Questions to consider:
-
What happens when we make assumptions about others?
-
Are microaggressions honest mistakes?
-
How do I know if I have a diversity “problem”?
-
How important is diversity awareness in the college classroom?
Avoid Making Assumptions
By now you should be aware of the many ways diversity can be both observable and less apparent. Based on surface clues, we may be able to approximate someone’s age, weight, and perhaps their geographical origin, but even with those observable characteristics, we cannot be sure about how individuals define themselves. If we rely too heavily on assumptions, we may be buying into stereotypes, or generalizations.
Stereotyping robs people of their individual identities. If we buy into stereotypes, we project a profile onto someone that probably is not true. Prejudging people without knowing them, better known as prejudice or bias, has consequences for both the person who is biased and the individual or group that is prejudged. In such a scenario, the intimacy of real human connections is lost. Individuals are objectified, meaning that they only serve as symbolic examples of who we assume they are instead of the complex, intersectional individuals we know each person to be.
Stereotyping may be our way of avoiding others’ complexities. When we stereotype, we do not have to remember distinguishing details about a person. We simply write their stories for ourselves and let those stories fulfill who we expect those individuals to be. For example, a hiring manager may project onto an Asian American the stereotype of being good at math, and hire her as a researcher over her Hispanic counterpart. Similarly, an elementary school teacher may recruit an Indian American sixth-grader to the spelling bee team because many Indian American students have won national tournaments in the recent past.   In those scenarios, individuals of other backgrounds, with similar abilities, may have been overlooked because they do not fit the stereotype of who others suspect them to be.
Earlier in this chapter, equity and inclusion were discussed as going hand in hand with achieving civility and diversity. In the above scenarios, equity and inclusion are needed as guiding principles for those with decision-making power who are blocking opportunity for nontraditional groups. Equity might be achieved by giving a diverse group of people access to internships to demonstrate their skills. Inclusion might be achieved by assembling a hiring or recruiting committee that might have a better chance of seeing beyond stereotypical expectations.
APPLICATION
Often, our assumptions and their impacts are not life-changing, but they can be damaging to others and limiting to our own understanding. Consider the following scenarios, and answer the questions that follow.
Scenario 1:
During an in-class conversation about a new mission to explore Mars, two classmates offer opinions.
-
Student A says, “We should focus on this planet before we focus on others.”
-
Student B responds immediately with, “If we’re going to stop climate change, we’ll probably find the answer through science related to space travel.”
What assumption did student B make about student A’s point? What else, aside from climate change, could student A have been considering?
Scenario 2:
For an important group project, an instructor designates teams of six students and gives them time to set up their work schedule for the assignment. One group of students, most of whom don’t know each other well, agrees to meet two nights later. They initially propose to get together in the library, but at the last moment one member suggests an off-campus restaurant; several of the others agree right away and move on to other topics. The remaining two students look at each other uncomfortably. One interjects, suggesting they go back to the original idea of meeting in the library, but the others are already getting up to leave. It’s clear that two of the students are uncomfortable meeting at the restaurant.
What might be the reason that two of the students are not comfortable meeting over dinner? What assumptions did the others make?
Being civil and inclusive does not require a deep-seated knowledge of the backgrounds and perspectives of everyone you meet. That would be impossible. But avoiding assumptions and being considerate will build better relationships and provide a more effective learning experience. It takes openness and self-awareness and sometimes requires help or advice, but learning to be sensitive—practicing assumption avoidance—is like a muscle you can strengthen.
Be Mindful of Microaggressions
Whether we mean to or not, we sometimes offend people by not thinking about what we say and the manner in which we say it. One danger of limiting our social interactions to people who are from our own social group is in being insensitive to people who are not like us. The term
microaggression
refers to acts of insensitivity that reveal our inherent biases, cultural incompetency, and hostility toward someone outside of our community. Those biases can be toward race, gender, nationality, or any other diversity variable. The individual on the receiving end of a microaggression is reminded of the barriers to complete acceptance and understanding in the relationship. Let’s consider an example.
Ann is new to her office job. Her colleagues are friendly and helpful, and her first two months have been promising. She uncovered a significant oversight in a financial report, and, based on her attention to detail, was put on a team working with a large client. While waiting in line at the cafeteria one day, Ann’s new boss overhears her laughing and talking loudly with some colleagues. He then steps into the conversation, saying, “Ann, this isn’t a night at one of your clubs. Quiet down.” As people from the nearby tables look on, Ann is humiliated and angered.
What was Ann’s manager implying? What could he have meant by referring to “
your
clubs?” How would you feel if such a comment were openly directed at you? One reaction to this interaction might be to say, “So what? Why let other people determine how you feel? Ignore them.” While that is certainly reasonable, it may ignore the pain and invalidation of the experience. And even if you could simply ignore some of these comments, there is a compounding effect of being frequently, if not constantly, barraged by such experiences.
There are many other forms of microaggressions that occur in healthcare. For example:
-
telling a person with obesity that they should eat less
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Assuming a patient's socioeconomic status based on appearance.
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Making assumptions about a patient's health literacy.
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Using language that is culturally insensitive or offensive.
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Dismissing a patient's concerns or symptoms based on stereotypes.
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Treating patients differently based on their race or ethnicity.
Consider the table below, which highlights common examples of microaggressions. In many cases, the person speaking these phrases may not mean to be offensive. In fact, in some cases the speaker might think they are being
nice
. However, appropriate terminology and other attitudes or acceptable descriptions change all the time. Before saying something, consider how a person could take the words differently than you meant them. Emotional intelligence and empathy can help understand another’s perspective.
Table 11.2 Have you made statements like these, perhaps without realizing the offense they might cause? Some of these could be intended as compliments, but they could have the unintended effect of diminishing or invalidating someone. (Credit: Modification of work by Derald Wing Sue
1
.)
|
Microaggressions
|
|
Category
|
Microaggression
|
Why It’s Offensive
|
|
Educational Status or Situation
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“You’re an athlete; you don’t need to study.”
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Stereotypes athletes and ignores their hard work.
|
|
“You don’t get financial aid; you must be rich.
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”Even an assumption of privilege can be invalidating.
|
|
“Did they have honors classes at your high school?”
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Implies that someone is less prepared or intelligent based on their geography.
|
|
Race, Ethnicity, National Origin“
|
You speak so well for someone like you.”
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Implies that people of a certain race/ethnicity can’t speak well.
|
|
“No, where are you
really
from?”
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Calling attention to someone’s national origin makes them feel separate.“
|
|
You must be good at _____.”
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Falsely connects identity to ability.
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“My people had it so much worse than yours did.”
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Makes assumptions and diminishes suffering/difficulty.
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“I’m not even going to try your name. It looks too difficult.”
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Dismisses a person’s culture and heritage.
|
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“It’s so much easier for black people to get into college.”
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Assumes that merit is not the basis for achievement.
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|
Gender and Gender Identity
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“They’re
so
emotional.”
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Assumes a person cannot be emotional and rational.
|
|
“I guess you can’t meet tonight because you have to take care of your son?”
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Assumes a parent (of any gender) cannot participate.
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“I don’t get all this pronoun stuff, so I’m just gonna call you what I call you.”
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Diminishes the importance of gender identity; indicates a lack of empathy.
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“I can’t even tell you used to be a woman.”
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Conflates identity with appearance, and assumes a person needs someone else’s validation.
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“You’re too good-looking to be so smart.”
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Connects outward appearance to ability.
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Sexual Orientation
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“I support you; just don’t throw it in my face.”
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Denies another person’s right to express their identity or point of view.
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“You seem so rugged for a gay guy.”
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Stereotypes all gay people as being “not rugged,” and could likely offend the recipient.
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“I might try being a lesbian.”
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May imply that sexual orientation is a choice.
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“I can’t even keep track of all these new categories.”
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Bisexual, pansexual, asexual, and other sexual orientations are just as valid and deserving of respect as more binary orientations.
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“You can’t just love whomever you want; pick one.”
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Age
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“Are you going to need help with the software?”
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May stereotype an older person as lacking experience with the latest technology.
|
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“Young people have it so easy nowadays.”
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Makes a false comparison between age and experience.
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“Okay, boomer.”
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Dismisses an older generation as out of touch.
|
|
Size
|
“I bet no one messes with you.”
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Projects a tendency to be aggressive onto a person of large stature.
|
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“You are so cute and tiny.”
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Condescending to a person of small stature.
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“I wish I was thin and perfect like you.”
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Equates a person’s size with character.
|
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Ability
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(To a person using a wheelchair) “I wish I could sit down wherever I went.”
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Falsely assumes a wheelchair is a luxury; minimizes disabilities.
|
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“You don’t have to complete the whole test. Just do your best.”
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Assumes that a disability means limited intellectual potential.
|
|
“I’m blind without my glasses.”
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Equating diminished capacity with a true disability.
|
Everyone Has a Problem: Implicit Bias
One reason we fall prey to stereotypes is our own implicit bias. Jo Handelsman and Natasha Sakraney, who developed science and technology policy during the Obama administration, defined implicit bias.
