9.5: The Eighth Remove
On the morrow morning we must go over the river, i.e. Connecticut, to meet with King Philip. Two canoes full they had carried over; the next turn I myself was to go. But as my foot was upon the canoe to step in there was a sudden outcry among them, and I must step back, and instead of going over the river, I must go four or five miles up the river farther northward. Some of the Indians ran one way, and some another. The cause of this rout was, as I thought, their espying some English scouts, who were thereabout. In this travel up the river about noon the company made a stop, and sat down; some to eat, and others to rest them. As I sat amongst them, musing of things past, my son Joseph unexpectedly came to me. We asked of each other’s welfare, bemoaning our doleful condition, and the change that had come upon us. We had husband and father, and children, and sisters, and friends, and relations, and house, and home, and many comforts of this life: but now we may say, as Job, “Naked came I out of my mother’s womb, and naked shall I return: the Lord gave, the Lord hath taken away, blessed be the name of the Lord.” I asked him whether he would read. He told me he earnestly desired it, I gave him my Bible, and he lighted upon that comfortable Scripture “I shall not die but live, and declare the works of the Lord: the Lord hath chastened me sore yet he hath not given me over to death” (Psalm 118.17-18). “Look here, mother,” says he, “did you read this?” And here I may take occasion to mention one principal ground of my setting forth these lines: even as the psalmist says, to declare the works of the Lord, and His wonderful power in carrying us along, preserving us in the wilderness, while under the enemy’s hand, and returning of us in safety again. And His goodness in bringing to my hand so many comfortable and suitable scriptures in my distress. But to return, we traveled on till night; and in the morning, we must go over the river to Philip’s crew. When I was in the canoe I could not but be amazed at the numerous crew of pagans that were on the bank on the other side. When I came ashore, they gathered all about me, I sitting alone in the midst. I observed they asked one another questions, and laughed, and rejoiced over their gains and victories. Then my heart began to fail: and I fell aweeping, which was the first time to my remembrance, that I wept before them. Although I had met with so much affliction, and my heart was many times ready to break, yet could I not shed one tear in their sight; but rather had been all this while in a maze, and like one astonished. But now I may say as Psalm 137.1, “By the Rivers of Babylon, there we sate down: yea, we wept when we remembered Zion.” There one of them asked me why I wept. I could hardly tell what to say: Yet I answered, they would kill me. “No,” said he, “none will hurt you.” Then came one of them and gave me two spoonfuls of meal to comfort me, and another gave me half a pint of peas; which was more worth than many bushels at another time. Then I went to see King Philip. He bade me come in and sit down, and asked me whether I would smoke it (a usual compliment nowadays amongst saints and sinners) but this no way suited me. For though I had formerly used tobacco, yet I had left it ever since I was first taken. It seems to be a bait the devil lays to make men lose their precious time. I remember with shame how formerly, when I had taken two or three pipes, I was presently ready for another, such a bewitching thing it is. But I thank God, He has now given me power over it; surely there are many who may be better employed than to lie sucking a stinking tobacco-pipe.
Now the Indians gather their forces to go against Northampton. Over night one went about yelling and hooting to give notice of the design. Whereupon they fell to boiling of ground nuts, and parching of corn (as many as had it) for their provision; and in the morning away they went. During my abode in this place, Philip spake to me to make a shirt for his boy, which I did, for which he gave me a shilling. I offered the money to my master, but he bade me keep it; and with it I bought a piece of horse flesh. Afterwards he asked me to make a cap for his boy, for which he invited me to dinner. I went, and he gave me a pancake, about as big as two fingers. It was made of parched wheat, beaten, and fried in bear’s grease, but I thought I never tasted pleasanter meat in my life. There was a squaw who spake to me to make a shirt for her sannup, for which she gave me a piece of bear. Another asked me to knit a pair of stockings, for which she gave me a quart of peas. I boiled my peas and bear together, and invited my master and mistress to dinner; but the proud gossip, because I served them both in one dish, would eat nothing, except one bit that he gave her upon the point of his knife. Hearing that my son was come to this place, I went to see him, and found him lying flat upon the ground. I asked him how he could sleep so? He answered me that he was not asleep, but at prayer; and lay so, that they might not observe what he was doing. I pray God he may remember these things now he is returned in safety. At this place (the sun now getting higher) what with the beams and heat of the sun, and the smoke of the wigwams, I thought I should have been blind. I could scarce discern one wigwam from another. There was here one Mary Thurston of Medfield, who seeing how it was with me, lent me a hat to wear; but as soon as I was gone, the squaw (who owned that Mary Thurston) came running after me, and got it away again. Here was the squaw that gave me one spoonful of meal. I put it in my pocket to keep it safe. Yet notwithstanding, somebody stole it, but put five Indian corns in the room of it; which corns were the greatest provisions I had in my travel for one day.
The Indians returning from Northampton, brought with them some horses, and sheep, and other things which they had taken; I desired them that they would carry me to Albany upon one of those horses, and sell me for powder: for so they had sometimes discoursed. I was utterly hopeless of getting home on foot, the way that I came. I could hardly bear to think of the many weary steps I had taken, to come to this place.


11.9B: Macrophages
- Describe the role of macrophages in the immune system
Macrophages are antigen presenting cells that actively phagocytose large particles. Therefore, they play an important role in presenting antigens derived from phagocytosed infectious organisms such as bacteria and parasites. In the effector phase of cell-mediated immunity, differentiated effector T cells recognize microbial antigens on phagocytes and activate the macrophages to destroy these engulfed microbes. Most macrophages express high levels of interferon-gamma, a mechanism through which antigen presentation and T cell activation is enhanced. Macrophages can be identified by specific expression of a number of proteins including CD14, CD40, CD11b, F4/80(mice)/EMR1(human), lysozyme M, MAC-1/MAC-3 and CD68. They move by the action of amoeboid movement.
Macrophages are not cells exclusive to the immune system; they also play a central function in many other aspects of embryonic development, homeostasis and wound repair. Resident macrophages become adapted to perform particular functions in different organs; so that brain macrophages (microglia) are very different from alveolar macrophages of the lung, Kupffer cells of the liver, or the largest tissue macrophage population, those lining the wall of the gut.
Monocytes are recruited into tissues in response to a very wide range of different stimuli. Where a pathogen is involved, they are commonly preceded by neutrophils, which release a range of toxic agents designed to kill extracellular pathogens. The macrophage then has the task of clearing both the dead pathogens and the dead neutrophils. To enter a tissue, the monocyte in peripheral blood must adhere to the vessel wall, cross the endothelial cell barrier, and then migrate towards the stimulus; a process known as chemotaxis.
The process of recruitment of neutrophils and macrophages involves the resident macrophages which act as sentinels. They respond to local stimuli by producing cytokines that make the endothelial cells more sticky (through the increased expression of cell adhesion molecules such as P-selectin) and so-called chemokines, that promote the directed migration of inflammatory cells. Monocytes may also migrate towards increasing concentrations of molecules produced by microorganisms themselves, by damaged tissues, or by the activation of the complement or clotting cascades which release bioactive peptides such as C5a.
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- Dendritic cell. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendritic_cell . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- lymphoid organs. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/lymphoid%20organs . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
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- phagocyte. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/phagocyte . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
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Key Points
- Macrophages are cells produced by the differentiation of monocytes in tissues.
- They are specialized phagocytic cells that attack foreign substances and infectious microbes through destruction and ingestion.
- Macrophages can be identified by specific expression of a number of proteins measured by flow cytometry or immunohistochemistry.
Key Terms
- phagocyte : A cell of the immune system, such as a neutrophil, macrophage or dendritic cell, that engulfs and destroys viruses, bacteria and waste materials, or in the case of mature dendritic cells; displays antigens from invading pathogens to cells of the lymphoid lineage.
- interferon-gamma : a cytokine that is critical for innate and adaptive immunity against viral and intracellular bacterial infections.


The most common carbonate description schemes are comparable to those used for sandstones in that coarse- and fine-grained components are present at the time of deposition and that they can later be cemented together when minerals precipitate in pore spaces. Although you can gain a significant amount of information from carbonates in hand sample, thin sections are very useful for more nuanced descriptions and interpretations. Brief descriptions of the various components are provided in the sections that follow.
Components
Carbonate Grains
Carbonate grains
are analogous to the framework grains in a sandstone and consist of the following types:
Skeletal Particles (Fossils)
Skeletal particles
are composed of calcareous shells or skeletal material. Identification keys for fossils in thin section are provided in
Chapter 9.6
Coated Grains
Coated grains
form as carbonate is progressively added to a grain.
Ooids
are the most common type, they form when wave activity suspends a particle and allows for concentric layers of inorganic carbonate precipitation around a nucleus.
Oncoids
are a less common type formed where algae causes calcite to precipitate, but storms periodically reorient the grain causing precipitation to occur on alternating sides of the grain.
Pisoids
are superficially similar to ooids, but they are larger (>2 mm diameter) and grow because of
in situ
accumulation of calcite and aragonite in the vadose zone.
Peloids and Pellets
Peloids
are silt-to sand-sized particles composed of fine-grained lime mud (micrite); most are invertebrate fecal pellets.
Intraclasts
Intraclasts
are fragments of lithified carbonate that were incorporated into younger sediment (effectively rip-up clasts).
Micrite
Micrite
is fine-grained lime mud made of clay-sized crystals of microcrystalline calcium carbonate. Its analogous to the matrix in a sandstone in that its present at the moment of deposition. Micrite is most commonly formed from particles derived from algae or microfossils. Its also possible that it can from direct precipitation of these crystals in whiting events.
Spar
Spar
is relatively coarse-grained calcite cement that grows in the pore spaces of carbonates. The large, clear crystals are relatively easy to distinguish from the other carbonate components. Spar in carbonates is analogous to cement in siliciclastic sedimentary rocks.
