16.5: Nursing Interventions Based on Fetal Heart Rate and Uterine Contraction Patterns
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain the nursing interventions for abnormal fetal heart rate baseline
- Explain the nursing interventions for abnormal fetal heart rate variability
- Explain the nursing interventions for fetal heart rate decelerations
- Explain the nursing interventions based on the three-tiered system for FHR interpretation
The FHR monitor allows the nurse to assess the health of the fetus and how the fetus is tolerating labor. The nurse needs to recognize whether the fetal monitor tracing indicates a well-oxygenated fetus or a fetus in distress. Fetal distress can be caused by a number of factors; therefore, determining the cause of the abnormality shown on the tracing is paramount. The nurse needs to use specific interventions aimed at correcting those causes.
Nursing Interventions for Abnormal Fetal Heart Rate Baseline
The FHR baseline is a reliable indicator of fetal oxygenation . One of the most reliable signs of adequate fetal oxygenation is an FHR baseline between 110 and 160 bpm with moderate variability . Changes in the FHR baseline can be caused by medications administered to the pregnant patient during labor, such as pain management narcotics, magnesium sulfate , and terbutaline . These baseline changes will resolve after the medication has been discontinued or excreted. Nursing intervention is often not necessary, but any changes should be monitored closely. Changes in the FHR baseline that do require nursing intervention are fetal bradycardia and tachycardia .
Fetal Bradycardia
Fetal bradycardia is an FHR baseline of <110 bpm lasting more than 10 minutes. Bradycardia is abnormal and must be addressed urgently. The nurse must determine the cause of the bradycardia and tailor the intervention to that cause. The cause of bradycardia may be evident, as in the case of a prolapsed umbilical cord that is seen on observation. The nursing intervention for a prolapsed cord is to insert two fingers into the vagina (avoiding the umbilical cord), locate the presenting part, and elevate the presenting part away from the umbilical cord to resolve the cord compression and allow return of blood flow. The nurse must hold this position until the fetus is delivered via cesarean birth. Similarly, placental abruption and uterine rupture can cause hemorrhaging that is concealed but demonstrated through the interpretation of the FHR and UC pattern; these conditions require immediate delivery via cesarean birth.
Uterine tachysystole can cause fetal bradycardia. The lack of time for fetal recovery between contractions uses up fetal reserve . When this reserve is depleted, fetal bradycardia occurs. The nurse will discontinue oxytocin, if in use, and administer a tocolytic medication such as terbutaline. The tocolytic medication relaxes the uterus, allowing return of placental blood flow to the fetus.
Some covert causes of fetal bradycardia may require multiple interventions to determine the cause and resolve the issue. The first nursing intervention is repositioning the laboring person, unless oxytocin is being used; in that case, discontinuing oxytocin is necessary. The second intervention is to perform a cervical exam to assess for a prolapsed cord or rapid descent of the fetal head. If these interventions do not resolve the bradycardia, the nurse will immediately notify the health-care provider while continuing to evaluate causes and initiating intrauterine resuscitation , discussed later in the chapter.
Fetal Tachycardia
Fetal tachycardia is an FHR baseline over 160 bpm and is considered an abnormal finding. The cause of the tachycardia will dictate the nursing intervention. The most common cause of fetal tachycardia is fever in the pregnant person. If the pregnant patient exhibits a temperature of greater than 100.4° F (38° C), the nurse notifies the health-care provider so that they can determine which medical intervention to initiate. Antibiotics and antipyretics are common pharmaceutical interventions to treat fever and infection.
Epidural anesthesia can cause a minimal rise in temperature in the laboring person. Research has shown that epidural anesthesia can induce inflammatory responses that produce fever (Khanna et al., 2020). Epidural anesthesia can also affect the thermoregulatory system, causing shivering that, in turn, causes elevated temperature.
Dehydration, anemia , or hyperthyroidism can all cause fetal tachycardia. To limit the risk of dehydration, the nurse monitors the intake and output of the laboring person. If dehydration is apparent, the nurse will either encourage oral hydration or initiate an intravenous fluid bolus. The nurse can also review the history to determine if anemia or hyperthyroidism was noted during prenatal care.
Fetal heart rate tachycardia is associated with prematurity and caused by fetal stress (especially in prolonged labor), infection, hypoxia , anemia, or prolonged stimulation . If oxytocin is being administered, discontinuation of the oxytocin infusion may be indicated. If this does not resolve the tachycardia, the nurse will contact the health-care provider, describe the FHR tracing, and receive orders for further management.
Nursing Interventions for Abnormal Fetal Heart Rate Variability
FHR baseline variability is a very important characteristic for evaluating fetal well-being . As previously discussed, variability is the best determinant of fetal oxygenation. Therefore, determining the cause of altered variability is imperative to restoring fetal oxygenation. Pharmacologic causes of decreased variability can be pain-relieving narcotics, cocaine, corticosteroids, and magnesium sulfate administered to the laboring person. Administration of butorphanol (Stadol) can cause a sinusoidal pattern. These causes are transient and not pathologic. Changes caused by these medications will resolve once the medication is excreted, and no nursing intervention is warranted.
Marked FHR baseline variability is rare. The most common time for marked variability is during the 2 hours prior to delivery (Polnaszek et al., 2020). Marked variability is usually seen after an event of decreased fetal oxygenation, such as a seizure of the pregnant person or cord compression, and it is associated with an increased risk for neonatal respiratory distress after birth (Polnaszek et al., 2020). The nursing intervention for marked variability is to prevent seizure and quickly provide oxygen after any seizure that occurs. If cord compression is present, the nurse resolves the cord compression and again provides oxygen to the laboring person.
Nursing Interventions for Fetal Heart Rate Decelerations
Knowing the causes of each type of FHR deceleration can guide the nurse to intervene appropriately. Table 16.5 describes the nursing interventions for each type of FHR deceleration.
| Type of Deceleration | Cause | Intervention |
|---|---|---|
| Variable |
Cord compression
Oligohydramnios |
|
| Early |
Fetal head compression
Fetal vagal response |
|
| Late | Uteroplacental insufficiency |
|
| Prolonged |
Cord compression
Uteroplacental insufficiency Fetal hemorrhage Fetal vagal reaction Fetal CNS anomalies |
|
Nursing Interventions Based on the Three-Tiered System for Fetal Heart Rate Interpretation
The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Working Group developed a three-tiered classification to interpret FHR patterns (ACOG, 2009). The adoption of the three categories for fetal monitoring has allowed all health-care providers to systematically describe fetal monitor tracings as well as consistently manage abnormal tracings (see Figure 16.25).
On the basis of the tiered system, the nurse interprets the category of FHR tracing and determines the need for intervention. When fetal distress is identified, the nurse begins interventions to correct the cause of the insult and notifies the health-care provider of the incident. Category I tracings are normal and do not require interventions. Category II tracings are more difficult when creating a management plan. These tracings do not meet criteria for either normal or pathologic tracings. The nurse must evaluate for FHR accelerations and baseline variability. If the FHR baseline is without accelerations or moderate variability, the nurse will begin intrauterine resuscitation. Category II tracings that do not respond to intrauterine resuscitation become Category III. Category III tracings imply fetal hypoxia . Intrauterine resuscitation should be started, and birth should be expedited.
What Happens When Interventions Do Not Occur in Response to FHR Tracings?
Fetal heart rate monitoring provides nurses and health-care providers with information to ensure the safety of the fetus and the laboring person. When the fetal heart rate tracing is nonreassuring, interventions should occur to resolve the cause of the abnormal tracing. In cases where interventions are not initiated, fetal safety can be jeopardized, leading to fetal hypoxic injuries; at other times the fetus recovers without the intervention. Despite the outcome of the fetus, this incident should be evaluated for quality improvement. Nurses, health-care providers, and hospital staff should meet to discuss factors that could have influenced the situation, such as staffing issues or technical problems with monitoring. This process of quality improvement is not to determine fault. The process is used to analyze the influencing factors and create a plan to avoid the mistake in the future. Nurses play an integral role in quality improvement.


11.13: Assignment- Using Technology with Data to Run a Hypothesis Test
The purpose of this activity is to give you guided practice in carrying out the two-sample t-test, and to show you how to use software to aid in the process.
Background
Do undergraduates sleep less than graduate students? A student conducted a study of sleep habits at a large state university. His hypothesis is that undergraduates will party more and sleep less than graduate students. He surveyed random samples of 75 undergraduate students and 50 graduate students. Subjects reported the hours they sleep in a typical night.
For this hypothesis test, he defined the population means as follows:
- μ 1 is the mean number of hours undergraduate students sleep in a typical night.
- μ 2 is the mean number of hours graduate students sleep in a typical night.
Question 1:
State the null and alternative hypotheses that are being tested here.
Question 2:
Explain why we can safely use the two-sample T-test in this case.
Comment: Before we move on to carry out the test, it is important to realize that in the two-sample problem, the data can be provided in three possible ways:
(i) Sample data in one column, and another column that indicates which sample the observation belongs to. Recall that this is the way the data were given in our leading example (looks vs. personality score and gender):
Note that essentially, one column contains the explanatory variable, and one contains the response.
(ii) Sample data in different columns—data from each of the two samples appear in a column dedicated to that category. As you’ll see, this is the way the data are provided in this example:
(iii) Summarized data—we are not given the actual data, but just the data summaries: sample sizes, sample means and sample standard deviations of both samples. Recall that in our second example, the data were given in this format.
Instructions
Click on the link corresponding to your statistical package to see instructions for completing the activity, and then answer the questions below.
R | StatCrunch | Minitab | Excel | TI Calculator
Question 3:
Carry out the test and report the test statistic and P-value.
Question 4:
Draw your conclusions in context.
Contributors and Attributions
- Concepts in Statistics. Provided by : Open Learning Initiative. Located at : http://oli.cmu.edu . License : CC BY: Attribution


