1.3: Ethics and Public Speaking
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
- Discuss the meaning of ethics.
- Distinguish between absolute and relativist perspectives on ethics.
- Identify and apply the code of ethics for ethical public speaking established by the National Communication Association.
- Distinguish between ethical and unethical speech.
Introduction
“I regret it now because the information was wrong.”
— Colin Powell
The above quotation from former United States Secretary of State Colin Powell directly applies to the discussion we are about to have in this chapter, namely, ethics in public speaking. In a television interview on the Larry King Live CNN program first aired in 2010 [ transcript ], Powell expressed regret for a speech he delivered to the United Nations in which he provided what he believed were justifiable reasons for the United States to go to war against Iraq following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks against the United States. Although Powell believed at the time of his speech that the information and evidence he provided in the speech were accurate, ostensibly because he trusted the officials who vetted the accuracy of the information, he later realized that the speech was based on misinformation and inaccurate evidence.
 However, by publicly expressing regret for an unethical speech that he delivered, he fulfilled the ninth ethical principle of the National Communication Association’s code for ethical speaking, which states, “We accept responsibility for the short- and long-term consequences for our own communication and expect the same of others.” This principle calls for ethical speakers to take responsibility for mistakes and errors made in communication whether in the short or long term when they become aware of the errors and inaccuracies they expressed.
In this chapter we will explore the meaning of ethics, ethical perspectives, and the Code of Ethics of the National Communication Association, and we will distinguish between ethical and unethical speeches.
Ethics
Ethics has to do with social norms regarding right and wrong. It is a branch of philosophy that deals with right and wrong. Because different cultures have different norms about right and wrong, ethics is a very contested zone in all aspects of human encounters. One culture may consider something to be right while another may consider the same thing to be wrong. Hence, the contested nature of ethics. However, for effective communication, especially communication that is intended to move an audience to make choices or decisions, some basic agreement on what is right and wrong is necessary.
In Institutio Oratoria (Institutes of Oratory), the Roman rhetorician Quintilian wrote that the perfect orator is first “a good man speaking well.” This simple statement establishes a fundamental expectation for ethical public speaking, namely, that great oratory should entail both the ethical character of the speaker as well as delivery that embodies confidence, competence, dynamism, and good will (addresses the needs of an audience).
For Quintilian and other rhetoricians such as Cicero and St. Augustine, rhetoric or oratory should be grounded in truth and not deception. According to these rhetoricians, the communication of truth distinguishes ethical rhetoric from sophistic rhetoric which uses any means, including deceptive ways, untruths, and outright lies, to persuade an audience.
Ethical Perspectives
There are different perspectives on ethics, but this section will concentrate on two of them, namely, the absolute values perspective and the relativist perspective.
The absolute values perspective on ethics holds that irrespective of person, place, or time, right is right and wrong is wrong. In other words, there are universal ethical values that apply to all people and cultures. For example, it is wrong to kill or to tell a lie or to steal or to defraud. This means that irrespective of person or culture or situation, a person who tells a lie or kills or defrauds others has done an unethical act.
Ethical relativism on the other hand is the philosophical position that the sense of right and wrong is always relative to the individual and not universal to all people and situations. The Encyclopedia Britannica defines ethical relativism as “the doctrine that there are no absolute truths in ethics and that what is morally right or wrong varies from person to person or from society to society.” The arguments for ethical relativism are mainly two-fold. According to Britannica, one argument, based on the thinking of Greek philosopher Herodotus (5th century BC), claims that every culture has its own customs and norms and no culture’s values, norms, and customs are better than those of another. A second argument in favor of ethical relativism, according to Britannica, is based on the thinking of the 18th-century philosopher David Hume, who expressed the idea that moral values are grounded in emotion and not reason and cannot, therefore, be universalized.
Implications of Ethical Perspectives for Public Speaking
When applied to public speaking, the absolute values perspective on ethics implies that there are or should be rigorous principles that guide how to teach public speaking, how to write a speech, how to deliver a speech, how to reference sources, what is considered appropriate vocal projection, eye contact, posture, vocabulary, etc. This approach to public speaking can be regarded by minority groups based on race, culture, or nationality, as oppressive in the context of culturally sustaining pedagogies and the ongoing efforts to engage pedagogies that are inclusive, diverse, and equity minded.
On the other hand, a fundamental implication of ethical relativism for public speaking is that there are no universal norms or ethical codes that govern what and how to make public presentations. This means that depending on the speaker, context, audience, or purpose, a public speaker decides what and how to present without following a predetermined style. This also means that the principle of ethical relativism is more respectful of diverse cultural values, culturally relevant speech patterns, thought processes, and language use. In the context of culturally sustaining pedagogies, the relativist ethical perspective would allow more flexibility in how public speaking is taught and how students, depending on their various backgrounds, prepare and deliver speeches.
Credo for Ethical Communication
Despite the implications of the two ethical perspectives on ethics discussed above, the National Communication Association (NCA) has established a Credo for Ethical Communication to guide the practice of the discipline.
The NCA believes ethical communication is “fundamental to responsible thinking, decision making, and the development of relationships and communities within and across contexts, cultures, channels, and media.” Conversely, the NCA believes that unethical communication threatens the well-being of individuals and society. Consequently, the NCA has established a Credo for Ethical Communication .
The NCA’s Credo for Ethical Communication is extensive, but for the purpose of this chapter addressing ethics in public speaking, it is important to outline and focus on the following principles.
Nine Principles of the Credo for Ethical Communication
- We advocate truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason as essential to the integrity of communication.
- We endorse freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of dissent to achieve the informed and responsible decision making fundamental to a civil society.
- We strive to understand and respect other communicators before evaluating and responding to their messages.
- We promote access to communication resources and opportunities as necessary to fulfill human potential and contribute to the well-being of individuals, families, communities, and society.
- We promote communication climates of caring and mutual understanding that respect the unique needs and characteristics of individual communicators.
- We condemn communication that degrades individuals and humanity through distortion, intimidation, coercion, and violence, and through the expression of intolerance and hatred.
- We are committed to the courageous expression of personal convictions in pursuit of fairness and justice.
- We advocate sharing information, opinions, and feelings when facing significant choices while also respecting privacy and confidentiality.
- We accept responsibility for the short- and long-term consequences for our own communication and expect the same of others.
In essence, the principles outlined in the code emphasize the importance of communication that is grounded in truth, honesty, accuracy, and respect for the audience as an ethical responsibility of a speaker.
Distinguishing Between Ethical and Unethical Speeches
Based on the exploration of ethics, perspectives on ethics, and the NCA Credo for Ethical Communication, it is appropriate to observe that irrespective of cultural background or values, some general principles should guide what is ethical or unethical in public speaking.
Purpose of the Speech
Effective communication must be purpose-driven. The purpose of a speech is important because it lets the speaker and audience know the ultimate outcome of the speech. The purpose of the speech should seek to accomplish something good. If the purpose of a speech is unethical it means that it seeks to accomplish something bad. Let us explore some examples to illustrate. In the speech by former Secretary of State Colin Powell to the United Nations that we referenced in the introduction of this chapter, his purpose was to persuade the international community that Saddam Hussien, then President of Iraq, had weapons of mass destruction that posed serious security problems to the world and that the United States would have to go to war against Iraq in order to prevent the use of these weapons against the international community. The purpose of the speech was ethical in as far as it sought to protect the common good of the international community by preventing a nation and its leader from doing harm to people. On the other hand, a speech whose purpose is to arouse anger and resentment against specific groups of people, such as immigrants, would be unethical because such a speech aims to do harm to a group of people by appealing to the emotion of anger in its audience, who might then act violently or discriminate against immigrants, as evidenced by a speech by former President Donald Trump in which he called Mexicans murderers and rapists.
Credibility of Evidence
Another element of an ethical speech is that the information given should be accurate and reliable. Accurate information is based on facts and not opinion; facts can be demonstrated or proven, while opinions are the personal views of a person that may or may not be factual. The evidence should also be accurate in the sense that it should fully and properly represent the ideas or statements of others within the context in which such ideas or statements are made. Evidence that is not accurate distorts the original message of the source of information and misleads an audience. The credibility of evidence is not only about what is stated but also about who says it. To be ethical, a public speaker must verify that the source of information they use as evidence to support claims is reliable or can be trusted. For example, the statements of a racist bigot in defense of racism cannot be considered reliable because of the personal disposition of the source.
Another important consideration about the credibility of evidence is crediting the sources of the information used. An ethical speaker must let the audience know the source of the information, including data, statistics, and images such as paintings, pictures, and drawings, if the information was taken from another person’s work. Failing to credit the sources of information constitutes plagiarism.
Plagiarism is using another person’s ideas or work without crediting the source. There are three types of plagiarism: global, patchwork and incremental.
- Global plagiarism is taking the entire work of another person and not crediting the source. For example, if you take a speech that was written by someone else and deliver it to an audience without letting the audience know who the original writer of the speech is, that would constitute global plagiarism.
