17.1: The Westward Spirit
While a small number of settlers had pushed westward before the mid-nineteenth century, the land west of the Mississippi was largely unexplored. Most Americans, if they thought of it at all, viewed this territory as an arid wasteland suitable only for Indians whom the federal government had displaced from eastern lands in previous generations. The reflections of early explorers who conducted scientific treks throughout the West tended to confirm this belief. Major Stephen Harriman Long, who commanded an expedition through Missouri and into the Yellowstone region in 1819–1820, frequently described the Great Plains as a arid and useless region, suitable as nothing more than a “great American desert.” But, beginning in the 1840s, a combination of economic opportunity and ideological encouragement changed the way Americans thought of the West. The federal government offered a number of incentives, making it viable for Americans to take on the challenge of seizing these rough lands from others and subsequently taming them. Still, most Americans who went west needed some financial security at the outset of their journey; even with government aid, the truly poor could not make the trip. The cost of moving an entire family westward, combined with the risks as well as the questionable chances of success, made the move prohibitive for most. While the economic Panic of 1837 led many to question the promise of urban America, and thus turn their focus to the promise of commercial farming in the West, the Panic also resulted in many lacking the financial resources to make such a commitment. For most, the dream to “Go west, young man” remained unfulfilled.
While much of the basis for westward expansion was economic, there was also a more philosophical reason, which was bound up in the American belief that the country—and the “heathens” who populated it—was destined to come under the civilizing rule of Euro-American settlers and their superior technology, most notably railroads and the telegraph. While the extent to which that belief was a heartfelt motivation held by most Americans, or simply a rationalization of the conquests that followed, remains debatable, the clashes—both physical and cultural—that followed this western migration left scars on the country that are still felt today.
MANIFEST DESTINY
The concept of Manifest Destiny found its roots in the long-standing traditions of territorial expansion upon which the nation itself was founded. This phrase, which implies divine encouragement for territorial expansion, was coined by magazine editor John O’Sullivan in 1845, when he wrote in the United States Magazine and Democratic Review that “it was our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our multiplying millions.” Although the context of O’Sullivan’s original article was to encourage expansion into the newly acquired Texas territory, the spirit it invoked would subsequently be used to encourage westward settlement throughout the rest of the nineteenth century. Land developers, railroad magnates, and other investors capitalized on the notion to encourage westward settlement for their own financial benefit. Soon thereafter, the federal government encouraged this inclination as a means to further develop the West during the Civil War, especially at its outset, when concerns over the possible expansion of slavery deeper into western territories was a legitimate fear.
The idea was simple: Americans were destined—and indeed divinely ordained—to expand democratic institutions throughout the continent. As they spread their culture, thoughts, and customs, they would, in the process, “improve” the lives of the native inhabitants who might otherwise resist Protestant institutions and, more importantly, economic development of the land. O’Sullivan may have coined the phrase, but the concept had preceded him: Throughout the 1800s, politicians and writers had stated the belief that the United States was destined to rule the continent. O’Sullivan’s words, which resonated in the popular press, matched the economic and political goals of a federal government increasingly committed to expansion.
Manifest Destiny justified in Americans’ minds their right and duty to govern any other groups they encountered during their expansion, as well as absolved them of any questionable tactics they employed in the process. While the commonly held view of the day was of a relatively empty frontier, waiting for the arrival of the settlers who could properly exploit the vast resources for economic gain, the reality was quite different. Hispanic communities in the Southwest, diverse Indian tribes throughout the western states, as well as other settlers from Asia and Western Europe already lived in many parts of the country. American expansion would necessitate a far more complex and involved exchange than simply filling empty space.
Still, in part as a result of the spark lit by O’Sullivan and others, waves of Americans and recently arrived immigrants began to move west in wagon trains. They travelled along several identifiable trails: first the Oregon Trail, then later the Santa Fe and California Trails, among others. The Oregon Trail is the most famous of these western routes. Two thousand miles long and barely passable on foot in the early nineteenth century, by the 1840s, wagon trains were a common sight. Between 1845 and 1870, considered to be the height of migration along the trail, over 400,000 settlers followed this path west from Missouri (Figure 17.1.2).
America is destined for better deeds. It is our unparalleled glory that we have no reminiscences of battle fields, but in defense [sic] of humanity, of the oppressed of all nations, of the rights of conscience, the rights of personal enfranchisement. Our annals describe no scenes of horrid carnage, where men were led on by hundreds of thousands to slay one another, dupes and victims to emperors, kings, nobles, demons in the human form called heroes. We have had patriots to defend our homes, our liberties, but no aspirants to crowns or thrones; nor have the American people ever suffered themselves to be led on by wicked ambition to depopulate the land, to spread desolation far and wide, that a human being might be placed on a seat of supremacy. . . .
The expansive future is our arena, and for our history. We are entering on its untrodden space, with the truths of God in our minds, beneficent objects in our hearts, and with a clear conscience unsullied by the past. We are the nation of human progress, and who will, what can, set limits to our onward march? Providence is with us, and no earthly power can.
—John O’Sullivan, 1839
Think about how this quotation resonated with different groups of Americans at the time. When looked at through today’s lens, the actions of the westward-moving settlers were fraught with brutality and racism. At the time, however, many settlers felt they were at the pinnacle of democracy, and that with no aristocracy or ancient history, America was a new world where anyone could succeed. Even then, consider how the phrase “anyone” was restricted by race, gender, and nationality.
Visit Across the Plains in ‘64 to follow one family making their way westward from Iowa to Oregon. Click on a few of the entries and see how the author describes their journey, from the expected to the surprising.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT ASSISTANCE
To assist the settlers in their move westward and transform the migration from a trickle into a steady flow, Congress passed two significant pieces of legislation in 1862: the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Act. Born largely out of President Abraham Lincoln’s growing concern that a potential Union defeat in the early stages of the Civil War might result in the expansion of slavery westward, Lincoln hoped that such laws would encourage the expansion of a “free soil” mentality across the West.
The Homestead Act allowed any head of household, or individual over the age of twenty-one—including unmarried women—to receive a parcel of 160 acres for only a nominal filing fee. All that recipients were required to do in exchange was to “improve the land” within a period of five years of taking possession. The standards for improvement were minimal: Owners could clear a few acres, build small houses or barns, or maintain livestock. Under this act, the government transferred over 270 million acres of public domain land to private citizens.
