7.3.E: Viruses (Exercises)
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- Ying Liu
- City College of San Francisco
These are homework exercises to accompany Kaiser's "Microbiology" TextMap. Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, which are defined as any microscopic organism that comprises either a single cell (unicellular), cell clusters or no cell at all (acellular). This includes eukaryotes, such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes. Viruses and prions, though not strictly classed as living organisms, are also studied.
10.1: General Characteristics of Viruses
Study the material in this section and then write out the answers to these questions. Do not just click on the answers and write them out. This will not test your understanding of this tutorial.
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State 2 living characteristics of viruses.
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State 2 nonliving characteristics of viruses.
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List 3 criteria used to define a virus.
- A virus that infects only bacteria is termed a ___________________.
- State why viruses can't replicate on environmental surfaces or in synthetic laboratory medium.
10.2: Size and Shapes of Viruses
Study the material in this section and then write out the answers to these questions. Do not just click on the answers and write them out. This will not test your understanding of this tutorial.
- Compare the size of most viruses to that of bacteria.
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List 4 shapes of viruses.
10.3: Viral Structure
Study the material in this section and then write out the answers to these questions. Do not just click on the answers and write them out. This will not test your understanding of this tutorial.
- Briefly describe the structure of most viruses that infect humans.
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Define the following:
- capsid
- capsomeres
- nucleocapsid
- Describe how most animal viruses obtain their envelope.
- State why some bacteriophages are more complex than typical polyhedral or helical viruses.
10.4: Classification of Viruses
10.5: Other Acellular Infectious Agents: Viroids and Prions
Study the material in this section and then write out the answers to these questions. Do not just click on the answers and write them out. This will not test your understanding of this tutorial.
- Small, circular, single-stranded molecules of infectious that cause of a few plant diseases such as potato spindle-tuber disease,cucumber pale fruit, citrus exocortis disease, and cadang-cadang (coconuts) are called ____________.
- Infectious protein particlesthought to be responsible for a group of transmissible and/or inherited neurodegenerative diseases including Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, kuru, and Gerstmann-Straussler- syndrome in humans as well as scrapie in sheep and goats are called ______________.
- Name 3 other neurological protein misfolding diseases that apprear to be initiated by prions.
10.6: Animal Virus Life Cycles
10.6A: The Productive Life Cycle of Animal Viruses
10.6B: Productive Life Cycle with Possible Latency
10.6C: The Life Cycle of HIV
10.6D: Natural History of a Typical HIV Infection
10.6E: The Role of Viruses in Tumor Production
10.7: Bacteriophage Life Cycles: An Overview
Study the material in this section and then write out the answers to these questions. Do not just click on the answers and write them out. This will not test your understanding of this tutorial.
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Name the 2 types of bacteriophage life cycles and state what the bacteriophage capable of each is called.
10.7A: The Lytic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
Study the material in this section and then write out the answers to these questions. Do not just click on the answers and write them out. This will not test your understanding of this tutorial.
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Describethe 5 steps involved in the lytic life cycle of bacteriophages.
10.7B: The Lysogenic Life Cycle of Bacteriophages
Study the material in this section and then write out the answers to these questions. Do not just click on the answers and write them out. This will not test your understanding of this tutorial.
- Describehow the lysogenic life cycle of temperate bacteriophages differs from the lytic life cycle of lytic bacteriophages.
- What is spontaneous induction as it relates to the lysogenic life cycle?
- When a bacteriophage inserts its DNA into the DNA of the host bacterium, this form of the virus is called a ________________.
- The host bacterium for a bacteriophage is called a ________________.
- A virus capable of the lysogenic life cycle is called a __________________.
10.8: Pathogenicity of Animal Viruses
Study the material in this section and then write out the answers to these questions. Do not just click on the answers and write them out. This will not test your understanding of this tutorial.
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Briefly describe 4 ways viruses can damage infected host cells.
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Briefly describe 2 different ways viruses can evade host immune defenses and give an example of a virus that uses each mechanism.
10.9: Bacteriophage-Induced Alterations of Bacteria
Study the material in this section and then write out the answers to these questions. Do not just click on the answers and write them out. This will not test your understanding of this tutorial.
- Describe how a bacteriophage may in some cases enable a bacterium to become virulent and state 2 examples.
10.10: Antiviral Agents
Study the material in this section and then write out the answers to these questions. Do not just click on the answers and write them out. This will not test your understanding of this tutorial.
- Explain why the antibiotics we use to treat bacterial infections are not effective against viral infections.
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Match the following drugs with the viral infections they are used against:
_____ amantadine, rimantidine, zanamivar, and oseltamivir
_____ acyclovir, famciclovir, penciclovir, and valacyclovir
_____ foscarnet, gancyclovir, cidofovir, valganciclovir, and fomivirsen
_____ AZT (ZDV), didanosine, zalcitabine, stavudine, nevirapine, delavirdine, saquinavir, and ritonavir
- HIV infection and AIDS
- influenza A
- severe CMV infections such as retinitis
- HSV and VZV infections
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Match the following:
_____ These are drugs that bind to the active site of an HIV-encoded protease and prevent it from cleaving the long gag-pol polyprotein and the gag polyprotein into essential proteins essential to the structure of HIV and to RNA packaging within its nucleocapsid. As a result, viral maturation does not occur and noninfectious viral particles are produced.
_____ These drugs chemically resemble normal DNA nucleotides, the building block molecules for DNA synthesis. They bind to the active site of the reverse transcriptase which, in turn, inserts it into the growing DNA strand in place of a normal nucleotide. Once inserted, however, new DNA nucleotides are unable to attach to the drug and DNA synthesis is stopped. This results in an incomplete provirus.
- nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors
- non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors
- protease inhibitors
- entry inhibitors
10.11: General Categories of Viral Infections
Study the material in this section and then write out the answers to these questions. Do not just click on the answers and write them out. This will not test your understanding of this tutorial.
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Match the following:
_____ Viral infections in which the infectious agents gradually increase in number over a very long period of time during which no significant symptoms are seen.
_____ Viral infections of relatively short duration with rapid recovery.
_____ Viral infections where the virus can be demonstrated in the body at all times and the disease may be present or absent for an extended period of time.
_____ Viral infections where the virus remains in equilibrium with the host for long periods of time before symptoms again appear, but the actual viruses cannot be detected until reactivation of the disease occurs.
- acute viral infection
- chronic viral infection
- latent viral infection
- slow viral infection
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Give an example of of a virus causing each of the following:
- acute viral infection
- chronic viral infection
- latent viral infection
- slow viral infection


11.3: Area of a Sector
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In geometry you learned that the area of a circle of radius \(r \) is \(\pi r^2 \). We will now learn how to find the area of a sector of a circle. A sector is the region bounded by a central angle and its intercepted arc, such as the shaded region in Figure 4.3.1.
Let \(\theta \) be a central angle in a circle of radius \(r \) and let \(A \) be the area of its sector. Similar to arc length, the ratio of \(A \) to the area of the entire circle is the same as the ratio of \(\theta \) to one revolution. In other words, again using radian measure,
\[ \frac{\text{area of sector}}{\text{area of entire circle}} ~=~
\frac{\text{sector angle}}{\text{one revolution}} \quad\Rightarrow\quad
\frac{A}{\pi\,r^2} ~=~ \frac{\theta}{2\pi} ~.
\nonumber \]
Solving for \(A \) in the above equation, we get the following formula:
In a circle of radius \(r \), the area \(A \) of the sector inside a central angle \(\theta \) is
\[ A ~=~ \tfrac{1}{2}\,r^2 \;\theta ~,\label{eqn:sectorarea} \]
where \(\theta \) is measured in radians.
Example 4.8
Find the area of a sector whose angle is \(\frac{\pi}{5} \) rad in a circle of radius \(4\) cm.
Solution
Using \(\theta=\frac{\pi}{5} \) and \(r=4 \) in Equation \ref{eqn:sectorarea}, the area \(A \) of the sector is
\[ A ~=~ \tfrac{1}{2}\,r^2 \;\theta ~= \tfrac{1}{2}\,(4)^2 \;\cdot\;\tfrac{\pi}{5}
~=~ \boxed{\tfrac{8\pi}{5}~\text{cm}^2} ~.
\nonumber \]
Example 4.9
Find the area of a sector whose angle is \(117^\circ \) in a circle of radius \(3.5 \) m.
Solution:
As with arc length, we have to make sure that the angle is measured in radians or else the answer will be way off. So converting \(\theta=117^\circ \) to radians and using \(r=3.5 \) in Equation \ref{eqn:sectorarea} for the area \(A \) of the sector, we get
\[ \theta ~=~ 117^\circ ~=~ \frac{\pi}{180} \;\cdot\; 117 ~=~ 2.042~\text{rad}
\quad\Rightarrow\quad
A ~=~ \tfrac{1}{2}\,r^2 \;\theta ~= \tfrac{1}{2}\,(3.5)^2 \;(2.042)
~=~ \boxed{12.51~\text{m}^2} ~.
\nonumber \]
For a sector whose angle is \(\theta \) in a circle of radius \(r \), the length of the arc cut off by that angle is \(s=r\,\theta \). Thus, by Equation \ref{eqn:sectorarea} the area \(A \) of the sector can be written as:
\[
\boxed{ A ~=~ \tfrac{1}{2}\,rs}\label{eqn:sectorarc}
\nonumber \]
Note: The central angle \(\theta \) that intercepts an arc is sometimes called the angle subtended by the arc.
Example 4.10
Find the area of a sector whose arc is \(6 \) cm in a circle of radius \(9 \) cm.
