Note
The direction in which education starts a man will determine his future life. - Plato
Learning Objectives
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Identify arguments that support pre-kindergarten education.
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Identify arguments that oppose pre-kindergarten education.
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Understand the vital role teachers have in the success of a pre-kindergarten program.
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Understand the significance of parental involvement in measuring long-term academic gains for children who attend pre-kindergarten.
Introduction
One of the most critical decisions a parent will make is when and where to begin their child’s formal education. Various schools of thought exist on the matter ranging from beginning a traditional academic curriculum once the child is toilet trained to retaining the child in the home so the parent can home school. A commonality exists in all cases and that is the expectation for the preschooler to gain a solid foundation in academics, social interaction, and cognitive functioning in order to enable their future scholastic achievements. Before enrolling a child in any sort of preschool program, it is imperative the parents evaluate their child’s readiness and define their expectations for the preschool program. In a 2005 study conducted in Charlottesville, Virginia, researchers found dissimilarities between the expectations of teachers and the expectations of parents for preschool children (Lane, Stanton-Chapman, Jamison & Phillips, 2007). Their findings suggest the importance of communication between teachers and parents and the necessity of making the child aware of the desires of both (Lane et al., 2007). A child’s success in any early childhood education program hinges on the guidance given to them by their parents and teachers.
The Pros
Potential for Early Identification
Proponents of pre-kindergarten education identify the potential for early identification of learning disabilities as a basis for their position. Early identification increases the likelihood the child will achieve greater academic gains and avoid the development of secondary problems (Steele, 2004). These secondary problems include “frustration, anxiety, behavior problems, greater academic deficiencies, and subsequent motivation problems” (Steele, 2004, pp. 75–76). As with any prospective problem, an early diagnosis increases the chances of improvement. Thus, experts in various fields agree the ages between birth and five are crucial for early detection of a child’s learning deficits (Steele, 2004).
The Early Impact (EI) Program
According to Larmar and Gatfield (2007), “The Early Impact (EI) Program is an early intervention and prevention program for reducing the incidence of conduct problems in pre-school aged children” (p. 703). A 2006 study regarding the effectiveness of the program surveyed 455 preschool children and found significant gains in the management of behavior problems in pre-kindergarten students (Larmar & Gatfield, 2007). Additionally, parents, teachers, and students all acknowledged a positive regard for the EI program (Larmar & Gatfield, 2007). Implications of such research suggest the possibility for implementation in preschools across the country with the prospect to negate behavior problems in a child prior to them entering kindergarten thus reducing the need for further discipline at the elementary school level.
Greater Academic Gains/Closing the Gap
It has been widely noted that significant academic gaps exist for children of low socioeconomic status and varied multicultural backgrounds (Perez-Johnson & Maynard, 2007). According to Perez-Johnson and Maynard (2007), “Our focus on the period of early childhood stems from two critical research-based observations. First, early childhood is when achievement gaps first emerge. Second, early childhood represents an optimal period for intervention, because gaps compound and become more costly and difficult to address as time passes by” (p. 588). It is their belief that if a child from a disadvantaged background can be reached at an early point, then it is plausible they will enter kindergarten on a “level playing field” (Perez-Johnson & Maynard, 2007). Although it seems Caucasian children are more likely to be enrolled in preschool programs assessed to be of better quality, African-American and Hispanic children are still benefiting greatly from their attendance in government sponsored programs such as Head Start.
Proponents of a universal pre-kindergarten program cite the potential to balance the academic performance levels of all U.S. children as a paramount purpose to substantiate their cause.
The Cons
Pre-K Isn't Cost Effective
With the recent presidential election, this topic has been thrust to the center of a national debate. Critics question spending scarce state and federal resources on the education of preschoolers when students in upper grade levels are not performing as expected. In a recent Wall Street Journal article, two contributors from the Reason Foundation presented evidence against President Obama’s claim that “every dollar spent on preschool will produce a 10-fold return” (Dalmia & Snell, 2008). It is their assertion a universal preschool program would be of little value until the failures of the K-12 system can be repaired (Dalmia & Snell, 2008). In Virginia, only 13 percent of those children enrolled in preschool attend a state funded program (VA Snapshot, 2009). Thus, parents who do not meet the guidelines for a state funded program are left to bear the financial burden of enrolling their child in a private preschool. Critics assert that whether the burden is assumed by the state or the parent the gains do not substantiate the cost.
Lack of Parental Involvement
Opponents of mandatory pre-kindergarten contend instruction becomes less advantageous if concepts learned are not reinforced in the home by the caregivers. A study including 77 children attending a Head Start program examined the relationship between a child’s language acquisition skills and “parental nurturance” (Merlo, Bowman & Barnett, 2007). Researchers followed up with the 77 students approximately four years later and found those who lived in a more loving home environment with greater parental involvement displayed greater gains in their early reading skills (Merlo et al., 2007). Unfortunately, no universal preschool program in the world can compel parents to maintain an active interest in their child’s academic progress if they choose to be estranged from the learning process.
Inappropriate Curriculum
Currently, preschools, especially private ones, vary widely on the type of programs implemented in their institutions. Additionally, many early childhood educators are not trained to differentiate instruction for students who perform on either end of the academic spectrum. While much focus remains on the early childhood special education, those students who may later be categorized as gifted are left behind. Also, those students characterized as “twice-exceptional preschoolers” can often be overlooked in the preschool classroom. This term refers to those students who may have academic deficits in one area but show extraordinary abilities in another (Chamberlin, Buchanan & Vercimak, 2007). Recommendations for the improvement of preschool curriculum include the merging of special education and gifted education methods to reach children at every sector of the academic continuum (Chamberlin et al., 2007).
Conclusion
In examining the plethora of opinions on early childhood education, certain factors must exist in order for a child to attain lasting academic benefits from their pre-kindergarten instruction. These include open communication among teachers, parents, and students, clearly defined expectations for the young pupils, proper training of early childhood educators, and ample parental involvement. With such components in place, children can derive many advantages from their attendance in pre-kindergarten program including possible early identification of learning disabilities, a decrease in problematic behaviors, and a more level playing field. However, since each child is different, every case needs to be considered on an individual basis with the well-being of the child remaining the primary focus.
As a parent who has research the subject in depth on behalf of my own child, I would like to offer the following advice for others now making similar decisions. First, know your child. This sounds simple but some programs focus on social growth while others stress academic gains. Enroll your child in a program that best suits them. Second, evaluate your options based on cost, transportation availability, accreditation, and any other elements you find important in a preschool program. Prior to enrollment, interview the director, observe the classroom your child would join, and, if possible, speak with your child’s prospective teacher to gain a sense of his or her teaching philosophies. Lastly, I would advocate you trust your instincts both as a parent and as a current or future educator. If the program you are considering does not seem to fit your child’s needs, then find one that does. Likewise, if you feel teaching your child the basic skills from home is most beneficial, you should provide ample opportunity for socialization through playgroups and work diligently from home to ensure your child is prepared for kindergarten. Simply, a mandatory pre-kindergarten is not the answer. The answer lies in allowing parents to make decisions based upon the best interest of their child and trusting their determinations.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
1. Which of the following
IS NOT
one of the arguments for pre-kindergarten education?
a) A decrease in behavior problems as the student enters elementary school
b) Lessening parent responsibility for child's academic gains
c) Possible early identification of learning disabilities
d) The leveling of the playing field for children from disadvantaged backgrounds
2. Which of the following
IS NOT
one of the arguments against pre-kindergarten education?
a) Costs more substantial than academic gains
b) Inadequate parental involvement and/or nurturance
c) Lack of adequate curriculum to service needs of ALL students
d) Possible early identification of learning disabilities
3. Mrs. Smith teaches 4-year old Zachary who exhibits great ability in phonemic awareness but has a documented disability, ADHD. In order to best suit his individual needs, Mrs. Smith wants to utilize the most beneficial research-based teaching strategies available. As a colleague, what sort of advice would you give Mrs. Smith?
a) Combine both special education and gifted education methods to reach this twice-exceptional preschooler
b) Focus on Zachary's advanced early literacy skills and hope the behavior corrects itself
c) Treat Zachary the same as all the other students so as not to stigmatize him
d) Use positive reinforcement techniques to counteract Zachary's negative ADHD related behaviors
4. One of your brightest 4-year old students, Sophia, seems to grasp number recognition during your lessons at school. Since she is so interested in numbers, you send home worksheets so she can continue to practice while not at school. However, you have begun to notice that after the weekends Sophia returns to school with the worksheets blank and displays little improvement in her overall counting skills. What additional factor seems to be at play in this situation?
a) Sophia does too many extracurricular activities on the weekend to complete worksheets
b) Sophia is not receiving the parental nurturing she needs from her single mother who works two jobs
c) Sophia is probably just not as interested as she appeared to be in class
d) Sophia may have a learning disability in math
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Answer
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1. b) Preschool doesn't lessen a parent's role in their child's academic success.
2. d) Early identification of learning disabilities is an argument for pre-kindergarten education.
3. a) Although Zachary has multiple needs, none of them should be ignored. Mrs. Smith should research twice-exceptional students and utilize both special and gifted education tactics with this student.
4. b) Sophia does not appear to be receiving reinforcement of concepts learned within the home. Therefore, she is not retaining the information as expected.