According to Handelsman and Sakraney, “A lifetime of experience and cultural history shapes people and their judgments of others. Research demonstrates that most people hold unconscious, implicit assumptions that influence their judgments and perceptions of others. Implicit bias manifests in expectations or assumptions about physical or social characteristics dictated by stereotypes that are based on a person’s race, gender, age, or ethnicity. People who intend to be fair, and believe they are egalitarian, apply biases unintentionally. Some behaviors that result from implicit bias manifest in actions, and others are embodied in the absence of action; either can reduce the quality of the workforce and create an unfair and destructive environment.”
2
The notion of bias being “implicit,” or unconsciously embedded in our thoughts and actions, is what makes this characteristic hard to recognize and evaluate. You may assume that you hold no racial bias, but messages from our upbringing, social groups, and media can feed us negative racial stereotypes no matter how carefully we select and consume information. Further, online environments have algorithms that reduce our exposure to diverse points of view. Psychologists generally agree that implicit bias affects the judgements we make about others.
Harvard University’s Project Implicit website offers an interactive implicit association test that measures individual preference for characteristics such as weight, skin color, and gender. During the test, participants are asked to match a series of words and images with positive or negative associations. Test results, researchers suggest, can indicate the extent to which there is implicit bias in favor of or against a certain group. Completing a test like this might reveal unconscious feelings you were previously aware you had.
The researchers who developed the test make clear that there are limitations to its validity and that for some, the results of the test can be unsettling. The test makers advise not taking the test if you feel unprepared to receive unexpected results.
APPLICATION
Take the
Project Implicit(opens in new window)
test and write a brief passage about your results.
Do you think the results accurately reflect your attitude toward the group you tested on? Can you point to any actions or thoughts you have about the group you tested on that are or are not reflected in the test results? Will you change any behaviors or try to think differently about the group you tested on based on your results? Why or why not?
Cultural Competency in the College Classroom
We carry our attitudes about gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, age, and other diversity categories with us wherever we go. The college classroom is no different than any other place. Both educators and students maintain their implicit bias and are sometimes made uncomfortable by interacting with people different than themselves. Take for example a female freshman who has attended a school for girls for six years before college. She might find being in the classroom with her new male classmates a culture shock and dismiss male students’ contributions to class discussions. Similarly, a homeschooled student may be surprised to find that no one on campus shares his religion. He may feel isolated in class until he finds other students of similar background and experience. Embedded in your classroom may be peers who are food insecure, undocumented, veterans, atheist, Muslim, or politically liberal or conservative. These identities may not be visible, but they still may separate and even marginalize these members of your community. If, in the context of classroom conversations, their perspectives are overlooked, they may also feel very isolated.
In each case, the students’ assumptions, previous experience with diversity of any kind, and implicit bias surface. How each student reacts to the new situation can differ. One reaction might be to self-segregate, that is, locate people they believe are similar to them based on how they look, the assumption being that those people will share the same academic skills, cultural interests, and personal values that make the student feel comfortable. The English instructor at the beginning of this chapter who assumed all of his students were the same demonstrated how this strategy could backfire.
You do not have to be enrolled in a course related to diversity, such as Asian American literature, to be concerned about diversity in the classroom. Diversity touches all aspects of our lives and can enter a curriculum or discussion at any time because each student and the instructor bring multiple identities and concerns into the classroom. Ignoring these concerns, which often reveal themselves as questions, makes for an unfulfilling educational experience.
In higher education, diversity includes not only the identities we have discussed such as race and gender, but also academic preparation and ability, learning differences, familiarity with technology, part-time status, language, and other factors students bring with them. Of course, the instructor, too, brings diversity into the classroom setting. They decide how to incorporate diverse perspectives into class discussions, maintain rules of civility, choose inclusive materials to study or reference, receive training on giving accommodations to students who need them, and acknowledge their own implicit bias. If they are culturally competent, both students and instructors are juggling many concerns.
How do you navigate diversity in the college classroom?
Academic Freedom Allows for Honest Conversations
Academic freedom applies to the permission instructors and students have to follow a line of intellectual inquiry without the fear of censorship or sanction. There are many heavily contested intellectual and cultural debates that, for some, are not resolved. A student who wants to argue against prevailing opinion has the right to do so based on academic freedom. Many point to a liberal bias on college campuses. Conservative points of view on immigration, education, and even science, are often not accepted on campus as readily as liberal viewpoints. An instructor or student who wants to posit a conservative idea, however, has the right to do so because of academic freedom.
Uncomfortable conversations about diversity are a part of the college classroom landscape. For example, a student might use statistical data to argue that disparities in degrees for men and women in chemistry reflect an advantage in analytical ability for men. While many would disagree with that theory, the student could pursue that topic in a discussion or paper as long as they use evidence and sound, logical reasoning.
“I’m just me.”
Remember the response to the “What are you?” question for people whose racial or gender identity was ambiguous? “I’m just me” also serves those who are undecided about diversity issues or those who do not fall into hard categories such as feminist, liberal, conservative, or religious. Ambiguity sometimes makes others feel uncomfortable. For example, if someone states she is a Catholic feminist unsure about abortion rights, another student may wonder how to compare her own strong pro-life position to her classmate’s uncertainty. It would be much easier to know exactly which side her classmate is on. Some people straddle the fence on big issues, and that is OK. You do not have to fit neatly into one school of thought. Answer your detractors with “I’m just me,” or tell them if you genuinely don’t know enough about an issue or are not ready to take a strong position.
Seek Resources and Projects That Contribute to Civility
A culturally responsive curriculum addresses cultural and ethnic differences of students. Even in classrooms full of minority students, the textbooks and topics may only reflect American cultural norms determined by the mainstream and tradition. Students may not relate to teaching that never makes reference to their socio-economic background, race, or their own way of thinking and expression. Educators widely believe that a culturally responsive curriculum, one that integrates relatable contexts for learning and reinforces cultural norms of the students receiving the information, makes a difference.
The K-12 classroom is different than the college classroom. Because of academic freedom, college instructors are not required to be culturally inclusive. (They
are
usually required to be respectful and civil, but there are different interpretations of those qualities.) Because American colleges are increasingly more sensitive to issues regarding diversity, faculty are compelled to be inclusive. Still, diversity is not always adequately addressed. In his TED “Talk Can Art Amend History?” the artist Titus Kaphar tells the story of the art history class that influenced him to become an artist and provides an example of this absence of diversity in the college classroom. Kaphar explains that his instructor led his class through important periods and artists throughout history, but failed to spend time on black artists, something that Kaphar was anxiously awaiting. The instructor stated that there was just not enough time to cover it. While the professor probably did not intend to be noninclusive, her choice resulted in just that. Kaphar let his disappointment fuel his passion and mission to amend the representation of black figures in historical paintings. His work brings to light the unnoticed black figures that are too often overlooked.
Figure 11.16: In
Twisted Tropes,
Titus Kaphar reworks a painting to bring a black figure to the forefront of an arrangement in which she had previously been marginalized. (Credit: smallcurio / Flickr / Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC-BY 2.0))
Any student can respond to a lack of diversity in a curriculum as Titus Kaphar did. Where you find diversity missing, when possible, fill in the gaps with research papers and projects that broaden your exposure to diverse perspectives. Take the time to research contributions in your field by underrepresented groups. Discover the diversity issues relevant to your major. Are women well-represented in your field? Is there equity when it comes to access to opportunities such as internships? Are veterans welcomed? Do the academic societies in your discipline have subgroups or boards focused on diversity and equity? (Most do.) Resources for expanding our understanding and inclusion of diversity issues are all around us.
Directly Confront Prejudice
To draw our attention to possible danger, the Department of Homeland Security has adopted the phrase, “If you see something, say something.” That credo can easily be adopted to confront stereotypes and bias: “If you hear something, say something.” Academic freedom protects students and instructors from reprisal for having unpopular opinions, but prejudice is never correct, nor should it be tolerated. Do not confuse hate speech, such as sexist language, anti-Semitism, xenophobia, and acts that reflect those points of view, with academic freedom. Yes, the classroom is a place to discuss these attitudes, but it is not a place to direct those sentiments toward fellow students, educators, or society in general.
Most higher education institutions have mission statements and codes of conduct that warn students about engaging in such behavior. The consequences for violators are usually probation and possibly dismissal. Further policies such as affirmative action and Title IX are instituted to evaluate and maintain racial and gender equity.
Affirmative Action and Higher Education
Affirmative action is a policy that began during the John F. Kennedy administration to eliminate discrimination in employment. Since that time, it has expanded as a policy to protect from discrimination in a number of contexts, including higher education. Most notably in higher education, affirmative action has been used to create equity in access. Institutions have used affirmative action as a mandate of sorts in admission policies to create diverse student bodies. Colleges sometimes overlook traditional admissions criteria and use socioeconomic and historical disparities in education equity as criteria to admit underrepresented groups. Affirmative action is a federal requirement to be met by entities that contract with the federal government; most colleges are federal government contractors and must adhere to the policy by stating a timeline by which its affirmative action goals are met.
