10.7: Exercise- Peak Latency
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Now we’re going to switch from scoring amplitudes to scoring latencies. The traditional method for scoring latencies is to find the peak voltage in the measurement window (positive or negative) and record the latency at which this peak occurred. Like peak amplitude, peak latency is not usually the best scoring algorithm (see Chapter 9 in Luck, 2014). We’ll look at some better alternatives in the following exercises.
In the present exercise, we’re going to ask whether the peak latency of the LRP in the contralateral-minus-ipsilateral difference wave is later on incompatible trials than on compatible trials. Make sure that the 40 ERPsets from the previous exercise (from the Chapter_10 > Data > ERPsets_CI_Diff folder) are loaded. Launch the Measurement Tool and set it up as shown in Screenshot 10.5. The measurement Type is Peak latency , and we’re looking for a negative peak. We’re measuring from Bins 1 and 2 (Compatible and Incompatible) in the C3/C4 channel, and we’re saving the scores in a file named peak_latency.txt .
A key question in scoring ERP amplitudes and latencies is how to determine the time window. This is a complicated question, and you can read about several strategies in Chapter 9 of Luck (2014) and in Luck and Gaspelin (2017). As mentioned earlier, the most important thing is to avoid being biased by the data, which is best achieved by deciding on the measurement windows before you start the study. Of course, it’s too late for that now with the ERP CORE experiments. However, if I were to choose a time window in advance for the LRP in a flankers paradigm, I’d assume that the LRP begins after 100 ms and ends by 700 ms. For this reason, we’ll use a measurement window of 100 to 700 ms in this exercise.
As always, the next step is to click the Viewer button to see how well the algorithm is working. You’ll see that it has mixed success. It works reasonably well for waveforms that are clean and contain a large peak (e.g., File 2), but the scores are distorted by high-frequency noise (e.g., Files 1 and 12), and the values are largely random for waveforms without a distinct peak (e.g., Files 9 and 10).
Now go back to the Measurement Tool and click RUN to save the scores. Load the data into your statistics package and perform a paired t test to compare the Compatible and Incompatible conditions. Verify that the means provided by the statistics package are reasonable. You should see a mean of 318 ms for Compatible and 375 ms for Incompatible. Unfortunately, the trick we used with mean amplitude—comparing the means from the statistical package with the values measured from the grand average—doesn’t work with peak latency. If you measure the peak latency directly from the grand average ERP waveforms, you’ll see a value of 285 ms for Compatible and 355 ms for Incompatible. The values from the grand average aren’t the same as the mean of the single-subject values, but at least they show the same ordering (Compatible < Incompatible).
Now look at the actual t test results. You should see that the peak latency was significantly shorter for Compatible trials than for Incompatible trials ( t (39) = -3.647, p < .001). Given the huge differences between Compatible and Incompatible trials in the grand average waveforms (Figure 10.2.C), it’s not surprising that the difference in peak latency was significant, even if peak latency isn’t an ideal scoring algorithm. You should also look at the effect size, measured as Cohen’s d z , which indicates how far apart the means are relative to the pooled standard deviation. You should see an effect size of -0.577 (or +0.577, depending on the order of conditions in your analysis), which is a medium effect size.
If you’re familiar with effect sizes in ERP studies, you might be surprised that this effect size isn’t bigger. After all, the peaks in the grand averages are very far apart in time. It therefore seems reasonable to suppose that we had a lot of measurement error when we computed the peak latency, which increased the standard deviation of the scores and therefore reduced the effect size. Given that peak latency scores are distorted by high-frequency noise, we should be able to reduce the measurement error and increase the effect size by applying a low-pass filter to the averaged ERPs prior to obtaining the peak latency scores.
Let’s try it. It would take quite a while for you to filter all 40 of the ERPsets using the GUI, so I’ve provided the ERPsets for you in Chapter_10 > Data > ERPsets_CI_Diff_filt . They’ve been low-pass filtered with a half-amplitude cutoff of 20 Hz and a slope of 12 dB/octave. Clear out the existing ERPsets from ERPLAB, load the filtered ERPsets, and repeat the measurement and analysis procedure (but changing the name of the measurement file to peak_latency_filt.txt ). You’ll see that the effect size is now a little larger ( d = -0.630). So, filtering helped, but only a little. Sometimes it helps a lot, especially when there is a lot of high-frequency noise in the data (which is not true for most of the waveforms in this experiment).


2.5: Sample Documentation
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Mrs. Smith is a 65-year-old patient who appears her stated age. She is calm, cooperative, alert, and oriented x 3. She is well-groomed and her clothing is clean and appropriate for the weather. Her speech is clear and understandable, and she follows instructions appropriately.
Mrs. Smith moves all extremities equally bilaterally with good posture. Her gait is smooth and she maintains balance without assistance. Her skin is warm and her mucous membranes are moist. She is 5’4” and she weighs 143 with a BMI of 24 in the normal weight category. Her vital signs were BP 120/70, pulse 74 and regular, respiratory rate 14, temperature 36.8 Celsius, and pulse oximetry was 98% on room air.
Mrs. Smith is a 65-year-old patient who appears older than her stated age. She appears slightly agitated during the interview. She is oriented to person only and denies pain. She is wearing a heavy winter coat on a warm summer day and has an unclean body odor. She is slow to respond to questions and does not follow commands. She seems to neglect the use of her right arm. Her gait is shuffled with stooped posture but has no assistive devices. She is 5’4” and weighs 102 pounds with a BMI of 17.5 in the underweight category. Her vital signs were 186/55, pulse 102 and irregular, respiratory rate 22, temperature 38.1 Celsius, and pulse oximetry was 88%.


8.7: Seamounts and Hot Spots
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The ocean floor is dotted with seamounts , some isolated and some in chains. Seamounts are underwater volcanoes, and most are much younger than the oceanic crust on which they formed. If a seamount gets large enough to break the ocean surface, it becomes a volcanic island. Some seamounts are formed from magma rising at a divergent boundary, and as the plates move apart, the seamounts move with them, which can result in a seamount chain. Other seamounts form from the rising magma at an ocean-ocean subduction zone; these include the Aleutians, extending from Alaska to Russia, and the Lesser Antilles in the eastern part of the Caribbean. Sometimes the crust on which an island or seamount sits will subside, taking the seamount with it. As this happens, the top of the seamount can become eroded flat, and these flat-topped seamounts are then called tablemounts or guyots .
However, some seamounts are formed far away from plate boundaries, in places where we would not usually expect much volcanic activity. Some seamounts and ocean islands are formed above a mantle plume or hot spot — a place where hot mantle material rises in a stationary and semi-permanent plume, and affects the overlying crust. Mantle plumes are thought to rise at approximately 10 times the rate of mantle convection. The ascending column may be on the order of kilometers to tens of kilometers across, but near the surface it spreads out to create a mushroom-style head that is several tens to over 100 kilometers across. Near the base of the lithosphere (the rigid part of the mantle), the mantle plume (and possibly some of the surrounding mantle material) partially melts to form magma that rises to feed volcanoes.
A great example of seamounts created from a hot spot includes the Hawaiian and Emperor Seamount island chains in the Pacific Ocean (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). The oldest of the Hawaiian/Emperor seamounts is dated at around 80 Ma, and it is situated on oceanic crust aged around 90 to 100 Ma. The volcanic rock making up these islands gets progressively younger toward the southeast, culminating with the island of Hawaii itself, which consists of rock that is almost all younger than 1 Ma. It appears that a stationary plume of hot upwelling mantle material is the source of the Hawaiian volcanism, and that the ocean crust of the Pacific Plate is moving toward the northwest over this hot spot. A seamount will be formed through volcanic activity over the hot spot, then the plate will move and displace the seamount before the hot spot produces the next seamount, and so on. In this way, over time, the seamounts are formed in chains. Near the Midway Islands, the chain takes a pronounced change in direction, from northwest-southeast for the Hawaiian Islands to nearly north-south for the Emperor Seamounts. This change is widely ascribed to a change in direction of the Pacific Plate moving over the stationary mantle plume, but it is also possible that the Hawaiian mantle plume has not actually been stationary throughout its history, and in fact moved at least 2,000 km south over the period between 81 and 45 Ma.
Since most mantle plumes are beneath the oceans, the early stages of volcanism typically take place on the seafloor. Over time, very large islands may form like those in Hawaii. In fact, if you measure it from its base on the seafloor to its summit, Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii is the largest mountain on Earth, rising 9700 m (in comparison, the elevation of the summit of Mt. Everest is 8848 m). While the island of Hawaii is the youngest in the chain, there is actually a new volcano named Loihi, that is still submerged at a depth of 980 m SE of Hawaii, and may one day become a new Hawaiian island when it emerges 10,000 – 100,000 years from now.
There is evidence of many such mantle plumes around the world. Most are within the ocean basins, including places like Hawaii, Iceland, and the Galapagos Islands, but some are under continents. One example is the Yellowstone hot spot in the west-central United States, and another is the one responsible for the Anahim Volcanic Belt in central British Columbia. It is evident that mantle plumes are very long-lived phenomena, lasting for at least tens of millions of years, possibly for hundreds of millions of years in some cases.
*”Physical Geology” by Steven Earle used under a CC-BY 4.0 international license. Download this book for free at http://open.bccampus.ca


13.7.1: Review Questions
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Review Questions
1 .