References
Chamberlin, S., Buchanan, M., & Vercimak, D. (2007, January 1). Serving twice-exceptional preschoolers: Blending gifted education and early childhood special education practices in assessment and program planning. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 30(3), 372-394. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ756559) Retrieved January 31, 2009, from ERIC database.
Dalmia, Shikha, and Lisa Snell (2008, Aug 22). Protect our kids from preschool. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved February 1, 2009, from <online.wsj.com/article/SB121936615766562189-email.html>.
Lane, K., Stanton-Chapman, T., Jamison, K., & Phillips, A. (2007, January 1). Teacher and parent expectations of preschoolers' behavior: Social skills necessary for success. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 27(2), 86-97. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ786586) Retrieved January 31, 2009, from ERIC database.
Larmar, S., & Gatfield, T. (2007, January 1). The early impact program: An early intervention and prevention program for children and families at-risk of conduct problems. Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention, 4(4), 703-713. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ805604) Retrieved January 31, 2009, from ERIC database.
Magnuson, K., & Waldfogel, J. (2005). Early childhood care and education: Effects on ethnic and racial gaps in school readiness. Future of Children, 15(1), 169-96. Retrieved January 30, 2009, from ERIC database.
Merlo, L., Bowman, M., & Barnett, D. (2007, January 1). Parental nurturance promotes reading acquisition in low socioeconomic status children. Early Education and Development, 18(1), 51-69. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ772206) Retrieved January 31, 2009, from ERIC database.
Perez-Johnson, I., & Maynard, R. (2007, October 1). The case for early, targeted interventions to prevent academic failure. Peabody Journal of Education, 82(4), 587-616. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ780707) Retrieved January 31, 2009, from ERIC database.
Steele, M. (2004). Making the case for early identification and intervention for young children at risk for learning disabilities. Early Childhood Education Journal, 32(2), 75-9. Retrieved January 30, 2009, from ERIC database.
Virginia Snapshot. (2009). Retrieved February 1, 2009, from Pre-K Now: <
http://www.preknow.org/resource/mapping/snapshot.cfm?scode=va
>.
Picture Retrieved February 1, 2009, from Wikimedia Commons: <
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Crayola_24pack_2005.jpg
>.
Quote Retrieved February 1, 2009, from Wikiquote: <
http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Plato
>.
Additional information on the history of pre-kindergarten in the United States Retrieved February 1, 2009, from The Center for Public Education: <www.centerforpubliceducation.org/site/c.kjJXJ5MPIwE/b.2556065/k.E644/Prek_What_the_research_shows.htm#history>.


6.11: The Fourteen Points and the League of Nations
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- Last updated
- Save as PDF
As the flu virus wracked the world, Europe and America rejoiced at the end of hostilities. On December 4, 1918, President Wilson became the first American president to travel overseas during his term. He intended to shape the peace. The war brought an abrupt end to four great European imperial powers. The German, Russian, Austrian-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires evaporated, and the map of Europe was redrawn to accommodate new independent nations. As part of the the armistice, Allied forces followed the retreating Germans and occupied territories in the Rhineland to prevent Germany from reigniting war. As Germany disarmed, Wilson and the other Allied leaders gathered in France at Versailles for the Paris Peace Conference to dictate the terms of a settlement to the war. After months of deliberation, the Treaty of Versailles officially ended the war.
Earlier that year, on January 8, 1918, before a joint session of Congress, President Wilson offered an ambitious statement of war aims and peace terms known as the Fourteen Points. The plan not only dealt with territorial issues but offered principles on which a long-term peace could be built. But in January 1918, Germany still anticipated a favorable verdict on the battlefield and did not seriously consider accepting the terms of the Fourteen Points. The Allies were even more dismissive. French prime minister Georges Clemenceau remarked, “The good Lord only had ten [points].” 22
President Wilson labored to realize his vision of the postwar world. The United States had entered the fray, Wilson proclaimed, “to make the world safe for democracy.” At the center of the plan was a novel international organization—the League of Nations—charged with keeping a worldwide peace by preventing the kind of destruction that tore across Europe and “affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.” This promise of collective security, that an attack on one sovereign member would be viewed as an attack on all, was a key component of the Fourteen Points. 23
But the fight for peace was daunting. While President Wilson was celebrated in Europe and welcomed as the “God of Peace,” his fellow statesmen were less enthusiastic about his plans for postwar Europe. America’s closest allies had little interest in the League of Nations. Allied leaders sought to guarantee the future safety of their own nations. Unlike the United States, the Allies endured the horrors of the war firsthand. They refused to sacrifice further. The negotiations made clear that British prime minister David Lloyd-George was more interested in preserving Britain’s imperial domain, while French prime minister Clemenceau sought a peace that recognized the Allies’ victory and the Central Powers’ culpability: he wanted reparations—severe financial penalties—and limits on Germany’s future ability to wage war. The fight for the League of Nations was therefore largely on the shoulders of President Wilson. By June 1919, the final version of the treaty was signed and President Wilson was able to return home. The treaty was a compromise that included demands for German reparations, provisions for the League of Nations, and the promise of collective security. For President Wilson, it was an imperfect peace, but an imperfect peace was better than none at all.
The real fight for the League of Nations was on the American home front. Republican senator Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts stood as the most prominent opponent of the League of Nations. As chair of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and an influential Republican Party leader, he could block ratification of the treaty. Lodge attacked the treaty for potentially robbing the United States of its sovereignty. Never an isolationist, Lodge demanded instead that the country deal with its own problems in its own way, free from the collective security—and oversight—offered by the League of Nations. Unable to match Lodge’s influence in the Senate, President Wilson took his case to the American people in the hopes that ordinary voters might be convinced that the only guarantee of future world peace was the League of Nations. During his grueling cross-country trip, however, President Wilson suffered an incapacitating stroke. His opponents had the upper hand. 24
President Wilson’s dream for the League of Nations died on the floor of the Senate. Lodge’s opponents successfully blocked America’s entry into the League of Nations, an organization conceived and championed by the American president. The League of Nations operated with fifty-eight sovereign members, but the United States refused to join, refused to lend it American power, and refused to provide it with the power needed to fulfill its purpose. 25


9.16: Video Meetings
- Participate in a meeting with video sharing components
As with audio, you may find yourself in meetings where some people are together in a room while others join via video chat. Generally, that looks something like the meeting in figure 1:
State-of-the-art video conference rooms have cameras that can follow and focus on whoever is talking, which is great for keeping the flow going, although these cameras have been known to stop on an elbow or a notebook rather than a face. Video conference rooms like the one above have one or more fixed cameras that are angled to capture the entire table. This creates some distance compared with group chats where everyone has their own laptop camera. However, it also gives a better sense of the energy in the whole room, which can be helpful to those joining remotely.
In the event that you have only one person joining by video chat and/or they are joining on a laptop rather than a large conference screen, you may wish to assign an advocate as discussed in the textbook reading on Audio Meetings to make sure that person isn’t forgotten and that they have a chance to participate fully in the meeting.
Contributors and Attributions
- Video Meetings. Authored by : Barbara Egel. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Veliris VirtuaLive Telepresence Modular System. Authored by : Fuelrefuel. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Teliris_VL_Modular.JPG . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


1.6: Plants for Favorable Planting Situations
Learning Objectives
- Identify plants for favourable planting situations.
Horticulturists understand and use the climate and conditions of a given site to select and grow healthy plants. While growing conditions can be optimized by choosing the right plant for the right place, temperature will remain the least controllable of the environmental factors in exterior landscapes. Given suitable plant hardiness, average conditions of full to part sun or part shade, and well drained, moist soils with appropriate pH will provide favourable growing conditions for many garden plants.
Species that prefer average growing conditions are found in a wide range of plant families. Some familiar plant families with members that thrive in average growing conditions include:
- Caryophyllaceae – Arenaria verna (Irish moss)
- Cupressaceae – Callitropsis nootkatensis ‘Pendula’ (weeping Nootka false cypress)
- Ericaceae – Rhododendron Northern Lights Group (azalea)
- Fabaceae – Wisteria sinensis (Chinese wisteria)
- Lamiaceae – Callicarpa bodinieri var. giraldii ‘Profusion’ (beautyberry)
- Ranunculaceae – Clematis cvs. (clematis)
- Rosaceae – Prunus laurocerasus ‘Otto Luyken’ (Otto Luyken laurel), Prunus serrulata ‘Kwanzan’ (flowering cherry)
- Sapindaceae – Acer macrophyllum (bigleaf maple)
- Pinaceae – Picea abies ‘Nidiformis’ (nest spruce), Picea abies ‘Pendula’ (weeping Norway spruce), Picea glauca (white spruce), Picea glauca ‘Conica’ (dwarf Alberta spruce), Pinus contorta var. contorta (shore pine), and Pinus nigra (Austrian pine)
View the images of plant family members available at this link to the KPU Plant Database [New Tab] [1] .
In addition to shared morphological patterns in flowers and reproductive structures, family members tend to have similar growth characteristics, nutrient needs, and often the same pests. Key characteristics that distinguish members of some additional plant families are summarized below.
