2.1.8: Modern Human Variation
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One of the most striking things about humans is the huge range of biological variation we have as a species. In the previous section, we explored the mechanisms of change involved in the evolution of populations (mutation, migration/gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection). In this section, we'll look at how those affect human populations to create human diversity.
Polymorphisms
A polymorphism is when a gene has at least two different alleles (and each allele is in more than 1% of the population).
ABO blood type is a perfect example of a polymorphism, which, you will recall, means there are two or more alleles at a locus. In the ABO blood group there are three alleles (A, B, and O) prevalent in most human populations. There are a few populations in the world which are not polymorphic. The O allele occurs in almost 100% of South American indigenous populations and is remarkably high in aboriginal groups in northern Australia. This is most likely due to genetic drift. When alleles vary geographically, they have a clinal distribution. As you can see in the maps below, B is more common in Europe and Asia, and A is found in high numbers in Asia and central Africa.
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) - Map of blood group A
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) - Map of blood group B
Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\) - Map of blood group O
You can learn more about the ABO blood group from the American Red Cross.
Using polymorphisms: clines and migration
If you know the clinal distribution of a polymorphism, you can use the movement of the alleles as a proxy for the movement of people.
For example, the map below shows the distribution of a group of genes called Haplogroup F (found on the Y chromosome) throughout the Middle East, Europe, and Asia. Presumably the distribution of the genes follow the movement of peoples as they dispersed from India outward.
Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\) - Haplogroup F (Y-DNA)
Natural selection and polymorphisms
While some clinal distributions are due to migration (gene flow), others have been shaped by natural selection.
Lactose tolerance
Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\) - Worldwide prevalence of lactose intolerance in recent populations.
The original human condition (found in most southern European, Asian, and African populations) is an inability for adults to digest lactose, the primary sugar found in dairy products. This is known as lactose intolerance and it has a genetic basis. Lactose intolerance can be a particularly unpleasant condition for those who consume dairy products and cannot digest them. Symptoms include diarrhea and intestinal gas.
However, some populations of people have developed an ability to digest lactose.
This is how that came about:
- An individual (or individuals) in the population was born with a genetic mutation that allowed them to digest lactose.
- During the same time span, the population was domesticating dairy-producing animals, collecting milk, and consuming it.
- Those who could digest the lactose in the milk (and therefore had a good food source without the unpleasant side effects) had more children than those who could not digest the lactose.
- Those children inherited the gene for lactose tolerance from their parents and passed it down to their children, etc.
This is biocultural coevolution between the domestication of dairy-producing animals in those populations and an increase in the prevalence of the lactose tolerance gene. In other words, the biology of the people was affected by their cultural behaviors and vice versa.
Sickle cell anemia
Sickle cell anemia is a very serious genetic disease that affects the hemoglobin in the blood.
Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\) - Sickle cell distribution
There are two forms of the Hb (hemoglobin) allele: 1) HbA, which is for normal functioning hemoglobin, that which allows red blood cells to carry oxygen efficiently, and 2) HbB (sometimes written as HbS), which is for sickle cell anemia (the hemoglobin and red blood cells do not function normally).
So, as we learned before about alleles and genotypes, when there are two alleles, there are three genotypes. In this case, the genotypes and phenotypes are:
- HbA/HbA = homozygous person has totally normal hemoglobin and their blood transports oxygen perfectly.
- HbA/HbB = heterozygous person has "the sickle cell trait" and therefore is a genetic carrier, but usually has few to no associated medical problems.
- HbB/HbB = homozygous person has sickle cell anemia.
Sickle cell anemia is a good example of the interaction of biology, environment, and culture. It has a fascinating biological interaction with the infectious disease malaria, which in turn is associated with agricultural practices. It has been found that those with sickle cell trait, i.e., people with the HbA/HbB genotype, are less likely to get malaria. Malaria is a disease caused by a parasite, Plasmodium . This life-threatening disease is transmitted through the bites of Anopheles mosquitos. Symptoms include fever, headache, chills, and vomiting. In severe cases, anemia, respiratory distress, or death may occur. Malaria in sub-Saharan Africa is associated with the spread of slash-and-burn agriculture and irrigation.
To recap:
- those with HbA/HbA easily get malaria,
- those with HbB/HbB get sickle cell anemia,
- those with HbA/HbB have protection from malaria and not have sickle cell anemia,
This is called the heterozygote advantage , because the heterozygotes are better off than either one of the homozygotes. It's this advantage that keeps the HbB allele present in certain populations, which is an example of a balanced polymorphism .
Important note: Remember that this HbB advantage only exists in malarial environments. It is environmentally specific . In an area without malaria, there is no advantage to having the HbB allele and therefore, the frequency of that allele is lower in populations in non-malarial environments.
 An adaptation is any variation that can increase one's biological fitness in a specific environment; more simply it is the successful interaction of a population with its environment. Adaptations may be biological or cultural in nature. Biological adaptations vary in their length of time, anywhere from a few seconds for a reflex to a lifetime for developmental acclimatization or genetics. The biological changes that occur within an individual's lifetime are also referred to as functional adaptations . What type of adaptation is activated often depends on the severity and duration of stressors in the environment. A stressor is anything that disrupts homeostasis, which is a "condition of balance, or stability, within a biological system..." (Jurmain et al 2013: 322). Stressors can be abiotic, e.g., climate or high altitude, biotic, e.g., disease, or social, e.g., war and psychological stress. Cultural adaptations can occur at any time and may be as simple as putting on a coat when it is cold or as complicated as engineering, building, and installing a heating system in a building.
Types of Biological Adaptation
Acclimatization
This form of adaptation can take moments to weeks to occur and is reversible within an individual's lifetime no matter if it occurs when one is a child or an adult.
Short-term acclimatization can occur within seconds of exposure to a stressor. This type of response quickly reverses when the stressor is no longer present. Imagine stepping out of an air-conditioned building or car into a 90 degree day. Your body will quickly begin to perspire in an attempt to cool your body temperature and return to homeostasis. When the temperature declines, so will your perspiration. Tanning is another short-term response, in this case to increased UV-radiation exposure especially during summer months, which can occur within hours. Tans are generally lost during the winter when UV-radiation decreases.
Developmental Acclimatization
Developmental acclimatization occurs during an individual's growth and development. It's also called ontological acclimatization or developmental adjustment. Note that these cannot take place once the individual is fully grown. There is usually a "magic time window" of when the acclimatization can occur. This adaptation can take months to years to acquire.
A famous example of this is those who have grown up at high altitude vs. those who have moved to high altitude as adults. Those who were born at high altitude tend to develop larger lung capacities than do those who were not born at high altitude, but moved there later in life. However, developmental adjustment occurs in response to cultural stressors as well. Intentional body deformation has been documented throughout human history. The ancient Maya elite used cradle boards to reshape the skull. Foot binding in China, now an illegal practice, was considered an mark of beauty and enabled girls to find a wealthy spouse.
Genetics
Genetic adaptations can occur when a stressor is constant and lasts for many generations (O'Neil 1998-2013). The presence of the sickle cell allele in some human populations is one example. Keep in mind that genetic adaptations are environmentally specific . In other words, while a particular gene may be advantageous to have in one environment (AKA a genetic adaptation), it may be detrimental to have in another environment.
Human genetic adaptations and human variation
Skin color
Click on this link to watch a fantastic video explaining the interplay of skin color, UV, and vitamin D.
Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\) - Inuit women
Body size and shape
Figure \(\PageIndex{8}\) - Young Maasai men
There are two ecological rules, known as Bergmann's rule and Allen's rule, that explain the variation in size and shape of bodies and extremities using latitude and temperature.
Bergmann's rule : Warm-blooded animals tend to have increasing body size with increasing latitude (toward the poles) and decreasing average temperatures.
Allen's rule : A corollary of Bergmann's rule that applies to appendages. Warm-blooded animals tend to have shorter limbs with increasing latitude and decreasing average temperatures
When organisms are more compact, they tend to conserve heat (due to a high mass:surface area ratio). When organisms are more linear, they tend to lose more heat (due to a low mass:surface area ratio).
This has been applied to humans. The idea is that populations toward the pole tend to be shorter and have shorter limbs than do people on the equator.
For example, the Inuit people of Canada (pictured above) tend to be shorter than the Maasai people of Kenya (pictured below):
Race
Technically, a race is a biologically classifiable subspecies . So, when we are asking, "Do human races exist?", what we're really asking is, "Are there biologically classifiable subspecies in humans?".
Here's the American Anthropological Association's statement on race
and the American Association of Physical Anthropologists statement on race
What are they saying?
Basically:
- race is an arbitrary categorization, races are not biologically distinct groups (in other words, race is a cultural construct, not a biological one)
- while groups of people who have lived together for a long time may have some alleles in common (for example, those that code for skin color or hair color), there is more genetic variation within races than there is between races
- the concept of race has historically been a tool that some people use to subjugate others
Further explore the concept of race, its history, and human variation.
References
- Jurmain R, Kilgore L, Trevathan W. Essentials of physical anthropology, 4th edition. Belmont (CA): Wadsworth, Cengage Learning; 2013. 437 p.
- Larsen CS. Our origins: discovering physical anthropology. New York (NY): W.W Norton & Company, Inc.; 2008. 430 p.
- O'Neil D. Human biological adaptability: an introduction to human responses to common environmental stresses [Internet]. c1998-2013; [cited 2015 June 1]. Available from <anthro.palomar.edu/adapt/default.htm>.
- Yoshida-Levine B. Human variation and adaptation [Internet]. El Cajon (CA): Grossmont College; c2015 [cited 2015 June 1]. Available from <www.grossmont.edu/people/bonn...daptation.aspx>.


