4.2.4: Tian Han - The Tale of the White Snake
Europe and the United States are, of course, not alone in developing sung drama traditions. Examples of musical drama can be found around the world. Here we will examine two, each of which has a unique set of characteristics and each of which—like European opera—requires years of dedicated training for those who desire careers as performers. Each of these traditions—also like European opera— is highly heterogeneous. Different styles and forms have dominated in different eras, and one can encounter a variety of contemporary practices.
Beijing Opera
The form of musical theater known as Beijing opera is the most popular of the many forms of Chinese opera. Although the roots of Chinese opera extend back thousands of years, Beijing opera dates only to 1790—about when Mozart set to work on The Magic Flute . This particular form is said to have emerged when four regional opera troupes visited the Beijing court simultaneously to celebrate the 80th birthday of the Emperor. Although Beijing opera (like Italian opera) was available only as courtly entertainment for several decades, it soon found favor with the broader public, and by 1845 its conventions were both firmly established and widely enjoyed.
Beijing opera combines a variety of different art forms, and its practitioners must be well-versed not only in singing but also in gesture, dance, makeup application, and acrobatics. Traditionally, children were apprenticed to travelling troupes. They were offered little formal education, and were instead expected to learn through imitation. Today, this system has been replaced by formal schooling. Other changes have also shaped the tradition. Until the 1890s, all Beijing opera performers were men, many of whom specialized in female roles. When women first began to perform, they were confined to all-female troupes— some members of which, naturally enough, had to take on male roles. Troupes were integrated following the founding of the Republic of China in 1911, but men continue frequently to perform female roles, especially that of the beautiful young woman.
The roles in Beijing opera are highly standardized. There are four character types: Sheng (the lead male), Dan (any female), Jing (a forceful male), and Chou (the clown). Each character type has a variety of subtypes based on age and social status. An actor must specialize in playing a specific character type, for each has a distinct manner of speaking, singing, and moving. The Jing types also wear special face paint, the designs of which reveal facets of their character and mark them as being on the side of good or evil.
Many genres of Chinese music, including Beijing opera, are categorized into “civil” and “martial” works. Civil operas concern the court intrigues and love interests of the aristocracy, while
martial operas contain scenes of military conflict. Plots of both types are drawn from history, traditional stories, and novels, all of which are already familiar to the audience. A single opera will usually present only a few episodes from a much longer story, and it is typical to combine serious and comical elements.
Like the operas themselves, the orchestra that provides music for Beijing opera is divided into civil and martial instrument groups. The civil group contains string instruments.
The most significant of these is the jinghu , a high-pitched bowed fiddle after which the genre itself is named. The other principal instrument is the yueqin , a moon-shaped lute with four strings. The martial group—which might also be described as the percussion section—contains gongs of different sizes, cymbals, and a pair of instruments known as guban that consists of a high-pitched drum and a wooden clapper. These last are the most important, as they are played by the ensemble director. This person has a challenging task, for the percussion section must accompany action, punctuate speech, and provide sound effects—all of which requires precise timing. The orchestra might also contain additional lutes and wind instruments.
The division of the Beijing opera orchestra into string, wind, and percussion sections mirrors the European orchestra. However, there are significant differences both in the makeup of the ensemble and in its function. A Beijing opera orchestra usually contains only one player per instrument, and the music performed by the orchestra is heterophonic in texture, meaning that all of the instruments play the same melody, but not in perfect unison. Instead, each player interprets the melody in a way that is appropriate to the instrument, contributing ornaments or adding/removing pitches as considered suitable.
Beijing opera performances contain various types of orchestral and vocal music. None of this music, however, is composed for a specific opera. Instead, the melodies all belong to the tradition in general, and they are used by individual performers to characterize specific roles. Certain instrumental pieces, for example, are always played to accompany certain scenes, such as a banquet or the arrival of an important character. Onstage characters sing short arias in one of two modes: xipi for happy or energetic lyrics, and erhuang for serious or heroic lyrics. Each mode arranges the pitches of the pentatonic scale (degrees 1 2 3 5 and 6 of the major scale) in a different way, and the melodies in each tend to have different shapes.
For this reason, individual operas in this tradition do not have composers. The plots and dialogues are crafted by playwrights, but the music is drawn from a communal store. The same arias and instrumental numbers will be heard in a variety of different works. The singers themselves also have a great deal of control over the music, which will reflect their training, style, and vocal range. It is generally considered desirable to sing the arias as high as possible, so it is the onstage performers who determine what key the music will be in. While this level of flexibility will seem unusual to someone who is used to Western opera or musical theater, Beijing opera is in fact remarkably rigid when compared to other Chinese opera forms. The Shenqu opera of Shanghai, for example, can be completely improvised, with plots based on the news stories of the day.
The vocal timbre used in Beijing opera is one of its most remarkable features. Singers strive to produce a piercing, nasal sound with a slow, controlled vibrato. They will sometimes slide between pitches, each of which is carefully placed. The speech in Beijing opera is also highly stylized, and is often delivered in high range. To accomplish this, male actors frequently employ falsetto when singing and speaking. Actors employ an ancient dialect that is not always intelligible to modern listeners, but they communicate as much with their gestures and steps as with their voices. The Chou (clown) is the only character permitted by tradition to speak in modern Beijing dialect or to improvise onstage.
Finally, a word about the trappings of the stage. Costumes are often elaborate, and they always reflect the social status of the character. Sleeves are especially
important, and are carefully managed by the actors for expressive purposes. Stage sets, however, tend to be minimal or non-existent. Audiences are expected to imagine the scene, which is brought to life through the use of symbolic props. A table, for example, might serve as a wall, a mountain, or a bed, while a single oar is enough to suggest the presence of a boat.
The Tale of the White Snake
We will see all of these elements at play in our example, Tian Han’s dramatization of The Tale of the White Snake . The source of this opera is a legend concerning a white snake spirit that transforms into a young woman named Bai Suzhen after consuming a substance that grants immortality and wisdom. The legend contains many episodes, but Tian chose to focus on events that lead up to and follow Bai’s marriage to Xu Xian, who through a twist of fate was originally responsible for her powers. Tian himself was a leading playwright in the first half of the 20th century, but he was condemned by Mao’s government in 1966 for writing a play that was considered to undermine Communist values. He died in prison two years later.
We will examine two scenes from The Tale of the White Snake , which, as a typical martial opera, contains both civil and martial scenes. The first, a civil scene, comes from near the beginning of the opera. Bai Suzhen and her friend Xiao Qing (also previously a snake) have been caught in a downpour when they meet Xu Xian.
The three of them share a boat, and Bai and Xu proceed to fall in love. This excerpt will allow us to hear a variety of speech and song types, to hear the orchestra in its various roles, and to witness the conventions by which actors communicate their emotions and conjure up absent settings and props.
The second scene, which is martial in character, concludes the initial episode of the couple’s romance. A few months after their marriage, Xu dies of fright after seeing his wife in her snake spirit form. Bai has journeyed to Mount Emei, home of the immortals, where she hopes to obtain a magical fungus that will bring Xu back to life. This scene contains almost no singing, but instead features acrobatics and martial arts as Bai battles the guardians of the sacred shrine.
Our first scene begins with the entrance of Xu Xian, who sings an aria to explain his recent activities, describe the weather, and clarify that he has no interest in love. He sings in a high, falsetto range, as is typical of Sheng-type characters. The orchestra both accompanies and doubles him, following the contour of his melody and arriving at the same final pitches. The orchestra, however, does not play only what he sings, but also tacks on repeated motifs that add rhythmic and melodic interest. Although the aria has a regular pulse for the most part, it slows at the end as the singer adds ornaments to draw out the final notes.
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First excerpt from The Tale of the White Snake . Playwright: Tian Han. Performance: Chinese National Peking Opera Company |
Xu’s aria is followed by spoken dialogue between the characters, which is punctuated by percussive bursts. Soon, however, they are interrupted by singing from offstage. This aria, performed by a boatman, is quite different in character from Xu’s lively aria. It is slower and the notes more connected to one another—a style that would be described in the West as legato . Also, the boatman’s aria is accompanied by the dizi , a bamboo flute, in addition to the standard instruments. Finally, the heterophonic texture is more clear, since the orchestral instruments double the voice without adding any additional pitches.
Xu engages the boatman to take him and the two ladies to their destinations, and the boatman invites them to board. There is, of course, no boat. Instead, the actors help us to imagine it using carefully choreographed actions. After Bai and Xiao step into the boat, for example, they sway back and forth in perfect unison, as if being rocked by gentle waves. The journey of the boat is accompanied by appropriate music from the orchestra, to the melody of which the boatman sings a suitable Chinese proverb.
During the journey, all three characters engage in an extended accompanied musical number that combines singing and speaking. Again, the conclusion of the aria, sung by Bai, slows gradually to a stop as she makes the vital observation that Xu is a very nice young man. Pantomime and speech follow as the boat arrives at its first destination. The scene concludes with another musical sequence, in which Bai thanks Xu for his aid. Her final warning that he not break her heart is particularly effective: She draws the words out, singing unaccompanied for some time and concluding with a long series of ornaments. The phrase “gaze through autumn waters” is an idiom that indicates that one is waiting expectantly for another with tears in one’s eyes.
The scene ends with orchestral music to accompany Bai and Xiao’s departure from the stage. We now hear another instrument clearly: the sheng , or mouth organ. The sheng consists of a series of vertical reed pipes attached to a mouthpiece. The instrument is held with both hands, and the player positions their fingers over openings to sound the various pipes. The sheng will be heard during interludes such as this throughout the opera, although it seldom accompanies singing.
The scene we have just examined includes a typical mix of song, speech, and instrumental music, accompanied by symbolic movement and punctuated with percussive sound effects. As in European opera, speech (often cast as recitative in the Western tradition) moves the plot along, while song provides an opportunity for characters to express their emotions or reflect on what has happened.
Our next scene10 is quite different. Because this scene is martial in character, the focus is not on speech or song but on action. Bai sings to mark her entrance onto the stage, but she then executes an extended martial display to percussion accompaniment. Next she sings an excited aria about her mission to save her husband. When the guardian of the shrine blocks Bai’s way, she begs his mercy using speech. He refuses to assist her, and they enter into a long physical battle accompanied only by the percussion section. The battle features remarkable acrobatics from both of the guardians, who represent a Chou character type known as Wu Chou, or “military clown.”
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Second excerpt from The Tale of the White Snake. Playwright: Tian Han. Performance: Chinese National Peking Opera Company |
Bai is ultimately defeated by the guardians, but the scene ends with an elder immortal gifting the magical fungus to Bai and sending her away to revive her husband. The two characters do not sing, but their dramatic and highly melodic speech is executed over orchestral accompaniment featuring both the dizi and sheng . After the long stretch of percussive music, the entrance of the full orchestra effectively underscores the emotion of the scene, communicating both the mercy of the immortal and the grateful joy of Bai.