Adoxaceae – moschatel family
- Mostly deciduous shrubs
- Buds are conical
- Leaves are opposite in arrangement, simple, with prominent pinnate venation and serrate margin
- Inflorescence is a cyme of showy florets
- Fruit is a drupe
- Example: Viburnum plicatum cvs. (doublefile viburnum)[New Tab] [2]
Betulaceae – birch family
- Deciduous trees and some shrub species
- Plant stems are mostly smooth, the genus Betula (birch) has bark peeling in layers
- Leaves are alternate in arrangement, simple, with double serrate margin and pinnate venation
- Inflorescence is a long pendulous catkin (male flower) and short, cone-like pendulous or erect catkin (female flower)
- Fruit is a small, single-seeded indehiscent nut in a short-winged samara
- Example: Betula papyrifera (paper birch)[New Tab] [3]
Brassicaceae – mustard family
- Herbaceous perennial, and annual and biennial species
- Leaves are alternate in arrangement, simple and pinnately lobed, without stipules
- Inflorescence is a raceme
- Flower structure is uniform throughout the family with 4 sepals and 4 petals in a cross-like arrangement (note the historical name ‘Cruciferae’)
- Fruit is a silique formed by two valves joined by a thin flat membrane that often persists
- Example: Arabis caucasica (rock cress)[New Tab] [4]
Cannabaceae – hop family
- Herbaceous perennial, climbing vine, a dioecious plant
- Leaves are opposite in arrangement, simple and three-lobed with a serrate margin and prominent venation
- Inflorescence is a catkin (male) and cone-like spike (female)
- Flowers are small, without petals (wind pollinated), with aromatic glands at the base
- Fruit is an achene subtended by a papery floral bract
- Example: Humulus lupulus (common hop)[New Tab] [5]
Caprifoliaceae – honeysuckle family
- Deciduous and broadleaf evergreen shrubs, twining lianas, and some herbaceous perennials
- Stems have pith inside
- Leaves are opposite in arrangement, often simple
- Inflorescence a panicle-like corymb in the example. Solitary flowers occur in pairs or in cymes, spikes and racemes in some species
- Flowers are tubular, funnel-shaped, or bell-like often with five outward spreading lobes or points
- Fruit is a capsule or berry in pairs
- Example: Kolkwitzia amabilis (beautybush)[New Tab] [6]
Cornaceae – dogwood family
- Mostly trees and shrubs, rarely rhizomatous perennial herbs
- Leaves are opposite in arrangement, simple with undivided, entire margins, and 6-7 pairs of veins
- Flower buds are flattened and globose, vegetative buds are narrow and conical
- Inflorescence is a dense head of inconspicuous true flowers surrounded by 4-8 showy bracts
- Fruit is a drupe, may be multiple in some species
- Examples:
Hamamelidaceae – witch hazel family
- Deciduous shrubs and trees
- Leaves are alternate in arrangement, simple with prominent pinnate venation, serrate margins, and a pubescent surface
- Inflorescence are clusters of 4-parted cross-shaped florets with small triangular sepals and thin, ribbon-like petals
- Fruit is a woody capsule
- Example: Hamamelis mollis (Chinese witch hazel)[New Tab] [10]
Hydrangeaceae – hydrangea family
- Deciduous shrubs
- Leaves are opposite in arrangement, whorled in some species, simple, with netted venation and serrate to toothed margins
- Inflorescence a raceme in the genus Deutzia
- Flowers are rotate with 5 separate petals
- Fruit is a capsule
- Example: Deutzia gracilis (slender deutzia)[New Tab] [11]
Iridaceae – iris family
- Herbaceous perennial monocot from a bulb, other species from bulbs, corms and rhizomes
- Leaves are typically basal, sheathing and linear with parallel veins and entire margins
- Inflorescence a solitary, 3-parted flower other species, may be a raceme or spike
- Fruit is a capsule
- Example: Crocus cvs. (Dutch crocus, crocus)[New Tab] [12]
Magnoliaceae – magnolia family
- Deciduous tree, other species are evergreen trees and shrubs
- Leaves are alternate in arrangement, simple, with an entire margin
- Inflorescence is a solitary flower
- Flowers have tepals, with stamens and pistils on a conical receptacle
- Fruit is an aggregate of woody follicles
- Example: Magnolia stellata (star magnolia)[New Tab] [13]
Rutaceae – rue or citrus family
- Mostly trees and some shrubs
- Leaves are opposite in arrangement and trifoliate compound in the genus Choisya . Leaves are alternate and simple in the genus Citrus. Foliage is aromatic, the leaf blade dotted with glands.
- Inflorescence a cyme
- Flower is rotate with 5 petals, fragrant
- Fruit is a capsule
- Example: Choisya ternata (Mexican mock orange)[New Tab] [14]
Theaceae – tea family
- Mostly broadleaf evergreen shrubs and trees, few deciduous.
- Leaves are alternate and spiral in arrangement, simple, usually glossy, with serrate margin and a gland (hyathode) that excretes water at serration tips
- Inflorescence is solitary flower
- Flower is radially symmetric, rotate with 11+ petals
- Fruit is a capsule
- Example: Camellia japonica (common camellia, Japanese camellia)[New Tab] [15]
Tiliaceae – basswood or linden family
- Deciduous tree, some species are shrubs
- Leaves are alternate in arrangement, simple with a pubescent surface and hair tufts in vein axils, a serrate margin and a heart-shaped, asymmetrical base
- Buds are alternate, oval in shape with 2 scales.
- Inflorescence is a cyme with an elongated yellow-green bract
- Flowers are small 5-parted, highly scented
- Fruit is a nut-like drupe
- Example: Tilia cordata (little leaf linden)[New Tab] [16]
Practice: Identify plants for favourable planting situations.
An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://kpu.pressbooks.pub/plantidentification/?p=752
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https://plantdatabase.kpu.ca/plant/search.gsp
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https://plantdatabase.kpu.ca/plant/plantDetail/188
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18.10.2: Thought Questions
Thought Questions
Is the Sun an average star? Why or why not?
13.
Suppose you want to determine the average educational level of people throughout the nation. Since it would be a great deal of work to survey every citizen, you decide to make your task easier by asking only the people on your campus. Will you get an accurate answer? Will your survey be distorted by a selection effect? Explain.
14.
Why do most known visual binaries have relatively long periods and most spectroscopic binaries have relatively short periods?
15.
Figure 18.11 shows the light curve of a hypothetical eclipsing binary star in which the light of one star is completely blocked by another. What would the light curve look like for a system in which the light of the smaller star is only partially blocked by the larger one? Assume the smaller star is the hotter one. Sketch the relative positions of the two stars that correspond to various portions of the light curve.
16.
There are fewer eclipsing binaries than spectroscopic binaries. Explain why.
17.
Within 50 light-years of the Sun, visual binaries outnumber eclipsing binaries. Why?
18.
Which is easier to observe at large distances—a spectroscopic binary or a visual binary?
19.
The eclipsing binary Algol drops from maximum to minimum brightness in about 4 hours, remains at minimum brightness for 20 minutes, and then takes another 4 hours to return to maximum brightness. Assume that we view this system exactly edge-on, so that one star crosses directly in front of the other. Is one star much larger than the other, or are they fairly similar in size? (Hint: Refer to the diagrams of eclipsing binary light curves.)
20.
Review this spectral data for five stars.
| Table A | |
|---|---|
| Star | Spectrum |
| 1 | G, main sequence |
| 2 | K, giant |
| 3 | K, main sequence |
| 4 | O, main sequence |
| 5 | M, main sequence |
Which is the hottest? Coolest? Most luminous? Least luminous? In each case, give your reasoning.
21.
Which changes by the largest factor along the main sequence from spectral types O to M—mass or luminosity?
22.
Suppose you want to search for brown dwarfs using a space telescope. Will you design your telescope to detect light in the ultraviolet or the infrared part of the spectrum? Why?
23.
 How is this possible? What kind of star is it?
24.
Approximately 9000 stars are bright enough to be seen without a telescope. Are any of these white dwarfs? Use the information given in this chapter to explain your reasoning.
25.
Use the data in Appendix J to plot an H–R diagram for the brightest stars. Use the data from Table 18.3 to show where the main sequence lies. Do 90% of the brightest stars lie on or near the main sequence? Explain why or why not.
26.
Use the diagram you have drawn for Exercise 18.25 to answer the following questions: Which star is more massive—Sirius or Alpha Centauri? Rigel and Regulus have nearly the same spectral type. Which is larger? Rigel and Betelgeuse have nearly the same luminosity. Which is larger? Which is redder?
27.
Use the data in Appendix I to plot an H–R diagram for this sample of nearby stars. How does this plot differ from the one for the brightest stars in Exercise 18.25? Why?
28.
If a visual binary system were to have two equal-mass stars, how would they be located relative to the center of the mass of the system? What would you observe as you watched these stars as they orbited the center of mass, assuming very circular orbits, and assuming the orbit was face on to your view?
29.
Two stars are in a visual binary star system that we see face on. One star is very massive whereas the other is much less massive. Assuming circular orbits, describe their relative orbits in terms of orbit size, period, and orbital velocity.
30.
Describe the spectra for a spectroscopic binary for a system comprised of an F-type and L-type star. Assume that the system is too far away to be able to easily observe the L-type star.
31.
Figure 18.7 shows the velocity of two stars in a spectroscopic binary system. Which star is the most massive? Explain your reasoning.
32.
You go out stargazing one night, and someone asks you how far away the brightest stars we see in the sky without a telescope are. What would be a good, general response? (Use Appendix J for more information.)
33.
