4.4: Racism
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- Erika Gutierrez, Janét Hund, Shaheen Johnson, Carlos Ramos, Lisette Rodriguez, & Joy Tsuhako
- Long Beach City College, Cerritos College, & Saddleback College via ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)
Racism
The terms stereotype, prejudice, discrimination, and racism are often used interchangeably in everyday conversation, but sociologists do not view them as the same. While prejudice is not necessarily specific to race, racism is a doctrine of racial supremacy that sees one racial category as somehow superior or inferior to others.
  Further, racial inequity is defined as when two or more race-ethnic groups are not standing on equal footing - which is a result of racist policies or ideas (Kendi, 2020). For Kendi, the polar of a racist is an anti-racist , one who is supporting an anti-racist policy through their actions or expressing an anti-racist idea. To say that one is not racist is a hollow statement as it is devoid of action. In Chapter 12.1 , equity is further explained, but like anti-racism, it requires action to counter racial inequities.
Institutional racism refers to the way in which racism is embedded in the fabric of society. For example, the disproportionate number of Black men arrested, charged, and convicted of crimes may reflect racial profiling, a form of institutional racism. (At the end of this section, various types of racism are further defined, with examples).
Sociologists, in general, recognize "race" as a social construct . This means that, although the concepts of race and racism are based on observable biological characteristics, any conclusions drawn about race on the basis of those observations are heavily influenced by cultural ideologies. Racism, as an ideology, exists in a society at both the individual and institutional level.
While much of the research and work on racism during the last half-century or so has concentrated on "white racism" in the Western world, historical accounts of race-based social practices can be found across the globe. Kendi reminds us though that a person of any race-ethnic background could be racist. Racism can be broadly understood to encompass individual and group prejudices and acts of discrimination that result in material and cultural advantages conferred on a majority or a dominant social group. So-called "white racism" focuses on societies in which white populations are the majority or the dominant social group. In studies of these majority white societies, the aggregate of material and cultural advantages is usually termed "white privilege."
Racism in the United States traces the attitudes, laws, practices and actions which discriminate against various groups in the United States based on their race or ethnicity; while most white Americans enjoy legally or socially sanctioned privileges and rights which have at various times been denied to members of other ethnic or minority groups. European Americans, particularly affluent white Anglo-Saxon Protestants, are said to have enjoyed advantages in matters of education, immigration, voting rights, citizenship, land acquisition, bankruptcy, and criminal procedure throughout United States history.
Racism against various ethnic or minority groups has existed in the United States since the colonial era. African Americans in particular have faced restrictions on their political, social, and economic freedoms throughout much of United States history. Native Americans have suffered genocide, forced removals, and massacres, and they continue to face discrimination. In addition, East, South, and Southeast Asians along with Pacific Islanders have also been discriminated against. Hispanics have continuously experienced racism in the United States despite the fact that many of them have European ancestry. Middle Eastern groups such as Jews, Arabs, and Iranians continuously face discrimination in the United States, and as a result, some people who belong to these groups do not identify as, and are not perceived to be, white.
Racism has manifested itself in a variety of ways, including genocide, slavery, segregation, Native American reservations, Native American boarding schools, immigration and naturalization laws, and internment camps. Formal racial discrimination was largely banned by the mid-20th century and over time, coming to be perceived as being socially and morally unacceptable. Racial politics remains a major phenomenon, and racism continues to be reflected in socioeconomic inequality. In recent years research has uncovered extensive evidence of racial discrimination in various sectors of modern U.S. society, including the criminal justice system, business, the economy, housing, health care, the media, and politics. In the view of the United Nations and the U.S. Human Rights Network, "discrimination in the United States permeates all aspects of life and extends to all communities of color."
Anti-Middle Eastern Sentiment
Anti-Middle Eastern sentiment is feelings and expression of hostility, hatred, discrimination, or prejudice towards the Middle East and its culture, and towards persons based on their association with the Middle East and Middle Eastern culture.
Anti-Middle Eastern racism has a long history in the United States, although it had generally been limited to Jews until recent decades. It is suggested by Leo Rosten that as soon as they left the boat, Jews were subject to racism from the port immigration authorities. The derogatory term kike was adopted when referring to Jews (because they often could not write so they may have signed their immigration papers with circles – or kikel in Yiddish). In early films, such as Cohen's Advertising Scheme (1904, silent), Jews were stereotyped as "scheming merchants," often with exaggerated West Asian racial features such as big, hooked noses, big lips, small eyes, black curly hair, and olive and/or brown-colored skin.
From the 1910s, Southern Jewish communities were attacked by the Ku Klux Klan, who objected to Jewish immigration, and often used "The Jewish Banker" in their propaganda. In 1915, Leo Frank was lynched in Georgia after being convicted of rape and sentenced to death (his punishment was commuted to life imprisonment). The second Ku Klux Klan, which grew enormously in the early 1920s by promoting "100% Americanism", focused its hatred on Jews, as well as Catholics and African Americans.
In 1993, the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee confronted The Walt Disney Company about anti-Arab racist content in its animated film Aladdin . At first, Disney denied any problems but eventually relented and changed two lines in the opening song. Members of the ADC were still unhappy with the portrayal of Arabic characters and the referral to the Middle East as "barbaric".
Since 9/11, anti-Middle Eastern racism has risen dramatically. A man in Houston, Texas, who was shot and wounded after an assailant accused him of "blowing up the country", and four immigrants shot and killed by a man named Larme Price, who confessed to killing them as revenge for the September 11 attacks.  Although Price described his victims as Arabs, only one was from an Arab country. This appears to be a trend; because of stereotypes of Arabs, several non-Arab, non-Muslim groups were subjected to attacks in the wake of 9/11, including several Sikh men attacked for wearing their religiously-mandated turban. Price's mother, Leatha Price, said that her son's anger at Arabs was a matter of mental illness, not ethnic hatred.
A 2007 survey by the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) concluded that 15% of Americans hold anti-Semitic views, which was in-line with the average of the previous ten years, but a decline from the 29% of the early sixties (The Marttila Communications Group). The survey concluded that education was a strong predictor, "with most educated Americans being remarkably free of prejudicial views" (Ibid). The belief that Jews have too much power was considered a common anti-Semitic view by the ADL. Other views indicating anti-Semitism, according to the survey, include the view that Jews are more loyal to Israel than America, and that they are responsible for the death of Jesus of Nazareth. The survey found that anti-Semitic Americans are likely to be intolerant generally, e.g. regarding immigration and free-speech. The 2007 survey also found that 29% of foreign-born Hispanics and 32% of African-Americans hold strong anti-Semitic beliefs, three times more than the 10% for whites. A 2009 study published in Boston Review found that nearly 25% of non-Jewish Americans blamed Jews for the financial crisis of 2007–2008, with a higher percentage among Democrats than Republicans; 32% of Democrats blamed Jews for the financial crisis, versus 18% for Republicans.
Anti-Asian Sentiment
Asian Americans, including those of East Asian, South Asian, and Southeast Asian descent, have experienced racism since the first major groups of Chinese immigrants arrived in America. The Naturalization Act of 1790 made Asians ineligible for citizenship. First-generation immigrants, children of immigrants, and Asians adopted by non-Asian families are still impacted by discrimination. During the Industrial Revolution in the United States, labor shortages in the mining and rail industries were prevalent. Chinese immigrant labor was often used to fill this gap, most notably with the construction of the First Transcontinental Railroad, leading to large-scale Chinese immigration. These Chinese immigrants were seen as taking the jobs of whites for cheaper pay, and the phrase Yellow Peril , which predicted the demise of Western Civilization as a result of Chinese immigrants, gained popularity.