The Pacific Railway Act was pivotal in helping settlers move west more quickly, as well as move their farm products, and later cattle and mining deposits, back east. The first of many railway initiatives, this act commissioned the Union Pacific Railroad to build new track west from Omaha, Nebraska, while the Central Pacific Railroad moved east from Sacramento, California. The law provided each company with ownership of all public lands within two hundred feet on either side of the track laid, as well as additional land grants and payment through load bonds, prorated on the difficulty of the terrain it crossed. Because of these provisions, both companies made a significant profit, whether they were crossing hundreds of miles of open plains, or working their way through the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California. As a result, the nation’s first transcontinental railroad was completed when the two companies connected their tracks at Promontory Point, Utah, in the spring of 1869. Other tracks, including lines radiating from this original one, subsequently created a network that linked all corners of the nation (Figure17.1.3).
In addition to legislation designed to facilitate western settlement, the U.S. government assumed an active role on the ground, building numerous forts throughout the West to protect and assist settlers during their migration. Forts such as Fort Laramie in Wyoming (built in 1834) and Fort Apache in Arizona (1870) served as protection from nearby Indians as well as maintained peace between potential warring tribes. Others located throughout Colorado and Wyoming became important trading posts for miners and fur trappers. Those built in Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas served primarily to provide relief for farmers during times of drought or related hardships. Forts constructed along the California coastline provided protection in the wake of the Mexican-American War as well as during the American Civil War. These locations subsequently serviced the U.S. Navy and provided important support for growing Pacific trade routes. Whether as army posts constructed for the protection of white settlers and to maintain peace among Indian tribes, or as trading posts to further facilitate the development of the region, such forts proved to be vital contributions to westward migration.
WHO WERE THE SETTLERS?
In the nineteenth century, as today, it took money to relocate and start a new life. Due to the initial cost of relocation, land, and supplies, as well as months of preparing the soil, planting, and subsequent harvesting before any produce was ready for market, the original wave of western settlers along the Oregon Trail in the 1840s and 1850s consisted of moderately prosperous, white, native-born farming families of the East. But the passage of the Homestead Act and completion of the first transcontinental railroad meant that, by 1870, the possibility of western migration was opened to Americans of more modest means. What started as a trickle became a steady flow of migration that would last until the end of the century.
Nearly 400,000 settlers had made the trek westward by the height of the movement in 1870. The vast majority were men, although families also migrated, despite incredible hardships for women with young children. More recent immigrants also migrated west, with the largest numbers coming from Northern Europe and Canada. Germans, Scandinavians, and Irish were among the most common. These ethnic groups tended to settle close together, creating strong rural communities that mirrored the way of life they had left behind. According to U.S. Census Bureau records, the number of Scandinavians living in the United States during the second half of the nineteenth century exploded, from barely 18,000 in 1850 to over 1.1 million in 1900. During that same time period, the German-born population in the United States grew from 584,000 to nearly 2.7 million and the Irish-born population grew from 961,000 to 1.6 million. As they moved westward, several thousand immigrants established homesteads in the Midwest, primarily in Minnesota and Wisconsin, where, as of 1900, over one-third of the population was foreign-born, and in North Dakota, whose immigrant population stood at 45 percent at the turn of the century. Compared to European immigrants, those from China were much less numerous, but still significant. More than 200,000 Chinese arrived in California between 1876 and 1890, albeit for entirely different reasons related to the Gold Rush.
In addition to a significant European migration westward, several thousand African Americans migrated west following the Civil War, as much to escape the racism and violence of the Old South as to find new economic opportunities. They were known as exodusters, referencing the biblical flight from Egypt, because they fled the racism of the South, with most of them headed to Kansas from Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas. Over twenty-five thousand exodusters arrived in Kansas in 1879–1880 alone. By 1890, over 500,000 blacks lived west of the Mississippi River. Although the majority of black migrants became farmers, approximately twelve thousand worked as cowboys during the Texas cattle drives. Some also became “Buffalo Soldiers” in the wars against Indians. “Buffalo Soldiers” were African Americans allegedly so-named by various Indian tribes who equated their black, curly hair with that of the buffalo. Many had served in the Union army in the Civil War and were now organized into six, all-black cavalry and infantry units whose primary duties were to protect settlers from Indian attacks during the westward migration, as well as to assist in building the infrastructure required to support western settlement (Figure 17.1.4).
The Oxford African American Studies Centerfeatures photographs and stories about black homesteaders. From exodusters to all-black settlements, the essay describes the largely hidden role that African Americans played in western expansion.
While white easterners, immigrants, and African Americans were moving west, several hundred thousand Hispanics had already settled in the American Southwest prior to the U.S. government seizing the land during its war with Mexico (1846–1848). The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the war in 1848, granted American citizenship to those who chose to stay in the United States, as the land switched from Mexican to U.S. ownership. Under the conditions of the treaty, Mexicans retained the right to their language, religion, and culture, as well as the property they held. As for citizenship, they could choose one of three options: 1) declare their intent to live in the United States but retain Mexican citizenship; 2) become U.S. citizens with all rights under the constitution; or 3) leave for Mexico. Despite such guarantees, within one generation, these new Hispanic American citizens found their culture under attack, and legal protection of their property all but non-existent.
Section Summary
While a few bold settlers had moved westward before the middle of the nineteenth century, they were the exception, not the rule. The “great American desert,” as it was called, was considered a vast and empty place, unfit for civilized people. In the 1840s, however, this idea started to change, as potential settlers began to learn more from promoters and land developers of the economic opportunities that awaited them in the West, and Americans extolled the belief that it was their Manifest Destiny—their divine right—to explore and settle the western territories in the name of the United States.
Most settlers in this first wave were white Americans of means. Whether they sought riches in gold, cattle, or farming, or believed it their duty to spread Protestant ideals to native inhabitants, they headed west in wagon trains along paths such as the Oregon Trail. European immigrants, particularly those from Northern Europe, also made the trip, settling in close-knit ethnic enclaves out of comfort, necessity, and familiarity. African Americans escaping the racism of the South also went west. In all, the newly settled areas were neither a fast track to riches nor a simple expansion into an empty land, but rather a clash of cultures, races, and traditions that defined the emerging new America.
