width of the containers that hold liquid and may make comments like, “The taller glass has the same amount of water as the shorter glass because it’s skinnier.” When a child is unable to decenter, they will often indicate that the taller glass has more liquid because they are only focusing on height and ignoring the width of the glass. They also demonstrate an awareness of reversibility , which is closely related to their understanding of conservation. Reversibility is the process by which we can reverse a sequence of events, returning to the starting point. For example, children who understand reversibility are aware that liquid poured from a shorter, wider container into a taller, thinner one can be poured back, and the amount will not have changed.
Children are also able to accurately complete Piaget’s class inclusion problem between the ages of seven and ten, meaning that they now understand classification groupings and hierarchies, another type of operation. The ability to grasp hierarchical classification allows them to sort objects into both general and more specific groups. For example, children at this age who are shown four apples and three bananas can correctly tell you that there are more apples than bananas, and that there are more total fruits (seven, if you combine the four apples and three bananas) than apples (four). This shows they can simultaneously focus on a larger class (fruit) as well as two subclasses (apples and bananas).
During the concrete operational stage, children also develop the ability to sort objects along multiple dimensions. For example, a child can sort their stuffed animals both by size and by color. This operation involves organizing things in a series, known as seriation . One task Piaget used to test seriation required children to take sticks of different lengths and arrange them from shortest to longest (Figure 7.8) (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958). Children can do this quickly and efficiently by the beginning of the concrete operational stage. Children can also demonstrate transitive inference during seriation tasks. This is the ability to use existing knowledge to find missing information. For example, if you ask an eight-year-old, “If Andrew is taller than Brianna, and Brianna is taller than Cleo, who's the shortest?” they can correctly infer that Cleo is the shortest.
Recall that one of the characteristics of the preoperational stage of cognitive development, which includes children from the ages of three through seven, is egocentrism , which means young children struggle to differentiate their thoughts and feelings from those of others. However, during the concrete operational stage, children begin to consider how others might think and feel. In other words, they become less egocentric. In the classic three-mountains task by Piaget (discussed in 5.3 Cognition in Early Childhood), children in the concrete operational stage can describe what the mountain scene would look like from the perspective of a child sitting on the other side of the table.
Evaluation and Impact of the Concrete Operational Stage
Was Piaget’s description of the concrete operational stage and skills that children demonstrate in this stage and age range accurate and informative?
In many ways, Piaget’s description of the concrete operational stage has held up well to scrutiny. However, as discussed earlier, there are differences in how children demonstrate concrete operational skills across the world. Other research has shown that cognitive development may not be as stage-like as the theory suggests. For example, some children show aspects of concrete operational thought before the age of seven, which is earlier than Piaget believed it first appeared (McGarrigle & Donaldson, 1974). Children can achieve earlier understanding of some operations, such as conservation, when they are specifically exposed to tasks in which adults demonstrate them (Dasen, 2022). On the other hand, another study found that many children may reach Piaget’s stages later than they did thirty years ago (Flynn & Shayer, 2018), which may be due to drops in education budgets and in the overall quality of education in many countries. Despite these criticisms, Piaget’s theory offers a window into the many cognitive advancements that happen during middle childhood.
Piaget’s approach to cognitive development among school-aged children has had a tremendous impact on education (Zhang, 2022). Many schools use his principles to determine how to educate children and when to introduce concepts such as addition and subtraction. Many schools also provide students with opportunities to learn through active learning, such as building a volcano in science class, rather than just reading about volcanos. However, despite this understanding of the importance of active learning for children, we are seeing increases in the amount of time that children engage with screens, even in school settings (Muppalla et al., 2023). Screen media use is associated with poorer academic performance, along with other potential adverse effects on development.
It Depends: Are There Cognitive Benefits to Screen Media Usage?
Mobile devices and interactive media have become a part of the everyday lives of children. In fact, we now consider children “digital natives” because they have always been surrounded by mobile and other interactive devices. As a result, parents and professionals who work with children have wondered whether there are any developmental benefits to screen media use by children. Researchers have been exploring this very issue.
Frequent screen use, often defined as more than two hours a day, has been found to have several negative outcomes (Liu et al., 2021). Excessive screen use has been associated with physical, behavioral, and academic problems (Muppalla et al., 2023; Robinson et al., 2017). For example, higher use of screens has been associated with lower cognitive functioning and lower psychological health (Liu et al., 2021).