If you were to compare three stars with the same surface temperature, with one star being a giant, another a supergiant, and the third a main-sequence star, how would their radii compare to one another?
34.
Are supergiant stars also extremely massive? Explain the reasoning behind your answer.
35.
Consider the following data on four stars:
| Table B | ||
|---|---|---|
| Star | Luminosity (in L Sun ) | Type |
| 1 | 100 | B, main sequence |
| 2 | 1/100 | B, white dwarf |
| 3 | 1/100 | M, main sequence |
| 4 | 100 | M, giant |
Which star would have the largest radius? Which star would have the smallest radius? Which star is the most common in our area of the Galaxy? Which star is the least common?


3.2: Introduction to Thesis Statements and Topic Sentences
What you’ll learn to do: identify, analyze, and create effective thesis statements
Being able to identify the purpose and thesis of a text while you’re reading it takes practice, but it is an essential skill to successful writing. Powerful thesis statements are an effective and important element of almost every writing assignment in college.
Before we begin crafting our own thesis statements, we’ll begin by practicing finding thesis statements. When trying to isolate the thesis in a piece of text, consider these questions:
- What is the primary subject of this text?
- Is the author trying to inform me, or persuade me?
- What does the author think I need to know about this subject?
- Why does the author think I need to know about this subject?
Sometimes the answer to these questions will be very clearly stated in the text itself. Sometimes it is less obvious, and in those cases, the techniques on the following pages will be useful.
Contributors and Attributions
- Outcome: Thesis. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Image of cat with book. Authored by : TheGiantVermin. Located at : https://flic.kr/p/dQ32kH . License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives


<IP_ADDRESS>: Building a Better Credit Report
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What is a credit report?
A credit report includes information on where you live, how you pay your bills, and whether you’ve been sued or have filed for bankruptcy. Nationwide credit reporting companies sell the information in your report to creditors, insurers, employers, and other businesses that, in turn, use it to evaluate your applications for credit, insurance, employment, or renting a place to live.
Why should I check my credit report?
Some financial advisors and consumer advocates suggest that you review your credit report several times a year. Why?
● The information in it affects whether you can get a loan — and how much you will have to pay to borrow money.
● To make sure the information is accurate, complete, and up-to-date before you apply for a loan for a major purchase like a house or car, buy insurance, or apply for a job.
● To help repair possible identity theft. Identity thieves may use your information to open new credit accounts in your name. Then, when they don’t pay the bills, the delinquent account is reported on your credit report. Inaccurate information like that could affect your ability to get credit, insurance, or even a job.
How do I get my credit report?
By law, you’re entitled to a free copy of your credit report from each of the nationwide credit reporting companies — Equifax, Experian, and TransUnion — once every 12 months. To order, visit annualcreditreport.com or call 1-877-322-8228.
You may order reports from one, two, or all three of the companies at the same time, or you may stagger your requests. Some financial advisors say staggering your requests during a 12-month period may be a good way to keep an eye on the accuracy and completeness of the information in your reports. If you’re getting ready to apply for a loan or job, you might want to check all three reports at the same time.
To learn more, read Free Credit Reports at consumer.ftc.gov .
How do I correct errors on my credit report?
Both the credit reporting company and the information provider (that is, the person, company, or organization that provides information about you to a credit reporting company) are responsible for correcting inaccurate or incomplete information in your report once you bring it to their attention. Letting them know involves two steps:
Step One
Tell the credit reporting company, in writing, what information you think is inaccurate.
A sample dispute letter is at consumer.ftc.gov . Your letter should identify each item in your report you dispute, explain why you dispute the information, and ask that it be removed or corrected. Include copies (NOT originals) of documents that support your position. You may want to enclose a copy of your report with the items in question circled. Send your letter by certified mail, “return receipt requested,” so you can document what the credit reporting company received. Keep copies of your dispute letter and enclosures.
Credit reporting companies must investigate the items in question usually within 30 days, unless they consider your dispute frivolous. They also must forward all the relevant data you provide about the inaccuracy to the information provider, which reviews the relevant information, investigates, and reports the results back to the credit reporting company. If the information provider finds the disputed information is inaccurate, it must notify all three nationwide credit reporting companies so they can correct the information in your file.
What happens after the investigation?
When the investigation is complete, the credit reporting company must give you the results in writing and a free copy of your report if the dispute results in a change. If an item is changed or deleted, the credit reporting company cannot put the disputed information back in your file unless the information provider verifies that it is accurate and complete. The credit reporting company also must send you written notice that includes the name, address, and phone number of the information provider.
If you ask, the credit reporting company must send notices of any corrections to anyone who received your report in the past six months. You can have a corrected copy of your report sent to anyone who received a copy during the past two years for employment purposes.
What if the investigation doesn’t resolve my dispute?
Ask that a statement of the dispute be included in your file and in future reports. You also can ask the credit reporting company to provide your statement to anyone who received a copy of your report in the recent past. Expect to pay a fee for this service.
Step Two
Tell the i nformation provider, in writing, that you dispute an item in your credit report.
A sample dispute letter is at consumer.ftc.gov . Include copies (NOT originals) of documents that support your position. If the provider listed an address on your credit report, send your letter to that address. If no address is listed, contact the provider and ask for the correct address to send your letter. If the information provider does not give you an address, you can send your letter to any business address for that provider.
What if the provider continues to report the disputed item to a credit reporting company?
The provider must let the credit reporting company know about your dispute. And if you are correct — that is, if the information you dispute is found to be inaccurate or incomplete — the information provider must tell the credit reporting company to update or delete the item.
To learn more, read Disputing Errors on Credit Reports at
consumer.ftc.gov .
How long can negative information stay on my credit report?
A credit reporting company can report most accurate negative information for seven years and bankruptcy information for 10 years. There is no time limit on reporting information about criminal convictions; information reported in response to your application for a job that pays more than $75,000 a year; and information reported because you’ve applied for more than $150,000 worth of credit or life insurance. Information about a lawsuit or an unpaid judgment against you can be reported for seven years or until the statute of limitations runs out, whichever is longer. The standard method for calculating the seven-year reporting period starts with the date that the event took place.
How can my credit report affect my job application?
When you apply for a job, employers look at the application you complete and the resume you prepare. Some employers also check into your background before they hire you. Depending on the employer and the job, that background information might include your employment history, your driving record, criminal records, and your credit report.
An employer must get your permission before asking for a report about you from a credit reporting company or any other company that provides background information. If you don’t give your okay, your application for employment may not get a second look. That’s up to you. But if you don’t get the job because of information in your report, the employer has some legal obligations: First, the employer must show you the report; second, the employer must tell you how to get your own copy. The report is free if you ask for it within 60 days of learning the bad news.
To learn more about your rights, read Employment Background Checks at consumer.ftc.gov .
What is a credit freeze?
A credit freeze, also known as a security freeze, lets you restrict access to your credit report, which in turn makes it more difficult for identity thieves to open new accounts in your name. That’s because most creditors need to look at your credit report before approving a new account. If they can’t see your file, they may not extend the credit.
You may want to place a credit freeze on your credit reports if you’re concerned about the potential consequences of data breaches.
To place a freeze on your credit reports, contact each of the nationwide credit reporting companies:
Equifax — 1 ‑ 800 ‑ 525 ‑ 6285; equifax.com
Experian —1 ‑ 888 ‑ 397 ‑ 3742; experian.com
TransUnion — 1 ‑ 800 ‑ 680 ‑ 7289; transunion.com
You’ll need to supply your name, address, date of birth, Social Security number and other personal information. Fees vary based on where you live; they commonly range from $5 to $10.
A credit freeze does not:
● affect your credit score
● prevent you from getting your free annual credit report
● keep you from opening a new account, applying for a job, renting an apartment, or buying insurance. If you’re doing any of these, you’ll need to lift the freeze temporarily, either for a specific time, or for a specific party, say, a potential landlord or employer. The cost and lead times to lift a freeze vary, so it’s best to check with the credit reporting company in advance.
● prevent a thief from incurring charges on your existing accounts. You still need to monitor all bank, credit card and insurance statements for fraudulent transactions.

Unlike a credit freeze that locks down your credit, a fraud alert allows creditors to get a copy of your credit report as long as they take steps to verify your identity. For example, if you provide a telephone number, the business must call you to verify whether you are the person making the credit request. Fraud alerts may be effective at stopping someone from opening new credit accounts in your name, but they may not prevent the misuse of your existing accounts. You still need to monitor all bank, credit card and insurance statements for fraudulent transactions.
There are three types of fraud alerts:
Initial Fraud Alert
If you’re concerned about identity theft, but haven’t yet become a victim, this fraud alert protects your credit from unverified access for at least 90 days. You may want to place a fraud alert on your file if your wallet, Social Security card, or other personal, financial or account information are ever lost or stolen.
Extended Fraud Alert
For victims of identity theft, an extended fraud alert protects your credit for seven years.
Active Duty Military Alert
For those in the military who want to protect their credit while deployed, this type of fraud alert lasts for one year.
To place a fraud alert on your credit reports, contact one of the nationwide credit reporting companies. A fraud alert is free. You must provide proof of your identity. The company you call must tell the other companies; they, in turn, will place an alert on their versions of your report.
To learn more, visit ftc.gov/idtheft .
What is a credit score?