Classification
Folk classification scheme
The
Folk classification scheme
is most useful for petrographic work. Samples are given a two part name; the first part is the most abundant grain type (bio-, pel-, oo-, or litho-) and the second indicates the nature of the interstitial material (-sparite or -micrite). Thus, a pelsparite would be a limestone composed mostly of peloids with with coarse spar between the shells and a biosparite would be most shell fragments with sparry calcite cement.
Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\): Photomicrographs (PPL) of different types of limestones in the Folk classification - part 1
(all images from
Michael C. Rygel
via
Wikimedia Commons
;
CC BY-SA 4.0
). A) Lithoclasts and skeletal material in an intrasparite from upstate NY. B) Lithoclasts and skeletal material in an intramicrite from upstate NY. Note that some of the dark micrite has started to recrystallize in the left half of the image. C) Oosparite from the Mississippian Lodgepole Formation, SW Montana. D) Oomicrite from the Silurian Keel Formation, Oklahoma. E) Biosparite. F) Biomicrite from the Mississippian Lodgepole Formation, SW Montana.
Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\): Photomicrographs (PPL) of different types of limestones in the Folk classification - part 2
(all images from
Michael C. Rygel
via
Wikimedia Commons
;
CC BY-SA 4.0
). A) Pelsparite from
the Mississippian Lodgepole Formation, SW Montana. B) Possible pelmicrite. In a situation where you have muddy peloids surrounded by micrite, the odds of being able to distinguish individual peloids after diagenesis is slim. However, the presence of pelsparite zones makes the "blobby" areas of micrite likely candidates for pelmicrite. C) Stromatoporoid boundstone from the Devonian Jefferson Formation, SW Montana. D) Mudstone Mississippian Lodgepole Formaton, SW Montana. E) Dismicrite. F) Recrystallized limestone from the Cambrian Pilgrim Formation, SW Montana.
Dunham Classification System
The
Dunham classification scheme
is most useful for hand sample and outcrop work. It is a four-fold scheme based on the presence/absence and relative abundance of mud:
(Lime) mudstones
have <10% grains
Wackestones
have >10% grains and are supported by mud
Packstones
are grain supported with interstitial mud.
Grainstones
are grain supported with little or no interstitial mud.
It is worth noting that with carbonates, shells are often the largest grains and thus maximum grain size could ultimately be controlled by biology. Because of this, the amount of mud is the best proxy for the amount of energy in the system.
Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\): Paired polished slabs and photomicrographs showing the main types of limestones in the Dunham classification scheme - part 1
(all images from
Michael C. Rygel
via
Wikimedia Commons
;
CC BY-SA 4.0
). A & B) Polished slab and photomicrograph (PPL) of a lime mudstone from the Mississippian Lodgepole Formation. C & D) Polished slab and photomicrograph (PPL) of a skeletal wackestone from the Mississippian Lodgepole Formation. Note that the micrite in the thin section has been partially dolomitized and many of the light colored patches between shells are actually dolomite crystals formed within the micrite. E & F) Polished slab and photomicrograph (PPL) of a skeletal packstone. Although the shells in the slab are somewhat widely spaced, this sample is grain supported because the shells are curved three dimensional forms that are touching each other in the third dimension.
Figure \(\PageIndex{11}\): Paired polished slabs and photomicrographs showing the main types of limestones in the Dunham classification scheme - part 2
(all images from
Michael C. Rygel
via
Wikimedia Commons
;
CC BY-SA 4.0
). A & B) Polished slab and photomicrograph (PPL) of a foram-rich skeletal grainstone. As with the packstone, this specimen is clast supported and although some foraminifera appear isolated, they are actually touching each other in the third dimension. C & D) Polished slab and photomicrograph (PPL) of a stromatoporoid boundstone. E & F) Polished slab and photomicrograph (PPL) of a recrystallized and dolomitized fossiliferous limestone. Although some fossils can still be identified in the polished slab, primary textures have been almost completely destroyed and the rock has a sandy appearance on weathered surfaces from the dolomite rhombs.


4.3: Anti-Discrimination Legislation
- Summarize the discrimination protections provided by Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
- Summarize the discrimination protections provided by the Civil Rights Act of 1991
- Identify additional laws & executive orders regarding discrimination
The Civil Rights Act of 1964
History.com notes that “The Civil Rights Act of 1964, which ended segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin, is considered one of the crowning legislative achievements of the civil rights movement.” Indeed, civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. referred to the Act as a “second emancipation.” The Act was originally proposed by President John F. Kennedy, who stated, “the United States ‘will not be fully free until all of its citizens are free.’” [1] Despite strong opposition from southern Congressional members, including a record 75-day filibuster and a 14 hour speech by former Ku Klux Klan member and West Virginia Senator Robert Byrd, the Act passed and was signed into law by President Kennedy’s successor, Lyndon B. Johnson.
Fundamentals of Human Resource Management authors DeCenzo, et.al. also state that “no single piece of legislation has had a greater effect on reducing employment discrimination than the Civil Rights Act of 1964.” For Human Resource Management purposes, the section or “title” of the Act that’s particularly relevant is Title VII, which, as amended, “protects individuals against employment discrimination on the basis of race and color as well as national origin, sex, or religion.” [2] Title VII makes it unlawful to discriminate against any employee or applicant for employment because of race or color in regard to hiring, termination, promotion, compensation, job training, or any other term, condition, or privilege of employment. Title VII prohibits not only intentional discrimination but also neutral policies that disproportionately exclude minorities and are not job related. Title VII is applicable to private sector employers with fifteen or more employees, federal government employers, employment agencies, and labor organizations.
Title VII also prohibits employment decisions based on stereotypes and assumptions about abilities, traits, or the performance of individuals of certain racial groups. The law also makes it illegal to retaliate against a person because the person complained about discrimination, filed a charge of discrimination, or participated in an employment discrimination investigation or lawsuit. Finally, the law requires employers to make reasonable accommodations for applicants’ and employees’ sincerely held religious practices, unless doing so would impose an undue hardship on the operation of the employer’s business.
Title VII Exceptions
An employer is permitted to take employment actions that would otherwise be held as discriminatory if the decision is based on a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ). Workforce states that “Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 provides that employment decisions may be made on the basis of sex, religion, or national origin (but not race or color) if the sex, religion, or national origin is a BFOQ reasonably necessary to the normal operation of the business. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 contains a similar provision for the BFOQ exception in regard to age.” [3]
To be applicable, a BFOQ exception must meet two conditions: (1) A particular religion, sex, national origin or age must be an actual qualification for performing the job; and (2) the requirement must be necessary to the normal operation of the employer’s business. The same exception is allowed for job notices and advertisements, where the position at issue requires a worker of a particular religion, sex, national origin or age. For example,
Civil.laws.com notes that “it would not be a violation of Title VII for a Jewish center to refuse employment to a Catholic individual in a shul or school funded by the congregation if the employment required a statement of adherence to and promulgation of Judaism or the Jewish faith.
[4]
Civil Rights Act of 1991
The Civil Rights Act of 1991 was passed to address a series of decisions by the Supreme Court that undermined discrimination protections. [5] In effect, the law nullified these decisions, re-establishing an employers burden of proof and the disparate impact theory of discrimination. The Act also amended “Title VII and the ADA to permit jury trials and compensatory and punitive damage awards in intentional discrimination cases.” [6] Specifically, “the Act provided that where the plaintiff shows that discrimination was a motivating factor for an employment decision, the employer is liable for injunctive relief, attorney’s fees, and costs (but not individual monetary or affirmative relief) even though it proves it would have made the same decision in the absence of a discriminatory motive.” [7]
The Act also extended employment discrimination protection to employees of Congress and Title VII and ADA coverage to include American and American-controlled employers operating abroad.
The Equal Pay Act (APA) of 1963
The Equal Pay Act (APA) of 1963 makes it illegal to pay different wages to men and women if they perform equal work in the same workplace. The law also makes it illegal to retaliate against a person because the person complained about discrimination, filed a charge of discrimination, or participated in an employment discrimination investigation or lawsuit. The EPA is discussed further here .
The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) of 1976
ADEA protects applicants and employees 40 years or older from discrimination because of age and for retaliation for a discrimination complaint or related action. ADEA applies to private employers with 20 or more employees, state and local governments, employment agencies, labor organizations and the federal government. As mentioned above, it is generally unlawful to to state an age-related preference in job advertisements except when age is demonstrated to be a BFOQ. In a Recruitment & Selection training manual, SHRM recommends cross-referencing state’s discrimination laws, noting that “some states require compliance with age discrimination law for employers of two or more workers, and some states have lowered the age discrimination threshold far below 40 years old.”
The Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978
The Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978 is an amendment to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act. The Act makes it illegal to discriminate against a woman because of pregnancy, childbirth, or a medical condition related to pregnancy or childbirth. SHRM notes that “the basic principle is that a woman affected by pregnancy or other related medical condition must be treated the same as any other applicant in the recruitment and selection process.” The law also makes it illegal to retaliate against a person because the person complained about discrimination, filed a charge of discrimination, or participated in an employment discrimination investigation or lawsuit.
Title I of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990
Title I makes it illegal to discriminate against a qualified person with a disability in the private sector and in state and local governments. The law also makes it illegal to retaliate against a person because the person complained about discrimination, filed a charge of discrimination, or participated in an employment discrimination investigation or lawsuit. The law also requires that employers reasonably accommodate the known physical or mental limitations of an otherwise qualified individual with a disability who is an applicant or employee, unless doing so would impose an undue hardship on the operation of the employer’s business. SHRM expands on the EEOC description, stating that “employers are prohibited from using an employment test to disqualify a disabled candidate unless that test is valid for the skills necessary in the job to which they are applying and unless the same test is given to all applicants, not just to those with disabilities.” Sections 501 and 505 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 extend ADA Title I protections to federal government applicants and employees.
The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008
GINA makes it illegal to discriminate against employees or applicants because of genetic information. Genetic information includes information about an individual’s genetic tests and the genetic tests of an individual’s family members, as well as information about any disease, disorder or condition of an individual’s family members (i.e. an individual’s family medical history). The law also makes it illegal to retaliate against a person because the person complained about discrimination, filed a charge of discrimination, or participated in an employment discrimination investigation or lawsuit.