Many interpret “goals” as quotas, meaning that a certain number of students from underrepresented groups would be admitted, presumably to meet affirmative action requirements. Opposition to affirmative action in college admissions has been pursued in several well-known court cases.
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
This 1978 case resulted in a U.S. Supreme Court decision to allow race to be used as one of the criteria in higher education admission policies as long as quotas were not established and race was not the only criterion for admission. The case stemmed from Alan Bakke, an applicant to the University of California at Davis Medical School, suing the university because he was not admitted but had higher test scores and grades than minority students who had been accepted. Lawyers for Bakke referenced the same equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment used to desegregate public schools in
Brown v. Board of Education
. The “reverse discrimination” denied him equal protection under the law.
Fisher v. University of Texas
In 2016, the U.S. Supreme Court decided another affirmative action case regarding Fisher v. University of Texas. Abigail Fisher also argued that she had been denied college admission based on race. The case ended in favor of the university. Justice Kennedy, in the majority opinion, wrote:
“A university is in large part defined by those intangible “qualities which are incapable of objective measurement but which make for greatness.” Considerable deference is owed to a university in defining those intangible characteristics, like student body diversity, that are central to its identity and educational mission.”
In each of the above landmark cases, affirmative action in college admission policies were upheld. However, cases of reverse discrimination in college admission policies continue to be pursued.
ANALYSIS QUESTION
Examine your college’s code of conduct. You may find it in your student handbook, as part of an office of community standards or engagement, or by simply searching your college site. How does the code of conduct protect academic freedom but guard against hate speech, prejudice, and intolerance?
Title IX and Higher Education
Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 states, “No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.” As with affirmative action, Title IX applies to institutions that receive federal funding, such as public and charter schools, for-profit schools, libraries, and museums in the United States and its territories.
According to the Office for Civil Rights, educational programs and activities receiving federal funds must operate in a nondiscriminatory manner. Title IX addresses recruitment, admissions, and counseling; financial assistance; athletics; sex-based harassment; treatment of pregnant and parenting students; discipline; single-sex education; and employment.
Before the enactment of Title IX, there were few if any protections provided for women college students. To give some perspective, consider this description of the circumstances:
“Young women were not admitted into many colleges and universities, athletic scholarships for women were rare, and math and science was a realm reserved for boys. Girls square danced instead of playing sports, studied home economics instead of training for 'male-oriented' (read: higher-paying) trades. Girls could become teachers and nurses, but not doctors or principals; women rarely were awarded tenure and even more rarely appointed college presidents. There was no such thing as sexual harassment because 'boys will be boys,' after all, and if a student got pregnant, her formal education ended. Graduate professional schools openly discriminated against women.”
3
The protections of Title IX have been invoked in college athletics to ensure women’s athletic programs are sustained. In addition, schools must make efforts to prevent sexual harassment and violence. Gender discrimination under Title IX extends to the protection of transgender students so that they are treated as the gender they identify with.
ANALYSIS QUESTION
Based on the cases against affirmative action in higher education, are admissions policies that use race, along with other factors, as admissions criteria fair? What other options do you think would create equity in admissions?
Footnotes
-
Adapted from Sue, Derald Wing, Microaggressions in Everyday Life: Race, Gender and Sexual Orientation, Wiley & Sons, 2010
-
Handlesman, Jo and Sakraney, Natasha. White House Office of Science and Technology Policy.
obamawhitehouse.archives.org
[obamawhitehouse.archives.gov...4-15_final.pdf]
.
-
WInslow, Barbara. “The Impact of Title IX.” Gilder-Lerhman Institute.
faculty.uml.edu
[faculty.uml.edu]


9.1: Outcome- Brand Positioning and Alignment
What you’ll learn to do: explain how marketers use brand positioning to align marketing activities and build successful brands
It is clear that brands are valuable assets that benefit organizations and their customers. Building brand loyalty is an important goal for marketers. But what does it take to build a brand?
Brands are shaped by many different activities. As a marketer, you can control some of these activities, but not others. For instance, you can put together an amazing product design, a fabulous brand name, memorable packaging, irresistible marketing promotions, and delightful customer service—those are all things within your control. But you can’t control how customers actually react to and use the product, despite your best efforts to direct and influence them. You also can’t control what they write in online reviews.
In order to optimize the success of your brand, you should become very good at aligning all the activities you can control, so that the brand experience you provide is consistent for the customers you care about. Consistency and alignment are essential for building strong brands.
Brand positioning is an ideal tool for creating this alignment. It’s how you figure out what your brand really means to you. It’s the yardstick you use to figure out which messages and activities will communicate that brand most effectively. It provides the pattern for helping customers understand what to think about your brand and decide whether it matters to them and they can trust it.
In the end, brand positioning is the clearest path toward creating brand-loyal customers.
The specific things you’ll learn in this section include:
- Explain the concept of brand positioning
-
Discuss techniques marketers use to achieve strong brand positioning and alignment:
- Brand promise
- Brand voice and personality
- Brand positioning statement
Learning Activities
The learning activities for this section include the following:
- Reading: Brand Positioning and Alignment
- Video: Red Bull’s Extreme Brand Alignment
- Self Check: Brand Positioning and Alignment
Contributors and Attributions
- Outcome: Brand Positioning and Alignment. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


2.2.12: Transformation
-
- Last updated
- Save as PDF
Learning Objectives
Goals:
- Explain how the information encoded in a gene is expressed as a trait
- Describe the role of transformation in cloning genes
- Explain the purpose of each control in the transformation experiment
Student Learning Outcomes:
Upon completion of this lab, students will be able to:
- Carryout a transformation
- Predict the growth results for the negative control and plasmid containing reaction on both antibiotic-containing and nutrient agar only media
- Explain your reasoning, if predicted growth results don’t match actual growth results
Introduction
Genetic engineering or DNA technology has been useful for producing large quantities of a specific protein to treat human diseases. For example, patients with diabetes, hemophilia, or anemia require treatments with insulin, clotting factor, and growth factor proteins. Targeted genes (DNA) can be cut with restriction enzymes and joined with other DNA with the enzyme ligase. A cloning vector is used to carry the recombinant DNA into living cells, so that the cells can synthesize the encoded proteins. The best cloning vectors are small in size, able to replicate its DNA, contain restriction enzyme recognition sites, and have a marker gene (usually antibiotic resistance gene). In this lab, we will use a recombinant plasmid as the cloning vector. This recombinant plasmid contains (1) a promoter that enables transcription of desired gene, (2) a sequence for the initiation of DNA replication ( ori site), and (3) an antibiotic resistance gene.
Transforming Bacteria with Recombinant Plasmid
Inserting a gene into a plasmid vector is an important first step in the gene cloning process. However, if the ultimate goal is to produce a large amount of a particular protein, the plasmid must replicate to make sure that there are many copies of the gene and the gene of interest must be expressed, meaning the gene is utilized to produce the encoded protein. Both activities can only occur inside a cell. Therefore, in this lab we will put a recombinant plasmid into E. coli bacteria through a process that is called transformation , so named because it changes the DNA content of the bacteria.
The plasmid will be taken up by bacteria where it replicates, and its genes will be expressed using the bacterial cellular machinery. If a gene of interest has been inserted into the plasmid vector, the bacteria produces the product encoded by that gene.
In this exercise, you will carry out the transformation of E. coli bacteria using a recombinant plasmid that contains a gene that produces colored proteins.
Bacterial Transformation
Once a recombinant plasmid is made that contains a gene of interest, such as insulin, the plasmid can enter bacterial cells by a process called transformation. Figure 13.1 illustrates transformation. The uptake of DNA from the environment of a bacterial cell occurs with a very low efficiency in nature. E. coli bacteria have complex plasma membranes that separate the external environment from the internal environment of the cell and carefully regulate which substances can enter and exit the cell. In addition, the cell wall is negatively charged and repels negatively charged DNA molecules.
Cells that have been treated to become competent are more efficient at taking in DNA from their surrounding environment. Competent cells can be made by treating the bacteria with a calcium solution. Calcium ions are positively charged, and will neutralize the negatively charged outer membrane on the E. coli bacteria. With the positive charge now coating the membrane, the inherently negatively charged DNA molecules will move through the plasma membranes and into the cell. The transformation efficiency can be further increased by stressing the cells in a heat shock. By changing the temperature of the cells drastically from cold to warm, the plasma membranes become more fluid and create pores in them. The plasmid DNA can travel from the environment through these pores and enter the cell. The cells are then plunged back into a cold temperature, which causes the pores to close and the plasmid DNA to remain inside the cell.
However, even competent cells do not always uptake the plasmid. For some plasmid DNA molecules, only about 1 in 10,000 cells will be transformed. When so few cells have taken in the plasmid, how will you be able to identify transformed cells? When designing a recombinant plasmid, one of the requirements is to add a gene for an antibiotic resistance. This way, the bacteria can be grown in the media with an antibiotic added to it, and only cells that have the resistance gene, such as those that express the recombinant plasmid, will be able to grow.