Credit scoring is a system creditors use to help determine whether to give you credit. It also may be used to help decide the credit terms you are offered or the rate you will pay for the loan.
Information about you and your credit experiences, like your bill-paying history, the number and type of accounts you have, whether you pay your bills by the date they’re due, collection actions, outstanding debt, and the age of your accounts, is collected from your credit report. Using a statistical program, creditors compare this information to the loan repayment history of consumers with similar profiles. For example, a credit scoring system awards points for each factor that helps predict who is most likely to repay a debt. The total number of points — a credit score — helps predict how creditworthy you are: how likely it is that you will repay a loan and make the payments when they’re due. A higher credit score is taken to mean you are less of a risk, which, in turn, means you are more likely to get credit or insurance — or pay less for it.
What factors affect my credit score?
Credit scoring systems are complex and vary among creditors or insurance companies and for different types of credit or insurance. If one factor changes, your score may change — but improvement generally depends on how that factor relates to others the system considers. Only the business using the system knows what might improve your score under the particular model they use to evaluate your application.
Nevertheless, scoring models usually consider the following types of information in your credit report to help compute your credit score:
Have you paid your bills on time?
You can count on payment history to be a significant factor. If your credit report indicates that you have paid bills late, had an account referred to collections, or declared bankruptcy, it is likely to have a negative effect on your score.
Are you maxed out?
Many scoring systems evaluate the amount of debt you have compared to your credit limits. If the amount you owe is close to your credit limit, it’s likely to have a negative effect on your score.
How long have you had credit?
Generally, scoring systems consider your credit track record. An insufficient credit history may affect your score negatively, but factors like timely payments and low balances can offset that.
Have you applied for new credit lately?
Many scoring systems consider whether you have applied for credit recently by looking at “inquiries” on your credit report. If you have applied for too many new accounts recently, it could have a negative effect on your score. Every inquiry isn’t counted: for example, inquiries by creditors who are monitoring your account or looking at credit reports to make “prescreened” credit offers are not considered liabilities.
How many credit accounts do you have and what kinds of accounts are they?
Although it is generally considered a plus to have established credit accounts, too many credit card accounts may have a negative effect on your score. In addition, many scoring systems consider the type of credit accounts you have. For example, under some scoring models, loans from finance companies may have a negative effect on your credit score.
Scoring models may be based on more than the information in your credit report. When you are applying for a mortgage loan, for example, the system may consider the amount of your down payment, your total debt, and your income, among other factors.
Improving your score significantly is likely to take some time, but it can be done. To improve your credit score under most systems, focus on paying your bills in a timely way, paying down any outstanding balances, and staying away from new debt.
To learn more, read How Credit Scores Affect the Price of Credit and Insurance at consumer.ftc.gov .
What are my options for dealing with debt?
Many people face a financial crisis at some point in their lives. Whether the crisis is caused by illness, the loss of a job, or overspending, it can seem overwhelming. But often, it can be overcome. Your financial situation doesn’t have to go from bad to worse.
If you get into financial hot water, there are options: credit counseling from a reputable organization, debt consolidation, or bankruptcy. Which path works best for you depends on your level of debt, your level of discipline, and your prospects for the future.
Contact your creditors immediately if you ever have trouble making ends meet. Tell them why it’s difficult for you to pay your bills, and try to work out a modified payment plan that reduces your payments to a manageable level. Don’t wait until your accounts have been turned over to a debt collector. At that point, your creditors have given up on you.
To learn more, read Coping with Debt at consumer.ftc.gov .
Got bad credit?
Steer clear of credit repair scams
You see the ads in newspapers, on TV, and online. You hear them on the radio. You get fliers in the mail, email messages, and maybe even calls offering credit repair services. They all make the same claims:
Credit problems? No problem!
We can remove bankruptcies, judgments, liens, and bad loans from your credit file forever!
We can erase your bad credit — 100% guaranteed.
Create a new credit identity — legally.
 Don’t believe these claims: they’re very likely signs of a scam. Indeed, attorneys at the Federal Trade Commission, the nation’s consumer protection agency, say they’ve never seen a legitimate credit repair operation making those claims. The fact is there’s no quick fix for creditworthiness. No one can legally remove accurate and timely negative information from a credit report. You can improve your credit report legitimately, but it takes time, a conscious effort, and sticking to a personal debt repayment plan.
To learn more read, Credit Repair Scams at
consumer.ftc.gov .
For more information
The FTC works to prevent fraudulent, deceptive and unfair business practices in the marketplace and to provide information to help consumers spot, stop and avoid them. To file a complaint or get free information on consumer issues, visit ftc.gov or call toll-free, 1-877-FTC-HELP (1-877-382-4357); TTY: 1-866-653-4261.
Watch a video, How to File a Complaint, at consumer.ftc.gov/media to learn more. The FTC enters consumer complaints into the Consumer Sentinel Network, a secure online database and investigative tool used by hundreds of civil and criminal law enforcement agencies in the U.S. and abroad.
Contributors and Attributions
- Authored by : Federal Trade Commission. Located at : www.consumer.ftc.gov/articles/pdf-0032-building-a-better-credit-report.pdf. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright


7.5: The Case of the Moratorium on the Death Penalty
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The goal of abolishing the death penalty is a key aspiration of human rights activism. It is a contemporary example of how initiatives backed by civil society organisations can have lasting impact. While the topic of the death penalty has been debated for centuries, it is only in recent decades that significant institutional changes have occurred, with a number of countries removing capital punishment from their legal systems. The anti-death penalty stance only managed to gain importance at the United Nations level due to the specific transnational mobilisation of civil society organisations. While earlier activism contributed to creating the right political context at the national level, it was the campaign for a moratorium on the death penalty that specifically targeted the United Nations. This ultimately led to a significant UN General Assembly resolution in 2007 that was reconfirmed several times in subsequent years. In themselves, the resolutions and the changed attitude of a number of states are remarkable achievements in terms of human rights promotion, even if the death penalty still remains in some states.
The campaign developed through a multi-stage process of normative promotion. It began in a specific place – Italy. It then became stronger by ‘going transnational’ via civil society organisations networking together and sharing resources and ideas. The campaign then returned to the national domains so that key target states could be persuaded to back it. Finally, the campaign targeted the United Nations, where it successfully achieved the backing of the General Assembly. The dynamics of the process cannot be fully captured without making clear the part played by tactics of persuasion. Humanitarian diplomacy developed by civil society organisations through persuasion activities remains key. In this case the undertaking featured two main components. First, the idea of the right to life was communicated persuasively as a desirable outcome – something that attached well to several already popular international agendas. Second, an empathic process was generated by using powerful narratives drawn from individual cases. These were mainly stories told by people previously sentenced to death and now pardoned, or moving accounts by their relatives. In both cases, civil society organisations played a central role as either reason-based frame creators or emotion-based narrative disseminators. They played an important role as an alternative and/or adjunct to diplomatic politics and achieved a clear and lasting impact at the international level.


<IP_ADDRESS>: Poorly Integrated Quote
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Any teacher who has ever assigned and graded writing has probably complained about this error. Too often, beginning writers will simply “plop” a quote into a paragraph without any setup or context. This is incredibly confusing for your readers, so it’s important to make sure you smoothly integrate your quotes into the sentences around the quote.
Although there are no “rules” for such things, it’s always a good idea to provide a phrase of some kind to set up your quote and some commentary after your quote to make sure your readers understand the relevance of the quote. Otherwise, you may end up with a quote like this:
Albert Einstein was a great man and a great scientist. He was one of the most advanced thinkers of our age. “The important thing is not to stop questioning. Curiosity has its own reason for existing” (Einstein Quotes, 2012).
Here, it feels like the quote is just dropped in without a clear context. If you struggle with quote integration, you’ll want to check out lessons on effective source integration.


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10.1: What is Network Analysis?
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Generally speaking, network analysis is any structured technique used to mathematically analyze a circuit (a “network” of interconnected components). Quite often the technician or engineer will encounter circuits containing multiple sources of power or component configurations which defy simplification by series/parallel analysis techniques. In those cases, he or she will be forced to use other means. This chapter presents a few techniques useful in analyzing such complex circuits.
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10.2: Branch Current Method
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he first and most straightforward network analysis technique is called the Branch Current Method. In this method, we assume directions of currents in a network, then write equations describing their relationships to each other through Kirchhoff’s and Ohm’s Laws. Once we have one equation for every unknown current, we can solve the simultaneous equations and determine all currents, and therefore all voltage drops in the network.
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10.3: Mesh Current Method and Analysis
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The Mesh Current Method, also known as the Loop Current Method, is quite similar to the Branch Current method in that it uses simultaneous equations, Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, and Ohm’s Law to determine unknown currents in a network. It differs from the Branch Current method in that it does not use Kirchhoff’s Current Law, and it is usually able to solve a circuit with less unknown variables and less simultaneous equations, which is especially nice if you’re forced to solve without a calculator.
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10.4: Node Voltage Method
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The node voltage method of analysis solves for unknown voltages at circuit nodes in terms of a system of KCL equations. This analysis looks strange because it involves replacing voltage sources with equivalent current sources. Also, resistor values in ohms are replaced by equivalent conductances in siemens, G = 1/R. The siemens (S) is the unit of conductance, having replaced the mho unit. In any event S = Ω-1. And S = mho (obsolete).