In 1871, one of the largest lynchings in American history was committed against Chinese immigrants in Los Angeles, California. It would go on to become known as the Chinese massacre of 1871 . The 1879 Constitution of the California prohibited the employment of Chinese people by state and local governments, as well as by businesses that were incorporated in California. Also, the 1879 constitution delegated power to local governments in California to remove Chinese people from within their borders. The federal Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 banned immigration of Chinese labourers for ten years after thousands of Chinese immigrants had come to the American West. Several mob attacks against Chinese people took place, including the Rock Springs massacre of 1885 in Wyoming in which at least 28 Chinese miners were killed and 15 injured, and the Hells Canyon massacre of 1887 in Oregon where 34 Chinese miners were killed.
Recently, the COVID-19 pandemic, which started in the city of Wuhan, Hubei, China, in December 2019, has led to an increase in acts and displays of sinophobia as well as prejudice, xenophobia , discrimination, violence, and racism against people of East Asian, North Asian and Southeast Asian descent and appearance around the world. With the spread of the pandemic and formation of hotspots, such as those in Asia, Europe, and the Americas, discrimination against people from these hotspots has been reported.
According to a June 2020 Pew Research study, 58% of Asian Americans and 45% of African Americans believe that racist views toward them had increased since the pandemic. There were a few thousand incidences of xenophobia and racism against Asian Americans between 28 January and 24 February 2020, according to a tally compiled by Russell Jeung, professor of Asian American Studies at San Francisco State University. An online reporting forum called " Stop AAPI Hate " recorded "650 direct reports of discrimination against primarily Asian Americans" between 18 and 26 March 2020, this later increased to 1,497 reports by 15 April 2020, and most targets were of Chinese (40%) and Korean (16%) descents. According to a WHYY-FM report (21 April 2020), incidents of anti-Asian racism, including discrimination, racial slurs and violent attacks, especially towards Chinese Americans, were caused both by white Americans and African-Americans; most cases remain unreported to the authorities.
Former U.S. President Donald Trump frequently referred to COVID-19 as the "Chinese Virus" and the "China Virus" in an attempt to point to its origin, a term considered to be anti-Chinese and racist. He later argued this was "not racist at all" after lawmakers including Elizabeth Warren raised objections about the statement. Trump also stated on Twitter, on 23 March 2020, that the coronavirus was not Asian Americans’ fault and their community should be protected. Trump brushed off the alleged use of the derogatory term "Kung Flu" by a White House official to refer to COVID-19 when asked by a reporter during a media session on 18 March 2020. Eventually he pulled back on the "Chinese Virus" name due to Asian communities facing increased number of racist taunts and incidents as the illness spread across the U.S. however, at his Tulsa, Oklahoma rally on 20 June, Trump referred to the virus as "Kung Flu." On 14 March 2020, more than 200 civil rights groups in the United States demanded that the House of Representatives and Senate leadership publicly denounce the growing amount of anti-Asian racism related to the pandemic and take "tangible steps to counter the hysteria" around the coronavirus, offering the passage of a joint resolution denouncing the racism and xenophobia as one solution.
Types of Racism
A general definition of racism has been provided above. Yet, in reality, sociologists have identified multiple types of racism, which are defined and described below. The analysis of these different types of racism provides more depth and complexity which can help to better diagnose, critically analyze, and potentially remedy racism.
Thinking Sociologically
Color-blind racism is defined as the use of race-neutral principles to defend the racially unequal status quo. While a mainstream definition of color-blindness suggests that race or racial classification does not affect a person's life chances or opportunities, sociologists such as Bonilla-Silva argues that this more subtle form of racism ignores race and structural racism and is the dominant ideology in the U.S. Yet, as shown below structural racism permeates every aspect of our lives, and color blind racism ignores the structural inequalities that disproportionately affect people of color.
- Example: "We are all equal" and "race doesn't matter" are phrases uttered and may sound but, but in reality these phrases ignore structural problems such as the prison industrial complex, poverty, the wealth gap, and educational inequailties - all of which hamper the life chances of people of color which means we do not all have equal chances.
- How can we reach a point where our differences are acknowledged and even celebrated or where are unequal life experiences are understood as real?
Environmental racism: Structurally analogous to environmental sexism, environmental racism involves a conceptual association between people of color and nature that marks their dual subordination (Bullard, 1983). Environmental racism is seen in the deliberate targeting of communities of color for toxic waste disposal and the siting of polluting industries(Ibid). It is racial discrimination in the official sanctioning of the life-threatening presence of poisons and pollutants in communities of color (Ibid). And, it is racial discrimination in the history of excluding people of color from the mainstream environmental groups, decision-making boards, commissions, and regulatory bodies (Ibid).
- Example: Government-sanctioned lead-contaminated drinking water in Flint, Michigan, disproportionately impacting the African-American population.
- What race-ethnic representation exists in your local, appointed and elected municipalities (government), including those that regulate water and air pollution? What environmental groups exist in your community to provide checks on these governing boards, particularly with regards to the communities populated by people of color?
Ideological racism: An ideology that considers a groups’ unchangeable physical characteristics to be linked in a direct, causal way to psychological or intellectual characteristics and that, on this basis, distinguishes between superior and inferior groups (Feagin & Feagin, 1998).
- Example: The justification of slavery as “saving” Africans from their homeland’s “primitive culture;” Manifest Destiny that purported Euro-Americans God-given rights to the lands in the eastern United States at the expense of Native Americans who were symbolized as “savages;” former President Trump’s statements on the campaign trail linking Mexicans to rapists and criminals.
- How can the stereotypes that shape ideological racism be challenged or changed - on an individual level, in our families, in the media, and in society at large?
Internalized racism: Members of the target group are emotionally, physically, and spiritually battered to the point that they begin to actually believe that their oppression is deserved, is their lot in life, is natural and right, and that it doesn’t even exist (Yamato, 2004).
- Example: A person of color who hates their skin color and wishes to marry out of their race-ethnic group so their children will be of lighter complexion. Another example: the root of the alcohol problem in Indigenous communities can be traced to the effects of colonization, internalizing the colonizer’s message (i.e. American Indians are inferior or "savage").
- In some communities and families, internalized racism has been in the works over centuries. What types of mental health supports exist in your communities or schools that may serve to address internalized racism?
Inter-group or inter-personal racism: This is the racism that occurs between individuals or groups; it is the holding of negative attitudes towards a different race or culture (Safe Places for the Advancement of Community and Equity). Interpersonal racism often follows a victim/perpetrator model (Ibid). Within poor communities, ignorance and suspicion of groups or individuals of a different race-ethnic background may result in tension between various race-ethnic groups.
- Example: In urban spaces such as Los Angeles, Long Beach, Chicago, New York City, poor Latinx, Asian, and African American gangs fight each other rather than the capitalist system that perpetuates class inequalities.
- Can you identify examples of multiracial coalitions in your community? One such multiracial collective is Californians for Justice, located in Oakland, San Jose, Fresno, and Long Beach, which is a statewide youth-powered organization fighting for racial justice, particularly in our public schools .
Intra-group racism: Racist attitudes and behaviors against people of your “same racial group.” Colorism is a type of intra-group racism which is the ranking or judgment of individuals based on skin tone (Schaefer, 2019).
- Example: A light-skinned person of color who evaluates a dark-skinned person of color as inferior; a wealthy person of any particular "race" who speaks pejoratively of less financially wealthy individuals in their "race."
- Have you ever experienced colorism in your family, community, or social media? How did you respond to this colorism, or how could have you responded to it?
Modern racism: White beliefs that serious anti-Black (or anti-Mexican, anti-Arab, anti-Asian, etc.) discrimination does not exist today and that African Americans (or other communities of color) are making illegitimate demands for social changes. (Feagin & Feagin, 1998). This type of racism may be understood as color-blind racism.
- Example: One white male (David C.) in the film, The Color of Fear , was sure he was not racist at all and sure that racism is a thing of the past and only a figment in the imagination of the minds of African Americans, Latinos, Asian Americans, Pacific Islanders, Native Americans, etc.