Solution
Using \(s=6 \) and \(r=9 \) in Equation \ref{eqn:sectorarc} for the area \(A \), we get
\[ A ~=~ \tfrac{1}{2}\,rs ~=~ ~=~ \tfrac{1}{2}\,(9)\,(6) ~=~ \boxed{27~\text{cm}^2} ~.
\nonumber \]
Note that the angle subtended by the arc is \(\theta = \frac{s}{r} = \frac{2}{3} \) rad.
Example 4.11
Find the area \(K \) inside the belt pulley system from Example 4.7 in Section 4.2.
Solution:
Recall that the belt pulleys have radii of \(5 \) cm and \(8 \) cm, and their centers are \(15 \) cm apart. We showed in Example 4.7 that \(EF=AC=6\,\sqrt{6} \), \(\angle\,DAE=1.37 \) rad, and \(\angle\,GBF=1.77 \) rad. We see from Figure 4.3.2 that, by symmetry, the total area \(K \) enclosed by the belt is twice the area above the line \(\overline{DG} \), that is,
\[\nonumber \begin{align*}
K ~=~ 2\,( (&\text{Area of sector \(DAE\)}) ~+~ (\text{Area of rectangle \(AEFC\)})\\ \nonumber
&+~ (\text{Area of triangle \(\triangle\,ABC\)}) ~+~ (\text{Area of sector \(GBF\)}) )~.
\end{align*} \nonumber \]
Since \(AEFC \) is a rectangle with sides \(5 \) and \(6\,\sqrt{6} \), its area is \(30\,\sqrt{6} \). And since \(\triangle\,ABC \) is a right triangle whose legs have lengths \(3 \) and \(6\,\sqrt{6} \), its area is \(\frac{1}{2}\,(3)\,(6\,\sqrt{6}) = 9\,\sqrt{6} \). Thus, using Equation \ref{eqn:sectorarea} for the areas of sectors \(DAE \) and \(GBF \), we have
\[\nonumber \begin{align*}
K ~&=~ 2\,\left( (\text{Area of sector \(DAE\)}) \;+\; 30\,\sqrt{6} \;+\; 9\,\sqrt{6} \;+\;
(\text{Area of sector \(GBF\)}) \right)\\ \nonumber
&=~ 2\,\left( \tfrac{1}{2}\,(5)^2 \,(1.37) ~+~ 30\,\sqrt{6} ~+~ 9\,\sqrt{6} ~+~
\tfrac{1}{2}\,(8)^2 \,(1.77) \right)\\ \nonumber
&=~ \boxed{338.59~\text{cm}^2}~.
\end{align*}
\nonumber \]
So far we have dealt with the area cut off by a central angle. How would you find the area of a region cut off by an inscribed angle, such as the shaded region in Figure 4.3.3? In this picture, the center of the circle is inside the inscribed angle, and the lengths \(a \) and \(b\) of the two chords are given, as is the radius \(r \) of the circle. Drawing line segments from the center of the circle to the endpoints of the chords indicates how to solve this problem: add up the areas of the two triangles and the sector formed by the central angle. The areas and angles of the two triangles can be determined (since all three sides are known) using methods from Chapter 2. Also, recall (Theorem 2.4 in Section 2.5) that a central angle has twice the measure of any inscribed angle which intercepts the same arc. In the exercises you will be asked to solve problems like this (including the cases where the center of the circle is outside or on the inscribed angle).
Another type of region we can consider is a segment of a circle, which is the region between a chord and the arc it cuts off. In Figure 4.3.4 the segment formed by the chord \(\overline{AB} \) is the shaded region between the arc \(\overparen{AB} \) and the triangle \(\triangle\,OAB \). By Equation 2.23 in Section 2.4 for the area of a triangle given two sides and their included angle, we know that
\[ \text{area of } \triangle\,OAB ~=~ \tfrac{1}{2}\,(r)\,(r)\,\sin\;\theta ~=~
\tfrac{1}{2}\,r^2 \,\sin\;\theta ~.
\nonumber \]
Thus, since the area \(K \) of the segment is the area of the sector \(AOB \) minus the area of the triangle \(\triangle\,OAB \), we have
\[
\text{area \(K \) of segment } AB ~=~ \tfrac{1}{2}\,r^2 \;\theta ~-~ \tfrac{1}{2}\,r^2 \,\sin\;\theta
~=~ \boxed{\tfrac{1}{2}\,r^2 \,(\theta - \sin\;\theta)} ~.\label{eqn:segment}
\nonumber \]
Note that as a consequence of Equation \ref{eqn:segment} we must have \(\;\theta > \sin\;\theta\) for \(0 < \theta \le \pi \) (measured in radians), since the area of a segment is positive for those angles.
Example 4.12
Find the area of the segment formed by a chord of length \(3 \) in a circle of radius \(2 \).
Figure 4.3.5
Solution
Figure 4.3.5 shows the segment formed by a chord of length \(3 \) in a circle of radius \(r=2 \). We can use the Law of Cosines to find the subtended central angle \(\theta\):
\[ \cos\;\theta ~=~ \frac{2^2 + 2^2 - 3^2}{2\,(2)\,(2)} ~=~ -0.125 \quad\Rightarrow\quad
\theta ~=~ 1.696~\text{rad}
\nonumber \]
Thus, by Equation \ref{eqn:segment} the area \(K \) of the segment is:
\[ K ~=~ \tfrac{1}{2}\,r^2 \,(\theta - \sin\;\theta) ~=~ \tfrac{1}{2}\,(2)^2 \,
(1.696 - \sin\;1.696) ~=~ \boxed{1.408}
\nonumber \]
Example 4.13
The centers of two circles are \(7 \) cm apart, with one circle having a radius of \(5 \) cm and the other a radius of \(4 \) cm. Find the area \(K \) of their intersection.
Solution:
In Figure 4.3.6(a), we see that the intersection of the two circles is the union of the segments formed by the chord \(\overline{CD} \) in each circle. Thus, once we determine the angles \(\angle\,CAD \) and \(\angle\,CBD \) we can calculate the area of each segment and add those areas together to get \(K \).
By symmetry, we see that \(\angle\,BAC = \frac{1}{2}\,\angle\,CAD \) and \(\angle\,ABC = \frac{1}{2}\,\angle\,CBD \). So let \(\alpha = \angle\,BAC \) and \(\beta = \angle\,ABC \), as in Figure 4.3.6(b). By the Law of Cosines, we have
\[ \begin{alignat*}{7}
\cos\;\alpha ~&=~ \frac{7^2 + 5^2 - 4^2}{2\,(7)\,(5)} ~&=~ 0.8286 \quad&\Rightarrow\quad
\alpha ~&=~ 0.594~\text{rad} \quad&\Rightarrow\quad \angle\,CAD ~&=~2\,(0.594) = 1.188~\text{rad}\\ \nonumber
\cos\;\beta ~&=~ \frac{7^2 + 4^2 - 5^2}{2\,(7)\,(4)} ~&=~ 0.7143 \quad&\Rightarrow\quad
\beta ~&=~ 0.775~\text{rad} \quad&\Rightarrow\quad \angle\,CBD ~&=~ 2\,(0.775) = 1.550~\text{rad}
\end{alignat*} \nonumber \]
Thus, the area \(K \) is
\[\nonumber \begin{align*}
K ~&=~ (\text{Area of segment \(CD \) in circle at \(A\)}) ~+~
(\text{Area of segment \(CD \) in circle at \(B\)})\\ \nonumber
&=~ \tfrac{1}{2}\,(5)^2 \,(1.188 - \sin\;1.188) ~+~ \tfrac{1}{2}\,(4)^2 \,(1.550 - \sin\;1.550)\\ \nonumber
&=~ \boxed{7.656~\text{cm}^2} ~.
\end{align*} \nonumber \]


3.13: Introduction to Types of Plans and Common Planning Tools
What you’ll learn to do: list and describe the types of plans and common planning tools
Leo Tolstoy wrote “Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.” The famous author wanted to point out that for a marriage to succeed (be happy), it had to succeed in several key aspects. Organizations are like marriages in this regard. There are key planning tools that every organization must use to ensure success. This section will look closely at these key tools.
Contributors and Attributions
CC licensed content, Original
- Introduction to Types of Plans and Planning Tools. Authored by : John/Lynn Bruton and Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


14.5: The New Right in Power
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In his first inaugural address Reagan proclaimed that “government is not the solution to the problem, government is the problem.” 31 In reality, Reagan focused less on eliminating government than on redirecting government to serve new ends. In line with that goal, his administration embraced supply-side economic theories that had recently gained popularity among the New Right. While the postwar gospel of Keynesian economics had focused on stimulating consumer demand, supply-side economics held that lower personal and corporate tax rates would encourage greater private investment and production. Supply-side advocates promised that the resulting wealth would reach—or “trickle down” to, in the words of critics—lower-income groups through job creation and higher wages. Conservative economist Arthur Laffer predicted that lower tax rates would generate so much economic activity that federal tax revenues would actually increase. The administration touted the so-called Laffer Curve as justification for the tax cut plan that served as the cornerstone of Reagan’s first year in office. Republican congressman Jack Kemp, an early supply-side advocate and co-sponsor of Reagan’s tax bill, promised that it would unleash the “creative genius that has always invigorated America.” 32
The tax cut faced early skepticism from Democrats and even some Republicans. Vice president George H. W. Bush had belittled supply-side theory as “voodoo economics” during the 1980 Republican primaries. 33 But a combination of skill and serendipity pushed the bill over the top. Reagan aggressively and effectively lobbied individual members of Congress for support on the measure. Then on March 30, 1981, Reagan survived an assassination attempt by a mentally unstable young man named John Hinckley. Public support swelled for the hospitalized president. Congress ultimately approved a $675 billion tax cut in July 1981 with significant Democratic support. The bill reduced overall federal taxes by more than one quarter and lowered the top marginal rate from 70 percent to 50 percent, with the bottom rate dropping from 14 percent to 11 percent. It also slashed the rate on capital gains from 28 percent to 20 percent. 34 The next month, Reagan scored another political triumph in response to a strike called by the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO). During the 1980 campaign, Reagan had wooed organized labor, describing himself as “an old union man” (he had led the Screen Actors Guild from 1947 to 1952) who still held Franklin Roosevelt in high regard. 35 PATCO had been one of the few labor unions to endorse Reagan. Nevertheless, the president ordered the union’s striking air traffic controllers back to work and fired more than eleven thousand who refused. Reagan’s actions crippled PATCO and left the American labor movement reeling. For the rest of the 1980s the economic terrain of the United States—already unfavorable to union organizing—shifted decisively in favor of employers. The unionized portion of the private-sector workforce fell from 20 percent in 1980 to 12 percent in 1990. 36 Reagan’s tax bill and the defeat of PATCO not only enhanced the economic power of corporations and high-income households, they confirmed that a new conservative age had dawned in American life.