From Plasmid DNA to Protein
After a recombinant plasmid enters a bacterial cell, the cell begins to express the genes on it. DNA polymerase locates the ori - the origin of replication, and starts to replicate the plasmid using the bacterial cell’s machinery. Multiple copies of the recombinant plasmid can enable the bacterial cell to express large amounts of a protein. Usually, a bacterial cell will only make the protein of interest, after it is induced to do so by adding a chemical which will promote the transcription of the gene. Recall that to express the gene encoding the protein on the recombinant plasmid, DNA is transcribed to mRNA, which is then translated to protein (Figure 13.2). The expressed proteins may affect the visible traits when observing the bacteria colonies.
Recombinant plasmids and other forms of genetic engineering is possible because all living organisms use DNA as a platform to encode genetic information. Genes from different organisms can be expressed in other organisms like bacteria since they are encoded in DNA. The DNA instructions can be transferred, and other organisms can express foreign traits.
Proteins have many different functions inside and cells. They are made up of smaller subunits, amino acids , which are encoded by DNA nucleotides . A specific three nucleotide sequence that codes for a single amino acid is called a codon. For example, the codon TTG codes for the amino acid tryptophan, whereas the codon AAG codes for the amino acid lysine. In many cases, more than one codon can encode the same amino acid. For example, AAA is also a codon for lysine. In addition, there are informational codons, such as the start codon (ATG) and the stop codon (TTA), which show where in the DNA sequence the code for the protein begins and ends.
Transforming Bacteria with Plasmids
In this laboratory experiment you will transform E. coli bacteria cells with plasmids. You will be using E. coli that has been made competent with a calcium chloride treatment, and form two different testing groups: a negative control cell group that does not have plasmids added to it, and the experimental group that has the plasmids added. After the cells are heat-shocked, they will be grown under various testing conditions:
- The control group on nutrient agar (a type of growth media that bacteria thrive on).
- The control group on nutrient agar with an antibiotic added.
- The experimental group on nutrient agar.
- The experimental group on nutrient agar with an antibiotic.
- The experimental group on nutrient agar, antibiotic and an inducer (such as IPTG).
By examining the growth of bacteria under these conditions, you can verify that your procedure worked, and you can identify the bacteria transformed with the added plasmid. How will you know if you are successful? In the examples for plasmids we have recommended for this exercise, the recombinant bacteria will have a new and highly visible trait: It will now produce colored protein, which makes the cells themselves colored! As the bacteria multiply on the media, they form visible collections of cells called colonies. Each colony represents the decedents of the original bacterial cell that landed on that spot on the medium and began to replicate. Thus colonies are clones (exact copies) of the cell that began the replication process.
The relevant components of your plasmid are the gene for the colored protein, the inducible promoter, and the ampicillin resistance gene ( ampR ). The ampR gene confers resistance to the antibiotic ampicillin. (Biotechnologists call these genes selectable markers because only bacteria having the gene will survive in the presence of an antibiotic.) If the inducer is present in the bacteria, the promoter will be “turned on” so RNA polymerase can transcribe the gene of interest. This will allow protein to be produced.
Prelab Questions
Discuss the following amongst yourselves. Be ready to share your thoughts with the rest of the class.
- Ampicillin is a derivative of the antibiotic penicilliin. It disrupts cell wall formation in bacterial cells which kills the cells. However, our recombinant plasmid contains a gene that provides antibiotic resistance by producing a protein that breaks down ampicillin. Why do we include ampicillin in the test medium?
- What will happen if the transformed cells do not grow in the presence of the chemical inducer?
- In the experiment, you will add the control and experimental groups of cells onto different media combinations. What do you predict for each condition? Fill in Table 1 by indicating if you predict growth or no growth, and if growth, will there be minimal growth or lots of growth.
Read through the Procedures below and outline the steps, using words and a flowchart in your lab notebook.
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Medium |
No plasmid control |
Treatment with plasmid |
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Nutrient Agar |
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Nutrient Agar + Ampicillin |
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Nutrient Agar + Ampicillin + Inducer |
Transforming E. coli
MATERIALS
Reagents
- Plasmid – in microfuge tube
- Nutrient Broth (NB) – in microfuge tube
- Competent E. coli cells (CC) – in microfuge tube (Always keep CC tube on ice)
- 3 agar plates:
Plate 1: NA
Plate 2: NA/amp
Plate 3: NA/amp/ind
Supplies and Equipment
- P-20 micropipette
- P-200 micropipette
- Pipette tip box (for P-20, P-200)
- Microfuge tube rack
- Two 1.5 mL microfuge tubes
- Permanent marker
- Disposable gloves
- Crushed ice in a Styrofoam cup (fill cup first with ice before taking CC tube.)
- Pack of cell spreaders (do not remove spreaders from pack until directed to do so)
- Timer or clock
- Floating microfuge tube rack
- 42°C water bath
- 37°C incubator
- Tape
- Waste container
- Biohazard bag (for supplies that handle cells)
SAFETY
Check your protocol and follow all safety measures and wear proper attire prior to conducting the experiment.
Practice aseptic technique while using E. coli or other live specimens in a laboratory setting. Aseptic technique is the practice of taking precautions to limit potential contamination to both the person performing the experiment, and to the sample/s. Please note the following:
- Wear gloves when working with bacteria.
- Avoid touching contaminated areas which includes anything that has touched bacteria. Notify your instructor ASAP if an accident takes place, such as a spill.
- Put all supplies that have been exposed to bacteria into either a biohazard bag, or a designated biowaste container. These contaminated supplies may include pipette tips, cell spreaders, and microfuge tubes.
- Keep agar plates closed at all times after removing them from the incubator.
- Always wash your hands for 20 seconds with soap and water before leaving the lab.
PROCEDURE
- Make sure you have all the reagents in a tube rack.
- Retrieve a chilled CC tube and put in the cup of crushed ice. Keep the competent cells cold at all times . Hold the tube by the rim, not the bottom.
- Label the top and sides of two new microfuge tubes with “P-” and “P+”.
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Put the P– and P+ tubes with the CC tube on ice.
To ensure the best results possible, it is crucial that each step is followed exactly. Limit any possible contamination to the materials, yourself, and surroundings. - Add E. coli competent cells (CC tube) to both the P- and P+ tubes.
- Take the P-200 pipette, set to 50 µL and put on a tip.
- Holding the CC tube by the rim, gently resuspend the cells by slowly pumping between the first and no stop with the pipette (a gentle downward plunger motion to the first resistance point then a gentle upward motion to the top plunger position).
- Add 50 µL of cells to the P+ tube and place the P+ tube on ice immediately. Discard the tip into the sharps container.
- Grab a new pipette tip. Repeat for the P- tube. Discard the tip. Both P- and P+ tubes should be on ice and contain 50 µL of competent cells.
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Add plasmid to the P+ tube only.
- Take the P-20 pipette, set to 10 µL and put on a tip.
- Remove 10 µL of the plasmid and add it to the P+ tube. Mix together by slowly pumping between the first and no stop 2-3 times then place the tube back on ice.
- Put the P- and P+ tubes on ice for 15 minutes.
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While the tubes are chilling, obtain your agar plates and marker. Do not open the plates during this step
- Each agar plate contains different media- one of Nutrient Agar only (NA), one of Nutrient Agar + ampicillin (NA/AMP), and one of Nutrient Agar + ampicillin + inducer (NA/AMP/IND). These may be labeled with a stripe pattern or written on the plate
- Do not open the plates. Turn every plate upside-down; the agar should be on top. Label the agar side with 1) date 2) group number 3) class period. Try to write small along the bottom edge of the plate.
- Next, draw a line down the middle of the NA and NA/AMP plates. One half is labeled as “P-” and the other is “P+”. The NA/AMP/IND is only labeled “P+”. They should look similar to Fig 4
- After the P- and P+ tubes have been on ice for 15 minutes, keep the tubes on ice and bring the ice cup over to the 42°C water bath. You will also need your timer/clock. Put both tubes into a floating microfuge tube rack, then place it into the water bath for precisely 45 seconds.
- As soon as the 45 seconds pass, immediately put the tubes back into the ice cup and keep on ice for a minimum of 1 minute.
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Add Nutrient Broth (NB) to the P- and P+ tubes.
- Take the P-200 pipette, set to 150 µL and put on a tip.
- Remove 150 µL of NB and add to the P- tube. Mix together by slowly pumping between the first and no stop with the pipette. Discard the tip into the biowaste container.
- Get a new pipette tip. Repeat the same process for the P+ tube.
- Keep the tubes at room temperature for 15 minutes. If you are running short on time, this step can be shortened.
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Add cells from the P– tube onto your NA and NA/amp plates. Keep the plates right side up so the agar is on the bottom. You add cells to the surface of the agar (not the plastic lid).