A 37-year-old patient is being seen for her first OB appointment after having a positive pregnancy test at home. She thinks she is about 6 weeks pregnant. She and her husband have been trying to conceive for 7 years, and she has a history of three spontaneous abortions. What antepartum testing do you anticipate the provider ordering at today’s visit?
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a vaginal ultrasound to confirm gestation age, due date, and pregnancy viability
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maternal assay blood tests to screen for genetic and chromosomal disorders
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a nuchal translucency ultrasound
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an integrated screen blood test
2 .
What is the purpose of maternal assays and multiple marker screenings performed in the first trimester of pregnancy?
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to determine the gender of the fetus
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to assess the risk of chromosomal abnormalities in the fetus
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to monitor the growth and development of the placenta
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to detect any potential maternal infections
3 .
What is the purpose of cell-free DNA screening done in the first trimester?
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to determining the gender of the fetus
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to check for multiple fetuses
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to assess the risk of chromosomal abnormalities in the fetus
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to measure the growth and development of the fetus
4 .
What is the purpose of carrier screening in the first trimester?
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to check the positioning of the fetus
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to assess for chromosomal abnormalities in the fetus
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to measure the heart rate of the fetus
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to identify potential genetic disorders that parents may carry
5 .
What is the purpose of chorionic villus sampling (CVS) in the first trimester?
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to measure the amount of amniotic fluid
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to confirm pregnancy
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to assess the risk of chromosomal abnormalities in the fetus
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to assess for potential maternal infection
6 .
What routine lab tests should a pregnant person have in the first trimester? Select all that apply.
- complete blood count (CBC)
- blood type and Rh factor
- urinalysis
- thyroid function tests
- genetic screening tests
- liver function tests
7 .
A pregnant woman in her first trimester is considering prenatal testing. The nurse is providing patient education regarding prenatal testing in the first trimester. What statement accurately reflects the nurse’s education?
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“Prenatal testing in the first trimester primarily focuses on determining the gender of the fetus.”
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“Prenatal testing in the first trimester helps assess the risk of abnormalities in the fetus.”
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“Prenatal testing in the first trimester monitors the growth and development of the placenta.”
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“Prenatal testing in the first trimester is primarily performed to detect potential maternal infections.”
8 .
A 34-year-old patient who is 16 weeks pregnant had a multiple markers screening done. The results came back with an increased risk for trisomy 21. You call the patient to go over the results. How should you respond when the patient asks you if the baby is going to have Down syndrome?
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“Yes, would you like to continue or terminate your pregnancy?”
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“This screening predicts only the risk of your baby having Down syndrome and cannot diagnose it. Additional testing is needed to determine this.”
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“You will need to discuss this with your provider at your next appointment.”
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“Yes, this test shows your baby has Down syndrome. I’d be happy to send you resources about this condition so that you can be prepared for when your baby is born.”
9 .
A 27-year-old patient presents with injuries sustained in a motor vehicle accident. She was wearing her seatbelt and has multiple bruises and scrapes along her abdomen. She complains of pain 3/10 in her abdomen. She is G1P0 and is at 14 weeks’ gestation. A bedside ultrasound scan confirms that the fetus is stable and not in any distress. The patient is Rh negative, and her husband is Rh positive. What do you anticipate being the next step?
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Obtain a urinalysis.
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Administer Rh(D) immune globulin (RhoGAM).
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Confirm with the provider that she can be discharged home.
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Schedule a follow-up ultrasound.
10 .
Why might a provider recommend percutaneous umbilical blood sampling? Select all that apply.
- an increased risk of Down syndrome shown on a previous scan
- to detect Down syndrome in the fetus, as this test provides the most accurate screening
- to check for genetic and chromosomal abnormalities the fetus is at high risk for
- to verify the blood type of the fetus
- to check for an ectopic pregnancy
11 .
A student nurse is learning about prenatal testing for fetal genetic disorders and neural tube defects. What prenatal tests are screening tests in the second trimester? Select all that apply.
- amniocentesis
- multiple marker
- cell-free DNA
- chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
- alpha-fetoprotein
12 .
During a pregnant woman’s second trimester anatomy scan, the fetus was in breech position. The patient is now 34 weeks pregnant and asks how she can tell if the baby is in the right position. What test might be ordered to determine this?
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a biophysical profile
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an ultrasound
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a fetoscopy
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a nonstress test
13 .
The nurse is reviewing the schedule for the OB/GYN she works for. In reviewing a patient’s chart, the nurse notes the patient is 32 weeks pregnant, has hypertension, and had a previous fetal death. What test does the nurse anticipate the provider will order?
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a contraction stress test
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amniotic fluid index
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nonstress test
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fetal movement count


6.3: Infant Emotions
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At birth, infants exhibit two emotional responses: attraction and withdrawal. They show attraction to pleasant situations that bring comfort, stimulation, and pleasure, and they withdraw from unpleasant stimulation such as bitter flavors or physical discomfort. At around two months, infants exhibit social engagement in the form of social smiling as they respond with smiles to those who engage their positive attention (Lavelli & Fogel, 2005).
Social smiling becomes more stable and organized as infants learn to use their smiles to engage their parents in interactions. Pleasure is expressed as laughter at 3 to 5 months of age, and displeasure becomes more specific as fear, sadness, or anger between ages 6 and 8 months.
Anger is often the reaction to being prevented from obtaining a goal, such as a toy being removed (Braungart-Rieker, Hill-Soderlund, & Karrass, 2010). In contrast, sadness is typically the response when infants are deprived of a caregiver (Papousek, 2007). Fear is often associated with the presence of a stranger, known as stranger wariness , or the departure of significant others known as separation anxiety . Both appear sometime between 6 and 15 months after object permanence has been acquired. Further, there is some indication that infants may experience jealousy as young as 6 months of age (Hart & Carrington, 2002).
Emotions are often divided into two general categories: Basic emotions (primary emotions), such as interest, happiness, anger, fear, surprise, sadness and disgust, which appear first, and self-conscious emotions (secondary emotions), such as envy, pride, shame, guilt, doubt, and embarrassment. Unlike primary emotions, secondary emotions appear as children start to develop a self-concept, and require social instruction on when to feel such emotions. The situations in which children learn self-conscious emotions varies from culture to culture. Individualistic cultures teach us to feel pride in personal accomplishments, while in more collective cultures children are taught to not call attention to themselves, unless you wish to feel embarrassed for doing so (Akimoto & Sanbinmatsu, 1999).
Facial expressions of emotion are important regulators of social interaction. In the developmental literature, this concept has been investigated under the concept of social referencing ; that is, the process whereby infants seek out information from others to clarify a situation and then use that information to act (Klinnert, Campos, & Sorce, 1983). To date, the strongest demonstration of social referencing comes from work on the visual cliff. In the first study to investigate this concept, Campos and colleagues (Sorce, Emde, Campos, & Klinnert, 1985) placed mothers on the far end of the “cliff” from the infant. Mothers first smiled to the infants and placed a toy on top of the safety glass to attract them; infants invariably began crawling to their mothers. When the infants were in the center of the table, however, the mother then posed an expression of fear, sadness, anger, interest, or joy. The results were clearly different for the different faces; no infant crossed the table when the mother showed fear; only 6% did when the mother posed anger, 33% crossed when the mother posed sadness, and approximately 75% of the infants crossed when the mother posed joy or interest.
Other studies provide similar support for facial expressions as regulators of social interaction. Researchers posed facial expressions of neutral, anger, or disgust toward babies as they moved toward an object and measured the amount of inhibition the babies showed in touching the object (Bradshaw, 1986). The results for 10- and 15-month olds were the same: Anger produced the greatest inhibition, followed by disgust, with neutral the least. This study was later replicated using joy and disgust expressions, altering the method so that the infants were not allowed to touch the toy (compared with a distractor object) until one hour after exposure to the expression (Hertenstein & Campos, 2004). At 14 months of age, significantly more infants touched the toy when they saw joyful expressions, but fewer touched the toy when the infants saw disgust.
A final emotional change is in self-regulation. Emotional self-regulation refers to strategies we use to control our emotional states so that we can attain goals (Thompson & Goodvin, 2007). This requires effortful control of emotions and initially requires assistance from caregivers (Rothbart, Posner, & Kieras, 2006). Young infants have very limited capacity to adjust their emotional states and depend on their caregivers to help soothe themselves. Caregivers can offer distractions to redirect the infant’s attention and comfort to reduce the emotional distress. As areas of the infant’s prefrontal cortex continue to develop, infants can tolerate more stimulation. By 4 to 6 months, babies can begin to shift their attention away from upsetting stimuli (Rothbart et al, 2006). Older infants and toddlers can more effectively communicate their need for help and can crawl or walk toward or away from various situations (Cole, Armstrong, & Pemberton, 2010). This aids in their ability to self-regulate. Temperament also plays a role in children’s ability to control their emotional states, and individual differences have been noted in the emotional self-regulation of infants and toddlers (Rothbart & Bates, 2006). 11
Development of sense of self : During the second year of life, children begin to recognize themselves as they gain a sense of self as separate from their primary caregiver.  If the child reacted by touching his or her own nose rather than that of the “baby” in the mirror, it was taken to suggest that the child recognized the reflection as him or herself. Lewis and Brooks found that somewhere between 15 and 24 months most infants developed a sense of self-awareness. Self-awareness is the realization that you are separate from others (Kopp, 2011). Once a child has achieved self-awareness, the child is moving toward understanding social emotions such as guilt, shame or embarrassment, as well as, sympathy or empathy. 13
Contributors and Attributions
11. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
13. Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0


Examples of Great Speech Closings
There is magic in love that lasts forever – we know that. And the five-to-one ratio indexes it; we have strong prediction. But we can mathematically model the magic. The magic requires calm, trust, and commitment. And maybe we can help avoid disaster and help couples find their magic, which is turning out to be true in randomized clinical trials. So perhaps now,
the magic of great love is a bit less of a mystery.