The new administration appeared to be flying high in the fall of 1981, but developments challenged the rosy economic forecasts emanating from the White House. As Reagan ratcheted up tension with the Soviet Union, Congress approved his request for $1.2 trillion in new military spending. 37 The combination of lower taxes and higher defense budgets caused the national debt to balloon. By the end of Reagan’s first term it equaled 53 percent of GDP, as opposed to 33 percent in 1981. 38 The increase was staggering, especially for an administration that had promised to curb spending. Meanwhile, Federal Reserve chairman Paul Volcker continued his policy from the Carter years of combating inflation by maintaining high interest rates, which surpassed 20 percent in June 1981. 39 The Fed’s action increased the cost of borrowing money and stifled economic activity.
As a result, the United States experienced a severe economic recession in 1981 and 1982. Unemployment rose to nearly 11 percent, the highest figure since the Great Depression. 40 Reductions in social welfare spending heightened the impact of the recession on ordinary people. Congress had followed Reagan’s lead by reducing funding for food stamps and Aid to Families with Dependent Children and removed a half million people from the Supplemental Social Security program for the physically disabled. 41 The cuts exacted an especially harsh toll on low-income communities of color. The head of the NAACP declared that the administration’s budget cuts had rekindled “war, pestilence, famine, and death.” 42 Reagan also received bipartisan rebuke in 1981 after proposing cuts to social security benefits for early retirees. The Senate voted unanimously to condemn the plan, and Democrats framed it as a heartless attack on the elderly. Confronted with recession and harsh public criticism, a chastened White House worked with Democratic House Speaker Tip O’Neill in 1982 on a bill that restored $98 billion of the previous year’s tax cuts. 43 Despite compromising with the administration on taxes, Democrats railed against the so-called Reagan Recession, arguing that the president’s economic policies favored the most fortunate Americans. This appeal, which Democrats termed the “fairness issue,” helped them win twenty-six House seats in the autumn congressional races. 44 The New Right appeared to be in trouble.


6.6: Different Types of Sexualities
Observing sexuality worldwide throughout history is extremely helpful in understanding the way human beings perceive different sexualities. As we have alluded to previously, there is not a universal attitude about different sexual orientations, but rather, the way in which sexual orientation is socially constructed based on a given culture’s attitudes and beliefs. Even within Western culture, attitudes have shifted over time. The early Greeks viewed same sex activity as just another sexual act, not linking it to any particular orientation. In the Medieval Period, sex that did not result in procreation was denounced, whereas the Enlightenment period created a shift that differentiated private from public life, making sex more acceptable. During the 19th century in the Victorian Period, people developed concerns regarding population growth, which led to governments and churches restructuring the narrative surrounding sex, in an attempt to reduce sexual desires throughout communities. Cultural perceptions of sexuality in Western societies were quite a bit more conservative in the 19th Century than they are now. The truth is that attitudes about sexuality are constantly changing. We might imagine that present day attitudes are very accepting and open of diversity, only to find that in the future, this era was seen as very restrictive.
With more than 200 sexuality scales developed by people to define sexual orientation, it is not possible to list each variant and again, these may change, become irrelevant or the names may be found offensive in the future, however; the list below defines 20 known sexual orientations in present day representative language (this information is also in the glossary):
- Allosexual
The term describes anyone who experiences any sort of sexual attraction.  Allosexuality opposes asexuality.
- Androsexual
Androsexual is a term that describes people who are attracted to people who present themselves as masculine. This type of orientation has little to do with biology, and more to do with the presentation of gender.
- Asexual/Ace
Asexual is a term that describes people who do not experience sexual attraction toward other people. People who identify as asexual are often able to feel romantic attraction towards people.

- Bi-Curious
Bi-curious is a term that refers to people who are looking to explore bisexuality.
- Bisexual
Bisexuality can often overlap with pansexuality, however; the term describes a person who may be romantically, sexually, or emotionally attracted to more than one gender.
- Closeted
Closeted, or “in the closet” refers to anyone who exists within the LGBTQIA+ community but does not publicly disclose the truth.

- Gay
The word gay is used to describe someone who is sexually or romantically attracted to a member of the same gender.

- Gynesexual
This term refers to people who are attracted to individuals with more feminine gender presentations rather than androsexual identifying people who are attracted to more masculine presenting people.
- Heterosexual or Straight
These two terms refer to people who are only romantically, sexually, or emotionally attracted to people of the opposite sex (i.e. men who are attracted to exclusively women, and women who are exclusively attracted to men).
- Heteroflexible or homoflexible
A heteroflexible person is mostly heterosexual (someone who is attracted to the same gender), but can occasionally be attracted to the same gender or other genders. Alternatively, a Homoflexible person is mostly attracted to people of the same gender, but is sometimes attracted to other genders.
- Homosexual
The term homosexual is a slightly outdated term; however, it refers to anyone who is attracted to people of the same (or similar) gender.
- Lesbian
A lesbian is a term that describes a female identifying person who is attracted to other women.
- Pansexual
This term refers to people who are attracted to someone regardless of their gender identity.
- Queer
Queer is an umbrella term that describes anyone within the LGBTQIA+ community. The dictionary defines the word as something that is “strange;” however, the term has been redefined and reclaimed.
- Questioning
This term refers to someone who is questioning their sexual preference or to describe someone who is curious about exploring their sexuality.
- Sapiosexual
Someone who identifies as sapiosexual is attracted to someone based on their intellect rather than the gender or sex of the other person.
“ Asexuality is like any other identity – at its core it’s just a word that people use to help figure themselves out, then communicate that part of themselves to others. If you find the word asexual useful to describe yourself, you may certainly identify as asexual. If you later experience things that indicate you’re not asexual, that’s fine as well.” -AVEN
Asexuality, or Ace (used interchangeably), is another sexual orientation and is known as an umbrella term. Specifically, however, asexuality refers to little to no sexual attraction towards others. Those who do experience sexual attraction to others are allosexual. Just as there is a spectrum with sexual attraction, asexuality has its own spectrum, with many different sub identities. Aces have different attitudes towards sex, with there being three different types: sex-repulsed, sex-indifferent, and sex-favorable. When one is sex-repulsed, they will not want to partake in sex at all. However, asexuality should not be confused with celibacy. Celibacy is seen as a choice to abstain from sex, whereas asexuality is simply a part of a person (AVEN). Additionally, one’s asexuality does not influence or determine their romantic attraction toward others. Some Aces do desire romantic relationships, and those who do not are aromantic.
It is important to note that people who identify as Ace are just as likely to participate in masturbation as non-asexual people. Not all people who identify as asexual masturbate, however; many people who do identify as asexual find pleasure masturbating. Many people view masturbation as a sexual activity, however, masturbating has various functions (see Chapters 4 and 9 for more on masturbation).
The non-sexual gratifying reasons for masturbation given are the same for asexual and non-asexual people. Stress, boredom, help falling asleep, and more are all reasons as to why a person might masturbate. In fact, asexual individuals who masturbate may or may not think of masturbation as sexual at all. People who identify as asexual might view masturbation as an act of self-care, or even an enjoyable task that stimulates their mind, just like all other people.
Asexuality, is a sexual orientation, like other orientations listed above. People who identify as asexual are not participating in celibacy, which is a common misconception. The lack of sexual attraction is not always associated with the lack of romantic attraction. Just like all sexualities, asexuality exists within a spectrum, and asexual people can develop emotional attraction towards people, and they can be attracted to one, two, or even multiple genders that exist within the gender spectrum. And as we have already stated, sexual fluidity alludes to the fact that someone who is asexual now, may or may not be asexual at a later time. Asexual people hold healthy and long-term monogamous, as well as non-monogamous relationships.
Ace activists have brought attention to being asexual and the representation of media characters has also been slowly growing. David Jay is a prominent figure in the asexual community and creator of the website, The Asexual Visibility and Education Network (AVEN). The website digs deeper into what being asexual means, and answers commonly asked questions. Aces also write their own accounts and stories under the “Asexual Perspectives” tab, and there are links to several forums and blogs that provide greater detail into the lives of asexual people.


10: Convergence Strategy
Distillation Science (a blend of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering)
This is Part X, Convergence Strategy of a ten-part series of technical articles on Distillation Science, as is currently practiced on an industrial level. See also Part I, Overview for introductory comments, the scope of the article series, and nomenclature.
This last article discusses how to approach solving non-intrinsic equations and equation systems, since these are part of the practice of distillation science. While it can be argued that this topic is technically more related to math or computer science, the techniques are indispensable tools to obtaining workably accurate solutions.