- Take the P-200 pipette, set to 50 µL and put on a tip
- Take the P- tube. Slowly pump the pipette between the first and no stop with the pipette to resuspend the cells. Remove 50 µL of the cells.
- Lift the lid of the NA plate like a “clamshell” to leave a large enough gap to deliver the cells, while lowering the risk of airborne contamination. Add the 50 µL of cells to the P- half of the plate. Close the plate and prepare to spread the cells.
- Repeat this for the NA/AMP plate by resuspending the P- tube cells with the pipette and same tip. Add 50 µL of the cells to P- side of the NA/AMP plate using the clamshell method again. Discard the tip into the sharps container.
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Spread the cells from the P– tube on your NA and NA/amp plates. You must spread your plates in this order.
- Open the sterilized cell spreader package. Take a single spreader out and hold it only by the end you removed it by. Be careful not to touch the other end of the spreader to anything but the cells and agar. Close the package.
- Using the “clamshell” method, open the NA lid and spread the cells on the P- half of the plate. Gently hold the spreader flat against the surface of the agar; treat it gently as if you were handling gelatin. Close the plate.
- Repeat the same technique for the NA/AMP plate on the P- side using the same spreader. Once you are finished, discard the spreader into the designated biowaste container.
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Add cells from the P+ tube to your NA, NA/amp, and NA/amp/ind plates:
- Take the P-200 pipette, double check it is set to 50 µL and put on a tip.
- Take the P+ tube. Slowly pump the pipette between the first and no stop with the pipette to resuspend the cells. Remove 50 µL of the cells.
- Open the NA plate again like a clamshell to deliver 50 µL of cells to the P+ half of the plate. Close the plate.
- Repeat this for the NA/AMP plate by resuspending the cells with the pipette and same tip. Add 50 µL of cells to the P+ half of the plate. Close the plate.
- Repeat this for the NA/AMP/IND plate by resuspending the cells with the pipette and same tip. Add 50 µL of cells two times to the entire plate. There is a total of 100 µL of P+ cells added to the plate and must cover the entire surface when spread. Close the plate.
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Spread the P+ cells on the NA, NA/AMP and NA/AMP/IND plates. You must spread your plates in this order.
- Open the cell spreader package again and take out a single spreader, only touching the handle. Do Be careful to not touch the other end of the spreader to anything but the cells and agar.
- Using the clamshell method, open the NA lid and spread the cells on the P+ half of the plate. Gently hold the spreader flat against the surface of the agar; treat it gently as if you were handling gelatin. Close the plate.
- Using the same spreader, repeat the same technique for the NA/AMP plate on the P+ side .
- Repeat the same technique for the NA/AMP/IND plate except the cells must be spread across the entire plate, not just one half. Rotate the plate gently to evenly disperse the cells with the spreader. Once you are finished, discard the spreader into the designated biowaste container.
- Keep all plates right side up for 5 minutes until the liquid is fully absorbed into the plate. Stack the plates together and tape them, labeling the tape with your class period, group number and date.
- Put the plates upside down (agar side on top) into the 37°C incubator to prevent condensation from forming and falling on the cells.
- Put anything that touched the cells into the biohazard bag, including pipette tips, microfuge tubes and cell spreaders. Wipe down tabletops with disinfectants and wash hands.
- Incubate the plates at 37°C for 24-36 hours and look for growth. Keep the plates closed.
- Put the agar plates into the biohazard bag when told to do so.
Analysis
- Look at the results of your transformation. Fill out Table 2 with observations on whether you see growth or not on the different media.
- Do your actual results match your predicted results? If not, what differences do you see and what are some explanations for these differences?
- How many colored colonies were present on your NA/AMP/IND plate?
|
Medium |
No plasmid control |
Treatment with plasmid |
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Nutrient Agar |
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Nutrient Agar + Ampicillin |
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Nutrient Agar + Ampicillin + Inducer |
Study Questions
- Why would colored colonies form on the NA/AMP/IND plate and not the NA/AMP plate?
- What are some possible reasons for colored colonies to form on the NA/AMP plate?
- Extrachromosomal DNA in bacteria, like a recombinant plasmid, can replicate within the cell without the rest of the cell’s DNA replicating. This can lead to multiple plasmids within a cell. Why is this important?
- Previously, you learned about the interactions between DNA, RNA, proteins and traits. Explain how an inserted gene such as one in plasmid DNA, is expressed as a trait.
- How can bacteria make proteins from foreign DNA, such as human insulin or a protein from a jellyfish like green fluorescent protein (GFP)?
- What would happen if we grew the transformed bacteria in the presence of a different antibiotic such as kanamycin, instead of ampicillin?


7.1: How to Make a LibreTexts Remix
This tutorial will walk you through making a customized text using the LibreTexts remixing tool. The Remixer tool can be used for simple tasks like creating a book that consists of select chapters of an existing resource or it can be used to create complex remixes consisting of multiple resources potentially across libraries. You can also create empty pages if you want to create your own content in parts of your customized book. Before creating a customized remix it is recommended that you construct a Remixing Map to guide you in building your remixed text and this tutorial assumes that you have a remixing map prepared.
It can be useful to think of the remixer as email and imap/POP3 application on a personal computer.
| Remixer | |
|---|---|
| Your emails are on an email server somewhere | Your texts are on the LibreTexts server |
| You download the email to your personal computer when you download emails to your email application | You download an image of your text to your personal computer when you" load a text" in the remixer or create a new text |
| When you want a newly constructed/edited email to sent (go live) your email browser talks to your email server | When you want a newly construction/edited text to be live, the remixer talks to the LibreTexts server (via "publishing). |
| With emails, if you edit/create an email and you didn't send it (upload to your email server), it doesn't go live (i.e., sent) |
With the remixes, if you didn't publish the text (i.e., upload to the LibreTexts server), it doesn't go live (viewable on the LibreTexts websites) |
With the remixer, any changes to a text (or a newly created text) will not be reflected on the LibreTexts server until you " publish " those changes (green button). They will be saved as remixing maps on your personal computer only.
Finding the Remixer
The best place to access the remixer from is the Project Page with the Open OER Remixer button.
Occasionally people will try and remix books in Libraries where they don't have permissions. In those cases trying to remix will fail with a message that permission was lacking. Should this happen you should contact an administrator at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>.
You can also access the Remixer from your book when you are logged in. Each Library has a primary toolbar at the top (below the library logo). The toolbar is black when a user with an instructor's account has logged in and grey otherwise. There is a blue toolbar on the far left. The Tools selection on the blue toolbar has an icon labeled "Remixer" that when clicked will load a new page with the Remixer for making customized textbooks on the specified library.
We strongly recommend reaching the remixer from the Open OER Remixer button of your Project Page.
Getting Started
Since users without instructor's accounts can access the Remixer, the first step in using the Remixer is to confirm you can, in fact, use it to publish a remix (i.e., your account allows publishing new texts). Once loaded, if the Remixer screen has a dark grey bar with the term "Demonstration Mode" on the left (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)), then you will not be able to publish your text. However, you can still create an online map of your customized text and save it for future editing/publishing. Register for an instructors account https://register.libretexts.org that lets you publish .
When logged into an account with publishing privileges, the grey bar will turn black and the "Demonstration Mode" will switch to "Basic Mode" (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)). The name of the book you are remixing from either the Project Page or the Book should appear where the Remix Name is.
Creation Steps
Step 1: By default, the Remixer generates "copy-transcluded " pages that mirror the original Master content. To edit the content on the new Remixed page, authors have to have to "fork" the page in the Editor to copy the content from the original master page into the new Remixed page. Copy-forked pages copy as traditional copied pages, which, once copied, can be edited independently of the content of the master page. You can convert individual sections/pages to distinct forked copies at a later time in order to customize them. Only developers and administrators can generate copy-forked pages directly in the remixer
Step 2: A popup tutorial can be turned on by flipping this switch. Use as needed.
Step 3: The aut\nonumberer ensures the constructed Remix follows a consistent number scheme and more importantly, adapts to the changing structure of the remix as new content is added, deleted or reorganized. It is recommended to turn this on (switched to the right). There are options available for the aut\nonumber (blue button below aut\nonumber switch); it is recommended to avoid these until users are more proficient with the remixer tool.
Dragging and Dropping Content
The Remixer has two panels: The library panel and the Remix panel (Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\)). The library panel on the left side contains the existing content on the LibreTexts libraries and the Remixer Panel on the right side is where you will create your new Remix. The basic remixing approach is to drag content with the mouse from the Library Panel to the Remix Panel. To insert a chapter or section from an existing book simply find it in the Library panel and drag it to where you want it in your remix.
Step 4: Find content you desire to remix by selecting the library under "Library panel" (default is the library the Remixer was opened in) and page through the hierarchy tree. Once found, use the mouse to click on it and drag it to the Remix Panel. Content in the Remix panel will be green since this is a new page being created (ONLY after the Remix is published). You can continue to drag and drop content in different spots in your Remix Panel.