John Gottman, The science of love
Gottman, J. (2018). The science of love.
https://youtu.be/-uazFBCDvVw
Body language is an outward reflection of emotions. If you intentionally take certain positions and practice them, it suddenly changes how people perceive you and it changes your own physiology. You start to feel different about yourself. That’s the great thing about it.
You can do things on purpose which gives you a better chance of getting a “Yes” to the job, to the proposal, to the idea, to the date. Or better.
Allan Pease, Body language, the power is in the palm of your hands
Pease, A. (2013). Body language, the power is in the palm of your hands.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZZZ7k8cMA-4
During my lifetime I have dedicated myself to this struggle of the African people. I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be,
it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.”
Nelson Mandela, Speech from the Dock in the Rivonia Trial
Mandela, N. (2011). Speech from the dock in the Rivornia trial.
https://www.nelsonmandela.org/news/entry/i-am-prepared-to-die
But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate — we can not consecrate — we can not hallow — this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us — that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion — that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain — that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom — and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address.
Lincoln, A. (1863). The Gettysburg Address.
http://www.abrahamlincolnonline.org/lincoln/speeches/gettysburg.htm
So teachers become great actors and great actresses, and we come to work when we don’t feel like it, and we’re listening to policy that doesn’t make sense, and we teach anyway. We teach anyway, because that’s what we do. Teaching and learning should bring joy. How powerful would our world be if we had kids who were not afraid to take risks, who were not afraid to think, and who had a champion? Every child deserves a champion, an adult who will never give up on them, who understands the power of connection, and insists that they become the best that they can possibly be. Is this job tough? You betcha. Oh God, you betcha. But it is not impossible. We can do this. We’re educators.
We’re born to make a difference.
Rita Pierson, Every kid needs a champion.
Pierson, R. (2013). Every kid needs a champion.
https://www.ted.com/talks/rita_pierson_every_kid_needs_a_champion?language=en#t-29
Stewart and his team put out several issues of
The Whole Earth Catalog
, and then when it had run its course, they put out a final issue. It was the mid-1970s, and I was your age. On the back cover of their final issue was a photograph of an early morning country road, the kind you might find yourself hitchhiking on if you were so adventurous. Beneath it were the words: “Stay Hungry. Stay Foolish.” It was their farewell message as they signed off. Stay Hungry. Stay Foolish. And I have always wished that for myself. And now, as you graduate to begin anew, I wish that for you.
Stay Hungry. Stay Foolish.
Steve Jobs, You’ve Got to Find What You Love, Stanford Commencement Address
Jobs, S. (2005). You’ve got to find what you love.
https://news.stanford.edu/2005/06/14/jobs-061505/
Maybe there’s two types of people in the world: those people who favor humans over ideology, and those people who favor ideology over humans. I favor humans over ideology, but right now, the ideologues are winning, and they’re creating a stage for constant artificial high dramas where everybody’s either a magnificent hero or a sickening villain, even though we know that’s not true about our fellow humans. What’s true is that we are clever and stupid; what’s true is that we’re grey areas.
The great thing about social media was how it gave a voice to voiceless people, but we’re now creating a surveillance society, where the smartest way to survive is to go back to being voiceless.
Let’s not do that.
Jon Ronson, When online shaming goes too far.
Ronsin, J. (2015). When online shaming goes too far.
https://www.ted.com/talks/jon_ronson_when_online_shaming_goes_too_far?language=en
Listen to politicians now, with their comprehensive 12-point plans. They’re not inspiring anybody. Because there are leaders and there are those who lead. Leaders hold a position of power or authority, but those who lead inspire us. Whether they’re individuals or organizations, we follow those who lead, not because we have to, but because we want to. We follow those who lead, not for them, but for ourselves. And it’s those who start with “why” that have the ability to
inspire those around them or find others who inspire them.
Simon Sinek, How Great Leaders Inspire Action.
Sinek, S. (2009). How great leaders inspire action.
https://www.ted.com/talks/simon_sinek_how_great_leaders_inspire_action?utm_campaign=tedspread&utm_medium=referral&utm_source=tedcomshare


5.12: Surrealism (1920-1950)
Introduction
The Manifesto of Surrealism by André Breton was a publication for a literary movement based on experimenting with writing about the subconscious or dream states, the world of imagination, and irrationality. Earlier, Dada employed the disdain of traditional art instead of interjecting letters, photographs, and readymade objects. Dada provided a platform for the Surrealists to further move away from conventional art and into the unexpected. Early artists experimenting with Surrealism were from multiple countries, creating diverse and symbolic images emerging from the subconscious mind, a place of superior authenticity and the absence of control. Surrealist work was tense and sexual based on hidden psychological forces in the subconscious. The rational mind was suppressed, and imagination locked in by societal controls. They didn't look for art in real everyday life; instead, they used the impulses of the primitive unconscious mind.
Sigmund Freud also influenced Surrealism with his book, The Interpretation of Dreams . He wrote how dreams revealed real human emotion and cravings stemming from the inner mind and its revelation of sex, violence, and longing. Although they embraced Freud, they focused on the concept of idiosyncrasy instead of a view of madness. Imagery is the most distinguishable part of Surrealism, often eccentric, weird, or bewildering, meant to make the viewer uncomfortable and challenge their general assumptions of imagery and art. Elements of nature were frequently included in a painting, positioned in strange places, and juxtaposed against an illogical background. Early artists experimented with drawing automatically, not looking or thinking about the image, letting their inner psyche work, then completing the painting. Some of the artists supposedly used drugs to connect with their inner minds. In the past, religious beliefs of the mind were instrumental in creating remarkable masterpieces; for Surrealists, the release of the thoughts of the subconscious mind gave rise to this period's great works.
Communism was also an influential concept for Surrealists. Most of the artists were young and had just lived through the First World War and the chaos of the world's leaders. Communism manifestos in the 1920s provided a reasonable, at the time, alternative to the destructive bourgeois society and its economic domination. Many of the painters based their work on political ideals or struggles and revolutionary politics. By the 1930s, with Surrealism embraced by painters worldwide, the movement became a way to redefine ordinary objects into informal organization or meaning, bringing a feeling of alienation, a common position in the modern world. During World War II, many artists came to North America to escape the Nazis and Fascism, bringing their ideas of escapism and dream imagery.
During the 1900s, female artists achieved success, however, risking the tendency to be overshadowed by a male husband or lover. "…for women involved in the Surrealist circle, the situation was even more fraught. The Surrealists were fascinated by women: beautiful women, mad women, young women, or preferably all three conjoined in the ideal figure of the femme-enfant , the child-woman, whose untamed nature might be the conduit to a realm of fantasy and indulgence." [1] Male Surrealist artists generally used females as a symbol of unpredictability. Most of the female artists used different mythical or historical female figures to outmaneuver their imaged conditions, figures with some basis of power; a witch, fairy, crone, pixie, or sprite.
Max Ernst
Max Ernst (1891-1976) was born in Germany, attending the University at Bonn, originally studying philosophy before changing to art and becoming friends with some Post-Impressionists and Dadaists. He was conscripted into the German Army in World War I and served for four years. After the war, Ernst became part of the early Surrealism with André Breton and collaborated with Salvador Dali and Joan Miró. In the early 1930s, he had successful shows in New York before returning to France, wherein in 1939, Ernst was jailed as an enemy. In 1941, Ernst was able to escape and left with Peggy Guggenheim, whom he married. After the war, he divorced Guggenheim, married Dorothea Tanning, and returned to France.
Ernst used multiple mediums, including paint, collage, and printmaking, focusing on the unusual Surrealist ideas of automatically drawing from one's memory and subconscious. He invented a process called 'frottage' or 'decalcomania,' placing paper on top of the wood, mesh, or other textured surface and rubbing the surface with pencils or crayons, reproducing the textural image. When Ernst moved from paper to paint, his new method was 'grattage'; scraping the canvas laying on a texture to remove wet pigment and create different patterns. He believed the fragmented look of his collages represented the methodical displacement of culture, the disjointed elements in incongruous settings. Ernst had fought in World War I and fled World War II, his work often reflecting the subconscious brutality of war.
Parts of Surrealism were based on the unusual combinations of elements and colors. In Jardin Gobe Avions (5.12.1), Ernst used contrasting colors of oranges and blue-grey to set the desert-like scene. He painted an irrational juxtaposition of the perception of airplane parts combined with anthropomorphic floral arrangements, a shrimp flower or the seahorse flower. The features of the setting are segmented into strong angles of a wall- or bench-like planes. Ernst was fascinated with birds, even considering his alter-ego an extension of the bird's earlier metamorphosis into a human. He frequently used images of birds in his works, stemming from dreams. He believed his pet bird died as he lay sleeping, and then his sister was born.
