30.1: Discovery of the Atom
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the basic structure of the atom, the substructure of all matter.
How do we know that atoms are really there if we cannot see them with our eyes? A brief account of the progression from the proposal of atoms by the Greeks to the first direct evidence of their existence follows.
People have long speculated about the structure of matter and the existence of atoms. The earliest significant ideas to survive are due to the ancient Greeks in the fifth century BCE, especially those of the philosophers Leucippus and Democritus. (There is some evidence that philosophers in both India and China made similar speculations, at about the same time.) They considered the question of whether a substance can be divided without limit into ever smaller pieces. There are only a few possible answers to this question. One is that infinitesimally small subdivision is possible. Another is what Democritus in particular believed—that there is a smallest unit that cannot be further subdivided. Democritus called this the atom . We now know that atoms themselves can be subdivided, but their identity is destroyed in the process, so the Greeks were correct in a respect. The Greeks also felt that atoms were in constant motion, another correct notion.
The Greeks and others speculated about the properties of atoms, proposing that only a few types existed and that all matter was formed as various combinations of these types. The famous proposal that the basic elements were earth, air, fire, and water was brilliant, but incorrect. The Greeks had identified the most common examples of the four states of matter (solid, gas, plasma, and liquid), rather than the basic elements. More than 2000 years passed before observations could be made with equipment capable of revealing the true nature of atoms.
Over the centuries, discoveries were made regarding the properties of substances and their chemical reactions. Certain systematic features were recognized, but similarities between common and rare elements resulted in efforts to transmute them (lead into gold, in particular) for financial gain. Secrecy was endemic. Alchemists discovered and rediscovered many facts but did not make them broadly available. As the Middle Ages ended, alchemy gradually faded, and the science of chemistry arose. It was no longer possible, nor considered desirable, to keep discoveries secret. Collective knowledge grew, and by the beginning of the 19th century, an important fact was well established—the masses of reactants in specific chemical reactions always have a particular mass ratio. This is very strong indirect evidence that there are basic units (atoms and molecules) that have these same mass ratios. The English chemist John Dalton (1766–1844) did much of this work, with significant contributions by the Italian physicist Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856). It was Avogadro who developed the idea of a fixed number of atoms and molecules in a mole, and this special number is called Avogadro’s number in his honor. The Austrian physicist Johann Josef Loschmidt was the first to measure the value of the constant in 1865 using the kinetic theory of gases.
PATTERNS AND SYSTEMATICS
The recognition and appreciation of patterns has enabled us to make many discoveries. The periodic table of elements was proposed as an organized summary of the known elements long before all elements had been discovered, and it led to many other discoveries. We shall see in later chapters that patterns in the properties of subatomic particles led to the proposal of quarks as their underlying structure, an idea that is still bearing fruit.
Knowledge of the properties of elements and compounds grew, culminating in the mid-19th-century development of the periodic table of the elements by Dmitri Mendeleev (1834–1907), the great Russian chemist. Mendeleev proposed an ingenious array that highlighted the periodic nature of the properties of elements. Believing in the systematics of the periodic table, he also predicted the existence of then-unknown elements to complete it. Once these elements were discovered and determined to have properties predicted by Mendeleev, his periodic table became universally accepted.
Also during the 19th century, the kinetic theory of gases was developed. Kinetic theory is based on the existence of atoms and molecules in random thermal motion and provides a microscopic explanation of the gas laws, heat transfer, and thermodynamics. Kinetic theory works so well that it is another strong indication of the existence of atoms. But it is still indirect evidence—individual atoms and molecules had not been observed. There were heated debates about the validity of kinetic theory until direct evidence of atoms was obtained.
The first truly direct evidence of atoms is credited to Robert Brown, a Scottish botanist. In 1827, he noticed that tiny pollen grains suspended in still water moved about in complex paths. This can be observed with a microscope for any small particles in a fluid. The motion is caused by the random thermal motions of fluid molecules colliding with particles in the fluid, and it is now called Brownian motion (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Statistical fluctuations in the numbers of molecules striking the sides of a visible particle cause it to move first this way, then that. Although the molecules cannot be directly observed, their effects on the particle can be. By examining Brownian motion, the size of molecules can be calculated. The smaller and more numerous they are, the smaller the fluctuations in the numbers striking different sides.
It was Albert Einstein who, starting in his epochal year of 1905, published several papers that explained precisely how Brownian motion could be used to measure the size of atoms and molecules. (In 1905 Einstein created special relativity, proposed photons as quanta of EM radiation, and produced a theory of Brownian motion that allowed the size of atoms to be determined. All of this was done in his spare time, since he worked days as a patent examiner. Any one of these very basic works could have been the crowning achievement of an entire career—yet Einstein did even more in later years.) Their sizes were only approximately known to be \(10^{-10} \, m\), based on a comparison of latent heat of vaporization and surface tension made in about 1805 by Thomas Young of double-slit fame and the famous astronomer and mathematician Simon Laplace.