Dipole-dipole Forces
Skills to Develop
- Define and illustrate dipole-dipole forces
Dipole-dipole forces are probably the simplest to understand. You probably already know that in an ionic solid like NaCl, the solid is held together by Coulomb attractions between the oppositely-charges ions. The Na + and Cl - ions alternate so the Coulomb forces are attractive. Dipole-dipole forces work the same way, except that the charges are smaller. A good example is HF (this is also an example of a special type of dipole-dipole force called a hydrogen bonding ). In HF, the bond is a very polar covalent bond. That means there is a partial negative (δ-) charge on F and partial positive (δ+) charge on H, and the molecule has a permanent dipole (the electrons always spend more time on F). In the liquid or solid HF, the molecules arrange themselves so that the δ- and δ+ are close together. These partial charges attract each other, and this attraction is what we call dipole-dipole forces. Any molecule with a permanent dipole has dipole-dipole forces that hold the molecules next to each other as a solid or liquid.
Outside Links
- Khan Academy: States of Matter (19 min)
- Khan Academy: Van der Waals Forces (12 min)
- CrashCourse Chemistry: Liquids (11 min)


5.15D: Anaerobiosis and N₂ Fixation
- Outline the various mechanisms utilized by nitrogen-fixing bacteria to protect nitrogenases from oxygen
Central to nitrogen fixation (N 2 to NH 3 ) are the enzymes that do the actual fixation, these are known as nitrogenases. Due to the oxidation carried out by oxygen, most nitrogenases, which are essential large reduction complexes are irreversibly inhibited by O 2 , which degradatively oxidizes the Fe-S cofactors. In essence, O 2 binds to the iron (Fe) found in nitrogenases and blocks their ability to bind to N 2 . To protect nitrogenases, there are mechanisms for nitrogen fixers to protect nitrogenase from oxygen in vivo. One known exception is the nitrogenase of Streptomyces thermoautotrophicus, which is unaffected by the presence of oxygen. This is complicated by the fact the bacteria still need the presence of oxygen for proper respiration.
Some microbes have a proteoglycan rich extra cellular matrix which traps a layer of water, often referred to as a slime layer. This slime layer acts as a barrier for oxygen. The ability of some nitrogen fixers such as azotobacteraceae to employ an oxygen-amendable nitrogenase under aerobic conditions has been attributed to a high metabolic rate, allowing oxygen reduction at the cell membrane; however, the effectiveness of this mechanism is in question.
Many rhizobia, nitrogen fixing bacteria, live in a symbiotic relationship with plants known as legumes. They have an interesting strategy to deal with O 2 . In plants infected with Rhizobium, (legumes such as alfalfa or soybeans), the presence of oxygen in the root nodules would reduce the activity of the oxygen-sensitive nitrogenase. In these situations, the roots of such plants produce a protein known as leghemoglobin (also leghaemoglobin or legoglobin). Leghemoglobin buffers the concentration of free oxygen in the cytoplasm of infected plant cells to ensure the proper function of root nodules. Leghemoglobin is a nitrogen or oxygen carrier; naturally occurring oxygen and nitrogen interact similarly with this protein. Leghemoglobin buffers the concentration of free oxygen in the cytoplasm of infected plant cells to ensure the proper function of root nodules. It has close chemical and structural similarities to hemoglobin, and, like hemoglobin, is red in colour. Leghemoglobin has a high affinity for oxygen, about ten times higher than of human hemoglobin. This allows an oxygen concentration that is low enough to allow nitrogenase to function but not so high as to bind all the O 2 in the bacteria, providing the bacteria with oxygen for respiration.
Leghemoglobin is produced by legumes in response to the roots being infected by rhizobia, as part of the symbiotic interaction between the plant and these nitrogen-fixing bacterium. Interestingly, it is widely believed that leghemoglobin is the product of both the plant and the bacterium in which a protein precursor is produced by the plant and the heme (an iron atom bound in a porphyrin ring, which binds O 2 ) is produced by the bacterium. The protein and heme come together to function, allowing the bacteria to fix-nitrogen, giving the plant usable nitrogen and thus the plant provides the rhizobia a home.
Key Points
- The iron (Fe) found in nitrogenases is very sensitive to oxygen, if there is too much oxygen this will in the end disrupt nitrogenase function.
- Some bacteria produce barriers which protect themselves from oxygen, while others use proteins such as leghemoglobin to bind up oxygen which may interfere with nitrogenases.
- Portions of leghemoglobin are thought to be produced by rhizobia residing in plant nodules, while other parts are produced by the plant, an elegant example of symbiosis.
Key Terms
- oxidation : A reaction in which the atoms of an element lose electrons and the valence of the element increases.
- reduction : A reaction in which electrons are gained and valence is reduced; often by the removal of oxygen or the addition of hydrogen.
- proteoglycan : Any of many glycoproteins that have heteropolysaccharide side chains


3.1: Overview of Meiosis
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- Ying Liu
- City College of San Francisco
Sexual reproduction requires fertilization , a union of two cells from two individual organisms. If those two cells each contain one set of chromosomes, then the resulting cell contains two sets of chromosomes. The number of sets of chromosomes in a cell is called its ploidy level (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Haploid cells contain one set of chromosomes. Cells containing two sets of chromosomes are called diploid . If the reproductive cycle is to continue, the diploid cell must somehow reduce its number of chromosome sets before fertilization can occur again, or there will be a continual doubling in the number of chromosome sets in every generation. So, in addition to fertilization, sexual reproduction includes a nuclear division, known as meiosis, that reduces the number of chromosome sets.
Most animals and plants are diploid, containing two sets of chromosomes; in each somatic cell (the non-reproductive cells of a multicellular organism), the nucleus contains two copies of each chromosome that are referred to as homologous chromosomes. Somatic cells are sometimes referred to as “body” cells. Homologous chromosomes are matched pairs containing genes for the same traits in identical locations along their length (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). Diploid organisms inherit one copy of each homologous chromosome from each parent; all together, they are considered a full set of chromosomes. In animals, haploid cells containing a single copy of each homologous chromosome are found only within gametes. Gametes fuse with another haploid gamete to produce a diploid cell.
Nearly all animals employ a diploid-dominant life-cycle strategy in which the only haploid cells produced by the organism are the gametes. Early in the development of the embryo, specialized diploid cells, called germ cells, are produced within the gonads, such as the testes and ovaries. Germ cells are capable of mitosis to perpetuate the cell line and meiosis to produce gametes. Once the haploid gametes are formed, they lose the ability to divide again. There is no multicellular haploid life stage. Fertilization occurs with the fusion of two gametes, usually from different individuals, restoring the diploid state (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)).
The nuclear division that forms haploid cells, which is called meiosis, is related to mitosis. As you have learned, mitosis is part of a cell reproduction cycle that results in identical daughter nuclei that are also genetically identical to the original parent nucleus. In mitosis, both the parent and the daughter nuclei contain the same number of chromosome sets—diploid for most plants and animals. Meiosis employs many of the same mechanisms as mitosis. However, the starting nucleus is always diploid and the nuclei that result at the end of a meiotic cell division are haploid. To achieve the reduction in chromosome number, meiosis consists of one round of chromosome duplication and two rounds of nuclear division.
Because the events that occur during each of the division stages are analogous to the events of mitosis, the same stage names are assigned. However, because there are two rounds of division, the stages are designated with a “I” or “II.” Thus, meiosis I is the first round of meiotic division and reduces the number of chromosome sets from two to one (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). The genetic information is also mixed during this division to create unique recombinant chromosomes. Meiosis II , in which the second round of meiotic division takes place in a way that is similar to mitosis, separates the sister chromatids (the identical copies of each chromosome produced during DNA replication that are attached at the centromere).
References
Unless otherwise noted, images on this page are licensed under CC-BY 4.0 by OpenStax.
OpenStax, Biology. OpenStax CNX. May 27, 2016 http://cnx.org/contents/s8Hh0oOc@9.10:1Q8z96mT@4/Meiosis