Given these results, what positive outcomes can children experience from screen use ? The answer is that it depends in part on how screens are being used. Not surprisingly, the content matters. Potential positive benefits of screen use include opportunities for increased communication and greater access to information and educational opportunities, especially when parents or schools use technology as a learning tool (Panjeti-Madan & Ranganathan, 2023). For example, children can use online encyclopedias and dictionaries to find answers to questions and can maintain social connections with friends who may live far away. Studies have also shown that when screen media is designed to enhance reading and other cognitive skills it may can improve performance (Muppalla et al., 2023).
What does all this tell us about the impact of screen use and interactive media on children? Professionals and caregivers must acknowledge the possible disadvantages of excessive screen use. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP, 2021) no longer has strict recommended limits for screen time. Rather, they recommend that parents make an informed decision about how children should use media outside of a school setting, keeping in mind that children need adequate sleep and physical activity. They also advise that media consist of high-quality programming with an educational focus. Parents can manage screen time by setting limits, monitoring content, and encouraging children to use more educational media tools. Finally, caregivers should add alternate activities that allow children to improve their physical, cognitive, linguistic, and socioemotional development in other ways.
Information Processing Perspective
Recall that information processing theory (1.3 Major Theories and Theorists) compares the way people think to how computers process, store, and retrieve information. Information processing theory informs our understanding of memory, attention, and executive functions, such as the ability to plan how to approach large projects or organize time. All these aspects of cognition are developing rapidly during middle childhood and become increasingly relevant as children begin formal schooling.
Unlike Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, which focuses on the qualitative differences in development that occur as children grow older, information processing theory describes quantitative changes in cognition. In other words, information processing theory describes how children become faster and more efficient in their reasoning and use of memory. It posits that cognitive development is continuous, rather than consisting of discrete stages. Also, unlike Piaget’s theory, information processing theory is not the work of one theorist. Instead, it is based on the research and ideas of multiple researchers who shared an interest in understanding how humans develop reasoning and processing skills.
As you might expect, school-aged children can process information more accurately and rapidly and are more efficient at retaining that information than they were during early childhood. They also show significant gains in
- their ability to determine what information to attend to,
- their ability to attend to information for longer periods,
- their grasp of how their memory works, and
- their use of strategies to improve retention and recall.
Here you’ll consider the development of other cognitive abilities, including attention, memory, metacognition, and executive functions in more detail. You will also consider how theory of mind changes in middle childhood.
Attention
Selective attention is the ability to stay focused on one thing while ignoring distracting information that is not relevant to the task at hand. Although this skill shows steady improvement throughout childhood and into adolescence, many individual differences among children exist. Considerable research has shown that the child’s temperament is associated with selective attention (Rothbart & Prueda, 2005). For example, children with better self-regulation skills perform better on tasks involving selective attention (Rueda et al., 2005).
Sustained attention is the ability to attend to a single task for extended periods of time (Figure 7.9), while the ability to shift from one task or stimulus to another is called divided attention . Although these skills are also improving throughout childhood and into adolescence (Carlson et al., 2013), children have a limited capacity for attention, influenced by many factors, including anxiety, the task’s level of difficulty, and their existing skills (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2011). For example, you may remember being distracted at school and gazing out the window at other children on the playground when you were supposed to be focusing on your schoolwork.
Memory
Related to improvements in attention are the gains in children’s working memory and their use of encoding strategies to improve memory. Recall from 3.4 Cognition and Memory in Infants and Toddlers that short-term memory allows us to store information in our mind for a short time, and long-term memory is a more permanent storage of information. Working memory combines aspects of attentional control with short-term memory storage and involves an active manipulation of information. During middle childhood, working memory improves. For example, if you recite a list of ten items such as (fork, frog, horse, plate, cup, dog, cat, spoon, knife, bowl) to a child, they can repeat it back to you by organizing the information into categories (dishes and animals). The process of transferring information from short-term/working memory to long-term memory is called encoding . Middle childhood is the time when children begin using more effective encoding strategies to improve their ability to move information from short-term/working memory to long-term memory (Bjorklund et al, 2008). Encoding strategies include rehearsing items, grouping items into categories, and spending more time studying harder items rather than easy ones. Children can start using these strategies around five to six years of age, but they are able to use them more efficiently around age seven, after which this ability continues to increase through age ten (Schneider et al., 2009). Children continue to use more complex encoding strategies as they move through middle childhood. Some of the more frequently used memory strategies are rehearsal , elaboration , and organization . Descriptions and examples of each of these are provided in Table 7.3.
| Memory Strategy | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Rehearsal | Practicing to learn new information | Children repeat a vocabulary word over and over to learn it for a vocabulary quiz. |
| Elaboration | Connecting new information to existing knowledge | Children help with baking at home and may recognize fractions in math class from the recipes they have used. |
| Organization | Arranging bits of information in an ordered manner, such as using groups or categories | Children learn the acronym “ROY G BIV” to help remember the order of the colors in the spectrum. |
Metacognition
Another reason children develop more sophisticated cognitive skills during middle childhood is that they are also developing metacognition , or knowledge about how we think and learn, and how we use that awareness to become better thinkers and learners. For example, children begin to understand that they may need to reread a paragraph if they didn’t understand it after the first reading.