3.4: Explanations and Reported Arguments
The “reason” aspect of determining whether some passage is or contains an argument is crucial. For example, pick up any newspaper or online news source that has an op-ed section. If you peruse through the articles you might at first think that every article contains an argument, or is an argument. However, when you carefully apply the two steps on the previous page, you should begin to realize that sometimes the opinion is simply an unsupported fast-thinking opinion and sometimes it’s a full-on rant. The author makes a statement that seems like a conclusion (i.e., they take a stance on something), but fails to provide any support or reasoning as to why they have that opinion or thought. Again, ask yourself, “Are there any reasons given as to why they think this way?”
There are two other common cases that at first appear to be arguments, but in fact, are not considered “original” arguments:
Reported arguments are statements which say that so-and-so argued in a certain way. These kinds of arguments are simply a report (like a book report) of someone else’s argument. It could be analyzed as an argument, but it is possible something was omitted or added by the person who did the reporting.
Explanations can be hard to distinguish from arguments because they attempt to show why or how something happens (or has happened). Put more succinctly, an explanation is a statement or statements offered in answer to the question “why did that event occur?” Explanations can be in the form of cause/effect relationships, natural laws, functions or underlying mechanisms (from Stephen Carey’s Beginners Guide to the Scientific Method). These are not arguments in the sense we are using the word because there is little if any reason to doubt the truth of the conclusion. With this in mind, the vast majority of reports about scientific studies or discoveries are simply descriptions of the findings. There may be a latent argument about how the study or discovery could be applied to society or the world, but this is usually at the end of the report.
Reported Argument, Explanation, or Original Argument?
Review each statement and determine if it’s a reported argument, explanation, or original argument.
An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://minnstate.pressbooks.pub/ctar/?p=677#h5p-6


20.1: Return Statement
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Overview
A return statement causes execution to leave the current function and resume at the point in the code immediately after where the function was called. Return statements in many languages allow a function to specify a return value to be passed back to the code that called the function. [1]
Discussion
The return statement exits a function and returns to the statement where the function was called. Most programming languages support optionally returning a single value to the calling function. Consider the following pseudocode:
Function Main ... Assign fahrenheit = GetFahrenheit() ... End Function GetFahrenheit Declare Real fahrenheit Output "Enter Fahrenheit temperature:" Input fahrenheit Return Real fahrenheit
In English, the Main function calls the GetFahrenheit function, passing in no parameters. The GetFahrenheit function retrieves input from the user and returns that input back to the main function, where it is assigned to the variable fahrenheit. In this example, the Main function has no return value.
Note that functions are independent, and each function must declare its own variables. While both functions have a variable named fahrenheit, they are not the same variable. Each variable refers to a different location in memory. Just as parameters by default are passed by position rather than by name, return values are also passed by position rather than by name. The following code would generate the same results.
Function Main ... Assign fahrenheit = GetTemperature() ... End Function GetTemperature Declare Real temperature Output "Enter Fahrenheit temperature:" Input temperature Return Real temperature
Most programming languages support either zero or one return value from a function. There are some older programming languages where return values are not supported. In those languages, the modules are often referred to as subroutines rather than functions. There are also programming languages that support multiple return values in a single return statement, however, only single return values or no return value will be used in this book.
Key Terms
- return
- A branching control structure that causes a function to jump back to the function that called it.
References
- cnx.org: Programming Fundamentals – A Modular Structured Approach using C++
- Wikiversity: Computer Programming
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Wikipedia: Return statement
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7.6: Read journal articles strategically
Throughout your academic career, you will read a variety of journal articles as you complete coursework and conduct research for assignments. Journal articles may seem daunting, but by understanding how journal articles are organized and written, you will be able to choose relevant articles and find the information you need.
Parts of a Journal Article
| Abstract and Keywords | This is a concise summary of the article. Read this first to decide if the article is relevant to your current research topic. Below the abstract you will find 4-5 keywords. These indicate the subject area of the article. |
| Literature Review | Most articles will have a literature review early in the paper. This summarizes the past research done on the topic. Note that this is not a discussion of the research in the current article. However, the literature review may point you to other material relevant to your project. |
| Research Methodology | This section describes the way in which the research was conducted. Who are the participants? Is the study qualitative or quantitative? How was the data gathered? Where was the study conducted? |
| Results | This section discusses the findings of the study in detail. It often includes statistical information, charts and graphs. |
| Discussion | In this section, the researchers discuss the significance of the results. What do the results mean? Are they significant? What are the implications of what was found? The authors might also indicate areas for further study. |
| References | Skim the reference list. This may lead you to other key articles that are related to your topic. |
How to Approach Journal Articles
- Begin by reading the abstract and keywords . Decide if this article relates to your current research project. If the article does not fit well with your research, stop reading.
- If the article seems relevant, scan the article briefly. Look at the headings, as well as terms in bold and italics. Also, look at charts and graphs.
- Before you begin reading the article, note the bibliographic information. You will need this for your Works Cited or References page.
- Now, read the discussion section closely. This is key to understanding the article well.
- On a separate sheet of paper, create questions that you will answer by reading the article. Include questions such as: “From what you know, does this author agree with other researchers and what you understand about the topic? Does this article support or contradict your thesis?”
- Read the article purposefully, answering your questions. Do not be afraid to change your questions as you read and discover more.
- When you find the answers to your questions, write them down, along with the page number where you found the information . You will need the page numbers to properly cite your sources when you write.
As you learn to approach journal articles systematically, you will become skilled at extracting important information as you read.
Test Yourself!
Complete the quiz below to reinforce your knowledge of article reading strategies. When you are finished, go to the next chapter to move on.
An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://kpu.pressbooks.pub/learningtolearnonline/?p=128