His sculpture Habakuk (5.12.2) was a pseudo tribute for the Jewish prophet, Habakkuk who condemned those who made idols. The sculpture's eyes were bug-like, cast from a stone found in the desert, a third eye on the figure's foot a perception of visionary power. He used flowerpots to model the body, stacked in a way to resemble movement.
Gala Éluard was an inspiration to three Surrealist artists as the wife of poet Paul Éluard and Salvador Dalí and lover to Ernst. At one point, Éluard, his wife Gala, and Ernst formed a ménage á trois, living near Paris. Ernst created the work Gala Éluard (5.12.3) based on a photo of her eyes taken by Man Ray. He painted her forehead unfolding, releasing the dream-like mysteries of the unconscious mind. His use of rubbing on top of a surface to create texture is visible in the top half of the painting.
The Elephant Celebes (5.12.4) was based on a photograph Ernst found of a Sudanese corn bin. The work's title came from a German rhyme that began: "The elephant from Celebes has sticky, yellow bottom grease." [2] The odd elephant and headless figure and other elements have little in common, suggesting they are all parts of a dream centered on Freud's concept of free association.
Salvador Dalí
Salvador Dalí (1904-1989) was born in Spain after his older brother Salvador died of meningitis, plunging his parents into despair. The concept haunted Dalí all his life, and Dalí frequently mythologized about his brother and included the concept of the dead boy in many paintings. Dalí recorded, "My brother and I resembled each other like two drops of water, but we had different reflections. Like myself, he had the unmistakable facial morphology of a genius." [3] He went to a local art school, his father even setting up a small exhibition of early drawings. In 1922, Dalí moved to Madrid and studied at the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando. He was slight in stature, dressed unusually, and was perceived as an eccentric. As artists in Paris went to the Louvre to study, Dalí went to the Prado Museum to study the great works. At first, he experimented with Cubism until he traveled to Paris in 1926 and met many Surrealist artists, including Picasso and Míro. As Dalí formed his version of Surrealism, many thought his work was hallucinatory based on sexual anxiety and subconscious needs, often bizarre or grotesque themes. He also started a long-lasting affair with Gala Éluard, whom he eventually married, returning to Catalonia. In the 1930s, Dalí changed from a significant figure in the Surrealist movement to expulsion from a feud with Andre Breton. In the 1940s, he and Gala went to America, fleeing World War II, working in the movie industry before returning to Catalonia. In the 1950s, Dalí began his classical period based on historical, religious, or science themes, heavily focused on mysticism and illusionary images.
Dalí's flamboyance and dramatic imagination, along with his hallucinatory and paranoiac visions, allowed him to render the exceptionally unrealistic images as though they were something everyone recognized. The Persistence of Memory (5.12.5) is based in reality – the cliffs along the Catalonian coastline – and becomes filled with an unimaginable dreamscape. Hard, metallic decaying watches drape limply, representing time and permanence, losing their meaning. The atrocious creature in the center is a partial version of Dalí's face with something oozing from the nose. He believed he developed his own "paranoiac-critical method," cultivating self-induced psychotic hallucinations to create art. "The difference between a madman and me," he said, "is that I am not mad." [4]
Dalí painted The Accommodations of Desire (5.12.6) in 1929 when he was having an affair with Gala, although she was married to Paul Éluard. The painting reflects Dalí's sexual anxieties about the affair. When they were out walking, he saw pebbles along the pathway and used the seven pebbles as the base to hold the images for his visions. He cut small pictures out of a children's book, each one a distinctive symbol portending the future; the lion heads were terrorizing, the ant colony symbolizing decay. The collaged figures blended into the saturated color, adding to the Surrealism of the subconscious perceptions of Dalí.
The Temptation of St. Anthony (5.12.6) is Dalí's interpretation of the biblical story about the monk's travels through the deserts of North Africa where visions and assaults confront him. The hallucinatory and seductive battles inspired many artists. Dalí focused on images of the background and the tormenting creatures St. Anthony encountered. The lead, voluptuous horse, and the parade of elephants tower over the cowering monk kneeling in the corner, cross in hand. The erotic images of phallic architectural buildings and the nude woman balanced on the pedestal emphasize the eroticism and temptations in the desert. The dusty desert land anchors the dream-like image and low horizon as the figures and their long, exaggerated legs flow through the azure sky. The rhinoceros held a particular interest for Dalí; he believed its horn represented the perfection of a logarithmic spiral, the only one in the animal kingdom. He became obsessed with the rhinoceros at the age of nine and, as an adult, studied other artists' renditions of the oversized animal. He wrote, "not content to bring to the tip its nose one of the most beautiful logarithmic curves, but also in its backside, it bears a sort of galaxy of logarithmic curves in the form of a sunflower." [5] He painted many images of the rhinoceros and even wrote a magazine called Rhinoceros based on scientific theories.
Rinoceronte vistido con puntillas (5.12.7) is a massive sculpture Dalí created to demonstrate the strength and virility of the animal based on the horn and its phallic significance. The rhinoceros was clad with armor with sea urchins carefully balanced on its back.
Frida Kahlo
Frida Kahlo (1907-1954) was born in Mexico with the name Magdalena Carmen Frida Kahlo y Calderón; Kahlo is the family name of her father and Calderón the maternal last name. She started drawing as a child, although she did not consider an art career. At age six, she contracted polio, causing a permanent limp. In 1922, Kahlo went to the Escuela Nacional Preparatoria to study medicine at the prestigious school. Unfortunately, a bus collision left her with multiple broken bones and internal injuries when she was eighteen, leaving her with life-long pain. Her recuperation was extensive, and Kahlo started painting as she lay in bed. After the disastrous accident, she was in a body cast, bound to the bed. Kahlo's mother hung a mirror above her four-poster bed while she recovered, and her reflection became the main subject in her art throughout her life. Ultimately, Kahlo used her art to help her heal while she spent countless days alone in bed. Afterward, she was forced to wear orthopedic corsets, endured multiple spinal surgeries and many miscarriages. All of this pain became reflected in her artwork.
Kahlo grew up during the Mexican Revolution, an inspiration for her future political fervor. She met Diego Rivera, twenty years her senior, in 1927 and married him in 1929, accepting his infidelities. Both of them were active in political revolutionary groups supporting the communists and other protest groups. In the early 1930s, Kahlo and Rivera traveled through Mexico as well as the United States. Their marriage was turbulent as both had multiple affairs, including Kahlo's young sisters affair with Rivera and Kahlo's open bi-sexuality. They even divorced in 1940 and remarried again. Her health was always a problem and deteriorated in the late 1940s, finally dying as she slept in 1954, only 47 years old. Kahlo struggled to be the perfect Mexican wife for Diego and which clashed with her multicultural upbringing. One of Kahlo's most celebrated works, The Two Fridas (5.12.9), illustrates this struggle between wearing a traditional tehuana dress and a European Victorian dress. She completed the painting after her divorce from Rivera, a heart on each person. The heart of traditional Frida torn and cut, the scissors in her hand, blood dripping on the white dress. Dark clouds fill the background suggesting the turmoil of her feelings.
Kahlo passionately gathered Mexican folk art, especially toys, adorned ceramics, colorful textiles, and religious images, influencing her artwork. Her work reflected the art of Mexico, especially folk art and historical images from the pre-Columbian and Aztec societies, conquered Mexico's culture and revolutionary times, incorporating the culture of Mexico over time. Kahlo's work developed into mainly self-portraits or images of her friends, all based on her extraordinary imagination. She was often immobilized in a cast and forced to paint as she lay in bed. She even attended her first exhibition, transported by ambulance and lying in a four-poster bed the gallery set up for her, disregarding her doctor's orders. Kahlo's work frequently incorporated her physical or psychological pain along with the iconography of historical Mexican images. Kahlo also integrated motifs from nature, especially foliage from local flora and animals, adding a more realistic and organic look to her Surrealistic images. She wore elaborate clothing designed in the style of early Mexican costumes, clothing seen in her paintings.  She did not like to say she was associated with any movement, only declaring she was a Surrealist based on her reality, not dreams. Although some of the irrational impulses of Surrealist artists are visible in her work, Kahlo opens her own life and herself as the main subject and concern in her work. She stated, "They thought I was a Surrealist, but I wasn't. I never painted dreams. I painted my reality." [6]
Many cultures used monkeys as a cultural symbol, usually associated with lascivious and defined as lust, a primal image of a man in Mexico. However, Kahlo owned a pet spider monkey, incorporating it into her work, portraying the monkey as a protective symbol, an animal with its personality and soul. In Self Portrait with Monkeys (5.12.10), the monkeys encircle her, seemingly shielding her from those outside the painting. Kahlo started as a teacher at an art school in Mexico City when her injuries worsened, and she had to teach in her home, her class drifting away to only four students who stayed with her. Many believe she incorporated the four monkeys in this painting to honor those four students. The background is decorated with leaves, a typical adornment in her work, and a bird of paradise, a flower commonly found in Mexico. Kahlo said,
"I paint self-portraits because I am so often alone because I am the person I know best." [7]
Most of Kahlo's paintings included elements of pain and suffering, a continual part of her life as she had several surgeries for her back and wore different rigid corsets for support. The Broken Column (5.12.11) is reminiscent of her hospitalization, her back broken, her agony and horrific pain evident in the painting. She used a metal column to represent her broken spine; the column fractured in multiple places and was seemingly ready to collapse. Her body was held together with a surgical brace as nails punctured her face and body. Her lower body is covered with a cloth resembling a hospital sheet. Despite the pain, she looks forward, a triumph over her situation. The image also demonstrates her as a young, still viable woman displaying the nude sections of her upper body. To create the painting, she used firm brushstrokes and well-defined colors.