Most relationships in Distillation Science feature equations that are written with temperature as the starting variable, and then one solves for the other parameters. For example, almost all vapor pressure relationships are written intrinsically with VP as a function of temperature. But frequently the problem statement begins with a fixed pressure, and so there needs to be an iterative procedure to solve for temperature.
More complex relationships involving two starting variables are written in temperature and pressure, with the equation’s dependent variable written as a function of (absolute) temperature and (absolute) pressure. An example is an Equation of State, where Z is written as f(T,P), with molar volume (V) being back-solved from the defining relationship PV=ZRT. Some scientific relationships are written in dimensionless “reduced” variables, where T, P, and V are divided by their critical point value (e.g., T r =T/T c , P r =P/P c ), which allows for more global equation forms. The Peng-Robinson Equation of State is an example of using reduced properties, although Equation 5-4 partially masks that by breaking the equation into pieces.
The most basic technique for solution convergence in a non-intrinsic relationship is based on “gaming strategy”: (1) pick a possible independent variable’s value and work it through to a solution, comparing it to the desired final dependent variable; then (2) move the value choice a little bit and see how that helps. This is just a methodical form of “trial and error”, and will eventually lead to a solution. However, such strategy is almost impossible to automate for easy programming, as in a spreadsheet macro or a stand-alone BASIC program. Moreover, it can be hard to get started, may lead to an unstable situation that cycles around a solution rather than stably converging to the required accuracy.
Newton-Raphson Method
A better convergence option is a modification of Newton-Raphson, aka Newton’s Method. In the instructions below, "X" is the relationship's independent variable and "Y" is the dependent variable. The problem is that you have a desired target value for "Y" and have to iteratively seek the correct value for "X", and there is no way to re-write the relationship so that "Y" is the independent variable. The increasing subscripts denote the progression at improving the solution, such that "Y n " is identical to the desired target value of "Y" = "Y T ", and "X n " is the value for "X" that yields that solution.
- If there is a way to get a very rough estimate of solution, start with that as the first trial = X 0 , and work the scientific relationship through to a first possible solution, Y 0 . (If there is no rough estimation possible, start with a known “safe” initial X 0 and calculate Y 0 .) Then make an extremely small ΔX step (say 0.1% change in X 0 ). In the next iteration, X 1 =X 0 +ΔX would be evaluated to get Y 1 . If the change in ΔY (i.e., ΔY= Y 1 -Y 0 ) is too inconsequential to be seen, increase the value of the ΔX step, until there is some noticeable change in ΔY. (This is an important consideration since some relationships are complex, so it is hard to pick that first ΔX step to get a reasonable change in Y). It does not matter whether the change to X (i.e., ΔX) is positive or negative: that will get worked out later.
- Calculate the quantity \(m=(\Delta Y/ \Delta X) = (Y_{1} -Y_{0})/(X_{1} -X_{0}) \nonumber\), which approximates the scientific relationship’s first derivative. “m” can be positive or negative (which is why the sign in ΔX didn’t matter). A positive value for “m” indicates that Y increases with increased X; or a negative value for “m” indicates the opposite effect. Take notice of the sign of “m”, to see if its sign makes common sense.
- With Y T as the target solution value, make the next guess for X as \[X_{2} =X_{1} + K \times (Y_{T} -Y_{1})/m \label{10-1} \]
- The variable “K” is the relaxation factor, with values of “K” closer to unity giving faster convergence, but at the peril of overshoot or convergence instability; and “K” values closer to zero giving slow but stable convergence. Until you know something about the scientific relationship, it is recommended using a “K” value of about 0.2-0.3 at first, especially when logarithmic relationships are involved. You can always change the “K” value once you see how sensitive the scientific relationship is.
- For the “ i th” iteration, the iteration equation becomes: \[ X_{i+1}=X_{i} +K \times (Y_{T} -Y_{i}) \times (X_{i} -X_{i-1}) / (Y_{i} -Y_{i-1}) \label{10-2} \]
- Continue iterating "n" times until the solution, Y n , is adequately close to the target solution, Y T . It is suggested that loop iteration accuracy should be one decimal place greater than that of the final solution’s desired precision, to allow for round-off error and computer calculation precision.
When doing automated computer calculations, either via spreadsheet macro or stand-alone BASIC program, it is a good idea to error-check each iteration for division by zero, and to limit the number loop iterations (say to a high number like 100). Otherwise, the iteration program can get “hung up” in an infinite loop. If you are getting essentially zero value for the quantity \((Y_{n} -Y_{n-1}) \nonumber\) or requiring an excessive number of loops to converge, that requires adjusting the relaxation factor, “K”, up or down to adjust convergence sensitivity.
Some ideas for making that first rough estimate, to get the iteration started, are:
- For finding the saturation temperature for a known pressure (i.e., inverting a vapor pressure relationship), start with using a basic VP relationship (inaccurate, but simple), such as \(Ln(P) \alpha - \Delta H_{vap}/RT \nonumber\) using the known ambient boiling temperature, T b @ P=1 atmosphere and a reasonable estimate for latent of vaporization,\(\Delta H_{vap} \nonumber\). Then the rough starting estimate is \(T_{0}=T_{b}- \Delta H/[R \times Ln(P_{T})] \nonumber\), where P T is the known pressure target, in atmospheres. This will give a high estimated T 0 for P T > atmospheric, and a low estimated T 0 for P T < atmospheric. It is more important to start with a "safe" estimate than close first iteration, to avoid the pitfalls of automated solutions mentioned above.
- Vapor pressure charts and tables are good ways to get started, although sometimes hard to program into an automated sequence.
- When iterating for the saturation temperature of a mixture, start with the assumption of a linear relationship between the two fluids’ saturation temperatures at that pressure; then interpolate between those two pure-component temperatures per the mixture’s mole fraction. There is always curvature between two fluids’ saturation temperatures, so assuming linearity isn’t correct; but it gets the iteration loop started.
- Starting an iteration loop for fugacity coefficients should only be done after a cursory look at the reduced pressure, P r , since these relationships involve calculating compressibility, Z. For liquid fugacity coefficients, avoid starting out or getting too close to P r =0.9, because the automated solution to cubic equations gets too sensitive, and one of the roots may become an “imaginary number” (i.e., a number times the square root of one). For vapor fugacity coefficients, do an initial check to see which Z = f(T r , P r ) equation is best to use (i.e., Equation 6-6 or Equation 6-7 ): one is better for lower values of P r and one better for higher values. If you attempt to cross over between equations in the middle of a solution, that discontinuity might cause an automated iteration to “blow up”.
- Resist the temptation to use Newton-Raphson to get the roots for the cubic relationship Z: there are three roots, and only two are scientifically meaningful. Besides, you need to know all three roots in order to judge which is Z v (the largest of the three) and which is Z L (the smallest of the three). Instead, go through the procedure in Part V and solve the cubic equation for Z, using the exact trigonometric method of Equation 5-4 .
- Starting the loop for activity coefficients should never be done at either extreme of mole fractions (zero or unity). The Liquid Activity Coefficient's relationships are complex-shaped and can have \(\gamma/ \Delta X \nonumber\) values that are almost zero (near X =1) or very high (near X =0). For bulk separations, start somewhere between 0.3< X <0.7, and use a moderate value for relaxation factor, “K” (say 1/3) in E quation ( \ref{10-2} ) . For trace impurity distillation systems, either start closer to X =0.1 or at X =0.9, plus use a conservative relaxation parameter, say K=0.1.
Convergence Strategy for modified Thek-Stiel VP Equations
The “sting” of working out nested loop iterations has been removed by giving the solutions for the modified Thek-Stiel VP equation ( Equation 4-3 ) in tabular form (Table 4-1). Obtaining vapor pressure solutions for fluids other than chlorosilanes and their impurities (see Part IV) require more complex convergence strategies than Newton-Raphson.
These VP solutions involve a system of nested-loops: the value of the Watson coefficient “q” depends on evaluating the candidate vapor pressure equation at T r =0.7 to get the loop’s estimate of acentric factor; and obtaining the loop’s estimate of “c” and “n” depends on finding a value of α c that gives the correct saturation temperature at ambient pressure (aka, the normal boiling point). The following solution strategy is advised below, for fluids other than those of Table 4-1 (or in case one wants to check the table’s values) .
First, be sure all of the values for T b , T c , P c are well-validated, and the degree of hydrogen bonding is known, per the definitions in Part IV . If the new fluid to be investigated is of a periodical table group other than III, IV, or V, the solution will involve a more intricate solution than below, since “k” (i.e., the degree of hydrogen bonding) is not well determined for other than Groups III-V, and a double iteration will be needed. Also be sure the vapor pressure data is also well-validated. A good check on that is to use a simplistic extrapolation of the known VP data, to see if the rough value of the acentric factor matches with the values of T c and P c . See Part III for more details on acentric factor, and especially Equation 3-3 For example, if an extrapolation of VP data using the Antoine VP relationship ( Equation 2-3 ) in conjunction with values for T c and P c , ends up giving an acentric factor value over 0.3 for a compact molecule, or an acentric factor under 0.1 for a complex molecule, something is wrong with the data (either the VP data or the values of T c and P c ).
For Equation 4-3 , the value of the hydrogen bonding parameter, k, is established by experimental data for Group III, IV, and V hydrides, chlorides, oxychlorides, intermediate hydrochlorides, and several alphatic hydrocarbons. The value of k ranges from 0.12 to zero, and is tabulated in Part IV for many fluids. The rules for determining "k" are a bit complex, and are available upon request from the author. In brief, for Group III, IV, and V hydrides, k=0.1197; 0.0914; and 0.1009 respectively. For all fully chlorinated or methylated compounds of Groups III, IV, and V , k = 0.0291. For aliphatic hydrocarbons, k = 0. For other hydrochloride intermediates, a quadratic function has been determined to interpolate between all-hydride and all-chloride. These rules for "k" values are used in the entries of Table 4-3 .