18.1: While Loop
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Overview
A while loop is a control flow statement that allows code to be executed repeatedly based on a given Boolean condition. The while loop can be thought of as a repeating if statement. [1]
Discussion
Introduction to Test Before Loops
There are two commonly used test before loops in the iteration (or repetition) category of control structures. They are: while and for. This module covers the: while.
Understanding Iteration in General – while
The concept of iteration is connected to possibly wanting to repeat an action. Like all control structures we ask a question to control the execution of the loop. The term loop comes from the circular looping motion that occurs when using flowcharting. The basic form of the while loop is as follows:
initialization of the flag while the answer to the question is true then do some statements or action some statements or action some statements or action update the flag
In most programming languages the question (called a test expression) is a Boolean expression. The Boolean data type has two values – true and false. Let’s rewrite the structure to consider this:
initialization of the flag while the expression is true then do some statements or action some statements or action some statements or action update the flag
Within the while control structure there are four attributes to a properly working loop. They are:
- Initializing the flag
- Test expression
- Action or actions
- Update of the flag
The initialization of the flag is not technically part of the control structure, but a necessary item to occur before the loop is started. The English phrasing is, “While the expression is true, do the following actions”. This is looping on the true. When the test expression is false, you stop the loop and go on with the next item in the program. Notice, because this is a test before loop the action might not happen . It is called a test before loop because the test comes before the action. It is also sometimes called a pre-test loop, meaning the test is pre (or Latin for before) the action and update.
Human Example of the while Loop
Consider the following one-way conversation from a mother to her child.
Child: The child says nothing, but mother knows the child had Cheerios for breakfast and history tells us that the child most likely spilled some Cheerios on the floor.
Mother says: “While it is true that you see (As long as you can see) a Cheerio on the floor, pick it up and put it in the garbage.”
Note: All of the elements are present to determine the action (or flow) that the child will be doing (in this case repeating). Because the question (can you see a Cheerios) has only two possible answers (true or false) the action will continue while there are Cheerios on the floor. Either the child 1) never picks up a Cheerio because they never spilled any or 2) picks up a Cheerio and keeps picking up Cheerios one at a time while he can see a Cheerio on the floor (that is until they are all picked up).
Infinite Loops
At this point, it is worth mentioning that good programming always provides for a method to ensure that the loop question will eventually be false so that the loop will stop executing and the program continues with the next line of code. However, if this does not happen, then the program is in an infinite loop. Infinite loops are a bad thing. Consider the following code:
Pseudocode infinite loop
loop_response = 'y' While loop_response == 'y' Output "What is your age? " Input user_age Output "What is your friend's age? " Input friend_age Output "Together your ages add up to: " Output user_age + friend_age
The programmer assigned a value to the flag before the loop which is correct. However, they forgot to update the flag. Every time the test expression is asked it will always be true. Thus, an infinite loop because the programmer did not provide a way to exit the loop (he forgot to update the flag). Consider the following code:
loop_response = 'y'; While loop_response = 'y' Output "What is your age? " Input user_age Output "What is your friend's age? " Input friend_age Output "Together your ages add up to: " Output user_age + friend_age Output "Do you want to try again? y or n " Input loop_response
No matter what the user replies during the flag update, the test expression does not do a relational comparison but does an assignment. It assigns ‘y’ to the variable and asks if ‘y’ is true? Since all non-zero values are treated as representing true, the answer to the test expression is true. Viola, you have an infinite loop.
Counting Loops
The examples above are for an event controlled loop. The flag updating is an event where someone decides if they want the loop to execute again. Often the initialization sets the flag so that the loop will execute at least once.
Another common usage of the while loop is as a counting loop. Consider:
counter = 0 While counter < 5 Output "I love ice cream!" counter += 1
The variable counter is said to be controlling the loop. It is set to zero (called initialization) before entering the while loop structure and as long as it is less than 5 (five); the loop action will be executed. But part of the loop action uses the increment operator to increase counter’s value by one. After executing the loop five times (once for counter’s values of: 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4) the expression will be false and the next line of code in the program will execute. A counting loop is designed to execute the action (which could be more than one statement) a set of given number of times. In our example, the message is displayed five times on the monitor. It is accomplished by making sure all four attributes of the while control structure are present and working properly. The attributes are:
- Initializing the flag
- Test expression
- Action or actions
- Update of the flag
Missing an attribute might cause an infinite loop or give undesired results (does not work properly).
Infinite Loops
Consider:
counter = 0; while counter < 5 Output "I love ice cream!"
Missing the flag update usually causes an infinite loop.
Variations on Counting
In the following example, the integer variable age is said to be controlling the loop (that is the flag). We can assume that age has a value provided earlier in the program. Because the while structure is a test before loop; it is possible that the person’s age is 0 (zero) and the first time we test the expression it will be false and the action part of the loop would never be executed.
While 0 < age Output "I love candy!" age -= 1
Consider the following variation assuming that age and counter are both integer data type and that age has a value:
counter = 0; While counter < age Output "I love corn chips!" counter += 1
This loop is a counting loop similar to our first counting loop example. The only difference is instead of using a literal constant (in other words 5) in our expression, we used the variable age (and thus the value stored in age) to determine how many times to execute the loop. However, unlike our first counting loop example which will always execute exactly 5 times; it is possible that the person’s age is 0 (zero) and the first time we test the expression it will be false and the action part of the loop would never be executed.
Key Terms
- counting controlled
- Using a variable to count up or down to control a loop.
- event controlled
- Using user input to control a loop.
- infinite loop
- A sequence of instructions which loops endlessly, either due to the loop having no terminating condition, having one that can never be met, or one that causes the loop to start over. [2]
- initialize item
- An attribute of iteration control structures.
- loop attributes
- Items associated with iteration or looping control structures.
- might not happen
- Indicating that test before loops might not execute the action.
- while
- A test before iteration control structure.


9.6.3: Ice Cap Climate
The ice cap climate experiences the coldest temperatures on earth. Located near the poles, this climate experiences bitterly cold temperatures throughout the year, especially during the long polar night. The resulting humidity levels are so low that precipitation amounts may be similar to most deserts. In fact, climatologists have described the ice cap climate as a "polar desert".
Geographic Distribution
The ice cap climate is found over the frozen lands of the Arctic and Antarctic. In the Northern Hemisphere, the ice cap climate is found over the interior of Greenland and the permanently frozen portions of the Arctic Ocean and associated islands. In the Southern Hemisphere, the vast glacier covered continent of Antarctica is the largest expanse of ice cap climate.
Controlling Factors
The high latitude location is the primary cause of the extremely cold temperatures and dry conditions. At such a high latitude, sun angle and insolation intensity is low. Additionally, the sun never rises above the horizon during the long months of the "polar night". The sun that does reach the surface is efficiently reflected away by the light colored permanent cover of snow and ice. The ice cap climate is under the year-round influence of the polar high. The high pressure suppresses the needed uplift to cause condensation.
The ice cap climate is located in the source region for the extremely cold and dry cA air masses. The ice cap climate experiences invasions of cP, and to a lesser extent, mP air masses. The low saturation point of the cA and cP air masses substantially reduces the chance for precipitation.
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Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Climograph for McMurdo, Antarctica
Latitude/Longitude = 77
o
S; 166
o
E
|
Temperature
The ice cap climate experiences the coldest temperatures on Earth. In fact, we could say that the ice cap climate is "summer-less", having no average monthly temperature above freezing. McMurdo Station's annual temperature is a bone-chilling -17 o C (1.4 o F). The ice cap climate receives meager amounts of solar radiation on an annual basis. This coupled with a highly reflective surface means little absorbed insolation. Though the Sun does remain above the horizon for six months of the year, the low sun angle reduces insolation intensity. During the rest of the year the sun never appears above the horizon and temperatures plummet to the coldest experienced on the planet.
Precipitation
The large accumulation of ice makes the ice cap climate's annual precipitation somewhat deceiving. With such a large accumulation of ice, one would expect fairly high annual snowfall. This is not true. The ice cap climate is often described as a "polar desert" because of the meager amount of precipitation it experiences over the course of a year. At McMurdo Station, only 7.8 mm (0.4 in) of precipitation falls. The extremely cold temperature creates very small dew points and hence not much moisture is actually in the air at saturation. The reason there is such a thick cap of ice is that it doesn't melt. The air is also quite stable being dominated by the polar high and cA or cP air masses. It is not uncommon to find low-level inversions which inhibit precipitation.


16: Waves
In this chapter, we will study the physics of wave motion. We concentrate on mechanical waves, which are disturbances that move through a medium such as air or water. Like simple harmonic motion studied in the preceding chapter, the energy transferred through the medium is proportional to the amplitude squared. The concepts presented in this chapter will be the foundation for many interesting topics, from the transmission of information to the concepts of quantum mechanics.
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- 16.1: Prelude to Wave
- Surface water waves in the ocean are transverse waves in which the energy of the wave travels horizontally while the water oscillates up and down due to some restoring force. A buoy can be used to convert the awesome power of ocean waves into electricity. The up-and-down motion of the buoy generated as the waves pass is converted into rotational motion that turns a rotor in an electric generator.
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- 16.2: Traveling Waves
- A wave is a disturbance that moves from the point of origin with a wave velocity v. Mechanical waves are disturbances that move through a medium and are governed by Newton’s laws. Electromagnetic waves are disturbances in the electric and magnetic fields, and do not require a medium. A transverse wave has a disturbance perpendicular to the wave’s direction of propagation, whereas a longitudinal wave has a disturbance parallel to its direction of propagation.
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- 16.3: Mathematics of Waves
- A wave is an oscillation that travels through a medium, accompanied by a transfer of energy. Energy transfers from one point to another in the direction of the wave motion. The particles of the medium oscillate up and down, back and forth, or both, around an equilibrium position. Given a function of a wave that is a snapshot of the wave, and is only a function of the position x, the motion of the pulse or wave moving at a constant velocity can be modeled by replacing x with x ∓ vt.
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- 16.4: Wave Speed on a Stretched String
- The speed of a wave on a string depends on the linear density of the string and the tension in the string. The linear density is mass per unit length of the string. In general, the speed of a wave depends on the square root of the ratio of the elastic property to the inertial property of the medium. The speed of sound through air at T = 20 °C is approximately v_s = 343.00 m/s.
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- 16.5: Energy and Power of a Wave
- The energy and power of a wave are proportional to the square of the amplitude of the wave and the square of the angular frequency of the wave. Intensity is defined as the power divided by the area. As the wave moves out from a source, the energy is conserved, but the intensity decreases as the area increases.
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- 16.6: Interference of Waves
- Superposition is the combination of two waves at the same location. Constructive interference occurs from the superposition of two identical waves that are in phase. Destructive interference occurs from the superposition of two identical waves that are 180° out of phase. The wave that results from the superposition of two sine waves that differ only by a phase shift is a wave with an amplitude that depends on the value of the phase difference.
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- 16.7: Standing Waves and Resonance
- A standing wave is the superposition of two waves which produces a wave that varies in amplitude but does not propagate. Nodes are points of no motion in standing waves. An antinode is the location of maximum amplitude of a standing wave. Normal modes of a wave on a string are the possible standing wave patterns. The lowest frequency that will produce a standing wave is known as the fundamental frequency. The higher frequencies which produce standing waves are called overtones.
Thumbnail: Surfer at Mavericks, one of the world's premier big wave surfing locations. (Surfer: Andrew Davis). (CC SA-BY 2.0; Shalom Jacobovitz ).