Kahlo started Portrait as a Tehuana (5.12.12) in 1940 after she divorced Diego Rivera, after ten years of marriage and was unwilling to tolerate his affairs any longer. She painted an image of Rivera on her forehead, giving the self-portrait the alternative names of Diego in My Thoughts and Thinking of Diego , demonstrating her continued love for him. For the self-portrait, she wore the clothing worn by the Tehuantepec women.  As with other self-portraits, she maintains the bold, self-assured image, staring forward, her dark eyebrows highlighting the directness of her eyes. Kahlo frequently wore the clothing of the Tehuana women, a pre-Hispanic people where women realized equality with their male counterparts; women also had strength and sensuality.
In Self Portrait with Necklace of Thorns (5.12.13), Kahlo looks directly at the viewer. A thorn necklace smothers her throat and chest with the black love charm hummingbird, a pendant dangling from the thorns. However, this hummingbird is dead instead of lively and colorful. The monkey on her shoulder tugs at the necklace; the thorns are drawing blood. Because Rivera gave a monkey to Kahlo, some historians view the monkey as a symbol of Rivera inflicting pain with the thorns. The image is set in a background of leaves and insects, her face solemn as though she knows she has to endure the continual pain.
Joan Miró
Joan Miró (1893-1983) was born in Barcelona, Spain, learned to draw at an early age, and attended art school and business school. The Cubists and Fauve continually inspired him; however, his early exhibition was controversial and avant-garde compared to the Impressionist style people were expecting. When Miró moved to Paris in 1920, at first, his work resembled Cubism until he became influenced by the writings of Sigmund Freud and the ideals of Surrealism with its revolution against the orthodox approach. He did not become one of the members of the Surrealist group; however, he did collaborate with Ernst and exhibited his work with the other Surrealists. At first, Miró worked with collages before moving to watercolors, pastels, lithographs, and even monumental bronze sculptures for public displays. His work was pictorial based on geometric shapes, abstracted objects, and biomorphic forms, creating his Catalan view of the subconscious and psychological interpretations. His work was balanced with the automatism and extemporaneity of Surrealism and the meticulous rendering of his abstracted finished works.
Miró liked to use bold colors founded on a limited palette, applying unblended colors next to each other with slight gradations of the colors on the flat backgrounds. He liked to use colors as a poet uses words or composer-defined notes for music. In Potato (5.12.14), he used the prominent color of white juxtaposed against the dark blue sky and a small patch of field. The immense female figure holds her arms out, her undulating, amorphous figure held in place by the red pole. The figure, which displays a black and brown breast squirting thread, is surrounded by other floating images; a red and yellow woman who appears as a butterfly or the creature climbing the ladder. Based on the title, a real potato seems to be wedged in the figure's forehead as tendrils grow upward, an accurate representation in the Surrealism of the painting.
Miró returned to Spain in 1940, working on his Constellation series, a set of twenty-three images made from gouache on paper over twenty-one months. The entire paper of Constellation Toward the Rainbow (5.12.15) is covered with black and red geometric shapes, hourglass formations, stars, or abstract shapes, all connected with thin, dark lines, the blue star and yellow triangle moving the viewer around the image. Miró made all the series with bright colors and spontaneous, joyful silhouettes, bringing an escape from the hardships of World War II. In 1939, he told an interviewer, "a new stage in my work began which had its source in music and nature. It was about the time that the war broke out. I felt a deep desire to escape. I closed myself within myself purposely. The night, music, and the stars began to play a major role in suggesting my paintings." [8]
Miró's sculpture, Lunar Bird (5.12.16), is a hybrid creature, part crescent moons, horns of the bullfighting bull, or parts of a bird. The jutting arms appear as wings of a bird ready for flight as the projecting crescents on its head materialize as horns. He frequently used cosmic concepts as a recurring idea, joining the correlation of the sky and land. In the Catalonia region, birds and lunar elements were common themes. Miró shaped the work by hand to produce a more organic shape, believing he created a more life-like hallucinatory organism he could not achieve with a painting.
Remedios Varo Uranga
Remedios Varo Uranga (1908-1963) was born in Spain. Her original name was Maria de los Remedios Alicia Rodriga Varo y Uranga, named to honor the Virgin of Remedies (Virgen de los Remedios), a child born shortly after her older sister passed away. As a hydraulic engineer, her father recognized his daughter's artistic talent and had her draw his technical plans to learn perspective and geometric shapes. Her life was also filled with an education from books based on science, mysticism, philosophy, and her Catholic faith, concepts found in her artwork. Initially, she attended the Escuela de Bellas Artes as a teenager. Uranga married and spent a short time in Paris before returning to Barcelona, a center for avant-garde artists. In 1937, she left her husband in Spain to fight the civil war and fled to Paris, where she had several affairs before escaping to Mexico when the Nazis invaded Paris. Uranga remained in Mexico for the rest of her life. During her early career, she demonstrated elements of Surrealism and spent her time in Paris with other Surrealist artists working as an illustrator for avant-garde magazines. During her earlier period in Mexico, muralism was the dominant artistic venue, Surrealism not acceptable. Other artists fled to Mexico to escape the war in Europe, forming a local art colony and bringing changing ideals of art.
The allegorical styles of Renaissance art stimulated Varo's art, concepts she brought to her Surrealistic paintings. She generally used oil on prepared Masonite panels, painting with delicate brushstrokes applied closely next to each other. The female Surrealists were not accepted into the male echelon of artists. The female artists had to develop different characteristics, and Varo generally displayed images of women in defined spaces, mostly with androgynous and spiritual figures. Ascension at Mount Analogue (5.12.17) depicts the lone figure awakened and starting a long ascent up the mountain. The figure seeks "a golden alpine flower that could be picked only if one did not want it; a flower said to be the source of spiritual purification, inner peace, and immortality." [9] The flower symbols for spiritual refinement and the transformation of the person. Varo uses red-orange as the powerful color of the gown and wings to act like sails. The figure moves from the cave and faces the mountain; the mountain is a frequent symbol of spiritual transformation as a connection between the earth and sky.
 The basket under her cloak contained what Varo defined as "yet more psychological waste." [10] As she continues along the pathway of self-reflection, she will lose more waste. Varo used bright colors positioning the olive green against the yellow-brown walls. The white-winged headdress and white head move the viewer around the image. The clouds in both images were created with a technique called soufflage , blowing the paint on canvas with a straw, giving an otherworldly appearance.
René Magritte
René Magritte (1898-1967), was born in Belgium; his father was a tailor and his mother a milliner.  Theoretically, when his mother was found in the water, her clothing covered her face. Magritte frequently obscured the face in his paintings, a concept of past grief. He studied in Brussels at the Académie Royale des Beaux-Arts. Magritte served in the Belgian army during World War I and married after the war. In 1926, he started painting, and his first exhibit was a failure, motivating him to relocate to Paris. He was a friend of Andre Breton and became part of the Surrealist group and exhibited with Ernst, Miró, Picasso, and other Surrealists. He was influenced by the writings of Sigmund Freud, joined the Communist Party for a while, and continued to exhibit in America and London. Magritte returned to Belgium, which was under German occupation during World War II. He stayed in Brussels the rest of his lifetime, painting in a Surrealist manner throughout his career. He painted dream-like images, sometimes similar to the automatism of Joan Miró or the illusions of Salvador Dalí. Magritte said, "If the dream is a translation of waking life, waking life is also a translation of the dream." [11]
Magritte painted related scenes based on recurring themes, often with floating components, an inanimate object in a person, or a painting within another painting. He also used a well-known painting as a base concept and transformed the image into a unique Surrealist work. Magritte believed the concept of the concealed image was more important than the visible sections, leaving the mysterious open to interpretation. The Eternally Obvious (5.12.19) was based on a prototype he made earlier. He painted the nude image of his wife and cut the work into sections, eliminating some parts and reassembling the body into five different self-contained units. The painting brings the perception of a female while leaving the viewer to mentally construct a complete figure.
La Decalcomanie (5.12.20) was a commission of a patron for the ballroom in his London home.  This scene leaves the viewer to wonder what the man looks like and why his reflection is backward. The book laying on the mantle is appropriately reflected in the mirror. Magritte used deep browns in the painting, the reflection on the faces and collars defining each person.
Magritte made numerous versions of The Empire of Light (5.12.21), each one a nocturnal scene of a neighborhood in an odd juxtaposition with the light blue cloudy sky, a strange paradox of day and night. The town and trees a thrust into the deep darkness of night, lights were showing in the windows of the houses, the irrational luminous blue sky bringing an uneasy feeling, everything out of context. The scene is characteristic of Magritte's Surrealist style, a contradiction within the same scene, challenging the viewer's mind.