SHRM’s caution regarding differences in state and local versus federal laws applies across the board, and state/local laws are generally more stringent. HR personnel are advised to contact the relevant state department of labor to confirm the extent of specific employment laws and to develop a process to remain up to date on changes.
Executive Orders
Executive orders generally extend discrimination protections to federal workers, including those working under federal contracts.
- Executive Order (E.O.) 11246. Issued by President Lyndon B. Johnson, prohibits federal contractors from discriminating “against any employee or applicant for employment because of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.” Amended by President Obama (E.O. 13672) [8] to extend protection to include sexual orientation or gender identity. [9]
- E.O. 11478. Issued by President Nixon, bars discrimination against federal employees on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, national origin, disability, and age. Amended by President Clinton (E.O 13087) to include sexual orientation as a protected category. Amended by President Obama (E.O. 13672) [10] to extend protection to include gender identity as a protected category.
- History.com Editors. " Civil Rights Act of 1964. " History.com. January 4, 2010. Accessed September 14, 2019. ↵
- " Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. " U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Accessed September 14, 2019. ↵
- Staff Report. " The BFOQ Exception to Discrimination Laws. " WorkForce. December 24, 1999. Accessed September 14, 2019. ↵
- " Title VII of the Civil Rights Act. " Laws. Accessed September 14, 2019. ↵
- " The Civil Rights Act of 1991 ." EEOC. Accessed September 14, 2019. ↵
- " Laws Enforced by EEOC ." U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Accessed September 14, 2019. ↵
- " The Civil Rights Act of 1991 ." EEOC. Accessed September 14, 2019. ↵
- " Executive Order 13672 ." U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Accessed September 14, 2019. ↵
- Winston & Strawn LLP. " President Obama Signs Amendments to Executive Orders Supporting LGBT Workplace Equality ." Lexology. July 22, 2014. Accessed September 14, 2019. ↵
- " Executive Order 13672. " U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. ↵
Contributors and Attributions
- Untitled. Authored by : Wesley Tingey. Provided by : Unsplash. Located at : https://unsplash.com/photos/9z9fxr_7Z-k . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved . License Terms : Unsplash License
- Lyndon Johnson signing Civil Rights Act. Authored by : Cecil Stoughton. Provided by : White House Press Office. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act,_July_2,_1964.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright


13.0: Jonathan Swift- Biography
Jonathan Swift (30 November 1667 – 19 October 1745) was an Anglo-Irish satirist, essayist, political pamphleteer (first for the Whigs, then for the Tories), poet and cleric who becameDean of St Patrick’s Cathedral, Dublin.
Swift is remembered for works such as Gulliver’s Travels , A Modest Proposal , A Journal to Stella , Drapier’s Letters , The Battle of the Books , An Argument Against Abolishing Christianity and A Tale of a Tub . He is regarded by the Encyclopædia Britannica as the foremost prose satirist in the English language, and is less well known for his poetry. He originally published all of his works under pseudonyms – such as Lemuel Gulliver, Isaac Bickerstaff, MB Drapier – or anonymously. He is also known for being a master of two styles of satire, the Horatian and Juvenalian styles.
Gulliver’s Travels , a large portion of which Swift wrote at Woodbrook House in County Laois, was published in 1726. It is regarded as his masterpiece. As with his other writings, the Travels was published under a pseudonym, the fictional Lemuel Gulliver, a ship’s surgeon and later a sea captain. Some of the correspondence between printer Benj. Motte and Gulliver’s also-fictional cousin negotiating the book’s publication has survived. Though it has often been mistakenly thought of and published in bowdlerised form as a children’s book, it is a great and sophisticated satire of human nature based on Swift’s experience of his times. Gulliver’s Travels is an anatomy of human nature, a sardonic looking-glass, often criticised for its apparent misanthropy. It asks its readers to refute it, to deny that it has adequately characterised human nature and society. Each of the four books—recounting four voyages to mostly fictional exotic lands—has a different theme, but all are attempts to deflate human pride. Critics hail the work as a satiric reflection on the shortcomings of Enlightenment thought.
Additional information on Swift’s life, work, and influence can be found here.
- Jonathan Swift. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Swift . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Image of Jonathan Swift. Authored by : Charles Jervas. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jonathan_Swift_by_Charles_Jervas_detail.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright


13.3: Eukaryotic Regulation of Translation
A. The basics of Eukaryotic mRNA Translation
The basic features of translation initiation in eukaryotes are shown below.
In many respects, the overall process is similar to prokaryotic translation initiation described elsewhere. The 40S ribosomal subunit itself can bind to and scan an mRNA, seeking the start site of an ORF (open reading frame) encoding a polypeptide. When GTP-bound eukaryotic initiation factor 2 ( GTP-eIF2 ) binds met-tRNAf, it forms a ternary complex ( TC ). The TC can associate with the scanning 40S subunit. When a TC-associated scanning subunit encounters the start site of the ORF, scanning stalls. Additional eIFs enable formation of the initiation complex , positioning the initiator tRNA anticodon over the start site AUG in the mRNA. The initiation complex then recruits the large (60S) ribosomal subunit. Binding of the 60S ribosomal subunit to the initiation complex causes the release of all the eIFs and hydrolysis of the GTP on eIF2. The GDP remains bound to eIF2. For protein syntheses to continue, new GTP must replace GDP on eIF2. Another initiation factor, eIF2B , facilitates this GTP/GDP swap, recycling GTP-eIF2 for use in initiation. The regulation of translation is superimposed on these basic processes.
B. Translation Regulation
Since mRNAs are made to be translated, it is likely that by default, they are! We know that CAP and poly(A) tails on mRNAs are required for efficient translation because mRNAs engineered to lack one and/or the other are poorly translated. Also, there is little evidence to that cells modify the process of capping or polyadenylation, or the structures themselves.
Translation regulation typically targets initiation. It may be global, affecting the synthesis of many polypeptides at once, or specific, affecting a single polypeptide. Global regulation involves changes in the activity of eukaryotic initiation factors (eIFs) that would typically affect all cellular protein synthesis. Specific regulation involves binding sequences or regions on one or a few mRNAs that recognize and bind specific regulatory proteins and/or other molecules. That binding controls translation of only those mRNAs, without affecting general protein biosynthesis. mRNA structural features involved in translation and in translation regulation are illustrated below.
We will consider three examples of translational control of gene expression.
1. Specific Translation Control by mRNA Binding Proteins
Ferritin is a cellular iron-storage protein made up of heavy and light chain polypeptides. Translation of ferritin in iron-deficient cells is inhibited. In the absence of ferritin production, ferritin-iron complexes release iron for metabolic use. The 5’-UTR of mRNAs for both chains contain stem-loop binding sites that specifically recognize iron regulatory proteins (IRP1, IRP2). When ferritin mRNAs are bound to IRPs, translation initiation is blocked. The inhibition of ferritin translation by IRPs is illustrated below.
Normally, the initiation complex scans the 5’-UTR of an mRNA. When it finds the normal translation start site, it can bind the large subunit and begin translating the polypeptide. In iron-deficient cells, scanning by the initiation complex is thought to be physically blocked by steric hindrance.
2. Coordinating Heme & Globin Synthesis
Consider that reticulocytes (the precursors to erythrocytes , the red blood cells in mammals) synthesize globin proteins. They also synthesize heme , an iron-bound porphyrin-ring molecule. Each globin must bind to a single heme to make a hemoglobin protein subunit. Clearly, it would not do for a reticulocyte to make too much globin protein and not enough heme, or vice versa. It turns out that hemin (a precursor to heme) regulates the initiation of translation of both \(\alpha \) and \(\beta \) globin mRNAs. Recall that, to sustain globin mRNA translation, the GDP-eIF2 generated after each cycle of translation elongation must be exchanged for fresh GTP. This is facilitated by the eIF2B initiation factor. eIF2B can exist in phosphorylated (inactive) or un-phosphorylated (active) states. Making sure that globin is not under- or overproduced relative to heme biosynthesis involves controlling levels of active vs. inactive eIF2B by hemin . Hemin accumulates when there is not enough globin polypeptide to combine with heme in the cell. Excess hemin binds and inactivates an HCR kinase , preventing phosphorylation of eIF2B. Since unphosphorylated eIF2B is active, it facilitates the GTP/GDP swap needed to allow continued translation. Thus, ongoing initiation ensures that globin mRNA translation can keep up with heme levels. In other words, if hemin production gets ahead of globin, it will promote more globin translation.
When globin and heme levels become approximately equimolar, hemin is no longer in excess. It then dissociates from the active HCR kinase. The now- active kinase catalyzes eIF2B phosphorylation. Phospho-eIF2B is inactive, and cannot facilitate the GTP/GDP swap on eIF2. Globin mRNA translation initiation, thus blocked, allows a lower rate of globin polypeptide translation to keep pace with heme synthesis. The regulation of globin mRNA translation initiation by hemin is shown below.
3. Translational Regulation of Yeast GCN4
Like the coordination of heme and globin production, the regulation of the GCN4 protein is based on controlling the ability of the cells to swap GTP for GDP on eIF2. However, this regulation is quite a bit more complex, despite the fact that yeast is a more primitive eukaryote! GCN4 is a global transcription factor that controls the transcription of as many as 30 genes in pathways for the synthesis of 19 out of the 20 amino acids! The discovery that amino acid starvation caused yeast cells to increase their production of amino acids in the cells led to the discovery the General Amino Acid Control ( GAAC ) mechanism involving GCN4. GCN is short for G eneral C ontrol N ondepressible , referring to its global, positive regulatory effects. It turns out that the GCN4 protein is also involved in stress gene expression, glycogen homeostasis, purine biosynthesis…, in fact in the action of up to 10% of all yeast genes! Here we focus on the GAAC mechanism.