8.7: Summary
The topics covered in this chapter can be summarized as follows:
| Section | Summary |
|---|---|
| 8.1 The Geological Time Scale | The work of William Smith was critical to the establishment of the first geological time scale early in the 19th century, but it wasn’t until the 20th century that geologists were able to assign reliable dates to the various time periods. Geological time is divided into eons, eras, periods, and epochs and the geological time scale is maintained and updated by the International Commission on Stratigraphy. |
| 8.2 Relative Dating Methods | We can determine the relative ages of different rocks by observing and interpreting relationships among them, such as superposition, cross-cutting, and inclusions. Gaps in the geological record are represented by various types of unconformities. |
| 8.3 Dating Rocks Using Fossils | Fossils are useful for dating rocks date back to about 600 Ma. If we know the age range of a fossil, we can date the rock, but some organisms lived for many millions of years. Index fossils represent shorter geological times, and if a rock has several different fossils with known age ranges, we can normally narrow the time during which the rock formed. |
| 8.4 Isotopic Dating Methods | Radioactive isotopes decay at predictable and known rates, and can be used to date igneous and metamorphic rocks. Some of the more useful isotope systems are potassium-argon, rubidium-strontium, uranium-lead, and carbon-nitrogen. Radiocarbon dating can be applied to sediments and sedimentary rocks, but only if they are younger than 60 ka. |
| 8.5 Other Dating Methods | There are many other methods for dating geological materials. Two that are widely used are dendrochronology and magnetic chronology. Dendrochronology, based on studies of tree rings, is widely applied to dating glacial events. Magnetic chronology is based on the known record of Earth’s magnetic field reversals. |
| 8.6 Understanding Geological Time | While knowing about geological time is relatively easy, actually comprehending the significance of the vast amounts of geological time is a great challenge. To be able to solve important geological problems and critical societal challenges, like climate change, we need to really understand geological time. |
Answers to Review Questions can be found in Appendix 2 .
- A granitic rock contains inclusions (xenoliths) of basalt. What can you say about the relative ages of the granite and the basalt?
-
Explain the differences between:
- a disconformity and a paraconformity
- a nonconformity and an angular unconformity
- What are the features of a useful index fossil?
- The bellow shows a geological cross-section. The granitic rock “f” at the bottom is the one that you estimated the age of in Exercise 8.3. A piece of wood from layer “d” has been sent for radiocarbon dating and the result was 0.55 14 C remaining. How old is layer “d”? (You can use the carbon-14 decay curve of Figure 8.27 to answer this question.)
- Based on your answer to question 4, what can you say about the age of layer “c” in Figure 8.27.?
- What type of unconformity exists between layer “c” and rock “f”?
- What about between layer “c” and layer “b”?
- We can’t use magnetic chronology to date anything younger than 780,000 years. Why not?
- How did William Smith apply the principle of faunal succession to determine the relative ages of the sedimentary rocks of England and Wales?
- Access a copy of the geological time scale (International Commission on Stratigraphy). What are the names of the last age (or stage) of the Cretaceous and the first age of the Paleogene? Print out the time scale and stick it on the wall above your desk!
Media Attributions
- Question 4 Figure: © Steven Earle. CC BY.


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Review of Key Points
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Anna Freud began her career as a teacher. This concern for children continued throughout her career, much of which was spent caring for children at the Hampstead War Nursery (which later became the Hampstead Clinic, and is now called the Anna Freud Centre, as a tribute to the career of Anna Freud).
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As her father had, Anna Freud described defense mechanisms as the means by which the ego avoids the anxiety associated with being unable to meet the demands of the id or the constraints of the superego.
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Anna Freud was one of the first psychoanalysts to work with children, and she used the same basic approach that she did with adults.
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When working with children, Anna Freud felt it was important to fill in gaps that the child could not (such as connecting manifest and latent content in dreams). She also believed that the psychoanalyst should help to educate the child with regard to his/her relationships.
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Since all aspects of relationships have importance, Melanie Klein proposed that the death-instinct and aggression are just as important as the life-instinct (Eros) and libido.
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Klein proposed that an infant goes through two developmental orientations: the paranoid-schizoid position later develops into the depressive position.
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Anna Freud and Melanie Klein disagreed about how fully the child could be psychoanalyzed, and how young they could be during psychoanalysis.
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In order for a child to develop a healthy personality and realize their true self, according to Winnicott, the child must have a good enough mother (and good enough parents).
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The transitional experience that children must go through may be facilitated by transitional objects (such as a blanket or teddy bear).
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Winnicott was an advocate of the Squiggle Game, a therapeutic technique that allows children to draw pictures to represent their thoughts and feelings.
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In order for the child to develop a sense of individuality, according to Mahler, the child must go through a process known as separation-individuation.
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Kohut believed that a certain measure of narcissism was necessary for the development of individuality.
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During psychoanalysis, the analyst can provide each of these types of relationships through mirroring transference, idealizing transference, and twinship transference. This allows the patient to feel more real and more substantial.
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Otto Kernberg has offered a perspective that blends all of the neo-Freudian and object relations theories together, suggesting that they represent a continuum of stages in human development.