7.1.3B: Biological Theories of Deviance
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A biological theory of deviance proposes that an individual deviates from social norms largely because of their biological makeup.
Learning Objectives
- Outline the main assumptions of three biological theories of deviance
Key Points
- A biological interpretation of formal deviance was first advanced by the Italian School of Criminology, a school of thought originating from Italy during the mid-nineteenth century.
- The school was headed by medical criminologist Cesare Lombroso, who argued that criminality was a biological trait found in some human beings. The term Lombroso used to describe the appearance of organisms resembling ancestral forms of life is atavism.
- The idea of atavism drew a connection between an individual’s appearance and their biological propensity to deviate from social norms.
- Enrico Ferri took this idea farther, arguing that anyone convicted of a crime should be detained for as long as possible. According to Ferri’s line of thought, if individuals committed crimes because of their biological constitution, what was the point of deterrence or rehabilitation?
- Garofalo is perhaps best known for his efforts to formulate a “natural” definition of crime. According to his view, those who violate human universal laws are themselves “unnatural”.
Key Terms
- penology : The processes devised and adopted for the punishment and prevention of crime.
- atavism : The reappearance of an ancestral characteristic in an organism after several generations of absence.
- Italian School of Criminology : The Italian school of criminology was founded at the end of the 19th century by Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909) and two of his Italian disciples, Enrico Ferri (1856–1929) and Raffaele Garofalo (1851–1934).
A biological theory of deviance proposes that an individual deviates from social norms largely because of their biological makeup. The theory primarily pertains to formal deviance, using biological reasons to explain criminality, though it can certainly extend to informal deviance.
Cesare Lombroso
A biological interpretation of formal deviance was first advanced by the Italian School of Criminology, a school of thought originating from Italy during the mid-nineteenth century. The school was headed by medical criminologist Cesare Lombroso, who argued that criminality was a biological trait found in some human beings. Enrico Ferri and Raffaelo Garofalo continued the Italian School as Lombroso’s predecessors. The Italian School was interested in why some individuals engaged in criminal behavior and others did not. Their explanation was that some individuals had a biological propensity for crime.
The term Lombroso used to describe the appearance of organisms resembling ancestral forms of life is atavism. He belived that atavism was a sign of inherent criminalities, and thus he viewed born criminals as a form of human sub-species. Lombroso believed that atavism could be identified by a number of measurable physical stigmata—a protruding jaw, drooping eyes, large ears, twisted and flattish nose, long arms relative to the lower limbs, sloping shoulders, and a coccyx that resembled “the stump of a tail. ” The concept of atavism was glaringly wrong, but like so many others of his time, Lombroso sought to understand behavioral phenomena with reference to the principles of evolution as they were understood at the time.
Enrico Ferri
Lombroso’s work was continued by Erico Ferri’s study of penology, the section of criminology that is concerned with the philosophy and practice of various societies in their attempt to repress criminal activities. Ferri’s work on penology was instrumental in developing the “social defense” justification for the detention of individuals convicted of crimes. Ferri argued that anyone convicted of a crime should be detained for as long as possible. According to Ferri’s line of thought, if individuals committed crimes because of their biological constitution, what was the point of deterrence or rehabilitation? For Ferri, none of these therapeutic interventions could change the offender’s biology, making them pointless. After an individual had been convicted of a crime, the state ‘s responsibility was to protect the community and prevent the criminal from doing more harm—as his biology determined he would do.
Raffaelo Garofalo
Garofalo is perhaps best known for his efforts to formulate a “natural” definition of crime. Classical thinkers accepted the legal definition of crime uncritically; crime is what the law says it is. This appeared to be rather arbitrary and “unscientific” to Garofalo, who wanted to anchor the definition of crime in something natural. Most significant was Garofalo’s reformulation of classical notions of crime and his redefinition of crime as a violation of natural law, or a human universal.
A human universal is a trait, characteristic, or behavior that exists across cultures, regardless of the nuances of a given context. A famous example of a universal is the incest taboo. Exempting a very small number of small communities, all human cultures have a taboo against incest in some form. Garofalo’s presentaion of crime as a violation of a human universal allows for one to characterize criminals as unnatural. As soon as criminals are marked as inhuman or unnatural, the public has license to think of an individual convicted of a crime as completely unlike the rest of society; a whole new range of punishments are authorized, including serious social stigmatization.
Biological Theories Today
Italian School biological explanations have not resonated in criminal justice systems in America. However, some traces still exist. Now, the conversation about crime and biological explanations focuses more on the relationship between genetics and crime than the relationship between phenotypic features and crime. Because the modern emphasis is on actual genetics rather than phenotypic expressions of genes, stereotyping of individuals with “criminal” traits or propensities is more difficult. For example, when walking down the street, you can tell who has a protruding jaw, but you can’t tell who has the genetic combination that increases one’s propensity for aggression. Though the debate has mutated, a biological explanation for deviance and crime is still commonplace.