34.3: More Relationships
Lesson
Let's use graphs and equations to show relationships involving area, volume, and exponents.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\): Which One Doesn't Belong: Graphs
Which one doesn’t belong?
Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\): Making a Banner
Mai is creating a rectangular banner to advertise the school play. The material for the banner is sold by the square foot. Mai has enough money to buy 36 square feet of material. She is trying to decide on the length and width of the banner.
- If the length is 6 feet, what is the width?
- If the length is 4 feet, what is the width?
- If the length is 9 feet, what is the width?
- To find different combinations of length and width that give an area of 36 square feet, Mai uses the equation \(w=\frac{36}{l}\), where \(w\) is the width and \(l\) is the length. Compare your strategy and Mai's method for finding the width. How were they alike or different?
- Use several combinations of length and width to create a graph that shows the relationship between the side lengths of various rectangles with area 36 square feet.
- Explain how the graph describes the relationship between length and width for different rectangles with area 36.
- Suppose Mai used the equation \(l=\frac{36}{w}\) to find the length for different values of the width. Would the graph be different if she graphed length on the vertical axis and width on the horizontal axis? Explain how you know.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\): Cereal Boxes
A cereal manufacturer needs to design a cereal box that has a volume of 225 cubic inches and a height that is no more than 15 inches.
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The designers know that the volume of a rectangular prism can be calculated by multiplying the area of its base and its height. Complete the table with pairs of values that will make the volume 225 in
3
.
height (in) \(5\) \(9\) \(12\) \(7\frac{1}{2}\) area of base (in\(^{2}\)) \(75\) \(15\) Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) - Describe how you found the missing values for the table.
- Write an equation that shows how the area of the base, \(A\), is affected by changes in the height, \(h\), for different rectangular prisms with volume 225 in 3 .
- Plot the ordered pairs from the table on the graph to show the relationship between the area of the base and the height for different boxes box with volume 225 in 3 .
Exercise \(\PageIndex{4}\): Multiplying Mosquitoes
A researcher who is studying mosquito populations collects the following data:
| day in the study (\(d\)) | number of mosquitoes (\(n\)) |
|---|---|
| \(1\) | \(2\) |
| \(2\) | \(4\) |
| \(3\) | \(8\) |
| \(4\) | \(16\) |
| \(5\) | \(32\) |
- The researcher said that, for these five days, the number of mosquitoes, \(n\), can be found with the equation \(n=2^{d}\) where \(d\) is the day in the study. Explain why this equation matches the data.
- Use the ordered pairs in the table to graph the relationship between number of mosquitoes and day in the study for these five days.
- Describe the graph. Compare how the data, equation, and graph illustrate the relationship between the day in the study and the number of mosquitoes.
- If the pattern continues, how many mosquitoes will there be on day 6?
Summary
Equations can represent relationships between geometric quantities. For instance:
- If \(s\) is the side length of a square, then the area \(A\) is related to \(s\) by \(A=s^{2}\).
- Sometimes the relationships are more specific. For example, the perimeter \(P\) of a rectangle with length \(l\) and width \(w\) is \(P=2l+2\). If we consider only rectangles with a length of 10, then the relationship between the perimeter and the width is \(P=20+2w\).
Here is another example of an equation with exponent expressing the relationship between quantities:
- A super ball is dropped from 10 feet. On each successive bounce, it only goes as high as on the previous bounce.
This means that on the first bounce, the ball will bounce 5 feet high, and then on the second bounce it will only go \(2\frac{1}{2}\) feet high, and so on. We can represent this situation with an equation to find how high the super ball will bounce after any number of bounces.
To find how high the super ball bounces on the \(n^{\text{th}}\) bounce, we have to multiply 10 feet (the initial height) by \(\frac{1}{2}\) and multiply by \(\frac{1}{2}\) again for each bounce thereafter; we need to do this \(n\) times. So the height, \(h\), of the ball on the \(n^{\text{th}}\) bounce will be \(h=10\left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^{n}\). In this equation, the dependent variable, \(h\), is affected by changes in the independent variable, \(n\).
Equations and graphs can give us insight into different kinds of relationships between quantities and help us answer questions and solve problems.
Glossary Entries
Definition: Coordinate Plane
The coordinate plane is a system for telling where points are. For example. point \(R\) is located at \((3,2)\) on the coordinate plane, because it is three units to the right and two units up.
Definition: Dependent Variable
The dependent variable is the result of a calculation.
For example, a boat travels at a constant speed of 25 miles per hour. The equation \(d=25t\) describes the relationship between the boat's distance and time. The dependent variable is the distance traveled, because \(d\) is the result of multiplying 25 by \(t\).
Definition: Independent Variable
The independent variable is used to calculate the value of another variable.
For example, a boat travels at a constant speed of 25 miles per hour. The equation \(d=25t\) describes the relationship between the boat's distance and time. The independent variable is time, because \(t\) is multiplied by 25 to get \(d\).
Practice
Exercise \(\PageIndex{5}\)
Elena is designing a logo in the shape of a parallelogram. She wants the logo to have an area of 12 square inches. She draws bases of different lengths and tries to compute the height for each.
- Write an equation Elena can use to find the height, \(h\), for each value of the base, \(b\).
- Use your equation to find the height of a parallelogram with base \(1.5\) inches.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{6}\)
Han is planning to ride his bike 24 miles.
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How long will it take if he rides at a rate of:
3 miles per hour?
4 miles per hour?
6 miles per hour? - Write an equation that Han can use to find \(t\), the time it will take to ride 24 miles, if his rate in miles per hour is represented by \(r\).
- On graph paper, draw a graph that shows \(t\) in terms of \(r\) for a 24-mile ride.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{7}\)
The graph of the equation \(V=10s^{3}\) contains the points \((2,80)\) and \((4, 640)\).
- Create a story that is represented by this graph.
- What do the points mean in the context of your story?
Exercise \(\PageIndex{8}\)
You find a brass bottle that looks really old. When you rub some dirt off of the bottle, a genie appears! The genie offers you a reward. You must choose one:
$50,000 or a magical $1 coin.
The coin will turn into two coins on the first day. The two coins will turn into four coins on the second day. The four coins will double to 8 coins on the third day. The genie explains the doubling will continue for 28 days.
- Write an equation that shows the number of coins, \(n\), in terms of the day, \(d\).
- Create a table that shows the number of coins for each day for the first 15 days.
- Create a graph for days 7 through 12 that shows how the number of coins grows with each day.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{9}\)
At a market, 3.1 pounds of peaches cost $7.72. How much did the peaches cost per pound? Explain or show your reasoning. Round your answer to the nearest cent.
(From Unit 5.4.5)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{10}\)
Andre set up a lemonade stand last weekend. It cost him $0.15 to make each cup of lemonade, and he sold each cup for $0.35.
- If Andre collects $9.80, how many cups did he sell?
- How much money did it cost Andre to make this amount of lemonade?
- How much money did Andre make in profit?
(From Unit 5.4.5)


4.1: Importance of Policy in Criminal Justice
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- Alison S. Burke, David Carter, Brian Fedorek, Tiffany Morey, Lore Rutz-Burri, & Shanell Sanchez
- Southern Oregon University via OpenOregon
Why is Policy so Important in Criminal Justice?
Everyone is affected by the criminal justice system through public policy. Policy represents social control and ensures members of society are compliant and conform to the laws. Policies include issues related: to juvenile justice, drug legislation, intimate partner violence, prison overcrowding, school safety, new federal immigration laws, terrorism, and national security.
Modern-day crime policies can be traced to changes in crime and delinquency in the 1960s. That decade saw major increases in the crime rate along with widespread social unrest as a result of the Vietnam War and the Civil Rights movement. The work of the 1967 President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice highlighted the crime problem and the criminal justice system’s failure to address the problem. The commission called for new approaches, programs, policies, funding models, and research on the cause of crime. In addressing the causes of crime (theory), and using appropriate data collection (research), effective policies and programs could be proposed.
When discussing crime policies, it is important to understand the difference between “crime prevention” and “crime control.” Policies and programs designed to reduce crime are crime prevention techniques. Specifically, crime prevention “entails any action designed to reduce the actual level of crime and/or the perceived fear of crime.” [1] On the other hand, crime control alludes to the maintenance of the crime level. Policies, such as the three strikes law or Measure 11, seek to prevent future crime by incapacitating offenders through incarceration.
Public policies and laws are created at different levels of government, with micro-level policies enacted on the local level and macro level applied at the federal or state level. For example, at the local level, some towns and cities might create specific ordinances tailored to their unique needs, such as banning cigarette smoking in the downtown area. At the federal level, policies are created that apply to the federal criminal justice system and can apply to states as well. However, federal laws can differ from state laws, such as marijuana legalization. Individual organizations can also make policies that address their individual agency needs, such as requirements for local police officers. Therefore, depending on who creates the policies, they can be far-reaching or extremely localized. [2]
Fake News Exercise
Fake News has received a lot of press lately. In fact “fake news” was the top word in 2017. For people under 30, online news is more popular than TV news and people under 50 get half of their news from online sources.
Here are 4 steps for evaluating News:
- Vet the Publisher’s Credibility.
- What is the domain name? A domain name that ends with “.com.co” is not to be trusted. Something like abcnews.com looks legit, but if it is listed as abcnews.com.co, be wary.
- What is the publication’s point of view? Check out the “About Us” section to learn more about the publishers. It will also tell you if the publication is meant to be satirical, like the Onion.
- Pay Attention to Writing Quality.
- Does the publication have all caps or way too many emphatic punctuation marks?!?!?!? Proper reporting does not adhere to such informal grammar. The article you are reading is probably not vetted.
- Check out the Sources and Citations.
- Does the publisher meet academic citation standards? Your teachers and professors constantly tell you to cite and reference appropriately. This is how we can check your sources. The same is true for online news. Check the sources.
Ask the Pros
- Check out fact-checking websites like factcheck.org
Read more at https://www.summer.harvard.edu/inside-summer/4-tips-spotting-fake-news-story
Take the Fake News Quiz! https://www.channelone.com/feature/quiz-can-you-spot-the-fake-news-story/