Leonora Carrington
Leonora Carrington (1917-2011) was born in England; her father gained his wealth in manufacturing. She was expelled from different schools for poor behavior and educated by numerous tutors and governesses, Despite her father's disagreement, she finally went to art school in London. Carrington saw the works of Max Ernst at a Surrealist exhibition in London and was attracted to his work and Ernst himself. When they met in person, Ernst left his wife, and he and Carrington moved to France, supporting each other's careers. At the onset of World War II, Ernst, a German, was arrested by the French government as a hostile alien, released by the intervention of his friends. Shortly afterward, the Nazis invaded France, and the Gestapo arrested Ernst as a degenerate artist. He escaped to the United States, leaving a devastated Carrington behind. She went to Spain and suffered a mental breakdown. Her parents had her hospitalized, and she was treated with highly potent drugs. Carrington escaped and to the Mexican Embassy, seeking refuge. During this time, Ernst married and never resumed their relationship. Carrington married Renato Leduc, the Mexican Ambassador, as a marriage of convenience and a way to travel to Mexico under diplomatic immunity. Although she divorced Leduc, she lived in Mexico the rest of her life, marrying again and having two sons. Carrington was active in the feminist movement in Mexico and wrote many articles about issues of masculine authority or Surrealist-themed novels, including The Surreal Life of Leonora Carrington or Down Below .
As a rebellious daughter, Carrington frequently included a woman trapped in creepy situations, crumbling houses, or claustrophobic enclosures. She might be imprisoned by a monster or religious clergyman or another restraining persona.  Her painting, Self-Portrait (5.12.22), depicts a female figure in a chair with wild dark hair. Carrington frequently included horses in her paintings as representations of freedom, the horse her alter-ego. The white horse, her surrogate, is running free outside the window, the moving, tailless hobby horse trapped inside the room. The room is devoid of any furnishings except the chair.  Carrington also used the hyena in her paintings and writings, often a surrogate for her image. In one story she wrote, a debutante brought a hyena to the party to prove the power of women.  I have an insatiable curiosity." [12]
In the Magical World of the Mayans (5.12.23), characters are based on Carrington's interest in Mayan mythology. The major figures line the bottom of the painting as though actors aligned on the stage in a play. Carrington was focused on magical realism using images from the Popol Vuh, the sacred book of the ancient Mayans intermixed with Celtic mythology which she used in many of her paintings. She traveled to San Cristobal de las Casas to study the Mayan culture and then created this magnificent mural distinctly divided into three layers; heaven, earth, and the underworld.
Carrington also made multiple oversized bronze surrealistic sculptures (5.12.24) using her recurring animal themes of hyenas, horses, and even half-crocodiles, some resembling ghosts or giant women, winged animals, or a conglomerate of an animal. All of the sculptures were based on folklore or myths, often in dream-like formats. She did not define the meaning of her sculptures, preferring the viewers to develop their assumptions and thoughts when they observed her work.
Marc Chagall
Marc Chagall (1887-1985) was born as Moishe Shagall in Russia, a part of the extensive Jewish community in Vitebsk, now part of Belarus. His father worked for a herring dealer, carrying heavy barrels of fish for low wages. Chagall frequently used fish as a motif in his artwork to honor his father. Jews were confined to the town under the control of the Russian government, one of the multiple Jewish villages. Pogroms were a regular part of life, bringing a continual fear into the lives of the people. Some Jewish artists hid or denied their Jewish background, while others expressed the concepts of their Jewish roots, incorporating their beliefs into their work. Chagall adopted the latter view and embraced his religious experiences into his artwork, however still secular.
Chagall's art can be understood as the response to a situation that has long marked the history of Russian Jews. Though they were cultural innovators, Jews were considered outsiders in a frequently hostile society. Chagall himself was born to a family steeped in religious life; his parents were observant Hasidic Jews who found spiritual satisfaction in a life defined by their faith and organized by prayer. [13]
Jewish children were excluded from public schools and universities; Chagall was educated at a local religious school. In high school, his mother supposedly bribed a professor to let him attend the regular school. To learn how to draw, he copied illustrations from library books, developing his interest in art. In 1906, Chagall went to Saint Petersburg, the center of Russian art, where he attended one of the art schools, studied the old masters, learned contemporary art styles, and moved beyond his local village's images. He also met the woman whom he would marry as the love of his life. By 1910, he went to Paris, unable to speak French, yet became friends with other avant-garde artists and attended academies. Paris was also filled with other artists from Russia, bringing continual reminders of the homeland.
He returned to Russia and married his love, Bella Rosenfeld. World War I started, and they had to remain in Russia, where he achieved success as an avant-garde artist. The Bolshevik Revolution followed the end of the war. Because he was a successful artist in Russia before the revolution, he had more freedom. He created a Jewish art school, worked as a stage designer for a major Jewish theatre, developing new murals for set designs, a genre he continued periodically. By 1923, life in Russia was grim, poverty was the rule, and he moved back to France, traveled throughout Europe and the Middle East, continuing to develop his reputation as an illustrator and painter. As the Nazi government grew and started to invade other countries, the high-profile Jewish Chagall was in great danger, and he and Bella fled to America. He was deeply distressed by the news of the destruction of his native village of Vitebsk and the forced evacuation to the concentration camps. His wife also died in 1944, and he returned to France at the end of the war.
The early Chagall incorporated aspects of Fauvism and Cubism in his style, then moved to the Surrealist dream-like images, abstracted, hybrid shapes, detached positions in unusual juxtapositions, developing his unique style. After Chagall's wife died while they were in America, he was unable to paint for months. To My Betrothed (5.12.25) is a subject matter Chagall painted frequently. The fantastical painting depicts the theme of beauty and the beast with an intermingling of arms and legs. Chagall frequently used an animal as a substitute for a person, giving the painting a sense of absurdity as the yellow-headed bull is dressed in a red robe. Everything is brightly colored in the middle part of the canvas, presenting a strange relationship. "But perhaps my art is the art of a lunatic,…mere glittering quicksilver, a blue soul breaking in upon my picture." [14]
The Falling Angel (5.12.26) is a painting Chagall started in Paris in 1922 and finished in 1947 when he returned to Paris. He combined a concept from the Bible and Torah juxtaposed in a modern world, a world with significant changes over the period he worked on the painting. Initially, the work included an angel and the Jew, representing the exoneration of the manifestation of evil as described in the Old Testament. However, in the later years, he added other images and motifs from his Russian life, Jewish beliefs, and even some Christian symbols, such as the candlestick. Resembling a Shabbos candlestick, the flame is still burning, perhaps demonstrating the longevity of Judaism. The Jewish man is holding a Torah scroll, looking towards the angel falling, seemingly trying to distance himself from the destruction of the times. The goat at the bottom is an animal Chagall frequently incorporated, probably representing the small villages.
Kay Sage
Kay Sage (1898-1963) was born in New York, her father was wealthy from the timber business and was a longtime state senator. Her parents divorced shortly after Sage was born, and her mother moved with Sage to Europe. Her father continued to support her, and she attended private schools and formal training in art. She married in 1923 and, for ten years in Italy, lived a socialite's life which she considered throw away years with little purpose, then divorced her husband. Sage moved to Paris and became enamored with Surrealism, painting and exhibiting her work. She also met her next husband, Yves Tanguy, who was a close friend of André Breton. Although still married, Tanguy was separated from his wife, and after meeting with Sage, he divorced his wife. Sage had a lot of money from her father's estate and frequently helped support other artists, sometimes accused of having an arrogant attitude and deemed a princess. When Germany invaded Poland, starting the war, Sage returned to America and helped establish a Surrealist community in New York City, complete with exhibitions. She married Tanguy in 1940, and they moved from their studios to a farm. Although she developed a moody or unapproachable character, she did gain her reputation as an artist. During their marriage, Tanguy was abusive; however, when he died in 1955, she was devastated and seldom painted afterward.
Unusual Thursday (5.12.27) depicts a scene of a desolate landscape of architectural, pyramidal shapes in beige colors and deep shadows from an unseen sun. An eerie skeletal shape stands in the foreground, draped in orange. Critics felt she had "a feel for drapery as well as for architectural forms…the work is seen as 'strong and attractive,' and the use of color' persuasive.'" [15]
In the Third Sleep (5.12.28), she displays her ability to develop the draping images and the large divided shapes that rise out of the structure, jutting across the stark landscape. Again, Sage used a limited palette, giving white the primary position and deep shadows across the structure. Two small shapes appear as buildings; white and shadows balance the major shape as a small red wall running through the structure encircling the parts. As in both paintings, Sage uses a flat monotone and cloudless sky with little change from the horizon upward. They both have a surreal dream-like state found in the subconscious. Sage said, "things are half mechanical, half alive." [16]
Tomorrow is Never (5.12.29) was painted after she stopped working five months after her husband died. Sage used the imagery of landscapes to depict the subconscious and the psychological cycles of existence. She continued to combine surreal landscape backgrounds with draped figures, trapped inside the lattice-like structures arousing positions of entrapment and disarticulation, the melancholy gray tones adding to the feeling. The image was her last major painting before she committed suicide in 1963.