Using Einstein’s ideas, the French physicist Jean-Baptiste Perrin (1870–1942) carefully observed Brownian motion; not only did he confirm Einstein’s theory, he also produced accurate sizes for atoms and molecules. Since molecular weights and densities of materials were well established, knowing atomic and molecular sizes allowed a precise value for Avogadro’s number to be obtained. (If we know how big an atom is, we know how many fit into a certain volume.) Perrin also used these ideas to explain atomic and molecular agitation effects in sedimentation, and he received the 1926 Nobel Prize for his achievements. Most scientists were already convinced of the existence of atoms, but the accurate observation and analysis of Brownian motion was conclusive—it was the first truly direct evidence.
A huge array of direct and indirect evidence for the existence of atoms now exists. For example, it has become possible to accelerate ions (much as electrons are accelerated in cathode-ray tubes) and to detect them individually as well as measure their masses (see More Applications of Magnetism for a discussion of mass spectrometers). Other devices that observe individual atoms, such as the scanning tunneling electron microscope, will be discussed elsewhere (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). All of our understanding of the properties of matter is based on and consistent with the atom. The atom’s substructures, such as electron shells and the nucleus, are both interesting and important. The nucleus in turn has a substructure, as do the particles of which it is composed. These topics, and the question of whether there is a smallest basic structure to matter, will be explored in later parts of the text.
Summary
- Atoms are the smallest unit of elements; atoms combine to form molecules, the smallest unit of compounds.
- The first direct observation of atoms was in Brownian motion.
- Analysis of Brownian motion gave accurate sizes for atoms (\(10^{-10} \, m\) on average) and a precise value for Avogadro’s number.
Glossary
- atom
- basic unit of matter, which consists of a central, positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons
- Brownian motion
- the continuous random movement of particles of matter suspended in a liquid or gas


SECTION 7.1 PROBLEM SET: SETS AND COUNTING
Find the indicated sets.
-
List all subsets of the following set.
{ Al, Bob }
|
-
List all subsets of the following set.
{ Al, Bob, Chris }
|
-
List the elements of the following set.
{ Al, Bob, Chris, Dave } \(\cap\) { Bob, Chris, Dave, Ed }
|
-
List the elements of the following set.
{ Al, Bob, Chris, Dave } \(\cup\) {Bob, Chris, Dave, Ed }
|
Problems 5 – 8: Let Universal set U = { a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j }, sets V = { a, e, i, f, h }, W = { a, c, e, g, i }. List the members of the following sets.
-
V \(\cup\) W
|
-
V \(\cap\) W
|
-
\(\overline{V \cup W}\)
|
-
\(\overline{V} \cap \overline{W}\)
|
Problems 9 – 12: Let Universal set U = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 } and sets A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }, B = { 1, 3, 4, 6 }, and C = { 2, 4, 6 }.
List the members of the following sets.
-
A \(\cup\) B
|
-
A \(\cap\) C
|
-
\(\overline{A \cup B} \cap C\)
|
-
\(\bar{A} \cup \overline{B \cap C}\)
|
Use Venn Diagrams to find the number of elements in the following sets.
-
In Mrs. Yamamoto's class of 35 students, 12 students are taking history, 18 are taking English, and 4 are taking both. Draw a Venn diagram and use it determine how many students are taking neither history nor English.
|
-
In a survey of 1200 college students, 700 used Spotify to listen to music and 400 used iTunes to listen to music; of these, 100 used both.
-
Draw a Venn Diagram and find the number of people in each region of the diagram.
-
How many used either Spotify or iTunes?
|
-
A survey of athletes revealed that for their minor aches and pains, 30 used aspirin, 50 used ibuprofen, and 15 used both. How many athletes were surveyed?
|
-
In 2016, 80 college students were surveyed about what video services they subscribed to. Suppose the survey showed that 50 use Amazon Prime, 30 use Netflix, 20 use Hulu. Of those, 13 use Amazon Prime and Netflix, 9 use Amazon Prime and Hulu, 7 use Netflix and Hulu. 3 students use all three services.
-
Draw a Venn Diagram and use it to determine the number of people in each region of the diagram.
-
How many use at least one of these?
-
How many use none of these?
|
-
A survey of 100 students at a college finds that 50 take math, 40 take English, and 30 take history. Of these 15 take English and math, 10 take English and history, 10 take math and history, and 5 take all three subjects. Draw a Venn diagram and find the numbers in each region. Use the diagram to answer the questions below.
-
Find the number of students taking math but not the other two subjects.
-
The number of students taking English or math but not history.