In both panels, the symbol indicates the top (book) level, the symbol indicates a chapter, and the symbol indicates a section (or subsection).
At the top of the Library Panel you will find the library selector, you can select material from any of our 13 libraries.
Reorganizing Remix Content
You can edit your remix by inserting or deleting pages and dragging sections and chapters around as you desire. Above the Library and Remixer Panels is the editor bar (Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\)). Here you can add a new (empty) page, change the title of a page or chapter, delete a page or a chapter, undo your latest changes, start over with a new remix, or publish a remix.
Step 5: Rearrange chapters and pages as desired. If aut\nonumber is on, the title numbers will adjust as you reorganize your content. Delete unneeded pages and add new content from the Library Panel. Actions can be reverted via the undo/redo buttons.
The organization in the Remix panel will be automatically stored in on the user computer in the web browser's cookies. They can also be forced to be saved via the "Save Map" below the Aut\nonumber Options (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)). This allows you to share your remixing map across computers or with other people. It is recommended that you save each remix until you become comfortable with the Remixer.
To change the name of a section or chapter first select it in the Remixing panel and then press "Page Properties" (button with pencil in Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\)) or simply double click the page. Clicking on the "Page Title" text will allow users to manually change the name of that section in the remix (once published). The other properties in the Page Properties box are best reviewed once users are proficient with the Remixer.
Publishing your Remix
When you are ready to publish your remix press the green "Publish" button (Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\)). You will then see an overview screen summary of your remix outlining the basic properties of the pages that will be created (Figure \(\PageIndex{10}\)).
Step 6: If you are happy with the summary, press "publish" at the bottom left to publish remixing map. You can follow the publishing process as your remix is being created in the right panel. When it is all done click the link at the bottom of the right panel.
Take Ownership of your Remix
New remixes will automatically be placed in the Workbench and be reachable through your Project Page in the Conductor. They can also be reached directly via their URL or
Step 7: Click on the blue text in the lower right, "Your new LibreTexts is available here". This will open up the newly published Remix in your Sandbox.
Edit Remix
It is important to note that while the remixer is a powerful tool for combining existing content in the desired organization, typically further editing is desired at the paragraph/sentence level within the pages. This requires direct editing of the pages of the newly publish Remix using the procedures outlined in Chapter 8 and Chapter 4 .
Step 8: Edit/curate remix as needed by manually editing individual pages.
Reremixing the Remixer
Often, it is desired to reorganize existing remixes or to add or delete content in the remixes. To do that, the re-remixer mode should be used. Before going to the re-remixer you should move to the book you want re-remix on a tab in your browser and invoke the Remixer from there.
Step 9: To do this go to the Remixer from your Project Page or from the Book as described above
Once the Remixer is in the name of the book should appear. Except for Developers and Administrators users can ONLY remix texts linked to their projects or for which they have permission from the owners. In general these are texts on campus bookshelves for which they have permission (usually only the ones that they have created)
Once the remix is generated, it pulls up in the Remix Panel just like Step 4 . The remix can be reorganized with pages added and deleted just like in the Remixer mode. However, in contrast to the Remixer mode, different colors can be found depending on if a new page is created (green), or if a page title is changed (orange) - often via the aut\nonumberer - or if a page is deleted (red) (Figure \(\PageIndex{13}\)). Users can also pull content from the Library and add to the Remix panel as desired.
Step 10: Reremix the previously published remix from Step 7 as needed.
The remixed text can be published following the instructions in Step 6 (clicking the Publish button).


14.7: Discussion Questions
Discuss how a small business can be bootstrapped at its inception. What kind of costs can the entrepreneur avoid or lower with tenacity and sweat equity?
2 .If you were to start a small business, what would it be and what kind of resources would you need to get started?
3 .Which do you think are more difficult to protect: tangible or intangible resources and why?
4 .Discuss how political factors can impact a business.
5 .What are some examples of sociocultural factors that may affect a business?
6 .Explain how economic factors can increase the price of a product.
7 .When is it a good time to hire an independent contractor and when is it a good time to hire an on-staff employee?
8 .Explain how resource dependence theory helps a venture grow.
9 .Discuss the steps required in hiring new employees. What sorts of factors must you think of before you hire a new team?
10 .Discuss the importance of having personal resources, such as a strong support system, when starting a venture.


3.6: Chapter XII- The Indians Bring Us Food (Excerpt)
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At sunset, the Indians thinking that we had not
gone, came to seek us and bring us food; but when
they saw us thus, in a plight so different from what it
was before, and so extraordinary, they were alarmed
and turned back. I went toward them and called,
when they returned much frightened. I gave them to
understand by signs that our boat had sunk and three
of our number had been drowned. There, before
them, they saw two of the departed, and we who re-
mained were near joining them. The Indians, at sight
of what had befallen us, and our state of suffering and
melancholy destitution, sat down among us, and from
the sorrow and pity they felt, they all began to lament
so earnestly that they might have been heard at a dis-
tance, and continued so doing more than half an hour.
It was strange to see these men, wild and untaught,
howling like brutes over our misfortunes. It caused
in me as in others, an increase of feeling and a livelier
sense of our calamity.


4.3: A Class-Wide Experiment
We are going to look at a class-wide game.
Each member of the class secretly chooses a single letter: “C” or “D,” standing for “cooperate” or “defect.” This will be used as your strategy choice in the following game with each of the other players in the class. Here is how it works for each pair of players: if they both cooperate, they get each get \(3\) points. If they both defect, they each get \(1\) point. If one cooperates and one defects, the cooperator gets nothing, but the defector gets \(5\) points. Your one choice of “C” or “D” will be used to play the game with all the other players in the class.
Thus, if everyone chooses “C,” everyone will get \(3\) points per person (not counting yourself). If everyone chooses “D,” everyone will get \(1\) point per person (not counting yourself). You can't lose! And of course, anyone chooses “D” will get at least as much as everyone else will. If, for example in a class of \(20\) people, \(11\) people choose “C” and \(9\) choose “D,” then the \(11\) C-ers will get \(3\) points apiece from the other C-ers (making \(30\) points), and zero from the D-ers. So C-ers will get \(30\) points each. The D-ers, by contrast, will pick up \(5\) points apiece from each of the C-ers, making \(55\) points, and \(1\) point from each of the other D-ers, making \(8\) points, for a grand total of \(63\) points. No matter what the distribution is, D-ers always do better than C-ers. Of course, the more C-ers there are, the better everyone will do!
By the way, I should make it clear that in making your choice, you should not aim to be the winner, but simply to get as many points for yourself as possible. Thus you should be happier to get \(30\) points (as a result of saying “C” along with \(10\) others, even though the \(9\) D-sayers get more than you) than to get \(19\) points (by saying “D” along with everybody else, so nobody “beats” you).
Of course, your hope is to be the only defector, thus really cleaning up: with \(19\) C-ers, you'll get \(95\) points, and they'll each get \(18\) times \(3\), namely \(54\) points! But why am I doing the multiplication or any of this figuring for you? You've been studying game theory. So have all of you! You are all equally versed in game theory and understand about making rational choices. Therefore, I hardly need to tell you that you are to make what you consider to be your maximally rational choice. In particular, feelings of morality, guilt, apathy, and so on, are to be disregarded. Reasoning alone (of course including reasoning about others' reasoning) should be the basis of your decision.
So all you need to do is make your choice. Write it down.
It is to be understood (it almost goes without saying, but not quite) that you are not to discuss your answer with anyone else from the class. The purpose is to see what people do on their own, in isolation. Along with your answer you should include a short explanation for why you made your particular choice.
Adapted from Douglas Hofstadter, Metamagical Themas , p. 740.
Once everyone in class has made his or her choice, share your answers with the class. Then answer the following questions about the class's responses.
- How many C's were there?
- How many D's were there?
- What was the payoff to each C?
- What was the payoff to each D?
Determine the payoff matrix for class-wide Prisoner's Dilemma.
- Hint
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Although you played this game with each other person in the class, this is still a \(2\)-person game!
What are some reasons people chose C? What are some reasons people chose D?
Although we can now see what everyone chose, we might not agree that everyone made the most rational choice. How might perfectly rational players play the game?
Thinking about the idea of rationality , what appears to be the most rational choice, C or D? If everyone is equally rational, then what would everyone do? If everyone is equally rational, should everyone choose the same thing?
Now suppose everyone is equally (and perfectly) rational. AND everyone knows that everyone else is equally (and perfectly) rational. What should everyone choose?
- Hint
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If everyone knows that everyone will choose the same answer, what should everyone choose to do?
The next two exercises look at two more examples of games where players can “Cooperate” or “Defect”. How does changing the payoffs change the players' incentive to cooperate or defect?
Consider the game in Table \(4.3.1\)
| Table \(4.3.1\): Matrix for Exercise \(4.3.6\) | ||
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| \(C\) | \(D\) | |
| \(C\) | \((3, 3)\) | \((0, 50)\) |
| \(D\) | \((50, 0)\) | \((.01, .01)\) |
What would you do? Why? What seems to be the most rational thing to do? Why?