- In this film, through dialoguing with other men of color and white men, David C. barely begins to understand white privilege and the systems of power that oppress people of color. Another male featured in the film, Roberto, acknowledges that unmasking white privilege is painful, as he proclaims,"The cure of the pain is in the pain." How would you respond to someone who proclaims that racism is not real, but is rather an illusion or a figment of one's imagination?
Structural racism/Systemic racism: A shorthand term for the many systemic factors that work to produce and maintain racial inequities in America today. These are aspects of our history and culture that allow the privileges associated with “whiteness” and the disadvantages associated with “color” to remain deeply embedded within the political economy. Public policies, institutional practices and cultural representations contribute to structural racism by reproducing outcomes that are racially inequitable. (The Aspen Institute)
- Example: The criminal justice system contributes to systemic racism through over-policing of communities of color, disproportionate police brutality experienced by people of color, and disproportionate mass incarceration of Black men.
- The Summer 2020 protests called to dismantle systemic racism in this country, particularly in policing. What do you think needs to happen to rid this country of system racism that is evident in our laws, schooling, mass media, criminal justice system, political representation, employment patterns, etc.?
Subtle, covert racism: Hidden, camouflaged, pernicious racism.
- Example: Merriam-Webster's Dictionary definitions of racially-coded labels such as Black, minority, and savage all contain derogatory meanings.
- What do you think is more harmful to our society: overt (obvious) racism or subtle, covert racism? While laws may address overt racism such as hate crimes, addressing covert racism may be far more challenging. How might we raise children in a way to prevent subtle, covert racism?
Contributors and Attributions
- Johnson, Shaheen. (Long Beach City College)
- Rodriguez, Lisette. (Long Beach City College)
- Hund, Janét. (Long Beach City College)
- Racism (Wikipedia) ( CC BY-SA 3.0 )
- Anti-Middle_Eastern_sentiment (Wikipedia) ( CC BY-SA 3.0 )
- Racism in the United States Asian Americans (Wikipedia) ( CC BY-SA 3.0 )
- List of incidents of xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic (Wikipedia) ( CC BY-SA 3.0 )
- Alfa, I. (2020, July 25). Hutterites face covid-19 stigma across the prairies, says author who grew up on Mmanitoba colony. CBS News.
- Asmelash, L. (2020, February 1). UC berkeley faces backlash after stating 'xenophobia' is 'common' or 'normal' reaction to coronavirus. CNN.
- Bamford, A. (2020, July 28). Coronavirus: hutterian safety council asks province to stop 'outing' infected colonies. Global News.
- Better, S. (2007). Institutional Racism: A Primer on Theory and Strategies for Social Change. 2nd ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
- Bullard, R.D. (1983). Confronting Environmental Racism: Voices from the Grassroots. Boston, MA: South End Press.
- Carmichael, S. & Hamilton, C.V. (1967). Black Power: T he Politics of Liberation. New York, NY: Random House.
- Feagin, J.R. & Feagin, C.B. (1998). Race and Ethnic Relations. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
- Forgey, Q. (2020, March 18). Trump on 'chinese virus' label: 'it's not racist at all'. POLITICO .
- Gershenson, S., Holt, S.B., & Papageorge, N.W. (2016, June). Who believes in me? the effect of student-teacher demographic match on teacher expectations. Economics of Education Review, 52, 209-224.
- Gilliam, W.S., Maupin, A.N., Reyes, C.R., Accavitti, M., & Shic, F. (2016). Do early educators’ implicit biases regarding sex and race relate to behavior expectations and recommendations of preschool expulsions and suspensions? Yale Child Study Center.
- Hoffman, K.M., Trawalter, S., Axt, J.R., & Oliver, M.N. (2016). Racial bias in pain assessment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(16), 4296-4301.
- Izri, T. & Lefebvre, C. (2020, July 23). 'It's not an idle threat': hutterite colony considers filing human rights complaint against manitoba government. CTV News Winnipeg.
- Katopol, P. (2014). Avoiding the Reference Desk: Stereotype Threat. Library Leadership & Management, 28 (3).
- Kendi, I. (2020). How to Be an Anti-Racist. New York, NY: Random House.
- Mastrangelo, D. (2020, March 19). Chris cuomo blasts trump for saying 'chinese virus': 'it could have come from anywhere. Washington Examiner.
- Milkman, K.L., Akinola, M., & Chugh, D. (2012). Temporal distance and discrimination: an audit study in academia. Psychological Science , 23(7), 710 – 717.
- Okonofua, J.A., & Eberhardt, J.L. (2015). Two strikes: race and the disciplining of young students. Psychological Sciences , 26(5), 617-624.
- Pager, D., Bonikowski, B., & Western, B. (2009). Discrimination in a low-wage labor market: a field experiment. American Sociological Review, 74(5), 777-799.
- Safe Places for the Advancement of Community and Equity (n.d.). Race and Racism.
- Smith, J.A. (2015, May 7). Why teachers are more likely to punish Black students. Greater Good Magazine.
- Schaefer, R.T. (2019). Racial and Ethnic Groups. 15th ed. New York, NY: Pearson.
- Steele, C.M. & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African-Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 69, 797-811.
- Sue, D.W. (2010). Microaggressions in Everyday Life: Race, Gender, and Sexual orientation. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
- The Aspen Institute. (n.d.). Glossary for Understanding the Dismantling Structural Racism/Promoting Racial Equity Analysis.
- The Marttila Communications Group. (2007, October). American attitudes towards jews in america (PDF). Anti-Defamation League.
- Wilson, J.P., Hugenberg, K., & Rule, N.O. (2017). Racial bias in judgments of physical size and formidability: from size to threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113(1), 59 – 80.
- Wingfield, M. & Karaman, B. (n.d). Arab Stereotypes and American Educators (PDF). National Council for the Social Studies.
- Wu, N. (2020, March 18). Asian americans lawmakers denounce 'rumors' and 'xenophobia' about coronavirus. USA Today.
- Yamato, G. (2004). Something about the subject makes it hard to name. In Margaret L. Anderson and Patricia Hill Collins (Eds.) Race, Class, and Gender. 5th Ed. New York, NY: Thomson/Wadsworth Pub. Pp. 99-103.


7.12: Glossary
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- Michael Brown
- Northeast Wisconsin Technical College
ability The knowledge, skills, and receptiveness to learning that an individual brings to a task or job.
content motivation theories Theories that focus on what motivates people.
direction What a person is motivated to achieve.
intensity (1) The degree to which people try to achieve their targets; (2) the forcefulness that enhances the likelihood that a stimulus will be selected for perceptual processing.
motivation A force within or outside of the body that energizes, directs, and sustains human behavior. Within the body, examples might be needs, personal values, and goals, while an incentive might be seen as a force outside of the body. The word stems from its Latin root movere, which means “to move.”
performance environment Refers to those factors that impact employees’ performance but are essentially out of their control.
process motivation theories Theories that focus on the how and why of motivation.
role perceptions The set of behaviors employees think they are expected to perform as members of an organization.
work motivation The amount of effort a person exerts to achieve a level of job performance.