Having a rough estimate of the ambient pressure latent heat of vaporization is handy (but not necessary) for the first guess at the T-S heat variable. If no estimate is available, consult one of the many handbooks of chemical compounds, such as Yaw’s Chemical Property Handbook , or Lange’s Handbook of Chemistry and look for a latent heat value for a compound of similar complexity. It is always better to start a new fluid’s solution to the Thek-Stiel VP equation with a low estimate for the T-S heat variable, and then increase.
The overall solution convergence strategy to the modified Thek-Stiel VP equation involves a triple-nested iteration loop, with the logic flow sheet of the strategy shown on Figure 10-1. The solution is obtained by improving candidate solutions for the T-S heat variable, the acentric factor (ω ), and the α c parameter, until all loops are converged.
The inner-most iteration loop is the \(\alpha_{c} \nonumber\) parameter (a thermodynamic consistency parameter from Part IV ) , which is adjusted until the VP equation gives the correct saturation temperature at atmospheric pressure, aka the normal boiling point T b . That loop is started by using Reidel’s estimation method: calculating the rough value of \(\psi_{b}= (-35 +36/T_{br} + 42LnT_{br} -T_{br}^6 \nonumber\), and then plugging in that rough value of \(\psi_{b} \nonumber\) in the equation below:
\[ \alpha_{c} \approx (0.315 \psi_{b} + LnP_{c})/(0.838 \psi_{b} + LnT_{rb}) \label{10-3} \]
The middle of the nested loops is the acentric factor, which can be conveniently started using the Lee-Kister acentric factor (ω) approximation (which is not very accurate, but a good loop-starting estimate):
The Lee-Kister approximation for acentric factor (ω) conveniently uses only P c and T br =T b /T c :
\[\omega \cong \frac{-lnP_{c}+A+B/T_{br} +C*LnT_{br} +D*T_{br}^6}{E+F/T_{br} +GLnT_{br}+H*T_{br}^6} \label{10-4} \]
A = -5.92714 E = 15.2518
B = 6.09648 F = -15.6875
C = 1.28862 G = -13.4721
D = -0.169347 H=0.43577
Based on this rough estimated value of ω, a value of Watson’s coefficient “q” (from Equation 4-3 ) can be determined per the relationship
\[ q = 0.37028 + 0.065404*ω \label{10-5} \]
The outer-most loop is the T-S heat variable, “T-S ΔH v ”, which doesn't really have much scientific meaning, but is a part of the Thek-Stiel relationship. This parameter is iterated based on the error function comparing the VP equation’s output against the various known ( or estimated) VP data points. To get the best overall fit, I suggest including data near T r = 0.7 (where the acentric factor is evaluated). In getting the various T-S VP Equation solutions shown on Table 4-1, I chose to not automate this outer loop, but to rely on the more basic “gaming strategy” ⇒ always starting low, so as to monitor the convergence better. For computer automation, I used a BASIC program (actual software used was Liberty Basic version 4.03, selected due to prior familiarity). The starting guess for the outer loop iteration was based on the atmospheric ΔH vap given in chemistry handbooks and from internet sources, or based on similar compounds where no published estimate of atmospheric ΔH vap was available. This choice of starting guess was based on the "safe guess" criterion, and opposed to a scientific estimation.
Figure 10-1 below schematically gives the convergence strategy previously used with success. After insuring that all input parameter and data are reasonable, start with the initial guess for the T-S heat variable, “T-S ΔH v ”. Then estimate a starting ω per E quation ( \ref{10-4} ) ; a from that estimate a starting \(\alpha_{c} \nonumber\) per Equation 10-3. Now calculate values for constants “A”, “B 0 -B 3 ”, “c”, and “n” in Equation 4-3 , and see if the inner-most loop’s convergence is satisfied. If not, iterate the value of \(\alpha_{c} \nonumber\) until the correct VP is shown at T b of 1.0 atmosphere (i.e., the normal boiling point). This inner-most loop is best converged by approaching the VP @ T b from P<1 atmosphere, with convergence to ± 1.0E-4 atmospheres being seen within about ten iterations via Newton-Raphson, using a relaxation factor of 0.4 in E quation ( \ref{10-2} ) . Note that if the first guess of \(\alpha_{c} \nonumber\) shows a VP @ T b of >1.0 atmospheres, just keep reducing the value of \(\alpha_{c} \nonumber\) by 10% until the convergence approach is from lower values of T b . Trying to converge from the “high side” can be unstable.
Once the inner-most loop is converged, start changing the value of the acentric factor (ω) to converge the middle loop. This loop converges quite easily with just simple continuous substitution. Newton-Raphson is not required. Just put in the last value of ω, calculate the candidate VP constants (“A”, “B 0 ‑B 3 ”, “c”, and “n” in Equation 4-3 ) and determine a new value for ω based on the VP at T r =0.7 (see Equation 3-3 for the definition of ω).
The outer loop is converged by picking that value of the T-S heat variable, “T-S ΔH v ”, that best satisfies the error function of the VP data (i.e., predicted VP's as compared to the known data point VP's). I found the best overall fit used a least squares approach which emphasized the data near T r =0.7, and which compared the VP equation error on a relative level (as opposed to an absolute level). If absolute VP equation errors are used (as opposed to relative ones), that over-emphasizes data at higher temperatures.


15.1: Nested For Loops
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Overview
Nested for loops places one for loop inside another for loop. The inner loop is repeated for each iteration of the outer loop.
Discussion
Nested Control Structures
We are going to first introduce the concept of nested control structures. Nesting is a concept that places one item inside of another. Consider:
if expression true action else false action
This is the basic form of the if then else control structure. Now consider:
if age is less than 18 you can't vote if age is less than 16 you can't drive else you can drive else you can vote if age is less than 21 you can't drink else you can drink
As you can see we simply included as part of the “true action” a statement and another if then else control structure. We did the same (nested another if then else) for the “false action”. In our example, we nested if then else control structures. Nesting could have an if then else within a while loop. Thus, the concept of nesting allows the mixing of the different categories of control structures.
Many complex logic problems require using nested control structures. By nesting control structures (or placing one inside another) we can accomplish almost any complex logic problem.
An Example – Nested for loops
Here is an example of a 10 by 10 multiplication table:
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | ------------------------------------------------------------- 1 ! 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 2 ! 2 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 10 | 12 | 14 | 16 | 18 | 20 | 3 ! 3 | 6 | 9 | 12 | 15 | 18 | 21 | 24 | 27 | 30 | 4 ! 4 | 8 | 12 | 16 | 20 | 24 | 28 | 32 | 36 | 40 | 5 ! 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 25 | 30 | 35 | 40 | 45 | 50 | 6 ! 6 | 12 | 18 | 24 | 30 | 36 | 42 | 48 | 54 | 60 | 7 ! 7 | 14 | 21 | 28 | 35 | 42 | 49 | 56 | 63 | 70 | 8 ! 8 | 16 | 24 | 32 | 40 | 48 | 56 | 64 | 72 | 80 | 9 ! 9 | 18 | 27 | 36 | 45 | 54 | 63 | 72 | 81 | 90 | 10 ! 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 |
We might also see that the answers could be designed as a collection of cells (each cell being exactly six spaces wide). The pseudocode to produce part of the table is:
For row = 1, row <= 3, row += 1 For column = 1, column <= 3, column += 1 Output row * column Output "\t" Output "\n"
Key Terms
- complex logic
- Often solved with nested control structures.


1.9: Prepositions and Prefixes
Module 8
© 2021 Philip S. Peek, CC BY 4.0 https://doi.org/ 10.11647/OBP.0264. 09
Prepositions
A Greek preposition ( πρόθεσις ) has the same definition and the same function as does its English counterpart. Prepositions are typically one to two syllable words that take a noun or pronoun as an object. Consider these English examples:
in a great civil war ;
on a great battle-field ;
of that war ;
above our poor power ;
to the unfinished work ;
for the great task ;
from the earth ;
and take note of the preposition and its object , which are referred to as a prepositional phrase . Prepositional phrases are a common building block for creating meaning both in Greek and in English.
Consider the following passage from Herman Melville’s Moby Dick and note how frequently prepositions occur ( bold marks a preposition and underline its object):
Call me Ishmael. Some years ago—never mind how long precisely—having little or no money in my purse , and nothing particular to interest me on shore , I thought I would sail about a little and see the watery part of the world . It is a way I have of driving off the spleen and regulating the circulation. Whenever I find myself growing grim about the mouth ; whenever it is a damp, drizzly November in my soul ; whenever I find myself involuntarily pausing before coffin warehouses , and bringing up the rear of every funeral I meet; and especially whenever my hypos get such an upper hand of me , that it requires a strong moral principle to prevent me from deliberately stepping into the street , and methodically knocking people’s hats off —then, I account it high time to get to sea as soon as I can. This is my substitute for pistol and ball . With a philosophical flourish Cato throws himself upon his sword ; I quietly take to the ship . There is nothing surprising in this . If they but knew it, almost all men in their degree , some time or other, cherish very nearly the same feelings towards the ocean with me .
In eight sentences there are twenty-three prepositional phrases. The preposition comes before its object almost every time. Leaving out the prepositional phrases, reread the passage, noting how much meaning is lost.