- Patchwork plagiarism on the other hand takes substantive parts, such as a paragraph, from different sources and puts them together without crediting the sources. Patchwork plagiarism is easy to commit when you highlight, copy, and paste information from different sources without crediting the sources.
- The third type of plagiarism, incremental plagiarism, happens when you take a phrase or sentence from various sources and fail to credit the sources. Ethical speakers always credit their sources.
Arrangement of Ideas
One other way to be an ethical speaker is to arrange your ideas in a way that makes it easy for the audience to follow the logical flow of the message. An ethical speaker should facilitate the understanding of the message and not confuse the audience with disorderly placement of ideas. In an orderly arrangement of ideas, the audience can easily follow how one idea moves to another or relates to another, whereas in a confusing arrangement of ideas, the audience struggles to see how one point relates to another or flows into another.
Language
An ethical speaker should always be mindful that the language used is familiar to the audience and not too technical or abstract. Using familiar language makes it easy for the audience to understand a message being communicated, while technical or abstract language may be appropriate only for specific audiences, especially based on profession and level of education. An ethical speaker also uses inclusive language. Racist, sexist, and abusive language looks down on a group of people while extolling the perceived superiority of the speaker over the audience.
Respect for the Audience
In addition to the above guidelines for ethical speaking, a speaker should show respect to an audience by being on time to the event and respect the time allotted for the speech. The speaker also shows respect to an audience by dressing appropriately and listening to the feedback from the audience and responding to questions from the audience honestly.
Delivery
Finally, an ethical speaker should know what they are talking about, be well prepared, dress appropriately, speak clearly, engage the audience through direct eye contact and body movements that show physical/mindful presence and attention to the audience.
Other Guiding Principles for Ethical Public Speaking
Many scholars of ethical communication agree that an ethical speaker should have integrity, competence, responsibility, respect, and concern (Plante, 2004). Integrity means being an honest, fair and a just person. Competence is a quality of someone who is knowledgeable and skilled in some job or task. Responsibility has to do with keeping promises and being attentive to one’s obligations. An ethical speaker should be respectful of others in terms of paying attention to their rights, needs, dignity and be concerned about the needs of others.
Conclusion
In this chapter, we explored the meaning of ethics and different perspectives on ethics, and we distinguished between ethical and unethical speeches. We also outlined the Credo for Ethical Communication by the National Communication Association and provided practical guidelines for ethical public speaking. In the context of higher education that emphasizes the need for culturally sustaining pedagogies, an ethical speaker must be respectful of diverse audiences they address. Ethical speakers should use evidence that is based on reliable facts while considering the lived experiences and needs of the audience.
Review Questions
- What is your understanding of ethics and why is it important for public speakers?
- Distinguish between absolute and relativist perspectives on ethics.
- Identify nine principles of ethical communication outlined by the National Communication Association.
- Distinguish between ethical and unethical speech.
Class Exercises
- Show a speech to the class and put students in small groups to discuss and explain why the speech is ethical or unethical.
- Put students in small groups and ask them to make a list of things they consider ethical or unethical in a speech.
Works Cited
Encyclopedia Britannica. Ethical Relativism. https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethical-relativism . Accessed 6/5/21.
Plante, Thomas. Do the Right Thing: Living Ethically in an Unethical World . Oakland, CA. New Harbinger Publications, 2004, p. 49-145.
Powell, Colin. Interview on Larry King Live. CNN . 2011. YouTube Video. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d93_u1HHgM4 . Accessed 6/5/21.
The Gifford Lectures. Relative and Absolute Value. https://www.giffordlectures.org/books/moral-values-and-idea-god/6-relative-and-absolute-value . Accessed 6/5/21.
Trump, Donald. Interview on MSNBC. YouTube Video. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jaz1J0s-cL4 . Accessed 6/5/21.


11.4: Multiplying Fractions
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Area Model
One of our models for multiplying whole numbers was an area model. For example, the product \(23 \times 37\) is the area (number of 1 × 1 squares) of a 23-by-37 rectangle:
So the product of two fractions, say, \(\frac{4}{7} \times \frac{2}{3}\) should also correspond to an area problem.
Example: (4/7 × 2/3)
Let us start with a segment of some length that we call 1 unit:
Now, build a square that has one unit on each side:
The area of the square, of course, is \(1 \times 1 = 1\) square unit.
Now, let us divide the segment on top into three equal-sized pieces. (So each piece is \(\frac{1}{3}\).) And we will divide the segment on the side into seven equal-sized pieces. (So each piece is \(\frac{1}{7}\).)
We can use those marks to divide the whole square into small, equal-sized rectangles. (Each rectangle has one side that measures \(\frac{1}{3}\) and another side that measures \(\frac{1}{7}\).)
We can now mark off four sevenths on one side and two thirds on the other side.
The result of the multiplication should be the area of the rectangle with \(\frac{4}{7}\) on one side and \(\frac{2}{3}\) on the other. What is that area?
Remember, the whole square was one unit. That one-unit square is divided into 21 equal-sized pieces, and our rectangle (the one with sides \(\frac{4}{7}\) and \(\frac{2}{3}\)) contains eight of those rectangles. Since the shaded area is the answer to our multiplication problem we conclude that
\[\frac{4}{7} \times \frac{2}{3} = \frac{8}{21} \ldotp \nonumber \]
Think / Pair / Share
- Use are model to compute each of the following products. Draw the picture to see the answer clearly. $$\frac{3}{4} \times \frac{5}{6}, \qquad \frac{3}{8} \times \frac{4}{5}, \qquad \frac{5}{8} \times \frac{3}{7} \ldotp$$
- The area problem \(\frac{4}{7} \times \frac{2}{3}\) yielded a diagram with a total of 21 small rectangles. Explain why 21 appears as the total number of equal-sized rectangles.
- The area problem \(\frac{4}{7} \times \frac{2}{3}\) yielded a diagram with 8 small shaded rectangles. Explain why 8 appears as the number of shaded rectangles.
Problem 5
How can you extend the area model for fractions greater than 1? Try to draw a picture for each of these: \[\frac{3}{4} \cdot \frac{3}{2}, \qquad \frac{2}{5} \cdot \frac{4}{3}, \qquad \frac{3}{10} \cdot \frac{5}{4}, \qquad \frac{5}{2} \cdot \frac{7}{4} \ldotp \nonumber \]
On Your Own
Work on the following exercises on your own or with a partner.
- Compute the following products, simplifying each of the answers as much as possible. You do not need to draw pictures, but you may certainly choose to do so if it helps! $$\frac{5}{11} \times \frac{7}{12}, \qquad \frac{4}{7} \times \frac{4}{8}, \qquad \frac{1}{2} \times \frac{1}{3}, \qquad \frac{2}{1} \times \frac{3}{1}, \qquad \frac{1}{5} \times \frac{5}{1}\ldotp$$
- Compute the following products. (Do not work too hard!) $$\frac{3}{4} \times \frac{1}{3} \times \frac{2}{5}, \qquad \frac{5}{5} \times \frac{7}{8}, \qquad \frac{88}{88} \times \frac{541}{788}, \qquad \frac{77876}{311} \times \frac{311}{77876} \ldotp$$
- Try this one. Can you make use of the fraction rule \(\frac{xa}{xb} = \frac{a}{b}\) to help you calculate? How? $$\frac{1}{2} \times \frac{2}{3} \times \frac{3}{4} \times \frac{4}{5} \times \frac{5}{6} \times \frac{6}{7} \times \frac{7}{8} \times \frac{8}{9} \times \frac{9}{10} \ldotp$$
Think / Pair / Share
How are these two problems different? Draw a picture of each.
- Pam had \(\frac{2}{3}\) of a cake in her refrigerator, and she ate \(\frac{1}{2}\) of it. How much total cake did she eat?
- On Monday, Pam ate \(\frac{2}{3}\) of a cake. On Tuesday, Pam ate \(\frac{1}{2}\) of a cake. Both cakes were the same size. How much total cake did she eat?
When a problem includes a phrase like “\(\frac{2}{3}\) of …,” students are taught to treat “of” as multiplication, and to use that to solve the problem. As the above problems show, in some cases this makes sense, and in some cases it does not. It is important to read carefully and understand what a problem is asking, not memorize rules about “translating” word problems.
Explaining the Rule
You probably simplified your work in the exercises above by using a multiplication rule like the following.
Multiplying Fractions
\[\frac{a}{b} \cdot \frac{c}{d} = \frac{a \cdot c}{b \cdot d} \ldotp \nonumber \]
Of course, you may then choose to simplify the final answer, but the answer is always equivalent to this one. Why? The area model can help us explain what is going on.
First, let us clearly write out how the area model says to multiply \(\frac{a}{b} \cdot \frac{c}{d}\). We want to build a rectangle where one side has length \(\frac{a}{b}\) and the other side has length \(\frac{c}{d}\). We start with a square, one unit on each side.
- Divide the top segment into equal-sized pieces. Shade of those pieces. (This will be the side of the rectangle with length \(\frac{a}{b}\).)
