8.5: Colligative Properties - Osmotic Pressure
- Define a semipermeable membrane in the context of osmotic flow.
- Explain, in simple terms, what fundamental process "drives" osmotic flow.
- What is osmotic pressure, and how is it measured?
- Osmotic pressure can be a useful means of estimating the molecular weight of a substance, particularly if its molecular weight is quite large. Explain in your own words how this works.
- What is reverse osmosis, and what is its principal application?
- Explain the role of osmotic pressure in food preservation, and give an example.
- Describe the role osmosis plays in the rise of water in plants (where is the semipermeable membrane?), and why it cannot be the only cause in very tall trees.
Osmosis is the process in which a liquid passes through a membrane whose pores permit the passage of solvent molecules but are too small for the larger solute molecules to pass through.
Semipermeable Membranes and Osmotic flow
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) shows a simple osmotic cell. Both compartments contain water, but the one on the right also contains a solute whose molecules (represented by green circles) are too large to pass through the membrane. Many artificial and natural substances are capable of acting as semi-permeable membranes. The walls of most plant and animal cells fall into this category.
If the cell is set up so that the liquid level is initially the same in both compartments, you will soon notice that the liquid rises in the left compartment and falls in the right side, indicating that water molecules from the right compartment are migrating through the semipermeable membrane and into the left compartment. This migration of the solvent is known as osmotic flow, or simply osmosis.
The escaping tendency of a substance from a phase increases with its concentration in the phase. What is the force that drives the molecules through the membrane? This is a misleading question, because there is no real “force” in the physical sense other than the thermal energies all molecules possess. Osmosis is a consequence of simple statistics: the randomly directed motions of a collection of molecules will cause more to leave a region of high concentration than return to it; the escaping tendency of a substance from a phase increases with its concentration in the phase.
Diffusion and Osmotic Flow
Suppose you drop a lump of sugar into a cup of tea, without stirring. Initially there will be a very high concentration of dissolved sugar at the bottom of the cup, and a very low concentration near the top. Since the molecules are in random motion, there will be more sugar molecules moving from the high concentration region to the low concentration region than in the opposite direction. The motion of a substance from a region of high concentration to one of low concentration is known as diffusion . Diffusion is a consequence of a concentration gradient (which is a measure of the difference in escaping tendency of the substance in different regions of the solution).
There is really no special force on the individual molecules; diffusion is purely a consequence of statistics. Osmotic flow is simply diffusion of a solvent through a membrane impermeable to solute molecules. Now take two solutions of differing solvent concentration, and separate them by a semipermeable membrane (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). Being semipermeable, the membrane is essentially invisible to the solvent molecules, so they diffuse from the high concentration region to the low concentration region just as before. This flow of solvent constitutes osmotic flow , or osmosis .
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Osmosis osmotic flow(a) Two sugar-water solutions of different concentrations, separated by a semipermeable membrane that passes water but not sugar. Osmosis will be to the right, since water is less concentrated there. (b) The fluid level rises until the back pressure ρgh equals the relative osmotic pressure; then, the net transfer of water is zero. (CC-BY; OpenStax).
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) shows water molecules (blue) passing freely in both directions through the semipermeable membrane, while the larger solute molecules remain trapped in the left compartment, diluting the water and reducing its escaping tendency from this cell, compared to the water in the right side. This results in a net osmotic flow of water from the right side which continues until the increased hydrostatic pressure on the left side raises the escaping tendency of the diluted water to that of the pure water at 1 atm, at which point osmotic equilibrium is achieved.
Osmotic flow is simply diffusion of a solvent through a membrane impermeable to solute molecules.
In the absence of the semipermeable membrane, diffusion would continue until the concentrations of all substances are uniform throughout the liquid phase. With the semipermeable membrane in place, and if one compartment contains the pure solvent, this can never happen; no matter how much liquid flows through the membrane, the solvent in the right side will always be more concentrated than that in the left side. Osmosis will continue indefinitely until we run out of solvent, or something else stops it.
Osmotic equilibrium and osmotic pressure
One way to stop osmosis is to raise the hydrostatic pressure on the solution side of the membrane. This pressure squeezes the solvent molecules closer together, raising their escaping tendency from the phase. If we apply enough pressure (or let the pressure build up by osmotic flow of liquid into an enclosed region), the escaping tendency of solvent molecules from the solution will eventually rise to that of the molecules in the pure solvent, and osmotic flow will case. The pressure required to achieve osmotic equilibrium is known as the osmotic pressure . Note that the osmotic pressure is the pressure required to stop osmosis, not to sustain it.
Osmotic pressure is the pressure required to stop osmotic flow It is common usage to say that a solution “has” an osmotic pressure of "x atmospheres". It is important to understand that this means nothing more than that a pressure of this value must be applied to the solution to prevent flow of pure solvent into this solution through a semipermeable membrane separating the two liquids.
Osmotic Pressure and Solute Concentration
The Dutch scientist Jacobus Van't Hoff (1852-1911) was one of the giants of physical chemistry. He discovered this equation after a chance encounter with a botanist friend during a walk in a park in Amsterdam; the botanist had learned that the osmotic pressure increases by about 1/273 for each degree of temperature increase. van’t Hoff immediately grasped the analogy to the ideal gas law. The osmotic pressure \(\Pi\) of a solution containing \(n\) moles of solute particles in a solution of volume \(V\) is given by the van 't Hoff equation :
\[\Pi = \dfrac{nRT}{V} \label{8.4.3}\]
in which
- \(R\) is the gas constant (0.0821 L atm mol –1 K –1 ) and
- \(T\) is the absolute temperature.
In contrast to the need to employ solute molality to calculate the effects of a non-volatile solute on changes in the freezing and boiling points of a solution, we can use solute molarity to calculate osmotic pressures.
Note that the fraction \(n/V\) corresponds to the molarity (\(M\)) of a solution of a non-dissociating solute, or to twice the molarity of a totally-dissociated solute such as \(NaCl\). In this context, molarity refers to the summed total of the concentrations of all solute species. Hence, Equation \ref{8.4.3} can be expressed as
\[\Pi =MRT \label{8.4.3B}\]
Recalling that \(\Pi\) is the Greek equivalent of P , the re-arranged form \(\Pi V = nRT\) of the above equation should look familiar. Much effort was expended around the end of the 19th century to explain the similarity between this relation and the ideal gas law , but in fact, the Van’t Hoff equation turns out to be only a very rough approximation of the real osmotic pressure law, which is considerably more complicated and was derived after van 't Hoff's formulation. As such, this equation gives valid results only for extremely dilute ("ideal") solutions.
According to the Van't Hoff equation, an ideal solution containing 1 mole of dissolved particles per liter of solvent at 0° C will have an osmotic pressure of 22.4 atm.
Sea water contains dissolved salts at a total ionic concentration of about 1.13 mol L –1 . What pressure must be applied to prevent osmotic flow of pure water into sea water through a membrane permeable only to water molecules?
Solution
This is a simple application of Equation \ref{8.4.3B}.
\[ \begin{align*} \Pi &= MRT \\[4pt] &= (1.13\; mol /L)(0.0821\; L \,atm \,mol^{–1}\; K^{–1})(298\; K) \\[4pt] &= 27.6\; atm \end{align*}\]
Molecular Weight Determination by Osmotic Pressure
Since all of the colligative properties of solutions depend on the concentration of the solvent, their measurement can serve as a convenient experimental tool for determining the concentration, and thus the molecular weight, of a solute. Osmotic pressure is especially useful in this regard, because a small amount of solute will produce a much larger change in this quantity than in the boiling point, freezing point, or vapor pressure. even a 10 –6 molar solution would have a measurable osmotic pressure. Molecular weight determinations are very frequently made on proteins or other high molecular weight polymers. These substances, owing to their large molecular size, tend to be only sparingly soluble in most solvents, so measurement of osmotic pressure is often the only practical way of determining their molecular weights.
The osmotic pressure of a benzene solution containing 5.0 g of polystyrene per liter was found to be 7.6 torr at 25°C. Estimate the average molecular weight of the polystyrene in this sample.