2.17: Learning Styles
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Questions to consider
- What are learning styles, and do they really work?
- How do I take advantage of learning styles in a way that works for me?
- How can I combine learning styles for better outcomes?
- What opportunities and resources are available for students with disabilities?
Several decades ago, a new way of thinking about learning became very prominent in education. It was based on the concept that each person has a preferred way to learn. It was thought that these preferences had to do with each person’s natural tendencies toward one of their senses. The idea was that learning might be easier if a student sought out content that was specifically oriented to their favored sense. For example, it was thought that a student who preferred to learn visually would respond better to pictures and diagrams.
Over the years there were many variations on the basic idea, but one of the most popular theories was known as the VAK model. VAK was an acronym for the three types of learning, each linked to one of the basic senses thought to be used by students: visual, aural, and kinesthetic. What follows is an outline of each of these and the preferred method.
- Visual : The student prefers pictures, images, and the graphic display of information to learn. An example would be looking at an illustration that showed how to do something.
- Aural : The student prefers sound as a way to learn. Examples would be listening to a lecture or a podcast.
- Kinesthetic : The student prefers using their body, hands, and sense of touch. An example would be doing something physical, such as examining an object rather than reading about it or looking at an illustration.
The Truth about Learning Styles
In many ways these ideas about learning styles made some sense. Because of this, educators encouraged students to find out about their own learning styles. They developed tests and other techniques to help students determine which particular sense they preferred to use for learning, and in some cases learning materials were produced in multiple ways that focused on each of the different senses. That way, each individual learner could participate in learning activities that were tailored to their specific preferences.
While it initially seemed that dividing everyone by learning styles provided a leap forward in education, continued research began to show that the fixation on this new model might not have been as effective as it was once thought. In fact, in some cases, the way learning styles were actually being used created roadblocks to learning. This was because the popularization of this new idea brought on a rush to use learning styles in ways that failed to take into account several important aspects that are listed below:
- A person does not always prefer the same learning style all the time or for each situation. For example, some learners might enjoy lectures during the day but prefer reading in the evenings. Or they may prefer looking at diagrams when learning about mechanics but prefer reading for history topics.
- There are more preferences involved in learning than just the three that became popular. These other preferences can become nearly impossible to make use of within certain styles. For example, some prefer to learn in a more social environment that includes interaction with other learners. Reading can be difficult or restrictive as a group effort. Recognized learning styles beyond the original three include: social (preferring to learn as a part of group activity), solitary (preferring to learn alone or using self-study), or logical (preferring to use logic, reasoning, etc.).
- Students that thought they were limited to a single preferred learning style found themselves convinced that they could not do as well with content that was presented in a way that differed from their style. 8 For example, a student that had identified as a visual learner might feel they were at a significant disadvantage when listening to a lecture. Sometimes they even believed they had an even greater impairment that prevented them from learning that way at all.
- Some forms of learning are extremely difficult in activities delivered in one style or another. Subjects like computer programming would be almost impossible to learn using an aural learning style. And, while it is possible to read about a subject such as how to swing a bat or how to do a medical procedure, actually applying that knowledge in a learning environment is difficult if the subject is something that requires a physical skill.
Knowing and Taking Advantage of Learning Styles in a Way That Works for You
The problem with relying on learning styles comes from thinking that just one defines your needs. Coupling what you know about learning styles with what you know about UGT can make a difference in your own learning. Rather than being constrained by a single learning style, or limiting your activities to a certain kind of media, you may choose media that best fit your needs for what you are trying to learn at a particular time.
Following are a couple of ways you might combine your learning style preference with a given learning situation:
- You are trying to learn how to build something but find the written instructions confusing so you watch a video online that shows someone building the same thing.
- You have a long commute on the bus but reading while riding makes you dizzy. You choose an aural solution by listening to pre-recorded podcasts or a mobile device that reads your texts out loud.
These examples show that by recognizing and understanding what different learning styles have to offer, you can use the techniques that are best suited for you and that work best under the circumstances of the moment. You may also find yourself using two learning styles at the same time - as when you watch a live demonstration or video in which a person shows you how to do something while verbally explaining what you are being shown. This helps to reinforce the learning as it utilizes different aspects of your thinking. Using learning styles in an informed way can improve both the speed and the quality of your learning.
Get Connected
Finding content related to a subject or topic can be relatively easy, but you must use caution and rely on reputable sources. Relatively little of the material on the Web provides a way to ensure accuracy or balance.
Below are descriptions of common informational sites with varying degrees of reliability:
- Khan Academy : This site is full of useful tutorials and videos on a wide range of subjects.
- Wikipedia : Wikipedia is often frowned upon in some academic circles, because review of its content takes place after publication, potentially resulting in inaccurate or misleading information being available. But Wikipedia can provide a brief overview of a topic, and its lists of references is often quite extensive. You probably shouldn’t rely Wikipedia as your only source, but it can be useful.
- Government website:. Most items that governments administer are referenced on informational websites. In the United States, these include educational statistics , economic data , health information , and many other topics.
When choosing alternate content, it is imperative to compare it to the content that is being provided to you as a part of your course. If the alternate content does not line up, you should view it with a healthy skepticism. In those cases, it is always a good idea to share the content with your instructor and ask their opinion.
Activity
In this activity you will try an experiment by combining learning styles to see if it is something that works for you. The experiment will test the example of combining reading/writing and aural learning styles for better memorization.
To begin, you will start with a short segment of numbers. You will read the numbers only one time without saying them aloud. When you are finished, wait 10 seconds and try to remember the numbers in sequence by writing them down.
67914528
After you have finished you will repeat the experiment with a new set of numbers, but this time you will read them aloud, wait 10 seconds, and then see how easy they are to remember. During this part of the experiment you are free to say the numbers in any way you like. For example, the number 8734 could be read as eight-seven-three-four, eighty-seven thirty-four, or any combination you would like.
10387264
Did you find that there was a difference in your ability to memorize a short sequence of numbers for 10 seconds? Even if you were able to remember both, was the example that combined learning styles easier? What about if you had to wait for a full minute before attempting to rewrite the numbers? Would that make a difference?
What about Students with Disabilities?
Students with disabilities are sometimes the most informed when it comes to making decisions about their own learning. They should understand that it is in their best interest to take ownership of their own approach to education, especially when it comes to leveraging resources and opportunities. In this section, you will learn about the laws that regulate education for students with disabilities as well as look at some resources that are available to them.
Just like anyone else, under the law, qualified students with disabilities are entitled to the same education colleges and universities provide to students without disabilities. Even though a particular disability may make attending college more difficult, awareness on the part of the government, learning institutions, and the students themselves has brought about a great deal of change over the years. Now, students with disabilities find that they have available appropriate student services, campus accessibility, and academic resources that can make school attendance and academic success possible.
Due to this increased support and advocacy, colleges have seen an increase of students with disabilities. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, in 2012, 11.1 percent of the total undergraduate population in the United States was made up of people with disabilities. 9
The Legal Rights of Students with Disabilities
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 protects students “with a physical or mental impairment which substantially limits one or more major life activities.” 10 Learning definitely falls within the definition of major life activities.
In addition to Section 504, another set of laws that greatly help learners with disabilities is the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (also known as ADA). Both of these acts have been driving forces in making certain that students with disabilities have equal access to higher education, and they have been instrumental in helping educators looking for new ways and resources to provide services that do just that.
What follows is a list of services that schools commonly provide to help students with disabilities. These are often referred to as ADA accommodations and are named after the American with Disabilities Act:
- Recordings of class lectures or lecture transcription by in-class note takers
- Text readers or other technologies that can deliver content in another format
- Test or assessment accommodations
- Interpreter services and Braille transcriptions
- Physical access accommodations
- Accommodations of time and due dates
Most colleges will have policies and staff that are designated to help arrange for these types of accommodations. They are often found within the Department of Student Services or in related departments within your college campus. If you are a student with disabilities protected under these acts, it is in your best interest to contact the person responsible for ADA accommodations at your school. Even if you decide that you do not need accommodations, it is a good idea to find out about any services and policies the school has in place.
Organizations
In addition to the accommodations that schools commonly provide, there are also a number of national and local organizations that can provide assistance and advice when it comes to being a student with a disability. If you fit into this category, it is recommended that you make contact with one or more of these organizations in order to find out how they can help. These can be tremendously beneficial resources that offer everything from information and support to simple social connections that can make pursuing a formal education easier.
Footnotes
- Harold Pashler, Mark McDaniel, Doug Rohrer and Robert Bjork. Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, Vol. 9, No. 3 (December 2008).
- U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2019). Digest of Education Statistics, 2017 (2018-070), Chapter 3.
- U.S. Department of Education. Protecting Students with Disabilities: Frequently Asked Questions. https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/li...cr/504faq.html


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rhymes with “mouse”
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Current is a scalar, since the definition \(I=dq/dt\) is the derivative of a scalar. However, there is a closely related quantity called the current
density
,
J
, which is a vector, and
J
is in fact the more fundamentally important quantity.
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As in chapter
2
, we use the word “frequency” to mean either \(f\) or \(\omega=2\pi f\) when the context makes it clear which is being referred to.
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I cheated a little. If \(z\)'s argument is 30 degrees, then we could say \(\bar{z}\)'s was -30, but we could also call it 330. That's OK, because 330+30 gives 360, and an argument of 360 is the same as an argument of zero.
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In general, the use of complex number techniques to do an integral could result in a complex number, but that complex number would be a constant, which could be subsumed within the usual constant of integration.
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A resistor always turns electrical energy into heat. It never turns heat into electrical energy!
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To many people, the word “radiation” implies nuclear contamination. Actually, the word simply means something that “radiates” outward. Natural sunlight is “radiation.” So is the light from a lightbulb, or the infrared light being emitted by your skin right now.
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Note that this time “frequency” means \(f\), not \(\omega\)! Physicists and engineers generally use \(\omega\) because it simplifies the equations, but electricians and technicians always use \(f\). The 60 Hz frequency is for the U.S.
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no relation to the human mathematician of the same name
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Newton's human namesake actually proved this for gravity, not electricity, but they're both \(1/r^2\) forces, so the proof works equally well in both cases.
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The math gets messy for the off-axis case. This part of the proof can be completed more easily and transparently using the techniques of section
10.7
, and that is exactly we'll do in example
37
on page 631.