Yeast cells provided with ample amino acids do not need to synthesize them. Under these conditions, GCN4 is present at basal (i.e., low) levels. When the cells are starved of amino acids, GCN4 levels increase as much as ten-fold within two hours, resulting in an increase in general amino acid synthesis. This rapid response occurs because amino acid starvation signals an increase in the activity of GCN2 , a protein kinase . The GCN2 kinase catalyzes phosphorylation of GDPeIF2. As we have already seen, phosphorylated eIF2B cannot exchange GTP for GDP on the eIF2, in this case with the results shown below.
There is a paradox here. You would expect a slowdown in GTP-eIF2 regeneration to inhibit overall protein synthesis, and it does. However, the reduced levels of GTP-eIF2 somehow also stimulate translation of the GCN4 mRNA, leading to increased transcription of the amino acid synthesis genes. In other words, amino acid starvation leads yeast cells to use available substrates to make their own amino acids in order that protein synthesis can continue… at the same time as initiation complex formation is disabled!
Let’s accept that paradox for now, and look at how amino acid starvation leads to increased translation of the GCN4 protein and the up-regulation of amino acid biosynthesis pathways. To begin with, we are going to need to understand the structure of GCN4 mRNA. In the illustration below, note the 4 short uORFs in the 5’UTR of the RNA; these play a key role in GCN4 translation regulation.
We noted earlier that when a Ternary Complex (TC)-associated 40S ribosomal subunit scans an mRNAs and find the ORF start sites for its polypeptide, initiation complexes form, 60S ribosomal subunits bind and translation starts. GCN4 mRNA has four uORFs in its 5’ UTR. While uORFs encode only a few amino acids before encountering a stop codon, they can also be recognized during scanning. When TCs and 40S subunits are plentiful, they seem to engage uORFs in preference to the GCN4 coding region ORF, as illustrated below.
Under these conditions, active eIF2B allows the GTP/GDP swap on GDP-eIF2, leading to efficient GTP-eIF2 recycling and high TC levels. TCs bind small subunits during scanning and/or at the start sites of uORFs, forming initiation complexes that then bind 60S ribosomal subunits and begin uORF translation. The effect is to slow down scanning past the uORFs, thereby inhibiting initiation complex formation at the actual GCN4 ORF.
What happens in amino acid-starved cultures of yeast cells, when GTP-eIF2 cannot be efficiently regenerated and TCs are in short supply? To review, amino acid starvation signals an increase in GCN2 kinase activity resulting in phosphorylation and inactivation of eIF2B. Inactive phospho-eIF2 will not facilitate the GTP/GDP swap at GDP-eIF2, inhibiting overall protein synthesis. The resulting reduction in GTP-eIF2 also lowers the levels of TC and TC-associated 40S subunits. The illustration below shows how this phenomenon up-regulates GCN4 translation, even as the translation of other mRNAs has declined.
C. Regulating Protein Turnover (Half-Life)
We have already seen that organelles have a finite life span, or half-life. Recall that lysosomes participate in destroying worn out mitochondria and their molecular components. We also saw the role of small RNAs (especially miRNA) in destroying old, damaged or otherwise unwanted RNAs from cells. All cell structures and molecules have a finite half-life, defined as the time it takes for half of them to disappear in the absence of new synthesis of the structure or molecule. As we already know, the steady-state level of any cellular structure or molecule exists when the rate of its manufacture or synthesis is balanced by the rate of its turnover. Of course, steady state levels of things can change. For example, the level of gene expression (the amount of a final RNA or protein gene product in a cell) can change if rates of transcription, processing or turnover change. We should also expect the same for the steady-state levels of cellular proteins. Here we consider the factors that govern the half-life of cellular proteins.
The half-life of different proteins seems to be inherent in their structure. Thus, some amino acid side chains are more exposed at the surface of the protein and are thus more susceptible to change or damage over time than others. Proteins with fewer ‘vulnerable’ amino acids should have a longer half-life than those with more of them. Proteins damaged by errors of translation, folding, processing gone awry or just worn out from use or ‘old age’ will be targeted for destruction. All molecules have a half-life!
The mechanism for detecting and destroying unwanted old, damaged or misbegotten proteins involves a 76-amino acid polypeptide called ubiquitin that targets the protein for destruction, delivering it to a large complex of polypeptides called the proteasome. Here is what happens:
- The first step is to activate an ubiquitin. This starts when ATP hydrolysis fuels the binding of ubiquitin to an ubiquitin-activating enzyme .
- An ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme then replaces the ubiquitin-activation enzyme.
- The protein destined for destruction replaces the ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme.
- Several more ubiquitins then bind to this complex.
- The poly-ubiquinated protein delivers its protein to one of the 19S ‘CAP’ structures of a proteasome.
- After binding to one of the CAP structures of a proteasome, the poly-ubiquinated target proteins dissociate and the ubiquitins are released and recycled as the target protein unfolds (powered by ATP hydrolysis). The unfolded protein then enters a 20S core proteasome.
The target protein is digested to short peptide fragments by proteolytic enzymes in the interior of the proteasome core. The fragments are release from the CAP complex at the other end of the proteasome and digested down to free amino acids in the cytoplasm. There is a mind-boggling variety of proteins in a cell…, and there are as many as 600 different ubiquitin proteins, encoded by as many genes! Presumably, each ubiquitin handles a subclass of proteins based on common features of their structure.
With its complex quaternary structure, the 26S proteasome is smaller than a eukaryotic small ribosomal subunit (40S), but is still one of the largest cytoplasmic particles… and without the benefit of any RNA in its structure! The illustration on the next page details the role of ubiquitin in the degradation of a worn out protein by a proteasome. Click on Proteasome in Action to see an animated version of the illustration.


17.5: Assessment- Cardiorespiratory Endurance Plan
Purpose
This assignment will help you complete your cardiorespiratory endurance plan.
Directions
- Read how to calculate heart rate zone and practice the calculations
- Open this template: CR Endurance Plan
-
Complete all the sections in the template. Do not submit the assignment in an essay format.
- For section 1, make sure your SMART goals are related to cardiorespiratory endurance. In other words, what was your score on the walk or run test? And what do you want it to be the next time you measure it? Goals for the other assessments (ex. flexibility, BMI) do not belong here and should not be included here. Note: drinking water and other nutrition goals do not belong here either; this is strictly a CR endurance plan.
- On section 3, item 2 (intensity), you must show every step in the calculations, starting with your predicted HRMax calculation.
- Save your document and submit it to the course.
Grading
The assignment is worth 10 points maximum.
Your work will be assessed using the following CR Endurance Plan Grading Rubric:
|
Criteria |
Absent |
Incomplete |
Complete |
|
Short and Long Term Goals |
0 Points |
1 point Up to 1 point if incomplete or some goals inappropriate to the topic of this assignment (CR endurance) |
2 points Complete and appropriate to the topic of this assignment (CR endurance) |
|
Warm up and cool down |
0 Points |
0.5 Points Up to 0.5 point if missing parts |
1 Points Complete with type and time and and appropriate activities based on the readings |
| Frequency |
0 Points |
0 Points |
1 Points Complete and correct based on the ACSM guidelines. If you cannot follow the ACSM guidelines due to health condition or other extenuating circumstances, please explain it in your assignment. Otherwise, I will think you selected an incorrect frequency because you did not read the guidelines. |
| Intensity |
0
Missing, incomplete, or with major calculation mistake. Always make sure your calculation results make sense based on the information learned. If your final target heart rate range is not safe or effective you will not be eligible for grade in this section. |
1.5 points Up to 1.5 points if complete but with minor calculation mistake. A minor mistake is one that does not affect the safety or effectiveness of the final target heart rate result. |
3 Points Every calculation step is complete and correct |
| Type |
0 Points |
0.5 Points Up to 0.5 point if some of the listed activities are inappropriate to the topic of this assignment (CR endurance) |
1 Points Complete and appropriate to the topic of this assignment (CR endurance) |
|
Time/Duration |
0 Points |
0 Points |
1 Points Complete and correct based on the ACSM guidelines. If you cannot follow the ACSM guidelines due to health condition or other extenuating circumstances, please explain it in your assignment. Otherwise I will think you selected an incorrect duration because you did not read the guidelines. |
| Summary |
0 Points |
0.2 Points Up to 0.2 if missing parts or if the information listed in the summary does not reflect the information listed in previous sections of this assignment |
0.5 Points Complete and the information listed in the summary reflects the information listed in previous sections of this assignment |
| Organization |
0 Points |
0 Points |
0.5 Points |
- Lifetime Fitness and Wellness. Provided by : Extended Learning Institute of Northern Virginia Community College. Located at : https://eli.nvcc.edu/ . License : CC BY: Attribution


6.5E: Exercises
Practice Makes Perfect
Recognize and Use the Appropriate Method to Factor a Polynomial Completely
In the following exercises, factor completely.