Solution:
osmotic pressure:
\[ \begin{align*} \Pi &= \dfrac{7.6\, torr}{760\, torr\, atm^{–1}} \\[4pt] &= 0.0100 \,atm \end{align*} \]
Using the form of the van 't Hoff equation (Equation \ref{8.4.3}), PV = nRT , the number of moles of polystyrene is
n = (0.0100 atm)(1 L) ÷ (0.0821 L atm mol –1 K –1 )(298 K) = 4.09 x 10 –4 mol
Molar mass of the polystyrene:
(5.0 g) ÷ (4.09 x 10 –4 mol) = 12200 g mol –1 .
The experiment to demonstrate this is quite simple: pure solvent is introduced into one side of a cell that is separated into two parts by a semipermeable membrane. The polymer solution is placed in the other side, which is enclosed and connected to a manometer or some other kind of pressure gauge. As solvent molecules diffuse into the solution cell the pressure builds up; eventually this pressure matches the osmotic pressure of the solution and the system is in osmotic equilibrium. The osmotic pressure is read from the measuring device and substituted into the van’t Hoff equation to find the number of moles of solute.


13.5: Creating Reports in Microsoft Access
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Understand why reports are useful
- Create and edit a report using the Report Wizard
- Customize a report by adding images and text
Databases are useful only if they enable us to transform data into information that will be ready for use when it is needed. Although queries are helpful in extracting the data that we need and even transforming it into actionable information, most decision-makers will need more refinement, formatting, and preparation before the data is ready for use.
Recall that a report is a formatted display of information designed for a specific use case or project. Reports do more than summarize information; they also create the foundation for making sound decisions. When we combine queries with formatting, we create reports that we can use in our work.
Using Reports in a Database
Reports are a cornerstone for business decisions. We can generate reports within a database for a specific request, and we can also set up reports to provide summaries and information that we will need on an ongoing basis. Access enables us to set up reports (e.g., a financial, sales, or summary report) that we can then access as necessary for decision-making. Companies routinely run reports on key performance indicators (KPIs) that show an organization’s effectiveness, efficiency, quality, economics, project performance, resource use, and personnel and workforce performance. Companies also routinely look at revenue, profit, and customer and employee satisfaction. Because tables filled with data do not adequately describe KPIs, businesses rely on reports as part of their evidence-based decision-making.
Tables are extremely efficient ways of storing data, and using a relational database with connections across tables is an effective way of building information storage. Unfortunately, however, tables do not display information in ways that people easily understand. We can manage this by creating reports—formatted, attractive displays of information. Reports use combinations of labels, values, and even graphics to present the results of a query in a way that supports action. Once designed, a report can easily be reused or copied and revised. Like other objects such as queries and forms, reports will show the most up-to-date information each time the database changes. Among the many reasons to generate reports are the need to create summary reports, to save snapshots of data, and to provide detail about specific customers or products.
Consider this example. Anna, an analyst in the sales and marketing group at WorldCorp, has been asked to get data ready for a meeting with sales representatives. The meeting will focus on products that are on hold, and the representatives will need to identify wholesale companies that may be interested in these products. Anna begins by determining what the sales representatives will need for the meeting and the level of detail they will want to have available for decision-making. She then looks at the available data and decides how to create the report. Anna’s final report includes two sets of information—the list of on-hold products and the list of wholesalers who have shown an interest in those products. Therefore, she creates two versions of the report:
- List of on-hold products with a list of interested wholesalers for each product
- List of wholesalers with a list of on-hold products that may be of interest to each wholesaler
Anna sends the final report to the person in charge of the meeting for review and comment.
Tips for Effective Reports
The way you design a report will depend on the data it will include, the audience that will use the report for decision-making, and the way the data will be used. Reports can be as brief as a few lines of summary text, or they can be highly detailed spreadsheets or within datasheets with many rows of records. The key to building a useful report is communication—your communication with the audience that needs the report, so you understand them, and the communication of the information to the audience so they can use it.
Effective reports should utilize the headers and footers of a report and its pages to aid the reader when navigating the report. Headers and footers should contain useful information such as the report title, author, and page numbers. This makes it easier for a report reader to quickly find the information they are looking for across multiple reports.
Link to Learning
Data is only good to the extent that it is both accurate and actionable. Raw data without any use is just clutter. With this in mind, watch this video on how to make data actionable and consider how reports can summarize large amounts of data and make that data actionable.
The goal of a report is to eliminate as many individual lines of information as possible and to simplify information through summary wherever you can. In general, consider the following when preparing effective reports:
- Minimize line-by-line data
- Use labels to explain the data that is shown on the report
- Use formatting to designate titles and other labels
- Incorporate white space to ensure readability
- Test with possible audience members to be sure the report makes sense to the final audience
- Focus on answering specific business questions generated by the person or people who request the report
Organizing a Report
A report can be flat, with one record per line, or you can use grouping to further organize the data. When designing a report, think about organizing your data as follows:
- Sorting to order your data by an important field (e.g., Name), when you are discussing customers or sales region
- Grouping records based on a field, such as active versus inactive products, regions that met specific targets versus those that are lagging in meeting goals, or geographical area
- Totaling groups of data, such as sales figures, to show both the detailed figures (e.g., an individual salesperson’s sales figures) and the figures for the overall region
Access will allow you to quickly add and preview sorting, groups, and totals to ensure the report communicates what you need it to for the audience you are working with.
Creating and Editing Reports with the Report Wizard
WorldCorp is interested in creating a summary of their recent sales data for their latest product line. The report should include useful information such as which products have the highest total sales, which products have the highest net profit, and which customers are purchasing the most products. WorldCorp could create this report from a blank canvas, but it would be much easier to generate a report using the Report Wizard . This is a small program that will walk you through the steps of setting up a report, which you can then modify to meet your needs.
Using the Report Wizard is usually an efficient and easy way to start a report. Most reports will need some form of customization, but the Wizard will provide a good starting point and will save steps by adding fields that are bound to the database.
Creating a Report
To start a report with the Report Wizard, click on the Create menu in the ribbon and then choose the Report Wizard command from the reports section. The Wizard will walk you through each question before creating your report.
Step 1: In step 1 (Figure 13.40), you can set the table(s) and/or queries you want to work on within the report. This gives you flexibility, as you can use data from more than one table or query in your work. (Hint: Consider setting up a query for your report before starting the report. This will enable you to check the data before setting it up for display.) Once you have chosen and added tables, queries, and fields to the report (use the >> button to move fields to the selection box), click Next to move to the next screen in the Wizard.
Step 2: In step 2 (Figure 13.41), you can choose grouping for your report. (Skip this step if grouping does not make sense for your report.) A group is a heading that organizes data with something in common. For example, you might group data based on the region a customer is assigned to. When used as a group, all customers belonging to a specific region will appear together. Once you set up grouping, you can click Next to continue.
Step 3: Step 3 of the Report Wizard asks how you want to sort your records, as Figure 13.42 shows. Access allows you to sort by up to four fields in the designated order. For example, to create a report that fits the needs of your audience, you may want to sort a set of records by sales region in alphabetical order and then sort further by product ID. Once you set up sorting, you can move to the next step in the Wizard.
Step 4: After you have set the sort order, the Wizard will ask you to choose the layout for your report (Figure 13.43). You can also set the orientation and ask Access to adjust all fields to make sure they fit on a page.
Step 5: The final step in the Wizard allows you to set a unique title for your report and then choose whether you want to provide the results or go into design to modify the report (Figure 13.44). Usually, viewing the report will be useful, as it will show you what you want to change. When you are done, click Finish to continue the work.
Reviewing a Report
When you double-click on a report in the navigation area, the report will open with current data displayed. Let’s look at a simple report in Figure 13.45: a listing of all product categories.
This report, named ProductCategoryList, was created quickly by clicking on Create and then Report.
The title at the top of the report shows the date the report was run, followed by two columns that list the product category ID and the description. This report is set up by Access and has not been modified. In Design View (Figure 13.46), this report appears differently, with the design and grid available for modification. This report is usable as is but taking a few minutes to customize it will make it more useful for your audience.
In Design View, the report header appears on the first page and includes the title and dates of the report. This is followed by the page header which appears on each page and includes information useful to the report user, such as page number or report author. The report detail is the area where data from the database is displayed for each record. Each record will show the product category ID and description. The report has a page footer , which displays useful information, such as the page number, and appears on each page. The report footer shares the number of pages in the entire report. As you build reports, you will likely switch back and forth between the Report View and Design View to change elements such as spacing and formatting so that your report is useful for your audience.