7.5: The Gailean Moons of Jupiter
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the major features we can observe about Callisto and what we can deduce from them
- Explain the evidence for tectonic and volcanic activity on Ganymede
- Explain what may be responsible for the unusual features on the icy surface of Europa
- Describe the major distinguishing characteristic of Io
- Explain how tidal forces generate the geological activity we see on Europa and Io
From 1996 to 1999, the Galileo spacecraft careered through the jovian system on a complex but carefully planned trajectory that provided repeated close encounters with the large Galilean moons. (Beginning in 2004, we received an even greater bonanza of information about Titan, obtained from the Cassini spacecraft and its Huygens probe, which landed on its surface. We include Titan, Saturn’s one big moon, here for comparison.) Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) summarizes some basic facts about these large moons (plus our own Moon for comparison).
| Name | Diameter (km) | Mass (Earth’s Moon = 1) | Density (g/cm 3 ) | Reflectivity (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Moon | 3476 | 1.0 | 3.3 | 12 |
| Callisto | 4820 | 1.5 | 1.8 | 20 |
| Ganymede | 5270 | 2.0 | 1.9 | 40 |
| Europa | 3130 | 0.7 | 3.0 | 70 |
| Io | 3640 | 1.2 | 3.5 | 60 |
| Titan | 5150 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 20 |
Callisto: An Ancient, Primitive World
We begin our discussion of the Galilean moons with the outermost one, Callisto, not because it is remarkable but because it is not. This makes it a convenient object with which other, more active, worlds can be compared. Its distance from Jupiter is about 2 million kilometers, and it orbits the planet in 17 days. Like our own Moon, Callisto rotates in the same period as it revolves, so it always keeps the same face toward Jupiter. Callisto’s day thus equals its month: 17 days. Its noontime surface temperature is only 130 K (about 140 °C below freezing), so that water ice is stable (it never evaporates) on its surface year round.
Callisto has a diameter of 4820 kilometers, almost the same as the planet Mercury (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Yet its mass is only one-third as great, which means its density (the mass divided by the volume) must be only one-third as great as well. This tells us that Callisto has far less of the rocky and metallic materials found in the inner planets and must instead be an icy body through much of its interior. Callisto can show us how the geology of an icy object compares with those made primarily of rock.
Unlike the worlds we have studied so far, Callisto has not fully differentiated (separated into layers of different density materials). We can tell that it lacks a dense core from the details of its gravitational pull on the Galileo spacecraft. This surprised scientists, who expected that all the big icy moons would be differentiated. It should be easier for an icy body to differentiate than for a rocky one because the melting temperature of ice is so low. Only a little heating will soften the ice and get the process started, allowing the rock and metal to sink to the center while the slushy ice floats to the surface. Yet Callisto seems to have frozen solid before the process of differentiation was complete.
The surface of Callisto is covered with impact craters, like the lunar highlands. The survival of these craters tells us that an icy object can retain impact craters on its surface. Callisto is unique among the planet-sized objects of the solar system in the apparent absence of interior forces to drive geological change. You might say that this moon was stillborn, and it has remained geologically dead for more than 4 billion years (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)).
In thinking about ice so far from the Sun, we must take care not to judge its behavior from the much warmer ice we know and love on Earth. At the temperatures of the outer solar system, ice on the surface is nearly as hard as rock, and it behaves similarly. Ice on Callisto does not deform or flow like ice in glaciers on Earth.
Ganymede, the Largest Moon
Ganymede, the largest moon in the solar system, also shows a great deal of cratering (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). Recall from Other Worlds: An Introduction to the Solar System) that we can use crater counts on solid worlds to estimate the age of the surface. The more craters, the longer the surface has been exposed to battering from space, and the older it must therefore be. About one-quarter of Ganymede’s surface seems to be as old and heavily cratered as that of Callisto; the rest formed more recently, as we can tell by the sparse covering of impact craters as well as the relative freshness of those craters. If we judge from crater counts, this fresher terrain on Ganymede is somewhat younger than the lunar maria or the martian volcanic plains, perhaps 2 to 3 billion years old.
The differences between Ganymede and Callisto are more than skin deep. Ganymede is a differentiated world, like the terrestrial planets. Measurements of its gravity field tell us that the rock sank to form a core about the size of our Moon, with a mantle and crust of ice “floating” above it. In addition, the Galileo spacecraft discovered that Ganymede has a magnetic field, the sure signature of a partially molten interior. There is very likely liquid water trapped within the interior. Thus, Ganymede is not a dead world but rather a place of intermittent geological activity powered by an internal heat source. Some surface features could be as young as the surface of Venus (a few hundred million years).
The younger terrain was formed by tectonic and volcanic forces (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). In some places, the crust apparently cracked, flooding many of the craters with water from the interior. Extensive mountain ranges were formed from compression of the crust, forming long ridges with parallel valleys spaced a few kilometers apart. In some areas, older impact craters were split and pulled apart. There are even indications of large-scale crustal movements that are similar to the plate tectonics of Earth.
Why is Ganymede so different from Callisto? Possibly the small difference in size and internal heating between the two led to this divergence in their evolution. But more likely the gravity of Jupiter is to blame for Ganymede’s continuing geological activity. Ganymede is close enough to Jupiter that tidal forces from the giant planet may have episodically heated its interior and triggered major convulsions on its crust.
A tidal force results from the unequal gravitational pull on two sides of a body. In a complex kind of modern dance, the large moons of Jupiter are caught in the varying gravity grip of both the giant planet and each other. This leads to gravitational flexing or kneading in their centers, which can heat them—an effect called tidal heating. (A fuller explanation is given in the section on Io.) We will see as we move inward to Europa and Io that the role of jovian tides becomes more important for moons close to the planet.
Europa, a Moon with an Ocean
Europa and Io, the inner two Galilean moons, are not icy worlds like most of the moons of the outer planets. With densities and sizes similar to our Moon, they appear to be predominantly rocky objects. How did they fail to acquire a majority share of the ice that must have been plentiful in the outer solar system at the time of their formation?
The most probable cause is Jupiter itself, which was hot enough to radiate a great deal of infrared energy during the first few million years after its formation. This infrared radiation would have heated the disk of material near the planet that would eventually coalesce into the closer moons. Thus, any ice near Jupiter was vaporized, leaving Europa and Io with compositions similar to planets in the inner solar system.
Despite its mainly rocky composition, Europa has an ice-covered surface, as astronomers have long known from examining spectra of sunlight reflected from it. In this it resembles Earth, which has a layer of water on its surface, but in Europa’s case the water is capped by a thick crust of ice. There are very few impact craters in this ice, indicating that the surface of Europa is in a continual state of geological self-renewal. Judging from crater counts, the surface must be no more than a few million years old, and perhaps substantially less. In terms of its ability to erase impact craters, Europa is more geologically active than Earth.
When we look at close-up photos of Europa, we see a strange, complicated surface (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). For the most part, the icy crust is extremely smooth, but it is crisscrossed with cracks and low ridges that often stretch for thousands of kilometers. Some of these long lines are single, but most are double or multiple, looking rather like the remnants of a colossal freeway system.
It is very difficult to make straight lines on a planetary surface. In discussing Mars, we explained that when Percival Lowell saw what appeared to him to be straight lines (the so-called martian “canals”), he attributed them to the engineering efforts of intelligent beings. We now know the lines on Mars were optical illusions, but the lines on Europa are real. These long cracks can form in the icy crust if it is floating without much friction on an ocean of liquid water (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)).
The close-up Galileo images appear to confirm the existence of a global ocean. In many places, the surface of Europa looks just as we would expect for a thick layer of ice that was broken up into giant icebergs and ice floes and then refrozen in place. When the ice breaks, water or slush from below may be able to seep up through the cracks and make the ridges and multiple-line features we observe. Many episodes of ice cracking, shifting, rotating, and refreezing are required to explain the complexity we see. The icy crust might vary in thickness from a kilometer or so up to 20 kilometers. Further confirmation that a liquid ocean exists below the ice comes from measurements of the small magnetic field induced by Europa’s interactions with the magnetosphere of Jupiter. The “magnetic signature” of Europa is that of a liquid water ocean, not one of ice or rock.
If Europa really has a large ocean of liquid water under its ice, then it may be the only place in the solar system, other than Earth, with really large amounts of liquid water.1 To remain liquid, this ocean must be warmed by heat escaping from the interior of Europa. Hot (or at least warm) springs might be active there, analogous to those we have discovered in the deep oceans of Earth. The necessary internal heat is generated by tidal heating (see the discussion later in this chapter).
A short film with planetary scientist Kevin Hand explains why Europa is so interesting for future exploration. Or listen to this more in-depth talk on Europa.
What makes the idea of an ocean with warm springs exciting is the discovery in Earth’s oceans of large ecosystems clustered around deep ocean hot springs. Such life derives all its energy from the mineral-laden water and thrives independent of the sunlight shining on Earth’s surface. Is it possible that similar ecosystems could exist today under the ice of Europa?
Many scientists now think that Europa is the most likely place beyond Earth to find life in the solar system. In response, NASA is designing a Europa mission to characterize its liquid ocean and its ice crust, and to identify locations where material from inside has risen to the surface. Such interior material might reveal direct evidence for microbial life. In planning a future mission, it may be possible to include a small lander craft as well.
lo, a Volcanic Moon
Io, the innermost of Jupiter’s Galilean moons, is in many ways a close twin of our Moon, with nearly the same size and density. We might therefore expect it to have experienced a similar history. Its appearance, as photographed from space, tells us another story, however (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)). Instead of being a dead cratered world, Io turns out to have the highest level of volcanism in the solar system, greatly exceeding that of Earth.
Io’s active volcanism was discovered by the Voyager spacecraft. Eight volcanoes were seen erupting when Voyager 1 passed in March 1979, and six of these were still active four months later when Voyager 2 passed. With the improved instruments carried by the Galileo spacecraft, more than 50 eruptions were found during 1997 alone. Many of the eruptions produce graceful plumes that extend hundreds of kilometers out into space (Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\)).
Watch a brief movie made from Voyager and Galileo data, showing a rotating Io with its dramatic surface features.
This movie of rotating Io was created from an Io mosaic made from Voyager and Galileo data by the USGS. Credit: Ashley Davies.
The Galileo data show that most of the volcanism on Io consists of hot silicate lava, like the volcanoes on Earth. Sometimes the hot lava encounters frozen deposits of sulfur and sulfur dioxide. When these icy deposits are suddenly heated, the result is great eruptive plumes far larger than any ejected from terrestrial volcanoes. As the rising plumes cool, the sulfur and sulfur dioxide recondense as solid particles that fall back to the surface in colorful “snowfalls” that extend as much as a thousand kilometers from the vent. Major new surface features were even seen to appear between Galileo orbits, as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\).
As the Galileo mission drew to a close, controllers were willing to take risks in getting close to Io. Approaching this moon is a dangerous maneuver because the belts of atomic particles trapped in Jupiter’s magnetic environment are at their most intense near Io’s orbit. Indeed, in its very first pass by Io, the spacecraft absorbed damaging radiation beyond its design levels. To keep the system working at all, controllers had to modify or disable various fault-protection software routines in the onboard computers. In spite of these difficulties, the spacecraft achieved four successful Io flybys, obtaining photos and spectra of the surface with unprecedented resolution.
Maps of Io reveal more than 100 recently active volcanoes. Huge flows spread out from many of these vents, covering about 25% of the moon’s total surface with still-warm lava. From these measurements, it seems clear that the bright surface colors that first attracted attention to Io are the result of a thin veneer of sulfur compounds. The underlying volcanism is driven by eruptions of molten silicates, just like on Earth (Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\)).
Tidal Heating
How can Io remain volcanically active in spite of its small size? The answer, as we hinted earlier, lies in the effect of gravity, through tidal heating. Io is about the same distance from Jupiter as our Moon is from Earth. Yet Jupiter is more than 300 times more massive than Earth, causing forces that pull Io into an elongated shape, with a several-kilometer-high bulge extending toward Jupiter.
If Io always kept exactly the same face turned toward Jupiter, this bulge would not generate heat. However, Io’s orbit is not exactly circular due to gravitational perturbations (tugs) from Europa and Ganymede. In its slightly eccentric orbit, Io twists back and forth with respect to Jupiter, at the same time moving nearer and farther from the planet on each revolution. The twisting and flexing heat Io, much as repeated flexing of a wire coat hanger heats the wire.
After billions of years, this constant flexing and heating have taken their toll on Io, driving away water and carbon dioxide and other gases, so that now sulfur and sulfur compounds are the most volatile materials remaining. Its interior is entirely melted, and the crust itself is constantly recycled by volcanic activity.
In moving inward toward Jupiter from Callisto to Io, we have encountered more and more evidence of geological activity and internal heating, culminating in the violent volcanism on Io. Three of these surfaces are compared in Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\). Just as the character of the planets in our solar system depends in large measure on their distance from the Sun (and on the amount of heat they receive), so it appears that distance from a giant planet like Jupiter can play a large role in the composition and evolution of its moons (at least partly due to differences in internal heating of each moon by Jupiter’s unrelenting tidal forces).
Summary
Jupiter’s largest moons are Ganymede and Callisto, both low-density objects that are composed of more than half water ice. Callisto has an ancient cratered surface, while Ganymede shows evidence of extensive tectonic and volcanic activity, persisting until perhaps a billion years ago. Io and Europa are denser and smaller, each about the size of our Moon. Io is the most volcanically active object in the solar system. Various lines of evidence indicate that Europa has a global ocean of liquid water under a thick ice crust. Many scientists think that Europa may offer the most favorable environment in the solar system to search for life.
Footnotes
1 Ganymede and Saturn’s moon Enceladus may have smaller amounts of liquid water under their surfaces.
Glossary
- tidal heating
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the heating of a planet or moon’s interior by variable tidal forces caused by changing gravitational pull from a nearby planet or moon
Contributors and Attributions
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Andrew Fraknoi (Foothill College), David Morrison (NASA Ames Research Center), Sidney C. Wolff (National Optical Astronomy Observatory) with many contributing authors. Textbook content produced by OpenStax College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license. Download for free at https://openstax.org/details/books/astronomy ).