Review Questions
Which of the following does not represent a group that participated significantly in westward migration after 1870?
African American “exodusters” escaping racism and seeking economic opportunities
former Southern slaveholders seeking land and new financial opportunities
recent immigrants from Northern Europe and Canada
recent Chinese immigrants seeking gold in California
B
Which of the following represents an action that the U.S. government took to help Americans fulfill the goal of western expansion?
the passage of the Homestead Act
the official creation of the philosophy of Manifest Destiny
the development of stricter immigration policies
the introduction of new irrigation techniques
A
Why and how did the U.S. government promote western migration in the midst of fighting the Civil War?
During the first two years of the Civil War—when it appeared that the Confederacy was a formidable opponent—President Lincoln grew concerned that a Union defeat could result in the westward expansion of slavery. Thus, he hoped to facilitate the westward movement of white settlers who promoted the concept of free soil, which would populate the region with allies who opposed slavery. To encourage this process, Congress passed the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Act in 1862. The government also constructed and maintained forts that assisted in the process of westward expansion.
Glossary
- Manifest Destiny
- the phrase, coined by journalist John O’Sullivan, which came to stand for the idea that white Americans had a calling and a duty to seize and settle the American West with Protestant democratic values
- exodusters
- a term used to describe African Americans who moved to Kansas from the Old South to escape the racism there


21.10A: Neural Mechanisms (Respiratory Center)
The medulla and the pons are involved in the regulation of the ventilatory pattern of respiration.
- Describe the neural mechanism of the respiratory center in respiration control
Involuntary respiration is any form of respiratory control that is not under direct, conscious control. Breathing is required to sustain life, so involuntary respiration allows it to happen when voluntary respiration is not possible, such as during sleep. Involuntary respiration also has metabolic functions that work even when a person is conscious.
The Respiratory Centers
Involuntary respiration is controlled by the respiratory centers of the upper brainstem (sometimes termed the lower brain, along with the cerebellum). This region of the brain controls many involuntary and metabolic functions besides the respiratory system, including certain aspects of cardiovascular function and involuntary muscle movements (in the cerebellum).
Anatomy of the brainstem : The brainstem, which includes the pons and medulla.
The respiratory centers contain chemoreceptors that detect pH levels in the blood and send signals to the respiratory centers of the brain to adjust the ventilation rate to change acidity by increasing or decreasing the removal of carbon dioxide (since carbon dioxide is linked to higher levels of hydrogen ions in blood).
There are also peripheral chemoreceptors in other blood vessels that perform this function as well, which include the aortic and carotid bodies.
The Medulla
The medulla oblongata is the primary respiratory control center. Its main function is to send signals to the muscles that control respiration to cause breathing to occur. There are two regions in the medulla that control respiration:
- The ventral respiratory group stimulates expiratory movements.
- The dorsal respiratory group stimulates inspiratory movements.
The medulla also controls the reflexes for nonrespiratory air movements, such as coughing and sneezing reflexes, as well as other reflexes, like swallowing and vomiting.
The Pons
The pons is the other respiratory center and is located underneath the medulla. Its main function is to control the rate or speed of involuntary respiration. It has two main functional regions that perform this role:
- The apneustic center sends signals for inspiration for long and deep breaths. It controls the intensity of breathing and is inhibited by the stretch receptors of the pulmonary muscles at maximum depth of inspiration, or by signals from the pneumotaxic center. It increases tidal volume.
- The pneumotaxic center sends signals to inhibit inspiration that allows it to finely control the respiratory rate. Its signals limit the activity of the phrenic nerve and inhibits the signals of the apneustic center. It decreases tidal volume.
The apneustic and pneumotaxic centers work against each other together to control the respiratory rate.
Key Points
- The ventral respiratory group controls voluntary forced exhalation and acts to increase the force of inspiration.
- The dorsal respiratory group (nucleus tractus solitarius) controls mostly inspiratory movements and their timing.
- Ventilatory rate (minute volume) is tightly controlled and determined primarily by blood levels of carbon dioxide as determined by metabolic rate.
- Chemoreceptors can detect changes in blood pH that require changes in involuntary respiration to correct.The apneustic (stimulating) and pneumotaxic (limiting) centers of the pons work together to control rate of breathing.
- The medulla sends signals to the muscles that initiate inspiration and expiration and controls nonrespiratory air movement reflexes, like coughing and sneezing.
Key Terms
- respiratory control centers : The medulla which sends signals to the muscles involved in breathing, and the pons which controls the rate of breathing.
- chemorecepters : These are receptors in the medulla and in the aortic and carotid bodies of the blood vessels that detect changes in blood pH and signal the medulla to correct those changes.


8.8: Development of Joints
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the two processes by which mesenchyme can give rise to bone
- Discuss the process by which joints of the limbs are formed
Joints form during embryonic development in conjunction with the formation and growth of the associated bones. The embryonic tissue that gives rise to all bones, cartilages, and all other connective tissues of the body is called mesenchyme. In the head, mesenchyme will accumulate at the areas that will become the bones that form the top and sides of the skull. The mesenchyme in these areas will develop directly into bone through the process of intramembranous ossification, in which mesenchymal cells differentiate into bone-producing cells that then generate bone tissue. The mesenchyme between the areas of bone production will become the fibrous connective tissue that fills the spaces between the developing bones. Initially, the connective tissue-filled gaps between the bones are wide, and are called fontanelles. After birth, as the skull bones grow and enlarge, the gaps between them decrease in width and the fontanelles are reduced to suture joints in which the bones are united by a narrow layer of fibrous connective tissue.
The bones that form the base and facial regions of the skull develop through the process of endochondral ossification. In this process, mesenchyme accumulates and differentiates into hyaline cartilage, which forms a model of the future bone. The hyaline cartilage model is then gradually, over a period of many years, displaced by bone. The mesenchyme between these developing bones becomes the fibrous connective tissue of the suture joints between the bones in these regions of the skull.