1. \(2n^2+13n−7\)
- Answer
-
\((2n−1)(n+7)\)
2. \(8x^2−9x−3\)
3. \(a^5+9a^3\)
- Answer
-
\(a^3(a^2+9)\)
4. \(75m^3+12m\)
5. \(121r^2−s^2\)
- Answer
-
\((11r−s)(11r+s)\)
6. \(49b^2−36a^2\)
7. \(8m^2−32\)
- Answer
-
\(8(m−2)(m+2)\)
8. \(36q^2−100\)
9. \(25w^2−60w+36\)
- Answer
-
\((5w−6)^2\)
10. \(49b^2−112b+64\)
11. \(m^2+14mn+49n^2\)
- Answer
-
\((m+7n)^2\)
12. \(64x^2+16xy+y^2\)
13. \(7b^2+7b−42\)
- Answer
-
\(7(b+3)(b−2)\)
14. \(30n^2+30n+72\)
15. \(3x^4y−81xy\)
- Answer
-
\(3xy(x−3)(x^2+3x+9)\)
16. \(4x^5y−32x^2y\)
17. \(k^4−16\)
- Answer
-
\((k−2)(k+2)(k^2+4)\)
18. \(m^4−81\)
19. \(5x5y^2−80xy^2\)
- Answer
-
\(5xy^2(x^2+4)(x+2)(x−2)\)
20. \(48x^5y^2−243xy^2\)
21. \(15pq−15p+12q−12\)
- Answer
-
\(3(5p+4)(q−1)\)
22. \(12ab−6a+10b−5\)
23. \(4x^2+40x+84\)
- Answer
-
\(4(x+3)(x+7)\)
24. \(5q^2−15q−90\)
25. \(4u^5v+4u^2v^3\)
- Answer
-
\(u^2(u+1)(u^2−u+1)\)
26. \(5m^4n+320mn^4\)
27. \(4c^2+20cd+81d^2\)
- Answer
-
prime
28. \(25x^2+35xy+49y^2\)
29. \(10m^4−6250\)
- Answer
-
\(10(m−5)(m+5)(m^2+25)\)
30. \(3v^4−768\)
31. \(36x^2y+15xy−6y\)
- Answer
-
\(3y(3x+2)(4x−1)\)
32. \(60x^2y−75xy+30y\)
33. \(8x^3−27y^3\)
- Answer
-
\((2x−3y)(4x^2+6xy+9y^2)\)
34. \(64x^3+125y^3\)
35. \(y^6−1\)
- Answer
-
\((y+1)(y−1)(y^2−y+1)\)
36. \(y^6+1\)
37. \(9x^2−6xy+y^2−49\)
- Answer
-
\((3x−y+7)(3x−y−7)\)
38. \(16x^2−24xy+9y^2−64\)
39. \((3x+1)^2−6(3x−1)+9\)
- Answer
-
\((3x−2)2\)
40. \((4x−5)^2−7(4x−5)+12\)
Writing Exercises
41. Explain what it mean to factor a polynomial completely.
- Answer
-
Answers will vary.
42. The difference of squares \(y^4−625\) can be factored as \((y^2−25)(y^2+25)\). But it is not completely factored. What more must be done to completely factor.
43. Of all the factoring methods covered in this chapter (GCF, grouping, undo FOIL, ‘ac’ method, special products) which is the easiest for you? Which is the hardest? Explain your answers.
- Answer
-
Answers will vary.
44. Create three factoring problems that would be good test questions to measure your knowledge of factoring. Show the solutions.
Self Check
a. After completing the exercises, use this checklist to evaluate your mastery of the objectives of this section.
b. On a scale of 1-10, how would you rate your mastery of this section in light of your responses on the checklist? How can you improve this?


2.5: Applications of Mass Spectrometry
- Learn how mass spectrometry is applied in real-world applications
- Understand what mass spectrometry's use is in science
Mass spectrometry is applicable across diverse fields with specific applications including, but not limited to drug testing and discovery, food contamination detection, pesticide residue analysis, isotope ratio determination, protein identification, and carbon dating. One of the new ways that clinical mass spectrometry is being used is to quantitatively detect small amounts of proteins, biomarkers, or drug molecules, with very low concentrations. Some drugs have been given to patients in microdoses and with the ability to use small samples with low concentrations, it allows researchers to determine pharmacokinetic profiles of drugs that have been given. The reason for this is that it protects the patient from possible adverse effects of the drug while allowing scientists to determine what happens to the drug in the body. This will be especially helpful with pediatric patients. Below is a summary of a study detecting quinolones in animal food using mass spectrometry.
Application of LC/ESI-QTOF-MS in the Detection of Quinolones in Edible Animal Food
Quinolones are a family of common antibacterial veterinary medicine which can inhibit DNA-gyrase in bacterial cells. However, the residues of quinolone in edible animal products may be directly toxic or cause resistant pathogens in humans. Therefore, sensitive methods are required to monitor such residues possibly present in different animal-producing food, such as eggs, chicken, milk and fish. The molecular structures of eight quinolones, ciprofloxacin (CIP), anofloxacin methanesulphonate (DAN), enrofloxacin (ENR), difloxacin (DIF), sarafloxacin (SARA), oxolinic, acid (OXO), flumequine (FLU), ofloxacin (OFL), are shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\).
LC-MS is a common detection approach in the field of food safety. But because of the complex matrix of the samples, it is always difficult to detect those target molecules of low concentration by using single quadrupole MS. The following gives an example of the application of LC/ESI-QTOF-MS.
Using a quaternary pump system, a Q-TOF-MS system, a C18 column (250 mm × 2.0 mm I.D., 5 µm) with a flow rate of 0.2 mL/min, and a mixture of solvents as the mobile phase comprising of 0.3% formic acid solution and acetonitrile. The gradient phofile for mobile phase is shown in Table \(\PageIndex{1}\). Since at acidic pH condition, the quinolones carried a positive charge, all mass spectra were acquired in the positive ion mode and summarizing 30,000 single spectra in the mass range of 100-500 Da.
| Time (min) | Volume % of Formic Acid Solution | Volume % of Acetonitrile |
| 0 | 80 | 20 |
| 12 | 65 | 35 |
| 15 | 20 | 80 |
| 20 | 15 | 85 |
| 30 | 15 | 85 |
| 30.01 | 80 | 20 |
The optimal ionization source working parameters were as follows: capillary voltage 4.5 kV; ion energy of quadrupole 5 eV/z; dry temperature 200 °C; nebulizer 1.2 bar; dry gas 6.0 L/min. During the experiments, HCO 2 Na (62 Da) was used to externally calibrate the instrument. Because of the high mass accuracy of the TOF mass spectrometer, it can extremely reduce the matrix effects. Three different chromatographs are shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\). The top one is the total ion chromatograph at the window range of 400 Da. It’s impossible to distinguish the target molecules in this chromatograph. The middle one is at one Da resolution, which is the resolution of single quadrupole mass spectrometer. In this chromatograph, some of the molecules can be identified. But noise intensity is still very high and there are several peaks of impurities with similar mass-to-charge ratios in the chromatograph. The bottom one is at 0.01 Da resolution. It clearly shows the peaks of eight quinolones with very high signal to noise ratio. In other words, due to the fast acquisition rates and high mass accuracy, LC/TOF-MS can significantly reduce the matrix effects.
The quadrupole MS can be used to further confirm the target molecules. Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\) shows the chromatograms obtained in the confirmation of CIP (17.1 ng/g) in a positive milk sample and ENR (7.5 ng/g) in a positive fish sample. The chromatographs of parent ions are shown on the left side. On the right side, they are the characteristic daughter ion mass spectra of CIP and ENR.


9.11: Why It Matters- Branding
Why analyze elements of a brand and explain how the brand-building process contributes to the success of products or services?
Pop Quiz!
Instructions: Grab a piece of paper and jot down answers to the following questions:
-
What is your favorite brand of clothing?
- Why is it your favorite?
- List a word or phrase that describes how this brand makes you feel:
-
What is your favorite brand of car?
- Why is it your favorite?
- List a word or phrase that describes how this brand makes you feel:
-
What is your favorite place to stop for coffee, donuts, a bagel, or some other snack?
- Why is it your favorite?
 We’ll come back to it.
The Power of Brand
Brands are images that exist in your mind–and in the minds of other consumers–about the things around you: products, services, places, companies, people, entertainment, and so on. In a modern world that offers many choices, brands help simplify the decisions you make about what to buy, where to go, and how to spend your time.
Brands are powerful. When you explain why a brand is your favorite, you probably identify some of the traits or features of its products or services that explain rationally what makes it better than others. But rational explanations are just part of the story. Strong brands are powerful because they also tap into emotions. They make you feel a certain way, and that feeling is hard for any other brand to replicate—let alone replace.
Brands can cause people to spend more money on a product than they would otherwise. Brands can create a sense of loyalty and even lock-in—that haloed point where a tribe of dedicated fans always chooses one company’s product or services over another.
So how do they do it? What’s happening in marketing departments to create these powerful, emotional assets called brands?
What Creates a Brand Experience?
Go back to your pop quiz responses. Pick one of your favorite brands and list 2–3 things the company behind the brand provides to help make that favorite brand so memorable or special for you. It could be any of the following things–or something else entirely:
- Brand name
- Product design
- The shopping experience
- The post-purchase experience
- People or communities associated with the brand
- Product packaging
- Advertising
- Social media activity
- Customer service
- Comfort, convenience, or ease-of-use
- Attitude or personality of the brand
- Special information, deals, or promotions targeted to you
- Membership or loyalty programs
- Pricing or value for the money
- Events or activities tied to the brand
- Something else?
Marketers use these tools and many others to create the total experience with a product, service, or company that turns it into an actual “brand.” In this module, you’ll learn how a brand starts and discover what it takes to coordinate all the different parts of the unique brand.
The Paradox of Brand
Although organizations take all kinds of measures to create and build brands, in fact, the brand isn’t just what the company says it is. In the end, the brand is what customers believe it is, as the following quote explains:
So what exactly is a brand?
A brand is a person’s gut feeling about a product, service, or organization.
It’s a gut feeling because people are emotional, intuitive beings. It’s a person’s gut feeling because brands are defined by individuals, not companies, markets, or the public.
It’s not what YOU say it is.
It’s what THEY say it is.
—Marty Neumeier, author and branding consultant, Neutron LLC
Companies can do a lot to create and build brands, but the net impact and value is what happens inside the mind of the consumer. The supreme challenge of brand is to make your vision of your brand the same thing other people experience and believe about your brand.
Read on to learn more.