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10.5: Introduction to Network Theorems
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10.6: Millman’s Theorem
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In Millman’s Theorem, the circuit is re-drawn as a parallel network of branches, each branch containing a resistor or series battery/resistor combination. Millman’s Theorem is applicable only to those circuits which can be re-drawn accordingly.
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10.7: Superposition Theorem
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Superposition theorem is one of those strokes of genius that takes a complex subject and simplifies it in a way that makes perfect sense. A theorem like Millman’s certainly works well, but it is not quite obvious why it works so well. Superposition, on the other hand, is obvious.
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10.8: Thevenin’s Theorem
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Thevenin’s Theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit, no matter how complex, to an equivalent circuit with just a single voltage source and series resistance connected to a load. The qualification of “linear” is identical to that found in the Superposition Theorem, where all the underlying equations must be linear (no exponents or roots). If we’re dealing with passive components (such as resistors, and later, inductors and capacitors), this is true. However, there are som
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10.9: Norton’s Theorem
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10.10: Thevenin-Norton Equivalencies
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Since Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems are two equally valid methods of reducing a complex network down to something simpler to analyze, there must be some way to convert a Thevenin equivalent circuit to a Norton equivalent circuit, and vice versa (just what you were dying to know, right?). Well, the procedure is very simple.
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10.11: Millman’s Theorem Revisited
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10.12: Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
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The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is not so much a means of analysis as it is an aid to system design. Simply stated, the maximum amount of power will be dissipated by a load resistance when that load resistance is equal to the Thevenin/Norton resistance of the network supplying the power. If the load resistance is lower or higher than the Thevenin/Norton resistance of the source network, its dissipated power will be less than the maximum.
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10.13: Δ-Y and Y-Δ Conversions
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7: Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions
This chapter will describe how to symbolize chemical reactions using chemical equations, how to classify some common chemical reactions by identifying patterns of reactivity, and how to determine the quantitative relations between the amounts of substances involved in chemical reactions—that is, the reaction stoichiometry .
Contributors
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Paul Flowers (University of North Carolina - Pembroke), Klaus Theopold (University of Delaware) and Richard Langley (Stephen F. Austin State University) with contributing authors. Textbook content produced by OpenStax College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license. Download for free at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>).


10.2: Regulations
Student Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
- Differentiate between the primary sources of drinking water contamination
- Evaluate the water quality sampling requirements within a distribution system
- Summarize the main federal and state water quality regulatory citations
- Explain the role the American Waterworks association plays in terms of water quality standards
Is My Water Safe to Drink?
One of the biggest questions and concerns people have is whether or not their tap water is safe to drink. However, sometimes there is confusion between the taste, odor, and appearance of the water and the actual “safety” of the water. Many times these two things are not one and the same. Tap water can be discolored, smell strange, and have an odd taste, but from a health and safety standpoint, the water might be perfectly fine. Explaining this to a customer can be a very challenging task. Conversely, a glass of water might be crystal clear and have no apparent taste or odor and could be potentially unsafe (non-potable) for human consumption.
So, how does a water quality professional handle variability in the quality of drinking water? There are several things (tools in a toolbox) water treatment and distribution operators use to make sure the water they are providing to millions of people is safe and to a certain extent “pleasant” to drink. The word pleasant is placed in quotes because things like taste, odor, and color can be very subjective characteristics in terms of drinking water quality.
The tools water utility professionals use can be explained in four main categories; regulations, treatment, testing, and maintenance. Each one of these will be explained throughout this chapter, but below is a concise explanation of each one.
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Regulations – Drinking water quality regulations might be the number one component to ensure a safe drinking water supply is being provided to water utility customers. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) is tasked with providing minimum drinking water standards for water utilities throughout the United States to adhere to. These drinking water regulations are found in the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). Among other things, the SDWA sets minimum levels for a variety of contaminants in drinking water.
- USEPA Safe Drinking Water Act
- California Safe Drinking Water Act
- Treatment – Within the SDWA, there are rules and regulations regarding the treatment requirements at drinking water treatment plants. Along with the minimum contaminant levels, there are various treatment technologies for drinking water treatment plants.
- Testing – The SDWA also spells out testing requirements for water utilities at treatment plants, at the various sources of supply, and within distribution systems. Additional sampling is also common for a variety of other reasons not spelled out in the regulations. Collecting and analyzing water quality samples is not only a regulatory requirement, it is used by treatment and distribution operators for monitoring and predicting water quality.
- Maintenance – Maintenance (especially within distribution systems) goes a long way with improving and maintaining good water quality. Some of the more common distribution maintenance tasks associated with improving and maintaining good water quality are flushing of water mains and cycling the level of water in storage tanks.
Providing and maintaining a safe supply of drinking water to customers is a primary responsibility of all water utilities. This is achieved through the items discussed above as well as a collaborative and coordinated effort between water utility staff, regulators, and the public receiving this vital resource.
In addition to the regulatory requirements, the American Water Association (AWWA) provides a variety of standards and guidance to water utilities. AWWA is an international, nonprofit, scientific, and educational organization. It was established in 1881 and is the largest Association of water supply professionals in the world. The recent State Water Resources Control Board Division of Drinking Water’s (DDW) waterworks standards were revised in 2008 and most were based on AWWA recommendations and standards.
Sources of Contamination
There are a number of naturally occurring and manmade contaminants, which can be found in water supplies. These contaminants can be broken down into four (4) main categories; physical, biological, chemical, and radiological. Because the sources of drinking water supply vary from region to region, the contaminants present in one part of the world are not necessarily found in other parts of the world. For example, a constituent, such as fluoride, is temperature-dependent and therefore is not typically found in groundwater supplies in cooler regions but may be found in warmer climate regions.
Physical Contamination
Most physical contaminants do not pose a direct health effect. They primarily impact the appearance of drinking water. Physical contamination is more commonly found in surface water supplies and often results from soil erosion. Sediments and organic material can wash off surrounding hillsides along lakes, rivers, and streams. These contaminants mostly affect the aesthetic quality of drinking water, such as taste, odor, and color. However, these types of contaminants can also impede the drinking water treatment process and can act as a barrier, protecting biological contaminants.
Biological Contamination
One of the most common contaminants water utilities collect samples and analyze are part of the biological class of contaminants. While only a few bacteriological organisms are pathogenic, this entire class of organisms can wreak havoc on a water system. From a public health standpoint, we are mainly concerned with the bacteriological and viral disease-causing (pathogenic) organisms. Since it can be difficult and costly to try and analyze all the different strands of viruses and bacterial organisms, which might find their way into a water system, an “indicator” organism is preferred. In drinking water supplies and systems, the indicator of choice is the total coliform group.
Pathogenic organisms include those derived from fecal contamination and viruses, which typically use bacteria as a host for replication. These disease-causing organisms that can be found in drinking water include, but are not limited to Escherichia coli (E. coli ) and various strains of Vibrio and Enterococcus, various enteroviruses, and parasites such as Cryptosporidium and Giardia . Most of these organisms find their way into a drinking water system through some type of contamination with fecal matter. Perhaps an animal feed lot is upstream from a water supply or an underground sewer collection system is leaking next to a drinking water underground well. Therefore, the main source for these contaminants is human or animal feces.
All of these potential contaminants are routinely monitored through a regulation called the Total Coliform Rule (TCR). In 2013 and 2014, revisions to the 1989 TCR were implemented in order to improve public health. The TCR is now referred to as the Revised Total Coliform Rule (RTCR). Total coliforms are a group of related bacteria, which are (with few exceptions) not harmful to humans. Therefore, the USEPA has identified this group of organisms to represent an indicator for a variety of bacteria, viruses, and parasites which are known pathogens and can cause health problems in humans if they are ingested.
Revised Total Coliform Rule
The USEPA published the Revised Total Coliform Rule (RTCR) in the Federal Register on February 13, 2013 (78 FR 10269) and minor corrections on February 26, 2014 (79 FR 10665). Promulgation of the RTCR began on April 1, 2016.
Most of the major provisions of the TCR stay in place and include:
- Collecting total coliform (TC) samples at representative locations throughout the distribution system.
- Samples must be collected at regular intervals.
- Numbers of samples collected are based on the size of the population the water utility serves.
- Repeat sampling is required for positive results, which include analysis of E. coli .
Details of the TCR can be found in the USEPA’s Total Coliform Rule: A Quick Reference Guide .
The main changes to the RTCR include the following:
- Setting a maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG) and maximum contaminant level (MCL) for E. coli .
- Setting a TC treatment technique (TT).
- Requirements for assessments and corrective actions.
- Specific language in the annual Consumer Confidence Reports (CCR) for violations.
Details of the RTCR can be found in the USEPA’s Revised Total Coliform Rule: A Quick Reference Guide .
There are a number of different provisions within each rule and depending on the size of the utility, there are different requirements. In general, every TC positive sample must be followed up with analysis of E. coli and repeat samples are also required. At least three (3) repeat samples are required for every TC positive sample. The repeat samples must be collected within 24 hours of learning about the positive TC result. The repeat samples must be collected from the same sample location and within five (5) service connections upstream and downstream of the original sample location. There are additional requirements, but more detail is beyond the scope of this text.