8.1: Health Care Economics Introduction
Learning Objectives
- Practice and advocate for cost-effective care
- Summarize funding and reimbursement sources for patient-care services
- Explore how political, social, and demographic trends have affected the patient population and delivery of health care
- Analyze the link between economics and quality
- Describe nursing strategies to provide cost-effective care
- Examine economic pressures impacting case management and the management of institutional resources
- Describe the impact of evidence-based practice on health care economics and patient care outcomes
Whether health care is a right or a privilege is a historical ethical question debated around the world that ultimately leads to the question, “Who gets what resources?” Economics is the study of how individuals and societies make decisions about how to use their limited resources. Health care is considered a limited resource because there isn’t enough money or time in the world to purchase and provide care for every individual in every conceivable manner. The ethical question of who pays for that care is referred to as the ethics of rationing health care.
Economics is split into two broad categories called macroeconomics and microeconomics. Macroeconomics looks at decisions that affect the entire society as a whole, whereas microeconomics looks at the financial decisions of businesses and individuals. [1] This chapter will provide an overview of the broad topics of health care funding and reimbursement models at a societal level, as well as staffing and budgeting issues at the institutional level that impact nurses in their day-to-day work. Economics in health care affects an individual’s ability to pay for and receive health care, the ability of an institution to provide health care services, and nurses’ ability to provide safe, quality care to the communities they serve.
- Khan Academy. (2017, August 8). Macroeconomics unit: Basic economics concepts . https://www.khanacademy.org/economics-finance-domain/macroeconomics/macro-basic-economics-concepts ↵


12.8: Diabetes And The Kidney
There are two types of diabetes. The most common is called sugar diabetes or diabetes mellitus and is common in cats and dogs especially if they are overweight. It is caused by the pancreas secreting insufficient insulin , the hormone that controls the amount of glucose in the blood. If insulin secretion is inadequate, the concentration of glucose in the blood increases. Any increase in the glucose in the blood automatically leads to an increase in glucose in the fluid filtered into the kidney tubule. Normally the kidney removes all the glucose filtered into it, but these high concentrations swamp this removal mechanism and urine containing glucose is produced. The main symptoms of this type of diabetes are the production of large amounts of dilute urine containing glucose, and excessive thirst.
The second type of diabetes is called diabetes insipidus . The name comes from the main symptom, which is the production of large amounts of very dilute and “tasteless” urine. It occurs when the pituitary gland produces insufficient ADH, the hormone that stimulates water re-absorption from the kidney tubule. When this hormone is lacking, water is not absorbed and large amounts of dilute urine are produced. Because so much water is lost in the urine, animals with this form of diabetes can die if deprived of water for only a day or so.


2.1: Administration of Justice
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- Susan Rahman, Prateek Sunder, and Dahmitra Jackson
- CC ECHO
Studying Administration of Justice can lead to a career in law, law enforcement, or corrections. Students at the college where this book was written who are considering this field are asked, “Are you committed to upholding justice?” Administration of Justice includes how laws and the legal system help provide public safety and maintain order (College of Marin, n.d.).Due to the problematic history of law enforcement, this field is prone to be tainted by the structural racism that was built into the original goal of policing in the United States. This field is also known as Criminal Justice or Criminology, both of which lead students into fields that deal with issues connected to the legal system.
The first criminal justice program was established at the University of California, Berkeley, by Berkeley Police Chief August Vollmer, in 1916.In the 1920s, criminal justice emerged as an academic discipline. The criminal justice system includes three distinct components: (1) Law enforcement; (2) The Judiciary; and (3) Corrections. All of these parts operate independently as well as together under the Rule of Law(City of Berkeley police, n.d.).
To study this system effectively, a student must know the racialized history of the creation of the United States as a decreed democracy. Without this knowledge, the tasks surrounding the administration of justice cannot be carried out effectively. The history of policing in the United States developed unique characteristics specific to the institution of chattel slavery via the creation of rules and punishments to maintain racial segregation. Its roots can be traced to some of the earliest forms of white supremacy, in the enforcement of rules and punishments associated with slavery by the use of slave patrols (Lepore, 2020). During the mid 1800s to the early 1900s, police were white men armed with guns who used their power to kill Blacks,Asians, indigenous Indians and Mexicans in the name of their laws (Lepore, 2020). Policing as an institution was created to maintain the structural order of white supremacy and some may argue that nothing much has changed since its inception. The use of the law as a tool of oppression applies to the other fields under which Administration of Justices falls as well, the legal system and corrections. In her book,The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Color blindness, Michelle Alexander, 2010 discusses the ways in which the system is designed to trap people of color in a cycle of legal battles that strips their ability to participate fully in the democratic system their white counterparts thrive in. Our legal system is historically rooted in these slave patrols and the creation of this nation was built in the enforcement of this hierarchy. As most versions of American history point out, slavery formally ended just over one hundred and fifty years ago except as stated in the Thirteenth Amendment, as punishment forcrime.We then moved into the Jim Crow era which purported separate but equal which it never was. After the Civil Rights movements, Professor Alexander identifies the New Jim Crow era as mass incarceration, yet another iteration of the Administration of Justice (Alexander,2010). As students flocked to these fields that promised safety for their communities and a good paying job, they often failed to learn the racialized history of the field. Alexander’s work became a prominent read for those studying the sociological branch of criminology and further discussions of this information can be found in certain fields within Administration of Justice,yet there still remains a deep financial tie to the roots of government funded U.S. policing once known as slave patrols.“Academic criminology became more sociological while applied criminology became more administrative. Criminal justice university programs increasingly grew by the middle 1960s because of federal monies from the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration” (Morn, 1980). Understanding this backdrop allows us to identify ways in which programs centered around public safety are also tied to upholding racial bias.
A glance at U.S. incarceration rates as compared to the U.S. population at large demonstrates that there is a disproportionate amount of Black and Brown people incarcerated and the lasting effects of a criminal record make pursuit of the American dream nearly impossible. As a tool for oppression, the law serves to sustain racial hierarchies.“No area in American life is more volatile than the point at which charges of racial injustice intersect with the administration of criminal law” (Smelser, Wilson, & Mitchell, 2001).


15.1: Introduction to Sex(uality) Work that Engages with the Body
After completing this module, students should have a working knowledge of:
- The varying types of sex(uality) work done
- Stigma around sexually related work that engages with body, intimacy and desire
- Advocacy for sex(uality) workers in the field
- Some examples of what it is like to do sexually related work that engages with body, intimacy and desire
Introduction
You may have heard the term “sex work” before. It is often used as an umbrella term to define work within the sex industry.  A sex worker is someone working in that industry. Today, we have many categories of sex workers, including escort, sugar baby, stripper, cam girl/boy, porn star, professional dominatrix, etc.
The purpose of sex work is to provide an opportunity for sexual pleasure and gratification. There are other fields of work that engage directly with the body and sexuality with a therapeutic goal instead. These include sexological bodywork and surrogate partner therapy. This is not to say that sex work can’t be therapeutic, and that therapeutic modalities don’t also have the potential to give pleasure and sexual satisfaction, but the difference lies in the intention of the work.
In this chapter, we will explore some of the ways that sex workers, sexological body workers, and surrogate partners all perform work that engages directly with sexuality. We will also address the movement to decriminalize sex work in the United States, and hear stories from people doing the work.
Whether the goal of the work is to titillate and excite, to give sexual pleasure and release, to help someone learn sexual skills and experience physical and emotional intimacy, or to help someone feel good in their body and embrace their sexuality, sex workers and other sexuality-related practitioners play critical roles in the field of sexuality.

Will you stand there while I take a picture?

-Anonymous


4.3: Outline and elements of dynamics
Newton’s laws are based on the following elemental concepts.
Concept. Elements of dynamics
- Space - Every location in space is identified by a position vector \(\overrightarrow{\boldsymbol{r}}\).
- Time - Position vectors can change in time \(t\), such that there is motion.
- Mass - Objects can consist of one or more point masses \(i\), each having a well defined position vector \(\overrightarrow{\boldsymbol{r}}_{i}\) and mass \(m_{i}\).
- Force- On every point mass \(i\) one or more force vectors \(\overrightarrow{\boldsymbol{F}}_{i j}(t)\) can act.
In the following chapters we will discuss these elemental concepts in more detail to describe the dynamic motion of objects, and then continue to discuss how this motion is related to mass and force. The subject of dynamics can be described as follows.
Dynamics is the field of science and engineering concerned with predicting and analysing the motion \(\overrightarrow{\boldsymbol{r}}_{i}(t)\) of point masses under the influence of forces and constraints.
Since all matter in our universe consists of point masses, which are called elementary particles and move in response to four fundamental forces of nature, the field of dynamics covers practically all science with subdisciplines like classical dynamics, electrodynamics, quantum dynamics, and thermodynamics, but also chemistry and biology. In this textbook we will only discuss the dynamics that can be described by Newton’s laws, which is generally called classical dynamics. The field of dynamics can be split into two main domains:
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Kinematics
- Study of the motion of objects in space and time without considering the forces that cause this motion.
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Kinetics
- Study of the motion of objects in relation to mass and forces.
Figure 4.1 illustrates the roles of kinematics and kinetics in dynamics. Kinetics is used to relate the forces to the accelerations and equation of motion, while kinematics is used to relate the equations of motion (which are differential equations) and constraint equations to the actual motion. The figure illustrates that one can predict the motion \(\overrightarrow{\boldsymbol{r}}(t)\) at all times if the forces and initial conditions are known, and that it is also possible to determine the forces if the motion is known.
Besides the division into kinematics and kinetics, there is also a division of dynamics based on the types of objects that are being analysed:
- Point masses -Objects whose mass is located on a single point in space.
- Rigid bodies - Objects whose mass distribution in space is rigid and undeformable.
- Deformable bodies and fluids - Objects whose mass distribution in space is deformable like in elastic solids or can flow like a liquid or gas.
In part II we will discuss the dynamics of point masses, while in part III we will analyse the dynamics of rigid bodies. Deformable bodies are out of the scope of this textbook. For both parts we will discuss kinematics, kinetics, the method of work and energy and the method of impulse and momentum. Finally we will conclude with the discussion of vibrations. This division leads to the following outline of the rest of the chapters of this textbook:
- Kinematics of point masses: Ch. 5
- Kinetics of point masses: Ch. 6
- Work and energy of point masses: Ch. 7
- Impulse and momentum of point masses: Ch. 8
- Kinematics of rigid bodies: Ch. 9
- Kinetics of rigid bodies: Ch. 10
- Work and energy of rigid bodies: Ch. 11
- Impulse and momentum of point masses: Ch. 12
- Vibrations of point masses and rigid bodies: Ch. 13
- Solution strategy dynamics: Ch. 14
- Bibliography: Ch. 15