A similar process of endochondral ossification gives rises to the bones and joints of the limbs. The limbs initially develop as small limb buds that appear on the sides of the embryo around the end of the fourth week of development. Starting during the sixth week, as each limb bud continues to grow and elongate, areas of mesenchyme within the bud begin to differentiate into the hyaline cartilage that will form models of each of the future bones. The synovial joints will form between the adjacent cartilage models, in an area called the joint interzone . Cells at the center of this interzone region undergo cell death to form the joint cavity, while surrounding mesenchymal cells will form the articular capsule, supporting ligaments, and other synovial structures (e.g. bursae, menisci). The process of endochondral ossification, which converts the cartilage models into bone, begins by the twelfth week of embryonic development. At birth, ossification of much of the bone has occurred, but the hyaline cartilage of the epiphyseal plate will remain throughout childhood and adolescence to allow for bone lengthening. Hyaline cartilage is also retained as the articular cartilage that covers the surfaces of the bones at synovial joints.
Concept Review
During embryonic growth, bones and joints develop from mesenchyme, an embryonic tissue that gives rise to bone, cartilage, and all other connective tissues. In the skull, the bones develop either directly from mesenchyme through the process of intramembranous ossification, or indirectly through endochondral ossification, which initially forms a hyaline cartilage model of the future bone, which is later converted into bone. In both cases, the mesenchyme between the developing bones differentiates into fibrous connective tissue that will unite the skull bones at suture joints. In the limbs, mesenchyme accumulations within the growing limb bud will become a hyaline cartilage model for each of the limb bones. A joint interzone will develop between these areas of cartilage. Mesenchymal cells at the margins of the interzone will give rise to the articular capsule, while cell death at the center forms the space that will become the joint cavity of the future synovial joint. The hyaline cartilage model of each limb bone will eventually be converted into bone via the process of endochondral ossification. However, hyaline cartilage will remain, forming the protective articular cartilage at the ends of the adult.
Review Questions
Q. Intramembranous ossification ________.
A. gives rise to the bones of the limbs
B. produces the bones of the top and sides of the skull
C. produces the bones of the face and base of the skull
D. involves the conversion of a hyaline cartilage model into bone
- Answer
-
Answer: B
Q. Synovial joints ________.
A. are derived from fontanelles
B. are produced by intramembranous ossification
C. develop at an interzone site
D. are produced by endochondral ossification
- Answer
-
Answer: C
Q. Endochondral ossification is ________.
A. the process that replaces hyaline cartilage with bone tissue
B. the process by which mesenchyme differentiates directly into bone tissue
C. completed before birth
D. the process that gives rise to the joint interzone and future joint cavity
- Answer
-
Answer: A
Critical Thinking Questions
Q. Describe how synovial joints develop within the embryonic limb.
- Answer
-
A. Mesenchyme gives rise to cartilage models of the future limb bones. An area called the joint interzone located between adjacent cartilage models will become a synovial joint. The cells at the center of the interzone die, thus producing the joint cavity. Additional mesenchyme cells at the periphery of the interzone become the articular capsule.
Q. Differentiate between endochondral and intramembranous ossification.
- Answer
-
A. Intramembranous ossification is the process by which mesenchymal cells differentiate directly into bone producing cells. This process produces the bones that form the top and sides of the skull. The remaining skull bones and the bones of the limbs are formed by endochondral ossification. In this, mesenchymal cells differentiate into hyaline cartilage cells that produce a cartilage model of the future bone. The cartilage is then gradually replaced by bone tissue over a period of many years, during which the cartilage of the epiphyseal plate can continue to grow to allow for enlargement or lengthening of the bone.
Glossary
- joint interzone
- site within a growing embryonic limb bud that will become a synovial joint
Contributors and Attributions
-
OpenStax Anatomy & Physiology (CC BY 4.0). Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology


3.5: Beyond the State
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While the legacy of conventional Cold War-style thinking still looms large in contemporary analyses, researchers have been interested in developing nonstate-centric and more fluid perspectives. We already mentioned environmentalism and feminism as examples of analytical perspectives that acknowledge the importance of actors other than the state, and the role of individuals in particular. Some analysts have not completely abandoned the state perspective but suggest looking into what exactly it is inside states that might be contributing to what happens in the global sphere. This could be related to their internal characteristics, such as their form of government, their economic profile, their cultural and ideological composition or their demography. This perspective includes a distinctive focus on the societies that make up a specific state as much as particular groups and individuals within those societies. Many analysts invite their readers to open the ‘black box’ that way. In other words, to break up the conventional IR habit of treating states as secluded units and containers of power, politics and societies. They also openly challenge the assumption that there is such a thing as ‘unitary’ state action. They would dispute, for instance, that ‘Germany’ – as a nationstate – would push for austerity measures in Greece. Rather, they would insist that related policies are initiated by specific German politicians that advocate such measures out of a particular sentiment, out of an individual interpretation of current developments, or for reasons that might be linked to their own political future or specific preferences of their electorate.
Apart from a focus on the individual and group level of official decisionmaking, this ‘sub-state’ (meaning, ‘below the state’) level of analysis also attempts to expand the scope of scholarly investigation beyond formal interactions of the state, its official representatives and of its constituent parts to include informal relationships and non-official exchanges, such as flows and transfers of goods, information, communications, services and people – above and below the purview of the state.
Contemporary IR is interested in looking at actors that operate across state borders instead of being specifically confined by them – for instance, citizens of a particular state or proponents of a particular ethnic or cultural minority within that state. The study of IR has gradually widened to include all kinds of interactions between a variety of actors, including the general public and individual members of it, people like you and me.
Such an analytical move seems welcome if we think of how potent the influence of individual actors can be that do not officially represent or act on behalf of states or any of their constituent parts. An example of this is the activist Julian Assange, who spearheaded a widely publicised whistleblowing campaign leaking government secrets via the website WikiLeaks. Another example is Osama Bin Laden, who built a global terrorist network (Al Qaeda) based on his own religious and political visions. Both Assange and Bin Laden, although very different in nature, have had lasting impact on top-level global politics from the position of a private persona with no official political status or role.
What is significant in this context is that the traditional conception of the state as the main framework of political interaction and the main point of reference for both society and the individuals within it has lost a lot of its meaning and importance. If we look at the world around us, state borders do not seem to accurately delimitate global affairs. The majority of global interactions – be they related to global finance, production, education, personal and professional travel, labour migration or terrorism – no longer occur via state channels the way they once did. We could say that the increased focus on non-state actors and cross-border issues has marked a close-to-revolutionary turn in IR; something that could be interpreted as a shift away from the international (‘between-states’) to the ‘trans-national’ (‘across/beyond-states’ and their borders). Robert Keohane, one of the leading scholars in the field, recently stated that ‘International Relations’ is no longer a suitable label and that we should instead refer to the discipline as ‘Global Studies’ or ‘World Politics’ (Keohane 2016). In today’s world, few societal and political issues, challenges and problems are neatly confined by the borders of individual states or even groups of states. Thinking about world affairs in ‘trans-national’ rather than in purely ‘inter-national’ terms therefore seems more of an analytical necessity than just a choice.