4.3: Defining Diversity
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That diversity is a complex issue is reflected in the difficulty in defining what diversity is (Smith, 1995). In order to make some sense of the countless potential sources of diversity among groups of people numerous definitions have arisen. Within organizations diversity is “typically seen to be composed of variations in race, gender, ethnicity, nationality, sexual orientation, physical abilities, social class, age, and other such socially meaningful categorizations” (Ferdman, 1995, p. 37). In other words diversity measures are assumed to capture a perception of similarities and differences among individuals in a group or organization (Wise & Tschirhart, 2000).
Wentling and Palma-Rivas (2000) point out that there are many definitions of diversity that range from narrow to very broad. Narrow definitions of diversity tend to focus on observable or visible dimensions of difference (Milliken & Martins, 1996) which Lumby (2006) asserts are likely to evoke bias, prejudice, or the use of stereotypes leading to disadvantage. These include ethnicity, race, gender, disability, and age. Indeed much of the organizational diversity research has tended to focus on the identification of differences between the cultural majority and particular minorities in the workplace with regard to race, culture, and gender (Thomas, 1995). As a result of this somewhat narrow focus some argue that the term diversity should only pertain to particular disadvantaged groups (Wise & Tschirhart, 2000). A direct consequence of this is the current politicised nature of the discussion which has seen diversity become synonymous with affirmative action where diversity is seen as a means of fostering the recruitment, promotion, and retention of members of a particular group (Thomas, 2006).
Not all agree with this view and argue that the definition of diversity is much broader and is continually changing and evolving (Smith, 1995). Broader meanings of diversity tend to encompass a greater variety of characteristics that are not immediately observable or public. These include dimensions such as educational background, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, values, ethnic culture, education, language, lifestyle, beliefs, physical appearance, economic status, and leadership style (Cox, 1993; Lumby, 2006; Thomas, 1995, 1996; Wentling & Palma-Rivas, 2000). Still others take account of additional dimensions such as political views, work experience/professional background, personality type and other demographic socioeconomic, and psychographic characteristics (Gardenswartz & Rowe, 1998; Thomas, 1995; Wise & Tschirhart, 2000).
Maznevski (1994) differentiates between two main types of diversity characteristics, namely, role-related diversity such as occupation, knowledge, skills, and family role; and inherent (to the person) diversity such as gender, age, nationality, cultural values, and personality. In contrast, McGrath, Berdahl & Arrow (1995) developed a more comprehensive framework of diversity attributes using clusters.
What these different definitions highlight is the breadth and variety of understanding of what diversity is and can encompass. Thomas’ (1996, pp. 5–8) definition of diversity is an attempt to reflect this broadness as well as acknowledge that any discussion about diversity must make explicit the dimensions being explored. He defines diversity as “any mixture of items characterized by differences and similarities”. Key characteristics of diversity include:
- Diversity is not synonymous with differences, but encompasses differences and similarities.
- Diversity refers to the collective (all-inclusive) mixture of differences and similarities along a given dimension.
- The component elements in diversity mixtures can vary, and so a discussion of diversity must specify the dimensions in question.


2: Electric and Magnetic Fields
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- 2.5: Magnetic Flux Density
- Magnetic flux density is a vector field which we identify using the symbol B and which has SI units of tesla (T). Before offering a formal definition, it is useful to consider the broader concept of the magnetic field. Magnetic fields are an intrinsic property of some materials, most notably permanent magnets.
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- 2.8: Electromagnetic Properties of Materials
- The electromagnetic properties of most common materials in most common applications can be quantified in terms of the constitutive parameters ϵ , μ , and σ, which are the teh Permittivity, Permeability and Conductivity. These are the three constitutive parameters, which describe the effect of material in determining an electromagnetic quantity in response to a source.
Thumbnail: The magnetic field of a current-bearing coil, illustrating field lines. (CC BY 4.0; Y. Qing).
Contributors and Attributions
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Ellingson, Steven W. (2018) Electromagnetics, Vol. 1. Blacksburg, VA: VT Publishing. https://doi.org/10.21061/electromagnetics-vol-1 Licensed with CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0 . Report adoption of this book here . If you are a professor reviewing, adopting, or adapting this textbook please help us understand a little more about your use by filling out this form.


3.9: The Impact of Multinational Corporations
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8. What are the advantages of multinational corporations?
Corporations that move resources, goods, services, and skills across national boundaries without regard to the country in which their headquarters are located are multinational corporations . Some are so rich and have so many employees that they resemble small countries. For example, the sales of both Exxon and Walmart are larger than the GDP of all but a few nations in the world. Multinational companies are heavily engaged in international trade. The successful ones take political and cultural differences into account.
Many global brands sell much more outside the United States than at home. Coca-Cola, Philip Morris’s Marlboro brand, Pepsi, Kellogg, Pampers, Nescafe, and Gillette, are examples.
The Fortune 500 made over $1.5 trillion in profit in 2016. In slow-growing, developed economies like Europe and Japan, a weaker dollar helps, because it means cheaper products to sell into those markets, and profits earned in those markets translate into more dollars back home. Meanwhile, emerging markets in Asia, Latin America, and Eastern Europe are growing steadily. General Electric expects 60 percent of its revenue growth to come from emerging markets over the next decade. For Brown-Forman, the spirits company, a fifth of its sales growth of Jack Daniels, the Tennessee whiskey, is coming from developing markets like Mexico and Poland. IBM had rapid sales growth in emerging markets such as Russia, India, and Brazil. 38
The largest multinational corporations in the world are shown in Table 3.3 .
Despite the success of American multinationals abroad, there is some indication that preference for U.S. brands may be slipping.
The Multinational Advantage
Large multinationals have several advantages over other companies. For instance, multinationals can often overcome trade problems. Taiwan and South Korea have long had an embargo against Japanese cars for political reasons and to help domestic automakers. Yet Honda USA, a Japanese-owned company based in the United States, sends Accords to Taiwan and Korea. In another example, when the environmentally conscious Green movement challenged the biotechnology research conducted by BASF, a major German chemical and drug manufacturer, BASFmoved its cancer and immune-system research to Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Another advantage for multinationals is their ability to sidestep regulatory problems. U.S. drugmaker SmithKline and Britain’s Beecham decided to merge in part so that they could avoid licensing and regulatory hassles in their largest markets. The merged company can say it’s an insider in both Europe and the United States. “When we go to Brussels, we’re a member state [of the European Union],” one executive explains. “And when we go to Washington, we’re an American company.”
Multinationals can also shift production from one plant to another as market conditions change. When European demand for a certain solvent declined, Dow Chemical instructed its German plant to switch to manufacturing a chemical that had been imported from Louisiana and Texas. Computer models help Dow make decisions like these so it can run its plants more efficiently and keep costs down.
| RANK | RANK COMPANY | Revenues ($M) | Home Country |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Walmart | $482,130 | United States |
| 2 | State Grid | $329,601 | China |
| 3 | China National Petroleum | $299,271 | China |
| 4 | Sinopec Group | $294,344 | China |
| 5 | Royal Dutch Shell | $272,156 | Netherlands |
| 6 | Exxon Mobil | $246,204 | United States |
| 7 | Volkswagen | $236,600 | Germany |
| 8 | Toyota Motor | $236,592 | Japan |
| 9 | Apple | $233,715 | United States |
| 10 | BP | $225,982 | United Kingdom |
| 11 | Berkshire Hathaway | $210,821 | United States |
Source: Adapted from “The World’s Largest Corporations,” Fortune http ://fortune.com/global500/ , accessed June 30, 2017.
EXPANDING AROUND THE GLOBE
U.S. Brands Face Global Competition
America is the cradle of the consumer goods brand. Here, a free-spending and marketing-saturated public nurtured Apple, Google, Coca-Cola, Microsoft, and countless others to maturity. Many of those brands grew up to conquer other societies, as well.
But American brands’ domination in the global marketplace is eroding. From Samsung to Toyota to Mercedes Benz to SAP, companies in Europe and Asia are turning out top-quality goods and selling them as such rather than competing on price. “There are longer-term trends toward greater competition. The United States was the only global brand country [but] that’s no longer the case,” says Earl L. Taylor, chief marketing officer of the Marketing Science Institute. “Consumers prefer brands that they take to be of higher quality” regardless of the country of origin, he notes. “Increasingly, there will be other successful global brands in the U.S. [market].”
Of the brands at the top of Interbrand’s recent list of the world’s most valuable, four of the top five still originate in the United States; the five most valuable are Apple, Google, Coca-Cola, and Microsoft, while Toyota (Japan) comes in at number five. American companies have lost the most ground in the middle tier of recognizable brand names, says George T. Haley, professor of marketing at the University of New Haven’s School of Business.
One area from which U.S. brands are feeling the pressure is the Asia-Pacific region, which harbors the fastest-growing emerging markets today. In the appliance category, two Chinese companies, Haier and Kelon, are becoming top competitors for well-known U.S. brands Whirlpool and Maytag. In fact, Haier bought GE’s appliance division in 2016. The Chinese branding trend is not confined only to hard goods. Sporting goods and sportswear brand Li Ning, well known within China, is building its international profile. While the Chinese basketball team wore Nikeuniforms at the Athens Olympic Games, the Spanish team wore Li Ningapparel. The threat to U.S. brands is not confined to China, however. South Korean brands, such as Samsung, LG, and Hyundai, have emerged on the global stage in specific categories, such as smartphones, household appliances, and automobiles.
The animosity that many Europeans feel toward the United States is translated into a preference for European or even Asian brands at the expense of U.S. brands. Plus, experts say, European brands are simply becoming stronger and more consistent.
Meanwhile, European brands are gaining momentum in the areas of white goods and consumer goods, putting the pressure on such well-known U.S. brands as Bissell and Hoover, experts say. For instance, Gaggenauis a popular, high-end European kitchen appliance brand, along with Bosch and Dyson. Other European brands maintaining cachet—if not always the allure of luxury—include Absolut, Virgin, Mini (as in Cooper), Red Bull, and Ikea.
Critical Thinking Questions
- What can U.S. multinational firms do to regain and maintain their leadership in global branding? Are there sectors and product areas where U.S. brands are gaining share?
- Do you think that the quality of American products and services is declining, or that the rest of the world is just getting better? Explain your answer.
Sources: “Interbrand: Best Global Brands 2016 Rankings,” http://interbrand.com , accessed June 30, 2017; Vasileios Davvetas and Adamantios Diamantopoulos (2016), “How Product Category Shapes Preferences toward Global and Local Brands: A Schema Theory Perspective,” Journal of International Marketing , 24 (4), 61–81; Deborah Vence, “Not Taking Care of Business?” Marketing News, March 15, 2005, pp. 19–20.
Multinationals can also tap new technology from around the world. In the United States, Xerox has introduced some 80 different office copiers that were designed and built by Fuji Xerox, its joint venture with a Japanese company. Versions of the super-concentrated detergent that Procter & Gamble first formulated in Japan in response to a rival’s product are now being sold under the Ariel brand name in Europe and under the Cheer and Tide labels in the United States. Also, consider Otis Elevator’s development of the Elevonic 411, an elevator that is programmed to send more cars to floors where demand is high. It was developed by six research centers in five countries. Otis’s group in Farmington, Connecticut, handled the systems integration, a Japanese group designed the special motor drives that make the elevators ride smoothly, a French group perfected the door systems, a German group handled the electronics, and a Spanish group took care of the small-geared components. Otis says the international effort saved more than $10 million in design costs and cut the process from four years to two.
Finally, multinationals can often save a lot in labor costs, even in highly unionized countries. For example, when Xerox started moving copier-rebuilding work to Mexico to take advantage of the lower wages, its union in Rochester, New York, objected because it saw that members’ jobs were at risk. Eventually, the union agreed to change work styles and to improve productivity to keep the jobs at home.