Call me Ishmael. Some years ago—never mind how long precisely—having little or no money, and nothing particular to interest me, I thought I would sail about a little and see the watery part. It is a way I have. Whenever I find myself growing grim; whenever it is a damp, drizzly November; whenever I find myself involuntarily pausing and bringing; and especially whenever my hypos get such an upper hand that it requires a strong moral principle to prevent me—then, I account it high time to get as soon as I can. This is my substitute. Cato throws himself; I quietly take. There is nothing surprising. If they but knew it, almost all men, some time or other, cherish very nearly the same feelings.
Consider the following Greek passage from Herodotos’ Histories :
ἀναχθέντες δὲ ἐκ τῆ ς Κρότωνος οἱ Πέρσαι ἐκπίπτουσι τῇ σι νηυσὶ ἐς Ἰηπυγίην , καί σφεας δουλεύ οντας ἐνθαῦτα Γίλλος ἀνὴρ Ταραντῖνος φυγὰς ῥυσάμενος ἀπήγαγε παρὰ βασιλέα Δαρεῖον . ὁ δὲ ἀντὶ τούτων ἕτοιμος ἦν διδόναι τοῦτο ὅ τι βούλοιτο αὐτός . [2] Γίλλος δὲ αἱρέεται κ άτοδόν οἱ ἐς Τάραντα γενέσθαι , προαπηγησ άμενος τὴν συμφορήν· ἵνα δὲ μὴ συνταράξῃ τὴν Ἑλλάδα , ἢν δι᾽ αὐτὸν στόλος μέγας πλέῃ ἐπὶ τὴν Ἰταλίην , Κνιδίους μούνους ἀποχρ ᾶν οἱ ἔφη τοὺς κατάγοντας γίνεσθαι , δοκέων ἀπὸ τούτων ἐόντων τοῖσι Ταραντίνοισι φίλων μάλιστα τὴν κάτοδό ν οἱ ἔσεσθαι . [3] Δαρεῖος δὲ ὑποδεξάμενος ἐπετέλεε· πέμψας γὰρ ἄγγελον ἐς Κν ίδον , κατάγειν σφέας ἐκέλευε Γίλλον ἐς Τάραντα . πειθόμενοι δὲ Δαρείῳ , Κνίδιοι Ταραντίνους οὐκ ὦν ἔπειθον , βίην δ ὲ ἀδύνατοι ἦσαν προσφέρειν . [4] ταῦτα μέ ν νυν οὕτω ἐπρήχθη· οὗτοι δὲ πρῶτοι ἐκ τῆς Ἀσίης ἐς τὴ ν Ἑλλάδα ἀπίκοντο Πέρσαι , καὶ οὗ τοι διὰ τοιόνδε πρῆγμα κατάσκοποι ἐγέ νοντο .
In this paragraph of similar length there are thirteen prepositions. Because much meaning is created in Greek through the use of case endings on nouns and pronouns, Greek prepositions do not occur as frequently as they do in English. Nonetheless the point to take from the above is that the prepositional phrase is an important building block for creating meaning in Greek and in English. Learning to recognize prepositions and their objects and understanding how to translate them are key skills to acquire.
Practice Picking out Prepositions. From this excerpt of Moby Dick, practice picking out the prepositions and their objects. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key .
Circumambulate the city of a dreamy Sabbath afternoon. Go from Corlears Hook to Coenties Slip, and from thence, by Whitehall, northward. What do you see?—Posted like silent sentinels all around the town, stand thousands upon thousands of mortal men fixed in ocean reveries. Some leaning against the spiles; some seated upon the pier-heads; some looking over the bulwarks of ships from China; some high aloft in the rigging, as if striving to get a still better seaward peep. But these are all landsmen; of week days pent up in lath and plaster—tied to counters, nailed to benches, clinched to desks. How then is this? Are the green fields gone? What do they here?
In doing the above exercise, aim for mastery—understand what a preposition and its object are and be able to pick out prepositions and objects from any sentence written in English. Since the meaning and function of English and Greek prepositions are the same, you will be able to transfer your knowledge of the preposition in English to your understanding of it in Greek.
Greek Prepositions
Remember that in Greek and in English prepositions must take an object. If there is no object, then the word is not a preposition. In Greek the object may be in the accusative (acc.), genitive (gen.), or dative (dat.) cases, whose endings you will learn shortly. Some prepositions take only one case as their object. ἐκ only takes an object in the genitive case:
|
ἐκ |
out of |
+ |
an object in the genitive case |
Other prepositions take objects in all three cases, such as ἀμφί :
|
ἀμφί |
about |
+ |
an object in the genitive case |
|
around |
+ |
an object in the dative case |
|
|
around |
+ |
an object in the accusative case |
Below is a list of the most frequently occurring prepositions. Memorize them. You will encounter them frequently in the rest of this book and they are not glossed. Note that in some cases the definitions are simplified. See the glossary for more complete ones.
|
Preposition |
Additional Info. |
English Equivalent |
Case of Object |
|
|
ἅμα |
at the same time as |
+ |
dative |
|
|
ἀνά |
on, upon, onto |
+ |
genitive or dative |
|
|
up to, throughout |
+ |
accusative |
||
|
ἀπό |
from, away from |
+ |
genitive |
|
|
διά |
through, throughout |
+ |
genitive |
|
|
by |
+ |
genitive |
||
|
on account of |
+ |
accusative |
||
|
εἰς or ἐς |
(proclitic) |
to, into, against |
+ |
accusative |
|
ἐκ |
(proclitic) |
from, out of, by |
+ |
genitive |
|
ἐν |
(proclitic) |
in, on, at, among |
+ |
dative |
|
ἕνεκα or εἵνεκα |
on account of |
+ |
genitive |
|
|
for the sake of |
+ |
genitive |
||
|
ἐπί |
on, upon |
+ |
genitive |
|
|
in the time of |
+ |
genitive |
||
|
towards |
+ |
genitive |
||
|
on, at, next to |
+ |
dative |
||
|
on, to, against, for |
+ |
accusative |
||
|
κατά |
down from |
+ |
genitive |
|
|
down toward |
+ |
genitive |
||
|
under |
+ |
genitive |
||
|
against |
+ |
genitive |
||
|
during |
+ |
accusative |
||
|
throughout |
+ |
accusative |
||
|
by, according to |
+ |
accusative |
||
|
μετά |
with |
+ |
genitive |
|
|
after |
+ |
accusative |
||
|
μέχρι |
up to, until |
+ |
genitive |
|
|
meanwhile |
+ |
genitive |
||
|
παρά |
from |
+ |
genitive |
|
|
at, beside |
+ |
dative |
||
|
to, toward |
+ |
accusative |
||
|
contrary to |
+ |
accusative |
||
|
περί |
about, concerning |
+ |
genitive |
|
|
around, concerning |
+ |
dative |
||
|
around, concerning |
+ |
accusative |
||
|
πρό |
before, in front of |
+ |
genitive |
|
|
on behalf of |
+ |
genitive |
||
|
πρός |
facing |
+ |
genitive |
|
|
from |
+ |
genitive |
||
|
in the eyes of |
+ |
genitive |
||
|
by |
+ |
genitive |
||
|
at, near |
+ |
dative |
||
|
in addition |
+ |
dative |
||
|
towards |
+ |
accusative |
||
|
against |
+ |
accusative |
||
|
in regard to |
+ |
accusative |
||
|
σύν or ξύν |
with, with help of |
+ |
dative |
|
|
ὑπέρ |
above, over |
+ |
genitive |
|
|
on behalf of |
+ |
genitive |
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over, above, beyond |
+ |
accusative |
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ὑπό |
by |
+ |
genitive |
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under |
+ |
genitive |
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under |
+ |
dative |
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subject to |
+ |
dative |
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under |
+ |
accusative |
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during |
+ |
accusative |
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toward |
+ |
accusative |
- The preposition ἕνεκα or εἵνεκα usually has its object placed before it, though the object may also follow as it does for most prepositions: ἕνεκα ὑγιεί ας for the sake of health or ὑγιείας ἕνεκα for the sake of health . εἵνεκα instead of ἕνεκα is found in the epic and Ionic dialects and in poetry.
- Both εἰς and ἐς are used by Homer and by the Ionic poets. Herodotos, writing in a mixed Ionic dialect, prefers ἐς . Attic inscriptions have εἰς , which Attic prose prefers. In Attic tragedy, εἰς is slightly more common than ἐς . Aeolic poets preferred εἰς before vowels and ἐς before consonants.
- Proclitics are monosyllabic words, lacking an accent, and are pronounced closely with the word that follows them. Common proclitics are the adverb οὐ; the conjunctions εἰ and ὡς; the prepositions εἰς, ἐν, ἐκ; and these forms of the article: ὁ, ἡ, οἱ, αἱ.
Word Order
As in English, in Greek the object of a preposition typically comes right after it, ἐν τῇ ὁδῷ in the road . The object, τῇ ὁδῷ , follows the preposition ἐν . At times words intervene between the preposition and its object, διὰ Διὸς πῦρ through the fire of Zeus . The noun Διός , of Zeus , possesses πῦρ fire and comes between the preposition διά through and its object πῦρ fire . Note that for the preposition εἵνεκα or ἕνεκα typical word order is object followed by εἵνεκα or ἕ νεκα , as noted above.
Anastrophe of the Disyllabic Preposition
In the majority of instances the object follows the preposition. In some instances the order is reversed and a preposition of two syllables follows the object, as in this example, κάλλ ους πέρι concerning beauty . Note that when anastrophe occurs, the accent shifts from the ultima to the penult, περί to πέ ρι .
Prepositions and Motion
For the genitive, dative, and accusative cases, a general rule of motion applies in many instances.
The rules of motion are three and they are only generally true. In each the preposition is bolded and its object is underlined.