-
The number of students taking none of these subjects.
|
-
In a survey of investors it was found that 100 invested in stocks, 60 in mutual funds, and 50 in bonds. Of these, 35 invested in stocks and mutual funds, 30 in mutual funds and bonds, 28 in stocks and bonds, and 20 in all three. Draw a Venn diagram and find the numbers in each region. Use the diagram to answer the questions below.
-
Find the number of investors that participated in the survey.
-
How many invested in stocks or mutual funds but not in bonds?
-
How many invested in exactly one type of investment?
|
-
A survey of 100 students at a college finds that 50 take math, 40 take English, and 30 take history. Of these 15 take English and math, 10 take English and history, 10 take math and history, and 5 take all three subjects. (This question relates back to question #17.) For each of the following draw a Venn Diagram and shade the indicated sets and determine the number of students in the set.
|
-
Students who take at least one of these classes
|
-
Students who take exactly one of these classes
|
-
Students who take at least two of these classes
|
-
Students who take exactly two of these classes
|
-
Students who take at most two of these classes
|
-
Students who take English or Math but not both
|
-
Students who take Math or History but not English
|
-
Students who take all of these classes
|
-
In a survey of investors it was found that 100 invested in stocks, 60 in mutual funds, and 50 in bonds. Of these, 35 invested in stocks and mutual funds, 30 in mutual funds and bonds, 28 in stocks and bonds, and 20 in all three. (This question relates back to question #18.) For each of the following draw a Venn Diagram and shade the indicated sets and determine the number of students in the set.
|
-
Investors who invested in mutual funds only
|
-
Investors who invested in stocks and bonds but not mutual funds
|
-
Investors who invested in exactly one of these investments
|
-
Investors who invested in exactly two of these investments
|
-
Investors who invested in at least two of these investments
|
-
Investors who invested in at most two of these investments
|
-
Investors who did not invest in bonds
|
-
Investors who invested in all three investments
|


1.9: Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
-
- Last updated
- Save as PDF
Learning Objectives
- To correlate the arrangement of atoms in the periodic table results in blocks corresponding to filling of the ns , np , nd , and nf orbitals
As you have learned, the electron configurations of the elements explain the otherwise peculiar shape of the periodic table. Although the table was originally organized on the basis of physical and chemical similarities between the elements within groups, these similarities are ultimately attributable to orbital energy levels and the Pauli principle, which cause the individual subshells to be filled in a particular order. As a result, the periodic table can be divided into “blocks” corresponding to the type of subshell that is being filled, as illustrated in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). For example, the two columns on the left, known as the s block, consist of elements in which the ns orbitals are being filled. The six columns on the right, elements in which the np orbitals are being filled, constitute the p block. In between are the 10 columns of the d block, elements in which the ( n − 1) d orbitals are filled. At the bottom lie the 14 columns of the f block, elements in which the ( n − 2) f orbitals are filled. Because two electrons can be accommodated per orbital, the number of columns in each block is the same as the maximum electron capacity of the subshell: 2 for ns , 6 for np , 10 for ( n − 1) d , and 14 for ( n − 2) f . Within each column, each element has the same valence electron configuration—for example, ns 1 (group 1) or ns 2 np 1 (group 13). As you will see, this is reflected in important similarities in the chemical reactivity and the bonding for the elements in each column.
Because each orbital can have a maximum of 2 electrons, there are 2 columns in the s block, 6 columns in the p block, 10 columns in the d block, and 14 columns in the f block.
Hydrogen and helium are placed somewhat arbitrarily. Although hydrogen is not an alkali metal, its 1 s 1 electron configuration suggests a similarity to lithium ([He]2 s 1 ) and the other elements in the first column. Although helium, with a filled ns subshell, should be similar chemically to other elements with an ns 2 electron configuration, the closed principal shell dominates its chemistry, justifying its placement above neon on the right.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Use the periodic table to predict the valence electron configuration of all the elements of group 2 (beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and radium).
Given: series of elements
Asked for: valence electron configurations
Strategy:
- Identify the block in the periodic table to which the group 2 elements belong. Locate the nearest noble gas preceding each element and identify the principal quantum number of the valence shell of each element.
- Write the valence electron configuration of each element by first indicating the filled inner shells using the symbol for the nearest preceding noble gas and then listing the principal quantum number of its valence shell, its valence orbitals, and the number of valence electrons in each orbital as superscripts.
Solution:
A The group 2 elements are in the s block of the periodic table, and as group 2 elements, they all have two valence electrons. Beginning with beryllium, we see that its nearest preceding noble gas is helium and that the principal quantum number of its valence shell is n = 2.
B Thus beryllium has an [He] s 2 electron configuration. The next element down, magnesium, is expected to have exactly the same arrangement of electrons in the n = 3 principal shell: [Ne] s 2 . By extrapolation, we expect all the group 2 elements to have an ns 2 electron configuration.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Use the periodic table to predict the characteristic valence electron configuration of the halogens in group 17.