Consider the game in Table \(4.3.2\)
| Table \(4.3.2\): Matrix for Exercise \(4.3.7\) | ||
|---|---|---|
| \(C\) | \(D\) | |
| \(C\) | \((1000, 1000)\) | \((0, 100)\) |
| \(D\) | \((100, 0)\) | \((100, 100)\) |
What would you do? Why? What seems to be the most rational thing to do? Why?
Looking at all three of the above games, can you think of what sort of payoffs you would need in order to cooperate (C)? What about to defect (D)?
Not every game where player's cooperate or defect is a Prisoner's Dilemma, or even a dilemma. You can certainly change the payoffs in the above matrices so that it is very clear what each player should do. But as you've seen with this section's experiment, there is something special about the Prisoner's Dilemma. Everyone does better if they all cooperate, but any one player does better to defect. The next section will look more specifically at what makes a game a Prisoner's Dilemma.


1.6: Dating and Partner Selection
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Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter you will be able to do the following.
Apply the filtering theory of mate selection
Define propinquity
Differentiate between homogamous and heterogamous characteristics
Define exogamy
Apply the Social Exchange Theory to mate selection
Sixty years ago if you were of marrying age, you’d most likely select someone based on how your parents felt about it, how healthy the person appeared to be, how good/moral their character appeared to be and how stable their economic resources appeared to be. Today we search for soul mates. Look around you in the classroom. How many potential mates are sitting there? In other words, how many single females or males are there in the same classroom? Now of those, how many would you be attracted to as a date and how many can you tell just by watching them that you’d probably never date? These are the types of questions and answers we consider when we study dating and mate selection.
Dating as we know it developed in the 20 th century. It is a practice in which people meet and participate in activities together in order to get to know each other . Prior to dating, courting was common in the United States. Courting, which involved strong rules and customs, evolved into dating due to wide-spread use of the automobile after the Industrial Revolution. Automobiles enabled young people to have more freedom. After the Industrial Revolution, with the change from agriculture and farming to support families to factory work, love rather than necessity became the basis for marital relationships. Today, dating is more casual than ever, taking on many forms (couple, group, online, etc.)
In the United States there are millions of people between the ages of 18-24 (18-24 is considered prime dating and mate selection ages). The U.S. Statistical Abstracts estimates that 9.5% of the U.S. population or about 15,675,000 males and 15,037,000 females are in this age group 1 . Those numbers should be very similar after the 2010 Census data are analyzed which takes several years after collection. Does that mean that you could have 15 million potential mates out there somewhere? Yes, potential, yet no in realistic terms. You see, it would take more time than any mortal has in his life to ever interact with that many people. Besides dating and mate selection is not about volume it’s about quality and intimacy in the relationship. When we see people we filter them as either being in or out of our pool of eligibles.
Filtering is the process of identifying those we interact with as either being in or out of our pool of people we might consider to be a date or mate. There are many filters we use. One is physical appearance. We might include some because of tattoos and piercing or exclude some for the exact same physical traits. We might include some because they know someone we know or exclude the same people because they are total strangers. Figure 1 shows the basic date and mate selection principles that play into our filtering processes (This inverted pyramid metaphorically represents a filter that a liquid might be poured through to refine it; e.g., coffee filter).
Propinquity is the geographic closeness experienced by potential dates and mates. It’s the proximity you might experience by living in the same dorms or apartment buildings; going to the same university or college; working in the same place of employment; or belonging to the same religious group. Proximity means that you both breathe the same air in the same place at about the same time. Proximity is crucial because the more you see one another or interact directly or indirectly with one another, the more likely you see each other as mates.
Attraction and the evaluation of physical appearance is subjective and is defined differently for each individual. Truly, what one person finds as attractive is not what others find to be attractive. There are a few biological, psychological, and social-emotional aspects of appearance that tend to make an individual more attractive to more people. These include slightly above average desirable traits and symmetry in facial features.
Figure 1. Filtering Theory of Mate Selection. 2
According to the Centers for Disease Control 3 the average man in the United States is five feet ten inches tall and weighs about 177 pounds. The average woman is about five feet four inches tall and weighs about 144 pounds. Did you just compare yourself? Most of us tend to compare ourselves to averages or to others we know. That’s how we come to define our personal level of attractiveness. This is important to understand that we subjectively judge ourselves as being more or less attractive; because we often limit our dating pool of eligibles to those we think are in our same category of beauty.
If you are six feet tall as a man or five feet eight inches as a woman, then you are slightly above average in height. For men, if they have manly facial features (strong chin and jaw and somewhat prominent brow), some upper body musculature, and a slim waist then they’d have more universally desirable traits. For women larger eyes, softer facial features and chin, fuller lips, and an hour-glass figure facilitate more universally desirable traits.
So, here is the million dollar question “What if I don’t have these universally desirable traits? Am I excluded from the date and mate selection market?” No. There is a principle that has been found to be the most powerful predictor of how we make our dating and mating selection choices—homogamy.
Homogamy is the tendency for dates, mates, and spouses to pair off with someone of similar attraction, background, interests, and needs. This is typically true for most couples. They find and pair off with persons of similarity more than difference. Birds of a feather flock together, but you also have probably heard that opposites attract. Some couples seem to be a vast set of contradictions, but researchers tend to find patterns that indicate that homogamy in a relationship can be indirectly supportive of a long-term relationship quality because it facilitates less disagreements and disconnections of routines in the daily life of a couple. We filter homogamously and even to the point that we tend to marry someone like our parents. Here’s why; people from similar economic classes, ethnicities, religions, political persuasions, and lifestyles tend to hang out with others like themselves. Our mates resemble our parents more because we resemble our parents and we tend to look for others like ourselves.
Heterogamy is the dating or pairing of individuals with differences in traits. All of us pair off with heterogamous and homogamous individuals with emphasis more on the latter than the former. Over time, after commitments are made, couples often develop more homogamy. Some develop similar mannerisms, finish each other’s sentences, dress alike, develop mutually common hobbies and interests and parent together.
One of the most influential psychologists in the 1950-1960s was Abraham Maslow and his famous Pyramid of the Hierarchy of Needs 4 . Maslow’s pyramid has been taught in high schools and colleges for decades. Maslow sheds light on how and why we pick the person we pick when choosing a date or mate by focusing on how they meet our needs as a date, mate, or spouse. Persons from dysfunctional homes where children were not nurtured nor supported through childhood would likely be attracted to someone who provides that unfulfilled nurturing need they still have. Persons from homes where they were nurtured, supported, and sustained in their individual growth and development would likely be attracted to someone who promises growth and support in intellectual, aesthetic, or self-actualization (becoming fully who our individual potential allows us to become) areas of life. It may sound selfish at first glance but we really do date and mate on the basis of what we get out of it (or how our needs are met).
T HEORIES OF M ATE S ELECTION
The Social Exchange Theory and its rational choice formula clarify the selection process even further. We strive to maximize rewards and minimize costs in our choices of a mate .
Rewards – Costs = Choice
When we interact with potential dates and mates we run a mental balance sheet in our heads. She might think, “He’s tall, confident, funny, and friends with my friends.” As she talks a bit more she might say, “But, he chews tobacco, only wants to party, and just flirted with another woman while we were talking.” The entire time we interact with potential dates and mates we evaluate them on their appearance, disposition, goals and aspirations, and other traits. This while simultaneously remembering how we rate and evaluate ourselves. Rarely do we seek out the best looking person at the party unless we define ourselves as an even match for him or her. More often we rank and rate ourselves compared to others and as we size up and evaluate potentials we define the overall exchange rationally or in an economic context where we try to maximize our rewards while minimizing our losses.
The overall evaluation of the deal also depends to a great extent on how well we feel matched on racial and ethnic traits, religious background, social economic class, and age similarities. The complexity of the date and mate selection process includes many obvious and some more subtle processes that you can understand for yourself. If you are single you can apply them to the date and mate selection processes you currently pursue.
Bernard Murstein wrote articles in the early 1970s where he tested his Stimulus-Value-Role Theory of marital choice 5 . To Murstein the exchange is mutual and dependent upon the subjective attractions and the subjective assets and liabilities each individual brings to the relationship . The stimulus is the trait (usually physical) that draws your attention to the person . After time is spent together dating or hanging out, values (notions of what is desirable or undesirable) are compared for compatibility and an evaluation of the maximization of rewards while minimization of costs is calculated. If after time and relational compatibility supports it, the pair may choose to take roles (being a boyfriend, a wife, etc.) which typically include exclusive dating, cohabitation, engagement, or marriage . Figure 2 shows how the Stimulus-Values-Role Theory might overlap with a couple’s development of intimacy over increased time and increased interaction.