- Divide the left segment into equal-sized pieces. Shade of those pieces. (This will be the side of the rectangle with length \(\frac{c}{d}\).)
- Divide the whole rectangle according to the tick marks on the sides, making equal-sized rectangles.
- Shade the rectangle bounded by the shaded segments.
If the answer is \(\frac{a \cdot c}{b \cdot d}\), that means there are \(b \cdot d\) total equal-sized pieces in the square, and \(a \cdot c\) of them are shaded. We can see from the model why this is the case:
- The top segment was divided into equal-sized pieces. So there are columns in the rectangle.
- The side segment was divided into equal-sized pieces. So there are rows in the rectangle.
- A rectangle with columns and rows has \(b \cdot d\) pieces. (The area model for whole-number multiplication!)
Think / Pair / Share
Stick with the general multiplication rule
\[\frac{a}{b} \cdot \frac{c}{d} = \frac{a \cdot c}{b \cdot d} \ldotp \nonumber \]
Write a clear explanation for why \(a \cdot c\) of the small rectangles will be shaded.
Multiplying Fractions by Whole Numbers
Often, elementary students are taught to multiply fractions by whole numbers using the fraction rule.
Example: Multiply Fractions
For example, to multiply \(2 \cdot \frac{3}{7}\), we think of “2” as \(\frac{2}{1}\), and compute this way \[2 \cdot \frac{3}{7} = \frac{2}{1} \cdot \frac{3}{7} = \frac{2 \cdot 3}{1 \cdot 7} = \frac{6}{7} \ldotp \nonumber \]
We can also think in terms of our original “Pies Per Child” model to answer questions like this.
Example: Pies per Child
We know that \(\frac{3}{7}\) means the amount of pie each child gets when 7 children evenly share 3 pies .
If we compute \(2 \cdot \frac{3}{7}\) that means we double the amount of pie each kid gets. We can do this by doubling the number of pies. So the answer is the same as \(\frac{6}{7}\): the amount of pie each child gets when 7 children evenly share 6 pies.
Finally, we can think in terms of units and unitizing.
Example: Units
The fraction \(\frac{3}{7}\) means that I have 7 equal pieces (of something ), and I take 3 of them.
So \(2 \cdot \frac{3}{7}\) means do that twice.  There are still 7 equal pieces in the whole, so the answer is \(\frac{6}{7}\).
Think / Pair / Share
- Use all three methods to explain how to find each product: $$3 \cdot \frac{2}{5}, \qquad 4 \cdot \frac{3}{8}, \qquad 6 \cdot \frac{1}{5} \ldotp$$
- Compare these different ways of thinking about fraction multiplication. Are any of them more natural to you? Does one make more sense than the others? Do the particular numbers in the problem affect your answer? Does your partner agree?
Explaining the Key Fraction Rule
Roy says that the fraction rule
\[\frac{xa}{xb} = \frac{a}{b} \nonumber \]
is “obvious” if you think in terms of multiplying fractions. He reasons as follows:
We know multiplying anything by 1 does not change a number:
\[\begin{split} 1 \cdot 4 &= 4 \\ 1 \cdot 2014 &= 2014 \\ 1 \cdot \frac{5}{7} &= \frac{5}{7} \end{split} \nonumber \]
So, in general,
\[1 \cdot \frac{a}{b} = \frac{a}{b} \ldotp \nonumber \]
Now, \(\frac{2}{2} = 1\) , so that means that
\[\frac{2}{2} \cdot \frac{a}{b} = 1 \cdot \frac{a}{b} = \frac{a}{b}, \nonumber \]
which means
\[\frac{2a}{2b} = \frac{a}{b} \ldotp \nonumber \]
By the same reasoning, \(\frac{3}{3} = 1\) , so that means that
\[\frac{3}{3} \cdot \frac{a}{b} = 1 \cdot \frac{a}{b} = \frac{a}{b}, \nonumber \]
which means
\[\frac{3a}{3b} = \frac{a}{b} \ldotp \nonumber \]
Think / Pair / Share
What do you think about Roy’s reasoning? Does it make sense? How would Roy explain the general rule for positive whole numbers :
\[\frac{xa}{xb} = \frac{a}{b} ? \nonumber \]


8.2: Assignment- Small Business Project
Project Objective
The purpose of this project is to provide you with opportunities to implement skills learned in the course.
Additionally, you will be provided several opportunities for innovative and critical thinking as you perform assignments involving:
- Small Business Computer based Information Systems Requirements Analysis
- Project Planning & Cost Estimating
- Small Business Computer based Information Systems Design and Development
You will also learn additional skills in the area of Information Systems Design/Development and Hardware/Software selection.
Assignment
This project will require some critical thinking on your part. You have to put yourself in the shoes of a small business owner running a small eating establishment (pizza place or deli), and think about:
- What is the business you have selected?
- What products and services does your business offer?
- What do you need in the way of a computer based information system to properly support the marketing and selling of those products and services?
By the end of this project, you will have prepared and delivered:
- An Excel spreadsheet of hardware and software necessary for the small business information system you propose.
- A Systems Architecture, using Microsoft Word with shapes and Smart Art.
- An Excel spreadsheet showing all the cost of purchasing and installing the hardware and software necessary for the small business information system you propose.
- A PowerPoint presentation of your system with animation and audio.
Please read the detailed directions in the Small Business Project Workbook . The project is broken up into four tasks.
- Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts Small Business Project. Authored by : Jim Shannon. Provided by : Extended Learning Institute of Northern Virginia Community College. Located at : http://www.nvcc.edu/eli/index.html . License : CC BY: Attribution


1.13: Different Types of Crimes and Offenses
Crimes Against the Person
Crimes against the person are often considered the most serious and may include homicide, rape, assault, kidnapping, and intimate partner violence. Each of these crimes can carry a different penalty based upon the seriousness of the crime. For example, because Ted Bundy murdered women, rather than ‘just’ assaulted, Ted was eligible for capital punishment in the U.S. The state defines the crime and the punishment.
Crimes Against Property
Property crimes are widespread and seen as less severe than crimes against the person. Property crimes may include larceny, burglary, arson, and trespassing. There are varying degrees of liability depending on the circumstances of the case.
Crimes Against Public Order
Public order crimes may not harm other people or property but impact social order. Think back to the example of feeding homeless in community’s where that is illegal. Other typical examples would be disorderly conduct, loitering, and driving under the influence. The victim is society, and the goal is to maintain social order. Many debates whether certain crimes against public order are more or less severe, but get inappropriately punished. For example, driving while intoxicated can take lives and may be more severe. However, the law will charge for vehicular manslaughter or murder if life gets taken because someone drove drunk.
Drug Offenses
Most often drug offenses can be seen as a crime against public order, but the United States reaction to illegal drug use has altered the resources of the CJ system because of the “war on drugs.” Some examples of drug offenses can be possession of illegal drugs, being high, and selling. Punishment will vary based on the drug, how much of the drug is in possession or sold, and where it gets sold.
Misdemeanor
A misdemeanor is considered a minor criminal offense that is punishable by a fine and jail time for up to one year.
Felony
A felony is an offense that is punishable by a sentence of more than one year in state or federal prison and sometimes by death.


1.9: Early Colonial Latin Americas (1521-1600 CE)
Introduction
Christopher Columbus voyaged to the Americas several times between 1492 and 1502, inspiring other explorers to seek fame and fortune. Columbus initially landed in the city of Santo Domingo, the Dominican Republic. He believed he discovered the Indies and named the indigenous population "Indians." This term is controversial today; some scholars continue to use the word, especially in the discussion of history. Indigenous and Amerindian are other terms currently used to describe the native people of the Americas.
Taíno is specific to describe the Indigenous cultures of the Caribbean, the people Columbus encountered. The Taíno community did not consistently focus on the arts because the chiefs did not demand goods and services from their people. However, a few of their exciting crafts of pottery and carvings were considered "minor arts" by the Spanish. One surviving element was a vessel decorated with spirit faces, called a zemi figure (1.9.1), used in the ritual of ancestral worship. Since these objects were used in a pagan form of ritual worship, the Catholic Spanish conquerors destroyed many of these objects. However, some of these unique vessels survived the conquest simply because the objects were considered "curiosities."
By 1496, Spanish missionaries and colonists permanently settled in the Caribbean. Conquistadors from Spain made their way to the Continental Americas to discover their wealth and prove their military strength in the conquest of Latin America.