Learning Outcomes
- Describe the elements of brand and how brands add value to an organization’s products and services
- Define brand equity and its role in measuring brand strength
- Explain the how marketers use brand positioning to align marketing activities and build successful brands
- Explain the importance of name selection in the success of a brand
- Discuss the role of packaging in the brand-building process
- Explain key strategies for developing brands including brand ownership, brand and line extensions, co-branding and licensing
Contributors and Attributions
- Why It Matters: Branding. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Coffee Art in 3D. Authored by : JC Awe. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/qqjawe/8452733327/ . License : CC BY: Attribution


3.2.2: Exploring the Area of a Circle
Lesson
Let's investigate the areas of circles.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\): Estimating Areas
Your teacher will show you some figures. Decide which figure has the largest area. Be prepared to explain your reasoning.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\): Estimating Areas of Circles
Your teacher will give your group two circles of different sizes.
-
Set the diameter of your assigned circle and use the applet to help estimate the area of the circle.
Note: to create a polygon, select the Polygon tool, and click on each vertex. End by clicking the first vertex again. For example, to draw triangle \(ABC\), click on \(A-B-C-A\).
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) - Record the diameter in column \(D\) and the corresponding area in column \(A\) for your circles and others from your classmates.
- In a previous lesson, you graphed the relationship between the diameter and circumference of a circle. How is this graph the same? How is it different?
Are you ready for more?
How many circles of radius 1 unit can you fit inside each of the following so that they do not overlap?
- a circle of radius 2 units?
- a circle of radius 3 units?
- a circle of radius 4 units?
If you get stuck, consider using coins or other circular objects.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\): Covering a Circle
Here is a square whose side length is the same as the radius of the circle.
How many of these squares do you think it would take to cover the circle exactly?
Summary
The circumference \(C\) of a circle is proportional to the diameter \(d\), and we can write this relationship as \(C=\pi d\). The circumference is also proportional to the radius of the circle, and the constant of proportionality is \(2\cdot\pi\) because the diameter is twice as long as the radius. However, the area of a circle is not proportional to the diameter (or the radius).
The area of a circle with radius \(r\) is a little more than 3 times the area of a square with side \(r\) so the area of a circle of radius \(r\) is approximately \(3r^{2}\). We saw earlier that the circumference of a circle of radius \(r\) is \(2\pi r\). If we write \(C\) for the circumference of a circle, this proportional relationship can be written \(C=2\pi r\).
The area \(A\) of a circle with radius \(r\) is approximately \(3r^{2}\). Unlike the circumference, the area is not proportional to the radius because \(3r^{2}\) cannot be written in the form \(kr\) for a number \(k\). We will investigate and refine the relationship between the area and the radius of a circle in future lessons.
Glossary Entries
Definition: Area of a Circle
If the radius of a circle is \(r\) units, then the area of the circle is \(\pi r^{2}\) square units.
For example, a circle has radius 3 inches. Its area is \(\pi 3^{2}\) square inches, or \(9\pi\) square inches, which is approximately 28.3 square inches.
Practice
Exercise \(\PageIndex{4}\)
The \(x\)-axis of each graph has the diameter of a circle in meters. Label the \(y\)-axis on each graph with the appropriate measurement of a circle:
radius (m), circumference (m), or area (m
2
).
Exercise \(\PageIndex{5}\)
Circle A has area 500 in 2 . The diameter of circle B is three times the diameter of circle A. Estimate the area of circle B.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{6}\)
Lin’s bike travels 100 meters when her wheels rotate 55 times. What is the circumference of her wheels?
(From Unit 3.1.5)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{7}\)
Priya drew a circle whose circumference is 25 cm. Clare drew a circle whose diameter is 3 times the diameter of Priya’s circle. What is the circumference of Clare’s circle?
(From Unit 3.1.3)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{8}\)
1. Here is a picture of two squares and a circle. Use the picture to explain why the area of this circle is more than 2 square units but less than 4 square units.
2. Here is another picture of two squares and a circle. Use the picture to explain why the area of this circle is more than 18 square units and less than 36 square units.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{9}\)
Point \(A\) is the center of the circle, and the length of \(CD\) is 15 centimeters. Find the circumference of this circle.
(From Unit 3.1.3)


5.5: The Quantum Atom
Make sure you thoroughly understand the following essential ideas
- State the fundamental distinction between Bohr's original model of the atom and the modern orbital model.
- Explain the role of the uncertainty principle in preventing the electron from falling into the nucleus.
- State the physical meaning of the principal quantum number of an electron orbital, and make a rough sketch of the shape of the probability- vs -distance curve for any value of n .
- Sketch out the shapes of an s , p , or a typical d orbital.
- Describe the significance of the magnetic quantum number as it applies to a p orbital.
- State the Pauli exclusion principle .
The picture of the atom that Niels Bohr developed in 1913 served as the starting point for modern atomic theory, but it was not long before Bohr himself recognized that the advances in quantum theory that occurred through the 1920's required an even more revolutionary change in the way we view the electron as it exists in the atom. This lesson will attempt to show you this view— or at least the portion of it that can be appreciated without the aid of more than a small amount of mathematics.
From Orbits to Orbitals
About ten years after Bohr had developed his theory, de Broglie showed that the electron should have wavelike properties of its own, thus making the analogy with the mechanical theory of standing waves somewhat less artificial. One serious difficulty with the Bohr model still remained, however: it was unable to explain the spectrum of any atom more complicated than hydrogen. A refinement suggested by Sommerfeld assumed that some of the orbits are elliptical instead of circular, and invoked a second quantum number, l , that indicated the degree of ellipticity. This concept proved useful, and it also began to offer some correlation with the placement of the elements in the periodic table.
By 1926, de Broglie's theory of the wave nature of the electron had been experimentally confirmed, and the stage was set for its extension to all matter. At about the same time, three apparently very different theories that attempted to treat matter in general terms were developed. These were Schrödinger's wave mechanics, Heisenberg's matrix mechanics, and a more abstract theory of P.A.M. Dirac. These eventually were seen to be mathematically equivalent, and all continue to be useful.
Of these alternative treatments, the one developed by Schrödinger is the most easily visualized. Schrödinger started with the simple requirement that the total energy of the electron is the sum of its kinetic and potential energies:
\[ E = \underbrace{\dfrac{mv^2}{2}}_{\text{kinetic energy}} + \underbrace{\dfrac{-e^2}{r}}_{\text{potential energy}} \label{5.6.1}\]
The second term represents the potential energy of an electron (whose charge is denoted by e ) at a distance r from a proton (the nucleus of the hydrogen atom). In quantum mechanics it is generally easier to deal with equations that use momentum (\(p = mv\)) rather than velocity, so the next step is to make this substitution:
\[E = \dfrac{p^2}{2m} - \dfrac{e^2}{r} \label{5.6.2}\]
This is still an entirely classical relation, as valid for the waves on a guitar string as for those of the electron in a hydrogen atom. The third step is the big one: in order to take into account the wavelike character of the hydrogen atom, a mathematical expression that describes the position and momentum of the electron at all points in space is applied to both sides of the equation. The function, denoted by \(\Psi\), "modulates" the equation of motion of the electron so as to reflect the fact that the electron manifests itself with greater probability in some locations that at others. This yields the celebrated Schrödinger equation
\[ \left( \dfrac{mv^2}{2} - \dfrac{e^2}{r} \right) \Psi = E\Psi \label{5.6.3}\]
Physical significance of the wavefunction
How can such a simple-looking expression contain within it the quantum-mechanical description of an electron in an atom— and thus, by extension, of all matter? The catch, as you may well suspect, lies in discovering the correct form of Ψ , which is known as the wave function . As this names suggests, the value of Ψ is a function of location in space relative to that of the proton which is the source of the binding force acting on the electron. As in any system composed of standing waves, certain boundary conditions must be applied, and these are also contained in Ψ; the major ones are that the value of must approach zero as the distance from the nucleus approaches infinity, and that the function be continuous.
When the functional form of has been worked out, the Schrödinger equation is said to have been solved for a particular atomic system. The details of how this is done are beyond the scope of this course, but the consequences of doing so are extremely important to us. Once the form of is known, the allowed energies E of an atom can be predicted from the above equation. Soon after Schrödinger's proposal, his equation was solved for several atoms, and in each case the predicted energy levels agreed exactly with the observed spectra.
There is another very useful kind of information contained in Ψ. Recalling that its value depends on the location in space with respect to the nucleus of the atom, the square of this function Ψ 2 , evaluated at any given point, represents the probability of finding the electron at that particular point. The significance of this cannot be overemphasized; although the electron remains a particle having a definite charge and mass, and the question of "where" it is located is no longer meaningful. Any single experimental observation will reveal a definite location for the electron, but this will in itself have little significance; only a large number of such observations (similar to a series of multiple exposures of a photographic film) will yield meaningful results which will show that the electron can "be" anywhere with at least some degree of probability. This does not mean that the electron is "moving around" to all of these places, but that (in accord with the uncertainty principle) the concept of location has limited meaning for a particle as small as the electron. If we count only those locations in space at which the probability of the electron manifesting itself exceeds some arbitrary value, we find that the Ψ function defines a definite three-dimensional region which we call an orbital .
Why doesn't the electron fall into the nucleus?
We can now return to the question which Bohr was unable to answer in 1912. Even the subsequent discovery of the wavelike nature of the electron and the analogy with standing waves in mechanical systems did not really answer the question; the electron is still a particle having a negative charge and is attracted to the nucleus.
The answer comes from the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, which says that a quantum particle such as the electron cannot simultaneously have sharply-defined values of location and of momentum (and thus kinetic energy). To understand the implications of this restriction, suppose that we place the electron in a small box. The walls of the box define the precision δ x to which the location is known; the smaller the box, the more exactly will we know the location of the electron. But as the box gets smaller, the uncertainty in the electron's kinetic energy will increase. As a consequence of this uncertainty, the electron will at times possess so much kinetic energy (the "confinement energy") that it may be able to penetrate the wall and escape the confines of the box.
This process is known as tunneling ; the tunnel effect is exploited in various kinds of semiconductor devices, and it is the mechanism whereby electrons jump between dissolved ions and the electrode in batteries and other electrochemical devices.