A preposition with its object in the genitive case can express motion away from :
ἔρχονται ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς
they go from the land .
A preposition with its object in the dative case can express place where :
ἵστημι ἐν τῇ ὁδῷ
I stand in the road .
A preposition with its object in the accusative case can express motion towards or against :
ἐ ρχόμεθα εἰς τὴν γῆν
we go to the land.
In poetry the preposition may be omitted altogether. When you encounter prepositional phrases in the wild, keep in mind the general rule of motion .
Practice Identifying Prepositions. From this excerpt of Herodotos’ Historie s ( Ι .215) practice picking out the prepositions ἐν , ἐς , and περί . Check your answers with those in the Answer Key .
Μασσαγέται δὲ ἐσθῆτά τε ὁμοίην τῇ Σκυθικῇ φορ έουσι καὶ δίαιταν ἔχουσι , ἱππόται δὲ εἰσὶ καὶ ἄνιπποι — ἀμφοτέρων γὰρ μετέχουσι — καὶ τοξόται τε καὶ αἰχμοφόροι , σαγάρις νομ ίζοντες ἔχειν . χρυσῷ δὲ καὶ χαλκῷ τὰ πάντα χρέωνται . ὅσα μ ὲν γὰρ ἐς αἰχμὰς καὶ ἄρδις καὶ σαγάρις , χαλκῷ τὰ π άντα χρέωνται . ὅσα δὲ περὶ κεφαλὴν καὶ ζωστῆρας καὶ μασχαλιστῆρας , χρυσ ῷ κοσμέονται . [2] ὣς δ᾽ αὕτως τῶν ἵππων τὰ μὲν περὶ τ ὰ στέρνα χαλκέους θώρηκας περιβάλλουσι , τὰ δὲ περὶ τοὺς χαλινοὺς κα ὶ στόμια καὶ φάλαρα χρυσῷ . σιδήρῳ δὲ οὐδ᾽ ἀργ ύρῳ χρέωνται οὐδέν· οὐδὲ γὰρ οὐδέ σφι ἐστὶ ἐν τῇ χωρῇ . ὁ δὲ χρυσὸς καὶ ὁ χαλκὸς ἄπλετος .
Translation
The Massagetai dress similarly to the Skythians and have a similar way of life. They fight from horses and on foot, for they make use of both. They shoot bows and throw spears and customarily carry the battle-ax. They make abundant use of gold and bronze. They use bronze for the tips of arrows and spears and for their ax-heads. For adorning their heads and belts and straps, they use gold. For their tack, they take the same approach. They surround their horses’ chests with breastplates made of bronze. They adorn with gold the reins, bits, and cheek-plates. They do not use iron or silver because their land has none, though gold and bronze are plentiful.
Practice Choosing the Preposition. In this translation of an excerpt of Herodotos’ Historie s, for the bolded words choose the Greek preposition that best translates them. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key .
Concerning customs all people think this way and it is possible to prove it is so by many examples and also in the following way. During his rule Dareios called some Greeks who were present and asked them at what price they would be willing to eat their dead fathers. They replied that they would do this at no price. After this Dareios called the Kallatians from India who eat their dead and while the Greeks watched and understood what was said through an interpreter, asked at what price they would agree to burn with fire their dead fathers. They yelled loudly and bid him to watch his tongue. So it is with customs and I think Pindar’s poem correctly says that custom is the king of everything.
Practice Translating Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Adverbs. Translate the paragraph below, paying attention to how the conjunctions, adverbs, and prepositions function. Often there is not an authentic connection between how ancient Greek expresses the meaning of a sentence and how English does. The main takeaway from exercises like these is a greater understanding of how each part of speech functions, not a greater understanding of ancient Greek idiom. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key .
Paragraph I (from Moby Dick )
It was a humorously perilous business for both of us. πρὶν γὰρ we proceed further, it must be said ὅτι the monkey-rope was fast ἐπὶ both ends; fast to Queequeg’s broad canvas belt, and fast to my narrow leather one. ὥστε for better or for worse, we two, εἰς νῦν , were wedded; and should poor Queequeg sink to rise no more, ἔπειτα καὶ usage καὶ honor demanded, ὅτι instead of cutting the cord, it should drag me down in his wake. οὕτως , ἔπειτα , an elongated Siamese ligature united us. Queequeg was my own inseparable twin brother; nor could I any way get rid of the dangerous liabilities which the hempen bond entailed.
οὕτως strongly and metaphysically did I conceive of my situation τότε , ὅτι μέχρι earnestly watching his motions, I seemed distinctly to perceive ὅτι my own individuality was νῦν merged in a joint stock company of two; ὅτι my free will had received a mortal wound; καὶ ὅτι another’s mistake ἢ misfortune might plunge innocent me εἰς unmerited disaster and death.
Paragraph II (translation from Lucian’s A True Story )
Athletes καὶ those seeking physical fitness pay attention to health καὶ exercise. They κα ὶ contend ὅτι well-timed relaxation is a vital part of training. Students καὶ I think profit ἐκ rest μετὰ reading serious works and οὖν return εἰ ς their studies invigorated. This rest works best εἰ they spend time σὺν books which provide contemplation καὶ inspiration ἀλλὰ καὶ wit, charm, κα ὶ attraction, just the sort of restful thought I think this work provides. I note οὐ only the novelty of the content and the charm of a compelling story ἀλλὰ καὶ the witty allusions πρὸς the ancient classics, filled with legends and monsters, written ὑπ ὸ poets, historians, and philosophers.
Prefixes
Many verbs have prefixes added to them. The prefix typically changes the verb’s meaning, doing so sometimes in slight, and other times in significant, ways. Note the following verbs and their meanings:
* δίδωμι give ; δίκην δί δωμι I pay the penalty ; δίδωμι χάριν I give thanks
ἐκδίδωμι give up, surrender, give out (of one’s house), give (in marriage)
προδίδωμι betray, abandon, give up (to an enemy)
* εἰμί be, be possible
* πάρειμι be near, be present ; (imper.) be possible
* εἶμι come, go
* πάρειμι go in, enter, pass by
* ἵστημι stand
ἀνίστημι make stand up, wake, break up (an assembly)
* καθίστημι appoint, establish, put into a state ; (intrans.) be established, be appointed
* τίθημι put, place
προτίθημι place before, propose, prefer
* φερω bring, bear, carry
προσφέρω bring to, apply to
- Some meanings differ more from the meaning of the root verb than others do.
- The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.
Object of Prefix
A preposition always has an object. The prefix does not always but may at times also take an object as in these examples:
βίαν προσ φέρω αὐτ ῷ ,
I apply force to him ;
βίαν is the object of φέρω and αὐ τῷ is the object of the prefix προς - ;
and
τῆς δὲ γῆς ἀπ έρχονται ,
they depart the land .
γῆς is the object of the prefix ἀπο - .
In each example above, the noun serves as the object of the prefix. In this next example, note that Herodotos uses the same prefix and preposition, one reinforcing the meaning of the other. The prefix and preposition are in bold. The preposition’s object is underlined.
περὶ τὰ στέρνα χαλκέους θώρηκας περι βά λλουσι
They surround their chests with breastplates made of bronze.
The preposition περί and its meaning around are reinforced by the prefix περι - . In this next example there is a similar repetition of the preposition and prefix.
ἐν τῇ ὁ δῷ τέλματι βαθεῖ ἐν τυγχάνω .
Ι stumble upon a deep puddle in the road.
In this sentence the preposition ἐν and the prefix ἐν - do not work together, reinforcing each other as περί and περι - do above. Rather the noun τέλματι is the object of the prefix ἐν - and the prepositional phrase ἐν τῇ ὁδ ῷ locates τέλματι βαθεῖ the deep puddle .
Elision
A final short vowel at the end of a word or a prefix may be elided (eliminated) when the word or verb that follows starts with a vowel or diphthong. When elision occurs between two words, the missing short vowel is marked by an apostrophe. When elision occurs between a prefix and its verb, the short vowel of the prefix is eliminated. Note these instances of elision:
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ἀλλὰ ἔχω becomes ἀλλ ’ ἔχω . |
ὅδε εἶπεν becomes ὅδ ’ εἶπεν . |
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ἀμφὶ ἡμῶν becomes ἀμφ ’ ἡμων . |
παρὰ ὑ μῶν becomes παρ ’ ὑμῶν . |
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ἀπο έρχομαι becomes ἀπέ ρχομαι . |
παρὰ ἔχω becomes παρέχω . |
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ἀπο ἱκνέ ομαι becomes ἀφικνέομαι . |
τοῦτο οὐ becomes τοῦτ ’ οὐ . |
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ἀπο ὄλλυμι becomes ἀπόλλυμι . |
ὑπὸ ἄ ρχω becomes ὑπάρχω . |
When the consonant directly before the elided vowel is kappa, pi, or tau— κ , π , or τ —and is followed by a word with a rough breathing, the consonant changes to the corresponding aspirate: κ becomes χ ; π becomes φ ; and τ becomes θ .
ἐπὶ ᾧ becomes ἐφ᾽ ᾧ .
κατα ἵστημι becomes καθίστημι .
In addition to the elision of short vowels, final - αι and - οι are occasionally elided:
εἶναι ἐν τῇ ὁδῷ becomes εἶν ’ ἐν τῇ ὁδῷ .
οἴμοι ὡς ἀθυμέω becomes οἴμ ’ ὡς ἀθυμέω .
Consider contractions that occur in English, such as can’t or watcha gonna do , noting the different ways that words combine.
Module 8 Practice Reading Aloud. Practice reading this excerpt from Euripides’ Alkestis . Read the excerpt a few times, paying attention to the sound each syllable makes and trying to hear the rhythm of the words.