Link to Learning
Personal and company data needs to be safeguarded, and reports that summarize data related to projects and goals also need to be protected. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of anyone dealing with data and reports is data security. To this end, governments have put laws and procedures in place to guide how organizations manage data and reporting. This article on data privacy laws provides an overview of some of the laws in this area.
Customizing Reports
Although Access does a nice job of starting a report, you will likely want to modify reports before using them. Following are some of the changes you may want to make:
- Changing the size of fields (e.g., shortening them)
- Formatting the text of the report (e.g., by adding boldface)
- Shifting text boxes to lay the screen out more effectively
Page Layout View
Page layout view gives you a simple way to make changes to the overall appearance of a report. Changes made to a field in page layout view will be applied to all fields of the same type (e.g., if you boldface a field, all fields of the same type will also be bold). Page layout view displays live data while you make your changes, which makes decision-making easier.
To enter Layout View , click on the View command on the Home tab while you have a report open on the screen. You can preview the report by changing to the report view. When you are finished working, save and close your report.
Design View
The Design View screen has more options for customizing your report. To switch to Design View, use the View command on the ribbon.
Design View gives you a layout grid for your form and the ability to move each label and field independently, change the formatting of the text, and even change the attributes for each element on the report.
A common change in Design View is modifying the size of the field on the screen. For example, you may find that Access cuts off some of the label or content in a field. You can modify the size of the field or label by clicking on the element and then using the selection handles on the left and right sides to stretch or shrink the element.
You can also move elements manually by clicking and dragging them or by clicking on multiple items and using the commands on the Arrange tab on the ribbon. These commands allow you to move items up or down, arrange them together, or control how the elements are arranged on the report itself.
Adding an Image or Custom Text
You may want to include a logo or even a disclaimer as an image in a report. These images can add information or (as in the example of a logo) provide identification. Images typically appear at the top or bottom of a report. Remember that if you place an image in the detail section of the report, it will repeat for every line. (This is useful when you want to have each line start with a symbol or logo.)
To add an image in Design View, click on the Form Layout Design tab and choose the image that you want to add. You can also add any image to the page by clicking Insert Image (see Figure 13.47) and then locating the image file. Again, be aware that when images are placed in the detail section of the form, they will repeat for every line. If you would like the image to appear only at the top or bottom of a page, place the image in the page header or footer.
You may want to add elements that are not strictly images but display on the report (e.g., titles, dates, and times). Note that these items will be displayed on the report but will not be stored in the database; they will change each time you open the form.
When you create and modify a report, Access will prompt you to name and save it. Each time you modify an existing report and close it, Access should prompt you to save it. You can save manually by right-clicking on the name of the tab in the work area and choosing the Save command.
To close a report that is open in the work area, click on the X next to the tab name.


13.1.4: The Challenging Truth about Business Ownership
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain the pros and cons of business ownership before you launch
- Understand current trends in entrepreneurship in the US
- Determine the challenges women face in entrepreneurship and what resources they can use to overcome them
- Determine the challenges minority entrepreneurs face and resources available for them
People usually have different reasons for starting a business. Some of the reasons—other than the idea they’ve hit upon—include the freedom to set their own hours, spend more time with family, be their own boss, and make money. However, in many cases, they will probably work more than planned, be challenged to find the work-life balance, face fears and doubts, and perhaps struggle to make ends meet for the first few months or years. Prior to launch, they will need the support of family, friends, and mentors to understand the limitations of time and the pressures they face.
Pros and Cons of Business Ownership
Table 10.3.1 lists the positives and negatives that should be considered prior to opening a business and throughout its operation. Positives of entrepreneurship include having the freedom and independence to expand your skills and develop your own ideas. Instead of working for another organization on projects and ideas that are not your own, you get to serve people in a way that feels right for you. You also have the opportunity to make a profit and have a better lifestyle. Having the freedom to set your own schedule and work at your own pace can be very satisfying as well.
On the opposite side, those “freedoms” translate into being in charge of the business and the significant responsibility that entails. You must resolve issues that arise every day, such as dealing with employees, customers, production, marketing, and financing, among others. Most of the time, you wear many hats, especially during the venture’s early lifecycle stages, and most entrepreneurs usually work more hours than anticipated. In addition, you must deal with losses and risk if things don’t go well. The important thing to keep in mind is that all of the negative aspects have solutions and can even be prevented if planning, mentorship, and a good support system are in place, which can alleviate many of the stresses that entrepreneurs experience. Also, having attainable goals in creating awareness of the business, number of clients, and sales or profit can be beneficial in alleviating some of that pressure.
| Pros | Cons |
|---|---|
|
|
Entrepreneurship and Competition in the US
Entrepreneurs operate in an unbelievably competitive landscape. Although competition helps create better products and services, it also places many stresses on a business owner who must compete with new, more flexible businesses that may have lower prices and better products. As shown in Figure <IP_ADDRESS>, the number of new establishments that are less than one year old has increased over the past two decades from 1994 to 2015. There was a dip during the 2009 recession, but the trend continued after 2011, and the number of businesses increased again. This means more competition for businesses that are already established.
The number of jobs created by these young establishments has also decreased in this period, which affirms the likelihood that entrepreneurs are wearing many hats in their own businesses. Figure <IP_ADDRESS> charts this trend.
As you’ve learned, only about 20–30 percent of businesses succeed to the five- or ten-year mark. Figure <IP_ADDRESS> shows that only half of businesses survive to the five-year mark, and only 20 percent are sustained for two decades. Their failures may be due to a number of factors such as cash flow problems, lack of passion, lack of support, lack of innovation, difficulty adapting to new technologies or customer demand, and environmental factors that can influence a business as well, such as the economy, trends, regulations, or sociocultural changes. Therefore, it’s important for entrepreneurs to research their internal as well as their external environments before launching.
Challenges of Business Ownership for Women
Challenges for business owners can be many. Female entrepreneurs, however, can face additional hardships. These can range from not being able to secure financing for their businesses, having a hard time breaking into an industry, and dealing with fears of starting and growing a business, and not being taken seriously.
Current research shows that the importance of female entrepreneurship is key to economic success. Women own 40 percent of the country’s businesses, generating over $1.4 trillion in sales. Women entrepreneurs are closing the gender gap, as their ventures have grown substantially in the past few years. In the past two years, women entrepreneurship rates have gone up by 10 percent each year, compared to men’s 5 percent growth. This surge has been spurred by increased available resources, including mentorship, funding, and programs to help women succeed. Nonetheless, there are still great challenges to overcome, as women move into the next generation of business ownership. Some of the main challenges are:
- Difficulty gaining entry in certain industries . Women have made great strides in business, but they still face many obstacles, especially in certain industries. Women tend to be underrepresented in specific areas, notably in the tech industry, where they run only 9 percent of businesses. Women tend to be underpaid in tech positions, they experience sexism, and they are often passed over for promotions, especially if they have families with young children. So, if there are no female role models, it is difficult for women to follow an entrepreneurial path that is already full of obstacles. Although young girls and women desire to study and expand their careers, historically, they have not been presented with the opportunities and encouragement to do so, especially in STEM. By the time they get into college, the number of women in these careers—which can be rich in entrepreneurial opportunities—is very small. However, more efforts are being made today to support young girls interested in scientific, technological, and mathematical careers.
- Lower sales and fewer employees . Women overall tend to struggle more to keep their businesses afloat, as they have fewer employees, less revenue, and less profit than male-owned businesses. Only 2 percent of female-owned businesses make over $1 million in sales. Male-owned businesses, on the other hand, are 3.5 times more likely to hit that revenue target. 47 Some of the reasons why women experience this is because women may enter entrepreneurship part time, often striving to sustain a decent family work balance, which is difficult when children, especially young children, are part of the equation. This set-up usually includes one employee, who is the entrepreneur herself, and she may have attained her goals without wanting to make millions. Time, flexibility, and work-life balance can be reasons women become entrepreneurs, and they are happy with their goals of making some money while taking care of their family and household. Lack of experience in business or managing a family business, and lack of access to capital are also reasons for the lower metrics.