- Answer
-
All have an ns 2 np 5 electron configuration, one electron short of a noble gas electron configuration. (Note that the heavier halogens also have filled ( n − 1) d 10 subshells, as well as an ( n − 2) f 14 subshell for Rn; these do not, however, affect their chemistry in any significant way.
Summary
The arrangement of atoms in the periodic table results in blocks corresponding to filling of the ns , np , nd , and nf orbitals to produce the distinctive chemical properties of the elements in the s block , p block , d block , and f block , respectively.


46.2B: Productivity within Trophic Levels
- Explain the concept of primary production and distinguish between gross primary production and net primary production
Productivity within trophic levels
Productivity within an ecosystem can be defined as the percentage of energy entering the ecosystem incorporated into biomass in a particular trophic level. Biomass is the total mass in a unit area (at the time of measurement) of living or previously-living organisms within a trophic level. Ecosystems have characteristic amounts of biomass at each trophic level. For example, in the English Channel ecosystem, the primary producers account for a biomass of 4 g/m 2 (grams per meter squared), while the primary consumers exhibit a biomass of 21 g/m 2 .
The productivity of the primary producers is especially important in any ecosystem because these organisms bring energy to other living organisms by photoautotrophy or chemoautotrophy. Photoautotrophy is the process by which an organism (such as a green plant) synthesizes its own food from inorganic material using light as a source of energy; chemoautotrophy, on the other hand, is the process by which simple organisms (such as bacteria or archaea) derive energy from chemical processes rather than photosynthesis. The rate at which photosynthetic primary producers incorporate energy from the sun is called gross primary productivity. An example of gross primary productivity is the compartment diagram of energy flow within the Silver Springs aquatic ecosystem. In this ecosystem, the total energy accumulated by the primary producers was shown to be 20,810 kcal/m 2 /yr.
Because all organisms need to use some of this energy for their own functions (such as respiration and resulting metabolic heat loss), scientists often refer to the net primary productivity of an ecosystem. Net primary productivity is the energy that remains in the primary producers after accounting for the organisms’ respiration and heat loss. The net productivity is then available to the primary consumers at the next trophic level. In the Silver Spring example, 13,187 of the 20,810 kcal/m 2 /yr were used for respiration or were lost as heat, leaving 7,632 kcal/m 2 /yr of energy for use by the primary consumers.
Key Points
- A biomass is the total mass of living and previously-living organisms within a trophic level; ecosystems have characteristic amounts of biomass at each trophic level.
- The productivity of the primary producers ( gross primary productivity ) is important to ecosystems because these organisms bring energy to other living organisms.
- Net primary productivity (energy that remains in the primary producers after accounting for respiration and heat loss) is available to the primary consumers at the next trophic level.
Key Terms
- biomass : the total mass of all living things within a specific area, habitat, etc.
- gross primary productivity : rate at which photosynthetic primary producers incorporate energy from the sun
- net primary productivity : energy that remains in the primary producers after accounting for the organisms’ respiration and heat loss
- trophic level : a particular position occupied by a group of organisms in a food chain (primary producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer, or tertiary consumer)


8.1: Valence Bond Theory
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
- Describe the formation of covalent bonds in terms of atomic orbital overlap
- Define and give examples of σ and π bonds
As we know, a scientific theory is a strongly supported explanation for observed natural laws or large bodies of experimental data. For a theory to be accepted, it must explain experimental data and be able to predict behavior. For example, VSEPR theory has gained widespread acceptance because it predicts three-dimensional molecular shapes that are consistent with experimental data collected for thousands of different molecules. However, VSEPR theory does not provide an explanation of chemical bonding.
There are successful theories that describe the electronic structure of atoms. We can use quantum mechanics to predict the specific regions around an atom where electrons are likely to be located: A spherical shape for an s orbital, a dumbbell shape for a p orbital, and so forth. However, these predictions only describe the orbitals around free atoms. When atoms bond to form molecules, atomic orbitals are not sufficient to describe the regions where electrons will be located in the molecule. A more complete understanding of electron distributions requires a model that can account for the electronic structure of molecules. One popular theory holds that a covalent bond forms when a pair of electrons is shared by two atoms and is simultaneously attracted by the nuclei of both atoms. In the following sections, we will discuss how such bonds are described by valence bond theory and hybridization.