Individuals and groups interact across borders and thus relativise the meaning of space and territory as conventional IR knew it. International commercial aviation and the rapid spread of information technologies has further increased people’s mobility and the rate at which interactions occur across and beyond state borders. The ability for common people to store, transfer and distribute large amounts of information, the possibility for data to travel across the world in virtually no time, and the increasing availability of high-speed internet have not only changed lives at personal and community levels but also dramatically altered the general dynamics in politics and global affairs.
Social media provide accessible platforms of communication that allow for the projection and promotion of ideas across borders at virtually no cost to the individual or group generating and advocating them. Various political agendas – be they progressive, revolutionary or outright dangerous – can unfold in a relatively uncontrolled and unregulated way, posing real challenges to governmental agencies and the political leaders that try to improve and direct them. Random individuals can potentially start a revolution from their homes, bypassing any conventional conceptions of power and transcending spatial and material boundaries to the point where political activity and even confrontation become weightless and immaterial altogether. A powerful illustration of this can be found in Thomas Neuwirth, an Austrian singer, who is most commonly known by the stage persona ‘Conchita Wurst’. The political messages displayed during a show at the Sydney Opera House in March 2016 multiplied and spread through social media. This eventually urged various representatives of the Australian government to take a stance on gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) issues and also gave momentum to the global LGBT movement. A national politician from, say, Austria, would likely not have been able to influence the domestic debate in Australia to that extent, let alone spark a worldwide debate that way.


46.1D: Modeling Ecosystem Dynamics
- Compare and contrast conceptual, analytical, and simulation models of ecosystem dynamics
Conceptual models
Conceptual models are useful for describing ecosystem structure and dynamics and for demonstrating the relationships between different organisms in a community and their environment. Conceptual models are usually depicted graphically as flow charts. The organisms and their resources are grouped into specific compartments with arrows showing the relationship and transfer of energy or nutrients between them. These diagrams are sometimes called compartment models.
To model the cycling of mineral nutrients, organic and inorganic nutrients are subdivided into those that are bioavailable (ready to be incorporated into biological macromolecules) and those that are not. For example, in a terrestrial ecosystem near a deposit of coal, carbon will be available to the plants of this ecosystem as carbon dioxide gas in a short-term period, not from the carbon-rich coal itself. However, over a longer period, microorganisms capable of digesting coal will incorporate its carbon or release it as natural gas (methane, CH 4 ), changing this unavailable organic source into an available one.
Human combustion of fossil fuels accelerates this conversion by releasing large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which may be a large contributor to the rise of the atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the industrial age. The carbon dioxide released from burning fossil fuels is produced faster than photosynthetic organisms can use it, while the number of photosynthetic trees have decreased because of worldwide deforestation. Most scientists agree that high atmospheric carbon dioxide is a major cause of global climate change.
Analytical and simulation models
Conceptual models are limited; they poorly predict the consequences of changes in ecosystem species and/or environment. Ecosystems are dynamic entities that are subject to a variety of abiotic and biotic disturbances. In these cases, scientists often use analytical or simulation models. These models predict how ecosystems recover from disturbances, returning to a state of equilibrium. As most ecosystems are subject to periodic disturbances and are often in a state of change, they are usually either moving toward or away from multiple equilibrium states. Since human impact can greatly and rapidly alter the species content and habitat of an ecosystem, it is crucial for scientists to develop models that predict how ecosystems respond to these changes.
Analytical models
Analytical models generally work best when dealing with relatively-simple, linear systems; specifically, those that can be accurately described by a set of mathematical equations whose behavior is well known. They are mathematically complex models that are good at predicting components of ecosystems such as food chains. However, their accuracy is limited by their simplification of complex ecosystems.
Simulation models
Like analytical models, simulation models use complex algorithms to predict ecosystem dynamics. However, sophisticated computer programs have enabled simulation models to predict responses in complex ecosystems. Simulation models use numerical techniques to solve problems for which analytic solutions are impractical or impossible. These kinds of models tend to be more widely used. They are generally considered more ecologically realistic, while analytic models are valued for their mathematical elegance and explanatory power. These simulations are considered to be the most accurate and predictive of ecosystem dynamics.
Contributions and Attributions
- OpenStax College, Biology. December 15, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44885/latest...ol11448/latest . License : CC BY: Attribution
- OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44883/latest...ol11448/latest . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Ecosystem. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Ecosystem. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Boundless. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com//biology/de...ion/resilience . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
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- equilibrium. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/equilibrium . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- 1993 Four Corners Outbreak. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/1993_Fo...virus_outbreak . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Tracking a Mystery Disease: The Detailed Story of Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS). Provided by : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Located at : http://www.cdc.gov/hantavirus/hps/history.html . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- Australian savanna. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Au...an_savanna.jpg . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Sin Nombre hanta virus TEM PHIL 1136 lores. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Hantavi...1136_lores.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
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- OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44885/latest...ol11448/latest . License : CC BY: Attribution
- detritivore. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/detritivore . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- trophic level. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/trophic_level . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- food chain. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/food_chain . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
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- OpenStax College, Ecology of Ecosystems. October 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44885/latest...e_46_01_04.jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
- OpenStax College, Ecology of Ecosystems. October 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44885/latest...e_46_01_03.jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
- OpenStax College, Ecology of Ecosystems. October 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44885/latest...e_46_01_05.jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
- OpenStax College, Biology. October 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44885/latest...ol11448/latest . License : CC BY: Attribution
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- Boundless. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com//biology/de...tion/microcosm . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
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- OpenStax College, Ecology of Ecosystems. October 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44885/latest...e_46_01_04.jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
- OpenStax College, Ecology of Ecosystems. October 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44885/latest...e_46_01_03.jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
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- TomateJungpflanzenAnzuchtNiederlande. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:To...iederlande.jpg . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
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- Ecosystem model. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_model . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Boundless. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com//biology/de...mulation-model . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Boundless. Provided by : Boundless Learning. Located at : www.boundless.com//biology/de...nceptual-model . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- analytical model. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/analytical%20model . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Australian savanna. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Au...an_savanna.jpg . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Sin Nombre hanta virus TEM PHIL 1136 lores. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Hantavi...1136_lores.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- OpenStax College, Introduction. October 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44883/latest...e_46_00_00.jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
- OpenStax College, Ecology of Ecosystems. October 17, 2013. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/content/m44885/latest...e_46_01_04.jpg . License : CC BY: Attribution
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- TomateJungpflanzenAnzuchtNiederlande. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TomateJungpflanzenAnzuchtNiederlande.jpg . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
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Key Points
- Conceptual models are often flow charts that demonstrate the relationships between different organisms in a community and their environment, including the transfer of energy and nutrients.