- Less access to capital . Regardless of their success and prowess, women still have a harder time securing funding for their businesses. A recent Kauffman Foundation survey determined that more than 72 percent of women don’t have the access to capital they need. Nirupama Mallavarupu, founder of MobileArq says, “As a woman entrepreneur with a focus on helping non-profits and schools, it has been difficult to get investors. We have turned this around by pursuing customer acquisition organically and relying on direct revenues instead of investment growth.” Women usually don’t ask for funding, or if they do but are turned down, they turn to funding from family and friends. They are more likely to finance their ventures this way than men.
- Not taken seriously . Sometimes it’s not that women don’t have the opportunities, money, or mentorships to start a business: Sometimes, women are just not taken seriously. Research by Freshbooks Accounting and Software firm and Research Now asked 2,700 entrepreneurs about gender discrimination and the wage gap that exist today.  Emily Harsh, owner of Heart Move Collective, comments in her blog, “Because I am in the fitness industry and female, I am often not taken seriously as a professional. I think the number one most important thing you can do as a woman fighting to pave your own path is to continually stay authentic.”
- Resources . Fortunately, there are many resources that women can take advantage of. Organizations such as the Women’s Business Center of the Small Business Administration, the National Association for Women Owners, the Female Entrepreneur Association, Ladies Who Launch, Minority Business Development Agency, the National Association of Professional Women, and the Women’s Business Enterprise National Council strive to help women succeed in all industries by providing loans and programs that prepare them for a competitive landscape. Mentoring by other women has also proven to be effective in women’s success in entrepreneurship. Having peers that can help and strong mentors can make a difference in the outcome of a business.
Other helpful tips to counteract the challenges facing women entrepreneurs include being assertive, being authentic, networking, and developing a thick skin for rejections and other challenges. Facebook COO Sheryl Sandberg, in her book Lean In , states that “being confident and believing in your own self-worth is necessary to achieving your potential” and she encourages women entrepreneurs to ask themselves: “What would you do if you weren't afraid?”
Women bring great qualities to entrepreneurship such as strong leadership, as well as management, time, multitasking, and listening skills. Women also have a collaborative approach to relationships that works well in many industries.
Challenges of Business Ownership for Minorities
Entrepreneurs from minority groups encounter additional challenges. Minority groups are a strong force in the economy of the country, yet they still experience additional challenges that sometimes prevent them from succeeding in their businesses. These can range from having lower capital access due to little credit history, small or nonexistent business networks, and lower business knowledge. According to the Census Bureau, minorities own about 29 percent of US businesses.
Hispanics comprise 17 percent of the population and own approximately four million (13%) companies in the US with $661 billion in revenue. From 2007 to 2015, business revenue grew 88 percent for Hispanics, which means that they have more power to employ more people to provide goods and services to a wider audience, and to purchase from other vendors. Given its growth and current size, this group is vital to the health of the economy. Unfortunately, research shows that if measured by financial outcomes, Hispanics still struggle to succeed in business ventures due to a lack of funding, less managerial/business education, and lack of mentorship. A higher rate of foreign-born entrepreneurs can experience these challenges due to the lack of networks and financial history in the country.
African Americans make up 14 percent of the total US population, and their businesses represent about 7 percent of total businesses. Although they are opening businesses faster than their Caucasian counterparts, their businesses, as well as Hispanic businesses, tend to have higher failure rates than Caucasian- and Asian-owned businesses. Similar to Hispanics, African Americans tend to lack funding, managerial/business education, and mentorship.
Asian Americans make up 5 percent of the population and own just over 4 percent of the businesses in the country. Although they are considered minorities, Asian Americans tend to be better educated and have more access to capital than Hispanic Americans and African Americans.
Organizations such as the Hispanic, Black, and Asian American Chambers, the Minority Business and Development Agency (MBDA), and the Small Business Administration (SBA) have developed programs to help minority entrepreneurs succeed in various ways. These organizations hold workshops once or twice a month to provide helpful information and business plan templates so owners work through their preparation to launch a venture. Chambers are also helpful in matching companies with banks for loans based on their needs and industries. The 8a certification is also facilitated by the Chambers and the MBDA, and provides disadvantaged businesses with an assistance program.
LINK TO LEARNING
Go to the MBDA’s page on the 8(a) Business Development Program and read about the requirements and benefits of 8a certification. You can also see that the MBDA offers access to grant and loan programs, and many other helpful resources.
Disadvantaged businesses are those that are small, owned by someone economically disadvantaged (a person who has less than $250,000 in personal net worth, which includes assets such as cash, home, car, and real estate minus liabilities such as mortgages, credit card debt, and car and bank loans), with an owner demonstrating that the business can be successful. This program helps minority business owners access finances, mentors, counselors, and management assistance, among other resources. In addition to this support, some organizations, such as the SBA, provide certifications on various business topics on marketing, finance, accounting, management, and production that usually take the form of short classes for business owners to acquire business acumen. These programs help entrepreneurs gain needed knowledge, grow professionally, and connect with people as they go through their entrepreneurial journeys.
LINK TO LEARNING
Go to the US Department of Labor’s blog post on women business owners and look at some of the facts listed about women business owners. Which ones surprised you the most?


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10.11: Collaborative Group Activities
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Your group has been asked by high NASA officials to start planning the first human colony on Mars. Begin by making a list of what sorts of things humans would need to bring along to be able to survive for years on the surface of the red planet.
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As a publicity stunt, the mayor of Venus, Texas (there really is such a town), proposes that NASA fund a mission to Venus with humans on board. Clearly, the good mayor neglected to take an astronomy course in college. Have your group assemble a list of as many reasons as possible why it is unlikely that humans will soon land on the surface of Venus.
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Even if humans would have trouble surviving on the surface of Venus, this does not mean we could not learn a lot more about our veiled sister planet. Have your group brainstorm a series of missions (pretend cost is no object) that would provide us with more detailed information about Venus’ atmosphere, surface, and interior.
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Sometime late in the twenty-first century, when travel to Mars has become somewhat routine, a very wealthy couple asks you to plan a honeymoon tour of Mars that includes the most spectacular sights on the red planet. Constitute your group as the Percival Lowell Memorial Tourist Agency, and come up with a list of not-to-be missed tourist stops on Mars.
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In the popular book and film, called
The Martian
, the drama really begins when our hero is knocked over and loses consciousness as he is half buried by an intense wind storm on Mars. Given what you have learned about Mars’ atmosphere in this chapter, have your group discuss how realistic that scenario is. (By the way, the author of the book has himself genially acknowledged in interviews and talks that this is a reasonable question to ask.)
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Astronomers have been puzzled and annoyed about the extensive media publicity that was given the small group of “true believers” who claimed the “Face on Mars” was not a natural formation (see the Astronomy and Pseudoscience: The “Face on Mars” feature box). Have your group make a list of the reasons many of the media were so enchanted by this story. What do you think astronomers could or should do to get the skeptical, scientific perspective about such issues before the public?
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Your group is a special committee of scientists set up by the United Nations to specify how any Mars samples should be returned to Earth so that possible martian microbes do not harm Earth life. What precautions would you recommend, starting at Mars and going all the way to the labs that analyze the martian samples back on Earth?
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Have your group brainstorm about Mars in popular culture. How many movies, songs or other music, and products can you think of connected with Mars? What are some reasons that Mars would be a popular theme for filmmakers, songwriters, and product designers?


6.1: Why It Matters
DESCRIBE EARTH INCLUDING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VARIOUS LAYERS; LEARN THE IMPLICATION OF THE DIFFERENT LAYERS
Introduction
Geologists cannot see directly into the interior of the Earth. They have to rely on various techniques and methods to infer the appearance and physical characteristics of earth’s interior. In this section, we will see how the Earth is structured, what the physical characteristics are, and just how this impacts us living on the Earth.
The Earth’s interior is the basis for geology. If you recall from the Plate Tectonics section, earth exists as we see it today because of plate tectonics. We also learned how plate tectonics is important in the formation of rock, mountains, volcanoes and earthquakes. Studying the interior of the Earth helps learn about all of these and the processes that helped create the Earth and currently drive plate tectonics.