Valence bond theory describes a covalent bond as the overlap of half-filled atomic orbitals (each containing a single electron) that yield a pair of electrons shared between the two bonded atoms. We say that orbitals on two different atoms overlap when a portion of one orbital and a portion of a second orbital occupy the same region of space. According to valence bond theory, a covalent bond results when two conditions are met: (1) an orbital on one atom overlaps an orbital on a second atom and (2) the single electrons in each orbital combine to form an electron pair. The mutual attraction between this negatively charged electron pair and the two atoms’ positively charged nuclei serves to physically link the two atoms through a force we define as a covalent bond. The strength of a covalent bond depends on the extent of overlap of the orbitals involved. Orbitals that overlap extensively form bonds that are stronger than those that have less overlap.
The energy of the system depends on how much the orbitals overlap. Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) illustrates how the sum of the energies of two hydrogen atoms (the colored curve) changes as they approach each other. When the atoms are far apart there is no overlap, and by convention we set the sum of the energies at zero. As the atoms move together, their orbitals begin to overlap. Each electron begins to feel the attraction of the nucleus in the other atom. In addition, the electrons begin to repel each other, as do the nuclei. While the atoms are still widely separated, the attractions are slightly stronger than the repulsions, and the energy of the system decreases. (A bond begins to form.) As the atoms move closer together, the overlap increases, so the attraction of the nuclei for the electrons continues to increase (as do the repulsions among electrons and between the nuclei). At some specific distance between the atoms, which varies depending on the atoms involved, the energy reaches its lowest (most stable) value. This optimum distance between the two bonded nuclei is the bond distance between the two atoms. The bond is stable because at this point, the attractive and repulsive forces combine to create the lowest possible energy configuration. If the distance between the nuclei were to decrease further, the repulsions between nuclei and the repulsions as electrons are confined in closer proximity to each other would become stronger than the attractive forces. The energy of the system would then rise (making the system destabilized), as shown at the far left of Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\).
The bond energy is the difference between the energy minimum (which occurs at the bond distance) and the energy of the two separated atoms. This is the quantity of energy released when the bond is formed. Conversely, the same amount of energy is required to break the bond. For the H 2 molecule shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\), at the bond distance of 74 pm the system is \(7.24 \times 10^{−19}~\text{J}\) lower in energy than the two separated hydrogen atoms. This may seem like a small number. However, we know from our earlier description of thermochemistry that bond energies are often discussed on a per-mole basis. For example, it requires \(7.24 \times 10^{−19}~\text{J}\) to break one H–H bond, but it takes \(4.36 \times 10^5~\text{J}\) to break 1 mole of H–H bonds. A comparison of some bond lengths and energies is shown in Table \(\PageIndex{1}\). We can find many of these bonds in a variety of molecules, and this table provides average values. For example, breaking the first C–H bond in CH 4 requires 439.3 kJ/mol, while breaking the first C–H bond in H–CH 2 C 6 H 5 (a common paint thinner) requires 375.5 kJ/mol.
| Bond | Length (pm) | Energy (kJ/mol) | Bond | Length (pm) | Energy (kJ/mol) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| H–H | 74 | 436 | C–O | 140.1 | 358 |
| H–C | 106.8 | 413 | 119.7 | 745 | |
| H–N | 101.5 | 391 | 113.7 | 1072 | |
| H–O | 97.5 | 467 | H–Cl | 127.5 | 431 |
| C–C | 150.6 | 347 | H–Br | 141.4 | 366 |
| 133.5 | 614 | H–I | 160.9 | 298 | |
| 120.8 | 839 | O–O | 148 | 146 | |
| C–N | 142.1 | 305 | 120.8 | 498 | |
| 130.0 | 615 | F–F | 141.2 | 159 | |
| 116.1 | 891 | Cl–Cl | 198.8 | 243 |
In addition to the distance between two orbitals, the orientation of orbitals also affects their overlap (other than for two s orbitals, which are spherically symmetric). Greater overlap is possible when orbitals are oriented such that they overlap on a direct line between the two nuclei. Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) illustrates this for two p orbitals from different atoms; the overlap is greater when the orbitals overlap end to end rather than at an angle.
The overlap of two s orbitals (as in H 2 ), the overlap of an s orbital and a p orbital (as in HCl), and the end-to-end overlap of two p orbitals (as in Cl 2 ) all produce sigma bonds (σ bonds) , as illustrated in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\). A σ bond is a covalent bond in which the electron density is concentrated in the region along the internuclear axis; that is, a line between the nuclei would pass through the center of the overlap region. Single bonds in Lewis structures are described as σ bonds in valence bond theory.
A pi bond (π bond) is a type of covalent bond that results from the side-by-side overlap of two p orbitals, as illustrated in Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\). In a π bond, the regions of orbital overlap lie on opposite sides of the internuclear axis. Along the axis itself, there is a node , that is, a plane with no probability of finding an electron.