29.4B: Characteristics of Reptiles
- Summarize the key adaptations of reptiles
Characteristics of Reptiles
Reptiles are tetrapods. Limbless reptiles (snakes and other squamates) have vestigial limbs and, as with caecilians, are classified as tetrapods because they are descended from four-limbed ancestors. Reptiles lay on land eggs enclosed in shells. Even aquatic reptiles return to the land to lay eggs. They usually reproduce sexually with internal fertilization. Some species are ovoviviparous, with the eggs remaining in the mother’s body until they are ready to hatch. Other species are viviparous, with the offspring born alive.
One of the key adaptations that permitted reptiles to live on land was the development of their scaly skin which contains the protein keratin and waxy lipids, reducing water loss from the skin. Due to this occlusive skin, reptiles cannot use their skin for respiration, as do amphibians; all breathe with lungs.
Reptiles are ectotherms: animals whose main source of body heat comes from the environment. This is in contrast to endotherms, which use heat produced by metabolism to regulate body temperature. In addition to being ectothermic, reptiles are categorized as poikilotherms: animals whose body temperatures vary rather than remain stable. Reptiles have behavioral adaptations to help regulate body temperature, such as basking in sunny places to warm up and finding shady spots or going underground to cool down. The advantage of ectothermy is that metabolic energy from food is not required to heat the body; therefore, reptiles can survive on about 10 percent of the calories required by a similarly-sized endotherm. In cold weather, some reptiles, such as the garter snake, brumate. Brumation is similar to hibernation in that the animal becomes less active and can go for long periods without eating, but differs from hibernation in that brumating reptiles are not asleep or living off fat reserves. Rather, their metabolism is slowed in response to cold temperatures; the animal becomes very sluggish.
Key Points
- All reptiles, including aquatic ones, lay their eggs on land.
- Reptiles reproduce sexually through internal fertilization; some species are ovoviviparous (lay eggs) and others are viviparous (live birth).
- Because of the development of impermeable, scaly skin, reptiles were able to move onto land since their skin could not be used for respiration in water.
- Reptiles are ectotherms: they depend on their surrounding environment to control their body temperature; this leads to advantages, such as not being dependent on metabolic energy from food for body heat.
- Reptiles are also poikilotherms: animals whose body temperatures vary rather than remain stable.
- Some reptiles go into brumation: a long period during cold weather that consists of no eating and a decreased metabolism.
Key Terms
- viviparous : being born alive, as are most mammals, some reptiles, and a few fish (as opposed to being laid as an egg)
- ovoviviparous : a mode of reproduction in animals in which embryos develop inside eggs that are retained within the mother’s body until they are ready to hatch
- ectotherm : a cold-blooded animal that regulates its body temperature by exchanging heat with its surroundings


9.11C: Double-Stranded DNA Viruses - Herpesviruses
- Recognize the attributes of herpes viruses
Herpesviridae is a large family of DNA viruses that cause diseases in animals, including humans. The members of this family are also known as herpes viruses. The family name is derived from the Greek word herpein (“to creep”), referring to the latent, recurring infections typical of this group of viruses.
Animal herpes viruses all share some common properties. The structure of these viruses consists of a relatively large double-stranded, linear DNA genome encased within an icosahedral protein cage called the capsid, which is wrapped in a lipid bilayer called the envelope. The envelope is joined to the capsid by means of a tegument. This complete particle is known as the virion. HSV-1 and HSV-2 each contain at least 74 genes within their genomes, although speculation over gene crowding allows as many as 84 unique protein-coding genes by 94 putative pen reading frames. These genes encode a variety of proteins involved in forming the capsid, tegument and envelope of the virus, as well as controlling the replication and infectivity of the virus.
Types of herpes viruses
There are nine distinct herpes viruses which cause disease in humans:
- HHV‑1 Herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1)
- HHV-2 Herpes simplex virus-2 (HSV-2)
- HHV-3 Varicella zoster virus (VZV)
- HHV-4 Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)
- HHV-5 Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
- HHV-6A/B Roseolovirus, Herpes lymphotropic virus
- HHV-7 Pityriasis Rosea
- HHV-8 Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus
Of particular interest include HSV-1 and HSV-2, which cause oral and/or genital herpes, HSV-3 which causes chickenpox and shingles, and HHV-5 which causes mononucleosis-like symptoms, and HHV-8 which causes a Kaposi’s sarcoma, a cancer of the lymphatic epithelium.
Infection is caused through close contact with an infected individual. Infection is initiated when a viral particle comes in contact with the target cell specific to the individual herpes virus. Viral glycoproteins bind cell surface receptors molecules on the cell surface, followed by virion internalization and disassembly. Viral DNA then migrates to the cell nucleus where replication of viral DNA and transcription of viral genes occurs.
During symptomatic infection, infected cells transcribe lytic viral genes. In some host cells, a small number of viral genes termed latency-associated transcripts accumulate instead. In this fashion, the virus can persist in the cell (and thus the host) indefinitely. While primary infection is often accompanied by a self-limited period of clinical illness, long-term latency is symptom-free.
Reactivation of latent viruses
This has been implicated in a number of diseases (e.g. Shingles, Pityriasis Rosea). Following activation, transcription of viral genes transitions from latency-associated transcripts to multiple lytic genes; these lead to enhanced replication and virus production. Often, lytic activation leads to cell death. Clinically, lytic activation is often accompanied by emergence of non-specific symptoms such as low grade fever, headache, sore throat, malaise, and rash, as well as clinical signs such as swollen or tender lymph nodes, and immunological findings such as reduced levels of natural killer cells.
There is no method to eradicate the herpes virus from the body, but antiviral medications, such as acyclovir , can reduce the frequency, duration, and severity of outbreaks. Analgesics such as ibuprofen and acetaminophen can reduce pain and fever. Topical anesthetic treatments such as prilocaine, lidocaine, benzocaine or tetracaine can also relieve itching and pain.
Key Points
- Herpesviridae is a large family of DNA viruses that cause diseases in animals, including humans.
- The structure of herpes viruses consists of a relatively large double-stranded, linear DNA genome encased within an icosahedral protein cage called the capsid, which is wrapped in a lipid bilayer called the envelope.
- Notable herpes viruses include herpes simplex viruses 1 and 2, Varicella zoster virus (the causative agent of shingles and chicken pox), cytomegalovirus, and Kaposi’s sarcoma virus.
- There is no method to eradicate herpes virus from the body, but antiviral medications, such as acyclovir, can reduce the frequency, duration, and severity of outbreaks.
Key Terms
- tegument : A natural covering of the body or of a bodily organ.
- capsid : The outer protein shell of a virus.
- virion : A single individual particle of a virus (the viral equivalent of a cell).


4.7: Lean Six Sigma
Methodologies for Improvement
While it is important for all organizations to implement continuous improvement, the methodologies and tools one organization may use may differ from another organization. This week, we will look at two methodologies that are commonly used: Lean and Six Sigma. In addition, we will look at how they can be used together.
Lean and Six Sigma
Watch the following 3:57 video that provides an introduction to both Lean and Six Sigma and the benefit of using the two methodologies together:
Read the following for additional insights into both Lean and Six Sigma and explore how they are utilized individually and combined: Lean Six Sigma (opens in new window)
Finally,
wa
tch
the following 4:29 video that explores the use of flowcharts in
Lean Six Sigma:
Note: Within the video, swimlane diagrams and standard operating procedure (SOP) documents are introduced. Both are often utilized by Operations Managers!