Please watch this short video and take a trip through the various layers of the Earth down to its core:
Learning Outcomes
- Analyze and compare properties, material, and layers within the Earth’s geosphere
- Use a current working model of the planet’s interior to describe the Earth’s interior and its magnetism
Ok, let’s get started! [Or insert another appropriate transition statement here.]
Contributors and Attributions
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Original content from Kimberly Schulte (Columbia Basin College) and supplemented by Lumen Learning . The content on this page is copyrighted under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.


1.6: Homeostasis
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Discuss the role of homeostasis in healthy functioning
- Contrast negative and positive feedback, giving one physiologic example of each mechanism
Maintaining homeostasis requires that the body continuously monitor its internal conditions. From body temperature to blood pressure to levels of certain nutrients, each physiological condition has a particular set point. A set point is the physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates. A normal range is the restricted set of values that is optimally healthful and stable. For example, the set point for normal human body temperature is approximately 37°C (98.6°F) Physiological parameters, such as body temperature and blood pressure, tend to fluctuate within a normal range a few degrees above and below that point. Control centers in the brain and other parts of the body monitor and react to deviations from homeostasis using negative feedback. Negative feedback is a mechanism that reverses a deviation from the set point. Therefore, negative feedback maintains body parameters within their normal range. The maintenance of homeostasis by negative feedback goes on throughout the body at all times, and an understanding of negative feedback is thus fundamental to an understanding of human physiology.
Negative Feedback
A negative feedback system has three basic components (Figure 1.10 a ). A sensor , also referred to a receptor, is a component of a feedback system that monitors a physiological value. This value is reported to the control center. The control center is the component in a feedback system that compares the value to the normal range. If the value deviates too much from the set point, then the control center activates an effector. An effector is the component in a feedback system that causes a change to reverse the situation and return the value to the normal range.
In order to set the system in motion, a stimulus must drive a physiological parameter beyond its normal range (that is, beyond homeostasis). This stimulus is “heard” by a specific sensor. For example, in the control of blood glucose, specific endocrine cells in the pancreas detect excess glucose (the stimulus) in the bloodstream. These pancreatic beta cells respond to the increased level of blood glucose by releasing the hormone insulin into the bloodstream. The insulin signals skeletal muscle fibers, fat cells (adipocytes), and liver cells to take up the excess glucose, removing it from the bloodstream. As glucose concentration in the bloodstream drops, the decrease in concentration—the actual negative feedback—is detected by pancreatic alpha cells, and insulin release stops. This prevents blood sugar levels from continuing to drop below the normal range.
Humans have a similar temperature regulation feedback system that works by promoting either heat loss or heat gain (Figure 1.10 b ). When the brain’s temperature regulation center receives data from the sensors indicating that the body’s temperature exceeds its normal range, it stimulates a cluster of brain cells referred to as the “heat-loss center.” This stimulation has three major effects:
- Blood vessels in the skin begin to dilate allowing more blood from the body core to flow to the surface of the skin allowing the heat to radiate into the environment.
- As blood flow to the skin increases, sweat glands are activated to increase their output. As the sweat evaporates from the skin surface into the surrounding air, it takes heat with it.
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In contrast, activation of the brain’s heat-gain center by exposure to cold reduces blood flow to the skin, and blood returning from the limbs is diverted into a network of deep veins. This arrangement traps heat closer to the body core and restricts heat loss. If heat loss is severe, the brain triggers an increase in random signals to skeletal muscles, causing them to contract and producing shivering. The muscle contractions of shivering release heat while using up ATP. The brain triggers the thyroid gland in the endocrine system to release thyroid hormone, which increases metabolic activity and heat production in cells throughout the body. The brain also signals the adrenal glands to release epinephrine (adrenaline), a hormone that causes the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, which can be used as an energy source. The breakdown of glycogen into glucose also results in increased metabolism and heat production.
Interactive Link
Water concentration in the body is critical for proper functioning. A person’s body retains very tight control on water levels without conscious control by the person. Watch this video to learn more about water concentration in the body. Which organ has primary control over the amount of water in the body?
Positive Feedback
Positive feedback intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition rather than reversing it. A deviation from the normal range results in more change, and the system moves farther away from the normal range. Positive feedback in the body is normal only when there is a definite end point. Childbirth and the body’s response to blood loss are two examples of positive feedback loops that are normal but are activated only when needed.
Childbirth at full term is an example of a situation in which the maintenance of the existing body state is not desired. Enormous changes in a person’s body are required to expel the baby at the end of pregnancy. And the events of childbirth, once begun, must progress rapidly to a conclusion or the life of a person giving birth and the baby are at risk. The extreme muscular work of labor and delivery are the result of a positive feedback system (Figure 1.11).
The first contractions of labor (the stimulus) push the baby toward the cervix (the lowest part of the uterus). The cervix contains stretch-sensitive nerve cells that monitor the degree of stretching (the sensors). These nerve cells send messages to the brain, which in turn causes the pituitary gland at the base of the brain to release the hormone oxytocin into the bloodstream. Oxytocin causes stronger contractions of the smooth muscles in of the uterus (the effectors), pushing the baby further down the birth canal. This causes even greater stretching of the cervix. The cycle of stretching, oxytocin release, and increasingly more forceful contractions stops only when the baby is born. At this point, the stretching of the cervix halts, stopping the release of oxytocin.
A second example of positive feedback centers on reversing extreme damage to the body.    The body responds to this potential catastrophe by releasing substances in the injured blood vessel wall that begin the process of blood clotting. As each step of clotting occurs, it stimulates the release of more clotting substances. This accelerates the processes of clotting and sealing off the damaged area. Clotting is contained in a local area based on the tightly controlled availability of clotting proteins. This is an adaptive, life-saving cascade of events.


8.6: Major Minerals
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Similarly to vitamins, minerals are essential to human health and can be obtained in our diet from different types of food. Minerals are abundant in our everyday lives. From the soil in your front yard to the jewelry you wear on your body, we interact with minerals constantly. There are 20 essential minerals that must be consumed in our diets to remain healthy. The amount of each mineral found in our bodies vary greatly and therefore, so does consumption of those minerals. When there is a deficiency in an essential mineral, health problems may arise.
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- 8.6A: Introduction to Major Minerals
- Major minerals are classified as minerals that are required in the diet each day in amounts larger than 100 milligrams. These include sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and sulfur. These major minerals can be found in various foods. For example, in Guam, the major mineral, calcium, is consumed in the diet not only through dairy, a common source of calcium, but also through through the mixed dishes, desserts and vegetables that they consume.
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- 8.6B: Calcium
- Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and greater than 99% of it is stored in bone tissue. Although only 1% of the calcium in the human body is found in the blood and soft tissues, it is here that it performs the most critical functions. Blood calcium levels are rigorously controlled so that if blood levels drop the body will rapidly respond by stimulating bone resorption, thereby releasing stored calcium into the blood.
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- 8.6C: Phosphorus
- Phosphorus is present in our bodies as part of a chemical group called a phosphate group. These phosphate groups are essential as a structural component of cell membranes (as phospholipids), DNA and RNA, energy production (ATP), and regulation of acid-base homeostasis. Phosphorus however is mostly associated with calcium as a part of the mineral structure of bones and teeth.
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- 8.6D: Sulfur
- Sulfur is incorporated into protein structures in the body. Amino acids, methionine and cysteine contain sulfur which are essential for the antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase. Some vitamins like thiamin and biotin also contain sulfur which are important in regulating acidity in the body. Sulfur is a major mineral with no recommended intake or deficiencies when protein needs are met. Sulfur is mostly consumed as a part of dietary proteins and sulfur containing vitamins.
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- 8.6E: Magnesium
- Approximately 60 percent of magnesium in the human body is stored in the skeleton, making up about 1 percent of mineralized bone tissue. Magnesium is not an integral part of the hard mineral crystals, but it does reside on the surface of the crystal and helps maximize bone structure. Observational studies link magnesium deficiency with an increased risk for osteoporosis.
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- 8.6F: Sodium
- Sodium is vital not only for maintaining fluid balance but also for many other essential functions. In contrast to many minerals, sodium absorption in the small intestine is extremely efficient and in a healthy individual all excess sodium is excreted by the kidneys. In fact, very little sodium is required in the diet (about 200 milligrams) because the kidneys actively reabsorb sodium.