4.8: The Large Impact of Small Business
- What are the advantages and disadvantages facing owners of small businesses?
An uncertain economy has not stopped people from starting new companies. The National Federation of Independent Businesses reports that 85% of Americans view small businesses as a positive influence on American life. This is not surprising when you consider the many reasons why small businesses continue to thrive in the United States:
- Independence and a better lifestyle : Large corporations no longer represent job security or offer the fast-track career opportunities they once did. Mid-career employees leave the corporate world—either voluntarily or as a result of downsizing—in search of the new opportunities that self-employment provides. Many new college and business school graduates shun the corporate world altogether to start their own companies or look for work in smaller firms.
- Personal satisfaction from work : Many small-business owners cite this as one of the primary reasons for starting their companies. They love what they do.
- Best route to success : Business ownership provides greater advancement opportunities for women and minorities, as discussed later in this chapter. It also offers small-business owners the potential for profit.
- Rapidly changing technology : Technology advances and decreased costs empower individuals and small companies to compete in industries formerly closed to them.
- Major corporate restructuring and downsizing : These force many employees to look for other jobs or careers. They may also provide the opportunity to buy a business unit that a company no longer wants.
- Outsourcing : Because of downsizing, corporations may contract with outside firms for services they used to provide in-house. Outsourcing creates opportunities for smaller companies that offer these specialized goods and services.
- Small businesses are resilient : They can respond fairly quickly to changing economic conditions by refocusing their operations.
Several cities and regions are regarded as the best locations for start-up businesses and entrepreneurs. Among them are Tulsa, Oklahoma; Tampa, Florida; Atlanta, Georgia; Raleigh, North Carolina; Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; Seattle, Washington; Minneapolis, Minnesota; and Austin, Texas (Badenhausen, 2018).
Why Stay Small?
Owners of small businesses recognize that being small offers special advantages. Greater flexibility and an uncomplicated company structure allow small businesses to react more quickly to changing market forces. Innovative product ideas can be developed and brought to market more quickly, using fewer financial resources and personnel than would be needed in a larger company. And operating more efficiently keeps costs down as well. Small companies can also serve specialized markets that may not be cost-effective for large companies. Another feature is the opportunity to provide a higher level of personal service. Such attention brings many customers back to small businesses such as gourmet restaurants, health clubs, spas, fashion boutiques, and travel agencies.
Steve Niewulis played in baseball’s minor leagues before an injury to his rotator cuff cut short his career. Niewulis decided to combine his love of the game with a clever idea that elevated him to the big leagues. The fact that players had trouble keeping their hands dry while batting inspired his big idea: a sweat-busting rosin bag attached to a wristband so that a player could dry the bat handle between pitches. In less than two years, Niewulis’s Fort Lauderdale, Florida, company, Tap It! Inc., sold thousands of Just Tap It! wristbands. The product, which retails for $12.95, is used by baseball players, basketball players, tennis players, golfers, and even rock climbers. His secret to success? Find a small distribution network that allows small companies with just one product line to succeed (Debelak, 2006).
On the other hand, being small is not always an asset. The founders may have limited managerial skills or encounter difficulties obtaining adequate financing, which are potential obstacles to growing a company. Complying with federal regulations is also more expensive for small firms. Those with fewer than 20 employees spend about twice as much per employee on compliance than larger firms. In addition, starting and managing a small business requires a major commitment by the owner. Long hours, the need for owners to do much of the work themselves, and the stress of being personally responsible for the success of the business can take a toll.
But managing your company’s growing pains doesn’t need to be a one-person job. Four years after he started DrinkWorks (now Whirley-DrinkWorks), a company that makes custom drinking cups, Richard Humphrey was logging 100-hour weeks. “I was concerned that if I wasn’t there every minute, the company would fall apart.” Humphrey got sick, lost weight, and had his engagement fall apart. When forced by a family emergency to leave the company in the hands of his five employees, Humphrey was amazed at how well they managed in his absence. “They stepped up to the plate, and it worked out,” he says. “After that, the whole company balanced out” (McFarland, 2016).
- Why are small businesses becoming so popular?
- Discuss the major advantages and disadvantages of small businesses.


2.1.6: Subformulas
It is often useful to talk about the formulas that “make up” a given formula. We call these its subformulas . Any formula counts as a subformula of itself; a subformula of \(A\) other than \(A\) itself is a proper subformula .
If \(A\) is a formula, the immediate subformulas of \(A\) are defined inductively as follows:
- Atomic formulas have no immediate subformulas.
- \(\indcase{A}{\lnot B}\) The only immediate subformula of \(\indfrm\) is \(B\) .
- \(\indcase{A}{(B \ast C)}\) The immediate subformulas of \(\indfrm\) are \(B\) and \(C\) ( \(\ast\) is any one of the two-place connectives).
- \(\indcase{A}{\lforall{x}{B}}\) The only immediate subformula of \(\indfrm\) is \(B\) .
- \(\indcase{A}{\lexists{x}{B}}\) The only immediate subformula of \(\indfrm\) is \(B\) .
If \(A\) is a formula, the proper subformulas of \(A\) are recursively as follows:
- Atomic formulas have no proper subformulas.
- \(\indcase{A}{\lnot B}\) The proper subformulas of \(\indfrm\) are \(B\) together with all proper subformulas of \(B\) .
- \(\indcase{A}{(B \ast C)}\) The proper subformulas of \(\indfrm\) are \(B\) , \(C\) , together with all proper subformulas of \(B\) and those of \(C\) .
- \(\indcase{A}{\lforall{x}{B}}\) The proper subformulas of \(\indfrm\) are \(B\) together with all proper subformulas of \(B\) .
- \(\indcase{A}{\lexists{x}{B}}\) The proper subformulas of \(\indfrm\) are \(B\) together with all proper subformulas of \(B\) .
The subformulas of \(A\) are \(A\) itself together with all its proper subformulas.
Note the subtle difference in how we have defined immediate subformulas and proper subformulas. In the first case, we have directly defined the immediate subformulas of a formula \(A\) for each possible form of \(A\) . It is an explicit definition by cases, and the cases mirror the inductive definition of the set of formulas. In the second case, we have also mirrored the way the set of all formulas is defined, but in each case we have also included the proper subformulas of the smaller formulas \(B\) , \(C\) in addition to these formulas themselves. This makes the definition recursive . In general, a definition of a function on an inductively defined set (in our case, formulas) is recursive if the cases in the definition of the function make use of the function itself. To be well defined, we must make sure, however, that we only ever use the values of the function for arguments that come “before” the one we are defining—in our case, when defining “proper subformula” for \((B \ast C)\) we only use the proper subformulas of the “earlier” formulas \(B\) and \(C\) .