The Colonial Era
In Europe around this time, Michelangelo was working on his monumental statue of David. Leonardo da Vinci used his knowledge in the arts of anatomy and science to inform his works of art, and Raphael was creating the beautiful paintings of the Vatican. Beyond the High Renaissance in Italy, the Mannerist style of art emerged as artists focused on deception. Artists in the High Renaissance tried to disguise their works of art by creating illusionistic scenes. Mannerists focused on the unreality of the world presented by emphasizing deception. Subsequently, Mannerist artwork found patrons of high social status. The letterpress, discovered in Germany, allowed artists to match the printing press's advancement and technology with graphic art mediums, including woodblock prints and engravings. Artists from Flanders were also advancing arts by creating highly realistic works of art with the newly discovered forms of oil paints. Large altarpieces in both Flanders and Spain assisted the Catholic viewer in understanding complex doctrines. Known for his reconquest of Spain from the North African Moors in the name of the Catholic religion, Flanders came under the control of Charles V of Spain in the 1500s. In 1517, the Reformation was sparked by Martin Luther, leading to a split in the universal Christian church into Protestantism (the reformed religion) and Catholicism. Spain was profoundly Catholic, and Charles V and his son Philip II wanted to make the world Catholic. The events, wars, and art changed and heavily influenced the art in Latin America during the colonial period.
The Aztec and Inka were unique cultures because they prized the arts and had permanent stone architecture.
Tenochtitlan, the capital city of the Aztec Empire, was conquered by Hernán Cortés of Spain in 1521. Cortés conquered the Aztecs due to alliances with other local tribes who disliked the Aztecs, Doña Marina, and diseases the indigenous population who had no immunity. Doña Marina had a facility with language and spoke the Indigenous languages of the Maya and Aztec. She also learned Spanish quickly and translated between the indigenous and European languages, helping Hernán Cortés with the Spaniard's most famous ally – the Tlaxcalans, enemies of the Aztec who helped him conquer the Aztec. In less than two years after Cortés, he defeated the Aztecs after he first saw on Tenochtitlán.
The Aztec territory became the Viceroyalty of New Spain, the namesake of Spain. Viceroyalty referred to the political unit during the colonial period. Today, we know it as Mexico City, built on top of the indigenous cultural center of the Aztec world, Tenochtitlan. The area is one of two original regions where support and money were sent during the colonial period. Cusco, the capital city of the Inka Empire, was conquered by Francisco Pizarro, known as the Viceroyalty of Peru. The region became Lima, while Cusco remained the artistic center in the colonial period. The indigenous societies of Latin America had great artistic traditions, as did Europe. What happened when these two cultures collided?
Colonial Manuscripts
Doña Marina, pivotal in the conquest due to her interpretation and translation abilities, was nicknamed La Malinche – the traitor. Although she is seen as a traitor because she aided the conquistadors in their conquest of Mesoamerica, she is also seen as an influential figure, rising from slave status to a powerful female who bore one of the first mestizos, Cortés' son. In the image Tenochtitlan, Entrance of Hernán Cortés, Cortez and La Malinche meet Moctezuma II (1.9.2), she is translating a conversation between Hernán Cortés, wearing European style clothing with Moctezuma II in his indigenous royal Aztec garb. The style of art is a complex mix of European illusionism and indigenous symbolism. The image of a building-like throne is indigenous in concept, with proportions of figures similar to those in European Renaissance art. The text itself is a mix of European and indigenous influences. Since so many Indigenous records and manuscripts were destroyed after this conquest, the post-conquest manuscripts give modern viewers a sense of life in the indigenous world.
The more than 500 post-conquest manuscripts trump the small number of pre-Hispanic codices. In the Colonial period, the Indigenous artist-scribes used European paper and bound books. The missionaries and chroniclers realized early they lost a lot of information to convert the pagan indigenous cultures to Christianity. They started to re-document the Indigenous cultures by trying to document some of the Indigenous traditions. This resulted in "mixed" style codices that incorporate both Indigenous and European influences, glyphs, and figures on the white background of the manuscripts with better proportions and Arabic and Roman text. Some texts contained both the Indigenous language of the Aztecs, Nahuatl, and European writing/language.
Historians believe The Magliabechi Codex (1.9.3) is a copy of an Aztec codex, created during colonial rule and made from European paper. The influence of the European style is visible in the Indigenous subject of human sacrifice. One of the problems with the Spanish depiction and record of human sacrifice is the number of people they claimed was sacrificed. The Indigenous groups participated in human sacrifice, and records exist in pre-Columbian manuscripts of Indigenous human sacrifice. One of the controversial aspects of human sacrifice in the Aztec Empire is the question – just how much human sacrifice occurred? The Spanish chronicled the sacrifice they witnessed. Depending on the source, some post-conquest manuscripts claimed there were 20,000 human sacrifices a year, while other chroniclers documented 40,000 human victims were sacrificed in 4 days. Although the topic of human sacrifice is controversial, it is well known the Aztecs performed human sacrifice on a much larger scale than any other culture of Mesoamerica. However, sacrificing thousands in a few days only using flint knives appears an excessive exaggeration recorded by the Spanish to hide their destructive behavior. Bloodletting and human sacrifice were intended to please the gods –sustaining the cycles of the universe and opposing forces. Although the Catholic Spaniards viewed these sacrifices as part of devil worship, they were an integral part of the Indigenous culture. The religious belief of the Aztecs was based on the need to offer human sacrifices and please their gods to have the sunrise the next day. Sun and rain supported the crops and sustained life throughout the vast empire.
The Codex Mendoza (1.9.4) was another critical post-conquest manuscript created for Viceroy Mendoza (more realistic proportions along with Indigenous symbols) documenting everything from the history of beginning Aztec culture to scenes of everyday life. The post-conquest manuscript of the Codex Mendoza did not attempt to reconstruct the pagan religion.
The pages about raising children documented disciplines and chores assigned to children - basic everyday life (1.9.4 and 1.9.5). The figures are rendered in European style, the Indigenous influence of a blank white background still evident.
One of the most remarkable pages from the Codex Mendoza is the frontspiece, " The Founding of Tenochtitlan ." (1.9.6), an eagle on the prickly pear cactus with a rock as the center – with all four corners of the world emanating from the symbol. On the frontspiece of the Codex Mendoza are battle scenes at the bottom, the four corners of the Empire of the Aztecs, and a temple at the top of the page. The temple depiction was interpreted as the Templo Mayor – or the Great Pyramid, a 39.6 meters high stepped pyramid with two temples on top. The two temples were dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and Tlalac, the god of war and rain, respectively.
The Florentine Codex was a manuscript documenting the Aztec empire and preserving the memories of the Indigenous. Bernardino de Sahagún hired Tlacuilos (tri-lingual Indigenous artists) to illustrate and write the Florentine Codex . The manuscript page (1.9.7) documents Aztec deities, with the text, "Tlalcihuatl is the other Venus." This connection between Greco-Roman deities and Aztec deities demonstrates how there were moments in time when the Spaniards tried to connect and relate to the Aztecs by focusing on the similarities of polytheism between the great classical cultures of Europe and the Aztecs.
At first, many Indigenous traditions continued under European rule. However, missionaries sent from Spain to convert the newly discovered pagan cultures to Catholicism used Indigenous artists to help create and build a new society and create new art forms. This was a time of artistic interchange, resulting in some scientific labels describing the assimilation of art forms and cultures. Syncretism/ Convergence described what happens when two different cultures make use of a single symbol.
Early Colonial Architecture
One of the missionaries' first tasks was to document information about the Indigenous cultures and how to convert them to Christianity. Sometimes, missionaries were quite sympathetic to the Indigenous, and other times they were extremely hostile. One of the first missionaries who arrived came Europe was quite sympathetic to the Indigenous and set up a school to educate the nobles and their children. Twelve additional missionaries followed him to Mexico, documenting the Indigenous cultures and constructing churches to aid in the conversion.
The Ex Convento de San Miguel in Huejotzingo (1.9.8) reflected the new style of religious architecture, including several different cultural influences. Catholic Spain had recently been reconquered from the Moors of North Africa by Charles V, the Spanish King, and each time Spain advanced in its conquest, buildings were built with a defensive style, including battlements. The church façade is topped with battlements and gave the structure a defensive appearance, underscoring Spain's military posture in their conquest of Latin America in constructing the fortress church. Most of the stones came from nearby Indigenous structures. The elaborate and intricate designs on the stone façade are similar to the plateresques style in Spain and the bi-relief sculptures of the Indigenous.
Several other influences were common on the exterior of these early Christian churches (1.9.9) in New Spain. At the Ex-Convento de San Miguel in Huejotzingo, the side door has decorations called Alfiz – an architectural adornment of molding – usually rectangular and surrounding an arched walkway. When the Moors controlled Spain, architecture was based on Islamic-style architecture. The style was incorporated into the new buildings.
Another interesting development in New World church architecture was a new form of chapels, specifically, open-air chapels. Although Europeans worshiped inside their churches, the Indigenous pagan rituals were conducted outside. When the missionaries tried to convert the Indigenous, it was easier to keep them comfortable with something familiar. They developed outside worship spaces or open-air chapels, Posas (1.9.10) (chapels) in an atrio (courtyard) – were placed in corners of a courtyard, and participants walked around and stopped at each posa for religious instruction.
In the Viceroyalty of Peru, churches were also constructed with many cultural influences; unfortunately, many early structures were destroyed by earthquakes. A 17 th century church in Peru, Church in Andahuaylilas (1.9.11), is one of the most famous churches from the Colonial era in the Viceroyalty of Peru. The interior is painted in unique repetitive patterns resembling textiles.