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- 8.6G: Chloride
- Chloride is the primary anion in extracellular fluid. In addition to passively following sodium, chloride has its own protein channels that reside in cell membranes. These protein channels are especially abundant in the gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, and lungs.
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- 8.6H: Potassium
- Potassium is the most abundant positively charged ion inside of cells. Ninety percent of potassium exists in intracellular fluid, with about 10 percent in extracellular fluid, and only 1 percent in blood plasma. As with sodium, potassium levels in the blood are strictly regulated. The hormone aldosterone is what primarily controls potassium levels, but other hormones (such as insulin) also play a role.
Thumbnail: Milk is an excellent source of calcium a major nutritional mineral. (CC BY-SA 3.0; Stefan Kühn ).


12.7.2: No - IT does NOT Matter
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Just as a consensus was forming about the value of IT, the Internet stock market bubble burst. Just two years later, in 2003, Harvard professor Nicholas Carr wrote his article “ IT Doesn’t Matter ” in the Harvard Business Review. In this article Carr asserts that as information technology has become more ubiquitous, it has also become less of a differentiator. In other words: because information technology is so readily available and the software used so easily copied, businesses cannot hope to implement these tools to provide any sort of competitive advantage. Carr goes on to suggest that since IT is essentially a commodity, it should be managed like one: low cost, low risk. Using the analogy of electricity, Carr describes how a firm should never be the first to try a new technology, thereby letting others take the risks . IT management should see themselves as a utility within the company and work to keep costs down . For IT, providing the best service with minimal downtime is the goal.
As you can imagine, this article caused quite an uproar, especially from IT companies. Many articles were written in defense of IT; many others in support of Carr. Carr released a book based on the article in 2004, entitled Does IT Matter? Click here to watch a video of Carr being interviewed about his book on CNET.
Probably the best thing to come out of the article and subsequent book was that it opened up discussion on the place of IT in a business strategy, and exactly what role IT could play in competitive advantage. It is that question that we want to address in the rest of the this chapter.
[Embed "IT Doesn't Matter" classroom video footage here: http://quickstream.biola.edu/distanc...n'tMatter.f4v]


1.1: Atmosphere and Climate Regulation
Life on earth plays a critical role in regulating the earth's physical, chemical, and geological properties, from influencing the chemical composition of the atmosphere to modifying climate.
About 3.5 billion years ago, early life forms (principally cyanobacteria) helped create an oxygenated atmosphere through photosynthesis, taking up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and releasing oxygen (Schopf 1983; Van Valen 1971). Over time, these organisms altered the composition of the atmosphere, increasing oxygen levels, and paved the way for organisms that use oxygen as an energy source (aerobic respiration), forming an atmosphere similar to that existing today.
Carbon cycles on the planet between the land, atmosphere, and oceans through a combination of physical, chemical, geological, and biological processes (IPCC 2001). One key way biodiversity influences the composition of the earth's atmosphere is through its role in carbon cycling in the oceans, the largest reservoir for carbon on the planet (Gruber and Sarmiento, in press). In turn, the atmospheric composition of carbon influences climate. Phytoplankton (or microscopic marine plants) play a central role in regulating atmospheric chemistry by transforming carbon dioxide into organic matter during photosynthesis. This carbon-laden organic matter settles either directly or indirectly (after it has been consumed) in the deep ocean, where it stays for centuries, or even thousands of years, acting as the major reservoir for carbon on the planet. In addition, carbon also reaches the deep ocean through another biological process -- the formation of calcium carbonate, the primary component of the shells in two groups of marine organisms coccolithophorids (a phytoplankton) and foraminifera (a single celled, shelled organism that is abundant in many marine environments). When these organisms die, their shells sink to the bottom or dissolve in the water column. This movement of carbon through the oceans removes excess carbon from the atmosphere and regulates the earth's climate.
Over the last century, humans have changed the atmosphere's composition by releasing large amounts of carbon dioxide. This excess carbon dioxide, along with other 'greenhouse' gases, is believed to be heating up our atmosphere and changing the world's climate, leading to 'global warming'. There has been much debate about how natural processes, such as the cycling of carbon through phytoplankton in the oceans, will respond to these changes. Will phytoplankton productivity increase and thereby absorb the extra carbon from the atmosphere? Recent studies suggest that natural processes may slow the rate of increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, but it is doubtful that either the earth's oceans or its forests can absorb the entirety of the extra carbon released by human activity (Falkowski et al. 2000).


23.5A: Breakdown of Pyruvate
After glycolysis, pyruvate is converted into acetyl CoA in order to enter the citric acid cycle.
- Explain why cells break down pyruvate
Key Points
- In the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA, each pyruvate molecule loses one carbon atom with the release of carbon dioxide.
- During the breakdown of pyruvate, electrons are transferred to NAD+ to produce NADH, which will be used by the cell to produce ATP.
- In the final step of the breakdown of pyruvate, an acetyl group is transferred to Coenzyme A to produce acetyl CoA.
Key Terms
- acetyl CoA : a molecule that conveys the carbon atoms from glycolysis (pyruvate) to the citric acid cycle to be oxidized for energy production
Breakdown of Pyruvate
In order for pyruvate, the product of glycolysis, to enter the next pathway, it must undergo several changes to become acetyl Coenzyme A (acetyl CoA). Acetyl CoA is a molecule that is further converted to oxaloacetate, which enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle). The conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA is a three-step process.
Breakdown of Pyruvate : Each pyruvate molecule loses a carboxylic group in the form of carbon dioxide. The remaining two carbons are then transferred to the enzyme CoA to produce Acetyl CoA.
Step 1. A carboxyl group is removed from pyruvate, releasing a molecule of carbon dioxide into the surrounding medium. (Note: carbon dioxide is one carbon attached to two oxygen atoms and is one of the major end products of cellular respiration. ) The result of this step is a two-carbon hydroxyethyl group bound to the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase; the lost carbon dioxide is the first of the six carbons from the original glucose molecule to be removed. This step proceeds twice for every molecule of glucose metabolized (remember: there are two pyruvate molecules produced at the end of glycolysis); thus, two of the six carbons will have been removed at the end of both of these steps.
Step 2. The hydroxyethyl group is oxidized to an acetyl group, and the electrons are picked up by NAD + , forming NADH (the reduced form of NAD+). The high- energy electrons from NADH will be used later by the cell to generate ATP for energy.
Step 3. The enzyme-bound acetyl group is transferred to CoA, producing a molecule of acetyl CoA. This molecule of acetyl CoA is then further converted to be used in the next pathway of metabolism, the citric acid cycle.


3.1: Definitional Argument Essay
For a definitional essay, you need to write an argument that a borderline or contested case fits (or does not fit) within a particular category by classifying that particular case and defining the category.
Definitional arguments require a definition of key terms:
Joe is too bossy.
Define “bossy” and provide examples of his bossy attitude (poor listening skills, shouting at people, making decisions without asking committee—these are what define “bossy” in your argument.
Low-carb diets are dangerous.
Define what constitutes “low-carb” and define what you mean by “dangerous.” Cite studies showing harmful effects, how substances affect the body, etc.
Criteria-Match Structure:
The criteria section of your argument explains and illustrates your criteria.
The match section of your argument persuades the reader that your example meets those criteria.
Although the Hercules Shoe Company is nonpolluting and provides a socially useful product, [CLAIM] it is not a socially responsible company [BECAUSE CLAUSE] because it treats its workers unjustly.
Criteria Part: What points must be met for a company to be deemed “socially responsible”?
- (1) Research how others have defined your term (dictionaries, judicial opinions, expert testimony, etc.
- (2) Use your own critical thinking to make your own extended definition.
Match Part : In what ways does the shoe company meet those points?
- (1) Supply examples of how this and other situations meet your criteria.
- (2) Give other evidence about how your example meets your criteria.
For your Definitional Argument Essay:
- introduce the issue and state the claim
- define key terms
- present your first criterion and argument that your case meets your definition
- present your second criterion and argument that your case meets your definition
- present your third criterion and argument that your case meets your definition (if necessary)
- anticipate and respond to possible objections/arguments
- conclude with return to the “big picture,” what is at stake, why your argument is important, etc.