7.3: Varied Meanings
Be aware to keep the two types of meanings in mind when composing language for a speech: connotation and denotation.
The denotation of a particular word refers to its factual/literal meaning or common dictionary definition. Speakers should confirm the meaning of all words they intend to use that they are not 100% sure of the denotation by looking them up, as some words could potentially have more than one denotation. Sometimes certain terms or phrases may mean something completely different to various audience members.
Alternatively, connotation has more to do with the additional emotional or cultural meaning associated with the word, term, or phrase. The connotation for the word snake could mean “danger” or “evil.” Consider the terms “swamp” and “wetland.” One word conjures images of bugs, snakes, and foul stenches, while the other inspires images of a picturesque scene with graceful birds and beautiful foliage. However, they could easily be used to refer to the same scene since they both have similar denotations. Identify the connotations of some words—or the attitudes associated with them—by examining pairs of words that share essentially the same meaning , but differ in the favorable or unfavorable attitudes they evoke in most people. Examples include:
- refreshing—chilly
- plain—natural
- clever—sly
- terrorist—freedom fighter
- snob—cultured
- assertive—pushy
- skinny—slender
- statesman—politician
- smile—smirk
- domineering—assertive
Be aware of the potential connotation the choice of language may have on diverse audiences. The word “diversity” implies race or gender to some listeners, when the actual dictionary definition simply means “difference”— without any connotation whatsoever.
Describing a group of people gathered on the street as a “rally” suggests a gathering of passionate, happy, and celebratory participants, but calling it a “mob” connotes a darker, angry, or perhaps violent gathering. For instance, newscasts and articles by conflicting media organizations sometimes interpret the same event differently. The connotation applied by media can subtly imprint a particular viewpoint in one’s mind and shape public opinion about such events (see framing theory ).
Loftus and Palmer (1974) conducted an experiment to illustrate the impact that the connotation of one’s chosen words can have on memory. They showed two groups of students a video of a car accident, and then, some time later, asked them questions about what they had seen. They asked the first group how fast they thought the cars were moving when they “hit” each other, and the second group was asked the same question with a subtle change: they substituted the word “hit” with “smashed.” The results showed the group that they asked how fast the cars were moving when they “smashed” into each other estimated much higher speeds than those asked with a much more passive or neutral verb. Additionally, the group using the word “smashed” also reported seeing broken glass at the scene, yet no evidence of broken glass appears in the video.
Lastly, review the meaning of unfamiliar words so as not to accidentally communicate the wrong message. Most importantly, make sure to master the pronunciation of the word. This may take some practice and repetition, particularly for tough medical terminology, but research online pronunciation guides that will illustrate how to pronounce such words. Many online dictionaries include an audio clip of the word’s pronunciation.


16.2: Extent and Duration of Base, Campus, Park and Port Infrastructure
Bases, campuses, parks, and ports are widespread. Figure 16.2.1 illustrates the numbers of global airports; the numbers of military bases, campuses, parks, and seaports would be just as large. Figure 16.2.2 shows the freight tonnage of imports, exports and domestic cargo at large US seaports in 2006. As can be seen, inland waterway ports (such as Huntington or Pittsburgh) handle significant amounts of freight. All countries have bases, campuses, parks, and ports, and expansions such as designating new parks are common.
The duration of these entities is also quite lengthy, with university campuses, parks and ports lasting longer than institutions such as corporations. Military bases can be long-lasting, although new technology can make some bases obsolete (such as Fort Jefferson in Figure 16.1). Similarly, seaport facilities must be periodically altered due to new technology such as freight containerization or larger vessels.
Because these integrated entities are long-lasting, infrastructure managers can often adopt a long planning horizon in making investment decisions. For example, buildings on university campuses can be rehabilitated regularly but the basic structures and layouts can last for decades (if not centuries). However, technological developments often suggest regular change in infrastructure for functions such as computing or communications.
All types of infrastructure can be found at these integrated entities, including roadways, buildings, power generation, telecommunication and power generation. In addition, specialized infrastructure such as airport runways and docking facilities exist.
Another feature of these integrated entities is the concept of ‘deferred maintenance.’ Since integrated entities are long-lived, recommended maintenance or rehabilitation can be deferred, resulting in lower infrastructure quality and functionality but corresponding with budget limitations. Deferred maintenance can and often does increase from year to year.


14.6A: Fungi
- Give examples of pathogenic fungi
A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds. These organisms are classified as kingdom Fungi, separate from plants, animals, and bacteria. Fungi have a worldwide distribution and cangrow in a wide range of habitats, including extreme environments such as deserts or areas with high salt concentrations or ionizing radiation, as well as in deep sea sediments. Most fungi are inconspicuous because of the small size of their structures and their cryptic lifestyles in soil, on dead matter, and as symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi. Fungi perform an essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange. Many fungal species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides that are toxic to animals including humans, contributing to pathogenecity and disease.
The study of pathogenic fungi is referred to as a medical mycology. There are various examples of pathogenic fungi including but not limited too: Candida species, Aspergillosis, Cryptococcus, Histoplasma, Pneumocystis and Stachybotrys.
Candida species are commonly known to cause opportunist infections in immunocompromised hosts. The immunocompromised hosts that commonly become infected with Candida include transplant patients, cancer patients and AIDS sufferers. Candida infections are difficult to treat and can result in systemic infections leading to death.
One of the most commons fungal pathogenic species includes Aspergillus strains, specifically Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillus flavus. Aspergillus can cause disease via production of mycotoxins, induction of allergic responses and through localized or systemic infections. Aspergillus flavus specifically produces aflatoxin which is both a toxin and carcinogen whereas Aspergillus fumigatus causes allergic disease. Symptoms of diseases caused by Aspergillus can include fever, cough, chest pain or breathlessness.
Cryptococcus neoformans causes severe forms of meningitis and meningo-encephalitis in patients with HIV infection and AIDS. Cryptococcus species live in the soil and do not cause disease in humans thus, Cryptococcus neoformans is the major pathogen in both human and animals.
Histoplasma capsulatum results in the formation of histoplasmosis in humans, dogs and cats. This specific fungus is endemic in certain areas of the United States and infection is due to inhaling contaminated air.
Pneumocystis jirovecii results in the formation of pneumonia in individuals with weakened immune systems including premature children, the elderly and AIDS patients.
Stachybotrys chartarum, also referred to as black mold, causes respiratory damage and severe headaches. This type of black mold frequently occurs in households that are chronically damp.
Key Points
- There are various examples of pathogenic fungi including but not limited too: Candida species, Aspergillosis, Cryptococcus, Histoplasma, Pneumocystis and Stachybotrys.
- Many fungal species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides that are toxic to animals including humans, contributing to pathogenecity and disease.
- The study of pathogenic fungi is referred to as a medical mycology.
Key Terms
- symbiont : An organism that lives in a symbiotic relationship; a symbiote.
- mycotoxin : Any substance produced by a mold or fungus that is injurious to vertebrates upon ingestion, inhalation, or skin contact.
- opportunist : when an organism takes advantage of any opportunity to advance its own situation.