ERG theory Compresses Maslow’s five need categories into three: existence, relatedness, and growth.
extrinsic motivation Occurs when a person performs a given behavior to acquire something that will satisfy a lower-order need.
hedonism Assumes that people are motivated to satisfy mainly their own needs (seek pleasure, avoid pain).
hygienes Factors in the work environment that are based on the basic human need to “avoid pain.”
instincts Our natural, fundamental needs, basic to our survival.
intrinsic motivation Arises out of performing a behavior in and of itself, because it is interesting or “fun” to do.
latent needs Cannot be inferred from a person’s behavior at a given time, yet the person may still possess those needs.
manifest needs Are needs motivating a person at a given time.
manifest needs theory Assumes that human behavior is driven by the desire to satisfy needs.
motivators Relate to the jobs that people perform and people’s ability to feel a sense of achievement as a result of performing them.
motive A source of motivation; the need that a person is attempting to satisfy.
need for achievement (nAch) The need to excel at tasks, especially tasks that are difficult.
need for affiliation (nAff) The need to establish and maintain warm and friendly relationships with other people.
need for power (nPow) The need to control things, especially other people; reflects a motivation to influence and be responsible for other people.
need A human condition that becomes energized when people feel deficient in some respect.
primary needs Are instinctual in nature and include physiological needs for food, water, and sex (procreation).
secondary needs Are learned throughout one’s life span and are psychological in nature.
self-determination theory (SDT) Seeks to explain not only what causes motivation, but also the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation.
avoidance learning Occurs when people learn to behave in a certain way to avoid encountering an undesired or unpleasant consequence.
effort-performance expectancy E1, the perceived probability that effort will lead to performance (or E ➨ P).
equity theory States that human motivation is affected by the outcomes people receive for their inputs, compared to the outcomes and inputs of other people.
expectancy theory Posits that people will exert high effort levels to perform at high levels so that they can obtain valued outcomes.
extinction Occurs when a consequence or lack of a consequence makes it less likely that a behavior will be repeated in the future.
extrinsic outcomes Are awarded or given by other people (like a supervisor).
goal commitment The degree to which people dedicate themselves to achieving a goal.
goal theory States that people will perform better if they have difficult, specific, accepted performance goals or objectives.
input Any personal qualities that a person views as having value and that are relevant to the organization.
intrinsic outcomes Are awarded or given by people to themselves (such as a sense of achievement).
negative reinforcement Occurs when a behavior causes something undesirable to be removed, increasing the likelihood of the behavior reoccurring.
nonreinforcement Occurs when no consequence follows a worker’s behavior.
operant conditioning A learning process based on the results produced by a person “operating on” the environment.
operant conditioning theory Posits that people learn to behave in a particular fashion as a result of the consequences that followed their past behaviors.
outcome Anything a person perceives as getting back from an organization in exchange for the person’s inputs.
overreward inequity Occurs when people perceive their outcome/input ratio to be greater than that of their referent other.
performance-outcome expectancy E2, the perceived relationship between performance and outcomes (or P ➨ O).
positive reinforcement Occurs when a desirable consequence that satisfies an active need or removes a barrier to need satisfaction increases the likelihood of a behavior reoccurring.
punishment An aversive consequence that follows a behavior and makes it less likely to reoccur.
referent others Workers that a person uses to compare inputs and outcomes, and who perform jobs similar in difficulty and complexity to the employee making an equity determination.
reinforcement Occurs when a consequence makes it more likely a behavior will be repeated in the future.
schedules of reinforcement The frequency at which effective employee behaviors are reinforced.
self-efficacy A belief about the probability that one can successfully execute some future action or task, or achieve some result.
state of equity Occurs when people perceive their outcome/input ratio to be equal to that of their referent other.
underreward inequity Occurs when people perceive their outcome/input ratio to be less than that of their referent other.
valences The degree to which a person perceives an outcome as being desirable, neutral, or undesirable.


8.2: Introduction
An inveterate adventurer and renowned intellectual, Ibn Khaldun was born into a family of ascendant Andalusian Arabs who had immigrated to North Africa. There, present day Tunisia, he received a traditional Islamic education until his parents died from the plague.  On his own, the young and resourceful Ibn Khaldun exploited personal relationships to secure an administrative position at court and thus began a career as an itinerant statesman. Time and time again, Ibn Khaldun landed in prison for his role in conspiracies against various ruling dynasties, only to be released by their heirs. Envoys and grandees recognized his remarkable intelligence and the value of his council. His reputation preceded him, and many dignitaries openly entreated him to join their court. Serving various dynasties, Ibn Khaldun held many important offices, like diplomat, court advisor, and prime minister. But he eventually grew weary of the hazards of palace intrigue and sought instead a more reclusive lifestyle.
Ibn Khaldun retired to the safety of a Berber tribe in Algeria, where he composed al-Muqaddimah , or Prolegomenon , an outstanding work of sociology and historiography. Published in 1377, he theorized in al-Muaqddimah that tribal ‘ asabiyah, roughly translated as “social solidarity,” is often accompanied by a novel religious ideology that helps a previously marginalized group of people, usually from the desert, rise up and conquer the city folk. Once ensconced in power, these desert peoples evolved into a grand civilization, but ‘ asabiyah contained within it destructive elements that could precipitate their collapse. Known for this Cyclical Theory of History , Ibn Khaldun posited that, seduced by the wiles of urban culture, the dominant group would over time become soft and enter into a period of decay, until a new group of desert peoples conquered them, when the process would begin anew. This theory applies to the development of Islamic history discussed throughout this chapter.


5.2: Procrastination- Don't Let Time Get Away
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Dembo and Seli (2008) define procrastination very simply as the behavior of postponing a task that needs to be completed. However, other studies (Solomon & Rothblum, 1984; Rothblum, Solomon & Murakami, 1986; Kachgal, Hansen & Nutter, 2001) have found that there are significant cognitive and affective factors that also contribute to procrastination, such as anxiety related to performance on the task, feeling overwhelmed by a task, miscalculation of time needed to study, or dislike for the task. Sapadin and Macguire (1997) refer to procrastination as an “internal conflict,” in which you want or need to do something but are resistant for whatever reason. Ultimately, procrastination is a choice that you make as a student in a given situation, a choice leading to counterproductive behaviors and negative feelings in the end. Unfortunately, procrastination is an incredibly prevalent problem that impacts college students every day and can impede their ability to succeed in college (Burka & Yuen, 1983; Solomon & Rothblum, 1984).
The literature (Kachgal et al., 2001; Rothblum et al., 1986; Solomon & Rothblum, 1984) supports a multitude of reasons for why students procrastinate, such as:
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fear of the consequences of failure or success and the related anxiety and low self-esteem
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issues with self-regulation, such as time miscalculations (e.g., a project takes longer than expected or an overestimation of time remaining to complete a project), inability to delay gratification, peer pressure to do something else
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motivational issues and reported “laziness”
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feelings of being overwhelmed by a task
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overall dislike for engaging in a particular type of task
Depending on the reason in a given situation for the procrastination, these underlying causes lead students to say certain things to themselves, called rationalizations. For instance, students with self-regulation problems may say to them- selves, “I can study tonight after I get home from the movie.” Students with anxiety-related procrastination issues may rationalize, “I have a headache”—a headache that is likely related to stress. Finally, the students with motivational issues may think, “I work better under pressure.”
Understanding in a given circumstance why you may be procrastinating may help you determine what sorts of interventions you need to avoid repeating that behavior (see Six Styles of Procrastination for more information). Solomon and Rothblum (1984) suggest that not only do individuals need to learn appropriate time management and self-regulation skills, but also have to deal with the cognitive beliefs (i.e., rationalizations) and emotions that accompany procrastination behaviors. For instance, Burka and Yuen (1983) indicate that students who fear the consequences of failure or success or those who strive for perfection need to adjust their cognitive beliefs and implement self-regulation strategies, such as breaking large tasks down into smaller pieces and creating structured goals. Kachgal et al. (2001) recommended that learning specialists who are helping students with their procrastination issues help students consider what their personal “barriers” are to completing academic work in a timely fashion and help them problem solve with regard to those perceived barriers. Therefore, students may need to implement more than one intervention to deal with their procrastination.
Six Styles of Procrastination
Sapadin and Macguire (1997) have proposed six styles of procrastination that can help students think about their cycle of procrastination.
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Style
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General Reason for Procrastination
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Suggested Changes to Reduce Procrastination
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Perfectionist
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Wants everything to be perfect – the project and the circumstances under which the project is completed.
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Strive for excellence, not perfection. Avoid telling yourself that you “should” do this to make it better. Set time limits to complete certain aspects of the task and then move on to the next task.
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Dreamer
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Hates dealing with details. Wishes he or she could get to the end result without having to do all the work in between.