How do strangers transition from not even knowing one another to eventually cohabiting or marrying together? From the very first encounter, two strangers begin a process that either excludes one another as potential dates or mates or includes them and begins the process of establishing intimacy. Intimacy is the mutual feeling of acceptance, trust, and connection to another person, even with the understanding of personal faults of the individual. In other words, intimacy is the ability to become close to one another, to accept one another as is, and eventually to feel accepted by the other.  When two strangers meet they have a stimulus that alerts one or both to take notice of the other.
Judith Wallerstein’s 6 book discusses a story where one woman was on a date with a guy and overheard another man laughing like Santa Clause might laugh. She asked her date to introduce her and that began the relationship which would become her decades-long marriage to the Santa Clause laughing guy. Many people discuss some subtle connection that just felt safe, like a reunion with a long lost friend when they first met one another. In the stimulus stage some motivation at the physical, social, emotional, intellectual or spiritual level sparks interests and the interaction begins. Over time and with increased interaction, two people may make that journey of values comparisons and contrasts which inevitably includes or excludes the other. The more time and interaction that is accompanied by increased trust and acceptance of one’s self and the other, the more the intimacy and probability of a long-term relationship.
Even though Figure 2 shows that a smooth line of increasing intimacy can occur, it does not always occur so smoothly or so predictably. As the couple reaches a place where a bond has developed they establish patterns of commitment and loyalty which initiates the roles listed in Figure 2. The list of roles is listed in increasing order of level of commitment yet does not indicate any kind of predictable stages the couple would be expected to pursue. In other words, some couples may take the relationship only as far as exclusive dating which is the mutual agreement to exclude others from dating either individual in the relationship. Another couple may eventually cohabit or marry.
It should be mentioned that what you’d look for in a date is often different from what you might look for in a spouse. Dates are temporary adventures where good looks, fun personality, entertainment capacity, and even your social status by being seen in public with him or her are considered important. Dates are short-term and can be singular events or a few events. Many college students who have dated more than once develop “A Thing” or a relationship noticed by the individuals and their friends as either beginning or having at least started, but not quite having a defined destination. These couples eventually hold a DTR. A DTR means a moment where the two individuals “Define the Relationship” openly to determine if both want to include each other in a specific goal-directed destination (i.e., exclusive dating) or if it’s better for everyone if the relationship ends.
Have you ever experienced one of these? Many describe them as awkward. A DTR can be awkward because of what is at stake. DTRs can be extremely risky in terms of how much of one’s self has to be involved and in terms of how vulnerable it makes each other feel. In the TV series The Office, Jim and Pam experience a number of DTRs that early on in the relationship ended with either or both of them wanting more closeness and commitment, but neither of them being capable of making it happen. The Office is fiction, but the relationships clearly reflect some of the human experience in an accurate way.
Notice that Jim and Pam were from the same part of the country, had very many social and cultural traits in common, and both met in a setting where they could see each other on a regular basis and have the opportunity to go through the Stimulus-Value-Role (SVR) process. Homogamy, propinquity, need matching, compatibility, and eventually commitment all applied in their story together. The cultural similarities of a couple cannot be emphasized enough in this discussion.
Many of those living in the United States share common mainstream cultural traits, regardless of ancestral heritage or ethnic background, date and mate selection occurs for nearly all members of society. Figure 3 shows a list of cultural and ethnic background traits that influence how the inclusion and exclusion decisions are made, depending on how similar or different each individual defines themselves to be in relation to the other. Many who teach relationship skills in cross-cultural or trans-racial relationships focus on the similarity principle.
The similarity principle states that the more similar two people perceive themselves to be, the more likely their relationship will continue and succeed. Notice the word, perceive , because actual similarities are not as critical as an individual’s belief that there are common characteristics. Also, certain individuals value one background trait over others. They may be more willing to overlook or ignore differences in traits which are not as similar.
In the Movie, My Big Fat Greek Wedding , the Greek-American woman who was the main character meets a strikingly handsome professional man from a different ethnic background. Much of the difficulty she had in including him as a mate was her perception that her cultural and family background was unattractive and could not be desirable to potential mates. He was deeply attracted to her family because it filled his need for family connection, tradition, and support. He learned the Greek culture and adopted her family as his surrogate family.
In real life, most don’t make such profound concessions when choosing a mate. The relationship is less likely to develop if there are few or no common traits and more likely if there are more common traits, especially in the areas of commonality that the individuals define as being very important.
Dating often turns into exclusive or boyfriend-girlfriend type relationships. These relationships are crucial in the lives of young adults because they allow each other to gain experience in the daily routines of intimate relationships. They don’t always develop into long-term relationships, but practicing in healthy relationships is far more valuable than the grieving from breaking up.
There are some rules that can be summarized about how we include dates or mates in our pool of eligibles. Figure 4 shows that rule #1 is exogamy. Exogamy is the tendency to pair off with or marry someone outside of your own familial groups.
Rule #4 is to maximize homogamy and look for commonalities that will smooth out the daily adjustments of the relationship. It is doubtful you’d ever find a perfect match on all of these traits, but make sure you find a good match of complimentary personality traits and background characteristics.
Rule# 5 is very important. You must learn to discern trouble and danger in a date or mate. Intimate violence is the worst and most deadly violence especially for women. Their dates, mates, spouses, and life partners are more likely to cause them violent harm than will any other category of relationship in their lives. Figure 5 provides some criteria to identify as red flags, warning signs, or danger signs.
The risky and dangerous traits you might see in a potential date or mate can be early warning signals to raise red flags. In fairness, the presence of any one of these may just indicate a bad day. Some potential dates and mates are predatorial. That means they search for types of people they can manipulate and control and try to pair off with them. The presence of a few of these could raise your suspicions enough to become a savvy shopper, discriminating consumer, or even a detective of danger signs. Remember, that when dating and selecting a mate overcautious discernment is justified.
Most people never experience the extreme dangers of dating. For most it’s more of an emotional risk than a safety risk. Many chose to marry and do so more often in the warmer months of the year than in the other months. When relationships form and engagements are made and agreed upon, an entire social experience is initiated where new social roles and networks begin to unfold. Engaged people announce their plans to family and friends and by so doing initiate a few processes within the social community of each fiancé. Announcements of the engagement begin the process of exclusion of others. All other potential suitors and dates are excluded from the pool of eligibles while exclusive monogamy begins in almost every aspect of the couple’s lives. She often wears a ring that ranges from $2 to 10,000 dollars. That ring deters most because it symbolizes her agreement to marry her fiancé. The couple often formalizes their wedding plans in newspaper, mailed out invitations to the reception, and or online announcements. In-laws are people you become related to by virtue of marrying into your fiancé’s family network . It has been said that you get in-laws and out-laws when you marry. Not all in-laws will get along with the couple as well as might be wished.
The creation of extended kin ties is crucial to a successful engagement. To some degree in-laws are expected to at least be compatible with the new family member (fiancé) and if possible in another degree to establish close relational bonds. Engagement also signifies to the couple the ultimate direction of their courtship. Marriage and the merging of social networks, belongings, monies, physical intimacy, rights, children, and many other things becomes the focus. Engagement provides the couple with opportunities to practice being married, in many different aspects of the relationship.
Most engagements end in marriage. But, some end in a breaking up event where the marriage is cancelled. Sometimes couples realize that they were not as compatible as they originally thought themselves to be. Sometimes, they are geographically separated by various circumstances and find that their commitment did not withstand the test of time and space. Other times in-laws and extended family incompatibilities work against the marriage. And finally sometimes, people just fall out of love or lose interest.
For those who are searching for a spouse the market is an uneven playing field. The United States has what social scientists call a marriage squeeze. A marriage squeeze is a demographic imbalance in the number of males to females among those considered to be of marrying ages . There is also a phenomenon called the marriage gradient. The marriage gradient is the tendency for women to marry a man slightly older and slightly taller while men tend to marry a woman slightly more attractive.
Based on the U.S. Census there are about 15,675,000 males and 15,037,000 females aged 18 to 24. That boils down to 638,000 extra males in the marriage market 18 to 24 years old. Since women tend to want to marry a man slightly older the marriage market is squeezed because there are too few females for all the available males.
China and India have tremendous problems with their marriage squeeze issues. Because of sex-selection abortion, cultural preferences for males, female infanticide, and cultural definitions as female children being a burden rather than a source of joy and rejoicing they are missing tens of millions of females in these populations. For example, in 2001 India had 35 million extra men nationwide. 7 In 2003 China was reported to also have about 35 million extra men.8
- www.census.gov/compendia/statab/tables/09s0010.pdf
- Adapted from DeGenova, M.K., Stinnett, N. & Stinnet N. (2011). Intimate relationships, marriages, and families (8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
- www.CDC.gov
- A theory of human motivation. (1943 ). Psychological Review 50 (4), 370-96.
- Physical attractiveness and marital choice. (1972). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 22 (1), 8-12; Who will marry whom? Theories and research in marital choice . (1976). New York; Springer.
- The Good Marriage. (1995).
- www.prb.org/Articles/2001/2001CensusResultsMixedforIndiasWomenand Girls.aspx
- www.prb.org/Reports/2003/ShortageofGirlsinChina.aspx