Dorothea Tanning
Dorothea Tanning (1910-2012) was born in Illinois, attending the local high school and a few years in college. She wanted to pursue art and moved to Chicago and then to New York in 1935, working as an illustrator in the fashion industry. A local gallery exhibited her work and introduced her to other Surrealist artists, including Max Ernst. Although Ernst was married, he left his wife and moved in with Tanning, whom he later married. Over the years, they lived in Sedona, Arizona, Paris, and New York. In Sedona, she found a place of unique views, the prickly plants, the immense red rocks, the arid desert, and the bright blue skies. Tanning developed friendships with other Surrealist painters and writers, observing their methods as she taught herself the necessary skills. Many of them visited Ernst and Tanning in Sedona. Tanning used the characteristic Surrealist techniques of meticulous features with careful brushstrokes. Her early years and through World War II were her most productive. Over time, she also expanded her styles to follow the new methods and movements. Tanning was always interested in literature and writing, and later in her long life, she focused on writing, and publishing many poems.
In the early years of her career, Tanning's work was more exact figurative executions in dream-like settings, and imaginative stories. Tanning wanted viewers to find hidden places and transformed images. She loved to include doors in her images (and dogs), adding doors everywhere; doors were open, closed, inside and outside; doors leading to nothingness. Many Surrealist painters used repetitive elements to create a thread in their paintings; Magritte's apples or Dali's clocks. Her doors brought the mystery, of what was behind the door or where did it lead, doors appearing more sinister than welcoming.
Eine Kleine Nachtmusik (5.12.30) displays the hotel corridor; the two girls dressed in tattered skirts appear to be sleepwalking as the enormous sunflower sends out menacing tendrils toward the girls. One of the doors is ajar with the light on, perhaps a refuge for the girls, an escape, yet what would happen if they entered the room. As Tanning said, "Behind the invisible door (doors), another door; more doors no doubt, new dimensions, deeper down the rabbit hole." [17]
Tanning generally used female figures in her painting. Some feel she painted about her childhood and family; however, she stated she had a happy childhood and believed enigma was good, forcing viewers to explore beyond what they see. She did grow sunflowers by her Sedona house and was fascinated by their giant size and used it to demonstrate the unknown forces in our lives, saying, "It's about confrontation. Everyone believes he/she is his/her drama. While they don't always have giant sunflowers (most aggressive of flowers) to contend with, there are always stairways, hallways, even very private theatres where the suffocations and the finalities are being played out." [1] Guardian Angel, (5.12.31) was painted when Tanning moved to a small desert town in the Southwest and enjoyed her creative freedom. She gave into an illusion between reality and dreams and let her imagination run on her canvas. The painting is monochromatic with a spot of red in the lower part drawing your eye into the dream.
By the start of World War II, avant-garde movements changed, and Abstract Expressionism became the latest form, generated by the Surrealist artists and supporters. They fled Europe for the United States. Surrealism brought an escape from realism and the manifestation of unusual humor. The movement influenced the rise of abstract, pop art, op art, and other forms of expressive art. The influence of Surrealism continues today in movies, the internet, advertisement, and the ability to express spontaneity and fantasy. Artists can express emotions and innovations because the Surrealists reimagined and restructured art.
Surrealism injected obtuse humor, weird dreams, religious opinions, and the hidden subconscious into art. Each artist was interpreting their strange views of the unusual world found in their imagination. The use of color was important in each artist's painting, the bold reds of Chagall, the monotone of Sage, or the contrasts of Dalí. The movement was another aspect of their paintings, from the swirling of Tanning to the stillness of Magritte.
[1] Retrieved from https://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/leonora-carrington-rewrote-the-surrealist-narrative-for-women
[2] Retrieved from https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/ernst-celebes-t01988
[3] Dali, S. (1993). The Secret Life of Salvador Dalí , Dover Publications, p. 2.
[4] Retrieved from https://www.moma.org/collection/works/79018
[5] Retrieved from https://www.thedaliuniverse.com/en/news-dalis-fascination-the-rhinoceros
[6] Retrieved from https://www.sfmoma.org/artist/frida_kahlo/
[7] Retrieved from https://www.fridakahlo.org/self-portrait-with-monkey.jsp
[8] Retrieved from https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/490007
[9] Haynes, D., The Art of Remedios Varo, Issues of Gender Ambiguity and Religious Meaning, Woman’s Art Journal , Spring/Summer 1995, 16/1, p. 31.
[10] Derks, M. (2011). Translating Magic: Remedios Varo’s Visual Language , University of Missouri-Kansas City, p.55.
[11] Retrieved from https://www.renemagritte.org/
[12] Wise, S. (2019). Leonora Carrington: A Bestiary , Western Kentucky University, p. 20.
[13] Dallmayr, F. (2020). Marc Chagall The Artist as Peacemaker, Taylor & Francis. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?id=Vy3tDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT41&lpg=PT41&dq=Chagall%27s+art+can+be+understood+as+the+response+to+a+situation&source=bl&ots=xxT94FNZmG&sig=ACfU3U3ayX7zxNSIQCxYQL8PcTuF1lIeYg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjR8LHepJ7rAhW6GTQIHVAJB2M4FBDoATAJegQIChAB#v=onepage&q=Chagall's%20art%20can%20be%20understood%20as%20the%20response%20to%20a%20situation&f=false
[14] https://www.marcchagall.net/cow-with-parasol.jsp
[15] Suther, J. (1997). A House of Her Own: Kay Sage, Solitary Surrealist , University of Nebraska Press, p. 111.
[16] https://artmuseum.williams.edu/kay-sage-serene-surrealist/
[17] Retrieved from https://lucywritersplatform.com/2019/04/03/dorothea-tanning-at-tate-modern/
[18] Retrieved from https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/tanning-eine-kleine-nachtmusik-t07346


8.1: Introduction to Variance Analysis
Budgets are the result of planning efforts to estimate a company’s performance for a period of time in the future. They are tools that guide managers and employees for keeping operations on track to achieve stated goals. Once a budget’s time period expires, its estimates then serve as benchmarks against which actual results may be compared.
The discussion of budgeting for a manufacturing company included budgets for each of the three product costs: direct materials, direct labor, and factory overhead. Those budgets were as follows.
Two key estimates are part of the direct materials production budget: the number of pounds needed for the desired level of production and the price per pound. Likewise, the direct labor cost budget shows the number of labor hoursrequired to produce a desired number of units and the labor rate per hour.
The factory overhead cost budget is prepared a bit differently, listing a dollar amount for each cost. Some factory overhead costs may be further broken out into their fixed and variable components.
The amounts indicated by an arrow in the sample budgets are performance goals, also called standards . Variance analysis is a process that compares these standards to actual amounts once the budget period has expired.
Standard costs are estimated goals that are used to calculate how much a product or batch of products “should cost” to manufacture. Elements in bold below show standard costs taken from the previous budgets.
|
Direct materials : |
8,600 pounds x $6.00 per pound = $51,600 |
|
Direct labor: |
5,000 hours x $10.00 per hour = 50,000 |
|
Factory overhead: |
12,000 |
Actual cost of production may be different than standard cost if any of the five goals listed above is either not met or exceeded. If any one of the quantities or dollar amounts is higher than its standard, the result for that amount is said to be unfavorable since more was consumed spent than was planned. An unfavorable outcome in this example would be if 8,900 pounds were used in production when only 8,600 were budgeted. A quantity or unit cost is favorable when it is lower than what was anticipated. A favorable result would be if $9 per labor hour were spent since it is lower than the anticipated amount of $10 per hour.
The following example conducts a variance analysis on the three costs of manufacturing. It involves the production of 1,000 units. The standard quantities and prices per unit are as follows:
|
Production costs |
Standard price |
Standard quality |
Standard unit cost |
|
Direct materials |
$6.00 per pound |
8.6 pounds/unit |
$51.60 |
|
Direct labor |
$10.00 per hour |
5 hours/unit |
50.00 |
|
Factory overhead |
$12.00 per hour |
1 hour/unit |
12.00 |
|
\(\ \quad \quad\)Standard cost per unit |
$113.60 |


5.12.2: Thought Questions
Thought Questions
Make a list of some of the many practical consequences of Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetic waves (television is one example).
30.
With what type of electromagnetic radiation would you observe:
- A star with a temperature of 5800 K?
- A gas heated to a temperature of one million K?
- A person on a dark night?
31.
Why is it dangerous to be exposed to X-rays but not (or at least much less) dangerous to be exposed to radio waves?
32.
Go outside on a clear night, wait 15 minutes for your eyes to adjust to the dark, and look carefully at the brightest stars. Some should look slightly red and others slightly blue. The primary factor that determines the color of a star is its temperature. Which is hotter: a blue star or a red one? Explain
33.
Water faucets are often labeled with a red dot for hot water and a blue dot for cold. Given Wien’s law, does this labeling make sense?
34.
Suppose you are standing at the exact center of a park surrounded by a circular road. An ambulance drives completely around this road, with siren blaring. How does the pitch of the siren change as it circles around you?
35.
How could you measure Earth’s orbital speed by photographing the spectrum of a star at various times throughout the year? (Hint: Suppose the star lies in the plane of Earth’s orbit.)
36.
Astronomers want to make maps of the sky showing sources of X-rays or gamma rays. Explain why those X-rays and gamma rays must be observed from above Earth’s atmosphere.
37.
The greenhouse effect can be explained easily if you understand the laws of blackbody radiation. A greenhouse gas blocks the transmission of infrared light. Given that the incoming light to Earth is sunlight with a characteristic temperature of 5800 K (which peaks in the visible part of the spectrum) and the outgoing light from Earth has a characteristic temperature of about 300 K (which peaks in the infrared part of the spectrum), explain how greenhouse gases cause Earth to warm up. As part of your answer, discuss that greenhouse gases block both incoming and outgoing infrared light. Explain why these two effects don’t simply cancel each other, leading to no net temperature change.