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Set specific long-term goals and specific goals for what you want to accomplish in a given study session. Think through what you need to do, how you will do it, and set specifically when you will do it.
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Worrier
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Worries about change and constantly worries “what if.” Tends to think catastrophically.
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Reality check when you catch yourself making a problem into a catastrophe. When you are stressed by what you do not know, review what you do know. Break down larger tasks into smaller pieces. Celebrate when something goes well to build confidence.
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Crisis-maker
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Only gets motivated by the last minute deadline. Waits until he or she cannot delay any longer.
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Reality check when you catch yourself saying, “That will not take long to do” or “I can do that later.” Understand that you may not get motivated to do some until you get started with it.
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Defier
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Resents feeling that an authority is making him or her do something that he or she does not want to do.
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See the benefits of doing the task.
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Overdoer
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Has too much to do and has problem saying “no” to people. Gets distracted by unimportant tasks.
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Set daily priorities for what is most important to accomplish. Don’t be afraid to say “no ” to others.
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Procrastination Elimination Strategies
Consider your own patterns of procrastination and what strategies you might implement next time you catch yourself postponing the things you need to do to be a successful student.
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Use your time management tools.
Create a schedule of study sessions each week. Set study goals and determine what activities you are going to accomplish at each of these study sessions. Utilize to-do lists to keep track of all of the activities you need to complete to stay caught up with a class.
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Set up study routines.
For instance, if you have your Political Science class on Tuesdays and Thursdays, schedule yourself time to read the assigned chapters on Mondays and Wednesdays. It will help you stay current in your class. With time, it becomes a routine which is harder to break once you have done it for awhile.
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Conduct time reality checks.
When you catch yourself saying, “I will have time to do this later,” look at your list of tasks and your schedule and determine if that is realistically true. If you catch yourself saying, “That won’t take long to finish,” really think about how long it takes to do a good job and all of the things that might impede your progress and make it take longer.
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Increase your motivation and interest in the work.
Revisit the informational box “How Can I Get Motivated to Study?” in Chapter 4.
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Challenge your rationalizations.
When you say to yourself, “I work better under pressure,” consider whether or not that is really true. While you may be more motivated to complete the work if the deadline is tomorrow, couldn’t you produce better quality work if you allow time to think about what you are doing?
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Break down projects into smaller pieces.
Sometimes tasks are less daunting if you do not see them as taking a long time to do, especially if they are tasks that you do not like to do. If you have to read 30 pages of text for your history class, read 10 pages each day over 3 days. If you have a paper to write, develop a list of the steps that you need to complete to write that paper (i.e., research a topic, outline, write a rough draft, etc.) and schedule those steps to be completed over a couple of weeks.
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Commit to 5 minutes.
Oftentimes, the dread of doing something prevents a student from starting it. Tell yourself that you commit to working on something for 5 minutes and then assess the task to determine if you are going to keep working. Typically, once students get started on it, they get into a working rhythm and finish the task.
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Increase concentration and decrease distractions.
Keep in mind that it is harder to procrastinate if you are working in an environment where you can focus on your work and avoid interruptions. For instance, turn off your cell phone during study sessions so that your friends do not keep you from your work. Studying in a place where you do not have access to the television or computer games can also be very helpful.
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Organize your study sessions.
Make sure you have all of the materials available that you need to study.
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Know your high energy times of day
. It is very useful to complete tasks that you may be dreading during your high energy times of day. You will be less likely to make up an excuse like, “I am too tired to do this now” if you are studying at the time of day that you tend to feel more alert.
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Reinforce yourself for finishing a task.
For instance, tell yourself before you start working on something that if you complete this task, you will get to spend 30 minutes doing something that you want to do. Treat your school work like a job. If you study and go to class for 40 hours a week, you will take off some time for relaxation on the weekend.
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Recruit social support for completing your work.
Ask your friends and family to inquire how you are doing on your studying to-do list. Meet with a study group on a weekly basis to review lecture and reading notes and discuss readings. If you are accountable to others you will be more likely to have completed the work.
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Utilize relaxation techniques.
If you find that worrying interrupts your concentration or you feel physical symptoms like stomach upset or headaches when studying, try some relaxation techniques and positive self-talk rather than just quitting.
Adapted from Dembo and Seli (2008) and Cuseo, Fecas, & Thompson (2007).


23.2: Lifetime Fitness and Wellness Reading
Purpose
The readings will help you connect all the information covered during the course and and maintain lifelong wellness.
Directions
- The term is almost over and you will no longer be required to exercise for a grade after this week. So what is your plan? I hope you learned a lot of helpful information and that you enjoyed your fitness program. The following hand-out will help you adhere to your new exercise program and understand the prevalence of obesity and current U.S. health objectives. Read pages 265-280 to review the stages of change and plan for potential lapses. You already read pages 270 to 272, but it’s important to review them.
- The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) has a wide variety of resources to help you remain physically active. Read the following short brochures to help you continue on with your active lifestyle in a safe and effective way:
- The ACSM also provides newsletters with expert advice on exercise, nutrition, and health. As you know, there are many barriers that keep people from being active and eating right on a regular basis. The following newsletters cover topics that will help you make fitness and wellness part of your permanent lifestyle. They cover topics ranging from how to create your own home exercise program and how to adhere to your program (remember the maintenance state of the transtheoretical model?), to overcoming plateaus and bad habits.
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In the beginning of this course, we learned about the general benefits of exercise on health. Now we go into more details about the effects of healthy lifestyle on chronic conditions. As you read the information below, reflect on your own health and family history and how healthy lifestyles may affect other segments of society.
- Metabolic syndrome : click on the right arrow at the end of the page to read every page of this article
- Exercise and nutrition for the heart
- Exercise and chronic disease
- Cancer and exercise
- Exercise, menopause, and osteoporosis
- Fitness assessment and injury prevention
CC licensed content, Shared previously
- Lifetime Fitness and Wellness. Provided by : Extended Learning Institute of Northern Virginia Community College. Located at : https://eli.nvcc.edu/ . License : CC BY: Attribution


7.10: Conclusion
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In his inauguration speech in 1929, Herbert Hoover told Americans that the Republican Party had brought prosperity. Even ignoring stubbornly large rates of poverty and unparalleled levels of inequality, he could not see the weaknesses behind the decade’s economy. Even as the new culture of consumption promoted new freedoms, it also promoted new insecurities. An economy built on credit exposed the nation to tremendous risk. Flailing European economies, high tariffs, wealth inequality, a construction bubble, and an ever-more flooded consumer market loomed dangerously until the Roaring Twenties ground to a halt. In a moment the nation’s glitz and glamour seemed to give way to decay and despair. For farmers, racial minorities, unionized workers, and other populations that did not share in 1920s prosperity, the veneer of a Jazz Age and a booming economy had always been a fiction. But for them, as for millions of Americans, the end of an era was close. The Great Depression loomed.


21.2: The Number Line
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- 21.2.1: Distance between Two Points on a Number Line
- The number line is the main visual base in statistics and we often want to look at two points on the number line and determine the distance between them. This is used to find the base of a rectangle or another figure that lies above the number line. By the end of this section, you will be able to determine the distance between any two points on a number line that comes from a statistics application.
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- 21.2.2: Plotting Points and Intervals on the Number Line
- The number line is of fundamental importance and is used repeatedly in statistics. It is a tool to visualize all of the possible outcomes of a study and to organize the results of the study. Often a diagram is placed above the number line to provide us with a picture of the results. By the end of this section, you will be able to plot points and intervals on a number line and use these plots to understand the possible outcomes and actual outcomes of studies.
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- 21.2.3: Represent an Inequality as an Interval on a Number Line
- Inequalities come up frequently in statistics and it is often helpful to plot the inequality on the number line in order to visualize the inequality. This helps both for inequalities that involve real numbers and for inequalities that refer to just integer values. As an extension of this idea, we often want to look at the complement of an inequality, that is all numbers that make the inequality false. In this section we will look at examples that accomplish this task.