While all single bonds are σ bonds, multiple bonds consist of both σ and π bonds. As the Lewis structures below suggest, O 2 contains a double bond, and N 2 contains a triple bond. The double bond consists of one σ bond and one π bond, and the triple bond consists of one σ bond and two π bonds. Between any two atoms, the first bond formed will always be a σ bond, but there can only be one σ bond in any one location. In any multiple bond, there will be one σ bond, and the remaining one or two bonds will be π bonds. These bonds are described in more detail later in this chapter.
As seen in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\), an average carbon-carbon single bond is 347 kJ/mol, while in a carbon-carbon double bond, the π bond increases the bond strength by 267 kJ/mol. Adding an additional π bond causes a further increase of 225 kJ/mol. We can see a similar pattern when we compare other σ and π bonds. Thus, each individual π bond is generally weaker than a corresponding σ bond between the same two atoms. In a σ bond, there is a greater degree of orbital overlap than in a π bond.
Butadiene, C 4 H 6 , is used to make synthetic rubber. Identify the number of σ and π bonds contained in this molecule.
Solution
There are six σ C–H bonds and one σ C–C bond, for a total of seven from the single bonds. There are two double bonds that each have a π bond in addition to the σ bond. This gives a total nine σ and two π bonds overall.
Identify each illustration as depicting a σ or π bond:
- side-by-side overlap of a 4 p and a 2 p orbital
- end-to-end overlap of a 4 p and 4 p orbital
- end-to-end overlap of a 4 p and a 2 p orbital
- Answer
-
(a) is a π bond with a node along the axis connecting the nuclei while (b) and (c) are σ bonds that overlap along the axis.


3.20: Dress
|
Dress
Norwegian-American Oljanna Cunneen, late 1960s Wool Gift of Nancy Vogel MHAHS 1990.014.0003 |
This mini dress made by Oljanna Cunneen for Nancy Vogel in 1970 merges ethnic folk tradition and contemporary fashion. The most distinct feature of the rust colored bonded wool dress is the multi-colored rosemaled design of crewel embroidery ornamenting the neck and hemlines. The A-line mini-dress style, with modish lines and raised hems, had rocked the fashion world and Vogel’s choice to include Norwegian design demonstrates her personal identity and business savvy at her Mount Horeb store, Open House Imports. When compared to the bunad costume made by Irene Gilbertson, both women used tradition—but quite differently.
For a complete essay on this object, click here.
Oljanna Cunneen made a dress for Nancy Vogel in 1970. A-line in shape and hemmed above the knee, the rust bonded wool dress features multi-colored rosemal designs of crewel embroidery. A close study of it suggests that while it held different meanings for Oljanna and Nancy, it represents both women—their sense of self and desires—as well as a time and place that looked to the past and the future. The rosemal dress then shows how an object can be both static and dynamic and help us understand individuals, society, and the ways they engage tradition.
For Oljanna, the dress was a form of both fashion and custom, a practice through which the Norwegian-American expressed her identity. Born in the rural Dane County community of Vermont, Wisconsin in 1923 to Henry Venden, the son of Norwegian-born parents, and Gerharda Forshaum, who emigrated from Norway in 1908, Oljanna was hence the daughter of a kind of “mixed marriage” of Old World and New, as was her art. Her talents ranged from sewing, embroidering and knitting to painting, creating miniature troll figures, and rosemaling. Considering her body of work, it is easy to see that creating such objects was a means through which Oljanna constructed and shared her heritage. Moreover, Oljanna joined a community of Norwegian-Americans who shared her interest in a common ethnicity. In this way, the dress makes known the ways in which Oljanna identified as a member of an ethnic group. At the same time, the dress reveals how Oljanna stood apart from other rosemalers. When Oljanna rosemaled the dress, she adapted folk art to fashion in a way that was uniquely her own. Viewed in this framework, the rosemal dress reveals how creative traditional expressions of heritage can be.
For Nancy Vogel—a non-Norwegian in a Norwegian community—this dress represents her desire to merge a traditional ethnic sensibility with 1960s fashion. Uncomplicated and thus ideal for mass production, the A-line mini dress was a staple of ready-to-wear. But since the rosemalled dress was made, rather than mass produced, it falls outside of the ready-to-wear category. Surely, Nancy could have asked Oljanna to embroider a bought dress, but the fact that Nancy commissioned Oljanna to construct and embroider the dress suggests that Nancy preferred the whole creation.
The popular A-line mini dress was also a symbol of style that signaled a new feminine ideal, which assumed a young and economically independent woman for whom fashion was pleasurable, but time was limited. This subject was active, employed, and desired male attention. For such a woman, the A-line mini dress represented a new feminine ideal defined apart from motherhood. By 1970, Nancy was a 38-year-old mother and wife, placing her outside this new ideal. But as a working woman, Nancy fit squarely within the model. Seeing the rosemaled dress and its wearer as neither wholly aligned nor entirely separate from the 1960s notion of femininity shows how flexible the category was. Finally, considering Nancy’s involvement in the community, marked by dedication to a Norwegian heritage that was not her own, it is easy to imagine that she valued Mount Horeb, the people of it, and her place in it. Within that context, the dress can be seen as one of many efforts Nancy made to belong.