The region near the nucleus can be thought of as an extremely small funnel-shaped box, the walls of which correspond to the electrostatic attraction that must be overcome if an electron confined within this region is to escape. As an electron is drawn toward the nucleus by electrostatic attraction, the volume to which it is confined diminishes rapidly. Because its location is now more precisely known, its kinetic energy must become more uncertain; the electron's kinetic energy rises more rapidly than its potential energy falls, so that it gets ejected back into one of its allowed values of n .
We can also dispose of the question of why the orbiting electron does not radiate its kinetic energy away as it revolves around the nucleus. The Schrödinger equation completely discards any concept of a definite path or trajectory of a particle; what was formerly known as an "orbit" is now an "orbital", defined as the locations in space at which the probability of finding the electrons exceeds some arbitrary value. It should be noted that this wavelike character of the electron coexists with its possession of a momentum, and thus of an effective velocity, even though its motion does not imply the existence of a definite path or trajectory that we associate with a more massive particle.
Orbitals
The modern view of atomic structure dismisses entirely the old but comfortable planetary view of electrons circling around the nucleus in fixed orbits. As so often happens in science, however, the old outmoded theory contains some elements of truth that are retained in the new theory. In particular, the old Bohr orbits still remain, albeit as spherical shells rather than as two-dimensional circles, but their physical significance is different: instead of defining the "paths" of the electrons, they merely indicate the locations in the space around the nucleus at which the probability of finding the electron has higher values. The electron retains its particle-like mass and momentum, but because the mass is so small, its wavelike properties dominate. The latter give rise to patterns of standing waves that define the possible states of the electron in the atom.
The quantum numbers
Modern quantum theory tells us that the various allowed states of existence of the electron in the hydrogen atom correspond to different standing wave patterns. In the preceding lesson we showed examples of standing waves that occur on a vibrating guitar string. The wave patterns of electrons in an atom are different in two important ways:
- Instead of indicating displacement of a point on a vibrating string, the electron waves represent the probability that an electron will manifest itself (appear to be located) at any particular point in space. (Note carefully that this is not the same as saying that "the electron is smeared out in space"; at any given instant in time, it is either at a given point or it is not.)
- The electron waves occupy all three dimensions of space, whereas guitar strings vibrate in only two dimensions.
Aside from this, the similarities are striking. Each wave pattern is identified by an integer number n , which in the case of the atom is known as the principal quantum number . The value of \(n\) tells how many peaks of amplitude (antinodes) exist in that particular standing wave pattern; the more peaks there are, the higher the energy of the state.
The three simplest orbitals of the hydrogen atom are depicted above in pseudo-3D, in cross-section, and as plots of probability (of finding the electron) as a function of distance from the nucleus. The average radius of the electron probability is shown by the blue circles or plots in the two columns on the right. These radii correspond exactly to those predicted by the Bohr model.
The principal quantum number. The value of \(n\) tells how many peaks of amplitude (antinodes) exist in that particular standing wave pattern; the more peaks there are, the higher the energy of the state.
Physical Significance of n
The potential energy of the electron is given by the formula
\[ E =\dfrac{-4 \pi^2 e^4 m}{h^2n^2} \label{5.6.4}\]
with
- \(e\) is the charge of the electron, \(m\) is its mass,
- \(h\) is Planck's constant, and
- \(n\) is the principal quantum number.
The negative sign ensures that the potential energy is always negative. Notice that this energy in inversely proportional to the square of \(n\), so that the energy rises toward zero as \(n\) becomes very large, but it can never exceed zero.
Equation \(\ref{5.6.4}\) was actually part of Bohr's original theory and is still applicable to the hydrogen atom, although not to atoms with two or more electrons. In the Bohr model, each value of \(n\) corresponded to an orbit of a different radius. The larger the orbital radius, the higher the potential energy of the electron; the inverse square relationship between electrostatic potential energy and distance is reflected in the inverse square relation between the energy and n in the above formula. Although the concept of a definite trajectory or orbit of the electron is no longer tenable, the same orbital radii that relate to the different values of n in Bohr's theory now have a new significance: they give the average distance of the electron from the nucleus. The averaging process must encompass several probability peaks in the case of higher values of \(n\). The spatial distribution of these probability maxima defines the particular orbital.
This physical interpretation of the principal quantum number as an index of the average distance of the electron from the nucleus turns out to be extremely useful from a chemical standpoint, because it relates directly to the tendency of an atom to lose or gain electrons in chemical reactions.
The Angular Momentum Quantum Number
The electron wave functions that are derived from Schrödinger's theory are characterized by several quantum numbers. The first one, n , describes the nodal behavior of the probability distribution of the electron, and correlates with its potential energy and average distance from the nucleus as we have just described.
The theory also predicts that orbitals having the same value of n can differ in shape and in their orientation in space. The quantum number l , known as the angular momentum quantum number , determines the shape of the orbital. (More precisely, l determines the number of angular nodes, that is, the number of regions of zero probability encountered in a 360° rotation around the center.)
When l = 0, the orbital is spherical in shape. If l = 1, the orbital is elongated into something resembling a figure-8 shape, and higher values of l correspond to still more complicated shapes— but note that the number of peaks in the radial probability distributions (below) decreases with increasing l. The possible values that l can take are strictly limited by the value of the principal quantum number; l can be no greater than n – 1. This means that for n = 1, l can only have the single value zero which corresponds to a spherical orbital. For historical reasons, the orbitals corresponding to different values of l are designated by letters, starting with s for l = 0, p for l = 1, d for l = 2, and f for l = 3.
The function relationship is given by
\[ \bar{r} = (5.29\; pm) \dfrac{n^2}{Z} \left[ \dfrac{3}{2} - \dfrac{l(l-1)}{2n^2}\right]\]
in which \(Z\) is the nuclear charge of the atom, which of course is unity for hydrogen.
The Magnetic Quantum Number
An s -orbital, corresponding to l = 0, is spherical in shape and therefore has no special directional properties. The probability cloud of a p orbital is aligned principally along an axis extending along any of the three directions of space. The additional quantum number m is required to specify the particular direction along which the orbital is aligned.
"Direction in space" has no meaning in the absence of a force field that serves to establish a reference direction. For an isolated atom there is no such external field, and for this reason there is no distinction between the orbitals having different values of \(m\). If the atom is placed in an external magnetic or electrostatic field, a coordinate system is established, and the orbitals having different values of m will split into slightly different energy levels. This effect was first seen in the case of a magnetic field, and this is the origin of the term magnetic quantum number. In chemistry, however, electrostatic fields are much more important for defining directions at the atomic level because it is through such fields that nearby atoms in a molecule interact with each other. The electrostatic field created when other atoms or ions come close to an atom can cause the energies of orbitals having different direction properties to split up into different energy levels; this is the origin of the colors seen in many inorganic salts of transition elements, such as the blue color of copper sulfate.
The quantum number m can assume 2 l + 1 values for each value of l , from – l through 0 to + l . When l = 0 the only possible value of m will also be zero, and for the p orbital (l = 1), m can be –1, 0, and +1. Higher values of l introduce more complicated orbital shapes which give rise to more possible orientations in space, and thus to more values of m .
Electron Spin and the Exclusion Principle
Certain fundamental particles have associated with them a magnetic moment that can align itself in either of two directions with respect to an external magnetic field. The electron is one such particle, and the direction of its magnetic moment is called its spin .
A basic principle of modern physics states that for particles such as electrons that possess half-integral values of spin, no two of them can be in identical quantum states within the same system. The quantum state of a particle is defined by the values of its quantum numbers, so what this means is that no two electrons in the same atom can have the same set of quantum numbers. This is known as the Pauli exclusion principle, named after the German physicist Wolfgang Pauli (1900-1958, Nobel Prize 1945).
The mechanical analogy implied by the term spin is easy to visualize, but should not be taken literally . Physical rotation of an electron is meaningless. However, the coordinates of the electron's wave function can be rotated mathematically; when this is done, it is found that a rotation of 720° is required to restore the function to its initial value— rather weird, considering that a 360° rotation will leave any extended body unchanged! Electron spin is basically a relativistic effect in which the electron's momentum distorts local space and time. It has no classical counterpart and thus cannot be visualized other than through mathematics.
The exclusion principle was discovered empirically and was placed on a firm theoretical foundation by Pauli in 1925. A complete explanation requires some familiarity with quantum mechanics, so all we will say here is that if two electrons possess the same quantum numbers n, l, m and s (defined below), the wave function that describes the state of existence of the two electrons together becomes zero, which means that this is an "impossible" situation.
A given orbital is characterized by a fixed set of the quantum numbers n, l , and m . The electron spin itself constitutes a fourth quantum number s , which can take the two values +1 and –1. Thus a given orbital can contain two electrons having opposite spins , which "cancel out" to produce zero magnetic moment. Two such electrons in a single orbital are often referred to as an electron pair .
If it were not for the exclusion principle, the atoms of all elements would behave in the same way, and there would be no need for a science of Chemistry!
As we have seen, the lowest-energy standing wave pattern the electron can assume in an atom corresponds to n =1, which describes the state of the single electron in hydrogen, and of the two electrons in helium. Since the quantum numbers m and l are zero for n =1, the pair of electrons in the helium orbital have the values ( n, l, m, s ) = (1,0,0,+1) and (1,0,0,–1)— that is, they differ only in spin. These two sets of quantum numbers are the only ones that are possible for a n =1 orbital. The additional electrons in atoms beyond helium must go into higher-energy ( n >1) orbitals. Electron wave patterns corresponding to these greater values of n are concentrated farther from the nucleus, with the result that these electrons are less tightly bound to the atom and are more accessible to interaction with the electrons of neighboring atoms, thus influencing their chemical behavior . If it were not for the Pauli principle, all the electrons of every element would be in the lowest-energy n =1 state, and the differences in the chemical behavior the different elements would be minimal. Chemistry would certainly be a simpler subject, but it would not be very interesting!


<IP_ADDRESS>: Backups
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Backups
Another essential tool for information security is a comprehensive backup plan for the entire organization. Not only should the data on the corporate servers be backed up, but individual computers used throughout the organization should also be backed up. A good backup plan should consist of several components.