Thumbnail: Demonstration the addition on the line number. (CC BY 3.0 unported; Stephan Kulla ).


11.8: Introduction to Cost Types
What you’ll learn to do: Explore cost types that affect decision making
There are a variety of costs that affect how managers make decisions. Whether a cost is relevant or irrelevant is important as we start to look at how we decide which costs we need to pay attention to.
Relevant costs are those that are relevant to the decision. While irrelevant costs won’t change, regardless of which decision we make. We can ignore irrelevant costs when we start the decision making process. This can save a ton of time when going through the decision making process. Also, really bad decisions can be made if irrelevant costs are kept in the mix while analyzing the data.
It is important, as a manager, that you understand which costs are relevant to a particular decision and which are not. We will be discussing avoidable costs, sunk costs and opportunity costs, determining which ones we need to consider in a variety of decisions.
Hopefully, this module will help you to make good financial decisions not only in your business life, but your personal life as well!
Are you ready?


24.2: Type II Hypersensitivities
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Learning Objectives
- Summarize the ABO blood group system
- Explain how hemolytic transfusion reaction (HTR) occurs
- Describe hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN)
- Explain how HDN can be prevented
Type II (Cytotoxic) Hypersensitivities
Immune reactions categorized as type II hypersensitivities , or cytotoxic hypersensitivities , are mediated by IgG and IgM antibodies binding to cell-surface antigens or matrix-associated antigens on basement membranes. These antibodies can either activate complement, resulting in an inflammatory response and lysis of the targeted cells, or they can be involved in antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) with cytotoxic T cells.
In some cases, the antigen may be a self-antigen, in which case the reaction would also be described as an autoimmune disease. (Autoimmune diseases are described in Autoimmune Disorders ). In other cases, antibodies may bind to naturally occurring, but exogenous, cell-surface molecules such as antigens associated with blood typing found on red blood cells (RBCs). This leads to the coating of the RBCs by antibodies, activation of the complement cascade, and complement-mediated lysis of RBCs, as well as opsonization of RBCs for phagocytosis. Two examples of type II hypersensitivity reactions involving RBCs are hemolytic transfusion reaction (HTR) and hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN). These type II hypersensitivity reactions, which will be discussed in greater detail, are summarized in Table \(\PageIndex{4}\).
Immunohematology is the study of blood and blood-forming tissue in relation to the immune response. Antibody-initiated responses against blood cells are type II hypersensitivities, thus falling into the field of immunohematology. For students first learning about immunohematology, understanding the immunological mechanisms involved is made even more challenging by the complex nomenclature system used to identify different blood-group antigens, often called blood types. The first blood-group antigens either used alphabetical names or were named for the first person known to produce antibodies to the red blood cell antigen (e.g., Kell, Duffy, or Diego). However, in 1980, the International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT) Working Party on Terminology created a standard for blood-group terminology in an attempt to more consistently identify newly discovered blood group antigens. New antigens are now given a number and assigned to a blood-group system, collection, or series. However, even with this effort, blood-group nomenclature is still inconsistent.
| Common Name | Cause | Signs and Symptoms |
|---|---|---|
| Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) | IgG from mother crosses the placenta, targeting the fetus’ RBCs for destruction | Anemia, edema, enlarged liver or spleen, hydrops (fluid in body cavity), leading to death of newborn in severe cases |
| Hemolytic transfusion reactions (HTR) | IgG and IgM bind to antigens on transfused RBCs, targeting donor RBCs for destruction | Fever, jaundice, hypotension, disseminated intravascular coagulation, possibly leading to kidney failure and death |
ABO Blood Group Incompatibility
The recognition that individuals have different blood types was first described by Karl Landsteiner (1868–1943) in the early 1900s, based on his observation that serum from one person could cause a clumping of RBCs from another. These studies led Landsteiner to the identification of four distinct blood types. Subsequent research by other scientists determined that the four blood types were based on the presence or absence of surface glycoproteins “A” and “B,” and this provided the foundation for the ABO blood group system that is still in use today (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). The functions of these antigens are unknown, but some have been associated with normal biochemical functions of the cell. Furthermore, ABO blood types are inherited as alleles (one from each parent), and they display patterns of dominant and codominant inheritance. The alleles for A and B blood types are codominant to each other, and both are dominant over blood type O. Therefore, individuals with genotypes of AA or AO have type A blood and express the A glycoprotein antigen on the surface of their RBCs. People with genotypes of BB or BO have type B blood and express the B glycoprotein antigen on the surface of their RBCs. Those with a genotype of AB have type AB blood and express both A and B glycoprotein antigens on the surface of their RBCs. Finally, individuals with a genotype of OO have type O blood and lack A and B glycoproteins on the surface of their RBCs.
It is important to note that the RBCs of all four ABO blood types share a common protein receptor molecule, and it is the addition of specific carbohydrates to the protein receptors that determines A, B, and AB blood types. The genes that are inherited for the A, B, and AB blood types encode enzymes that add the carbohydrate component to the protein receptor. Individuals with O blood type still have the protein receptor but lack the enzymes that would add carbohydrates that would make their red blood cell type A, B, or AB.
IgM antibodies in plasma that cross-react with blood group antigens not present on an individual’s own RBCs are called isohemagglutinins (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). Isohemagglutinins are produced within the first few weeks after birth and persist throughout life. These antibodies are produced in response to exposure to environmental antigens from food and microorganisms. A person with type A blood has A antigens on the surface of their RBCs and will produce anti-B antibodies to environmental antigens that resemble the carbohydrate component of B antigens. A person with type B blood has B antigens on the surface of their RBCs and will produce anti-A antibodies to environmental antigens that are similar to the carbohydrate component of A antigens. People with blood type O lack both A and B antigens on their RBCs and, therefore, produce both anti-A and anti-B antibodies. Conversely, people with AB blood type have both A and B antigens on their RBCs and, therefore, lack anti-A and anti-B antibodies.
Query \(\PageIndex{1}\)
A patient may require a blood transfusion because they lack sufficient RBCs (anemia) or because they have experienced significant loss of blood volume through trauma or disease. Although the blood transfusion is given to help the patient, it is essential that the patient receive a transfusion with matching ABO blood type. A transfusion with an incompatible ABO blood type may lead to a strong, potentially lethal type II hypersensitivity cytotoxic response called hemolytic transfusion reaction (HTR) (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)).
For instance, if a person with type B blood receives a transfusion of type A blood, their anti-A antibodies will bind to and agglutinate the transfused RBCs. In addition, activation of the classical complement cascade will lead to a strong inflammatory response, and the complement membrane attack complex (MAC) will mediate massive hemolysis of the transfused RBCs. The debris from damaged and destroyed RBCs can occlude blood vessels in the alveoli of the lungs and the glomeruli of the kidneys. Within 1 to 24 hours of an incompatible transfusion, the patient experiences fever, chills, pruritus (itching), urticaria (hives), dyspnea, hemoglobinuria (hemoglobin in the urine), and hypotension (low blood pressure). In the most serious reactions, dangerously low blood pressure can lead to shock, multi-organ failure, and death of the patient.