Chemical Contamination
There are many different chemicals used in the world for a variety of different things. For example, arsenic is used to preserve wood and prevent rotting and chromium is used in chrome plating processes. While chemicals are commonly used in various manmade processes, they are also found naturally occurring in the environment. Regardless of the source of contamination (naturally occurring or manmade), if they pose a threat to public health they also need to be regulated if they are found in drinking water supplies. Within this group of contaminants, there are two main categories; inorganic and organic. The main difference between these two categories is the absence of carbon with inorganic chemicals and the presence of carbon with organic chemicals. Below is a short list of common contaminants found in drinking water supplies within both categories.
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Common Inorganic Chemicals – While most of these inorganic chemicals can be found naturally occurring in water supplies, with the exception of arsenic, most are the result of contamination from human activities.
- Arsenic (As) – As previously mentioned, one of the main uses of arsenic is preserving wood. Arsenic is also commonly found naturally in groundwater supplies, especially in the southwest.
- Nitrate (NO3) – While nitrate can be found naturally occurring, these levels are relatively harmless. The primary sources of nitrate in drinking water are from fertilizers and contamination from sewage.
- Chromium (Cr) – Chromium is used in plating processes and can also be found naturally in the environment. One of the unique things about chromium is it is found in two common oxidative states, Cr III and Cr VI.
- Lead – Lead is most commonly found in plumbing systems, although the allowable levels are being reduced because of the significant health effects. The main reason lead was used in plumbing supplies is because of its malleability.
- Copper – Copper is also most commonly found in plumbing supplies
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Common Organic Chemicals – The organic chemicals found in drinking water supplies are referred to as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and synthetic organic compounds (SOCs). While they can be found naturally occurring, the majority of the VOCs and SOCs found in drinking water supplies are from manmade chemicals.
- Trichloroethylene (TCE) – TCE is a common solvent used as a degreaser
- Tetrachloroethylene (PCE) – PCE is a common solvent used in dry cleaning
- Methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) – A gasoline additive to help improve air quality
Drinking Water Standards
In order to make sure contaminants are limited or kept at levels below those which would pose health effects to consumers, there are a number of regulatory standards in the SDWA. In addition to the federal SDWA, some states have their own set of standards water utilities must adhere to. In California under Title of the California Code of Regulations, there is the California Safe Drinking Water Act (CSDWA). The difference between federal and state drinking water regulations is the ability of state regulations to be more stringent than federal regulations. This means that the CSDWA can have regulatory levels for contaminants set at a lower level than the federal SDWA. They cannot be set higher. Within the SDWA, contaminants are separated into two main categories, primary drinking water standards and secondary drinking water standards. Primary standards are for those chemicals which pose a public health threat. Secondary standards are for contaminants, which have aesthetic effects on the water supply.
The USEPA goes through an extensive process in order to determine if a contaminant needs to be regulated under the SDWA. There are three (3) main criteria the USEPA considers in order to make a regulatory determination. They determine whether or not the contaminant meets the following criteria:
- The contaminant may have an adverse effect on the health of persons
- The contaminant is known to occur or there is a substantial likelihood the contaminant will occur in public water systems with a frequency and at levels of public health concern
- In the sole judgment of the Administrator, regulation of the contaminant presents a meaningful opportunity for health risk reductions for persons served by public water systems
Once the USEPA identifies whether or not a contaminant needs to be regulated, further evaluation is required to determine the technical and economical feasibility of regulating the contaminant. During this process, a non-enforceable level is usually established. This non-enforceable level is referred to as a Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG). MCLGs are set at levels which no known or anticipated adverse health effect would occur. The next step is to develop an enforceable standard referred to as a Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL). MCLs are set as close to the MCLG as is feasible. The SDWA defines “feasible” as the level that may be achieved with the use of the best available technology or treatment techniques the USEPA finds available (under field conditions and not solely under laboratory conditions), taking cost into consideration. The USEPA can establish a regulatory treatment technique when there is no reliable method that is economically and technically feasible to measure a contaminant.
In addition to MCLs and MCLGs, there are other acronyms related to drinking water quality regulations. These include the following:
- PHG – Public Health Goals are similar to MCLGs. They are California non-enforceable standards where an MCL does not exist.
- AL – Action Levels are set for certain contaminants where an MCL does not exist and some type of response (action) is required by the water utility if an AL is exceeded
- DLR – Laboratories are tasked with analyzing contaminants. As laboratory techniques improve, these levels become smaller (lower) over time. The Detection Limit for Reporting is set at a level laboratories can accurately reproduce with the current method of analysis.
The level of a contaminant is expressed using a ratio of units. The most common units used to express levels of contaminants are the following:
- Milligram per liter (mg/L)
- Microgram per liter (ug/L)
- Nanogram per liter (ng/L)
The above examples express the weight of the contaminant in a liter of water. Therefore, a level of 10 mg/L means that for every liter of water there are 10 mg of a substance. Sometimes, alternative units of measure are used. These alternatives are the following:
- Parts per million (ppm) = mg/L
- Parts per billion (ppb) = ug/L
- Parts per trillion (ppt) = ng/L
These units mean for every part of a contaminant there are a million, billion, or trillion parts of water. For example, a level of 10 ppm (same as 10 mg/L) means that for every million parts of water, there are 10 parts of the substance.
While it is not required for water distribution operators to memorize drinking water quality standards (MCLs), it is important for them and especially the water quality professionals to have a general understanding of the main contaminants within their water supply. In addition, it is important for water quality professionals such as water quality technicians, specialists, supervisors, and managers to understand the health effects associated with common contaminants. Some of the more commonly found primary contaminants in drinking include the following:
Nitrate
Nitrate – MCL = 45 mg/L as NO3 or 10 mg/L as N – The reason there are two MCLs for nitrate is because the value can be expressed as actual amount of nitrate (NO3) or expressed as the total amount of nitrogen (N).
- Source – The primary source of nitrate in drinking water is from fertilizers. This is especially present in areas where there is or was agriculture present. Nitrate can also occur as a result of contamination from animal or human sewage waste.
- Health Effects – The primary health effect associated with elevated levels of nitrate in drinking water is something referred to as “blue baby syndrome”. The medical diagnosis is methemoglobinemia. It is a condition, which effects the body’s ability to release oxygen to tissues. Infants six (6) months old and younger are particularly susceptible.
Arsenic
Arsenic – MCL = 10 ug/L
- Source – Arsenic is found naturally in certain geologic formations and is also used in some industries. One common use is a preservative for wood products.
- Health Effects – Studies have linked long-term exposure to arsenic in drinking water to cancer of the bladder, lungs, skin, kidney, nasal passages, liver, and prostate. Non-cancer effects of ingesting arsenic include cardiovascular, pulmonary, immunological, neurological, and endocrine effects.
Radiological Compounds
There are several types of radiological compounds found in drinking water supplies and include; uranium, strontium, total alpha, and total beta.
- Source – The primary source of radiological compounds in drinking water is naturally occurring geologic formations. Accidental or intentional releases from human activities is a rare occurrence.
- Health Effects – Elevated levels of radiological compounds in drinking water can increase the risk of kidney damage.
Lead and Copper
Lead and Copper – AL = 15 ug/L for Lead (Pb) and 1,300 ug/L for Copper (Cu) – Lead and copper contamination does not typically occur in the source water or even in the distribution system of drinking water systems. The primary source of lead and copper contamination occurs in internal plumbing systems. Lead and copper are commonly used in the manufacturing of plumbing supplies and can leach out into drinking water. Therefore in 1991, the Lead and Copper Rule (LCR) was passed. The LCR requires water utilities to collect samples for lead and copper within customer homes. While lead and copper is not as common within distribution systems, it is an issue in older communities where lead service laterals and other materials were commonly used. The most recent discovery of lead contamination within a distribution system was in 2014 in Flint, Michigan. As a result, the LCR is going through a number of different revisions.
- Health Effects – The primary effects of copper in drinking water are related to gastrointestinal issues. However, the effects of lead in drinking water are far worse and include damage to the brain, red blood cells, and kidney.
As previously mentioned, secondary drinking water contaminants are not health related. The problems associated with secondary contaminants can be grouped into three categories:
- Aesthetic effects – undesirable tastes or odors
- Cosmetics effects – effects which do not damage the body but are still undesirable
- Technical effects – damage to water equipment or reduced effectiveness of treatment for other contaminants
The periodic table lists the various chemical substances that can be found in water supplies. Below is an image of the periodic table with many of the ions mentioned below circled for reference.
Contaminants related to color, odor and taste (aesthetic) include, Chloride (Cl), Copper (Cu), Foaming Agents, Iron (Fe), pH, Sulfate (SO4), Manganese (Mn), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), and Zinc (Zn).
Contaminants related to cosmetic effects include, Silver (Ag) and Fluoride (F).
Contaminants related to technical effects include, Chloride, Copper, Corrosivity, Iron, Manganese, pH, and Total Dissolved Solids.
Some of the chemical contaminants listed above are compounds or in the case of TDS, are a combination of ions. Sulfate for example is a sulfur ion combined with four (4) oxygen atoms. TDS represents a number of different constituents which include but are not limited to calcium, magnesium, sulfate, chloride, as well as others.
Disinfection
One of the most critical processes in the area of water quality is the ability to control the growth and regrowth of pathogenic organisms throughout the distribution system. This process is commonly handled through disinfection. By definition, disinfection is the process of cleaning something, especially with a chemical, in order to destroy bacteria. Disinfection should not be confused with other processes such as sanitation or sterilization. Sanitation is the process to make something clean, but it doesn’t necessarily target disease causing organisms and sterilization is the process of ridding something of all bacteria. The goal of drinking water disinfection is to destroy pathogenic organisms in order to make it safe for human consumption. This process is commonly achieved through the use of chlorine and chlorine related compounds or other oxidants.