3.1: Origins of Mutations
Learning Objectives
- Identify some causes and types of mutations.
- Define mutagen and predict the effects of mutagens on DNA sequences.
Introduction to mutations
Mutations have a bad reputation, BUT they are ESSENTIAL to life! Watch the video for an introduction to why understanding mutations is so important for us.
Types of mutations
Mutations may involve the loss ( deletion ), gain ( insertion ) of one or more base pairs, or else the substitution of one or more base pairs with another DNA sequence of equal length. These changes in DNA sequence can arise in many ways, some of which are spontaneous and due to natural processes, while others are induced by humans intentionally (or unintentionally) using mutagens. There are many ways to classify mutagens , which are the agents or processes that cause mutation or increase the frequency of mutations. We will classify mutagens here as being (1) biological, (2) chemical, or (3) physical.
Mutations of biological origin
A major source of spontaneous mutation is errors that arise during DNA replication. DNA polymerases are usually very accurate in adding a base to the growing strand that is the exact complement of the base on the template strand. However, occasionally, an incorrect base is inserted. Usually, the DNA polymerase proofreading activity will recognize and repair mispaired bases, but nevertheless, some errors become permanently incorporated in a daughter strand, and so become mutations that will be inherited by the cell’s descendents.
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Mispairing of bases (e.g. G with T) can occur due to tautomerism, alkylating agents, or other effects. As a result, in this example the AT base pair in the original DNA strand will become permanently substituted by a GC based pair in some progeny. The mispaired GT pair will likely be repaired or eliminated before further rounds of replication. (Original-Deyholos-CC:AN)
The most common insult to the DNA of living organisms is depurination , in which the bond between an adenine or guanine and the deoxyribose is hydrolyzed. Depyrimidination of cytosine and thymine residues can also occur, but do so at a much slower rate than depurination. Despite the high rate of loss of these bases, they are generally identified and remediated by base excision repair (BER). Therefore, it is rare for depurination or depyrimidination to lead to mutation.
Three of the four DNA bases, adenine, guanine, and cytosine, contain amine (-NH 2 ) groups that can be lost in a variety of pH and temperature-dependent reactions that convert the bases to hypoxanthine, xanthine, and uracil, respectively. This deamination can sometimes lead to permanent mutations during replication. Hypoxanthine base pairs with C (cytosine); xanthine base pairs with cytosine; uracil base pairs with adenine. If hypoxanthine is present when DNA polymerase is replicating DNA, a C would be incorporated instead of T; similarly if uracil is present an A would be incorporated instead of G.
Query \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Another deamination, of the modified base methylcytosine, can also lead to a mutation upon replication. Some cytosines may be methylated as part of a regulatory process to inactivate certain genes in eukaryotes, or in prokaryotes as protection against restriction endonucleases. When the methylated cytosine is deaminated, it produces a thymine, which changes the complementary nucleotide (upon replication) from a guanine to an adenine. Deamination of cytosines occurs at nearly the same rate as depurination, but deamination of other bases are not as pervasive: deamination of adenines, for example, is 50 times less likely than deamination of cytosine.
Query \(\PageIndex{2}\)
Another type of error introduced during replication is caused by a rare, temporary misalignment of a few bases between the template strand and daughter strand (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\) ). This strand-slippage causes one or more bases on either strand to be temporarily displaced in a loop that is not paired with the opposite strand. If this loop forms on the template strand, the bases in the loop may not be replicated, and a deletion will be introduced in the growing daughter strand. Conversely, if a region of the daughter strand that has just been replicated becomes displaced in a loop, this region may be replicated again, leading to an insertion of additional sequence in the daughter strand, as compared to the template strand.
Regions of DNA that have several repeats of the same few nucleotides in a row are especially prone to this type of error during replication. Thus regions with short tanderm repeats ( STRs or short sequence repeats SSRs) are tend to be highly polymorphic, and are therefore particularly useful in genetics. They are also called microsatellites .
Mutations can also be caused by the insertion of viruses, transposable elements (transposons), see below, and other types of DNA that are naturally added at more or less random positions in chromosomes. The insertion may disrupt the coding or regulatory sequence of a gene, including the fusion of part of one gene with another. These insertions can occur spontaneously, or they may also be intentionally stimulated in the laboratory as a method of mutagenesis called transposon-tagging . For example, a type of transposable element called a P element is widely used in Drosophila as a biological mutagen. T-DNA , which is an insertional element modified from a bacterial pathogen, is used as a mutagen in some plant species.
Mutations due to Transposable Elements
Transposable elements (TEs) are also known as mobile genetic elements , or more informally as jumping genes . They are present throughout the chromosomes of almost all organisms. These DNA sequences have a unique ability to be cut or copied from their original location and inserted into new locations in the genome. This is called transposition. These insert locations are not entirely random, but TEs can, in principle, be inserted into almost any region of the genome. TEs can therefore insert into genes, disrupting its function and causing a mutation. Researchers have developed methods of artificially increasing the rate of transposition, which makes some TEs a useful type of mutagen. However, the biological importance of TEs extends far beyond their use in mutant screening. TEs are also important causes of disease and phenotypic instability, and they are a major mutational force in evolution.
There are two major classes of TEs in eukaryotes:
- Class I elements include retrotransposons ; these transpose by means of an RNA intermediate. The TE transcript is reverse transcribed into DNA before being inserted elsewhere in the genome through the action of enzymes such as integrase .
- Class II elements are known also as transposons . They do not use reverse transcriptase or an RNA intermediate for transposition. Instead, they use an enzyme called transposase to cut DNA from the original location and then this excised dsDNA fragment is inserted into a new location.
TEs are relatively short DNA sequences (100-10,000 bp), and encode no more than a few proteins (if any). Normally, the protein-coding genes within a TE are all related to the TE’s own transposition functions. These proteins may include reverse transcriptase , transposase, and integrase. However, some TEs (of either Class I or II) do not encode any proteins at all. These non-autonomous TEs can only transpose if they are supplied with enzymes produced by other, autonomous TEs located elsewhere in the genome. In all cases, enzymes for transposition recognize conserved nucleotide sequences within the TE, which dictate where the enzymes begin cutting or copying.
The human genome consists of nearly 45% TEs, the vast majority of which are families of Class I elements called LINEs (long intersperse nuclear elements) and SINEs (short interspersed nuclear elements) . The short, Alu type of SINE occurs in more than one million copies in the human genome (compare this to the approximately 21,000, non-TE, protein-coding genes in humans). Indeed, TEs make up a significant portion of the genomes of almost all eukaryotes. Class I elements, which usually transpose via an RNA copy-and-paste mechanism, tend to be more abundant than Class II elements, which mostly use a cut-and-paste mechanism. But even the cut-paste mechanism can lead to an increase in TE copy number. For example, if the site vacated by an excised transposon is repaired with a DNA template from a homologous chromosome that itself contains a copy of a transposon, then the total number of transposons in the genome will increase.
Besides greatly expanding the overall DNA content of genomes, TEs contribute to genome evolution in many other ways. As already mentioned, they may disrupt gene function by insertion into a gene’s coding region or regulatory region. More interestingly adjacent regions of chromosomal DNA are sometimes mistakenly transposed along with the TE; this can lead to gene duplication. The duplicated genes are then free to evolve independently, leading in some cases to the development of new functions. The breakage of strands by TE excision and integration can disrupt genes, and can lead to chromosome rearrangement or deletion if errors are made during strand rejoining. Furthermore, having so many similar TE sequences distributed throughout a chromosome sometimes allows mispairing of regions of homologous chromosomes at meiosis, which can cause unequal crossing-over, resulting in deletion or duplication of large segments of chromosomes. Thus, TEs are a potentially important evolutionary force, and may not be included as merely “junk DNA”, as they once were.
Are my genes always jumping?!
If the human genome is 45% transposable elements and these elements can move around, then how does our genome stay relatively constant?
Some factors that help keep the genome (mostly) intact include:
- Many of the TE elements have acquired mutations that render them unable to transpose.
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Regulatory RNAs called piRNAs (piwi-related RNAs) appear to suppress transposition.
- In which tissue(s) would you expect piRNAs to be most active?
Mutations of Chemical Origins
Many chemical compounds, whether natural or synthetic, can react with DNA to cause mutations. In some of these reactions the chemical structure of particular bases may change, so that they are misread during replication. In others the chemical mutagens distort the double helix causing it to be replicated inaccurately, while still others may cause breaks in chromosomes that lead to deletions and other types of aberrations. The following are examples of two classes of chemical mutagens that are important in genetics and medicine: alkylating agents , and intercalating agents .
What is an alkyl group?
An alkyl group is formed by removing one hydrogen from an alkane chain (C n H 2n +2 ) and is described by the formula C n H 2n +1 . The removal of this hydrogen results in a stem change from -ane to -yl . Take a look at the following examples.
Ethane methyl sulfonate ( EMS ) is an example of an alkylating agent that is commonly used by geneticists to induce mutations in a wide range of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The organism is fed or otherwise exposed to a solution of EMS. It reacts with some of the G bases it encounters in a process called alkylation, where the addition of an alkyl group to G changes the base pairing properties so that the next time the alkylated DNA strand is replicated, a T instead of a C will be inserted opposite to the alkylated-G in the daughter strand. The new strand therefore bears a mutation (base substitution), which will be inherited in all the strands that are subsequently replicated from it.
Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\): Alkylation of G (shown in red) allows G to bond with T, rather than with C. (Original-Deyholos-CC:AN)
Intercalating agents are another type of chemical mutagen. They tend to be flat, planar molecules like benzo[ a ]pyrene , a component of wood and tobacco smoke, and induce mutations by inserting between the stacked bases at the center of the DNA helix. This intercalation distorts the shape of the DNA helix, which can cause the wrong bases to be added to a growing DNA strand during DNA synthesis.
 Many of these are also used to treat cancer, as they preferentially kill actively dividing cells. Another important intercalating agent is ethidium bromide , the fluorescent dye that stains DNA in laboratory assays. For this reason, molecular biologists are trained to handle this chemical carefully.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
The chemical EMS adds an ethyl group to G, which then pairs with T instead of C. What would be the effect of exposing the DNA sequence ...CATGTCA... to EMS?
- Answer
-
When DNA is exposed to a mutagen it is unlikely that all the Gs in a given sequence will be affected. We will assume that only the G in the above sequence is affected (not the two Gs that will be on the complementary strand). I will write the modified sequence as ...CATG m TCA...
- When the methylated strand is used as a template for DNA replication, the newly synthesized strand will be ...GTATAGT...
- If the cell undergoes another round of cell division, using the new strand as a template will create the strand ...CATATCA... and the former GC base pair is now an AT base pair. The cell has no way of knowing that this base pair is incorrect or whether or not it will affect the cell.
Mutations of physical origin
Anything that damages DNA by transferring energy to it can be considered a physical mutagen. Usually this involves radioactive particles, x-rays, or UV light. The smaller, fast moving particles may cause base substitutions or delete a single bases, while larger, slightly slower particles may induce larger deletions by breaking the double stranded helix of the chromosome. Physical mutagens can also create unusual structures in DNA, such as the thymine dimers formed by UV light (Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\)). Thymine dimers disrupt normal base-pairing in the double helix, and may block replication altogether if not repaired by the cell’s DNA repair enzymes.
Summary Table of Mutagenic Agents
| Mutagenic Agents | Mode of Action | Effect on DNA | Resulting Type of Mutation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nucleoside analogs | |||
| 2-aminopurine | Is inserted in place of A but base pairs with C | Converts AT to GC base pair | Point |
| 5-bromouracil | Is inserted in place of T but base pairs with G | Converts AT to GC base pair | Point |
| Nucleotide-modifying agent | |||
| Nitrous oxide | Deaminates C to U | Converts GC to AT base pair | Point |
| Ethane methyl sulfonate (EMS) | Alkylates G (which pairs with T) | ||
| Intercalating agents | |||
| Acridine orange, ethidium bromide, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons | Distorts double helix, creates unusual spacing between nucleotides | Introduces small deletions and insertions | Frameshift |
| Ionizing radiation | |||
| X-rays, γ-rays | Forms hydroxyl radicals | Causes single- and double-strand DNA breaks | Repair mechanisms may introduce mutations |
| X-rays, γ-rays | Modifies bases (e.g., deaminating C to U) | Converts GC to AT base pair | Point |
| Nonionizing radiation | |||
| Ultraviolet | Forms pyrimidine (usually thymine) dimers | Causes DNA replication errors | Frameshift or point |
Query \(\PageIndex{3}\)
Contributors and Attributions
-
Dr. Todd Nickle and Isabelle Barrette-Ng (Mount Royal University) The content on this page is licensed under CC SA 3.0 licensing guidelines.
- E. V. Wong Axolotl Academica Publishing (Biology) at Axolotl Academica Publishin g
- Mutations. (2021, January 3). Retrieved August 6, 2021, from https://bio.libretexts.org/@go/page/5184 " Mutations" by OpenStax, LibreTexts is licensed under CC BY ( 11.5: Mutations ).