- What are the advantages of multinationals


7.4: Other Fact-Finding Techniques and Misleading Data
In addition to interview, Questionnaires, and survey analysts use other fact-finding techniques including documents review, Observation, and research. These fact-finding techniques are used to help system analysts develop good interview questions.
Document review: the fact finding base on reviewing documents can help you understand how the system is supposed to work. It is very important to make sure that the documents are for the system currently in use and are up to date.
Direct Observation : observation is another fact-finding technique, witnessing how the system works will help you understand the system operation better. In addition, the technique can also help make sure that the system documentation and the interview answers are accurate or not. Direct observation can also be use as an additional means of verification that the data collected about a system from the interview are accurate and reliable.
Plan your observations by preparing a list of specific things you want to observe and ask many questions to the people working to ensure that you understand the current system and review and study all necessary document. Since, the goal of the observation is to see how the changes of the system can improve employees productivity, while observing the people at work consider the factor called the Hawthorne Effect (effect where the workers productivity improve when they know they are being observed). Always give advance notice to the supervisor and in some cases it might be helpful to explain the purpose of the your visit to the people being observed.
Research: research is another important fact-finding technique that uses public sources like the Internet, magazine, Newsletter and books. Research is conducted to collect accurate information, materials, and news about industry trends and development.
The internet is a very important resource for research. When using the internet you can access information from government, universities, publishers, and libraries all over the world at the blink of an eye. Also, with the internet you can access newsgroup and forum to exchange information with other professional form you field seeking answers to question and monitoring discussions that are of interest to you.
Data misleading: data misleading could be defined as the misrepresentation of a particular group, or data that will produce inaccurate results.
In statistics, a misleading graph, also known as a distorted graph, is a graph that misrepresents data , constitutes a misuse of statistics and with the result that an incorrect conclusion may be derived from it.
Graphs may be misleading by being excessively complex or poorly constructed. Even when constructed to display the characteristics of their data accurately, graphs can be subject to different interpretations, or unintended kinds of data can seemingly and ultimately erroneously be derived. [1]
Misleading graphs may be created intentionally to hinder the proper interpretation of data or accidentally due to unfamiliarity with graphing software , misinterpretation of data, or because data cannot be accurately conveyed. Misleading graphs are often used in false advertising .
Sampling bias: In statistics , sampling bias is a bias in which a sample is collected in such a way that some members of the intended population have a lower or higher sampling probability than others. It results in a biased sample [1] of a population (or non-human factors) in which all individuals, or instances, were not equally likely to have been selected. [2] If this is not accounted for, results can be erroneously attributed to the phenomenon under study rather than to the method of sampling .
Chapter Questions:
- What are the pros and cons of the following fact-finding types:face-to-face interview. telephone interview and self-administered interviews?
- Describe the different steps when planning for an interview.
- What are three types of sampling? give a brief description of each.
- List 3 guidelines for the wording of survey questions Can the order of questions affect survey results?
- Please explain What are some factors that can affect survey results.
- What is the difference between a sample and a population?
- Explain what is an open-ended question and close-ended and range of respond question? Give an example for each.
- What is the Hawthorne Effect? Have you ever experienced it? When and where?


4.1: Basic Concepts
If you roll a die, pick a card from deck of playing cards, or randomly select a person and observe their hair color, we are executing an experiment or procedure. In probability, we look at the likelihood of different outcomes. We begin with some terminology.
Events and Outcomes
Events and Outcomes
- The result of an experiment is called an outcome .
- An event is any particular outcome or group of outcomes.
- A simple event is an event that cannot be broken down further.
- The sample space is the set of all possible simple events.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)
If we roll a standard 6-sided die, describe the sample space and some simple events.
Solution
The sample space is the set of all possible simple events: {1,2,3,4,5,6}
Some examples of simple events:
- We roll a 1
- We roll a 5
Some compound events:
- We roll a number bigger than 4
- We roll an even number
Basic Probability
Given that all outcomes are equally likely, we can compute the probability of an event \(E\) using this formula:
\[P(E)=\dfrac{\text { Number of outcomes corresponding to the event } \mathrm{E}}{\text { Total number of equally likely outcomes }} \nonumber \]
Example \(\PageIndex{2}\)
If we roll a 6-sided die, calculate
- P(rolling a 1)
- P(rolling a number bigger than 4)
Solution
Recall that the sample space is {1,2,3,4,5,6}
- There is one outcome corresponding to “rolling a 1”, so the probability is \(\dfrac{1}{6}\)
- There are two outcomes bigger than a 4, so the probability is \(\dfrac{2}{6}=\dfrac{1}{3}\)
Probabilities are essentially fractions and can be reduced to lower terms like fractions.
Example \(\PageIndex{3}\)
Let's say you have a bag with 20 cherries, 14 sweet and 6 sour. If you pick a cherry at random, what is the probability that it will be sweet?
Solution
There are 20 possible cherries that could be picked, so the number of possible outcomes is 20. Of these 20 possible outcomes, 14 are favorable (sweet), so the probability that the cherry will be sweet is \(\dfrac{14}{20}=\dfrac{7}{10}\).
There is one potential complication to this example, however. It must be assumed that the probability of picking any of the cherries is the same as the probability of picking any other. This wouldn't be true if (let us imagine) the sweet cherries are smaller than the sour ones. (The sour cherries would come to hand more readily when you sampled from the bag.) Let us keep in mind, therefore, that when we assess probabilities in terms of the ratio of favorable to all potential cases, we rely heavily on the assumption of equal probability for all outcomes.