Definitional Argument Essay Proposal
- What vague or arguable term, phrase, or situation are you defining?
- What scenario are you going to use to introduce your claim?
- What is your first (1) criterion and (2) argument that your case meets your definition?
- What is your second (1) criterion and (2) argument that your case meets your definition?
- What is your third (1) criterion and (2) argument that your case meets your definition?
- What are your (1) anticipated objections/arguments and (2) responses to them?
- How will you conclude with return to the “big picture,” what is at stake, why your argument is important, etc?


28.3: The American Dream
Against the backdrop of the Cold War, Americans dedicated themselves to building a peaceful and prosperous society after the deprivation and instability of the Great Depression and World War II. Dwight D. Eisenhower, the general who led the United States to victory in Europe in 1945, proved to be the perfect president for the new era. Lacking strong conservative positions, he steered a middle path between conservatism and liberalism, and presided over a peacetime decade of economic growth and social conformity. In foreign affairs, Eisenhower’s New Look policy simultaneously expanded the nation’s nuclear arsenal and prevented the expansion of the defense budget for conventional forces.
WE LIKE IKE
After Harry Truman declined to run again for the presidency, the election of 1952 emerged as a contest between the Democratic nominee, Illinois governor Adlai Stevenson, and Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower, who had directed American forces in Europe during World War II (Figure 28.3.1). Eisenhower campaigned largely on a promise to end the war in Korea, a conflict the public had grown weary of fighting. He also vowed to fight Communism both at home and abroad, a commitment he demonstrated by choosing as his running mate Richard M. Nixon, a congressman who had made a name for himself by pursuing Communists, notably former State Department employee and suspected Soviet agent Alger Hiss.
In 1952, Eisenhower supporters enthusiastically proclaimed “We Like Ike,” and Eisenhower defeated Stevenson by winning 54 percent of the popular vote and 87 percent of the electoral vote (Figure 28.3.2). When he assumed office in 1953, Eisenhower employed a leadership style he had developed during his years of military service. He was calm and willing to delegate authority regarding domestic affairs to his cabinet members, allowing him to focus his own efforts on foreign policy. Unlike many earlier presidents, such as Harry Truman, Eisenhower was largely nonpartisan and consistently sought a middle ground between liberalism and conservatism. He strove to balance the federal budget, which appealed to conservative Republicans, but retained much of the New Deal and even expanded Social Security. He maintained high levels of defense spending but, in his farewell speech in 1961, warned about the growth of the military-industrial complex, the matrix of relationships between officials in the Department of Defense and executives in the defense industry who all benefited from increases in defense spending. He disliked the tactics of Joseph McCarthy but did not oppose him directly, preferring to remain above the fray. He saw himself as a leader called upon to do his best for his country, not as a politician engaged in a contest for advantage over rivals.
In keeping with his goal of a balanced budget, Eisenhower switched the emphasis in defense from larger conventional forces to greater stockpiles of nuclear weapons. His New Look strategy embraced nuclear “massive retaliation,” a plan for nuclear response to a first Soviet strike so devastating that the attackers would not be able to respond. Some labeled this approach “Mutually Assured Destruction” or MAD.
Part of preparing for a possible war with the Soviet Union was informing the American public what to do in the event of a nuclear attack. The government provided instructions for building and equipping bomb shelters in the basement or backyard, and some cities constructed municipal shelters. Schools purchased dog tags to help identify students in the aftermath of an attack and showed children instructional films telling them what to do if atomic bombs were dropped on the city where they lived.
To prepare its citizens for the possibility of nuclear war, in 1950, the U.S. government published and distributed informative pamphlets such as “A Guide for Surviving Nuclear War” excerpted here.
Just like fire bombs and ordinary high explosives, atomic weapons cause most of their death and damage by blast and heat. So first let’s look at a few things you can do to escape these two dangers.
Even if you have only a second’s warning, there is one important thing you can do to lessen your chances of injury by blast: Fall flat on your face.
More than half of all wounds are the result of being bodily tossed about or being struck by falling and flying objects. If you lie down flat, you are least likely to be thrown about. If you have time to pick a good spot, there is less chance of your being struck by flying glass and other things.
If you are inside a building, the best place to flatten out is close against the cellar wall. If you haven’t time to get down there, lie down along an inside wall, or duck under a bed or table. . . .
If caught out-of-doors, either drop down alongside the base of a good substantial building—avoid flimsy, wooden ones likely to be blown over on top of you—or else jump in any handy ditch or gutter.
When you fall flat to protect yourself from a bombing, don’t look up to see what is coming. Even during the daylight hours, the flash from a bursting A-bomb can cause several moments of blindness, if you’re facing that way. To prevent it, bury your face in your arms and hold it there for 10 to 12 seconds after the explosion. . . .
If you work in the open, always wear full-length, loose-fitting, light-colored clothes in time of emergency.  Always wear a hat—the brim could save you a serious face burn.
What do you think was the purpose of these directions? Do you think they could actually help people survive an atomic bomb blast? If not, why publish such booklets?
View this short instructional film made in 1951 that teaches elementary school children what to do in the event an atomic bomb is dropped. Why do you think officials tried to convey the message that a nuclear attack was survivable?
Government and industry allocated enormous amounts of money to the research and development of more powerful weapons. This investment generated rapid strides in missile technology as well as increasingly sensitive radar. Computers that could react more quickly than humans and thereby shoot down speeding missiles were also investigated. Many scientists on both sides of the Cold War, including captured Germans such as rocket engineer Werner von Braun, worked on these devices. An early success for the West came in 1950, when Alan Turing, a British mathematician who had broken Germany’s Enigma code during World War II, created a machine that mimicked human thought. His discoveries led scientists to consider the possibility of developing true artificial intelligence.
However, the United States often feared that the Soviets were making greater strides in developing technology with potential military applications. This was especially true following the Soviet Union’s launch of Sputnik (Figure 28.3.3), the first manmade satellite, in October 1957. In September 1958, Congress passed the National Defense Education Act, which pumped over $775 million into educational programs over four years, especially those programs that focused on math and science. Congressional appropriations to the National Science Foundation also increased by $100 million in a single year, from $34 million in 1958 to $134 million in 1959. One consequence of this increased funding was the growth of science and engineering programs at American universities.
In the diplomatic sphere, Eisenhower pushed Secretary of State John Foster Dulles to take a firmer stance against the Soviets to reassure European allies of continued American support. At the same time, keenly sensing that the stalemate in Korea had cost Truman his popularity, Eisenhower worked to avoid being drawn into foreign wars. Thus, when the French found themselves fighting Vietnamese Communists for control of France’s former colony of Indochina, Eisenhower provided money but not troops. Likewise, the United States took no steps when Hungary attempted to break away from Soviet domination in 1956. The United States also refused to be drawn in when Great Britain, France, and Israel invaded the Suez Canal Zone following Egypt’s nationalization of the canal in 1956. Indeed, Eisenhower, wishing to avoid conflict with the Soviet Union, threatened to impose economic sanctions on the invading countries if they did not withdraw.
SUBURBANIZATION
Although the Eisenhower years were marked by fear of the Soviet Union and its military might, they were also a time of peace and prosperity. Even as many Americans remained mired in poverty, many others with limited economic opportunities, like African Americans or union workers, were better off financially in the 1950s and rose into the ranks of the middle class. Wishing to build the secure life that the Great Depression had deprived their parents of, young men and women married in record numbers and purchased homes where they could start families of their own. In 1940, the rate of homeownership in the United States was 43.6 percent. By 1960, it was almost 62 percent. Many of these newly purchased homes had been built in the new suburban areas that began to encircle American cities after the war. Although middle-class families had begun to move to the suburbs beginning in the nineteenth century, suburban growth accelerated rapidly after World War II.
Several factors contributed to this development. During World War II, the United States had suffered from a housing shortage, especially in cities with shipyards or large defense plants. Now that the war was over, real estate developers and contractors rushed to alleviate the scarcity. Unused land on the fringes of American cities provided the perfect place for new housing, which attracted not only the middle class, which had long sought homes outside the crowded cities, but also blue-collar workers who took advantage of the low-interest mortgages offered by the GI Bill.