3.2: Public/Community Health Nursing Scope of Practice, Core Competencies, and Function
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
- Describe the scope and standards of practice of public/community health nursing.
- Describe community/public health nursing core competencies.
- Discuss the knowledge, skills, and attitudes associated with community/public health nursing practice.
- Identify behaviors reflective of the Quad Council Coalition’s community/public health competencies in caring for communities and populations.
Public/community health nursing is a specialty that focuses on improving the health of communities and populations through health promotion, disease prevention, risk reduction, community education, outbreak and epidemic management , and other initiatives. Nurses work in interprofessional teams with clinicians, community members, community partners, and policymakers to support ameliorating health disparities and injustices and ensure equitable access to a healthy life (Figure 3.5).
Scope of Practice and Practice Standards
The American Nurses Association (ANA) provides a scope of practice and practice standards that guide the current, evidence-based, ethical work of public/community health nurses. Across nursing specialties, such documents or guides are called “scope and standards.” Scope of practice refers to the professional activities involved in a particular role. Defining a scope of practice helps nurses work within and to their level of qualification, expertise, and competence. Standards of practice are the principles and guidelines to which professionals must adhere. Standards of practice support nurses’ decision-making and delivery of care. Standards can change with the dynamics of the nursing profession and depend on specific contextual factors like clinical situations and circumstances. Nurses across specialties and care settings are expected to be familiar with and adhere to the scope and standards relevant to their professional role.
The ANA identified the following nine core concepts of practice based on the dynamic and complex work of public health nursing:
- Social determinants of health
- Community collaboration
- Population health
- Ecological model of health: Micro- to macro-levels
- Culturally congruent practice: Respectful, equitable, and inclusionary
- Levels of prevention
- Ethics
- Social justice
- Health equity (ANA, 2022)
These principles provide a framework to guide public/community health nurses in practice and support their work in addressing the population’s needs and collaborating with varied parties.
Additionally, the ANA (2022) developed 18 standards of practice and professional performance for public health nursing. The standards for public/community health nursing follow standards set for nurses of any discipline or specialty by the ANA, which describe the who, what, where, when, why, and how of professional nursing practice (ANA, 2023). The standards of professional public health nursing practice are:
- Assessment : Collects comprehensive data pertinent to the health status of populations.
- Diagnosis : Analyzes the assessment data to determine actual or potential diagnoses, problems, and issues related to health and well-being.
- Outcomes identification: Identifies expected outcomes for a plan specific to the health status of the population or situation.
- Planning : Develops a plan that prescribes strategies to attain optimal health and well-being.
-
Implementation
: Implements identified plans.
- Coordination of care : Coordinates care delivery.
- Health teaching and health promotion : Employs multiple strategies to promote health and safety.
- Consultation: Provides consultation to enhance the abilities of diverse people to create and effect change.
- Policy and regulatory activities: Participates in policy and regulatory activities related to health.
- Evaluation: Evaluates progress toward the attainment of goals and outcomes.
- Ethics : Practices ethically.
- Respectful and equitable practice: Practices with cultural sensitivity, humility, and safety in a manner that is congruent with principles of cultural diversity, inclusion, and equity.
- Communication: Communicates effectively in a variety of formats in all areas of practice.
- Collaboration : Collaborates with the population and others in the conduct of nursing practice.
- Leadership : Leads within the professional practice setting and the profession.
- Education: Seeks knowledge and competence that reflect current nursing practice and promote futuristic thinking.
- Evidence-based practice and research: Integrates evidence and research findings into practice.
- Quality of practice: Contributes to quality nursing practice.
- Professional practice appraisal: Evaluates personal nursing practice in relation to professional practice standards, guidelines, and relevant law.
- Resource utilization: Uses appropriate resources to plan and provide nursing and public health services that are safe, effective, and financially responsible.
- Environmental health , planetary health, and environmental justice : Practices in an environmentally safe, fair, and just manner (ANA, 2022).
Using this scope and these standards, public health nurses can help create healthier environments, foster partnerships that promote and protect health, and advocate for justice and health equity in practice.
Core Competencies
Public/community health nurses must possess certain knowledge, skills, and attitudes to effectively fulfill their professional role and successfully meet the community’s health needs. In general, nurses need knowledge of
epidemiology
, environmental health,
social determinants of health
, statistics, evidence-based practice, health promotion, and factors that impact health. Public/community health nurses need strong communication and relationship-building skills to effectively engage with the community. Attitudes in alignment with social justice, health equity, and advancing health, as well as cultural humility and respect for all community members, are
needed to fulfil the roles and responsibilities. Concepts and content related to these professional attitudes are threaded throughout chapters in this text. However, please see Structural Racism and Systemic Inequities, Designing Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Programs, Managing the Dynamics of Difference, and Advocating for Population Health for in-depth information. The term
competencies
refers to the foundational knowledge, skills, and attitudes that nurses need to meet their clients’ needs. Competencies represent technical skills, personal qualities, and professional behaviors that support successful work in a certain area. In public/community health nursing, four leading nursing organizations formed the Quad Council Coalition in 1988 and collaboratively developed the
Community/Public Health Nursing
Competencies
in 2018. The Quad Council member organizations include the Alliance of Nurses for Healthy Environments, the Association of Community Health Nurses, the Association of Public Health Nurses, and the American Public Health Association-Public Health Nursing Section (Quad Council Coalition Competency Review Task Force, 2018).
The competencies include major domains and leveled competencies for public/community health nurses to follow based on their role. Tier 1 competencies apply to nurse generalists who are not in management positions, while tier 2 and 3 competencies are for public/community health nurses who are managers and supervisors or executives, respectively. Applying the domains and competencies of public/community health nursing in professional practice is critical. Public/community health nurses might be the only clinician or care provider some community members have reliable access to, see regularly, or are comfortable talking with. Nurses in community health have a duty to stay abreast of evidence and clinical guidelines that could impact the health and care of the community. Table 3.1 displays the domains, select generalist competencies, and sample public/community health nursing applications to practice associated with each. Please note the table is not exhaustive; see the full Quad Council Coalition document linked above for a comprehensive listing.
| Domain | Generalist Competencies | Examples of Nursing Actions |
|---|---|---|
|
Assessment and Analytic Skills
Focus on identifying and understanding data, turning data into information for action, assessing needs and assets to address community health needs, developing community health assessments, and using evidence for decision-making |
|
Assess for postpartum depression during home visits for new parents using the validated Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. Enter collected data into a secure computer file for analysis. |
|
Policy Development/Program Planning Skills
Focus on determining needed policies and programs; advocating for policies and programs; planning, implementing, and evaluating policies and programs; developing and implementing strategies for continuous quality improvement; and developing and implementing community health improvement plans and strategic plans |
|
Review the local nurse practice act, public health nursing scope and standards of practice, job description, and relevant employer policies regularly. |
|
Communication Skills
Focus on assessing and addressing population literacy; soliciting and using community input; communicating data and information; facilitating communications; and communicating the roles of government, health care, and others |
|
|
|
Cultural Competency Skills
Focus on understanding and responding to diverse needs, assessing organizational cultural diversity and competence, assessing effects of policies and programs on different populations, and taking action to support a diverse public health workforce |
|
|
|
Community Dimensions of Practice Skills
Focus on evaluating and developing linkages and relationships within the community, maintaining and advancing partnerships and community involvement, negotiating for the use of community assets, defending public health policies and programs, and evaluating & improving the effectiveness of community engagement |
|
|
|
Public Health Sciences Skills
Focus on understanding the foundation and prominent events of public health, applying public sciences to practice, critiquing and developing research, using evidence when developing policies and programs, and establishing academic partnerships |
|
|
|
Financial Planning, Evaluation, and Management Skills
Focus on engaging other government agencies that can address community health needs, leveraging public health and health care funding mechanisms, developing and defending budgets, motivating personnel, evaluating and improving program and organization performance, and establishing and using performance management systems to improve organization performance |
|
|
|
Leadership and Systems Thinking Skills
Focus on incorporating ethical standards into the organization; creating opportunities for collaboration among public health, health care, and other organizations; mentoring personnel; adjusting practice to address changing needs and environment; ensuring continuous quality improvement; managing organizational change; and advocating for the role of governmental public health |
|
|
Public/community health nurses have a vital role in meeting the health needs of a community. Their expertise in epidemiology, environmental health, social determinants, statistics, evidence-based practices, and health promotion impacts the communities they serve and the greater population. These nurses build relationships with community members and local agencies to make appropriate connections and referrals in support of health. Nurses in this area must guide their professional practices with a social justice lens, recognizing that health disparities and inequities in communities exist and influence health. The Community/Public Health Nursing Competencies provide a framework for nurses in community health to follow to meet the needs of the community holistically.