Early Colonial Sculpture
In the center of many atrios, or courtyards of the open-air fortress churches, were stone crosses. The Cross at Acolman (1.9.12) demonstrates the complex mixing of cultures. At first, it appears like a cross; however, a face emerges from the center of the cross, while the rest of the cross is covered in foliage. The Indigenous sculptor created the cross of Christian imagery with the symbolic language of the vegetation that the Indigenous people understood. In Indigenous manuscripts, a common subject was the world tree connecting the underworld to the heavens. The cross appears to be a mix of Christian symbolism and Indigenous symbolism, an example of syncretism. If an Indigenous person looked at the cross, part of their Indigenous culture and religion with evident in the foliage. If Europeans looked at the cross, they might think the Indigenous sculptor misunderstood the actual meaning of the cross. It is still unknown if the mixing of influences was an act of defiance and deceit or acceptance and understanding by the Indigenous sculptors.
Baptismal fonts also combine European functions, for example, baptism, with Indigenous references. At the Monastery of San Miguel Zinacantepec, the baptismal font (1.9.13) has an upper border of a Franciscan cord, with an inscription in the Indigenous Nahuatl language. There are also medallions representing Christian themes, such as the Annunciation and Flight into Egypt. Between the medallions are scenes possibly representing the heavens in the Christian religion or the heavens with Indigenous birds and references to the Indigenous heavens, a connection between the Catholic religion with a functional baptismal font, and imagery recalling the Indigenous past. Sometimes, the success of translating ideas from Europe by an Indigenous sculptor was lost.
The lion fountain or feathered coyote (1.9.14) is a decorative sculpture at the Rollo demonstrating how an Indigenous sculptor interpreted, visually, a lion. The artist was asked to create a lion (the symbol of the Spanish monarchy). Because the Indigenous carver had never seen a lion, he made an animal similar to an Indigenous feathered coyote.
Early Colonial Painting
There were numerous influences to create new forms of art. However, one of the most significant influences from Europe to Latin America were simple woodcut prints and engravings. The easily portable and inexpensive art forms were used in Indigenous education, teaching the Catholic faith's religious stories.
At the Ex-Convento de San Miguel in Huejotzingo (1.9.15) are wall paintings painted by Indigenous artists in the illusionistic style of Europe, the black and white images copied directly from European prints. All the prints traveling from Europe during this period were black and white, the Indigenous painters painting what they viewed in the European prints. In Germanic and Flemish prints had decorative borders also painted by the Indigenous on church walls. It is believed the missionaries and friars of the churches supported the black and white imagery isolated from the colorful imagery of the Indigenous paintings. In the image, the Virgin Mary stands on the crescent moon below God the Father. Symbols of her purity float in the clouds beside her with important saints, who promoted the devotion of the Mary's Immaculate Conception.
There are numerous black and white images towering up the stairways at the Ex-Convent of San Nicolas de Tolentino Frescos (1.9.16). They are completed in an illusionistic style, with a sense of perspective. An interesting inclusion in this series of paintings is the Indigenous men depicted with the church's friars. Although copying imagery from Europe, the Indigenous painters seemed to have some say in the overall fresco program of the monasteries. It also demonstrates how the church officials were often lenient with the Indigenous workers.
One of the more intriguing paintings completed for a church is the murals at Ixmiquilpan (1.9.17). The series of paintings were completed on the walls down the central aisle in the church's nave. Unlike the black and white images seen at Huejotzingo, these paintings are richly colored. The subject matter is far from anything expected in a Catholic church with anthropomorphic busts. These human figures are dressed in Indigenous warrior clothing or jaguars, who battle European-inspired monsters. There is a unifying bright blue acanthus scroll flowing throughout all of the images down the nave. The acanthus scroll is standard in classical art; however, the color of the murals indicates they were not direct copies from European prints.
Additionally, Aztec knightly orders wore costumes and animal hides as painted in the paintings, not traditional European depictions. It is unknown why the church authorities allowed a battle of Indigenous figures with animal skins and weapons of the Aztecs to be painted down the main aisle of the Catholic church. Most scholars believe the Christianized Indigenous of the region painted what they knew as a representation of good and evil.
Virgin of Guadalupe
No discussion on the early colonial era of Latin America would be complete without a discussion on the Virgin of Guadalupe and her importance and an event between December 9-12, 1531, ten years after the conquest of Tenochtitlan. According to legend, a dark-skinned Virgin Mary, dressed in a blue garment dotted with stars (some scholars say the stars resemble the constellation in the skies at that time), appeared to a Christianized Indigenous man named Juan Diego. He was just north of Mexico City on the site of an old Indigenous temple to the Goddess Tonantzin, "Mother of the people." The Virgin spoke to him in the Indigenous Aztec language, Nahuatl, and asked Juan Diego to approach the bishop to build a church in her honor at this location. Unfortunately, the bishop did not believe Juan Diego.  He explained the bishop did not believe him. After the third attempt, he explained that the bishop wanted evidence. On December 12 th , the Virgin Mary told Juan Diego to gather roses from a rose bush, not blooming in the winter or the rocky terrain, and to bring the roses to the bishop as a sign. When Diego opened his cloak (1.9.18) to show the bishop the flowers he gathered, the miraculous image of the Virgin of Guadalupe appeared on his cactus fiber tilma (cloak). It is believed the original cactus fiber tilma is on view during the Virgin of Guadalupe's feast days in December each year, even though the cactus fiber cloak should have disintegrated after 20 years, even surviving a bomb attack in 1921. Although some question the authenticity of the religious relic, far more people have complete faith and devotion in the Virgin of Guadalupe.
The first painted reproduction of the Virgin of Guadalupe, called a Guadalupana , was in 1606 by the Spanish immigrant Baltasar de Echave Orio. From this point forward, every time an image of the Virgin of Guadalupe was created, it was made following the exact depiction found on the cactus fiber tilma relic in the Basilica of Guadalupe. Except for the medium or skill, the image presents the dark-skinned Virgin in a red dress and blue mantel covered with stars, standing in front of a ray of light, her head bowed. A bow is tied around her waist, and she stands on a crescent moon supported by an angel.
In the immediate years after the Spanish conquest of the New World, social, historical, and artistic changes in the Viceroyalty of New Spain and the Viceroyalty of Peru were unprecedented. The powerful influence and control of the Catholic church and Spanish government changed the cultural and religious environment of the people. Using black and white prints from Europe, Indigenous artists created new and different architecture and art under the direction of the new conquerors while still incorporating local traditions.


10.10: Outcome- New Product Development Process
What you’ll learn to do: describe the new-product development process
We have considered the role of new products throughout this module. It is important to introduce new products in order to have a balanced portfolio containing products at the various stages of the product life cycle. We have not yet focused on ways of creating successful new products.
In this module we will discuss a standard, somewhat fixed new-product development process. The logic behind this rather rigid process is that it requires a great deal of discipline to create new products. It’s expensive to launch a successful new product—but it’s far more expensive to launch an unsuccessful products. For these reasons, organizations invest a lot in the creation and refinement of their new-product development processes. It helps them raise the odds that they’ll be successful.
Consider the following dramatic product failures that, in hindsight, should have been screened out much earlier in the product development process.
In 1998 Frito-Lay introduced WOW! chips.  Initially, the product performed well, generating $347 million in 1998 and making WOW! the best-selling potato chip brand that year. The success was short lived, though. Olestra had an unpleasant side-effect: soon customers complained of cramping, incontinence, and diarrhea—in some cases requiring hospitalization—after eating the chips. Frito-Lay’s parent company, PepsiCo, spent $35 million on an advertising campaign to turn things around, but sales plummeted nonetheless. [1]
In 2011 Hewlett Packard launched a product designed to go head-to-head with Apple’s iPad. The product boasted a higher number of performance features than the iPad, but it had none of the “cool factor” that drew customers to Apple. MarketWatch reported, “Despite large-scale press events and promotions, the HP TouchPad was a colossal failure and was discontinued almost immediately. As a result of the TouchPad’s failure, the company wrote off $885 million in assets and incurred an additional $755 million in costs to wind down its webOS operations, ending all work on the TouchPad’s failed operating system.”
To repeat: developing new products creates opportunity and risk.
The specific things you’ll learn in this section include:
- Explain how new products are planned
- Identify approaches to generate new product ideas
- Identify methods to evaluate new product ideas
- Explain the process to create and commercialize new products
Learning Activities
The learning activities for this section include the following:
- Reading: Generating and Screening Ideas
- Reading: Developing New Products
- Reading: Commercializing New Products
- Video: Target Product Design
- Self Check: New Product Development Process
Contributors and Attributions
- Outcome: New Product Development Process. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


2.1: The Art of Demonstration
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
- Break down an instructional topic into easy-to-follow steps.
- Maintain audience attention while demonstrating a skill.
- Manage audience participation.