As they move into middle childhood, children show a grasp of metamemory , an understanding of how memory works (Kvavilashvili & Ford, 2022). For example, they recognize that it is easier to remember short lists than long lists and that they have involuntary memories (memories they can retrieve with no deliberate effort). Younger children tend to think they are better at a task than they are and that they have better memories than they possess, but the ability to accurately evaluate their cognitive skill continues to improve into adolescence. Then again, adults often struggle with these same issues!
Executive Functions
Executive functions are the cognitive skills we need to control or self-regulate our behavior and to work toward goals. They include skills such as working memory and attentional control, and others such as inhibition, problem-solving, self-control, mental flexibility, and planning and organization.
Executive functions begin to develop during the preschool years but continue to mature through middle childhood and into adolescence. In fact, middle childhood is an important period for the development of executive function s because of the increasing social and academic demands associated with formal schooling. These skills are closely tied to maturation of the prefrontal cortex in the brain that is taking place during the preadolescent years, and they are also influenced by the presence of warm and responsive parents and by cognitively stimulating environments (Bourrier et al., 2018; Fay-Stammbach et al., 2014). Executive functions are also associated with school readiness, academic achievement, and social behavior (Poon, 2018). Thus, schools or intervention programs that target executive functions may see significant rewards as children use those skills to be successful in academic and social settings.
Theory of Mind
Another cognitive ability related to frontal lobe functioning and executive functions is theory of mind : the awareness of your own mental states and the understanding that others have thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives different from your own (Figure 7.10). As discussed in 5.3 Cognition in Early Childhood, theory of mind typically emerges between the ages of four and five. However, it continues to develop for the next several years. Children are increasingly able to predict what others are thinking and feeling and develop an understanding of complex mental abilities from various perspectives.
Theory of mind has been linked to better academic achievement. There are several explanations for this (Lecce & Devine, 2022). First, theory of mind is likely associated with better relationships with peers and teachers which may increase school engagement. Second, children who understand their own mind as well as the minds of others have higher levels of reading comprehension because they understand the message that the author is intending to convey and the minds of the characters in the texts that they read (Kim, 2017). Similarly, theory of mind is associated with scientific reasoning. Children who understand the minds of others are better able to create and evaluate hypotheses (Kyriakopoulou & Vosniadou, 2020).
There are individual differences in the development of theory of mind. For example, children diagnosed with some developmental disabilities, including autism spectrum disorder and social anxiety disorder, often have deficits in theory of mind (Spek et al., 2010; Washburn et al., 2016). Understanding these differences can provide therapists, teachers, and parents with information to help understand the thoughts and behaviors of children with these disorders and can aid in planning teaching strategies to explicitly teach perspective-taking.
Cultural differences also exist. Children in collectivist cultures like China and India tend to recognize later than children in individualistic cultures like the United States and Australia that others have different beliefs and opinions (Shahaeian et al., 2011). A recent systematic review of studies on cultural variations in theory of mind and related constructs such as empathy and perspective-taking indicated that cross-cultural differences in language use, cultural values, and parenting styles may lead to differences in development of these skills (Aival-Naveh et al., 2019). A likely reason is that individualistic cultures emphasize recognizing differences in opinions, thoughts, and beliefs more than collectivist cultures do.
References
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1.3.9: The Importance of Sleep
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Sleep is an important part of your daily routine—you spend about one-third of your time doing it. It is estimated that about 1 in 3 adults, and even more adolescents, don’t get enough sleep, which can affect their health and well-being. People who don’t get enough sleep are more likely to have health problems like obesity, diabetes, heart disease, stroke, dementia, and cancer. They’re also more likely to have trouble at work or school. In addition, about 100,000 motor vehicle crashes every year in the United States are related to drowsy driving. It is recognized that improving sleep habits and sleep environments can help people stay healthy and safe. Thus, is is not surprising that one of the goals of Healthy People 2030 is to improve health, productivity, well-being, quality of life, and safety by helping people get enough sleep.