8.3: One-Sample Proportion Test
There are many different parameters that you can test. There is a test for the mean, such as was introduced with the z-test. There is also a test for the population proportion, p. This is where you might be curious if the proportion of students who smoke at your school is lower than the proportion in your area. Or you could question if the proportion of accidents caused by teenage drivers who do not have a drivers’ education class is more than the national proportion.
To test a population proportion, there are a few things that need to be defined first. Usually, Greek letters are used for parameters and Latin letters for statistics. When talking about proportions, it makes sense to use p for proportion. The Greek letter for p is \(\pi\), but that is too confusing to use. Instead, it is best to use p for the population proportion. That means that a different symbol is needed for the sample proportion. The convention is to use, \(\hat{p}\), known as p-hat. This way you know that p is the population proportion, and that \(\hat{p}\) is the sample proportion related to it.
Now proportion tests are about looking for the percentage of individuals who have a particular attribute. You are really looking for the number of successes that happen. Thus, a proportion test involves a binomial distribution.
Hypothesis Test for One Population Proportion (1-Prop Test)
-
State the random variable and the parameter in words.
x = number of successes
I = proportion of successes -
State the null and alternative hypotheses and the level of significance
\(H_{o} : p=p_{o}\), where \(p_{o}\) is the known proportion
\(H_{A} : p<p_{o}\)
\(H_{A} : p>p_{o}\), use the appropriate one for your problem
\(H_{A} : p \neq p_{o}\)
Also, state your \(\alpha\) level here. -
State and check the assumptions for a hypothesis test
- A simple random sample of size n is taken.
- The conditions for the binomial distribution are satisfied
- To determine the sampling distribution of \(\hat{p}\), you need to show that \(n p \geq 5\) and \(n q \geq 5\), where \(q=1-p\). If this requirement is true, then the sampling distribution of \(\hat{p}\) is well approximated by a normal curve.
-
Find the sample statistic, test statistic, and p-value
Sample Proportion:
\(\hat{p}=\dfrac{x}{n}=\dfrac{\# \text { of successes }}{\# \text { of trials }}\)
Test Statistic:
\(z=\dfrac{\hat{p}-p}{\sqrt{\stackrel{p q}{n}}}\)
p-value:
TI-83/84: Use normalcdf(lower limit, upper limit, 0, 1)R: Use pnorm(z, 0, 1)Note
if \(H_{A} : p<p_{o}\), then lower limit is \(-1 E 99\) and upper limit is your test statistic. If \(H_{A} : p>p_{o}\), then lower limit is your test statistic and the upper limit is \(1 E 99\). If \(H_{A} : p \neq p_{o}\), then find the p-value for \(H_{A} : p<p_{o}\), and multiply by 2.
Note
If \(H_{A} : p<p_{o}\), then you can use pnorm. If \(H_{A} : p>p_{o}\), then you have to find pnorm and then subtract from 1. If \(H_{A} : p \neq p_{o}\), then find the p-value for \(H_{A} : p<p_{o}\), and multiply by 2.
-
Conclusion
This is where you write reject \(H_{o}\) or fail to reject \(H_{o}\). The rule is: if the p-value < \(\alpha\), then reject \(H_{o}\). If the p-value \(\geq \alpha\), then fail to reject \(H_{o}\). -
Interpretation
This is where you interpret in real world terms the conclusion to the test. The conclusion for a hypothesis test is that you either have enough evidence to show \(H_{A}\) is true, or you do not have enough evidence to show \(H_{A}\) is true.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\) hypothesis test for one proportion using formula
A concern was raised in Australia that the percentage of deaths of Aboriginal prisoners was higher than the percent of deaths of non-Aboriginal prisoners, which is 0.27%. A sample of six years (1990-1995) of data was collected, and it was found that out of 14,495 Aboriginal prisoners, 51 died ("Indigenous deaths in," 1996). Do the data provide enough evidence to show that the proportion of deaths of Aboriginal prisoners is more than 0.27%?
- State the random variable and the parameter in words.
- State the null and alternative hypotheses and the level of significance.
- State and check the assumptions for a hypothesis test.
- Find the sample statistic, test statistic, and p-value.
- Conclusion
- Interpretation
Solution
1. x = number of Aboriginal prisoners who die
p = proportion of Aboriginal prisoners who die
2. \(\begin{array}{l}{H_{o} : p=0.0027} \\ {H_{A} : p>0.0027}\end{array}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{5}\)b argued that the \(\alpha =0.05\).