4.7: Derivatives in Space
So far when we have thought about applying derivatives, we’ve always thought in terms of time. So we’ve focused on rates like meters per second, degrees Celsius per second, liters per minute, and so on, everything per unit time. However, we don’t always get derivatives with respect to time.
For example, consider this box:
And let’s consider the temperature of the box at every point. We can show this using red to mean hot and blue to mean cold:
Note that the temperature changes, but not in time . Instead, the temperature changes as you move down the box — that is, the temperature changes in space . We can show the same thing in the graph:
And just as before, the slope of this graph at any point is the derivative. What are the units? Well, they would be \(\frac{\text{C$^\circ$}}{\text{cm}}\).
Let’s continue with this example.
- What is the derivative of the temperature halfway down the box?
- What is the derivative of the temperature three-quarters of the way down the box?
- Let’s go back to thinking about time. According to the heat equation , a point in space will tend to get hotter if the second derivative in space is positive, and colder if the second derivative in space is negative. Based on this statement, is this box going to get hotter or colder? What does that mean regarding its derivative in time?
-
We can see from the previous graph that the box is \(40\) centimeters long, so half way would be \(x = 20\) cm. We know \(T'(x) = -\frac{1}{16} (2x) = -\frac{1}{8}x\). So if we just plug in \(x = 20\), we get
\(T'(20) = -\frac{1}{8}(20) = -2.5\). Again, the units are \(\frac{\text{C$^\circ$}}{\text{cm}}\). So that means for every cm you travel, the box gets \(2.5^\circ\) C colder. - Now we just plug in \(x = 30\) into the derivative we already found \(T'(x) = -\frac{1}{8}x\), and we see \(T'(30) = -\frac{1}{8}(30) = -3.75\). This means, at this point in the box, the box is getting colder faster. You can see this in the graph as well.
- To answer this question, we need the second derivative \(T''(x)\). This is just the derivative of \(T'(x) = -\frac{1}{8}x\), and so we just drop the \(x\) and get \(T''(x) = -\frac{1}{8}\). Since the second derivative with respect to space is negative, the heat equation says the first derivative with respect to time is also negative. So if we just leave this box alone, it would tend to get colder. That is, the \(T'(t)\) is negative as well.


20.1: Eolian Processes
Eolian processes are most effective where surface material is fine, dry and loose. Vegetation imposes a frictional force on the wind to reduce its effectiveness. Thus, an environment devoid of vegetation is best. These conditions are met in deserts found on every continent of the world. In most cases, wind erosion predominates over deposition leaving a surface of stones. Only one quarter of Earth's deserts are partially or completely covered by sand.
Though less extensive in area, coastlines of large bodies of water are another eolian environment. Here, waves and currents supply weathered material susceptible to wind action.
Eolian processes have been enhanced by human activity over the past few centuries, especially in Asia and Africa. Overuse of soil and grazing land resources in semi-arid and arid and seasonally dry regions has led to extensive wind erosion and desertification .
Wind Erosion
The entire solid surface of the Earth is subject to wind erosion. It is the balance between the driving force of the wind and the resistance of the surface that ultimately determines whether surface materials are detached and transported away.
Factors affecting wind erosion
The ability of the wind to erode the surface is determined by two factors, air density and wind velocity. The erosive power of the wind (E) is given as:
\[E\,=\,V^3\rho\]
where V = wind velocity, and \(\rho\) = air density.  The erosive force of the wind is primarily related to its velocity. Its importance is seen as erosive power varies with the third power of velocity. For instance, a doubling of the wind velocity increases the erosive power by 8 fold while a tripling of velocity produces a 27 fold increase.
The roughness length of the surface (z 0 ), a parameter based on the size and distance between objects in a group, has a critical control over the velocity of the wind. Grass, shrubs, and trees, all impart a drag on the wind to reduce its erosive force. Vegetation also acts to bind soil particles to the surface. A surface without a cover of vegetation exposes soil to the direct force of the wind making erosion more effective. Thus, dry regions lacking a protective cover of vegetation display the effects of wind erosion more than humid climates.
|
Type of Surface |
z o (cm) |
|---|---|
|
Fir Forest |
283.0 |
|
Citrus Orchard |
198.0 |
|
Large City (Tokyo) |
165 |
|
Corn Field |
84.5 |
|
Wheat Field |
23.0 |
|
Grass |
10.0 |
|
Dry Lake Bed |
0.003 |
The cohesiveness of surface materials affects the resistance of the surface to erosion. Clay particles exhibit a greater degree of cohesiveness than sand. Clay-rich soils tend to resist erosion by wind more than less cohesive materials. Thus, clays require a much higher threshold velocity for detachment than one would expect. Cohesiveness may be provided by a cementing agent as well. Calcium carbonate and other salts common to desert regions deposited in interparticle voids harden and bind particles together.
Features of wind erosion
Landscapes formed from the work of wind result from either the removal of fine particles, or the sculpting effects of material in movement. Deflation lifts and removes loose particles from the surface. Deserts where soils of mixed particle size have been eroded of fines leave a cobblestone-like surface behind called desert lag or desert pavement .The interlocking pavement of stones protects the underlying surface from the wind. If disturbed, the surface becomes subject to erosion. Such has been the result of surface degradation from military activities in the desert regions of North Africa during World War II (as well as later conflicts fought in the desert regions of the Middle East).
Deflation may also result in blowout depressions , basins ranging in size from less than a meter to many meters deep. Chemical weathering of cementing materials loosens particles cohesiveness to enable wind erosion. Some extremely large depressions like the Qattara Depression in the western desert of Egypt are partially a result of deflation.
Sand particles lifted free of the surface can "sand blast" rock surfaces in a process called abrasion . Abrasion shapes and polishes exposed bedrock. Abrasion is restricted to a distance of about a meter or two above the surface because sand grains are lifted a short distance. Ventifacts are smooth faceted rocks that often have a polished surface that results from abrasion. At a much larger scale, elongate ridges called yardangs form by the abrasion and streamlining rock structures oriented parallel to the prevailing wind direction. Abrasion occurs at the windward end while deflation removes material from the leeward end. Archaeologists have suggested that the Great Sphinx of Giza , Egypt is partially formed from a yardang.
Sand transport
Much of our knowledge about sand transport dates back to the 1930s and 1940s when British Brigadier Ralph A. Bagnold conducted experiments while stationed in the desert of North Africa. Sand generally begins to move when the wind achieves a velocity of about 4.5 m/sec. At first, sand exhibits a rolling motion called traction or surface creep . Approximately 20 to 25% of total sand transport during sand storms occurs by traction. As wind speed increases, grains are lifted into the air by wind gusts.
Once airborne, sand grains travel downwind and then drop back to the surface several centimeters from their point of origin. Finer dust particles are lifted from the surface and suspended in the air at much greater heights than heavier sand grains. With strong winds and turbulence, sand grains can be lifted as high as 2 meters and travel a distance of 10 meters or more. When a settling sand grain impacts the surface, it sends another grain of sand into the air to travel in the downwind direction. Watching this process in action makes sand appear to be bouncing along the surface. We call this process saltation which accounts for 75% to 80% of sand transport over sand dunes. Once saltation begins, transport can continue under somewhat lower wind speeds.
Dust storms are primarily composed of fine material that easily reduce visibilities to a few meters and can persist for hours. During a prolonged dry period, extraordinary amounts of valuable top soil was stripped from the Great Plains during the "Dust Bowl" period of the 1930s. Moister conditions returned and the application of soil conservation techniques have greatly reduced the erosive effects of wind. Sand storms are raging systems of blowing, stinging sand traveling a meter or two above the surface.
A strange phenomena that has mystified generations is the sound moving sand can make as it is transported across the surface. In approximately 30 places around the world, a sustained hum rings out from this resonating dunes when wind conditions are right. Geoscientist have long wondered what causes "booming dunes". [View " Booming Dunes " from NOVA scienceNow].