4.3: Histograms
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Now that we’ve tamed (or possibly fled from) the beast that is R graphical parameters, let’s talk more seriously about some real life graphics that you’ll want to draw. We begin with the humble
histogram
. Histograms are one of the simplest and most useful ways of visualising data. They make most sense when you have an interval or ratio scale (e.g., the
afl.margins
data from Chapter 5 and what you want to do is get an overall impression of the data. Most of you probably know how histograms work, since they’re so widely used, but for the sake of completeness I’ll describe them. All you do is divide up the possible values into
bins
, and then count the number of observations that fall within each bin. This count is referred to as the frequency of the bin, and is displayed as a bar: in the AFL winning margins data, there are 33 games in which the winning margin was less than 10 points, and it is this fact that is represented by the height of the leftmost bar in Figure 6.10. Drawing this histogram in R is pretty straightforward. The function you need to use is called
hist()
, and it has pretty reasonable default settings. In fact, Figure 6.10 is exactly what you get if you just type this:
> hist( afl.margins ) # panel a
load("./rbook-master/data/aflsmall.Rdata")
hist(afl.margins) # panel a
Although this image would need a lot of cleaning up in order to make a good presentation graphic (i.e., one you’d include in a report), it nevertheless does a pretty good job of describing the data. In fact, the big strength of a histogram is that (properly used) it does show the entire spread of the data, so you can get a pretty good sense about what it looks like. The downside to histograms is that they aren’t very compact: unlike some of the other plots I’ll talk about it’s hard to cram 20-30 histograms into a single image without overwhelming the viewer.
The main subtlety that you need to be aware of when drawing histograms is determining where the
breaks
that separate bins should be located, and (relatedly) how many breaks there should be. In Figure 6.10, you can see that R has made pretty sensible choices all by itself: the breaks are located at 0, 10, 20, … 120, which is exactly what I would have done had I been forced to make a choice myself. On the other hand, consider the two histograms in Figure 6.11 and 6.12, which I produced using the following two commands:
hist( x = afl.margins, breaks = 3 ) # panel b
hist( x = afl.margins, breaks = 0:116 ) # panel c
In Figure 6.12, the bins are only 1 point wide. As a result, although the plot is very informative (it displays the entire data set with no loss of information at all!) the plot is very hard to interpret, and feels quite cluttered. On the other hand, the plot in Figure 6.11 has a bin width of 50 points, and has the opposite problem: it’s very easy to “read” this plot, but it doesn’t convey a lot of information. One gets the sense that this histogram is hiding too much. In short, the way in which you specify the breaks has a big effect on what the histogram looks like, so it’s important to make sure you choose the breaks sensibly. In general R does a pretty good job of selecting the breaks on its own, since it makes use of some quite clever tricks that statisticians have devised for automatically selecting the right bins for a histogram, but nevertheless it’s usually a good idea to play around with the breaks a bit to see what happens.
There is one fairly important thing to add regarding how the
breaks
argument works. There are two different ways you can specify the breaks. You can either specify
how many
breaks you want (which is what I did for panel b when I typed
breaks = 3
) and let R figure out where they should go, or you can provide a vector that tells R exactly where the breaks should be placed (which is what I did for panel c when I typed
breaks = 0:116
). The behaviour of the
hist()
function is slightly different depending on which version you use. If all you do is tell it
how many
breaks you want, R treats it as a “suggestion” not as a demand. It assumes you want “approximately 3” breaks, but if it doesn’t think that this would look very pretty on screen, it picks a different (but similar) number. It does this for a sensible reason – it tries to make sure that the breaks are located at sensible values (like 10) rather than stupid ones (like 7.224414).  However, sometimes R is dead wrong. Sometimes you really do mean “exactly 3 breaks”, and you know precisely where you want them to go.  In order to do that, you
have
to input the full vector that tells R exactly where you want the breaks.
Visual style of your histogram
Okay, so at this point we can draw a basic histogram, and we can alter the number and even the location of the
breaks
. However, the visual style of the histograms shown in Figure @ref(fig:hist1a; hist1b; hist1c) could stand to be improved. We can fix this by making use of some of the other arguments to the
hist()
function. Most of the things you might want to try doing have already been covered in Section 6.2, but there’s a few new things:
-
Shading lines
:
density
,angle
. You can add diagonal lines to shade the bars: thedensity
value is a number indicating how many lines per inch R should draw (the default value ofNULL
means no lines), and theangle
is a number indicating how many degrees from horizontal the lines should be drawn at (default isangle = 45
degrees). -
Specifics regarding colours
:
col
,border
. You can also change the colours: in this instance thecol
parameter sets the colour of the shading (either the shading lines if there are any, or else the colour of the interior of the bars if there are not), and theborder
argument sets the colour of the edges of the bars. -
Labelling the bars
:
labels
. You can also attach labels to each of the bars using thelabels
argument. The simplest way to do this is to setlabels = TRUE
, in which case R will add a number just above each bar, that number being the exact number of observations in the bin. Alternatively, you can choose the labels yourself, by inputting a vector of strings, e.g.,labels = c("label 1","label 2","etc")
Not surprisingly, this doesn’t exhaust the possibilities. If you type
help("hist")
or
?hist
and have a look at the help documentation for histograms, you’ll see a few more options. A histogram that makes use of the histogram-specific customisations as well as several of the options we discussed in Section
??
is shown in Figure
??
. The R command that I used to draw it is this:
hist( x = afl.margins,
main = "2010 AFL margins", # title of the plot
xlab = "Margin", # set the x-axis label
density = 10, # draw shading lines: 10 per inch
angle = 40, # set the angle of the shading lines is 40 degrees
border = "gray20", # set the colour of the borders of the bars
col = "gray80", # set the colour of the shading lines
labels = TRUE, # add frequency labels to each bar
ylim = c(0,40) # change the scale of the y-axis
)
Overall, this is a much nicer histogram than the default ones.