- Analytical models use mathematical equations to predict and describe simple, linear components of ecosystems, such as food chains.
- Simulation models use computer algorithms to predict ecosystem dynamics; they are considered the most ecologically-realistic and accurate.
Key Terms
- conceptual model : a model that is represented by conceptual representations of the relationships between different organisms in a community and their environment
- analytical model : a model that works best when dealing with relatively simple (often linear) systems, specifically those that can be accurately described by a set of mathematical equations whose behavior is well known
- simulation model : a model that utilizes mathematical algorithms to predict complex responses in ecosystem dynamics


21.8: Exercises
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Write the chemical formula and Lewis structure of the following, each of which contains five carbon atoms:
- an alkane
- an alkene
- an alkyne
What is the difference between the hybridization of carbon atoms’ valence orbitals in saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons?
On a microscopic level, how does the reaction of bromine with a saturated hydrocarbon differ from its reaction with an unsaturated hydrocarbon? How are they similar?
On a microscopic level, how does the reaction of bromine with an alkene differ from its reaction with an alkyne? How are they similar?
Explain why unbranched alkenes can form geometric isomers while unbranched alkanes cannot. Does this explanation involve the macroscopic domain or the microscopic domain?
Explain why these two molecules are not isomers:
Explain why these two molecules are not isomers:
How does the carbon-atom hybridization change when polyethylene is prepared from ethylene?
Write the Lewis structure and molecular formula for each of the following hydrocarbons:
- (f) 4-methyl-2-pentyne
Write the chemical formula, condensed formula, and Lewis structure for each of the following hydrocarbons:
- (f) 3,4-dimethyl-1-pentyne
Give the complete IUPAC name for each of the following compounds:
-
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
Give the complete IUPAC name for each of the following compounds:
-
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Butane is used as a fuel in disposable lighters. Write the Lewis structure for each isomer of butane.
Write Lewis structures and name the five structural isomers of hexane.
Write Lewis structures for the cis–trans isomers of
Write structures for the three isomers of the aromatic hydrocarbon xylene, C 6 H 4 (CH 3 ) 2 .
Isooctane is the common name of the isomer of C 8 H 18 used as the standard of 100 for the gasoline octane rating:
- What is the IUPAC name for the compound?
- Name the other isomers that contain a five-carbon chain with three methyl substituents.
Write Lewis structures and IUPAC names for the alkyne isomers of C 4 H 6 .
Write Lewis structures and IUPAC names for all isomers of C 4 H 9 Cl.
Name and write the structures of all isomers of the propyl and butyl alkyl groups.
Write the structures for all the isomers of the –C 5 H 11 alkyl group.
Write Lewis structures and describe the molecular geometry at each carbon atom in the following compounds:
- cis -3-hexene
- cis -1-chloro-2-bromoethene
- 2-pentyne
- trans - 6 -ethyl-7-methyl-2-octene
Benzene is one of the compounds used as an octane enhancer in unleaded gasoline. It is manufactured by the catalytic conversion of acetylene to benzene:
Draw Lewis structures for these compounds, with resonance structures as appropriate, and determine the hybridization of the carbon atoms in each.
Teflon is prepared by the polymerization of tetrafluoroethylene. Write the equation that describes the polymerization using Lewis symbols.
Write two complete, balanced equations for each of the following reactions, one using condensed formulas and one using Lewis structures.
- 1 mol of 1-butyne reacts with 2 mol of iodine.
- Pentane is burned in air.
Write two complete, balanced equations for each of the following reactions, one using condensed formulas and one using Lewis structures.
- 2-butene reacts with chlorine.
- benzene burns in air.
What mass of 2-bromopropane could be prepared from 25.5 g of propene? Assume a 100% yield of product.
Acetylene is a very weak acid; however, it will react with moist silver(I) oxide and form water and a compound composed of silver and carbon. Addition of a solution of HCl to a 0.2352-g sample of the compound of silver and carbon produced acetylene and 0.2822 g of AgCl.
- What is the empirical formula of the compound of silver and carbon?
- The production of acetylene on addition of HCl to the compound of silver and carbon suggests that the carbon is present as the acetylide ion, . Write the formula of the compound showing the acetylide ion.
Ethylene can be produced by the pyrolysis of ethane:
How many kilograms of ethylene is produced by the pyrolysis of 1.000 10 3 kg of ethane, assuming a 100.0% yield?
Why do the compounds hexane, hexanol, and hexene have such similar names?
Write condensed formulas and provide IUPAC names for the following compounds:
- ethyl alcohol (in beverages)
- methyl alcohol (used as a solvent, for example, in shellac)
- ethylene glycol (antifreeze)
- isopropyl alcohol (used in rubbing alcohol)
- glycerine
Give the complete IUPAC name for each of the following compounds:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Give the complete IUPAC name and the common name for each of the following compounds:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Write the condensed structures of both isomers with the formula C 2 H 6 O. Label the functional group of each isomer.
Write the condensed structures of all isomers with the formula C 2 H 6 O 2 . Label the functional group (or groups) of each isomer.
Draw the condensed formulas for each of the following compounds:
- dipropyl ether
- 2,2-dimethyl-3-hexanol
- 2-ethoxybutane
MTBE, Methyl tert -butyl ether, CH 3 OC(CH 3 ) 3 , is used as an oxygen source in oxygenated gasolines. MTBE is manufactured by reacting 2-methylpropene with methanol.