38.
An idealized radiating object does not reflect or scatter any radiation but instead absorbs all of the electromagnetic energy that falls on it. Can you explain why astronomers call such an object a blackbody? Keep in mind that even stars, which shine brightly in a variety of colors, are considered blackbodies. Explain why.
39.
Why are ionized gases typically only found in very high-temperature environments?
40.
Explain why each element has a unique spectrum of absorption or emission lines.


4.1: Exploring the Past to Understand the Present
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Read for inquiry, learning, critical thinking, and communicating.
- Read in several genres to understand how genre conventions shape and are shaped by readers’ and writers’ practices and purposes.
Personal writing is unique in that it tells your story. Because it is a form of storytelling, there may be a tendency to discount personal writing as less academic or less valuable a skill than more formal writing. Although it may allow for greater freedom in style and content, personal writing is valuable in its own right because it enables you to make sense of the world as you—not others—experience it.
Two genres of this type of writing are personal narratives and memoirs. A genre is a category of writing that features compositions with distinct characteristics, styles, content, and formats. These two genres belong to the larger family of creative nonfiction , a term that applies to the kind of nonfiction writing that shares many traits with fiction writing. The main difference is that the plots, settings, and characters come from real life rather than an author’s imagination. (For more about the characteristics of literary nonfiction, see Print or Textual Analysis: What You Read.) Works of creative nonfiction include American writers Sebastian Junger’s (b. 1962) The Perfect Storm (1997), Jon Krakauer’s (b. 1954) Into Thin Air (1997), and Terry Tempest Williams’s (b. 1955) Refuge (1991). Shorter pieces appear regularly in popular literary magazines, especially in The New Yorker , Harper’s Magazine , and The Atlantic , as well as in periodicals such as Sports Illustrated , Rolling Stone , and The Wall Street Journal .
Writers of narrative nonfiction commonly borrow stylistic and formal techniques from the fast-paced visual narratives of film and television as well as from the innovative language of poetry, fiction, and drama. These influences encourage a multifaceted, multidimensional prose style to keep pace with the multifaceted and multidimensional real world. In addition to memoirs and personal narratives, biographies, autobiographies, and literary journalism are considered creative nonfiction.
Differences between Memoir and Personal Narrative
Both a memoir and a personal narrative are accounts of personal experiences written in a narrative style, but there are some differences. A memoir is an account of certain incidents in a person’s life, often from a specific period of time. The narrator is a character in the story and reflects on past events to draw a conclusion based on those events. Memoirs focus on how the author remembers a part of their own life. On the other hand, personal narratives typically center on one major event through which the narrator reveals thoughts, feelings, and possibly related experiences. Like other works in the narrative genre, personal narratives and memoirs develop setting, plot, characterization, and dialogue.
The word memoir comes from the French mémoire , meaning “memory.” Personal writing relies on memory but is not necessarily an account of every detail of the event the author is writing about. If this were the case, it could make for dry and tedious reading, contrary to what most authors seek—audience engagement. The more important aim is to create a composition that is emotionally authentic and conveys the core sentiment of an event, time period, or lesson and its impact on you, the writer. In the next section, you will meet an author who does just that. He reflects on deeply personal events from his own life as they relate to broader cultural and social issues. The subject of your personal narrative or memoir should not be just you, though you will tell a story from your life. The overall message of the story should be about something bigger—a universal understanding, a lesson learned, a common human experience. The more readers can relate to your story through the details you include, the more it will mean to them.
The Cultural Aspect
Personal writing provides a unique opportunity to explore cultural contexts. Culture —shared values, customs, arts, and traits of a social group—is at the heart of personal narratives and memoirs and should be part of their central focus. Including historical information, anecdotes, and vivid details in your writing, as well as using a specific and relevant English variety, helps you depict the cultures that are part of your life and enhances readers’ understanding. Thus, readers are likely to experience deeper empathy and emotional responses in connection to the larger issues presented. You also provide opportunities for culture to be shared as a common human experience.


5.3: Evidence
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Primary Sources
Primary Evidence is the thing we study. In academic writing, this kind of evidence differs according to discipline. In biology and chemistry, primary evidence can be an experiment’s results. In the field of history, it might be a letter written by a World War I soldier, a memo issued by a U.S. president, a Civil War bullet, or cave drawings. In sociology, it can be the data gathered from participant surveys (quantitative) or information arising from a case study (qualitative).
In the field of English literature, primary evidence comes from the poem, novel, short story, play, or memoir you are studying. Bill, for example, presents direct quotes from the novel The Sun Also Rises supporting specific claims he forwards in his argument, as well as summarized and paraphrased passages in which he describes, in his own words, key occurrences in the novel. Below, he summarizes a conversation between Jake and Robert Cohn, condensing a lengthy passage of dialogue into one sentence:
In an early conversation between Jake and Robert Cohn, Jake warns his friend that Cohn desires to go to South America only because he has been reading sentimental literature.
Later, paraphrasing the novel’s description of Jake’s and his friends’ response to a bullfight, Bill translates Hemingway’s words into his own in about the same number of words as the original passage:
Jake observes Brett for any signs of serious disturbance as she watches the matador kill the bull, but Brett is not upset by the scene. Instead she expresses her appreciation for the matador’s extraordinary grace.
These examples from the primary text support Bill’s argument, but how does Bill decide when to quote, summarize, or paraphrase?
These decisions are important ones for effectively incorporating primary evidence into an essay. Here are a few guidelines as you consider these options in your own writing:
Quotes
Use the shortest quote possible to generate (a) the evidence needed and (b) the effect you seek. Be careful to avoid long quotes unless they serve a significant purpose in forwarding your argument. Do use quotes to “liven up” your argument, to bring the voice of the literary text into your academic prose.
Summary
Use summary to provide a broad-scoped piece of evidence (a long passage from the novel, for example) to the reader. That “Jake and Brett have multiple tension-filled encounters” (Bill’s summary) is evidence that they still care for each other even though they cannot overcome Jake’s impotence to settle into a committed relationship. There may be no need in this section of Bill’s essay to focus more closely on particular tension-filled exchanges.
Paraphrase
Employ paraphrase when the content of a scene or passage is pertinent but does not require the original language itself. Bill’s description of Jake’s and Brett’s behavior during the bullfight is a helpful example of effective paraphrase use.
Secondary Sources
Although the proof that Jake’s struggles reveal the destructive potential of war must come from the novel itself, the primary source, Bill can use secondary sources to (a) help explain his perspective on the novel, and (b) indicate how his argument fits into the ongoing scholarly dialogue about the novel. Plenty of people have contributed to the conversation on the meaning of The Sun Also Rises. Bill’s goal is to say something new, to bring the reader fresh insight about the novel, to contribute something original to the conversation. To clarify the significance of his argument, he can integrate material from carefully selected scholarly articles and books.
How does one find and use secondary sources? Chapter 8 elaborates on these processes. But to get started, we can discuss some of the basics here. First, let’s distinguish between popular and scholarly , or peer-reviewed, sources . There is a vast amount of information available on a vast number of topics, both in print and on the internet. Most digital and print publications these days are written for a popular, or mass, audience. Since the average reader is not writing a research project on the topic he is interested in, most texts are written for the non-expert. Such a reader, having just finished The Sun Also Rises , might seek some basic general information on Hemingway or on World War I, which could easily be found on sites such as Wikipedia or the Poetry Foundation website (poetryfoundation.org).
However, the scholar who is working on her own research project needs more in-depth analysis than is provided in these popular sources. Thus, she must gather academic or scholarly resources. These are written for an expert audience, assuming that this reader already has a more sophisticated knowledge and understanding of the subject and is researching a specific aspect of the topic rather than looking for general information. These sources are often more difficult to find and obtain. They are rarely free and must usually be accessed through a university library system.
The differences between the purposes and production processes of popular and scholarly sources result in their having distinct characteristics. Here is a chart to help you visualize the differences:
| Popular sources | Scholarly sources | |
|---|---|---|
| Example | Time Magazine, Spark Notes, or Shmoop article | An article from The Hemingway Review |
| Location | Newsstand or internet (accessible through a Google search) | Subscribed to by universities and libraries. Usually accessible only to members of those institutions |
| Target reader | Non-expert, lay reader | Experts/professionals in a particular area of study |
| Appearance | Glossy visuals, eye-catching layout, strategies to attract buyers/readers |
Plain text; generally not marketed at all since experts
are professionally motivated to seek out this kind of resource |
| Production process |
• Written not by experts in the field but by journalists and other professional writers
• Fact-checked and edited by publishing and editing professionals (or sometimes not at all) • Published every month, every week, or |
• Written by experts in the field
• Reviewed by the expert’s peers and accepted or rejected by their recommendation • Edited by journal or press editor • As a result of the research and peer-review process, these journals are usually published |
| Features |
Short articles, meant to be read in one sitting; no
bibliography; short, clear paragraphs and sentences; vocabulary meant for middle to high school reading level; usually published for profit |
Long articles, sometimes based on a year or more of research/ analysis; include substantial bibliography of other peer-reviewed sources used in research; vocabulary often specialized, reasoning often complex, targeting readers familiar with the field; published by academic journals or not-for-profit university presses |