- What is the probability of the minutes reading 15?
- What is the probability the minutes reading 15 or less?
Cards
A standard deck of 52 playing cards consists of four suits (hearts, spades, diamonds and clubs). Spades and clubs are black while hearts and diamonds are red. Each suit contains 13 cards, each of a different rank: an Ace (which in many games functions as both a low card and a high card), cards numbered 2 through 10, a Jack, a Queen and a King.
Example \(\PageIndex{4}\)
Compute the probability of randomly drawing one card from a deck and getting an Ace.
Solution
There are 52 cards in the deck and 4 Aces so \(P(\text {Ace})=\dfrac{4}{52}=\dfrac{1}{13} \approx 0.0769\)
We can also think also think of probabilities as percents: There is a 7.69% chance that a randomly selected card will be an Ace.
Notice that the smallest possible probability is 0 (if there are no outcomes that correspond with the event). The largest possible probability is 1 (if all possible outcomes correspond with the event).
Certain and Impossible events
An impossible event has a probability of 0.
A certain event has a probability of 1.
The probability of any event must be \(0 \leq P(E) \leq 1\)
If you compute a probability and get an answer that is negative or greater than 1, you have made a mistake and should check your work.
Complementary Events
Now let us examine the probability that an event does not happen. As in the previous section, consider the situation of rolling a six-sided die and first compute the probability of rolling a six: the answer is P(six) =\(\dfrac{1}{6}\). Now consider the probability that we do not roll a six: there are 5 outcomes that are not a six, so the answer is P(not a six) = \(\dfrac{5}{6}\). Notice that
\[P(\text{six})+P(\text { not a six })=\dfrac{1}{6}+\dfrac{5}{6}=\dfrac{6}{6}=1 \nonumber \]
This is not a coincidence. Consider a generic situation with n possible outcomes and an event \(E\) that corresponds to \(m\) of these outcomes. Then the remaining \(n-m\) outcomes correspond to \(E\) not happening, thus.
\[P(\text {not} E)=\dfrac{n-m}{n}=\dfrac{n}{n}-\dfrac{m}{n}=1-\dfrac{m}{n}=1-P(E) \nonumber \]
Complement of an Event
The complement of an event is the event “\(E\) doesn’t happen”.
The notation \(\overline{E}\) is used for the complement of event \(E\).
We can compute the probability of the complement using \(P(\overline{E})=1-P(E)\)
Notice also that \(P(E)=1-P(\overline{E})\)
Example \(\PageIndex{5}\)
If you pull a random card from a deck of playing cards, what is the probability it is not a heart?
Solution
There are 13 hearts in the deck, so \(P(\text { heart })=\dfrac{13}{52}=\dfrac{1}{4}\).
The probability of not drawing a heart is the complement:
\[P(\text { not heart })=1-P(\text { heart })=1-\dfrac{1}{4}=\dfrac{3}{4} \nonumber \]
Independent events
Example \(\PageIndex{6}\)
Suppose we flipped a coin and rolled a die, and wanted to know the probability of getting a head on the coin and a 6 on the die.
Solution
We could list all possible outcomes: \(\{H 1, H 2, H 3, H 4, H 5, H 6, T 1, T 2, T 3, T 4, T 5, T 6\}\)
Notice there are \(2 \cdot 6=12\) total outcomes. Out of these, only 1 is the desired outcome, so the probability is \(\dfrac{1}{12}\)
The prior example was looking at two independent events.
Independent Events
Events A and B are independent events if the probability of Event B occurring is the same whether or not Event A occurs.
Example \(\PageIndex{7}\)
Are these events independent?
- A fair coin is tossed two times.
- The two events (1) "It will rain tomorrow in Houston" and (2) "It will rain tomorrow in Galveston” (a city near Houston).

Solution
- The probability that a head comes up on the second toss is 1/2 regardless of whether or not a head came up on the first toss, so these events are independent.
- These events are not independent because it is more likely that it will rain in Galveston on days it rains in Houston than on days it does not.
- The probability of the second card being red depends on whether the first card is red or not, so these events are not independent. Remember, if you draw one red card, now the stack has one fewer red card, affecting the probability.
When two events are independent, the probability of both occurring is the product of the probabilities of the individual events.
\(P(A \text { and } B)\) for independent events
If events \(A\) and \(B\) are independent, then the probability of both \(A\) and \(B\) occurring is: \(P(A \text { and } B)=P(A) \cdot P(B)\)
Where \(P(A \text { and } B)\) is the probability of events \(A\) and \(B\) both occurring, \(P(A)\) is the probability of event \(A\) occurring, and \(P(B)\) is the probability of event \(B\) occurring.
If you look back at the coin and die examples from earlier, you can see how the number of outcomes of the first event multiplied by the number of outcomes in the second event multiplied to equal the total number of possible outcomes in the combined event.
Example \(\PageIndex{8}\)
In your drawer you have 10 pairs of socks, 6 of which are white, and 7 tee shirts, 3 of which are white. If you randomly reach in and pull out a pair of socks and a tee shirt, what is the probability both are white?
Solution
The probability of choosing a white pair of socks is \(\dfrac{6}{10}\)
The probability of choosing a white tee shirt is \(\dfrac{3}{7}\)
The probability of both being white is \(\dfrac{6}{10} \cdot \dfrac{3}{7}=\dfrac{18}{70}=\dfrac{9}{35}\)
Try it Now 2
A card is pulled from a deck of cards and noted. The card is then replaced, the deck is shuffled, and a second card is removed and noted. What is the probability that both cards are Aces?
The previous examples looked at the probability of both events occurring. Now we will look at the probability of either event occurring.
Example \(\PageIndex{9}\)
Suppose we flipped a coin and rolled a die, and wanted to know the probability of getting a head on the coin or a 6 on the die.
Solution
Here, there are still 12 possible outcomes: \(\{H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6,T1,T2,T3,T4,T5,T6\}\)
By simply counting, we can see that 7 of the outcomes have a head on the coin or a 6 on the die or both – we use or inclusively here (these 7 outcomes are \(H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, T6\)), so the probability is \(\dfrac{7}{12}\). How could we have found this from the individual probabilities?
As we would expect, \(\dfrac{1}{2}\) of these outcomes have a head, and \(\dfrac{1}{6}\) of these outcomes have a 6 on the die. If we add these, \(\dfrac{1}{2}+\dfrac{1}{6}=\dfrac{6}{12}+\dfrac{2}{12}=\dfrac{8}{12}\), which is not the correct probability. Looking at the outcomes we can see why: the outcome \(H6\) would have been counted twice, since it contains both a head and a 6; the probability of both a head and rolling a 6 is \(\dfrac{1}{12}\). If we subtract out this double count, we have the correct probability: \(\dfrac{8}{12}-\dfrac{1}{12}=\dfrac{7}{12}\)
\(P(A \text { or } B)\)
The probability of either A or B occurring (or both) is
\[P(A \text { or } B)=P(A)+P(B)-P(A \text { and } B) \nonumber \]
Example \(\PageIndex{10}\)
Suppose we draw one card from a standard deck. What is the probability that we get a Queen or a King?
Solution
There are 4 Queens and 4 Kings in the deck, hence 8 outcomes corresponding to a Queen or King out of 52 possible outcomes. Thus the probability of drawing a Queen or a King is:
\[P(\text { King or Queen })=\dfrac{8}{52} \nonumber \]
Note that in this case, there are no cards that are both a Queen and a King, so \(P(\text { King or Queen })=0\). Using our probability rule, we could have said:
\[P(\text { King or Queen })=P(\text { King })+P(\text { Queen })-P(\text { King and Queen })=\dfrac{4}{52}+\dfrac{4}{52}-0=\dfrac{8}{52} \nonumber \]
In the last example, the events were mutually exclusive , so \(P(\text {A or } B)=P(A)+P(B)\).
Example \(\PageIndex{11}\)
Suppose we draw one card from a standard deck. What is the probability that we get a red card or a King?
Solution
Half the cards are red, so \(P(\text { red })=\dfrac{26}{52}\)
There are four kings, so \(P(\text{ King })=\dfrac{4}{52}\)
There are two red kings, so \(P(\text{ Red and King })=\dfrac{2}{52}\)
We can then calculate
\[P(\text{ Red or King })=P(\text{ Red })+P(\text{ King })-P(\text{ Red and King })=\dfrac{26}{52}+\dfrac{4}{52}-\dfrac{2}{52}=\dfrac{28}{52} \nonumber \]
Try it Now 3
In your drawer you have 10 pairs of socks, 6 of which are white, and 7 tee shirts, 3 of which are white. If you reach in and randomly grab a pair of socks and a tee shirt, what is the probability that at least one is white?
Example \(\PageIndex{12}\)
The table below shows the number of survey subjects who have received and not received a speeding ticket in the last year, and the color of their car. Find the probability that a randomly chosen person:
- Has a red car and got a speeding ticket.
- Has a red car or got a speeding ticket.
Solution
|
Speeding ticket |
No speeding ticket |
Total |
|
|---|---|---|---|
|
Red car |
15 |
135 |
150 |
|
Not red car |
45 |
470 |
515 |
|
Total |
60 |
605 |
665 |
- We can see that 15 people of the 665 surveyed had both a red car and got a speeding ticket, so the probability is \(\dfrac{15}{665} \approx 0.0226\)
Notice that having a red car and getting a speeding ticket are not independent events, so the probability of both of them occurring is not simply the product of probabilities of each one occurring.
- We could answer this question by simply adding up the numbers: 15 people with red cars and speeding tickets + 135 with red cars but no ticket + 45 with a ticket but no red car = 195 people. So the probability is \(\dfrac{195}{665} \approx 0.2932\)
We also could have found this probability by:
\[P(\text { had a red car }) + P(\text { got a speeding ticket }) – P(\text { had a red car and got a speeding ticket }) = \dfrac{150}{665}+\dfrac{60}{665}-\dfrac{15}{665}=\dfrac{195}{665} \nonumber \]
Reference
- References (8)
Contributors and Attributions
-
Saburo Matsumoto
CC-BY-4.0