Hospitals, medical centers, and associated clinical laboratories typically use hemovigilance systems to minimize the risk of HTRs due to clerical error. Hemovigilance systems are procedures that track transfusion information from the donor source and blood products obtained to the follow-up of recipient patients. Hemovigilance systems used in many countries identify HTRs and their outcomes through mandatory reporting (e.g., to the Food and Drug Administration in the United States), and this information is valuable to help prevent such occurrences in the future. For example, if an HTR is found to be the result of laboratory or clerical error, additional blood products collected from the donor at that time can be located and labeled correctly to avoid additional HTRs. As a result of these measures, HTR-associated deaths in the United States occur in about one per 2 million transfused units. 6
Query \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Rh Factors
Many different types of erythrocyte antigens have been discovered since the description of the ABO red cell antigens. The second most frequently described RBC antigens are Rh factors , named after the rhesus macaque ( Macaca mulatta ) factors identified by Karl Landsteiner and Alexander Weiner in 1940. The Rh system of RBC antigens is the most complex and immunogenic blood group system, with more than 50 specificities identified to date. Of all the Rh antigens, the one designated Rho (Weiner) or D (Fisher-Race) is the most immunogenic. Cells are classified as Rh positive (Rh+) if the Rho/D antigen is present or as Rh negative (Rh−) if the Rho/D antigen is absent. In contrast to the carbohydrate molecules that distinguish the ABO blood groups and are the targets of IgM isohemagglutinins in HTRs, the Rh factor antigens are proteins. As discussed in B Lymphocytes and Humoral Immunity , protein antigens activate B cells and antibody production through a T-cell–dependent mechanism, and the T H 2 cells stimulate class switching from IgM to other antibody classes. In the case of Rh factor antigens, T H 2 cells stimulate class switching to IgG, and this has important implications for the mechanism of HDN.
Like ABO incompatibilities, blood transfusions from a donor with the wrong Rh factor antigens can cause a type II hypersensitivity HTR. However, in contrast to the IgM isohemagglutinins produced early in life through exposure to environmental antigens, production of anti-Rh factor antibodies requires the exposure of an individual with Rh− blood to Rh+ positive RBCs and activation of a primary antibody response. Although this primary antibody response can cause an HTR in the transfusion patient, the hemolytic reaction would be delayed up to 2 weeks during the extended lag period of a primary antibody response ( B Lymphocytes and Humoral Immunity ). However, if the patient receives a subsequent transfusion with Rh+ RBCs, a more rapid HTR would occur with anti-Rh factor antibody already present in the blood. Furthermore, the rapid secondary antibody response would provide even more anti-Rh factor antibodies for the HTR.
Rh factor incompatibility between mother and fetus can also cause a type II hypersensitivity hemolytic reaction, referred to as hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)). If an Rh− woman carries an Rh+ baby to term, the mother’s immune system can be exposed to Rh+ fetal red blood cells. This exposure will usually occur during the last trimester of pregnancy and during the delivery process. If this exposure occurs, the Rh+ fetal RBCs will activate a primary adaptive immune response in the mother, and anti-Rh factor IgG antibodies will be produced. IgG antibodies are the only class of antibody that can cross the placenta from mother to fetus; however, in most cases, the first Rh+ baby is unaffected by these antibodies because the first exposure typically occurs late enough in the pregnancy that the mother does not have time to mount a sufficient primary antibody response before the baby is born.
If a subsequent pregnancy with an Rh+ fetus occurs, however, the mother’s second exposure to the Rh factor antigens causes a strong secondary antibody response that produces larger quantities of anti-Rh factor IgG. These antibodies can cross the placenta from mother to fetus and cause HDN, a potentially lethal condition for the baby (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)).
Prior to the development of techniques for diagnosis and prevention, Rh factor incompatibility was the most common cause of HDN, resulting in thousands of infant deaths each year worldwide. 7 For this reason, the Rh factors of prospective parents are regularly screened, and treatments have been developed to prevent HDN caused by Rh incompatibility. To prevent Rh factor-mediated HDN, human Rho(D) immune globulin (e.g., RhoGAM) is injected intravenously or intramuscularly into the mother during the 28th week of pregnancy and within 72 hours after delivery. Additional doses may be administered after events that may result in transplacental hemorrhage (e.g., umbilical blood sampling, chorionic villus sampling, abdominal trauma, amniocentesis). This treatment is initiated during the first pregnancy with an Rh+ fetus. The anti-Rh antibodies in Rho(D) immune globulin will bind to the Rh factor of any fetal RBCs that gain access to the mother’s bloodstream, preventing these Rh+ cells from activating the mother’s primary antibody response. Without a primary anti-Rh factor antibody response, the next pregnancy with an Rh+ will have minimal risk of HDN. However, the mother will need to be retreated with Rho(D) immune globulin during that pregnancy to prevent a primary anti-Rh antibody response that could threaten subsequent pregnancies.
Query \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Query \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Link to Learning
Use this interactive Blood Typing Game to reinforce your knowledge of blood typing.
Key Concepts and Summary
- Type II hypersensitivities result from antibodies binding to antigens on cells and initiating cytotoxic responses. Examples include hemolytic transfusion reaction and hemolytic disease of the newborn
Footnotes
- E.C. Vamvakas, M.A. Blajchman. “Transfusion-Related Mortality: The Ongoing Risks of Allogeneic Blood Transfusion and the Available Strategies for Their Prevention.” Blood 113 no. 15 (2009):3406–3417.
- G. Reali. “Forty Years of Anti-D Immunoprophylaxis.” Blood Transfusion 5 no. 1 (2007):3–6.


9.7: Chapter 9 Review
Chapter 9 Review
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What is information literacy?
A. The ability to locate sources
B. The ability to evaluate sources
C. The ability to use information ethically
D. All of the above
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A website with which of the following domains is likely to be the most credible?
A. .com
B. .org
C. .gov
D. .net
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Which is an element of a “scholarly source?”
A. The authors have expertise in the field.
B. The source has colorful pictures and ads.
C. The source is geared towards a general audience.
D. All of the above.
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You have to include the author’s information only if you are quoting directly from a source.
True
False
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Scholarly sources can also be called peer-reviewed sources.
True
False
- Answers
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Answer Key: 1:D, 2:C, 3:A, 4: F, 5:T


Prelude to Trace Minerals
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Learning Objectives
- Describe the functional role, intake recommendations and sources of trace minerals
Trace minerals are classified as minerals required in the diet each day in smaller amounts, specifically 100 milligrams or less. These include copper, zinc, selenium, iodine, chromium, fluoride, manganese, molybdenum, and others. Although trace minerals are needed in smaller amounts it is important to remember that a deficiency in a trace mineral can be just as detrimental to your health as a major mineral deficiency.
Iodine deficiency is a major concern in countries around the world such as Fiji. In the 1990’s, almost 50% of the population had signs of iodine deficiency also known as goiter. To combat this national issue, the government of Fiji banned non-iodized salt and allowed only fortified iodized salt into the country in hopes of increasing the consumption of iodine in people’s diets. With this law, and health promotion efforts encouraging the consumption of seafood, great progress has been made in decreasing the prevalence of iodine deficiency in Fiji.[1]
| Micronutrient | Sources | Recommended Intakes for adults | Major Functions | Deficiency diseases and symptoms | Groups at risk for deficiency | Toxicity | UL |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Iron | Red meat, egg yolks, dark leafy vegetables, dried fruit, iron-fortified foods | 8-18 mg/day | Assists in energy production, DNA synthesis required for red blood cell function | Anemia: fatigue, paleness, faster heart rate | Infants and preschool children, adolescents, women, pregnant women, athletes, vegetarians | Liver damage, increased risk of diabetes and cancer | 45 mg/day |
| Copper | Nuts, seeds, whole grains, seafood | 900 mcg/day | Assists in energy production, iron metabolism | Anemia: fatigue, paleness, faster heart rate | Those who consume excessive zinc supplements | Vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, liver damage | 10 mg/day |
| Zinc | oysters, wheat germ, pumpkin seeds, squash,, beans, sesame seeds, tahini, beef, lamb | 8-11 mg/day | Assists in energy production, protein, RNA and DNA synthesis; required for hemoglobinsynthesis | Growth retardation in children, hair loss, diarrhea, skin sores, loss of appetite, weight loss | Vegetarians, older adults | Depressed immune function | 40 mg/day |
| Selenium | Meat, seafood, eggs, nuts | 55 mcg/day | Essential for thyroid hormone activity | Fatigue, muscle pain, weakness, Keshan disease | Populations where the soil is low in selenium | Nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, fatigue | 400 mcg/day |
| Iodine | Iodized salt, seaweed, dairy products | 150 mcg/day | Making thyroid hormone, metabolism, growth and development | Goiter, cretinism, other signs and symptoms include fatigue, depression, weight gain, itchy skin, low heart-rate | Populations where the soil is low in iodine, and iodized salt is not used | Enlarged thyroid | 1110 mcg/day |
| Chromium | 25-35 mcg/day | Assists insulin in carbohydrate, lipid and protein metabolism | abnormal glucosemetabolism | Malnourished children | None | ND | |
| Fluoride | Fluoridated water, foods prepared in fluoridated water, seafood | 3-4 mg/day | Component of mineralized bone, provides structure and microarchitecture, stimulates new bone growth | Increased risk of dental caries | Populations with non fluoridated water | Fluorosismottled teeth, kidney damage | 10 mg/day |
| Manganese | Legumes, nuts, leafy green vegetables | 1.8-2.3 mg/day | Glucose synthesis, amino-acid catabolism | Impaired growth, skeletal abnormalities, abnormal glucose metabolism | None | Nerve damage | 11 mg/day |
| Molybdenum | Milk, grains, legumes | 45 mcg/day | Cofactor for a number of enzymes | Unknown | None | Arthritis, joint inflammation | 2 mg/day |
Contributors
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University of Hawai’i at Mānoa Food Science and Human Nutrition Program : Allison Calabrese, Cheryl Gibby, Billy Meinke, Marie Kainoa Fialkowski Revilla, and Alan Titchenal
Footnotes
- Micronutrient Deficiencies. Ministry of Health and Medical Services, Shaping Fiji’s Health. http://www.health.gov.fj/?page_id=1406 . Published 2015. Accessed November 12, 2017.