- Incorporate visual aids.
 If you teach a person how to fish, you feed a person for a lifetime.”
— Common proverb
The demonstration speech is usually a lot of fun for the audience, because there is a high level of participation. It can also be quite practical: the audience learns skills that they can actually use in their daily lives. There is also the wow-factor of props. Including objects in a presentation is one of the proven ways to get the audience’s attention and interest. This chapter will help you choose an appropriate topic, break down your demonstration into simple steps, and apply the Four P’s of Demonstration: Props, Plan B, Participation, and Patter, to help your audience stay engaged throughout the presentation and remember what you taught them.
Choosing a Topic
Make sure your topic is appropriate for your audience. Find something that most people don’t already know how to do, and that you, personally, find interesting. Consider your audience as well. What new skill would be likely to appeal to this group?  Remember that enthusiasm is contagious! If you are excited about what you are about to show us, it’s likely some of that excitement will rub off on us. You can show us how to make something, or how to do something. However, this is a demonstration. You are not merely explaining something to us, but also showing us how to do it.
Check Your Understanding
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Structuring the Presentation
Introduction
In your introduction, let the audience know what you will be teaching them how to do, why this skill matters, and how you learned how to do it. Your professor may also provide additional guidance about what goes into this section. The introduction sets up the audience to understand what they are about to learn, and it motivates them to pay attention as you teach them. Sharing with us how you gained this skill builds credibility with your audience. If the audience doesn’t trust your expertise in the speech subject, they will not be as focused during your speech. It also may be helpful to introduce your supplies before you begin the actual demonstration and let us know where and how we can obtain these items. Additionally, this is a good place to define any specialized vocabulary terms needed for this presentation.
Steps
Your speech should take us through chronological steps of the task you are teaching. Be sure to include transitional words, such as “first,” “next,” and “last.” You will be giving the audience both a verbal understanding of how to do this task, along with a visual representation. Depending on the type of topic you choose, your audience may also do the task along with you. Thus, the demonstration speech utilizes several learning styles and is an ideal way to teach people.
Conclusion
As you conclude your speech, remind us what we have learned and how this new skill will benefit us. Use phrases such as “Now you know how to…” or “This will help you…” to signal to the audience that you are wrapping up. The conclusion also reinforces what you have taught us. It’s also a good idea to allow some time for questions from the audience at the end.
Check Your Understanding
The original version of this chapter contained H5P content. You may want to remove or replace this element.
The Four P’s of Demonstration
Here are four things to keep in mind while you are developing and practicing your demonstration: Props , Plan B , Participation , and Patter .
Props
Many speech topics will require you to use actual objects while you demonstrate. For example, you can’t show us how to create a fishtail braid unless you have something to braid. The props don’t have to be the actual object you would use in real life. You have the option of bringing in something that represents that object. If you are showing us how to change a baby’s diaper, there is no need to bring a baby into the classroom. Instead, you could change the diaper of a doll or a stuffed animal. However, sometimes a substitute simply will not do. If you are showing us how to efficiently slice and serve a pineapple, you really need to bring in the pineapple.
 Even when you are doing intricate work with your hands, be sure to periodically pause and make eye contact with the people observing the demonstration while you speak to them.
As you prepare your props, make note of any that may be difficult for the audience to see from their seats. It is perfectly acceptable to pause your demonstration and walk over to the audience to show them something up close. If you have time and a big enough space, you can invite your audience to come up closer to see the details of your prop and how it is used. One thing you want to avoid is having your audience members pass something around to each other during your speech. This takes the focus away from your presentation. If you need to include handouts, or pass out materials, do so before or after your speech.
Plan B
The trouble with a live demonstration is that things can and will go wrong. The matches won’t light. The paper tears when you try to fold it. See if you can anticipate everything that might possibly go wrong with your demonstration and have a plan in place to deal with those catastrophes. It’s also a good idea to have a completed version of what you are demonstrating hidden away so that you can show us how things were supposed to turn out. This is also helpful if your speech is going over time. You can truncate a few of the steps for the audience and show us the completed version that you’ve already prepared. Julia Child was famous for doing this on her cooking show , The French Chef . Sometimes she would accidentally burn the food she was preparing, or it wouldn’t come out like it was supposed to. Julia was unfazed in these situations, and she would pull out a prepared dish so that the audience could see how the recipe was meant to come together.
Murphy’s Law tells us that anything that can go wrong will go wrong. The more you are mentally prepared to deal with these challenging situations, the less stressed you will be as a presenter. When an accident happens, it won’t catch you off guard because you have already thought through how to handle it.
Participation
Research into andragogy, the art and science of adult learning, shows that adults will learn more when they are active participants in the learning. There are three ways that people can participate in your speech. First, socially: they may speak out and make comments. Second, mentally: they may think about what you are saying and wrestle with it in their minds. Third, physically: they can do something. If your demonstration is simple, it would be great to have your audience follow along with you. For instance, if you are showing us how to do Dominican Bachata dancing, we can get up and learn the steps (physical participation). However, if your demonstration is complex, such as demonstrating how to make kimchi, we might not be able to do it with you. Still, you can always ask the audience questions to get them to participate socially. “Who here has tried kimchi? What did you think of it?”
If you are pressed for time, it probably isn’t a good idea to ask for audience responses. Instead, pose a thought-provoking question to have the audience participate mentally. “Imagine that you are taking a trip to outer space. What food will you request to be served on your journey?” Be sure to follow up by connecting your question to the speech topic. For example, to relate the question about taking food into space to the topic of “How to Make Kimchi,” you might go on to say, “In 2008, Korean astronaut Yi So-yeon requested kimchi, a fermented dish with the potential to explode in the vacuum of space. Although scientists had to tweak the recipe, kimchi made its way into the International Space Station so that Yi So-yeon could have a comforting reminder of home. Today I’ll be showing you…”
Patter
The last thing to remember is that you need to stay engaged with your audience throughout the demonstration, even while working on your task. This talk is called patter, like the pitter-patter of raindrops. Continue to provide commentary for your audience while demonstrating, perhaps giving us additional examples or fun facts about your project. You can also elaborate on your experience in doing this skill, and what helped you learn how to do it. What we want to avoid is that awkward “dead space” where you are so focused on what you are doing that you forget about the audience and we sit there in silence.
Check Your Understanding
The original version of this chapter contained H5P content. You may want to remove or replace this element.
Conclusion
Demonstration is a skill that is used all the time in the professional world. Perhaps a colleague will ask you how to do something, or you may be asked to participate in a formal training situation. You might also support a home business or personal brand by posting a how-to video on social media. Using these demonstration speech guidelines will help you become an instructor from whom people will want to learn.
Review Questions
- Give an example of a topic that would work well for a short demonstration.
- What is an example of a demonstration that would be difficult to complete in a short timeframe?
- What are the Four P’s of Demonstration, and why is each one important?
Class Activities
- Have students each take out a piece of paper and tear it into three sections. On the first section, they should write down something they are good at. Collect these strips of paper and keep them in a stack. On the second section, they should write down something they have always wanted to learn how to do. Collect these as well and keep them in a separate stack. On the final section, they should write down something they hope no one chooses for their demonstration speech topic. After collecting the remaining strips, pass each stack of papers to a pair or small group of students to sort through and look for trends and outliers. Students will then report their findings to the class to reveal what skills students in the class have and what topics people both want and don’t want to learn about.
- List the following phrases for students: “Today I’ll be teaching you…,” “You should know this because…,” “I learned this…,” “Now you know how to…,” and “This will help you…” Organize students in small groups and have them establish the order in which the phrases might be used in a demonstration. Then ask for a volunteer in each group to teach the other group members how to draw a smiley face. Volunteers may refer to the phrases on the board as they perform the demonstration to their group. Next, choose a volunteer from one of the groups to demonstrate this skill for the entire class, and prompt the student to include the structural components, if necessary. Repeat with simple topics until each group member has had a chance to try out a simple demonstration in a small group.
Works Cited
Gallo, Carmine. Talk Like TED: The 9 Public-Speaking Secrets of the World’s Top Minds . Macmillan, 2014.
Giannoukos, Georgios, et al. “The Andragogy, the Social Change and the Transformative Learning Educational Approaches in Adult Education.” Journal of Education and Practice , vol. 6, no. 10, 2015, pp. 46–50.
Han, Jan. “Korean Food to be Served in Space.” The Korean Times, 11 Apr. 2008. http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news...123_22360.html . Accessed 29 Sept. 2023.
Hemmert, Nancy Grass. Public Speaking in American English: A Guide for Non-Native Speakers. Pearson, 2007.
Lucas, Stephen. The Art of Public Speaking . 12th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2014.
Powell, Susanna, et al. Stand and Deliver: High Impact Presentations . 4th ed., Pearson, 2014.


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5: How to Plan Effective and Meaningful Curriculum
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5.1: Introduction
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The text reflects on the experience of a preschool teacher setting up a classroom, organizing materials, and planning curriculum activities with a focus on seasonal themes and kindergarten readiness skills. It questions the purpose and effectiveness of pre-planned curricula, emphasizing the importance of knowing children's individual interests and needs. The chapter promises to explore curriculum development through observation, documentation, and reflection.