Getting good sleep is not just about the quantity of sleep, but also the quality of sleep. Healthy sleep requires adequate duration, good quality, appropriate timing and regularity, and the absence of sleep disturbances or disorders.
Recommended Sleep Quantity
The American Academy of Sleep Medicine recommends that adults should sleep 7 hours or more per night on a regular basis to promote optimal health.
| Age Group | Recommended Hours of Sleep Per Day |
| 0–3 months |
14–17 hours (National Sleep Foundation)
No recommendation (American Academy of Sleep Medicine) |
| 4–12 months | 12–16 hours per 24 hours (including naps) |
| 1–2 years | 11–14 hours per 24 hours (including naps) |
| 3–5 years | 10–13 hours per 24 hours (including naps) |
| 6–12 years | 9–12 hours per 24 hours |
| 13–18 years | 8–10 hours per 24 hours |
| 18–60 years | 7 or more hours per night |
| 61–64 years | 7–9 hours |
| 65 years and older | 7–8 hours |
Healthy Sleep Habits
Tips for healthy sleep habits [8] include:
- Keep a consistent sleep schedule. Get up at the same time every day, even on weekends or during vacations.
- Set a bedtime that is early enough for you to get at least 7-8 hours of sleep.
- Don’t go to bed unless you are sleepy.
- If you don’t fall asleep after 20 minutes, get out of bed. Go do a quiet activity without a lot of light exposure. It is especially important to not get on electronics.
- Establish a relaxing bedtime routine.
- Use your bed only for sleep and sex.
- Have a warm shower/bath or a cup of herbal tea
- Make your bedroom quiet and relaxing. Keep the room at a comfortable, cool temperature.

- Turn off electronic devices at least 30 minutes before bedtime.
- Don’t eat a large meal before bedtime. If you are hungry at night, eat a light, healthy snack.
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Exercise regularly and maintain a healthy diet.
- The time we spend doing moderate to vigorous activity throughout or day will benefit our sleep. Strong evidence demonstrates that moderate-to-vigorous physical activity improves the quality of sleep in adults. It does so by reducing the length of time it takes to go to sleep and reducing the time one is awake after going to sleep and before rising in the morning. It also can increase the time in deep sleep and reduce daytime sleepiness. The improvements in sleep with regular physical activity are also reported by people with insomnia and obstructive sleep apnea. In children, the more they are sedentary the lower their sleep duration.
- Avoid consuming caffeine in the afternoon or evening.
- Avoid consuming alcohol before bedtime.
- Reduce your fluid intake before bedtime.
Understanding Sleep
The National Sleep Foundation provides helpful information about the basics of sleep including understanding circadian rhythms and the sleep cycle [9] .
Major advances in sleep science have occurred over the past half-century since the discovery of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep in 1953 [10] .
Circadian Rhythm
Have you heard the term circadian rhythm? Circadian means “recurring naturally on a twenty-four-hour cycle, even in the absence of light fluctuations,” it is sometimes called the “body clock.” When we talk about circadian rhythms, it’s mostly in relation to sleep.
Circadian rhythms are physical, mental, and behavioral changes that follow a 24-hour cycle. Your circadian rhythm is regulated by your bodies biological clock, which is an organisms’ natural timing device. The master clock in the brain is a group of about 20,000 nerve cells (neurons) and coordinates all the biological clocks in a living thing, keeping the clocks in sync. Without the right signals from your body’s internal master clock, you might not fall asleep, have fragmented or sleep poorly, or wake up too early and not be able to fall back to sleep.
Your body’s biological clock produces circadian rhythms and regulates the timing of things in your body, like when you want to sleep or eat. Your circadian rhythm can influence important functions in your body such as releasing hormones, your eating habits, and your body temperature. For example, your digestive system produces proteins to make sure you eat on schedule, and the endocrine system regulates hormones to match your energy expenditures during the day.
Although natural factors in your body produce circadian rhythms, the environment, such as daylight, exercise, and temperature, also affect them. For example if you experience jet lag or change to working a night shift it could impact your light-dark cycle. The light from electronic devices at night can also confuse your biological clock and impact your circadian rhythm.
Sleep Stages (Sleep Cycle)
In 1953 there was a breakthrough in sleep science, this is when our understanding of what happens during sleep drastically changed. Prior to the 1950’s it was thought that our brains just shutdown when we slept, however in the 19050’s scientist learned that our brains do not shutdown, rather they cycle through several different stages of sleep. Dr. Nathaniel Kleitman was an American physiologist known as the Father of American sleep research, he and his students discovered what we now call REM sleep, or rapid eye movement sleep. Prior to the incredible work produced by Kleitman, it was thought that the brain and body were in a completely inactive state during sleep. It was discovered that over the course of one night, your body goes through the sleep stages every 90 minutes or so. Sleep stages last for different periods of time depending on the age of the sleeper, but generally speaking non-REM cycles are longer in the beginning of the night while REM cycles are longer later in the night.