Physical Disinfectants
While not common, microorganisms can be inactivated in water supplies through physical means. These include, but are not limited to ultraviolent rays, heat, and ultra-sonic waves. While all of these are physical means of inactivating harmful organisms, they lack something chlorine and chlorine related compounds provide. These processes are good at the time of use but provide no long term protection from regrowth.
Non-chlorine Disinfectants
Chemicals such as iodine, bromine, various bases (alkaline chemicals), and ozone are good oxidizing agents, but each one has limitations when it comes to drinking water disinfection. Iodine has been used for years to disinfect cuts and skin abrasions and in low doses it can be used to disinfect drinking water. However, because of the high costs and potential physiological effects on pregnant women, it is not used in drinking water. Bromine is commonly used in swimming pools and spas, but because of safety related issues with handling the chemical it is not used in drinking water. An example of a base that can be used as a disinfectant is sodium hydroxide. It is also commonly used to disinfect cuts and skin abrasions, but it leaves a bitter taste if it is ingested and is not suitable for drinking water disinfection. Ozone is a great disinfectant for drinking water under certain instances. It is primarily used in the drinking water treatment process to control taste and odor and to reduce the amount of total organic carbon prior to treatment. The main problem with ozone is it does not leave a residual, is difficult to store, and is expensive.
Chlorine and Chlorine Related Compounds
Chlorine has been used in the United States to disinfect drinking water for over 100 years. It does a great job at inactivating pathogenic organisms and leaves a residual preventing regrowth throughout the distribution system. In its natural state, chlorine is a gas with a greenish-yellow color. There are other chlorine related compounds such as calcium hypochlorite (solid) and sodium hypochlorite (liquid) commonly used to disinfect drinking water. In addition to chlorine and these related compounds, chlorine is often combined with ammonia to create chloramine. Chloramine is also an efficient disinfectant. One of the major drawbacks to using chlorine as a disinfectant is the potential creation of disinfection by-products such as total tri-halomethanes and halo-acetic acids
Distribution System Water Quality
As water makes its way through the distribution system, distribution operators need to be able to maintain the quality of the water. Water quality can degrade within a distribution system for a number of reasons, including but not limited to age of water, temperature of water, lack of a disinfectant residual, pH, various reducing agents, and microorganisms. Maintaining a disinfectant residual within distribution systems is an important responsibility for distribution operators. Sampling, monitoring, and various maintenance activities can help with maintaining a disinfectant residual.
Distribution Sampling
The SDWA states how many and where water quality samples need to be collected. In addition, state regulators such as DDW may also require additional sampling based on vulnerabilities and other water quality related issues.
All sources of supply must be sampled routinely for bacteriological, inorganic chemicals, organic chemicals, and radiological contaminants. Each group of contaminants and some individual contaminants have different sampling intervals and procedures. For example, VOCs are required to be sampled at each source annually unless there is a positive detection, in which case they need to be sampled quarterly.
Sampling within the distribution system is also required. However, there are far fewer constituents, which need to be sampled in distributions systems. The main contaminants which are required to be sampled for in distribution systems are bacteriological as part of the TCR and disinfection by-products. If you think about this, it makes sense. If you sample source water for VOCs for example, you would not need to sample for VOCs again in the distribution system. The reason for this is because VOCs do not develop in the distribution system. In contrast, in the absence of a disinfectant residual, bacteria can regrow in a distribution system and disinfection by-products may form in a distribution system under certain conditions.
As part of the TCR, water utilities prepare sample siting plans. These plans identify the number of customers the utility serves, which in turn determines how many samples must be collected for total coliform bacteria. The sample locations and sampling frequency are also identified in these plans. Larger utilities can be required to sample dozens of locations on a weekly basis for total coliform bacteria as part of the TCR, while smaller utilities may just have to sample a few locations a month. At each location the disinfectant residual is also analyzed. This data can help determine if there is the potential for a problem within the distribution system. Let’s take a look at a hypothetical example. Suppose ten (10) locations per week are being sampled for total coliform bacteria and a chlorine disinfectant residual. Over three weeks, all the total coliform results come back negative (absent of total coliform bacteria), but the sampler has noticed a downward trend in the chlorine residual level at one of the sample locations. This sort of information can indicate a potential problem and maybe the next total coliform sample at this site will come back positive. This scenario doesn’t necessarily mean something is wrong, but the sampler at least has data, which can be presented to other operators and may trigger some type of maintenance.
Distribution System Maintenance
Maintaining an efficient distribution system can help maintain good water quality. Water entering a distribution system from a source is routinely disinfected with a chemical such as chlorine. While the water travels through the distribution system the disinfectant will do its job by inactivating pathogenic organisms. As this occurs, the amount of chlorine in the system (residual) will reduce. The further the water travels, the lower the residual level. The water also becomes older as it travels through the distribution system and the water can become stagnant, resulting in discoloration, odors, and low chlorine residuals. One way to help keep a disinfectant level at acceptable levels is to help move the water through the system by flushing dead ends and areas furthest away from sources. By flushing and helping to move water through the distribution system, the water and with it the disinfectant residual travels faster through the distribution system and the water does not become stagnant
Sometimes, residuals drop very rapidly or cannot be maintained within a distribution system. This typically occurs when the initial dose of the disinfectant is not high enough at the source water, the water stays in the distribution system too long because of low use, or there is some other problem within the distribution system. When this occurs, distribution operators may choose to add a disinfectant in water storage tanks. Since disinfectants are added at the sources of supply they are typically found at higher levels in the distribution system around these sources. Storage tanks are commonly placed on the outer edges of distribution systems and if water demands (usage) are low, disinfectant residuals can drop below acceptable levels. This is when distribution operators can add disinfectants, such as calcium hypochlorite granules or liquid sodium hypochlorite to storage tanks. This will help improve disinfectant residuals within the tank and then in the distribution system as water is taken out of the tanks during times of usage.
Water Quality Violations
When a water utility does not comply with drinking water quality regulations a violation occurs. Since many states (including California) have their own set of regulations, the states are the primacy agency for enforcing drinking water quality regulations. This means the enforcement comes from the state instead of the USEPA. However, since some regulations are specifically promulgated by the USEPA, they would be the primacy agency for those regulations.
Included in the SDWA is something referred to as the Public Notification Rule (PN). This rule ensures consumers will know if there is a problem with their drinking water. These notices are intended to alert customers if there is a risk to public health. Customers are notified when:
- The water does not meet drinking water standards;
- If the system fails to test its water;
- If the system has been granted a variance (use of less costly technology); or
- If the system has been granted an exemption (more time to comply with a new regulation).
If a water utility cannot meet a drinking water standard, that is they exceed an MCL for a contaminant, in addition to notifying their customers, several things are commonly triggered:
- Resampling the water must occur. Depending on the contaminant, several resamples may be required.
- If these results confirm an MCL has been exceeded, then the source is usually taken out of service. There are some exceptions. Depending on the health effect, the primacy agency may allow the source to be blended in order to bring the level of the contaminant below the MCL.
- Depending on the health effect of the contaminant, the utility may be required to notify the public immediately. Other times if the health risk is minimal, the utility would be required to notify their customers in an annual consumer confidence report.
- Depending on the level and the health effect of the contaminant, the utility may be required to install some form of treatment in order to remove or lower the level of the contaminant
With some contaminants where a positive result occurs, but the level is below an MCL, additional monitoring is sometimes required. For example, nitrate has one of the more complex additional sampling requirements.
Nitrate Sampling Requirements
The SDWA states that nitrate must be sampled annually at each source entering the distribution system. If the result is more than half the MCL (>22.5 mg/L as NO3 or >5 mg/L as N) then quarterly sampling is required. Quarterly must continue until four (4) consecutive quarters yield results less than half the MCL.
Consumer Confidence Report (CCR)
The CCR is an annual report sent to all customers receiving water from a utility. This report provides information on the sources of supply, updates on new or emerging water quality regulations, health effects from contaminants found in their drinking water, levels for all contaminants found in the drinking water supply, and any violations which may have occurred. This CCR is very helpful in communicating to the public the safety of their water supply. The information within the report is from the prior calendar year and must be sent to all customers by July 1 of the following year. The report also must be provided in each language spoken within the utility service area if the population speaking that language is greater than ten (10%) percent of the total population.
Sample Questions
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CCR stands for ___________ and is provided to ___________.
- Consumer Confidence Regulations/all water utilities
- Customer Certification Requirements/all customers
- Consumer Confidence Report/only select customers
- Consumer Confidence Report/all customers
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Stagnant water in a distribution system can have the following qualities ___________.
- Discoloration
- Odor
- Low chlorine residual
- All of the above
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Tri-halomethane are considered ___________.
- Surface water contaminants
- By-products of the disinfection process
- Groundwater contaminants
- All of the above
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AWWA stands for ___________.
- American Water Workers Agency
- American Water Wage Association
- American Water Works Association
- None of the above
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Primary drinking water standards are considered ___________.
- Health-related
- Aesthetic-related
- Not enforceable
- Less important than secondary standards