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5.2: What is Curriculum?
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In early childhood education, the focus is on holistic child development encompassing social, emotional, physical, and intellectual growth. Educators are tasked with integrating curriculum that nurtures all these aspects. The term "curriculum" varies in meaning, acting as a learning framework, a set of planned activities, or a tool for achieving educational goals. It can be teacher or child-directed, and either custom-made or predesigned.
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5.3: Benefits of Implementing Meaningful Curriculum
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Early brain development is heavily influenced by meaningful and culturally connected experiences. Engaging curricula that foster skills in areas like math, science, and creativity are crucial for building neural pathways and effective learning. The Abecedarian Project highlights the long-term benefits of high-quality early education, showing that children with access to enriched learning experiences are more likely to achieve higher education and steady employment
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5.4: A Teachers Role
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The curriculum is key to children's learning, but ensuring it meets their diverse needs depends on teachers, who act as researchers observing and adapting to each child's needs. According to Patricia McDonald's article, teachers extend learning through observation and intentional planning. They balance when to engage or step back, knowing their students well. Observation, documentation, interpretation, and reflection are crucial tools for teachers to support children's growth and development.
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5.5: The Curriculum Planning Cycle at a Glance
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This page outlines strategies for observing and documenting children's behavior in educational settings, focusing on spontaneous and planned observation to assess what children can do. It emphasizes recording factual evidence, including details like date, location, and participants. The interpretation section encourages analyzing behavior through questioning and considering antecedents, behaviors, and consequences.
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5.6: A Closer Look at the Curriculum Planning Cycle
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The text outlines the crucial role of observations in early childhood education for informing curriculum development. Teachers use a four-step curriculum-planning process: Observation, Documentation, Interpretation, and Reflection. By observing children's play and interactions, teachers gather valuable data to tailor curricula that support individual learning needs. Documentation of these observations aids in tracking progress, which then leads to interpreting the data to plan strategies.
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5.7: Conclusion
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Teachers should balance planned curriculum activities based on developmental milestones with those inspired by children's interests and family suggestions. Utilizing the curriculum planning cycle, teachers observe, document, and interpret evidence to tailor effective curriculums. This approach encourages exploration, socialization, and self-challenge, incorporating diverse materials that suit each child's developmental stage and cultural background, including adaptations for special needs.


12: Alkynes - An Introduction to Organic Synthesis
After you have completed Chapter 12, you should be able to
- fulfillall of the detailed objectives listed under each individual section.
- solve road-map problems involving any of the reactions introduced to this point.
- design multistep syntheses using any of the reactions introduced to this point, and determine the viability of a given synthesis.
- define, and use in context, the key terms introduced.
Addition reactions not only dominate the chemistry of alkenes, they are also the major class of reaction you will encounter. This chapter discusses an important difference between (terminal) alkynes and alkenes, that is, the acidity of the former; it also addresses the problem of devising organic syntheses. Once you have completed this chapter you will have increased the number of organic reactions in your repertoire, and should be able to design much more elaborate multistep syntheses.
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- 12.1: Naming Alkynes
- Alkynes are organic molecules made of the functional group carbon-carbon triple bonds and are written in the empirical formula of CnH2n−2 . They are unsaturated hydrocarbons. Like alkenes have the suffix –ene, alkynes use the ending –yne; this suffix is used when there is only one alkyne in the molecule.
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- 12.4: Alkyne Acidity - Formation of Acetylide Anions
- Terminal alkynes are much more acidic than most other hydrocarbons. Removal of the proton leads to the formation of an acetylide anion, RC=C:-. The origin of the enhanced acidity can be attributed to the stability of the acetylide anion, which has the unpaired electrons in an sp hybridized orbital. The stability results from occupying an orbital with a high degree of s-orbital character.
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- 12.6: Hydration of Alkynes
- As with alkenes, hydration (addition of water) to alkynes requires a strong acid, usually sulfuric acid, and is facilitated by mercuric sulfate. However, unlike the additions to double bonds which give alcohol products, addition of water to alkynes gives ketone products ( except for acetylene which yields acetaldehyde ). The explanation for this deviation lies in enol-keto tautomerization.
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- 12.7: Reduction of Alkynes
- Reactions between alkynes and catalysts are a common source of alkene formation. Because alkynes differ from alkenes on account of their two procurable π bonds, alkynes are more susceptible to additions. Aside from turning them into alkenes, these catalysts affect the arrangement of substituents on the newly formed alkene molecule. Depending on which catalyst is used, the catalysts cause anti- or syn-addition of hydrogens. Alkynes can readily undergo additions because of their availability of tw


34.8: Review Questions
Which symptom is most likely to occur in a client who is taking furosemide?
- Answer
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Muscle weakness
Which statement indicates that the client needs additional education on their newly prescribed medication, amiloride?
- Answer
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“I will switch to a salt substitute containing potassium chloride.”
Which eGFR value is consistent with a client who has chronic renal disease?
- Answer
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45 mL/minute/1.73 m 2
Which medication increases solute concentration in the blood to drive fluid shifts for excretion?
- Answer
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Mannitol
The nurse is caring for an older adult female client with a history of osteoporosis who was recently diagnosed with hypertension. Which diuretic would be most appropriate for this client?
- Answer
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Hydrochlorothiazide
Which sign is most concerning for the client receiving mannitol?
- Answer
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Lung congestion and peripheral edema
The nurse should monitor the client receiving spironolactone for which adverse effect?
- Answer
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Cardiac arrhythmias
The nurse is providing discharge teaching for a client who was started on a thiazide diuretic during this hospitalization. Which statement indicates that additional instruction is required?
- Answer
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“I’m concerned about getting up to go to the bathroom all night every night.”
Which medication could be prescribed to treat hyperkalemia?
- Answer
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Furosemide
Which of the following statements is correct?
- Answer
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To be effective, the dose of a diuretic must meet the threshold dose for the drug.


4: Soil
When most people think about the resources we use, most of them will immediately think about water and air and fossil fuels. However, one resource that is absolutely vital to our existence (and other species as well) is soil. In this section, we will see how soil is formed, we will see why all soils are not the same, and we will see what the soil looks like in different biomes. You may recall from the rock cycle that soil is formed from the weathering of rocks, but this is just one piece of what goes into soil formation. If we stop and think about soil for just a minute, we can come up with an impressive resume of what soil does.
Thumbnail: Surface-water-gley developed in glacial till, northern Ireland. (Public Domain;
).Contributors and Attributions
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Original content from Kimberly Schulte (Columbia Basin College) and supplemented by Lumen Learning . The content on this page is copyrighted under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.


10.6.7: Alternatives to Binary Systems
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Through all these examples, we hope to show that binary ways of understanding human differences are insufficient for understanding the complexities of human culture. Binary ways of thinking assume that there are only two categories of gender, race, and class identities among others, and that these two categories are complete opposites. Just as men are defined as “not women” in a binary system, straight people are defined as “not gay,” white people are defined as “not Black,” and middle-class people are defined as “not poor.” Oppositional, binary thinking works strategically such that the dominant groups in society are associated with more valued traits, while the subordinate groups, defined as their opposites, are always associated with less valued traits. Thus, the poles in a binary system define each other and only make sense in the presence of their opposites. Masculinity only has meaning as the opposite of femininity. In reality, identities and lives are complex and multi-faceted. For one, all categories of identity are more richly expressed and understood as matrices of difference. More than that, all of us have multiple aspects of identity that we experience simultaneously and that are mutually constitutive. Our experience of gender is always shaped by our race, class, and other identities. Our experience of race is particular to our gender, class, and other identities as well. This is why taking an intersectional approach to understanding identity gives us a more complex understanding of social reality. Each of our social locations is impacted by the intersection of several facets of identity in a way that should give us pause when we encounter blanket statements like “all men are ______” or “all Latinas are _____” or “all lesbians are____.” The social world is complex, and rather than reducing human difference to simple binaries, we must embrace the world as it is and acknowledge the complexity.


6.13: Music of Pyotr Tchaikovsky
Pyotr (Peter) Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893) was born in Votinsk, a small mining town in Russia. He was a son of a government official, and started taking piano at the age of five, though his family intended him to have a career as a government official. His mother died of cholera when he was fourteen, a tragedy that had a profound and lasting effect on him. He attended the aristocratic school in St. Petersburg called the School of Jurisprudence and, upon completion, obtained a minor government post in the Ministry of Justice. Nevertheless, Pyotr always had a strong interest in music and yearned to study it.