Contributors and Attributions
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University of Hawai’i at Mānoa Food Science and Human Nutrition Program : Allison Calabrese, Cheryl Gibby, Billy Meinke, Marie Kainoa Fialkowski Revilla, and Alan Titchenal


1.6: Conflict View
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- Alison S. Burke, David Carter, Brian Fedorek, Tiffany Morey, Lore Rutz-Burri, & Shanell Sanchez
- Southern Oregon University via OpenOregon
A third perspective of how we define crime or create laws is referred to as conflict view, commonly associated with Karl Marx in the 1800s. Conflict view sees society as a collection of diverse groups that can include owners, workers, wealthy, poor, students, professionals, younger older, and more. This view recognizes that the creation of laws is unequal and may not have consensus like in the example discussed previously. [1]
Further, the conflict view takes a very Marxian perspective and suggests that these groups are often in constant conflict with one another. Unlike the consensus perspective, the conflict view would suggest that the crime definitions are controlled by those with wealth, power, and social position in society. Essentially, laws are made by a select group in society, and the laws protect the ‘haves.’ Criminality shapes the values of the ruling class and is not of ‘moral consensus’. [2] There are many examples we use in the criminal justice field that demonstrates the conflict view in action.
Edwin Sutherland: White Collar Crime
Edwin Sutherland, a sociologist, first introduced white-collar crime during his presidential address at the American Sociological Society Meeting in 1939 and later published articles and books on the topic. [3] Specifically, he was concerned with the criminological community’s preoccupation with the low-status offender and “street crimes” and the lack of attention given to crimes that were perpetrated by people in higher status occupations.
Sutherland wrote a book, White Collar Crime , that sparked lots of debate. [4] However, there is a limited focus on white-collar crime and even less enforcement of it in the United States. From the conflict view, this would be because white-collar and corporate crime is committed by the ‘haves’ and they write their laws and define what is or is not a crime. Going back to how we define crime in society, white-collar crime is still a contested one.
Sutherland wrote a book, White Collar Crime, that sparked lots of debate. [5] However, there is a limited focus on white-collar crime and even less enforcement of it in the United States. From the conflict view, white-collar and corporate crime gets committed by the ‘haves,’ and they write the laws and define what is or is not a crime. Going back to how we define crime in society, white-collar crime is still a contested one.
Currently, there are different views of how one should define white-collar crime: defining white-collar crime based on the type of offender, type of offense, studying economic crime such as corporate and/or environmental law violations, health, and safety law violations, and/or the organizational culture rather than the offender or offense. The FBI studies white-collar crime in terms of offense, so official data for white-collar crime will not focus on the background of the offender, which can make the use of Uniform Crime Report Data, UCR data tricky to use if trying to determine a typical offender. The UCR will be covered more fully in chapter two, but it is data collected from police departments, and the FBI compiles reports. Again, conflict view may suggest the lack of focus on white-collar crime in U.S. society would be because the ‘haves’ creates the laws, not the ‘have-nots.’ ucr.fbi.gov/nibrs/nibrs_wcc.pdf
[6]
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Hawkins, D. (1987). Beyond anomalies: Rethinking the conflict perspective on race and criminal punishment.
Social Forces,
65(3), 719–745, doi.org/10.1093/sf/65.3.719
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Boundless. (2016). The conflict perspective.
Sociology – Cochise College Boundless, 26
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Sutherland, E. (1940). White collar criminality.
American Sociological Review,
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(1), 1-12.
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Sutherland, E. (1949).
White collar crime.
Dryden Press.
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Sutherland, E. (1949).
White collar crime.
Dryden Press.
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Barnett, C. (N.D.). The measurement of white-collar crime using: Uniform crime reporting (UCR) data.
U.S. Department of Justice.
Federal Bureau of Investigation
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9.10: Seasonality and Cash Flow
- Explain the effect of seasonality on cash flow of some retailers
Seasonality refers to an imbalance in the timing of sales revenue for a given class of merchandise. To simplify this, think about pumpkins and bulk candy, for example. Certainly, shoppers might buy pumpkins and bulk assorted candy throughout the year, but we might expect that these purchases peak in October, building towards Halloween. In this way, the market for pumpkins and bulk candy reflect seasonality. Yes, there are ongoing sales, but there are clear peaks in demand at specific times of the year.
Other examples might include winter holiday merchandise, which may sell beginning as early as Labor Day (early September) through late December, and swimwear, which may sell as early as January (beginning of cruise season) through early summer, with some retailers starting to markdown swimwear around mid July.
Of course, these are not exhaustive of all seasonal items, but are intended to give you examples. Within a supermarket, grocers might actively promote seasonal items and/or seasonal consumption of specific items. Think about heavy merchandising periods, including:
- January: Chips and soft drinks in advance of the Super Bowl
- February: Boxed chocolate for Valentine’s Day
- May: Flowers and greeting cards for graduates and Mother’s Day
- July: Hot dogs, ground beef, and buns for the 4th of July
- August: Back-to-school
- November: Turkeys and prepared pies for Thanksgiving
- December: Winter holidays like Christmas, Hanukah, or Kwanzaa
Cash flow refers to the total amount of money being transferred into or out of a business at a given moment of time. Businesses seek to generate long-term positive cash flow. But, because seasonality reflects an imbalance in the timing of sales revenue, cash flow can be uneven, creating challenges for how to manage the financials of the firm.
For example, consider Brighter Beach, a retailer that sells swimwear and accessories. As you would expect, their high selling season extends from March through August. Yet, the store is open year round, meaning the business incurs operating expenses, like rent, utilities, and labor, throughout the full year. Therefore, sales and profits during the summer months must be enough to cover all annual expenses. This includes capital to purchase goods (inventory) to sell in the coming selling season. It’s the timing of these transactions that makes budgeting decisions especially complex. The managers of Brighter Beach, and those at other seasonal businesses, may need to manage cash flow to pay off past purchases or to make new ones.
Contributors and Attributions
- Seasonality and Cash Flow. Authored by : Patrick Williams. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Super Bowl XLIX Assortment. Authored by : Mike Mozart. Provided by : Flickr. Located at : https://flic.kr/p/qFNLbu . License : CC BY: Attribution