- Using Lewis structures, write the chemical equation representing the reaction.
- What volume of methanol, density 0.7915 g/mL, is required to produce exactly 1000 kg of MTBE, assuming a 100% yield?
Write two complete balanced equations for each of the following reactions, one using condensed formulas and one using Lewis structures.
- propanol is converted to dipropyl ether
- propene is treated with water in dilute acid.
Write two complete balanced equations for each of the following reactions, one using condensed formulas and one using Lewis structures.
- 2-butene is treated with water in dilute acid
- ethanol is dehydrated to yield ethene
Order the following molecules from least to most oxidized, based on the marked carbon atom:
Predict the products of oxidizing the molecules shown in this problem. In each case, identify the product that will result from the minimal increase in oxidation state for the highlighted carbon atom:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Predict the products of reducing the following molecules. In each case, identify the product that will result from the minimal decrease in oxidation state for the highlighted carbon atom:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Explain why it is not possible to prepare a ketone that contains only two carbon atoms.
How does hybridization of the substituted carbon atom change when an alcohol is converted into an aldehyde? An aldehyde to a carboxylic acid?
Fatty acids are carboxylic acids that have long hydrocarbon chains attached to a carboxylate group. How does a saturated fatty acid differ from an unsaturated fatty acid? How are they similar?
Write a condensed structural formula, such as CH 3 CH 3 , and describe the molecular geometry at each carbon atom.
- (f) formaldehyde
Write a condensed structural formula, such as CH 3 CH 3 , and describe the molecular geometry at each carbon atom.
- 2-propanol
- acetone
- dimethyl ether
- acetic acid
- 3-methyl-1-hexene
The foul odor of rancid butter is caused by butyric acid, CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CO 2 H.
- Draw the Lewis structure and determine the oxidation number and hybridization for each carbon atom in the molecule.
- The esters formed from butyric acid are pleasant-smelling compounds found in fruits and used in perfumes. Draw the Lewis structure for the ester formed from the reaction of butyric acid with 2-propanol.
Write the two-resonance structures for the acetate ion.
Write two complete, balanced equations for each of the following reactions, one using condensed formulas and one using Lewis structures:
- ethanol reacts with propionic acid
- benzoic acid, C 6 H 5 CO 2 H, is added to a solution of sodium hydroxide
Write two complete balanced equations for each of the following reactions, one using condensed formulas and one using Lewis structures.
- 1-butanol reacts with acetic acid
- propionic acid is poured onto solid calcium carbonate
Yields in organic reactions are sometimes low. What is the percent yield of a process that produces 13.0 g of ethyl acetate from 10.0 g of CH 3 CO 2 H?
Alcohols A, B, and C all have the composition C 4 H 10 O. Molecules of alcohol A contain a branched carbon chain and can be oxidized to an aldehyde; molecules of alcohol B contain a linear carbon chain and can be oxidized to a ketone; and molecules of alcohol C can be oxidized to neither an aldehyde nor a ketone. Write the Lewis structures of these molecules.
Write the Lewis structures of both isomers with the formula C 2 H 7 N.
What is the molecular structure about the nitrogen atom in trimethyl amine and in the trimethyl ammonium ion, (CH 3 ) 3 NH + ? What is the hybridization of the nitrogen atom in trimethyl amine and in the trimethyl ammonium ion?
Write the two resonance structures for the pyridinium ion, C 5 H 5 NH + .
Draw Lewis structures for pyridine and its conjugate acid, the pyridinium ion, C 5 H 5 NH + . What are the hybridizations, electron domain geometries, and molecular geometries about the nitrogen atoms in pyridine and in the pyridinium ion?
Write the Lewis structures of all isomers with the formula C 3 H 7 ON that contain an amide linkage.
Write two complete balanced equations for the following reaction, one using condensed formulas and one using Lewis structures.
Methyl amine is added to a solution of HCl.
Write two complete, balanced equations for each of the following reactions, one using condensed formulas and one using Lewis structures.
Ethylammonium chloride is added to a solution of sodium hydroxide.
Identify any carbon atoms that change hybridization and the change in hybridization during the reactions in Exercise 20.26.
Identify any carbon atoms that change hybridization and the change in hybridization during the reactions in Exercise 20.39.
Identify any carbon atoms that change hybridization and the change in hybridization during the reactions in Exercise 20.51.


24.0: Prelude to Electromagnetic Waves
The beauty of a coral reef, the warm radiance of sunshine, the sting of sunburn, the X-ray revealing a broken bone, even microwave popcorn—all are brought to us by electromagnetic waves . The list of the various types of electromagnetic waves, ranging from radio transmission waves to nuclear gamma-ray (\(\gamma\)-ray) emissions, is interesting in itself.
Even more intriguing is that all of these widely varied phenomena are different manifestations of the same thing—electromagnetic waves. (See Figure 2.) What are electromagnetic waves? How are they created, and how do they travel? How can we understand and organize their widely varying properties? What is their relationship to electric and magnetic effects? These and other questions will be explored.
MISCONCEPTION ALERT: SOUND WAVES VS. RADIO WAVES:
Many people confuse sound waves with radio waves , one type of electromagnetic (EM) wave. However, sound and radio waves are completely different phenomena. Sound creates pressure variations (waves) in matter, such as air or water, or your eardrum. Conversely, radio waves are electromagnetic waves , like visible light, infrared, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. EM waves don’t need a medium in which to propagate; they can travel through a vacuum, such as outer space.
A radio works because sound waves played by the D.J. at the radio station are converted into electromagnetic waves, then encoded and transmitted in the radio-frequency range. The radio in your car receives the radio waves, decodes the information, and uses a speaker to change it back into a sound wave, bringing sweet music to your ears.
Discovering a New Phenomenon
It is worth noting at the outset that the general phenomenon of electromagnetic waves was predicted by theory before it was realized that light is a form of electromagnetic wave. The prediction was made by James Clerk Maxwell in the mid-19th century when he formulated a single theory combining all the electric and magnetic effects known by scientists at that time. “Electromagnetic waves” was the name he gave to the phenomena his theory predicted.
Such a theoretical prediction followed by experimental verification is an indication of the power of science in general, and physics in particular. The underlying connections and unity of physics allow certain great minds to solve puzzles without having all the pieces. The prediction of electromagnetic waves is one of the most spectacular examples of this power. Certain others, such as the prediction of antimatter, will be discussed in later modules.