4.4: Social Development
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Psychosocial Development
Adolescents continue to refine their sense of self as they relate to others. Erikson referred to the task of the adolescent as one of identity versus role confusion. Thus, in Erikson’s view, an adolescent’s main questions are “Who am I?” and “Who do I want to be?” Some adolescents adopt the values and roles that their parents expect for them. Other teens develop identities that are in opposition to their parents but align with a peer group. This is common as peer relationships become a central focus in adolescents’ lives.
As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer group becomes very important (Shanahan, McHale, Osgood, & Crouter, 2007). Despite spending less time with their parents, most teens report positive feelings toward them (Moore, Guzman, Hair, Lippman, & Garrett, 2004). Warm and healthy parent-child relationships have been associated with positive child outcomes, such as better grades and fewer school behavior problems, in the United States as well as in other countries (Hair et al., 2005).
It appears that most teens don’t experience adolescent storm and stress to the degree once famously suggested by G. Stanley Hall, a pioneer in the study of adolescent development. Only small numbers of teens have major conflicts with their parents (Steinberg & Morris, 2001), and most disagreements are minor. For example, in a study of over 1,800 parents of adolescents from various cultural and ethnic groups, Barber (1994) found that conflicts occurred over day-to-day issues such as homework, money, curfews, clothing, chores, and friends. These types of arguments tend to decrease as teens develop (Galambos & Almeida, 1992).
Social Changes
Parents. Although peers take on greater importance during adolescence, family relationships remain important too. One of the key changes during adolescence involves a renegotiation of parent–child relationships. As adolescents strive for more independence and autonomy during this time, different aspects of parenting become more salient. For example, parents’ distal supervision and monitoring become more important as adolescents spend more time away from parents and in the presence of peers. Parental monitoring encompasses a wide range of behaviors such as parents’ attempts to set rules and know their adolescents’ friends, activities, and whereabouts, in addition to adolescents’ willingness to disclose information to their parents (Stattin & Kerr, 2000 [1] ). Psychological control , which involves manipulation and intrusion into adolescents’ emotional and cognitive world through invalidating adolescents’ feelings and pressuring them to think in particular ways (Barber, 1996 [2] ), is another aspect of parenting that becomes more salient during adolescence and is related to more problematic adolescent adjustment.
 Children’s notions of friendship often focus on shared activities, whereas adolescents’ notions of friendship increasingly focus on intimate exchanges of thoughts and feelings. During adolescence, peer groups evolve from primarily single-sex to mixed-sex. Adolescents within a peer group tend to be similar to one another in behavior and attitudes, which has been explained as being a function of homophily (adolescents who are similar to one another choose to spend time together in a “birds of a feather flock together” way) and influence (adolescents who spend time together shape each other’s behavior and attitudes). One of the most widely studied aspects of adolescent peer influence is known as deviant peer contagion (Dishion & Tipsord, 2011 [3] ), which is the process by which peers reinforce problem behavior by laughing or showing other signs of approval that then increase the likelihood of future problem behavior.
Peers can serve both positive and negative functions during adolescence. Negative peer pressure can lead adolescents to make riskier decisions or engage in more problematic behavior than they would alone or in the presence of their family. For example, adolescents are much more likely to drink alcohol, use drugs, and commit crimes when they are with their friends than when they are alone or with their family. However, peers also serve as an important source of social support and companionship during adolescence, and adolescents with positive peer relationships are happier and better adjusted than those who are socially isolated or have conflictual peer relationships.
Crowds refer to different collections of people, like the “theater kids” or the “environmentalists.” In a way, they are kind of like clothing brands that label the people associated with that crowd. [Image: Garry Knight]
Crowds are an emerging level of peer relationships in adolescence. In contrast to friendships (which are reciprocal dyadic relationships) and cliques (which refer to groups of individuals who interact frequently), crowds are characterized more by shared reputations or images than actual interactions (Brown & Larson, 2009 [4] ). These crowds reflect different prototypic identities (such as jocks or brains) and are often linked with adolescents’ social status and peers’ perceptions of their values or behaviors.
Romantic Relationships
Adolescence is the developmental period during which romantic relationships typically first emerge. Initially, same-sex peer groups that were common during childhood expand into mixed-sex peer groups that are more characteristic of adolescence. Romantic relationships often form in the context of these mixed-sex peer groups (Connolly, Furman, & Konarski, 2000 [5] ). Although romantic relationships during adolescence are often short-lived rather than long-term committed partnerships, their importance should not be minimized. Adolescents spend a great deal of time focused on romantic relationships, and their positive and negative emotions are more tied to romantic relationships (or lack thereof) than to friendships, family relationships, or school (Furman & Shaffer, 2003 [6] ). Romantic relationships contribute to adolescents’ identity formation, changes in family and peer relationships, and adolescents’ emotional and behavioral adjustment.
Furthermore, romantic relationships are centrally connected to adolescents’ emerging sexuality. Parents, policymakers, and researchers have devoted a great deal of attention to adolescents’ sexuality, in large part because of concerns related to sexual intercourse, contraception, and preventing teen pregnancies. However, sexuality involves more than this narrow focus. For example, adolescence is often when individuals who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender come to perceive themselves as such (Russell, Clarke, & Clary, 2009 [7] ). Thus, romantic relationships are a domain in which adolescents experiment with new behaviors and identities.
Behavioral And Psychological Adjustment
Identity Formation
Theories of adolescent development often focus on identity formation as a central issue. For example, in Erikson’s (1968 [8] ) classic theory of developmental stages, identity formation was highlighted as the primary indicator of successful development during adolescence (in contrast to role confusion, which would be an indicator of not successfully meeting the task of adolescence). Marcia (1966 [9] ) described identify formation during adolescence as involving both decision points and commitments with respect to ideologies (e.g., religion, politics) and occupations. He described four identity statuses: foreclosure, identity diffusion, moratorium, and identity achievement. Foreclosure occurs when an individual commits to an identity without exploring options. Identity diffusion occurs when adolescents neither explore nor commit to any identities. Moratorium is a state in which adolescents are actively exploring options but have not yet made commitments. Identity achievement occurs when individuals have explored different options and then made identity commitments. Building on this work, other researchers have investigated more specific aspects of identity. For example, Phinney (1989 [10] ) proposed a model of ethnic identity development that included stages of unexplored ethnic identity, ethnic identity search, and achieved ethnic identity.
Aggression and Antisocial Behavior
Several major theories of the development of antisocial behavior treat adolescence as an important period. Patterson’s (1982 [11] ) early versus late starter model of the development of aggressive and antisocial behavior distinguishes youths whose antisocial behavior begins during childhood (early starters) versus adolescence (late starters). According to the theory, early starters are at greater risk for long-term antisocial behavior that extends into adulthood than are late starters. Late starters who become antisocial during adolescence are theorized to experience poor parental monitoring and supervision, aspects of parenting that become more salient during adolescence. Poor monitoring and lack of supervision contribute to increasing involvement with deviant peers, which in turn promotes adolescents’ own antisocial behavior. Late starters desist from antisocial behavior when changes in the environment make other options more appealing. Similarly, Moffitt’s (1993 [12] ) life-course persistent versus adolescent-limited model distinguishes between antisocial behavior that begins in childhood versus adolescence. Moffitt regards adolescent-limited antisocial behavior as resulting from a “maturity gap” between adolescents’ dependence on and control by adults and their desire to demonstrate their freedom from adult constraint. However, as they continue to develop, and legitimate adult roles and privileges become available to them, there are fewer incentives to engage in antisocial behavior, leading to desistance in these antisocial behaviors.
Early, antisocial behavior leads to befriending others who also engage in antisocial behavior, which only perpetuates the downward cycle of aggression and wrongful acts. [Image: Philippe Put]
Anxiety and Depression
Developmental models of anxiety and depression also treat adolescence as an important period, especially in terms of the emergence of gender differences in prevalence rates that persist through adulthood (Rudolph, 2009 [13] ). Starting in early adolescence, compared with males, females have rates of anxiety that are about twice as high and rates of depression that are 1.5 to 3 times as high (American Psychiatric Association, 2013 [14] ). Although the rates vary across specific anxiety and depression diagnoses, rates for some disorders are markedly higher in adolescence than in childhood or adulthood. For example, prevalence rates for specific phobias are about 5% in children and 3%–5% in adults but 16% in adolescents. Anxiety and depression are particularly concerning because suicide is one of the leading causes of death during adolescence. Developmental models focus on interpersonal contexts in both childhood and adolescence that foster depression and anxiety (e.g., Rudolph, 2009 [15] ). Family adversity, such as abuse and parental psychopathology, during childhood sets the stage for social and behavioral problems during adolescence. Adolescents with such problems generate stress in their relationships (e.g., by resolving conflict poorly and excessively seeking reassurance) and select into more maladaptive social contexts (e.g., “misery loves company” scenarios in which depressed youths select other depressed youths as friends and then frequently co-ruminate as they discuss their problems, exacerbating negative affect and stress). These processes are intensified for girls compared with boys because girls have more relationship-oriented goals related to intimacy and social approval, leaving them more vulnerable to disruption in these relationships. Anxiety and depression then exacerbate problems in social relationships, which in turn contribute to the stability of anxiety and depression over time.
Academic Achievement
Adolescents spend more waking time in school than in any other context (Eccles & Roeser, 2011 [16] ). Academic achievement during adolescence is predicted by interpersonal (e.g., parental engagement in adolescents’ education), intrapersonal (e.g., intrinsic motivation), and institutional (e.g., school quality) factors. Academic achievement is important in its own right as a marker of positive adjustment during adolescence but also because academic achievement sets the stage for future educational and occupational opportunities. The most serious consequence of school failure, particularly dropping out of school, is the high risk of unemployment or underemployment in adulthood that follows. High achievement can set the stage for college or future vocational training and opportunities.
Diversity
Adolescent development does not necessarily follow the same pathway for all individuals. Certain features of adolescence, particularly with respect to biological changes associated with puberty and cognitive changes associated with brain development, are relatively universal. But other features of adolescence depend largely on circumstances that are more environmentally variable. For example, adolescents growing up in one country might have different opportunities for risk taking than adolescents in a different country, and supports and sanctions for different behaviors in adolescence depend on laws and values that might be specific to where adolescents live. Likewise, different cultural norms regarding family and peer relationships shape adolescents’ experiences in these domains. For example, in some countries, adolescents’ parents are expected to retain control over major decisions, whereas in other countries, adolescents are expected to begin sharing in or taking control of decision making.
Even within the same country, adolescents’ gender, ethnicity, immigrant status, religion, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and personality can shape both how adolescents behave and how others respond to them, creating diverse developmental contexts for different adolescents. For example, early puberty (that occurs before most other peers have experienced puberty) appears to be associated with worse outcomes for girls than boys, likely in part because girls who enter puberty early tend to associate with older boys, which in turn is associated with early sexual behavior and substance use. For adolescents who are ethnic or sexual minorities, discrimination sometimes presents a set of challenges that nonminorities do not face.
Finally, genetic variations contribute an additional source of diversity in adolescence. Current approaches emphasize gene X environment interactions, which often follow a differential susceptibility model (Belsky & Pluess, 2009 [17] ). That is, particular genetic variations are considered riskier than others, but genetic variations also can make adolescents more or less susceptible to environmental factors. For example, the association between the CHRM2genotype and adolescent externalizing behavior (aggression and delinquency)has been found in adolescents whose parents are low in monitoring behaviors (Dick et al., 2011 [18] ). Thus, it is important to bear in mind that individual differences play an important role in adolescent development.
Conclusions
Adolescent development is characterized by biological, cognitive, and social changes. Social changes are particularly notable as adolescents become more autonomous from their parents, spend more time with peers, and begin exploring romantic relationships and sexuality. Adjustment during adolescence is reflected in identity formation, which often involves a period of exploration followed by commitments to particular identities. Adolescence is characterized by risky behavior, which is made more likely by changes in the brain in which reward-processing centers develop more rapidly than cognitive control systems, making adolescents more sensitive to rewards than to possible negative consequences. Despite these generalizations, factors such as country of residence, gender, ethnicity, and sexual orientation shape development in ways that lead to diversity of experiences across adolescence.
Outside Resources
- Podcasts : Society for Research on Adolescence website with links to podcasts on a variety of topics related to adolescent development
- Study: Add Health website on one of the biggest longitudinal studies of adolescence to date
- Video: A selection of TED talks on adolescent brain development
- Web: UNICEF website on adolescents around the world
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
- What can parents do to promote their adolescents’ positive adjustment?
- In what ways do changes in brain development and cognition make adolescents particularly susceptible to peer influence?
- How could interventions designed to prevent or reduce adolescents’ problem behavior be developed to take advantage of what we know about adolescent development?
- Reflecting on your own adolescence, provide examples of times when you think your experience was different from those of your peers as a function of something unique about you.
- In what ways was your experience of adolescence different from your parents’ experience of adolescence? How do you think adolescence may be different 20 years from now?
REFERENCES
- Stattin, H., & Kerr, M. (2000). Parental monitoring: A reinterpretation. Child Development, 71, 1072–1085. ↵
- Barber, B. K. (1996). Parental psychological control: Revisiting a neglected construct. Child Development, 67, 3296–3319. ↵
- Dishion, T. J., & Tipsord, J. M. (2011). Peer contagion in child and adolescent social and emotional development. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 189–214. ↵
- Brown, B. B., & Larson, J. (2009). Peer relationships in adolescence. In R. M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 74–103). New York, NY: Wiley. ↵
- Connolly, J., Furman, W., & Konarski, R. (2000). The role of peers in the emergence of heterosexual romantic relationships in adolescence. Child Development, 71, 1395–1408. ↵
- Furman, W., & Shaffer, L. (2003). The role of romantic relationships in adolescent development. In P. Florsheim (Ed.), Adolescent romantic relations and sexual behavior: Theory, research, and practical implications (pp. 3–22). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. ↵
- Russell, S. T., Clarke, T. J., & Clary, J. (2009). Are teens “post-gay”?  Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 884–890. ↵
- Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity, youth, and crisis. New York, NY: Norton. ↵
- Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 551–558. ↵
- Phinney, J. (1989). Stages of ethnic identity in minority group adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 9, 34–49. ↵
- Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia Press. ↵
- Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life course persistent antisocial behavior: Developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674–701. ↵
- Rudolph, K. D. (2009). The interpersonal context of adolescent depression. In S. Nolen-Hoeksema & L. M. Hilt (Eds.), Handbook of depression in adolescents (pp. 377–418). New York, NY: Taylor and Francis. ↵
- American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. ↵
- Rudolph, K. D. (2009). The interpersonal context of adolescent depression. In S. Nolen-Hoeksema & L. M. Hilt (Eds.), Handbook of depression in adolescents (pp. 377–418). New York, NY: Taylor and Francis. ↵
- Eccles, J. S., & Roeser, R. W. (2011). Schools as developmental contexts during adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 225–241. ↵
- Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009). Beyond diathesis-stress: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 885–908. ↵
- Dick, D. M., Meyers, J. L., Latendresse, S. J., Creemers, H. E., Lansford, J. E., … Huizink, A. C. (2011). CHRM2, parental monitoring, and adolescent externalizing behavior: Evidence for gene-environment interaction. Psychological Science, 22, 481–489. ↵


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