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Ἄλκηστις |
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ἄγει μ ’ ἄγει τις· ἄγει μέ τις ( οὐχ |
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260 |
ὁρᾷς ;) νεκύων ἐς αὐλάν , |
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ὑπ ’ ὀφρύσι κυαναυγέσι |
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βλέπων , πτερωτὸς Ἅιδας . |
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τί ῥέξεις ; ἄφες . οἵαν ὁδὸν ἁ δει - |
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λαιοτάτα προβαίνω . |
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Ἄδμητος |
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οἰκτρὰν φίλοισιν , ἐκ δὲ τῶν μάλιστ ’ ἐμοὶ |
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265 |
καὶ παισίν , οἷς δὴ πένθος ἐν κοινῷ τόδε . |
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Ἄλκηστις |
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μέθετε , μέθετέ μ ’ ἤδη · |
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κλίνατ ’, οὐ σθένω ποσίν . |
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πλησίον Ἅιδας , σκοτία |
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δ ’ ἐπ ’ ὄσσοισι νὺξ ἐφέρπει . |
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270 |
τέκνα τέκν ’, οὐκέτι δὴ |
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οὐκέτι μάτηρ σφῷν ἔστιν . |
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χαίροντες , ὦ τέκνα , τόδε φάος ὁρῷτον . |
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Ἄδμητος |
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οἴμοι · τόδ ’ ἔπος λυπρὸν ἀκούειν |
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καὶ παντὸς ἐμοὶ θανάτου μεῖζον . |
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275 |
μὴ πρός < σε > θεῶν τλῇς με προδοῦναι , |
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μὴ πρὸς παίδων οὓς ὀρφανιεῖς , |
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ἀλλ ’ ἄνα , τόλμα . |
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σοῦ γὰρ φθιμένης οὐκέτ ’ ἂν εἴην · |
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ἐν σοὶ δ ’ ἐσμὲν καὶ ζῆν καὶ μή · |
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σὴν γὰρ φιλίαν σεβόμεσθα . |
Verse Translation
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Alkestis |
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Someone pulls and pulls me—don’t you see?— |
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Pulls me nigh where dwell the dead, and |
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Stares with darkened brow, winged Hades. |
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What will you do? Let me go. What journey |
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I’m to make, a soul most sorrowful. |
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Admetos |
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One sad to friends but most of all to me |
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And our poor progeny who share this grief. |
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Alkestis |
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Let me down, down, now. |
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On my back, I cannot stand. |
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Here is Hades.


Common Examples of Fair Use
Students and teachers rely on fair use in order to accomplish many of their educational goals. Below are some, but by no means all, educational activities that rely upon fair use.
Student Projects
Includes both media and text.
Your fair use analysis will change depending on how the project is presented, i.e. only the professor sees it, you present it to the whole class, you present it to a group outside of the class, or you post it online for anyone to see.
Course Reserves
Includes electronic reserves.
Instructors may copy or post small portions of books or journals for supplementary student readings, but cannot copy entire copyrighted works as a replacement for materials that students would normally be required to purchase.
Sound or Video Clips for Teaching
Students and teachers can make use of video or sound clips in creating multi-media presentations for use in the classroom.
Digitization Projects
Many university libraries rely on fair use in order to create large scale digitization projects that preserve older materials, as well as providing improved access to their collections for the purpose of research. For an example of this type of digitization project check out the
HathiTrust Digital Library
.
Content in Scholarly Articles
It is common to quote other researchers’ writings or use others’ images, graphs or charts in your own scholarly writing. These practices have long been considered acceptable under fair use.
Access for the Disabled
When specific exemptions don’t fit.
While there are specific exceptions that allow for making copies of copyrighted works in order to provide access to the visually handicapped, they are sometimes too narrow to provide complete access. In these cases it is possible to rely upon fair use in order to provide access to materials.
Fair Use for Non-Educational Purposes
Fair use is not only available for educational purposes. Many other commercial and non-commercial activities depend upon fair use. Some of these common fair uses include:
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Quotes in books, news reports and blogs
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Mash-ups and remixes
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Parody, such as on television shows like South Park or Saturday Night Live
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Video or sound clips in documentary films
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Thumbnail images on search engines
Myths about Fair Use
Many people have heard of fair use and have some ideas about what it is. Unfortunately, there are many myths or misunderstandings about exactly what fair use covers, what the law states or how it can be applied. Below we dispel just a few of the most common myths about fair use.
Myth 1: All educational use is fair use.
Fact:
While many educational uses are considered fair use, there are some activities that do not meet the fair use criteria. For example, a teacher can’t make copies of an entire text book so that students don’t have to buy it.
Myth 2: Every educational use is transformative.
Fact:
Using copyrighted works for teaching can often be a transformative use, but not always. For example, using a text book created to teach Biology 101 to teach Biology 101 is not transformative.
Myth 3: All socially beneficial use is fair use.
Fact:
Fair use is designed to help balance the rights of the creator and the social benefit of using copyrighted works in certain ways. Not all uses of copyrighted works that would be socially beneficial, however, qualify as fair use. For example, scanning and posting an entire medical text book online for anyone to access for free is socially beneficial but probably not fair use.
Myth 4: All commercial use precludes fair use.
Fact:
Many commercial activities, such as newspapers and online news sites, rely heavily on fair use.
Myth 5: It is not possible to have a fair use when a permissions scheme exists for a work.
Fact:
Just because rights holders are willing to charge you to use their copyrighted material, does not mean that fair use cannot apply. For example, the Associated Press created a licensing scheme to quote from AP stories but quoting from news stories has long been considered fair use.
Myth 6: Fair use specifies a percentage or amount of a work that is okay to use.
Fact:
The law does not state that using 10% of a book or 30 seconds of a song or video clip is fair use. You can often use more than these arbitrary limits, while sometimes using even less might not be fair use. The amount of the original work used is only one of the four factors to consider.


1.7: I Glossary
Active listening: Listening while communicating verbally and nonverbally that we are interested in what the other person is saying and also verifying our understanding with the speaker.
Activities of daily living (ADLs): Daily basic tasks that are fundamental to everyday functioning (e.g., hygiene, elimination, dressing, eating, ambulating/moving).
Aggression: The act of attacking without provocation.
Aggressive communicators: Individuals who come across as advocating for their own rights when communicating despite possibly violating the rights of others.
Agitation: Behaviors that fall along a continuum ranging from verbal threats and motor restlessness to harmful aggressive and destructive behaviors.
Aphasia: A condition with difficulty processing what one is hearing or responding to questions due to dementia, brain injuries, or strokes.
Assertive communication: A way of conveying information that describes the facts and the sender’s feelings without disrespecting the receiver’s feelings.
Assertive communicators: Individuals who respect the rights of others while also standing up for their own ideas and rights when communicating.
Autonomy: Each individual’s right to self-determination and decision-making based on their unique values, beliefs, and preferences.
Belongingness: A human emotional need for interpersonal relationships, connectedness, and being part of a group.
Communication: A process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior.
Competitive listening: Listening that occurs when we are primarily focused on sharing our own point of view instead of listening to someone else.
Delusions: Unshakable beliefs in something that isn’t true or based on reality.
Diet and fluid orders: Orders regarding what the resident is permitted to eat and drink.
Documentation: A legal record of patient care completed in a paper chart or electronic health record (EHR).
Elimination needs: Assistance the resident requires for urinating and passing stool.
Hallucinations: A condition where a person senses things such as visions, sounds, or smells that seem real but are not.
Holistic care: Health care that addresses a patient’s physical, emotional, social, and spiritual needs.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: A theory stating that unless basic human needs within a hierarchy are met, humans cannot experience higher levels of psychological and self-fulfillment needs.
Military time: A standard for recording time that avoids confusion between daytime and nighttime hours because each hour of the day is represented by a number ranging from 00:00 to 24:59.
Minimum Data Set (MDS): A standardized assessment tool for all residents of long-term care facilities certified to receive reimbursement by Medicare or Medicaid.
Nonverbal communication: Communication that includes body language and facial expressions, tone of voice, and pace of the conversation.
Objective information: Anything that can be observed through sight, touch, hearing, or smell, referred to as “signs.” An example of objective information is the client’s temperature was 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit.
Older adults: Adults aged 65 years old or older.
Passive communicator: Individuals who put the rights of others before their own when communicating.
Passive listening: Listening that occurs when we are not interested in listening to the other person or we assume we correctly understand what the person is communicating without verifying their message.
Progressive relaxation: Stress management techniques that focus on reducing muscle tension and using mental imagery to induce calmness.
Relaxation breathing: A stress management technique focused on becoming aware of one’s breathing.
Reporting: Oral communication between care providers that follows a structured format and typically occurs at the start and end of every shift.
Signs: Objective information obtained through the senses of sight, hearing, smell, or touch.
Stress response: The body’s response to stress that can include irritability, sweaty palms, a racing heart, difficulty concentrating, and impaired sleep.
Subjective information: Information reported by clients or their family members referred to as “symptoms.” An example of subjective information is the resident stating, “I have a headache.”
Symptoms: Subjective information reported by clients or their family members. Symptoms are documented by using quotes around the exact words expressed by the client or their family member. For example, the client reported, “I have a headache.”
Therapeutic communication: A type of professional communication used with patients defined as the purposeful, interpersonal, information-transmitting process through words and behaviors based on both parties’ knowledge, attitudes, and skills that leads to patient understanding and participation.
Transfer status: Assistance the patient requires to be moved from one location to another, such as from the bed to a chair.
Validation therapy: A method of therapeutic communication used to connect with someone who has moderate to late-stage dementia and avoid agitation.