11.7: Logos
Logos , as with the previous two Greek words, provides the English language with several words, with the most obvious one being logic. Literally translated, logos means “word” or “to reason.” People use logos to invoke logical, rational arguments to make an appeal to reason . The most important element to logos is whether or not the argument makes sense to the audience. Establishing strong logos involves using credible facts, statistics, and evidence that supports the various claims of the speaker.
Sometimes people find themselves subjected to a persuasive argument that did not make much sense, leaving them wondering why they became persuaded at all. Perhaps a salesperson convinced them to purchase a product that they would never likely use, leaving them wondering how the salesperson arrived at the conclusion that it would be a natural fit. This offers a glimpse pf what it feels like to experience arguments based in poorly constructed logos.
Home Types of Reasoning
To construct well-reasoned logos, understand the two types of reasoning people may use to develop arguments: inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning. According to the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy , inductive reasoning is:
…an argument that is intended by the arguer merely to establish or increase the probability of its conclusion. In an inductive argument, the premises are intended only to be so strong that, if they were true, then it would be unlikely that the conclusion is false.
For example:
- Two witnesses claimed they saw Eric commit the murder.
- Eric’s fingerprints are the only ones on the murder weapon.
- Eric confessed to the crime.
- Therefore, Eric committed the murder.
Though unlikely, certain scenarios exist where Eric did not commit the murder . Deductive reasoning , on the other hand, tends to be more grounded and possible to prove true. According to the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, a deductive argument is:
…an argument that is intended by the arguer to be (deductively) valid, that is, to provide a guarantee of the truth of the conclusion provided that the argument’s premises (assumptions) are true. This point can be expressed also by saying that, in a deductive argument, the premises are intended to provide such strong support for the conclusion that, if the premises are true, then it would be impossible for the conclusion to be false.
For example :
- All members of the Honor Society must have a 3.8 GPA or higher.
- Sarah is the a member of the Honor Society.
- Therefore, Sarah must have a GPA of 3.8 or higher.
Deductive reasoning, therefore, offers a more concrete way of arriving at logical conclusions, whereas audiences will often use inductive reasoning in response to a deductive argument when they create objections to the speaker’s reasoning.
To explain this concept using a real-life scenario, pretend a speaker is trying to convince an audience to try a new weight loss program or diet:
- This new diet will reduce your hunger. (Premise A)
- This reduction in hunger will reduce the amount you eat. (Premise B)
- Reducing the amount you eat will result in weight loss. (Premise C)
- This new diet will, as a result, cause weight loss. (This is a sound, deductive conclusion that must be true if premises A, B, and C are true.)
While using sound, concrete deductive reasoning, what could the audience be thinking?
- “Every time I have tried something like this in the past, I failed miserably.” (Premise D)
- “This new program is just like those failed diets.” (Premise E)
- “This new diet will fail miserably.” (This is a reasonable inductive conclusion drawn from premises D and E.)
Because the audience based their conclusion on strongly ingrained emotional experiences tied to failure, it presents a high degree of pathos and probably outweighs the strength of any deductive conclusion. If the audience has to resolve conflicting emotional conclusions, then they will look for flaws amid the speaker’s arguments, often resulting in imaginary flaws that do not even exist. Regardless of the sound deductive conclusion, the audience will doubt the premises:
- “But I’m always hungry when I am on a diet!” (Counters premise A)
- “But if I reduce how much I eat, I won’t have enough energy to exercise, and I’ll gain weight anyway!” (Counters premise C)
How could a speaker remain persuasive in this challenging scenario?
Note to Self
A speaker has a couple of options:
- Boost the argument by providing supporting facts, research, or even a personal success story with the new diet program.
- Show why this new program is unlike past failures.
If successful, the speaker would cast a shadow of doubt on premise E, and therefore, the audience’s entire inductive argument.


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11.7: Chapter Review - Summary
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Summary
11.1
Understanding Data, Data Validation, and Data Tables
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Data can be qualitative or quantitative.
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There are four levels of measurement for data.
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Data verification and the Data Validation tool can ensure the quality of data in your spreadsheets.
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Excel Data Tables can be used to quickly format information in a professional manner.
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Data Tables can be used to filter and better understand the information contained in a spreadsheet.
11.2
Statistical Functions
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Data analysis is critical for any business to be successful.
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Excel’s built-in statistical functions, such as SUM, AVERAGE, MODE, RANGE, and MEDIAN, provide basic information about a dataset.
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The Analysis ToolPak add-in provides a collection of statistical tools for data analysis such as regression and ANOVA.
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Descriptive Statistics is a quick way to summarize a dataset by giving you values such as the average, the range, and the maximum number.
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Regression is used for forecasting and budgeting.
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The Solver add-in is used to find optimal solutions given a set of predetermined constraints.
11.3
What-If Analysis
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Scenario Manager and Goal Seek are part of the What-If Analysis tool group.
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The Scenario Manager is a tool that allows you to investigate the impact of various changes to input cells on target cells.
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The Scenario Manager can give you a summary of all scenarios to help with decision making.
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Goal Seek is used when you have a single input variable.
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Goal Seek is used to set a target value for a cell by changing the values in another cell.
11.4
PivotTables/Charts
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The PivotTable Analyze tab offers tools to make data analysis and filtering easier.
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Timelines can be inserted to filter the PivotTable data by date.
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Slicers can be used in PivotTables and Data Tables to filter data with visual buttons.
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Calculated fields can be added to PivotTables for additional analysis using formulas.
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The List Formulas tool creates a separate worksheet that includes all formulas used in the PivotTable. It is a valuable tool when there are multiple users of a single workbook.
11.5
Data Analysis Charts
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There are many types of charts to visually present your data.
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Some options for charts or graphs include bar charts, pie charts, column charts, line graphs, and scatter plots.
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A column chart can be used to show comparisons between groups.
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A line chart is useful to show changes over time.
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Scatter plots visually show the relationship between two variables and are often used with regression.
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Chart templates can be created for chart formats you use frequently such as those with company colors or logos.
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The Quick Analysis tool gives you access to several options such as conditional formatting, adding totals to the rows or columns, or quick links to creating a chart of the data.
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Sparklines added to your Data Table can be used to quickly assess trends.