- A full understanding of the organizational information resources. What information does the organization actually have? Where is it stored? Some data may be stored on the organization’s servers, other data on users’ hard drives, some in the cloud, and some on third-party sites. An organization should make a full inventory of all of the information that needs to be backed up and determine the best way back it up.
- Regular backups of all data. The frequency of backups should be based on how important the data is to the company, combined with the ability of the company to replace any data that is lost. Critical data should be backed up daily, while less critical data could be backed up weekly.
- Offsite storage of backup data sets. If all of the backup data is being stored in the same facility as the original copies of the data, then a single event, such as an earthquake, fire, or tornado, would take out both the original data and the backup! It is essential that part of the backup plan is to store the data in an offsite location.
- Test of data restoration. On a regular basis, the backups should be put to the test by having some of the data restored. This will ensure that the process is working and will give the organization confidence in the backup plan.
Besides these considerations, organizations should also examine their operations to determine what effect downtime would have on their business. If their information technology were to be unavailable for any sustained period of time, how would it impact the business?
Additional concepts related to backup include the following:
- Universal Power Supply (UPS). A UPS is a device that provides battery backup to critical components of the system, allowing them to stay online longer and/or allowing the IT staff to shut them down using proper procedures in order to prevent the data loss that might occur from a power failure.
- Alternate, or “hot” sites. Some organizations choose to have an alternate site where an exact replica of their critical data is always kept up to date. When the primary site goes down, the alternate site is immediately brought online so that little or no downtime is experienced.
As information has become a strategic asset, a whole industry has sprung up around the technologies necessary for implementing a proper backup strategy. A company can contract with a service provider to back up all of their data or they can purchase large amounts of online storage space and do it themselves. Technologies such as storage area networks and archival systems are now used by most large businesses.


1.7: Anatomical Terminology
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Demonstrate the anatomical position
- Describe the human body using directional and regional terms
- Identify three planes most commonly used in the study of anatomy
- Distinguish between the posterior (dorsal) and the anterior (ventral) body cavities, identifying their subdivisions and representative organs found in each
- Describe serous membrane and explain its function
Anatomists and health care providers use terminology that can be bewildering to the uninitiated. However, the purpose of this language is not to confuse, but rather to increase precision and reduce medical errors. For example, is a scar “above the wrist” located on the forearm two or three inches away from the hand? Or is it at the base of the hand? Is it on the palm-side or back-side? By using precise anatomical terminology, we eliminate ambiguity. Anatomical terms derive from ancient Greek and Latin words. Because these languages are no longer used in everyday conversation, the meaning of their words does not change.
Anatomical terms are made up of roots, prefixes, and suffixes. The root of a term often refers to an organ, tissue, or condition, whereas the prefix or suffix often describes the root. For example, in the disorder hypertension, the prefix “hyper-” means “high” or “over,” and the root word “tension” refers to pressure, so the word “hypertension” refers to abnormally high blood pressure.
Anatomical Position
To further increase precision, anatomists standardize the way in which they view the body. Just as maps are normally oriented with north at the top, the standard body “map,” or anatomical position , is that of the body standing upright, with the feet at shoulder width and parallel, toes forward. The upper limbs are held out to each side, and the palms of the hands face forward as illustrated in Figure 1.12. Using this standard position reduces confusion. It does not matter how the body being described is oriented, the terms are used as if it is in anatomical position. For example, a scar in the “anterior (front) carpal (wrist) region” would be present on the palm side of the wrist. The term “anterior” would be used even if the hand were palm down on a table.
A body that is lying down is described as either prone or supine. Prone describes a face-down orientation, and supine describes a face up orientation. These terms are sometimes used in describing the position of the body during specific physical examinations or surgical procedures.
Regional Terms
The human body’s numerous regions have specific terms to help increase precision (see Figure 1.12). Notice that the term “brachium” or “arm” is reserved for the “upper arm” and “antebrachium” or “forearm” is used rather than “lower arm.” Similarly, “femur” or “thigh” is correct, and “leg” or “crus” is reserved for the portion of the lower limb between the knee and the ankle. You will be able to describe the body’s regions using the terms from the figure.
Directional Terms
Certain directional anatomical terms appear throughout this and any other anatomy textbook (Figure 1.13). These terms are essential for describing the relative locations of different body structures. For instance, an anatomist might describe one band of tissue as “inferior to” another or a physician might describe a tumor as “superficial to” a deeper body structure. Commit these terms to memory to avoid confusion when you are studying or describing the locations of particular body parts.
- Anterior (or ventral ) Describes the front or direction toward the front of the body. The toes are anterior to the foot.
- Posterior (or dorsal ) Describes the back or direction toward the back of the body. The popliteus is posterior to the patella.
- Superior (or cranial ) describes a position above or higher than another part of the body proper. The orbits are superior to the oris.
- Inferior (or caudal ) describes a position below or lower than another part of the body proper; near or toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the spinal column). The pelvis is inferior to the abdomen.
- Lateral describes the side or direction toward the side of the body. The thumb (pollex) is lateral to the digits.
- Medial describes the middle or direction toward the middle of the body. The hallux is the medial toe.
- Proximal describes a position in a limb that is nearer to the point of attachment or the trunk of the body. The brachium is proximal to the antebrachium.
- Distal describes a position in a limb that is farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body. The crus is distal to the femur.
- Superficial describes a position closer to the surface of the body. The skin is superficial to the bones.
- Deep describes a position farther from the surface of the body. The brain is deep to the skull.
Body Planes
A section is a two-dimensional surface of a three-dimensional structure that has been cut. Modern medical imaging devices enable clinicians to obtain “virtual sections” of living bodies. We call these scans. Body sections and scans can be correctly interpreted, however, only if the viewer understands the plane along which the section was made. A plane is an imaginary two-dimensional surface that passes through the body. There are three planes commonly referred to in anatomy and medicine, as illustrated in Figure 1.14.
- The sagittal plane is the plane that divides the body or an organ vertically into right and left sides. If this vertical plane runs directly down the middle of the body, it is called the midsagittal or median plane. If it divides the body into unequal right and left sides, it is called a parasagittal plane or less commonly a longitudinal section.
- The frontal plane is the plane that divides the body or an organ into an anterior (front) portion and a posterior (rear) portion. The frontal plane is often referred to as a coronal plane. (“Corona” is Latin for “crown.”)
- The transverse plane is the plane that divides the body or organ horizontally into upper and lower portions. Transverse planes produce images referred to as cross sections.
The body maintains its internal organization by means of membranes, sheaths, and other structures that separate compartments. The dorsal (posterior) cavity and the ventral (anterior) cavity are the largest body compartments (Figure 1.15). These cavities contain and protect delicate internal organs, and the ventral cavity allows for significant changes in the size and shape of the organs as they perform their functions. The lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, for example, can expand and contract without distorting other tissues or disrupting the activity of nearby organs.
Subdivisions of the Posterior (Dorsal) and Anterior (Ventral) Cavities
The posterior (dorsal) and anterior (ventral) cavities are each subdivided into smaller cavities. In the posterior (dorsal) cavity, the cranial cavity houses the brain, and the spinal cavity (or vertebral cavity) encloses the spinal cord. Just as the brain and spinal cord make up a continuous, uninterrupted structure, the cranial and spinal cavities that house them are also continuous.
The anterior (ventral) cavity has two main subdivisions: the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity (see Figure 1.15). The thoracic cavity is the more superior subdivision of the anterior cavity, and it is enclosed by the rib cage. The thoracic cavity contains the lungs and the heart, which is located in the mediastinum. The diaphragm forms the floor of the thoracic cavity and separates it from the more inferior abdominopelvic cavity. The abdominopelvic cavity is the largest cavity in the body. Although no membrane physically divides the abdominopelvic cavity, it can be useful to distinguish between the abdominal cavity, the division that houses the digestive organs, and the pelvic cavity, the division that houses the organs of reproduction.
Abdominal Regions and Quadrants
To promote clear communication, for instance about the location of a patient’s abdominal pain or a suspicious mass, health care providers typically divide up the cavity into either nine regions or four quadrants (Figure 1.16).
The more detailed regional approach subdivides the cavity with one horizontal line immediately inferior to the ribs and one immediately superior to the pelvis, and two vertical lines drawn as if dropped from the midpoint of each clavicle (collarbone). There are nine resulting regions. The simpler quadrants approach, which is more commonly used in medicine, subdivides the cavity with one horizontal and one vertical line that intersect at the patient’s umbilicus (navel).
Membranes of the Anterior (Ventral) Body Cavity
A serous membrane (also referred to a serosa) is one of the thin membranes that cover the walls and organs in the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities. The parietal layers of the membranes line the walls of the body cavity (pariet- refers to a cavity wall). The visceral layer of the membrane covers the organs (the viscera). Between the parietal and visceral layers is a very thin, fluid-filled serous space, or cavity (Figure 1.17).
There are three serous cavities and their associated membranes. The pleura is the serous membrane that encloses the pleural cavity; the pleural cavity surrounds the lungs. The pericardium is the serous membrane that encloses the pericardial cavity; the pericardial cavity surrounds the heart. The peritoneum is the serous membrane that encloses the peritoneal cavity; the peritoneal cavity surrounds several organs in the abdominopelvic cavity. The serous membranes form fluid-filled sacs, or cavities, that are meant to cushion and reduce friction on internal organs when they move, such as when the lungs inflate or the heart beats. Both the parietal and visceral serosa secrete the thin, slippery serous fluid located within the serous cavities. The pleural cavity reduces friction between the lungs and the body wall. Likewise, the pericardial cavity reduces friction between the heart and the wall of the pericardium. The peritoneal cavity reduces friction between the abdominal and pelvic organs and the body wall. Therefore, serous membranes provide additional protection to the viscera they enclose by reducing friction that could lead to inflammation of the organs.