There are two types of sleep: Non-REM and REM sleep. Non-REM sleep is furthered divided into three stages (stage 1, stage 2, stage 3) where distinct brain activity occurs. REM sleep involves more brain activity than Non-REM and is considered a more “wakeful” state, as your heart rate and blood pressure increase to levels close to what you experience when you are awake. While all sleep stages are important, Stage 3 and REM sleep have unique benefits. One to two hours of Stage 3 deep sleep per night will keep the average adult feeling restored and healthy. If you’re regularly waking up tired, it could be that you’re not spending enough time in that deep sleep phase.  Talk to your health care provider if you feel you are not getting the restful sleep that you need.
The Four Sleep Stages (cycles)
Stage 1 (Non-REM)
Stage 1 of the sleep cycle is the lightest phase of sleep and generally lasts about seven minutes. The sleeper is somewhat alert and can be woken up easily. During this stage, the heartbeat and breathing slow down while muscles begin to relax. The brain produces alpha and theta waves.
Stage 2 (Non-REM)
In Stage 2, the brain creates brief bursts of electrical activity known as “sleep spindles” that create a distinct sawtooth pattern on recordings of brain activity. Eventually, the waves continue to slow down. Stage 2 is still considered a light phase of sleep, but the sleeper is less likely to be awakened. Heart rate and breathing slow down even more, and the body temperature drops. This stage lasts around 25 minutes.
Stage 3 (Non-REM)
This stage represents the body falling into a deep sleep, where slow wave sleep occurs. The brain produces slower delta waves, and there’s no eye movement or muscle activity from the sleeper. As the brain produces even more delta waves, the sleeper enters an important restorative sleep stage from which it’s difficult to be awakened. This phase of deep sleep is what helps you feel refreshed in the morning. It’s also the phase in which your body repairs muscle and tissue, encourages growth and development, and improves immune function.
Stage 4 – REM Sleep
About 90 minutes after falling asleep, your body enters REM sleep, which stands for Rapid Eye Movement sleep and is named so for the way your eyes quickly move back and forth behind your eyelids. REM sleep is thought to play a role in central nervous system development in infants, which might explain why infants need more REM sleep than adults. This sleep pattern is characterized by dreaming, since your brain is very active during this stage. Physically, your body experiences faster and irregular breathing, increased heart rate, and increased blood pressure; however, your arm and leg muscles become temporarily paralyzed, stopping you from acting out your dreams. REM sleep increases with each new sleep cycle, starting at about ten minutes during the first cycle and lasting up to an hour in the final cycle. Stage 4 is the last stage before the cycle repeats. REM sleep is critical for learning, memory, daytime concentration, and your mood. REM sleep plays a significant role in helping your brain consolidate and process new information and then retain the information in your long-term memory. Without REM sleep, your immune system could be weakened, you may experience pain more deeply, poor memory, mood dysfunction, less ability to focus, and the growth of new healthy cells and tissue in the body might be blocked. Poor REM sleep may be due to sleep disorders such as insomnia or obstructive sleep apnea, which causes you to wake during the night.
Sleep Disorders
Quality of sleep is impacted by several types of sleep disorders [11] including insomnia, hypersomnias (or excessive sleep), circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders, parasomnias (or sleep events), sleep-related breathing disorders, or sleep-related movement disorders. Sleep disorders, like sleep apnea, negatively affect people’s health and safety, and many adults who have a sleep disorder don’t get the treatment they need.
Raising awareness about sleep disorders can help people recognize symptoms and get the help they need. The American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) provides extensive information and resources about sleep disorders to help inform you about the different types, symptoms, and treatments.
Challenge: Understand Your Sleep
A sleep diary is a useful way to track your sleep at home by recording when you went to bed, woke during the night, and woke in the morning. It is helpful to also track the time of day when you exercise, nap, or take a medication, and when you have caffeine or alcohol.
A sleep diary will help you understand your sleep pattern and how much sleep you’re getting. It also will show how often you have disrupted sleep. It may also will help you note certain activities that can affect your sleep.
Keeping a sleep diary is very helpful for communicating with your doctor about your sleep.
Use the AASM Sleep Diary