An additional factor was the use of prefabricated construction techniques pioneered during World War II, which allowed houses complete with plumbing, electrical wiring, and appliances to be built and painted in a day. Employing these methods, developers built acres of inexpensive tract housing throughout the country. One of the first developers to take advantage of this method was William Levitt, who purchased farmland in Nassau County, Long Island, in 1947 and built thousands of prefabricated houses. The new community was named Levittown.
Levitt’s houses cost only $8,000 and could be bought with little or no down payment. The first day they were offered for sale, more than one thousand were purchased. Levitt went on to build similar developments, also called Levittown, in New Jersey and Pennsylvania (Figure 28.3.4). As developers around the country rushed to emulate him, the name Levittown became synonymous with suburban tract housing, in which entire neighborhoods were built to either a single plan or a mere handful of designs. The houses were so similar that workers told of coming home late at night and walking into the wrong one. Levittown homes were similar in other ways as well; most were owned by white families. Levitt used restrictive language in his agreements with potential homeowners to ensure that only whites would live in his communities.
In the decade between 1950 and 1960, the suburbs grew by 46 percent. The transition from urban to suburban life exerted profound effects on both the economy and society. For example, fifteen of the largest U.S. cities saw their tax bases shrink significantly in the postwar period, and the apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives shifted to the suburbs and away from urban areas.
The development of the suburbs also increased reliance on the automobile for transportation. Suburban men drove to work in nearby cities or, when possible, were driven to commuter rail stations by their wives. In the early years of suburban development, before schools, parks, and supermarkets were built, access to an automobile was crucial, and the pressure on families to purchase a second one was strong. As families rushed to purchase them, the annual production of passenger cars leaped from 2.2 million to 8 million between 1946 and 1955, and by 1960, about 20 percent of suburban families owned two cars. The growing number of cars on the road changed consumption patterns, and drive-in and drive-through convenience stores, restaurants, and movie theaters began to dot the landscape. The first McDonalds opened in San Bernardino, California, in 1954 to cater to drivers in a hurry.
As drivers jammed highways and small streets in record numbers, cities and states rushed to build additional roadways and ease congestion. To help finance these massive construction efforts, states began taxing gasoline, and the federal government provided hundreds of thousands of dollars for the construction of the interstate highway system (Figure 28.3.5). The resulting construction projects, designed to make it easier for suburbanites to commute to and from cities, often destroyed urban working-class neighborhoods. Increased funding for highway construction also left less money for public transportation, making it impossible for those who could not afford automobiles to live in the suburbs.
THE ORGANIZATION MAN
As the government poured money into the defense industry and into universities that conducted research for the government, the economy boomed. The construction and automobile industries employed thousands, as did the industries they relied upon: steel, oil and gasoline refining, rubber, and lumber. As people moved into new homes, their purchases of appliances, carpeting, furniture, and home decorations spurred growth in other industries. The building of miles of roads also employed thousands. Unemployment was low, and wages for members of both the working and middle classes were high.
Following World War II, the majority of white Americans were members of the middle class, based on such criteria as education, income, and home ownership. Even most blue-collar families could afford such elements of a middle-class lifestyle as new cars, suburban homes, and regular vacations. Most African Americans, however, were not members of the middle class. In 1950, the median income for white families was $20,656, whereas for black families it was $11,203. By 1960, when the average white family earned $28,485 a year, blacks still lagged behind at $15,786; nevertheless, this represented a more than 40 percent increase in African American income in the space of a decade.
While working-class men found jobs in factories and on construction crews, those in the middle class often worked for corporations that, as a result of government spending, had grown substantially during World War II and were still getting larger. Such corporations, far too large to allow managers to form personal relationships with all of their subordinates, valued conformity to company rules and standards above all else. In his best-selling book The Organization Man , however, William H. Whyte criticized the notion that conformity was the best path to success and self-fulfillment.
Conformity was still the watchword of suburban life: Many neighborhoods had rules mandating what types of clotheslines could be used and prohibited residents from parking their cars on the street. Above all, conforming to societal norms meant marrying young and having children. In the post-World War II period, marriage rates rose; the average age at first marriage dropped to twenty-three for men and twenty for women. Between 1946 and 1964, married couples also gave birth to the largest generation in U.S. history to date; this baby boom resulted in the cohort known as the baby boomers. Conformity also required that the wives of both working- and middle-class men stay home and raise children instead of working for wages outside the home. Most conformed to this norm, at least while their children were young. Nevertheless, 40 percent of women with young children and half of women with older children sought at least part-time employment. They did so partly out of necessity and partly to pay for the new elements of “the good life”—second cars, vacations, and college education for their children.
The children born during the baby boom were members of a more privileged generation than their parents had been. Entire industries sprang up to cater to their need for clothing, toys, games, books, and breakfast cereals. For the first time in U.S. history, attending high school was an experience shared by the majority, regardless of race or region. As the baby boomers grew into adolescence, marketers realized that they not only controlled large amounts of disposable income earned at part-time jobs, but they exerted a great deal of influence over their parents’ purchases as well. Madison Avenue began to appeal to teenage interests. Boys yearned for cars, and girls of all ethnicities wanted boyfriends who had them. New fashion magazines for adolescent girls, such as Seventeen , advertised the latest clothing and cosmetics, and teen romance magazines, like Copper Romance , a publication for young African American women, filled drugstore racks. The music and movie industries also altered their products to appeal to affluent adolescents who were growing tired of parental constraints.
Section Summary
In 1953, Dwight D. Eisenhower became president of the United States. Fiscally conservative but ideologically moderate, he sought to balance the budget while building a strong system of national defense. This defense policy led to a greater emphasis on the possible use of nuclear weapons in any confrontation with the Soviet Union. Committed to maintaining peace, however, Eisenhower avoided engaging the United States in foreign conflicts; during his presidency, the economy boomed. Young Americans married in record numbers, moved to the growing suburbs, and gave birth to the largest generation to date in U.S. history. As middle-class adults, they conformed to the requirements of corporate jobs and suburban life, while their privileged children enjoyed a consumer culture tailored to their desires.
Review Questions
The name of the first manmade satellite, launched by the Soviet Union in 1957, was ________.
Triton
Cosmolskaya
Pravda
Sputnik
D
The first Levittown was built ________.
in Bucks County, Pennsylvania
in Nassau County, New York
near Newark, New Jersey
near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
B
How did suburbanization help the economy?
The construction of houses meant more work for people in the construction trades, including plumbers and electricians, and for those who worked in the lumber and appliance industries. The growth of the suburbs also led to a boom in the manufacture and sale of automobiles, which, in turn, created jobs for those in the steel, rubber, and oil industries.
Glossary
- baby boom
- a marked increase in the U.S. birthrate during 1946–1964
- Levittowns
- suburban housing developments consisting of acres of mass-produced homes
- massive retaliation
- a defense strategy, sometimes called “mutually assured destruction” or MAD, adopted by Eisenhower that called for launching a large-scale nuclear attack on the Soviet Union in response to a first Soviet strike at the United States
- military-industrial complex
- the matrix of relationships between officials in the Defense Department and executives in the defense industry who all benefited from increases in defense spending
- Sputnik
- the first manmade orbital satellite, launched by the Soviet Union in October 1957


15.1: Module Introduction
“The scientific issues that engage people most are the truly fundamental ones: is the universe infinite? Is life just a sideshow in the cosmos? What happened before the Big Bang? Everyone is flummoxed by such questions, so there is, in a sense, no gulf between experts and the rest. ”
Dr. Martin Rees, The Lord Rees of Ludlow
Astrophysicist
(1942- )
This module presents an overview of our home galaxy, the Milky Way Galaxy, its characteristics, satellite galaxies, and how it compares to other galaxies.
Objectives
Upon completion of this module, the student will be able to:Upon completion of this module, the student will be able to:
- Describe the Big Bang Theory, including the theory’s strengths and weaknesses
- Describe different cosmological views of the Universe


8.9: Mass Communication References
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Contributions and Affiliations
- Survey of Communication Study. Authored by : Scott T Paynton and Linda K Hahn. Provided by : Humboldt State University. Located at : en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Survey_of_Communication_Study. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike