3.3: The Hellenistic Era
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Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Explain the events that led to the rise of Alexander the Great
- Analyze Alexander the Great’s successes as a military and political leader
- Discuss the role that Alexander the Great’s conquests played in spreading Greek culture
The Classical period in Greece ended when Greece lost its freedom to the Kingdom of Macedon and Macedon’s king Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire . The period that followed Alexander’s death is known as the Hellenistic period (323–31 BCE). Alexander’s empire was divided among his top generals, including Seleucus , Ptolemy , and Antigonus . During this time, Greeks, also called Hellenes, ruled over and interacted with the populations of the former Persian Empire. The resulting mixture of cultures was neither Greek nor non-Greek but “Greek-like,” or Hellenistic , a term that refers to the flourishing and expansion of Greek language and culture throughout the Mediterranean and Near East during this period.
The Kingdom of Macedon
The ancient Kingdom of Macedon straddled today’s Greece and northern Macedonia . The Macedonians did not speak Greek but had adopted Greek culture in the Archaic period, and their royal family claimed to be descended from the mythical Greek hero Heracles .
King Philip II of Macedon, who reigned from 359 to 336 BCE, transformed the kingdom into a great power. He recruited common farmers and developed them into a formidable infantry, with trained aristocrats as cavalry. His tactical skills and diplomacy allowed Philip to secure control of new territory in Thrace (modern-day northern Greece and Bulgaria), which provided access to precious metals and thus the economic resources to expand his military power.
In 338 BCE, Athens and Thebes finally put decades of conflict aside to ally against the rising power of Macedon. At the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BCE), the Macedonians crushed this allied army. Philip sought to unite the Greek city-states under his leadership after this victory, and he organized them toward the goal of waging war against the Persian Empire. However, in 336 BCE, Philip was killed by an assassin with a personal grudge.
Philip II was succeeded by his twenty-year-old son Alexander III, later known as Alexander the Great, who immediately faced an invasion by Thracian tribes from the north and a rebellion in Greece led by Thebes and Athens. Within a year, the young king had crushed these opponents and announced he was carrying out his father’s plan to wage war against Persia. Darius III , the Persian king, amassed armies to face him, but they were mainly draftees from the subject peoples of the Persian Empire. At the battles of Issus (333 BCE) and Gaugamela (330 BCE), these forces collapsed against the Macedonians, commanded by Alexander himself.
At first, Alexander envisioned his campaign as a war of vengeance against Persia. Although he was Macedonian, he saw himself as a Hellene and often compared himself to the hero Achilles of the Iliad , from whom he claimed to be descended through his mother. In 330 BCE, Alexander’s forces sacked and later burned Persepolis, the jewel of the Persian Empire. After the assassination of Darius III by disgruntled Persian nobles that same year, however, Alexander claimed the Persian throne and introduced Persian customs to his court, such as having his subjects prostrate themselves before him. To consolidate his control of the Persian Empire, in 330–326 BCE he advanced his army deep into central Asia and to the Indus River valley (modern Pakistan) (Figure 6.23). In 326 BCE, his exhausted troops mutinied and refused to advance to the Ganges River in central India as Alexander desired. He led his army back to Babylon in Mesopotamia, where he died in 323 BCE at the age of thirty-three, probably due to the cumulative impact of injuries experienced during the campaign.
Dueling Voices
Why Did Alexander Burn Persepolis ?
When Alexander reached Persepolis after the Battle of Gaugamela, he saw what was possibly the most beautiful city in the entire Persian Empire. Over the centuries Darius, Xerxes, and others had adorned it with colorful palaces, public buildings, and artwork. Within a few months of his arrival, however, Alexander had reduced the once-stunning imperial city to ashes and ruins. Why?
Historians have pondered this question for thousands of years. Though there are several accounts, the earliest was penned centuries after the actual events. The most common explanation cites a long night of drunken revels and a Greek woman named Thaïs (Figure 6.24). This account is by the first-century BCE Greek historian Diodorus Siculus :
Alexander held games to celebrate his victories; he offered magnificent sacrifices to the gods and entertained his friends lavishly. One day when the Companions [fellow cavalry soldiers] were feasting, and intoxication was growing as the drinking went on, a violent madness took hold of these drunken men. One of the women present [Thaïs] declared that it would be Alexander’s greatest achievement in Asia to join in their procession and set fire to the royal palace, allowing women’s hands to destroy in an instant what had been the pride of the Persians.
— Diodorus of Sicily , Library of World History
Later Roman historians such as Quintus Curtius Rufus and Plutarch provide similar accounts, saying the fire was the result of an out-of-control party and lit at Thaïs’s insistence. But at least one ancient writer disagrees. Relying on sources from Ptolemy and other contemporaries of Alexander, the historian Arrian of Nicomedia makes no mention of Thaïs or a night of heavy drinking. In Anabasis , he says the destruction of the city was intentional, the product of calculated revenge “for their invasion of Greece...for the destruction of Athens, the burning of the temples, and all the other crimes they had committed against the Greeks.”
What really happened at Persepolis? Was Thaïs the instigator or merely the scapegoat? Thousands of years later we may be able only to speculate about the cause of this catastrophic event.
- Given what you’ve read, who do you think was responsible for the burning of Persepolis? Why?
- If Thaïs wasn’t responsible, why do you think some ancient historians were convinced of her culpability?
Though his Bactrian wife Roxane was pregnant when he died, Alexander had made no arrangements for a successor. Members of his court and his military commanders thus fought among themselves for control of the empire in what historians refer to as the Wars of the Successors . One of the more colorful contestants was Pyrrhus , who was not Macedonian but was the king of Epirus and Alexander’s cousin. Pyrrhus temporarily seized the throne of Macedon and attempted to carve out an empire for himself in Sicily and southern Italy. He never lost a battle, but he lost so many troops in a campaign defending Magna Graecia in southern Italy from Rome that he was never able to capitalize on his success. (Today the term pyrrhic victory refers to a win so costly that it is in effect a loss.) In 272 BCE, Pyrrhus died after being struck by a roof tile thrown at him by an elderly woman during a street battle in the city of Argos . His death marked the end of the wars among Alexander’s generals.
By the middle of the third century BCE, certain generals and their descendants were ruling as kings over different portions of Alexander’s empire (Figure 6.25). Antigonus and his descendants, the Antigonids , ruled Macedon and much of Greece. Some city-state s in Greece organized federal leagues to maintain their independence from Macedon. The Achaean League was in the Peloponnese and the Aetolian League in central Greece. Another Macedonian general, Ptolemy , was king of Egypt. To win the support of the Egyptian people, Ptolemy and his successors assumed the title of pharaoh and built temples to Egyptian gods. Yet another Macedonian general, Seleucus and his descendants, the Seleucids , ruled as kings over much of the former Persian Empire, from Asia Minor in the west to central Asia in the east. They adopted many practices of the Persian Empire, including honoring local gods, as revealed by cuneiform records of the offerings they made.
The Seleucid Kingdom was an enormous and complicated region, stretching from the Aegean Sea to today’s Afghanistan, with a population of some thirty million people of various ethnic and linguistic groups. Keeping control over the vast kingdom proved difficult, and some of the far eastern portions like Bactria and Parthia began to break away around 250 BCE. Both became separate Hellenistic kingdoms, ruled initially by former Greek governors of the areas. Around 200 BCE, the Bactrian kingdom invaded and conquered the Indus River valley. The most famous of the Bactrian kings of India was Menander I , whose kingdom stretched from the Indus River valley to the upper Ganges in central India. Menander converted to Buddhism and became a holy man, known in India as Milinda . The Greek colonists who settled in Bactria and India introduced their art into the region, which influenced Indian sculpture, painting, and architecture. By the end of the second century BCE, however, the Bactrian kingdom had collapsed due to constant civil wars between rival claimants to the throne. We know of their existence only through the coins they issued as kings (Figure 6.26).
In these Hellenistic kingdoms, where peace treaties and alliances could be secured through arranged marriages, elite women might achieve political power unimaginable in Classical Greece. In Egypt, for example, Ptolemy II married his sister Arsinoe , as was the custom for pharaohs, and installed her as co-ruler. Dynastic queens also often ruled when the designated heir was just a child. In 253 BCE, the Seleucid king Antiochus II ended his war for control of Syria with a treaty by which he married Berenice , the daughter of his opponent Ptolemy II. However, Antiochus’s former wife Laodice murdered Berenice and her children upon Antiochus’s death in 246 BCE to secure the succession for her own young son Seleucus II . Ptolemy III subsequently declared war to avenge the death of his sister and her children.
In 194 BCE, Antiochus III ended yet another war for control of Syria by giving his daughter Cleopatra I in marriage to Ptolemy V . Upon Ptolemy’s death in 180 BCE, Cleopatra ruled because their sons and daughter were still children. The most famous of the powerful Hellenistic queens was this Cleopatra’s descendant, Cleopatra VII , who reigned from 51 to 31 BCE. The last of the Ptolemies, Cleopatra VII reigned as co-ruler with her brothers Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV , as well as with Ptolemy XV , also called Caesarion , who was her son with the Roman general Julius Caesar .
Hellenistic Culture
A characteristic cultural feature of the Hellenistic period was the blending of Greek and other cultures of the former Persian Empire . The Seleucid and Ptolemaic dynasties both employed Greeks and Macedonians as soldiers and bureaucrats in their empires. Alexander the Great and subsequent Hellenistic kings founded Greek cities in the former Persian Empire for Greek and Macedonian colonists, often naming them in honor of themselves or their queens. These cities included the institutions of the Greek cities of their homeland—temples to Greek gods, theaters, agora (marketplaces), and gymnasia—so the colonists could feel at home in their new environment. At the site of Ai Khanum in modern Afghanistan, archaeologists have uncovered the impressive remains of one such Hellenistic city with a gymnasium.
Alexandria in Egypt, founded by Alexander himself in 331 BCE, was the capital of the Ptolemaic kingdom and the largest Hellenistic city, with a population that reached one million. There the Ptolemies founded the Museon , or “home of the Muses,” from which the term “museum” derives. They modeled this on Aristotle’s Lyceum , as a center for scientific research and literary studies. These same kings also patronized the Alexandrian Library , where they assembled the largest collection of books in the ancient world. Antioch , in today’s southeastern Turkey, was the largest city of the Seleucid kingdom, with a population of half a million. In cities such as Alexandria and Antioch, the Greek-speaking population became integrated with the indigenous population.
Most Greek cities in this period were no longer independent since they were usually under the control of one of the Hellenistic kingdoms. The city-state s of the Achaean and Aetolian Leagues in Greece were the exception, fiercely maintaining their independence against the Antigonid rulers of Macedon. Having lost the right of self-government, many Greeks in cities under the rule of kings no longer focused on politics and diplomacy but turned to the search for personal happiness. New religions emerged that promised earthly contentment and eternal life and combined Greek and non-Greek elements. For example, the worship of the Egyptian goddess Isis became common in many Hellenistic cities.
Mithras was a Persian sun god worshiped by the Medes, but in the second century BCE, Greeks in Hellenistic cities came to believe Mithras would lead them, too, to eternal life. His followers built special chapels decorated with symbols whose meaning is still disputed. The emphasis on secret religious rituals, or mysteries , about which followers were sworn to silence, lends the worship of Isis and Mithras in this period the name mystery religions (Figure 6.27).
Another religion practiced in Hellenistic cities was Judaism , whose followers included migrant Jewish people and new converts. By the second century BCE, the Hebrew Bible had been translated into Greek under the Ptolemies, since ancient Judea was within their control for much of the Hellenistic period and many Jewish people had immigrated to Alexandria.
Some Greeks preferred new philosophies to religion as a means to achieve happiness. Hellenistic philosophy emphasized the search for internal peace and contentment. Stoicism , for example, maintained that the universe was governed by divine reason ( Logos ), which determined the fate of all people. Happiness therefore resulted from learning how to cope with life and accepting fate while avoiding extreme negative emotions such as fear and anger. Epicureans , however, maintained that the key to happiness was to avoid physical and mental pain by pursuing pleasure. The founders of these two philosophical schools, Zeno and Epicurus respectively, both lived in the early third century BCE and taught in Athens , which continued to be a center of learning in this period. The Stoics were so named because Zeno instructed his students in the stoa poikile , or “painted porch” in the Athenian agora . The mystery religions and philosophies of the Hellenistic era continued to flourish as these cities became incorporated into the expanding Roman Empire.


5.14: Network Security
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- Ly-Huong T. Pham, Tejal Desai-Naik, Laurie Hammond, & Wael Abdeljabbar
- ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)
Security Threats
Network security is an indispensable piece of computer networking today, whether or not the network is restricted to a home domain with a solitary connection with the Internet or as extensive as an organization with many users. The network security that is executed must consider the environment, just as the system's devices and prerequisites. It must have the option to keep the data secure while considering the quality of service anticipated from the network.
Ensuring a network is secure includes technologies, protocols, devices, tools, and techniques to keep data secure and moderate threat vectors. Threat vectors might be external or internal. Numerous external network security threats today are spread over the Internet.
The most widely recognized external threats to networks include:
- Viruses, worms, and Trojan horses- malignant programming and subjective code running on a client device
- Spyware and adware - software installed on a user device that covertly gathers data about the user Zero-day attacks, likewise called zero-hour attacks - an assault that happens on a principal day that a defenselessness gets known
- Hacker attacks- an assault by an educated individual to user devices or network assets
- Denial of service attacks- assaults intended to slow or crash applications and procedures on a network device
- Data interception and theft - an assault to catch private data from an association's network
- Identity theft- an assault to take the login qualifications of a user to get to private information
It is similarly critical to think about internal threats. There have been numerous examinations showing that the most well-known data breaches happen due to the network's internal users. This can be credited to lost or taken devices, inadvertent abuse by workers, and in the business condition, even malignant representatives. With the advancing BYOD systems, corporate information is considerably more powerless. Accordingly, it is critical to address both outside and interior security dangers when building up a security strategy.
Security Solutions
No single arrangement can shield the network from the many threats that exist. Consequently, security ought to be implemented in various layers, utilizing more than one security arrangement. If one part of the security fails to recognize and shield the network, others will stand.
A home network security execution is typically rather essential. It is commonly executed on the interfacing end devices, just as connected with the Internet, and can even depend on contracted services from the ISP.
Conversely, the network security implementation for a corporate network, for the most part, comprises numerous segments incorporated with the network to screen and channel traffic.
In a perfect world, all segments cooperate, which limits maintenance and improves overall security.
Network security parts for a home or little office network should at least incorporate the following:
- Antivirus and antispyware: These are utilized to shield end devices from getting contaminated with vindictive software.
- Firewall filtering: This is utilized to prevent unapproved access to the network. This may incorporate a host-based firewall system that is actualized to forestall unapproved access to the end device or an essential separating service on the home router to keep unapproved access from the outside world into the network.
Bigger networks and corporate networks frequently have other security necessities:
- Dedicated firewall systems: These are utilized to develop further firewall abilities that can channel a lot of traffic with greater granularity.
- Access control lists (ACL): These are utilized to channel access and traffic sending additionally.
- Intrusion prevention systems (IPS): These are utilized to distinguish quick-spreading dangers, for example, zero-day or zero-hour assaults.
- Virtual Private Networks (VPN): These are utilized to give secure access to telecommuters.
Networks security necessities must consider the network condition, just like the different applications and processing prerequisites. Both home situations and organizations must have the option to secure their data yet consider the quality of service that is anticipated from every innovation. Furthermore, the security arrangement executed must be versatile to the developing and changing trends of the network.
The study of network security dangers and relief strategies begins with a concise understanding of the underlying switching and routing infrastructure utilized to organize network services.


1.4: Moonrise, Moonset
Moonrise, Moonset
As Earth orbits the Sun, the Moon orbits Earth. [“Earth, Moon and Sun system” by Siyavula Education , flickr commons is licensed under CC BY 2.0 ]
As Earth orbits the Sun, the Moon orbits Earth. It takes about 30 days for one complete phase change (actually 29 1 / 2 days). Compare this to how long it takes Earth to orbit the Sun one time: 365.24 days. Consider our word, “month”, with its roots from the term moonth. As the Moon orbits Earth, its moonrise and moonset times change each day, as does the phase of the Moon we see.
When you check moonrise time over several days or a period of time, you will notice that the Moon rises later each day. That is because the Moon is orbiting Earth. The difference each day is fairly consistent, but has several variables like your latitude. The time of day that the Moon rises or sets depends on its phase.
If you consider why we see the Moon go through its phases, the time of day when the Moon rises or sets should make sense. The phase of the Moon we see depends on the positions of the Earth, Moon, and Sun relative to each other. So, when the Moon is full, the Earth is between the Moon and Sun; the Sun is setting and the Full Moon is rising. (1)
Moon Phase versus Moonrise and Moonset Times
| Moon Phase | USNO Image | Moonrise, occurs at | Moonset, occurs at |
|---|---|---|---|
| New Moon |
|
Sunrise | Sunset |
| 1 st Quarter Moon |
|
Local Noon | Local Midnight |
| Full Moon |
|
Sunset | Sunrise |
| 3 rd Quarter Moon |
|
Local Midnight | Local Noon |
| Moon images from the United States Naval Observatory (USNO) “Complete Sun and Moon Data for One Day” website. Local Noon refers to when the Sun crosses the meridian at your location. Local Midnight is exactly 12 hours after Local Noon [“Moon images” by United States Naval Observatory are in the Public Domain ] |
- Authored by : Florida State College at Jacksonville. License : CC BY: Attribution


15.4: Global Rights and Domestic Environmental Politics and Policy
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The right to a healthy environment and the global commons are ideas that suggest that it is our shared duty to take care of our collective environment because everyone has a right to enjoy their environment and use some of its resources for their survival. It is possible to link human rights with global environmental regulation through the implementation of the international norm of a right to a healthy environment. This is a new avenue of research for scholars of international relations, and it is founded on the basis of a popular idea, or norm, that every individual on the planet has a right to a healthy environment. Despite states having different abilities and varying degrees of technical expertise to implement the norm, the number of countries with constitutional environmental rights has expanded radically (Gellers 2015). Eighty states now have such legislation in their constitutions, but we are still quite a long way away from having this norm as a fundamental human right.
There are also, of course, many other concerns that divert government focus from environmental issues. Increasing regulation on certain heavy-polluting industries, such as steel and coal, can have a negative effect on jobs. Setting ‘green’ taxes, either directly or through such things as energy tariffs, can also cause a burden on taxpayers and businesses. Thus, there has sometimes been a tendency to see environmental legislation as damaging to economic growth and prosperity. By extension it can also be unpopular in domestic settings, making legislation difficult to pass – or even propose in some cases. It is consequently encouraging to see so much domestic legislation gaining traction. The number of countries where the human right to a healthy environment is enacted constitutionally may help build collaborative transnational networks to protect the global commons. The starting point would be a shared understanding of the need to reduce human impact on national and global ecosystems. Sharing a paradigm that pushes the human right to a healthy environment may also induce national governments to actively seek participation in international environmental agreements. Nevertheless, it is important to find a way to coordinate these agreements, and this challenge raises the question of whether we need a global environmental organisation to make sure states comply.
The best situation for Planet Earth’s citizens are solutions that are made not just in each state, but internationally. And, most importantly, complied with. IR is often concerned with the phenomenon of states cheating on, or withdrawing from, agreements. Perhaps nowhere is compliance more important for our long-term prosperity and security than in the areas of climate and environment.


14.3: Bradley Method
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Discuss the history of the Bradley Method
- Verbalize the importance of prenatal nutrition and exercise as part of the Bradley Method
- Summarize the importance of continuous labor support in the Bradley Method
- Compare and contrast the first and second stage of labor teaching that is provided to the birthing person and the labor support person in the Bradley Method
The Bradley Method is a classic form of childbirth education that has inspired countless families to consider unmedicated, low-intervention birth. Understanding the concepts of this approach to birth can help nurses be more prepared to support families choosing unmedicated birth or with a preference for low intervention in pregnancy, labor, and birth. As nurses support families who use this form of childbirth education, it will be important to include the patient’s support person because they have trained for the role extensively.
History
Dr. Robert A. Bradley developed the Bradley Method in 1947 and published his first book on the subject in 1965. Dr. Bradley grew up on a farm where birth was a normal event, and he became an obstetrician in the era of twilight births. At this time, laboring people would thrash in restraints from medication while forceps were used to deliver their newborns, a practice very different from how Bradley knew birth. His book Husband-Coached Childbirth taught people to support healthy pregnancies and birth without intervention or medication and taught partners to coach and support birthing persons (Bradley, 2008). The Bradley Method also teaches about the common discomforts of pregnancy and offers suggestions to help manage them. Birth support people, referred to as coaches in the Bradley Method, are taught how to better support the birthing person during pregnancy, labor, birth, and postpartum.
Benefits of the Bradley Method
The Bradley Method routinely covers more topics than other childbirth education options and is focused on preparing the couple for an unmedicated birth (Sioma-Markowska et al., 2016). This method provides education on pregnancy, labor, postpartum, and breast-feeding. A benefit of this method is the involvement of the partner in the supportive role. Paternal engagement in childbirth education is associated with more paternal involvement in the pregnancy, birth, and the postpartum period (Sioma-Markowska et al., 2016).
Shortcomings of the Bradley Method
A disadvantage of the Bradley Method is that it requires a 12-week commitment during pregnancy by the birthing person and their coach. Classes can sometimes be expensive. If a couple lives in a rural area, it could be difficult for them to find a certified Bradley instructor. This method is committed to providing factual, transparent information. At times this can cause fear and anxiety as couples learn about the risks of medication and interventions (Gurevich & Odunsi, 2021).
Bradley Method: Prenatal Nutrition and Exercise
Dr. Bradley noted that the healthier a pregnant person was, the more likely they were to have an uncomplicated birth. Because of this, the Bradley method incorporates diet and exercise recommendations into the teachings. This method teaches the importance of consuming protein and good fats during pregnancy, recommending intake of 100 g of protein a day. The intake of 100 g of protein requires the pregnant person to consume 4 cups of milk, 3 ounces of fish, 3 ounces of chicken or beef, and 4 eggs daily (BradleyBirth.com, n.d.).
Exercise during Pregnancy
The Bradley Method includes a strong emphasis on body movement and health in pregnancy, as illustrated in Figure 14.3. The recommendations include sitting on flat surfaces with legs folded to release the pelvic floor , as well as frequent squatting and pelvic rocking. All these exercises should be done early and often, then balanced by rest and relaxation of the muscles (Bradley, 2008).
Foods Needed During Pregnancy
Dr. Bradley highly regarded the teachings of Dr. Brewer for pregnancy nutrition. Dr. Brewer suggested that a high-protein diet is the best diet for pregnancy, and this provides the basis for the nutritional teachings of the Bradley Method. Rigorous research did not support Brewer’s claim that this diet reduced preeclampsia (Zhu et al., 2022). However, research does show that high protein intake, high fruit and vegetable intake, and the Mediterranean diet can lower rates of preeclampsia (Makarem et al., 2022; Zhu et al., 2022).
Bradley Method: Continuous Labor Support
The Bradley Method recommends continuous labor support to improve the outcome and experience for the birthing person. Moving support people, especially partners, from the waiting room to the birthing room is, in large part, credited to the Bradley Method.
Support from the Nurse
Association of Women’s Health, Obstetric and Neonatal Nurses (AWHONN) staffing standards recommend a ratio of one to two patients per nurse and a 1:1 ratio with intermittent auscultation and advanced dilation in unmedicated labors (AWHONN, 2022). This staffing ratio can be very difficult to obtain, and many facilities fail to uphold these standards. The Bradley Method prepares the support person to provide continuous support, especially in the hospital, where continuous support from the nurse is often impossible.
Partners versus Other People as Supporters
Research shows that continuous labor support is associated with shorter labors, lower cortisol levels, and higher incidences of vaginal birth (Stjernholm et al., 2021). Partners can be great support persons because they are invested in the birth and know the laboring person intimately. At times, partners are not equipped for or capable of being the “coach,” and another support person can fill that role.
Doula as Continuous Labor Support
Doulas are trained and certified to attend births to support the laboring person. Some hospitals and birth centers employ doula s in addition to the nursing staff to care for their laboring patients. Independent doulas charge a fee that is typically dependent on the experience of the doula, meaning a very experienced doula would charge a higher fee. Cost can be a barrier to some families.
Bradley Method: What to Expect in the First Stage of Labor
Dr. Bradley wrote about the primal aspects of labor and how this mimics nature, where animals seek dark, quiet, secluded, safe areas to birth their young. His method recommends laboring in a dark, quiet, home-like environment with partner support, solitude, physical comfort, physical relaxation, controlled breathing, and rested/closed eyes (Bradley, 2008). To progress through labor, Bradley suggested that laboring persons include the techniques of movement between contractions, abdominal breathing, relaxation specifically of the jaw/throat, and the relaxation of all muscles not involved in birth that can be tense when under stress or strain (Bradley, revised 2008).
Bradley Method: Second Stage of Labor
Instinctual movements are also consistent with Bradley recommendations in the second stage. These include allowing for the spontaneous urge to push, squatting positions, and upright chair positions. Bradley also likens the act of pushing to that of moving the bowels when constipation is present. Bradley recommends treating the sensation of the fetal head as pressure instead of pain (Bradley, 2008).


9.4: Post-Lab 9 Questions
(2 points)
Last Name: _______________________ First Name: _______________________
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Match the structure with the corresponding description. (0.5 point)
Name of Structure Description No. of structure 1. ureters Area where renal vessels and ureters converge 2. kidney urination 3. renal capsule nephrons located deep in the renal medullas 4. micturition smooth muscle of the bladder 5. rugae of the mucosa organ of urine production 6. hilum includes Bowman’s capsule and glomerulus 7. collecting duct folds in the bladder when empty 8. detrusor a structure where nephrons drain urine into 9. renal capsule collagen membrane around the kidney 10. juxtamedullary nephrons tubules that conduct urine from the kidney to bladder
- Write down the path of urine from the point of origin to secretion. (0.5 point)
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Match the structure with the corresponding description. (0.5 point)
Name of Structure Description No. of structure 1. Ductus- vas- deferens produce sperm and testosterone 2. Areola small convoluted tubules and site of spermatogenesis 3. Testes conduct sperm to the urethra during ejaculation 4. Mammary gland produces an ovum, estrogen, and progesterone 5. Fimbriae a gland in mammals that produces milk 6. Corpus cavernosum and spongiosum ducts that carry milk from the mammary glands to the nipple 7. Labia major pigmented area around the nipple 8. Seminiferous tubules the larger outer folds of the vulva surrounding the inner folds; contain adipose tissue and hair 9.  Lactiferous ducts small fingerlike projections at the end of the fallopian tubes - What is unique about the location/position of the kidneys? (0.5 point)


4.3: Elevator and Career Fair Pitch- Standing Out While Still Fitting In
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You’ve got dreams of landing a perfect job if you could only catch a break. One day that break happens as you step on the elevator and there is the one person you need to talk to. This is the person who can launch your career, do you know what to say?
An elevator pitch is a short 30 second to one-minute persuasive speech that you always have ready. You can use your elevator pitch at a job fair, on your LinkedIn summary, at networking events, at conferences, and when you meet someone in the elevator. Most of this information is straightforward and doesn’t require a lot of writing from me, but it does require a lot of thought, careful preparation, and practice on your end.
Whether it is a chance meeting on an elevator or a deliberate meeting like a job fair, remember that your body language speaks volumes before you ever say a word.
Indeed.com suggests remembering GNAP: Greeting name, affiliation purpose.
Hello (greeting) I’m Mary Moore (name) I’m a senior business major from the Walton College of Business (affiliation) and I’m interested in your marketing position (purpose).
I invited Craig Schmitt, a teaching assistant professor in the Recreation and Sport Management Program at the University of Arkansas to talk more about the elevator pitch. He has worked both on the university level and in the non-profit level teaching athletes, trainers, and sports professionals the art of the elevator pitch. Here is what he shared:
Elevator pitches are an introduction, a way to engage with someone with shared interests or experiences. An elevator pitch is not the conversation, but rather a tool to demonstrate relevance and spark a conversation. For job seekers, elevator pitches can also effectively be used as a response to the most common opening question in an interview, and the one question few interviewees seem to prepare for, “Tell me about yourself.”
Relevance and brevity should remain top of mind. Our lives are full of clutter that distracts an audience or listener from being present in the moment, and attention spans are only diminishing. Thus, we should strive to concisely deliver relevant content. It is helpful to approach an elevator pitch with a marketing orientation, or a recognition that it is much easier to “satisfy the consumer’s needs or wants” than it is to “sell them your product.” Thus, while the person delivering the elevator pitch inevitably will share information they believe is interesting, unless that information is relevant to the audience (or “satisfies the consumer’s needs or wants”), it is unlikely to be heard and retained.
Schmitt suggests using the following three (3) part structure for developing an elevator pitch is designed to spark a conversation.
THE HOOK – Effective presentations begin with a hook, or a way to create initial interest (and hopefully, but temporarily, removing clutter from the audience’s mind). For an elevator pitch, the hook is your passion . This should be a relatively brief, but specific statement. Focus on the impact you want to make on an industry or a group of people (not on a job title and/or organization). This impact should align with the impact your audience also strives to make. If there is an alignment, you will likely see an emotional response from the audience (a nod and a smile as they reflect on this shared passion).
THE EVIDENCE – Then, share evidence that you are pursuing that passion. This could come in the form of work experience, education, volunteer activities, or other efforts. But this should be a specific story, concisely told (the STAR method could help structure the story – Situation, Task, Action, Result).
YOUR NEXT STEP – Lastly, be sure to share your next step . In other words, what do you see as the next position or step in your career path? This helps demonstrate your understanding of your career trajectory, and your desire to continue to gain experience and learn skills (i.e., coachability) as you pursue your passion and strive to make impact.
Remember This!
E levator Pitch Formula
Example of the formula applied:
How to Elevate Your Elevator Pitch: For Corporate Professionals
Doyle, A. (2021). How to create an elevator pitch with examples. https://www.thebalancecareers.com/elevator-speech-examples-and-writing-tips-2061976
Edwards, V. (2014). The best elevator pitch. [Video] YouTube. https://youtu.be/yi41U9ahyoE Standard YouTube License
Indeed.com (2021) How to introduce yourself at a job fair (with examples). https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/interviewing/how-to-introduce-yourself-at-a-job-fair
Tennesse Tech. (2013). The elevator speech. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LDpe9StfGTA Standard YouTube License.
Upkey. Elevator pitch help for students with no experience. https://blog.upkey.com/elevator-pitch-help-for-students-with-no-experience/
Upkey. Elevator pitch examples that include relevant experience. https://blog.upkey.com/elevator-pitch-examples-that-include-relevant-experience/


11.13: Functional Caecum
The caecum in the rabbit, rat and guinea pig is greatly enlarged to provide a “fermentation vat” for micro-organisms to break down the cellulose plant cell walls. This is called a functional caecum (see diagram 11.12). In the horse both the caecum and the colon are enlarged. As in the rumen, the large cellulose molecules are broken down to smaller molecules that can be absorbed. However, the position of the functional caecum after the main areas of digestion and absorption, means it is potentially less effective than the rumen. This means that the small molecules that are produced there can not be absorbed by the gut but pass out in the faeces. The rabbit and rodents (and foals) solve this problem by eating their own faeces so that they pass through the gut a second time and the products of cellulose digestion can be absorbed in the small intestine. Rabbits produce two kinds of faeces. Softer night-time faeces are eaten directly from the anus and the harder pellets you are probably familiar with, that have passed through the gut twice.
Diagram 11.12 - The gut of a rabbit


1: Temperature and Heat
In this chapter, we explore heat and temperature. It is not always easy to distinguish these terms. Heat is the flow of energy from one object to another. This flow of energy is caused by a difference in temperature. The transfer of heat can change temperature, as can work, another kind of energy transfer that is central to thermodynamics. We return to these basic ideas several times throughout the next four chapters, and you will see that they affect everything from the behavior of atoms and molecules to cooking to our weather on Earth to the life cycles of stars.
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- 1.1: Prelude to Temperature and Heat
- Heat and temperature are important concepts for each of us, every day. How we dress in the morning depends on whether the day is hot or cold, and most of what we do requires energy that ultimately comes from the Sun. The study of heat and temperature is part of an area of physics known as thermodynamics. The laws of thermodynamics govern the flow of energy throughout the universe. They are studied in all areas of science and engineering, from chemistry to biology to environmental science.
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- 1.2: Temperature and Thermal Equilibrium
- Temperature is operationally defined as the quantity measured by a thermometer. It is proportional to the average kinetic energy of atoms and molecules in a system. Thermal equilibrium occurs when two bodies are in contact with each other and can freely exchange energy. Systems are in thermal equilibrium when they have the same temperature. The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that when two systems, A and B, are in thermal equilibrium with each other, and B is in thermal equilibrium with a th
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- 1.3: Thermometers and Temperature Scales
- Three types of thermometers are alcohol, liquid crystal, and infrared radiation (pyrometer). The three main temperature scales are Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin. Temperatures can be converted from one scale to another using temperature conversion equations. The three phases of water (ice, liquid water, and water vapor) can coexist at a single pressure and temperature known as the triple point.
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- 1.4: Thermal Expansion
- Thermal expansion is the increase of the size (length, area, or volume) of a body due to a change in temperature, usually a rise. Thermal contraction is the decrease in size due to a change in temperature, usually a fall in temperature. Thermal stress is created when thermal expansion or contraction is constrained.
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- 1.5: Heat Transfer, Specific Heat, and Calorimetry
- Heat is a type of energy transfer that is caused by a temperature difference, and it can change the temperature of an object. As we learned earlier in this chapter, heat transfer is the movement of energy from one place or material to another as a result of a difference in temperature. Heat transfer is fundamental to such everyday activities as home heating and cooking, as well as many industrial processes. It also forms a basis for the topics in the remainder of this chapter.
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- 1.7: Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
- Just as interesting as the effects of heat transfer on a system are the methods by which it occurs. Whenever there is a temperature difference, heat transfer occurs. It may occur rapidly, as through a cooking pan, or slowly, as through the walls of a picnic ice chest. So many processes involve heat transfer that it is hard to imagine a situation where no heat transfer occurs. Yet every heat transfer takes place by only three methods: conduction, convection and radiation.
Thumbnail: Natural convection plays an important role in heat transfer inside this pot of water. Once conducted to the inside, heat transfer to other parts of the pot is mostly by convection. The hotter water expands, decreases in density, and rises to transfer heat to other regions of the water, while colder water sinks to the bottom. This process keeps repeating.


2.2: Grammar
In this section
- You will learn about the use of the verb “to have” with family members.
- You will know about plural nouns and verbs and practice them in flash cards and self-check quizzes.
- You will learn how to ask and answer questions about quantity using “how many”.
Grammar (1)
The use of verb “to have”
In Arabic there is no verb that specifically expresses the concept “to have". Instead, you take a preposition عند or لـ and attach a possessive pronoun to it. Learn two ways to express the verb “to have” :
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To talk about family members that you have using the phrase عندي or لي, you may need to use singular, dual, or plural nouns. To formulate dual, you need to add ان or ين as a suffix to the noun. Read and practice the following sentences about family members:
[table id=5 /]
Negating nominal sentences
The particle ليس is used to negate nominal sentences and it takes different conjugations according to pronouns. Learn the forms of ليس below:
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In some cases, you do not need to change the form of ليس. One example is before عند and لـ . In this case, ليس remains the same as عند and لـ block its conjugation. Remember that ليس only negates nouns, adjectives or noun phrases while present tense verbs are negated with لا.
Test yourself
Determine how to negate each of the following statements.
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In class. With your classmates, ask and answer these questions and report your findings in complete sentences.
[table id=15 /]
Grammar (2)
Possessive pronouns
Possessives are formed by suffixes attached to the end of nouns. When the noun ends with (taa marbuta), we open the (taa) before attaching the possessive marker. Study the following two examples:
[table id=16 /]
Test yourself
Complete these self-check modules on possessive pronouns.
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Grammar (3)
Plural nouns and verbs
Before we discuss plural types, we start by looking at plurals in verbs and how they are formed. Study the following chart for the verb “to study” with all pronouns.
[table id=13 /]
Practice your verb knowledge in the following slides.
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Types of plural
- Masculine plural : It applies to some nouns that are masculine. It does not include all masculine nouns, though. A helping tip would be that most nouns that fall in this type are adjectives or professions for humans. This plural is formed by adding: ون or ين to the noun.
- Feminine plural : This applies to most feminine nouns with few exceptions with some feminine nouns that do not follow the rule. This plural is formed by adding: ات to the singular noun.
- Broken plural : From its name, this plural is considered irregular. It is formed by breaking the stem of the word into certain patterns. So, most of these will be learned word-by-word. This category includes both masculine and feminine nouns that do not fit in the previous two types of plural. Most nouns in this category are masculine.
Learn these flash cards that include examples of each type of plural with recordings.
The original version of this chapter contained H5P content. You may want to remove or replace this element.
Test yourself
Fill in the blanks using the appropriate plural word in each of the following sentences.
Activity (10): Use the word bank to fill in plural words in each sentence below then record your responses.
Non-human plural
While it is a general rule in Arabic that adjectives agree with nouns in gender and number, some exception occurs with non-human plurals. Non-human plurals take feminine singular adjectives. The following example shows how adjectives work with human vs. non-human plural nouns :
| كُتُب ممتازة | طالبات ممتازات | طلاب ممتازون |
| excellent books | excellent students (f.pl) | excellent students(m.pl) |
- To ask about the quantity and number you use the question word كم.
- When you ask with كم you always ask using the singular word and answer using the plural.
- After كم, the word appears with a case marking of (mansuub) as in كم درساً how many lessons, and كم فصلاً how many classes.
- In counting, any number more than 10 is followed by the singular noun.
In class. With your classmates, ask and answer questions using كم guided by the following prompts.
1 – كم قطة في الصورة؟ هناك __________________
2 – ________________ هناك __________________
3- __________________ هناك _________________
4- __________________ هناك _________________
Test yourself
Choose either the singular or plural.
Plural warp-up Activity (16): Translate the following sentences into Arabic using your knowledge of vocabulary and structure. 1. The American students study with their friends in the library. 2. My friends speak three languages 3. In my room 4 chairs and 3 tables. 4. We work at day and night and we are always busy. 5. They are married and have three beautiful girls. 6. We do not have cats or dogs in our house. 7. The houses in this area are big and new. 8. The translators work in small offices and speak Arabic and English.
Key Takeaways
- You are now aware of all plural types in Arabic and you can use them in context.
- You know that non-human plurals take feminine singular adjectives.
- When asking about quantity, you ask in the singular using كم.
- When you count in Arabic, numbers between 3-9 take the plural noun while after 10, they take the singular noun.


4.20: Assignment- Develop a Diversity Allies Program
Scenario
Achieving a diverse workplace requires more than a business case; it requires us—both individually and collectively—to question our assumptions and the business practices and policies based on these assumptions. Complicating matters, the terminology itself is interpreted differently by different people and generations and has become political and emotionally charged. Research suggests that a majority of employees consider themselves allies, but don’t know how to be effective in that role—a role that is particularly critical in addressing more subtle but pervasive acts of microagression.
Your Task
In your second rotation, you are reporting to the firm’s Chief Diversity Officer, who is also the lead consultant for the firm’s Diversity and Inclusion practice. You have been asked to develop a pilot diversity allies program to address these issues. The program will be tested “in house” and, if successful, offered as a service to clients. Specifically, your task is to define the desired group composition (diverse on what basis) and develop a half-day program that guides the group to develop a shared working definition of diversity, identify relevant program success metrics, identify potential challenges and associated training (i.e., conflict management), policies and support networks needed to implement a successful diversity allies program.
Grading Rubric
| Criteria | Inadequate (40%) | Minimal (60%) | Adequate (80%) | Exemplary (100%) | Total Points |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Organization and format |
2 pts
Writing lacks logical organization. It may show some coherence but ideas lack unity. Serious errors and generally is an unorganized format and information. |
3 pts
Writing is coherent and logically organized, using a format suitable for the material presented. Some points may be contextually misplaced and/or stray from the topic. Transitions may be evident but not used throughout the essay. Organization and format used may detract from understanding the material presented. |
4 pts
Writing is coherent and logically organized, using a format suitable for the material presented. Transitions between ideas and paragraphs create coherence. Overall unity of ideas is supported by the format and organization of the material presented. |
5 pts
Writing shows high degree of attention to details and presentation of points. Format used enhances understanding of material presented. Unity clearly leads the reader to the writer’s conclusion and the format and information could be used independently. |
5 pts |
| Content |
8 pts
Some but not all required questions are addressed. Content and/or terminology is not properly used or referenced. Little or no original thought is present in the writing. Concepts presented are merely restated from the source, or ideas presented do not follow the logic and reasoning presented throughout the writing. |
12 pts
All required questions are addressed but may not be addressed with thoughtful consideration and/or may not reflect proper use of content terminology or additional original thought. Additional concepts may not be present and/or may not be properly cited sources. |
16 pts
All required questions are addressed with thoughtful consideration reflecting both proper use of content terminology and additional original thought. Some additional concepts may be presented from other properly cited sources, or originated by the author following logic and reasoning they’ve clearly presented throughout the writing. |
20 pts
All required questions are addressed with thoughtful in-depth consideration reflecting both proper use of content terminology and additional original thought. Additional concepts are clearly presented from properly cited sources, or originated by the author following logic and reasoning they’ve clearly presented throughout the writing. |
20 pts |
| Development—Critical Thinking |
8 pts
Shows some thinking and reasoning but most ideas are underdeveloped, unoriginal, and/or do not address the questions asked. Conclusions drawn may be unsupported, illogical or merely the author’s opinion with no supporting evidence presented. |
12 pts
Content indicates thinking and reasoning applied with original thought on a few ideas, but may repeat information provided and/ or does not address all of the questions asked. The author presents no original ideas, or ideas do not follow clear logic and reasoning. The evidence presented may not support conclusions drawn. |
16 pts
Content indicates original thinking, cohesive conclusions, and developed ideas with sufficient and firm evidence. Clearly addresses all of the questions or requirements asked. The evidence presented supports conclusions drawn. |
20 pts
Content indicates synthesis of ideas, in-depth analysis and evidence beyond the questions or requirements asked. Original thought supports the topic, and is clearly a well-constructed response to the questions asked. The evidence presented makes a compelling case for any conclusions drawn. |
20 pts |
| Grammar, Mechanics, Style |
2 pts
Writing contains many spelling, punctuation, and grammatical errors, making it difficult for the reader to follow ideas clearly. There may be sentence fragments and run-ons. The style of writing, tone, and use of rhetorical devices disrupts the content. Additional information may be presented but in an unsuitable style, detracting from its understanding. |
3 pts
Some spelling, punctuation, and grammatical errors are present, interrupting the reader from following the ideas presented clearly. There may be sentence fragments and run-ons. The style of writing, tone, and use of rhetorical devices may detract from the content. Additional information may be presented, but in a style of writing that does not support understanding of the content. |
4 pts
Writing is free of most spelling, punctuation, and grammatical errors, allowing the reader to follow ideas clearly. There are no sentence fragments and run-ons. The style of writing, tone, and use of rhetorical devices enhance the content. Additional information is presented in a cohesive style that supports understanding of the content. |
5 pts
Writing is free of all spelling, punctuation, and grammatical errors and written in a style that enhances the reader’s ability to follow ideas clearly. There are no sentence fragments and run-ons. The style of writing, tone, and use of rhetorical devices enhance the content. Additional information is presented to encourage and enhance understanding of the content. |
5 pts |
| Total: | 50 pts |


2.1: Introduction
Introduction
Nova Totius Terrarum Orbis Geographica ac Hydrographica Tabula (2.1.1) was published in 1630 in Amsterdam. Around the edges are cartouches and illustrations demonstrating Dutch cartography's baroque style, including Mercator, Ptolemy, and Caesar. California is drawn as an island, probably because explorers saw Baja California. The eastern coast of North America had been explored more, and maps were becoming more accurate while the west coast remained a sizeable amorphous mass of land. Asian regions were more detailed as the Dutch traders sailed along the coasts, searching for spices for trade.
By the 1600s, European countries had traveled across the oceans finding new routes and commodities, trying to dominate and control different regions. This became the period of settlements, establishing new communities to expand their territory and power. In North America, ships brought settlers ready to continue their religion and customs, changing the local cultures. Along with people moving to the new lands came extensive agricultural changes to grow new products of tobacco and cotton, moving out the indigenous people, establishing the culture of slavery, and forcing slaves to the new land. In Asia, Europeans brought weapons to help build their trade centers and subdue the local populations.
Europe
Europe had been composed of a plethora of small kingdoms, each one in continual warfare against their neighbors, either territorial or religious. From the strife of the Middle Ages, some monarchs were able to conquer larger territories, enlarging their kingdoms and the concept of absolutism – the monarch has the power of divine right. However, Catholicism had been a major religion, a religious and social schism formed in this period through Protestant sects' rise and nation-states' formation. New scientific concepts developed as education spread beyond the walls of the religious, legal, and medical communities. Old biblical concepts and beliefs like the earth as the center of the universe were challenged, and new ideas were formed, moving from superstition to reasoning and the Scientific Revolution.
Changes were even evident in the dietary shifts of the aristocrats and merchants. "The Renaissance diet included many more spices (loads of them), very few utensils and mix between sweet and savory within dishes and throughout the meal…A Baroque cuisine was much more ordered with a set procession of dishes," [1] more specialized food preparation and the introduction of new foods like squash, corn, and potatoes from the new worlds. Tea, coffee, and sugar were major new commodities introduced and quickly integrated into all population classes. The concept of tea started as a popular drink with nobility, gaining favor when sugar was imported, and drinking tea laced with sugar was a low-cost source of calories for workers in factories. Tobacco was another new import widely expanding throughout Europe. In 1624, the English imported 200,000 pounds of tobacco from the Jamestown settlement growing to 25,000,000 pounds per year. [2] Unfortunately, the growth of imports of tobacco and sugar lead to the expansion of slavery.
As the exploration of other parts of the world expanded, the concept of mercantilism grew, bringing a new economic structure and the idea of trade balance, exporting more than importing. The Dutch East India company started as a public company, the first mega-corporation as the Netherlands finally escaped domination by Spain to become a maritime power and major trade center. Expanded trade brought the exploitation of goods and resources in newly explored areas of the world. Spain used its superior military force to control much of the Atlantic sea route to Mesoamerica and the vast deposits of gold and silver. England started to expand its naval fleet and exploration of North America. The Islamic world also wanted trade partners and established diplomatic and trade agreements with Portugal, England, Netherlands, and France.
Art was an important part of all trade as each culture was exposed to other places' artwork and creative concepts. The European missionaries' bibles illustration taught artists in India new ideas of spatial recession. The oversized oil paintings from France inspired Iranian leaders to request large portraits of themselves. Middle Eastern designs found in textiles and carpets found their way into European designs. The extravagant ornamentation of Versailles was seen in mosques and palaces.
India
India was ruled by the Mughals, who consolidated multiple smaller regions and developed a government respecting human rights. The Mughal Empire was based on the previous Mongol rulers, creating a culture based on Persian and Asian ideals, a Muslim-ruled country inhabited by a Hindu majority. Although they maintained the military proficiencies of their Mongol ancestors, they created an environment of religious tolerance and support for human rights. The first ruler in the 16 th century allowed the construction of Hindu temples, even forbidding cows to be killed, a practice offensive to the Hindu population. The successive rulers maintained Islam as the official religion while still tolerating Hindus and other beliefs. The Rajput emerged from a loose association of clans and settlements, which developed into a highly structured group based on inherited positions. Under the Mughal rule, they were accepted as feudatories and developed a governmental and social structure based on kinship and genealogical links.
The English and Dutch both wanted into the lucrative trade market of India and across Asia. In 1600, the fledgling East India Company came to India and received the rights for trade. Portugal had initially controlled the routes, losing in a fight with the English. The Mughal court gave England the right to trade and construct factories, trading through the establishments. The English used concepts of bulk trade instead of high-cost goods, giving them the trading and profit lead. The Indian government wanted silver as payment, forcing the English to establish multiple trading partners to obtain enough silver. In the later part of the 1600s, the French joined in the trade along with the Dutch and Portuguese, generating control conflicts with each other and the Mughals, Marathas (Hindus), and other local ruling factions, leading eventually to the expansion and control of India by the English in the early 1800s.
Art in the Mughal period became a part of how rulers identified themselves, and adoration of the arts and their artistic qualities, and visual significance. The elegance of the architecture and colorful paintings was supported by importing Persian masters to help propagate esthetic and design principles. The artists came because the emperors held astonishing wealth and influence, not necessarily good taste. Illustrated books and albums displaying portraits, animals, paintings, and calligraphy elaborately bordered with gold and leather became one of the primary art forms of the period. The Rajput painting was focused on their ruling courts and had distinct styles depending on the location of the court.
China
China experienced a tremendous growth period. When China conquered Tibet and Central Asia, the population increased to 450 million people. The country spread over a territory three times the previous dynasty with millions of non-Chinese minorities. The Qing Dynasty started when the Manchu invaded and controlled the government and formed the last imperial dynasties, reigning for almost 300 years. With the extraordinarily immense country, they developed unified transportation, river systems, and massive inter-regional trade. Manufacturing and factories were moved to where natural resources were or plentiful labor. Unlike European states, the state did not control much of the commerce highly managed by the royal throne. They developed interrelated links of village goods to regional markets to the export trade.
Portugal had come to China in the 1550s and established themselves as trade partners, the shipping fleet between China and Europe. The Spanish occupied the Philippines and used silver from their new regions in the Americas as a significant commodity for trade. Along with the Portuguese and Spanish came the Catholic missionaries and conflicts within the different missionary groups about Chinese beliefs. By 1800, the continued intrusions and military might of the Europeans began to affect the order in China, leading to a weakening of the government. The tax rate had been kept exceptionally low during the dynasty based on the Confucian concept of a fiscal-economic policy of little taxation or government manipulation of the economy, furthering the demise of the government.
Art flourished during the Qing Dynasty under the patronage of the emperors, especially painting, calligraphy, and porcelain. Confucian principles formed the traditions, and artists flourished in the courts as part of the elite. Calligraphy and painting were intermixed, each critical, following two paths, those from the more orthodox, traditional beliefs and those who became individualists, following their ideals. Porcelain was a significant force in this period; royal and traditional standards dictated every color, use, shape, and style. Specialty items were made for the royal household, and porcelain colors were specified for each level of society.
Korea
Korea is located by several contentious, large countries, including Russia, China, and Japan, forcing Korea into diplomatic solutions to maintain their own culture and independence. The Korean proverb, "When whales fight, the shrimp's back is broken," [3] grew from their tenuous position; however, they were able to preserve their kingdoms and independence. Early kings in the Joseon dynasty fostered the growth of scholars, developed an alphabet, and built a government administration. The Koreans overcame an incursion by Japan at the end of the 16 th century and the Manchus early in the 17 th century. From 1600 to the late 1800s, Korea set up diplomatic missions with China and a few ceremonial events with Japan, allowing very few foreigners to enter the country, obtaining the nickname of 'Hermit Kingdom.' They were able to live in isolation and peace for over 250 years. During this period, they focused on scholarly Confucian ideals, shunning military activities. Even though Confucianism was the dominant religious belief, Buddhism and Daoism were accepted and frequently interwoven into all the cultural ideas.
Contact with Europeans occurred when a Dutch ship became shipwrecked on one of the Korean islands, the Koreans rescued three crewmen. The three taught the Koreans about weapons and military standards in Europe. Contacts with China also educated them about Europeans and their culture. However, the Koreans maintained their isolation, a slowly growing economy, with excessive tax and government control based on Confucian values.
The king supported art, and court artists produced exquisite work made from gold, silk, and other exceptional materials. The symbols of longevity were frequently an essential part of the artwork; ceramics, paintings, furniture, and others. The symbols were based on concepts from nature; trees, deer, clouds, the sun, turtle, water, cranes, mushrooms, bamboo, and mountains, each with specific, defined meanings for the symbols. The concept of folk art, ordinary people painting their interpretations of longevity, grew across the country, bringing art into homes.
North American
North American populations were as dissimilar as the populations on other large continents, their diversity, and numbers unknown to explorers who initially only encountered those along coastal regions. Historians estimate about 150 different societies or tribes lived across the continent, each with diverse languages, characteristics, clothing, artworks, food, and cultures. Most of the information about different indigenous groups was based on artifacts, oral stories based along with generations, or recorded by Europeans who settled in other regions.
Interactions between the European traders and settlers depended on the country they came from and why they were in North America. The primary goal of Europeans was an economic gain from the natural resources of furs, metals, and wood, the enslavement of indigenous populations to grow crops like tobacco and sugar, and the expansion of territory. The secondary goal was religious, finding their religious freedom or converting the native peoples to Christianity. The conflicts of warfare and the introduction of diseases to a population without immunity decimated the people, some estimates over 90%, eliminated some tribes, and interrupted traditional lifestyles and societies.
At first, the Europeans were welcomed, soon coming into conflict over societal values. The English started to establish settlements along the east coast, coming into conflict with the Native Americans' belief that no one owned the land. As the ships came loaded with settlers, they built on land, believing they now owned it; more and more land was required as the ships arrived, continually moving into native territories. The French focused on the fur-rich areas of Canada, trading guns for furs, and arming some tribes to gain control of the fur trade. Some tribes found themselves well-armed and able to attack others, changing the relationships between tribes. The Spanish came from Mexico into the southern regions, looking to find additional wealth like gold and convert the indigenous population to Catholicism. Their large number of heavily armed troops quickly overwhelmed the native populations, forcing religious conversion through stringent controls and punishment. Other European countries tried to gain footholds on the continent and were only marginally successful. By the end of the 17 th century, waves of people came to the continent, including the slaves' expansion from the African slave trade.
Art was a standard function across all the indigenous societies, varying the types, and styles based on the materials found in the local areas or through trade with other groups. As Europeans started settling in different places, the local tribes traded for new and different materials. Generally, the artwork is arranged into two categories; work before 1600 and European influence and materials, and work after 1600. The art from Native tribes is frequently labeled 'primitive' just because the work was not the same as the perception of proper European style. The art was also forcibly taken, destroying cultural and religious artifacts. Art was not considered an occupation or separate thing; a person might be recognized for expertise in an artistic endeavor as a beautifully woven basket or decorative object.
Art Methods
Light and Dark of Baroque
Baroque painting was defined by dramatic images of incredible depth from new techniques of chiaroscuro , tenebrism , and sfumato – all methods to manipulate light and dark. Chiaroscuro combined the Italian chiaro, meaning light or defined, and scuro , dark or ambiguous. Artists used light contrasting against dark shadows to develop three-dimensional figures. Tenebrism brought even more dramatic use of light and dark, with darkness almost the dominant focus of the painting, most of the images hidden with little illumination. Parts of the hands or faces were the major elements illuminated against the contrast of an exceptionally dark setting, creating vivid and emotional scenes. Originally, religious scenes were the principal use of chiaroscuro; the light was used to illuminate the divinity of Christ. Other artists expanded the concept using shafts of light shining from an unknown source to light elements of the otherwise dark and foreboding scene. Some artists used a visible candle to provide the light and its reflection off the figures. The extreme dark depth of tenebrism brought even more drama.
Because the paintings were made with very dark colors, the method used to apply the underpainting was different. Most artists used middle or dark tones for the base instead of light colors. Colors were applied in thin layers of glazes to build the underpainting, the dark colors requiring many layers to achieve the dimensional effects. "Highlighted areas are very thin and fine. Color applied in thin glazes tends to be clear, luminous, and devoid of brush marks. Shadows and dark colors, however, appear as thickly as built-up surfaces, creating ridges clearly visible in raking light where they come into contact with the delicate light areas." [4] Artists frequently used heavy white impasto paint on the areas to be highlighted, then added dark washes, building layers as needed. Dark heavy brushstrokes in some spaces helped create a sense of tension or movement.
Faces in the Dutch Golden Age
The concept of facial images has existed for centuries as the faces of rulers appeared on coins or the official statuary. The idea of self-images returned during the Renaissance as patrons of the arts wanted their images captured on canvas. During the Baroque period, especially in the Netherlands region, half-or three-quarters of views of the face were popular. The new merchant class commissioned their likeness to display at home while organizations procured group portraits.
The position of a light source became essential to properly illuminate the face and give it character. With the manufacture of cheaper and more reflective mirrors, many artists tried to create self-portraits. The artist was able to display their image and the style and techniques of their paintings. Sometimes the artist simply painted themselves and other times inserted their image into a scene. Rembrandt was the most prolific painter of self-portraits, with over forty paintings plus etchings and prints. He started when he was young and continued throughout his life, reflecting his painting characteristics, life, and economic state based on his clothing in each iteration.
Painting a portrait or self-portrait is complex; the proportions of the face are similar from person to person, yet different. Several unique proportional assumptions are used to paint a face correctly.  The edge of the nose is in line with the tear ducts found in the corner of the eyes. The space between a person's eyes is as wide as the eyes to align the eyes correctly. For most people, the corners of the mouth are in line with the pupils in the eyes.
Illumination is an integral part of painting a portrait, where the light originates, how light reflects on the face, where shadows are formed, and how color fluctuates based on light. The light was an essential part of painting a portrait, and the artist must define the shadows based on the position of the head. The artist must determine what they are going to emphasize, what type of lighting will highlight the right parts of the figure, and the direction of the light. Key lighting is generally the first consideration, with light shining directly on the face as the major illumination point. Fill light is positioned at an angle to balance shaded areas, while the rear light is angled from behind to produce contours or form an outline around the head. The artist also needs to decide how to highlight the background to create a shadow by the head.
Still Life in the Dutch Golden Age – Still life
As cities in the Netherlands expanded trade, growing the wealthy merchant class and urbanizing the cities, the desire for still life painting grew, painting new commodities and imports, displaying unusual flowers, foods, or objects, all part of the growing trade. Early works focused on domestic products (butter, cheese, herring, beer), soon expanding to include other European products (bread, lemons, oranges, figs, raisins, hazelnuts, and wine). As the Dutch East India Company expanded across the oceans, still life work was structured to include the new exotic products (pepper, spices, tea, salt, tobacco, and porcelain). [5] The still-life paintings illustrate the vast collection of products the Dutch imported and how they displayed their ability to indulge in the products. Still life was seldom commissioned, leaving the artists free to select their arrangements and sell them on the open market.
Floral still life painted in oils was a popular arrangement, frequently combining herbs, flowers, and other plant exotics in an elegant vase or bowl. Each petal, stem, or berry is painted with extensive detail, a drop of dew perched on a leaf or a flower slowly dying and drooping over the vase. The artists used deeply contrasting dark and light to highlight unique colors and flower elements. To achieve the finely detained results, artists used small brushes, sometimes with just a few hairs.
The concept of a feast or exotic foods became the subject of most still-life artists. The colors and tones of the items were significant; a white or neutral tablecloth might provide the background for the rest of the painting, and glass or metals like silver or pewter vases, bowls, or plates added to the neutrality letting the pile of oranges or the blushing peach shine. The materials used in a painting were carefully prepared. Each specimen was individually arranged on the table to define each element optimally; a bug sitting on the leaf, a basket of lemons appearing to roll away, or the detailed skin of a melon. Harmony and perspective in the composition were significant; do the grapes appear in the foreground or background, are they hanging or laying, what direction is the fish laying, and does the eye show or is the fish hanging. Everything was thoughtfully placed.
Miniatures of the Mughal and Rajput
When the emperor Akbar died, he was succeeded by his son Jahangir who was very interested in the arts. He continued the focus on miniature paintings, commissioning multiple books to illustrate his reign. The paintings included a wide variety of topics, court scenes, individual portraits, or battles. The works were painted on two different types of paper, a rough paper made with fibrous particles, burnished to become smooth, and a white paper created from a more refined pulp. Generally, the artist used charcoal or ink to draw the original outlines and then brushed an opaque layer of a light color – white, off white, or blue, the outlines still visible. Other layers were added, and the paper burnished in-between layers of paint. The final layers reflected the critical images of the design, the human or animal figures. One of the last steps was outlining the significant design elements.
While working, the artists sat in front of low tables or placed a board on their lap. The completed paintings were wrapped in cotton fabric to protect them from insects and the elements. Initially, during the beginning of a painting, a team of artists worked and divided the activities bringing the specialist in towards the end; later individual artists produced most of the work. The Mughal court was the dominant entity, and the artists' names are known; however, the artists in the Rajput court were mainly unknown. Political coalitions between the two regions brought artists into contact and influenced each other.
Color in the Qing Dynasty
Each ruling dynasty selected a representational color from the Five Elements Theory; colors are part of Chinese concepts of natural laws and how universal order is part of the world. The elements and colors are related to the body, seasons, climate, medicine, astrology, and other interactive concepts:
Color:
- Black
- Red
- Yellow
- White
- Qing (blue or green)
Element:
- Water
- Fire
- Earth
- Metal
- Wood
During the Ming Dynasty, red was the official color. Initially, when the Manchu started the Qing Dynasty, they did not declare an official color. The ruling Manchu had divided their systems identifiable by eight colored banners of white, red, yellow, and blue as solid colors or borders. The sovereign flag appeared as a blue dragon placed on a yellow background making yellow the official de facto color. [6] Yellow symbolized the earth and was considered an esteemed color, often reserved as the emperors' color, decorating palaces, temples, and clothing worn by the emperors. Historians believe the importance of yellow grew from the color of the sun and the sky only has one sun. Therefore, a nation can only have one emperor, and yellow represents the exclusivity of one person. During the Qing Dynasty, a very detailed document specified by rank, who wore yellow; bright yellow robes were reserved for the emperor and empress, apricot yellow for the crowned princes, and golden yellow for lesser princes. Lower-ranked members of the court wore different shades of blue. Even recipes for special dyes were recorded; the bright yellow dye for the emperor's robes came from a pagoda but an alum. The other colors also used defined plants and methods for dying material.
Red, associated with fire, represented good fortune and color used in celebratory settings, while black was a neutral color and was selected by many emperors as their color. Black was part of the harmony of yin and yang. White is associated with metal and is also the color of mourning and death. Qing usually meant green; however, it might also be assumed to be blue and occasionally black. Qing refers to nature, the grass or mountains, and is correlated with prosperity and harmony.
Color in paintings differed from European style painting. Chinese artists used a brush and rice paper with colors made from natural materials. The traditional colors were developed from three materials; mineral pigments, plant pigments, and gold or silver, all bringing a wide range of colors for the artist to mix and combine. Dynasties preceding the Ming and Qing periods used colors, and individually developed into multiple types of artwork. With the advent of the Ming and Qing periods, color became industrialized, and new demands from an increased population, new techniques to make paint, and specialized colors all led to factories producing pigment for artists to purchase instead of making it themselves. Foreign colors also were imported and began to affect the way painters worked.
Using ink also became prominent after the Song Dynasty, developing into 'ink color,' a process based on the type of ink, the water, which brush, or other variables. The ink colors were added to the techniques and systems of paint colors, and ink was incorporated into the artists' colorful images.
Paper in the Joseon Dynasty
Hanji is a traditional Korean paper found in tombs dating to the 6 th century. During the Joseon Dynasty, paper became ubiquitous in daily life, used for books, fans, simulated flowers, and other decorations. The paper was made from a combination of bark from the dak tree (paper mulberry), a native tree growing in the mountains, and the roots of the Hibiscus Manihot (flowering plant). The bark was boiled in water, then skinned and pounded; the slimy mucus from the root of the hibiscus is applied to the bark and formed into sheets pressed out to dry. The process is complex and time-consuming, and the perfect Hanji is highly respected.
The paper is durable and long-lasting. Researchers discovered the bark of the mulberry tree had a pH level of 7 instead of the usual pH level of 4 or 5 found in most papers, a level that caused them to disintegrate quickly. Most of Korea's ancient information and records were preserved because of the incredibly tough paper used for documents. Although Buddhist monks traditionally made most of the paper in Korea, in the Joseon period, the government even produced paper, including paper armor, for troops.
Porcupine Quills in Native Americans
The use of porcupine quills for artwork is unique to the North American native population. Before the glass beads from Europe, the quills were a natural and plentiful resource for decorative elements. The quills from the porcupine were usually white with black tips; the tips were clipped off. An individual quill was almost three inches, and they were dyed with natural dyes. Quills were softened, becoming malleable and able to be bent or flattened into different shapes. Each quill might be used as a bead and appliqued or embroidered onto a surface with sinew or, later, thread traded from Europe. Quills were usually added to leggings, shirts, headbands, moccasins, breechclouts, or other personal items and are still an art form used today.
Fur and Hide in Native Americans
Moose hair was used in the northeast; the hairs were collected in the fall, tied into bundles, and saved to decorate buckskin clothing. Initially, the hairs were attached with sinew using an awl, later replaced by a needle and thread. Different dyes were used, although red, green, blue, and white are the standard colors. Embroidering the moose hair was a woman's occupation.  From the mouth, they are again transferred, 4 to 6 together, to the buckskin and stitched down with thread at intervals of about one-sixteenth of an inch." [7] When the hairs were sewn, another set is joined to form the pattern.
Animal hides were an important source of natural material for most Native Americans. Different types of hides became moccasins, robes, leggings, or other clothing and articles. The skins had to be tanned–treated. A hide was soaked, draped over a pole, and scraped, removing the excess flesh and hair, then stretching it on poles to dry. After the skin dries in a few days, the hide is thoroughly scraped, continuing to soften the hide, then rinsed and dried again.
[1] Retrieved from https://news.stanford.edu/news/2012/march/17th-century-dining-032312.html
[2] Retrieved from https://www.lib.umn.edu/bell/tradeproducts/tobacco
[3] Meider, W., Dundes, A. (1994). The Wisdom of Many: Essays on the Proverb, University of Wisconsin Press, p. 301.
[4] Barrett, S., Stulik, D., (1995). An Integrated Approach for the Study of Painting Techniques , Historical Painting Techniques, Materials, and Studio Practice, The Getty Conservation Institute, p. 8.
[5] Hochstrasser, J. B. (2007). Still Life and Trade in the Dutch Golden Age, Yale University Press.
[6] Gao, J., Official Colours of Chinese Regimes: A Panchronic Philological Study with Historical Accounts of China, A Journal of the Humanities & Social Sciences . 2012, Vol. 16 Issue 3, pp. 272-273.
[7] Speck, F. (1911). Huron Moose Hair Embroidery. American Anthropologist, 13 (1), new series, 1-14. Retrieved March 26, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/659805


11.9: Digestion of Triglycerides
- Describe the process of digestion of triglycerides.
Triglycerides are esters and esters can undergo hydrolysis. When this hydrolysis happens in the digestive system the process is called digestion. Lipid digestion begins in the stomach. Lingual lipases present in the saliva are activated when they reach the acidic conditions of the stomach. Gastric lipases secreted in the stomach start the hydrolysis of the ester functional groups in triglycerides. Most of the digestion of triglycerides happen in small intestine. A hormone secreted in this region stimulates the gallbladder to discharge bile. The principal constituents of bile are the bile salts, which emulsify large, water-insoluble lipid droplets, disrupting some of the hydrophobic interactions holding the lipid molecules together and suspending the resulting smaller globules (micelles) in the aqueous digestive medium. These changes greatly increase the surface area of the lipid particles, allowing for contact with the enzyme lipases and thus rapid digestion of the fats.
The lipases catalyze the digestion of a triglyceride first to diglyceride and a fatty acid. The diglyceride is then hydrolyzed to a monoglyceride and a fatty acid as shown in figure 11.9.2.
The large and hydrophobic long-chain fatty acids and monoglycerides are not so easily suspended in the watery intestinal chyme. However, bile salts resolve this issue by enclosing them in a micelle , which is a tiny sphere with polar (hydrophilic) ends facing the watery environment and hydrophobic tails turned to the interior, creating a receptive environment for the long-chain fatty acids. The core also includes cholesterol and fat-soluble vitamins. Without micelles, lipids would sit on the surface of chyme and never come in contact with the absorptive surfaces of the cells.
The free fatty acids and monoglycerides then enter the cells that line the small intestine and are converted back into triglycerides. The triglycerides are eventually carried through blood by lipoproteins.
Summary
Bile salts help to emulsify the hydrophobic triglycerides in the aqueous gastric solution. The enzyme lipase catalyze the hydrolysis (digestion) of the triglycerides to fatty acids and monoglycerides. These products of digestion then diffuse into the cells that line the small intestine and then converted back to triglycerides.


21.1: Introduction to Lipoprotein and Apolipoproteins
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
- 21.1.1 Discuss fat metabolism and the role of lipoproteins and apolipoproteins in the body.
- 21.1.2 Discuss the role of lipids as a risk factor for coronary artery disease.
Understanding Lipids
Triglycerides are the main dietary source of fat. They are composed of three long fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol backbone, as depicted in Figure 21.2. The major sterol in the body is cholesterol. Cholesterol is important for the structure of cell membranes and for the production of hormones, bile acids, and vitamin D.
Lipid Metabolism
Fats from the diet are emulsified by bile acids, which are made in the liver and secreted by the gallbladder when food is consumed. The emulsified fats are absorbed in the small intestine and carried via chylomicrons to the tissues. Chylomicrons interact with an enzyme called lipoprotein lipase on muscle and adipose tissue, thereby facilitating the release of free fatty acids from the triglycerides. The free fatty acids can be burned by the tissues for energy or stored as fat. The remnants of chylomicrons that are left over after fatty acid delivery return to the liver. Apolipoproteins A, B, C, and E are all involved in different aspects of this pathway.
The liver also synthesizes cholesterol and triglycerides. Cholesterol is synthesized via an enzyme called HMG CoA reductase , which is a key drug target in lipid-lowering therapy. The liver then packages cholesterol and triglycerides into VLDL particles, which travel to muscle and adipose tissue. Lipoprotein lipase breaks down VLDL particles to release free fatty acids from triglycerides for energy or storage. The remnants left over from the VLDL particles are called intermediate-density lipoproteins, which can be disposed of by the liver or further broken down by lipases to form LDL particles. LDL receptors in the liver interact with LDL-cholesterol to engulf it via endocytosis and dispose of it, effectively removing it from circulation. A protein called PCSK9 interacts with the LDL receptors, leading to their degradation; this is another important drug target in lipid-lowering therapy. HDL-cholesterol also assists in removing cholesterol from the circulation.
Trending Today
Ketogenic Diet
The ketogenic diet , often called “keto,” was originally used to help children suffering from frequent seizures. However, it has recently become a popular diet for those seeking weight loss. The diet consists of very low amounts of carbohydrates and higher amounts of fat. When very low amounts of carbohydrates are consumed, the body uses ketone bodies, made from fats, as the major fuel instead of glucose. Although this diet can lead to rapid weight loss, it can be very difficult to sustain. A typical 2000-calorie ketogenic diet would limit carbohydrates to 20–50 g per day (Masood et al., 2022). A single apple could satisfy the entire daily intake of carbohydrate for a ketogenic diet. The keto diet also may be associated with increased lipid levels and cardiovascular disease.
Lipids and Coronary Artery Disease
Cholesterol has a central role in the development of coronary artery disease (CAD). CAD is characterized by plaque buildup within the coronary arteries, which can occlude blood flow to the heart muscle. The development of CAD starts with cholesterol and triglycerides, which can be deposited onto the inner walls of arteries. Cells from the immune system called macrophages engulf the cholesterol, forming foam cells and fatty streaks within the arterial wall. Over time, cells and cellular debris build up on the fatty streaks, and a fibrous cap forms to create plaques that can narrow the artery and obstruct blood flow. Rupture of the fibrous plaque can cause a thrombus, or blood clot, to form at the site, possibly resulting in complete arterial occlusion and acute myocardial infarction.
Link to Learning
Cholesterol and Coronary Artery Disease
This interactive slide presentation from the American Heart Association introduces the role of cholesterol in the pathophysiology of CAD.
Because of this pathophysiology, hypercholesterolemia due to elevated LDL-cholesterol is an independent risk factor for heart disease. Lipid-lowering therapy that targets LDL-cholesterol is used to decrease the risk for CAD. The optimal target levels for LDL-cholesterol and specific treatment strategies recommended in national guidelines have changed over the last 15 years and continue to evolve; however, the role of LDL-cholesterol as an independent risk factor has not changed.
Although triglycerides have been implicated in the development of atherosclerosis, treatment has not resulted in positive cardiovascular outcomes. Therefore, hypertriglyceridemia is generally not treated unless it is very severe (greater than 500 mg/dL), which can put the individual at risk for pancreatitis.
HDL-cholesterol actually has a protective role against cardiovascular disease, and higher levels (Table 21.1) are considered beneficial.
Link to Learning
This video from JAMA Network gives a quick overview of cholesterol management according to the 2018 American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association guidelines. It provides some context on the changes from previous management recommendations.
In general, lifestyle changes are considered the first-line therapy to treat dyslipidemia and prevent CAD. Many therapeutic drugs are also available. These drugs are listed in Table 21.2 and are the focus of the remainder of the chapter.
| Primary Target to Decrease* | Drug Classes or Drugs | Drug Mechanism |
|---|---|---|
| LDL-cholesterol | Ezetimibe | Decreases cholesterol absorption |
|
Statins
Bempedoic acid |
Decrease cholesterol synthesis | |
|
PCSK9 inhibitors
Inclisiran |
Increase cholesterol removal | |
| Niacin | Multiple actions; not well understood | |
| Triglycerides | Fibrates | Stimulate triglyceride breakdown |
| Niacin | Multiple actions; not well understood | |
|
Omega-3 fatty acids
Icosapent ethyl |
Thought to reduce hepatic production of VLDL | |
| Bile acid sequestrants | Divert cholesterol for bile acid production |
Clinical Tip
Diet
A heart-healthy diet can help reduce cardiovascular risk and is the first-line therapy for cardiovascular risk reduction and hyperlipidemia.
Clients should eat:
- Vegetables
- Whole grains
- Legumes
- Healthy protein sources
- Nontropical vegetable oils
Clients should limit intake of:
- Sweets
- Sugar-sweetened beverages
- Red meats
- Saturated fats and trans fats
- Dairy products made from whole milk
(Sources: American Heart Association, 2020; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2023b, 2023c; Grundy et al., 2019)