2.6: Writing Business Messages
- Write a business message based on an outline using the appropriate components of a business message
It’s also helpful to remember at this stage that you’re not actually starting from a blank page, even with your first draft. You’ve got the raw materials of your pre-writing, outlining, and source gathering at hand to build from.
From Planning to Writing
At this stage of the process, the purpose and organization of your message is already decided. Now you need to craft the words and phrasing for each part of the message.
Whichever outline you’ve started with, it can seamlessly morph into a first draft simply by choosing an area to attack. Start fleshing it out with full sentences, complete thoughts, and relevant sources.
The format for the communication matters. Letter formats and layout are discussed at the end of this module.
Before examining types of messages, there are skills to have in hand.
Writing Skills
Subject Line
The subject line is surprisingly important in business communications. It is found in both email and memo formats. Subject lines are a mini introduction to the message. However, they do not replace the need for subject to be addressed in the first paragraph of the communication.
| What | Avoid | Try |
|---|---|---|
| Subject Line | Regarding next Tuesday’s meeting | Items to bring for Next Tuesday’s meeting |
| First line of the message | Will you bring the pens and pencils? | Will you bring pens and pencils to next Tuesday’s meeting? |
Subject lines are succinct introductions to a direct, negative, or persuasive message
| What | Avoid | Try |
|---|---|---|
| Direct Message | Conference Dates | Please confirm conference dates |
| Negative Message | Problem! | Confirmation needed Order 3145 |
| Persuasive Message | Need a Speaker | Speaking Opportunity for You |
Check to see if your subject lines pass a simple list of questions:
- Is the main idea apparent from the subject line?
- Is it more a phrase than full sentence?
- Can the receiver judge the urgency with respect to whether they must read the message now or can leave it for later?
- Will the receiver be able to find this message again easily based on your subject line?
Constructing Buffers
Buffers are a specific component of negative messages. They allow the writer to start the message without fully disclosing the bad news that is coming. Buffers must be more than an unrelated hello such as “How about those Broncos?” They must lead in to the topic while avoiding negative overtones. At the same time, a buffer shouldn’t promote an untruth or raise the recipient’s hopes only to dash them. For example, in writing to a job applicant, the subject line, “You are our best candidate” only to follow in the body with “but unfortunately, we needed to hire from within the company, so you didn’t get the job” is needlessly cruel. On the other hand, “You are one of many impressive candidates,” is both honest and appropriately complimentary while serving as a buffer.
| Buffer Topic | Sample | Reason for the “No” |
|---|---|---|
| Item of Agreement | Planning a 250 person wedding is quite an undertaking. | The larger ballroom is booked on that date. |
| Compliment | The American Cancer Society provides excellent support to the community of Centennial, MO. | The organization cannot fund the charity golf tournament this year. |
| Reasons | With the increase in interest rates, there is a decline of 5% in new client calls. | There are account reassignments planned. |
Negative Words and Tone
Business relationships are like all relationships. There are ups and downs. At times employees, customers, and others must hear news that is not to their choosing. Two important skills save the relationship while delivering the bad news. In all situations, the sender works to avoid negative words and tones. These words and tone can overshadow even the best message, like gray clouds on a warm summer day.
With negative messages there comes a time where the bad news must be stated. A skilled writer who plans the message well has this part of the message contained to a single area of the communication. Yet, when saying “no,” the meaning must be clear. Sometimes the most diplomatic form of clarity is achieved with a skilled “implied no.” Consider how the following are clear, yet avoid a negative word or tone.
| Avoid | Try |
|---|---|
| April 23 is not available. | Rooms are available April 20–22 or April 24–29. |
| Snakes are not allowed on the plane. | Please see our pet policy that allows cats, dogs, and peacocks. (Add “only” if needed—only cats, dogs, and peacocks.) |
You-View
In defining positive messages, both good news and expected news fit the category. However, some expected news may not please the receiver. The you-view in writing helps the sender keep an overall good relationship to the receiver. Consider the following:
| Avoid | Try | Why |
|---|---|---|
| Do not park in Lot C. It is being resurfaced. | While Lot C is resurfaced, Lots A and B should be used. | The direct object “you” is assumed with the instruction of “do not.” Coupling a “you” with a “no” in the same sentence is likely to annoy or feel accusatory to the receiver, thus damaging the relationship. State what is possible rather than what is not. |
| I can’t wait to help you. | I look forward to helping you. | Here is something the sender wants to do, but the example clouds the positive desire with the negative “can’t.” If you as the sender are eager, then be eager rather than confusing the issue with a negative. |
| The claim is forthcoming, however, another form is needed. | Another form is needed before the claim is processed. | “However” is frequently considered a negative word since it contradicts what comes before. The word “but” works in a similar fashion. |
Writing a Positive Message
Consider the following example outline constructed in the planning process:
| News | Need quote on security components |
|---|---|
| Detail | 4 PCs, 2 printers, 1 wireless router. Need itemized cost, warranty/mtc, installations date |
| Goodwill and Action | 2 year contract in place. Hope for April 15. |
With this outline in place, the message is formatted as a business letter or email as the situation warrants.
| Comments on Section | As Written |
|---|---|
|
First Paragraph: Start the message with the news. This is a positive message. Focus on the receiver and realize all she wants to know is “what do I need to do”.
The message opens with a you-view. The “Please” is saying “you need to” but in a positive manner. The main idea is easy to find. It is not hidden by unnecessary phrasing or preamble that does not advance the purpose of the message. |
Please provide a quote for updated security systems. |
|
Second Paragraph: Using paragraphs respects the reader by providing white spacing thus making the message easier to read.
Paragraphs provide logical breaks to aid in understanding and retention. Bullets do not exist except as part of a paragraph. There is the introduction to the paragraph and then the lists. Lists are easier on the eyes through use of white space. They aid in retention. It will be easy for the receiver to mark off items as completed. List items are constructed in a parallel fashion. |
With your familiarity of our system, please maintain compatibility and quote for the following items.
In the response, please address the following questions:
|
| Final paragraph: Encourages the relationship with a specific note of goodwill. Provides a crisp reminder of the action needed. | Thank you for being so easy to work with over the past two years. If possible, please provide this quote by April 15. If it will be later, please call to let us know. |
Writing a Negative Message
Assume that the outline for this negative message constructed in the Planning process is the following. Notice that there is a typo where “april” is not capitalized. For the outline, that is just fine. These are organizational notes that only the writer sees:
| Buffer | Long relationship of mid-april conventions. Past relationship |
|---|---|
| Reasons | New personnel. Competitive month and rates |
| News | Conference date must move earlier or back one week |
| Goodwill and Action: | Discount. Must hear by March 5 |
With this outline in place, the message is formatted as a business letter or email, as the situation warrants.
| Comments on Section | As Written |
|---|---|
|
Buffer: First paragraph — Start the message with a note that relates to the message, one that both agree on.
Do not be so cheerful as to mislead the audience, nor set a dark tone that may cause additional trepidation in someone is about to be disappointed. By not immediately confirming availability, the reader can begin to prepare for the upcoming news. |
Your organization has been a longtime partner of Aspen Lodge, and we have been honored to be your location of choice for your annual April conference. Thank you for your recent letter regarding next month’s availability. |
| Reason: Second paragraph. It is so tempting to write reasons for a no from the perspective of the sender. “We are all full.” “Company policy says.” Reasons in a negative message offer the reader a way to see it from the writer’s standpoint. If the message is well written, by the the time the “no” comes, the receiver will be in complete agreement. | With such a warm winter, your choice of Aspen Lodge remains one desired by many organizations eager to come west. The Lodge is always popular with local organizations due to the low off-season rates, which means facilities book quickly and early. |
|
Reason continued: Either second or third paragraph.
Here is the hardest part of the message. The reader is likely anticipating being turned down by now. It is up to the sender to make the “no” clear, but not harsh. This may be done directly or with an Implied no. This writing assumes the group always comes on and had requested the second weekend. One key issue to watch out for when delivering negative messages in this way is that you might work to avoid negative words so intently that you make the message hard to understand. In this case, talking about the weekends that are available leaves the message pretty clear. |
With the second weekend already reserved, would you prefer the first or third weekend? |
| Final paragraph: Encourages the relationship with a specific note of goodwill. Provide a crisp reminder of the action needed. | Please call by Friday March 31st, to confirm which of the two remaining weekends best suit your needs. Aspen Lodge is booking quickly, and we hope to have good friends like ABC company here again this year. Because you have been such a loyal partner, we are offering a 5% discount for whichever weekend you do end up choosing. |
Writing a Persuasive Message
With persuasive messages, the audience analysis in the planning stage will point you in the right direction. This example outline assumes that the receiver needs a push to accept the solution being presented. In this example, a marketing team has planned to do some focus groups in Manhattan among a difficult-to-find consumer segment (let’s say, left-handed teenage girls who like both crocheting and motocross racing). The facility that’s finding and scheduling the participants is having a hard time finding enough of these girls in Manhattan, so they want to loop in a partner facility just across the river in New Jersey. It’s going to cost the marketing team more money, which they’ve anticipated but still won’t like, and it will involve extra travel. Here’s one way to present that news.
| Buffer / Attention | More diverse research participants in Manhattan and Newark |
|---|---|
| Reasons / Interest | A more diverse set of participants in two locations |
| News | We can’t find enough qualified people in Manhattan, so we’re adding our Newark location |
| Goodwill and Action: | Travel between locations on a deluxe chartered coach bus at no extra cost |
With this outline in place, the message is formatted as a business letter or email, as the situation warrants.
| Comments on Section | As Written |
|---|---|
|
Buffer: First paragraph— Start the message with a note that relates to the message, one that both agree on.
Do not be so cheerful as to mislead the audience, nor set a dark tone that may cause additional anger in someone is about to be disappointed. By starting with the good news, the writer can offset any disappointment or annoyance at the bad news. |
Thank you for entrusting us with this interesting and challenging recruit. We’re calling on all of our experience to make sure we find you the best participants to meet your research needs and finding girls who not only meet the specifications but also represent a range of ethnicities and income levels. |
| Reasons: Second paragraph— It is so tempting to write reasons for a no from the perspective of the sender. “We are all full.” “Company policy says.” What reasons in a negative message do are to offer the reader a way to see it from the writer’s standpoint. If well written by the the time the “no” comes the receiver will be in complete agreement. | As you’ve known from the start of the project, finding participants that meet your specifications was going to be difficult, and we are about halfway recruited. We have placed ads in the newspapers and online, and we have asked motocross courses to recommend members who might qualify. |
|
Reasons continued: Either second or third paragraph—
Here is the hardest part of the message. The reader is likely anticipating some sort of bad news by now. It is up to the sender to make the difficulty clear but not harsh. Even with the Goodwill action, there’s likely to be some annoyance on the part of the receiver. |
However, we seem to have stalled in finding people to come to our Manhattan facility. As we see it, we have two choices. We can relax the specifications, which might water down your data, or we can reach out to a partner company in Newark. Between the two facilities, we believe we can fully recruit your research study. As we discussed at the proposal stage, this will incur extra cost, and we recognize that you had not built travel to Newark into your schedule. Therefore, we have taken the liberty of reserving a deluxe coach bus and driver at our expense to move your team from their base in Manhattan to the facility in Newark on the days you will be there. |
| Final paragraph: Encourages the relationship with a specific note of goodwill. Provide a crisp reminder of the action needed. | Please let us know whether this solution is acceptable or whether you would like to loosen your participant specifications. Please also tell us whether we can help with anything else, including changing hotel accommodations using our corporate discount. We are very much looking forward to hosting you and your team for this groundbreaking research. If I hear from you by Wednesday morning, I can lock in whichever option you choose and move forward with the work. |
Contributors and Attributions
- Writing Business Messages. Authored by : Susan Kendall. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Image of Draft. Authored by : Kim Louie for Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- From Outlining to Drafting. Provided by : Lumen Learning. Located at : courses.lumenlearning.com/engcomp1-wmopen/chapter/text-from-outlining-to-drafting/. License : CC BY: Attribution