At the age of twenty-three, he resigned his government post and entered the newly created Conservatory of St. Petersburg to study music. From the age of twenty-three to twenty-six, he studied intently and completed his study in three years. His primary teachers at the conservatory were Anton Rubinstein and Konstantin Zarembe, but he himself taught lessons while he studied. Upon completion, Tchaikovsky was recommended by Rubinstein, director of the school as well as teacher, to a teaching post at the new conservatory of Moscow. The young professor of harmony had full teaching responsibilities with long hours and a large class. Despite his heavy workload, his twelve years at the conservatory saw the composing of some of his most famous works, including his first symphony. At the age of twenty-nine, he completed his first opera Voyevoda and composed the Romeo and Juliet overture. At the age of thirty-three, he started supplementing his income by writing as a mu- sic critic, and also composed his second symphony, first piano concerto, and his first ballet, Swan Lake .
The reception of his music sometimes included criticism, and Tchaikovsky took criticism very personally, being prone as he was to (attacks of) depression. These bouts with depression were exacerbated by an impaired personal social life. In an effort to calm and smooth that personal life, Tchaikovsky entered into a relationship and marriage with a conservatory student named Antonina Ivanovna Miliukova in 1877. She was star struck and had fallen immediately and rather despairingly in love with him. His pity for her soon turned into unmanageable dislike to the point that he avoided her at all cost. Once in a fit of depression and aversion, he even strolled into the icy waters of the Moscow River to avoid her. Many contemporaries believe the effort was a suicide attempt.  The marriage lasted less than a month.
At this darkest hour for Tchaikovssky, a kind, wealthy benefactress who admired his music became his sponsor. Her financial support helped restore Tchaikovsky to health, freed him from his burdensome teaching responsibilities, and permitted him to focus on his compositions. His benefactor was a widowed industrialist, Nadezhda von Meck, who was dominating and emotional and who loved his music. From her secluded estate, she raised her eleven children and managed her estate and railroads. Due to the social norms of the era, she had to be very careful to make sure that her intentions in supporting the composer went towards his music and not towards the composer as a man; consequently, they never met one another other than possibly through the undirected mutual glances at a crowded concert hall or theater. They communicated through a series of letters to one another, and this distance letter-friendship soon became one of fervent attachment.
In his letters to Meck, Tchaikovsky would explain how he envisioned and wrote his music, describing it as a holistic compositional process, with his envisioning the thematic development to the instrumentation being all one thought. The secured environment she afforded Tchaikovsky enabled him to compose unrestrainedly and very creatively. In appreciation and respect for his patron, Tchaikovsky dedicated his fourth symphony to Meck. He composed that work in his mid-thirties, a decade when he premiered his opera Eugene Onegin and composed the 1812 Overture (excerpt may be viewed at the link on www.52composers.com/ tchaikovsky.html) and Serenade for Strings.
Tchaikovsky’s music ultimately earned him international acclaim, leading to his receiving a lifelong subsidy from the Tsar in 1885. He overcame his shyness and started conducting appearances in concert halls throughout Europe, making his music the first of any Russian composer to be accepted and appreciated by Western music consumers. At the age of fifty, he premiered Sleeping Beauty and The Queen of Spades in St. Petersburg. A year later, in 1891, he was invited to the United States to participate in the opening ceremonies for Carnegie Hall. He also toured the United States, where he was afforded impressive hospitality. He grew to admire the American spirit, feeling awed by New York’s skyline and Broadway. He wrote that he felt he was more appreciated in America than in Europe.
While his composition career sometimes left him feeling dry of musical ideas, Tchaikovsky’s musical output was astonishing and included at this later stage of his life two of his greatest symphonies: The Nutcracker and Iolanta , both of which premiered in St. Petersburg. He conducted the premier of his sixth symphony, Path é tique , in St. Petersburg as well, but received only a lukewarm reception, partially due to his shy, lack-luster personality. The persona carried over into his conducting technique that was rather reserved and subdued, leading to a less than emotion-packed performance by his orchestra.
A few days after the premier, while he was still in the St. Petersburg, Tchaikovsky ignored warnings against drinking unboiled water, warnings due to the current prevalence of cholera there. He contracted the disease and died within a week at the age of fifty-three years old. Immediately upon his tragic death, the Symphonie Path é tique earned great acclaim that it has held ever since.
In the nineteenth century and still today, Tchaikovsky is among the most highly esteemed of composers. Russians have the highest regard for Tchaikovsky as a national artist. Igor Stravinsky stated, “He was the most Russian of us all!” (Taken from http://www.tchaikovsky-research.net/...orum0291.html. ) Tchaikovsky incorporated the national emotional feelings and culture—from its simple countryside to its busy cities—into his music. Along with his nationalism influences, such as Russian folk song, Tchaivovsky enjoyed studying and incorporating German symphony, Italian opera, and French Ballet. He was comfortable with all of these disparate sources and gave all his music lavish melodies flooding with emotion.
Tchaikovsky composed a tremendously wide spectrum of music, with ten op- eras including Eugene Onegin, The Maid of Orleans, Queen of Spades, and Iolanthe; internationally-acclaimed ballets, including Swan Lake, The Sleeping Beauty, The Nutcracker (excerpt may be viewed at the link on www.52composers. com/tchaikovsky.html) , Snow Maiden, and Hamlet; six symphonies, three piano concertos, various overtures, chamber music, piano solos, songs, and choral works.
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Listening Guide For audio, go to: |
| Composer: Pyotr (Peter) Ilyich Tchaikovsky (b. 1840-1893) |
| Composition: 1812 Overture |
| Date: 1882 |
| Genre: Symphonic Overture |
| Form: Two-part overture—Choral and Finale |
| Performing Forces: Large orchestra, including a percussion section with large bells and a battery of cannons |
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What we want you to remember about this composition:
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| Timing | Performing Forces, Melody, and Texture |
| 0:00–2:14 | The Russian hymn “Spasi, Gospodi, Iyudi Tvoya” (“O Lord, Save Thy People”) is performed in the strings |
| 2:14–3:46 | The music morphs into a more suspenseful style creating tension of possible upcoming conflict. |
| 3:46– 4:45 | Snare drums set a military tone as the overtures theme is introduced. Listen how the rhythms line up clear and precise. |
| 4:45– 6:39 | An energetic disjunctive style portray an attack from the French. Brief motives of La Marseillaise, the French national anthem are heard. The energy continues to build. The tension diminishes. |
| 6:39–8:10 | A reference to a lyrical section is heard contrasting the previous war scene. |
| 8:10–8:55 | A traditional folkdance tune “U vorot” (“At the gate”) from Russia is introduced into the work. |
| 8:55–10:26 | The energetic conflicting melodies are reintroduced depicting conflict. |
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10:26-11:11 |
The lyrical peaceful tune is reintroduced. |
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11:11–11:31 |
The lyrical peaceful tune is reintroduced. |
| 11:31–12:05 | The French Marseillaise motive appears again in the horns.The tension and energy again build. |
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12:05–12:56 |
Percussion and even real cannons are used to depict the climax of the war conflict. This followed by a musical loss of tension through descending and broadening lines in the strings. |
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12:56–13:59 |
The Russian Hymn is heard again in victory with the accompaniment of all the church bells in celebration commemorating victory throughout Russia. |
| 13:59–14:11 | The music excels portraying a hasty French retreat |
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14:11–15:09 |
The Russian anthem with cannons/percussion overpowers the French theme, The church bells join in again symbolic of the Russian victory. |


20.23: TV and Hypertension
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Learning Objectives
- TV viewing time and adverse health
Research conducted by
Perrie E. Pardee, Gregory J. Norman, Robert H. Lustig, Daniel Preud’homme, and Jeffrey B. Schwimmer
Case study prepared by
Robert F. Houser and Andrew Kennedy
Overview
A strong, evidence-based association exists between TV viewing time and the risk of being obese in children and adolescents. Little or no research, however, has explored adverse health outcomes associated with TV viewing among obese children. This study aimed at identifying whether or not time spent watching TV is associated with hypertension (high blood pressure) in obese children.
Obese children aged \(4\) to \(17\) years were recruited and evaluated at three pediatric centers. Obesity was defined as a body mass index (BMI) greater than or equal to the \(95^{th}\) percentile for the child’s age and gender.
Questions to Answer
Is TV watching associated with hypertension in obese children?
Design Issues
The study involved a cross-sectional design, which prevented the determination of possible causality among the associations found. There could be unmeasured factors that play a role in the association between TV viewing and hypertension.
Descriptions of Variables
| Variable | Description |
| Hy pertension | Defined as a systolic and/or diastolic blood pressure greater than or equal to the 95th percentile for the child’s age, gender, and height |
| Age | A child’s age in years |
| BMI | A child's body mass index, calculated as: (weight in kilograms) / (height in meters) 2 |
| Hours of TV/day | An estimate of a child’s average daily time spent watching TV in hours |
Links
Pardee et al. article
Luma et al. article
References
- Pardee, P. E., Norman, G. J., Lustig, R. H., Preud’homme, D., Schwimmer, J. B. (2007). Television viewing and hypertension in obese children. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33, 439-443.
- Luma, G. B., Spiotta, R. T. (2006). Hypertension in children and adolescents. American Family Physician, 73, 1558-1568.