3.
- A simple random sample of 14,495 Aboriginal prisoners was taken. However, the sample was not a random sample, since it was data from six years. It is the numbers for all prisoners in these six years, but the six years were not picked at random. Unless there was something special about the six years that were chosen, the sample is probably a representative sample. This assumption is probably met.
- There are 14,495 prisoners in this case. The prisoners are all Aboriginals, so you are not mixing Aboriginal with non-Aboriginal prisoners. There are only two outcomes, either the prisoner dies or doesn’t. The chance that one prisoner dies over another may not be constant, but if you consider all prisoners the same, then it may be close to the same probability. Thus the conditions for the binomial distribution are satisfied
- In this case p = 0.0027 and n = 14,495. \(n p=14495^{*} 0.0027 \approx 39 \geq 5\) and \(n q=14495^{*}(1-0.0027) \approx 14456 \geq 5\). So, the sampling distribution for \(\hat{p}\) is a normal distribution.
4. Sample Proportion:
x = 51
n = 14495
\(\hat{p}=\dfrac{x}{n}=\dfrac{51}{14495} \approx 0.003518\)
Test Statistic:
\(z=\dfrac{\hat{p}-p}{\sqrt{\dfrac{p q}{n}}}=\dfrac{0.003518-0.0027}{\sqrt{\dfrac{0.0027(1-0.0027)}{14495}}} \approx 1.8979\)
p-value:
TI-83/84: p-value = \(P(z>1.8979)=\text { normalcdf }(1.8979,1 E 99,0,1) \approx 0.029\)
R: p-value = \(P(z>1.8979)=1-\text { pnorm }(1.8979,0,1) \approx 0.029\)
5. Since the p-value < 0.05, then reject \(H_{o}\).
6. There is enough evidence to show that the proportion of deaths of Aboriginal prisoners is more than for non-Aboriginal prisoners.
Example \(\PageIndex{2}\) hypothesis test for one proportion using technology
A researcher who is studying the effects of income levels on breastfeeding of infants hypothesizes that countries where the income level is lower have a higher rate of infant breastfeeding than higher income countries. It is known that in Germany, considered a high-income country by the World Bank, 22% of all babies are breastfeed. In Tajikistan, considered a low-income country by the World Bank, researchers found that in a random sample of 500 new mothers that 125 were breastfeeding their infant. At the 5% level of significance, does this show that low-income countries have a higher incident of breastfeeding?
- State you random variable and the parameter in words.
- State the null and alternative hypotheses and the level of significance.
- State and check the assumptions for a hypothesis test.
- Find the sample statistic, test statistic, and p-value.
- Conclusion
- Interpretation
Solution
1. x = number of woman who breastfeed in a low-income country
p = proportion of woman who breastfeed in a low-income country
2. \(\begin{array}{l}{H_{o} : p=0.22} \\ {H_{A} : p>0.22} \\ {\alpha=0.05}\end{array}\)
3.
- A simple random sample of 500 breastfeeding habits of woman in a low-income country was taken as was stated in the problem.
- There were 500 women in the study. The women are considered identical, though they probably have some differences. There are only two outcomes, either the woman breastfeeds or she doesn’t. The probability of a woman breastfeeding is probably not the same for each woman, but it is probably not very different for each woman. The conditions for the binomial distribution are satisfied
- In this case, n = 500 and p = 0.22. \(n p=500(0.22)=110 \geq 5\) and \(n q=500(1-0.22)=390 \geq 5\), so the sampling distribution of \(\hat{p}\) is well approximated by a normal curve.
4. This time, all calculations will be done with technology. On the TI-83/84 calculator. Go into the STAT menu, then arrow over to TESTS. This test is a 1-propZTest. Then type in the information just as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) .
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Setup for 1-Proportion TestOnce you press Calculate, you will see the results as in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) .
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Results for 1-Proportion TestThe z in the results is the test statistic. The p = 0.052683219 is the p-value, and the \(\hat{p}=0.25\) is the sample proportion.
The p-value is approximately 0.053.
On R, the command is prop.test(x, n, po, alternative = "less" or "greater"), where po is what \(\mathrm{H}_{\mathrm{o}}\) says p equals, and you use less if your \(\mathrm{H}_{\mathrm{A}}\) is less and greater if your \(\mathrm{H}_{\mathrm{A}}\) is greater. If your \(\mathrm{H}_{\mathrm{A}}\) is not equal to, then leave off the alternative statement. So for this example, the command would be prop.test(125, 500, .22, alternative = "greater")
1-sample proportions test with continuity correction
data: 125 out of 500, null probability 0.22
X-squared = 2.4505, df = 1, p-value = 0.05874
alternative hypothesis: true p is greater than 0.22
95 percent confidence interval:
0.218598 1.000000
sample estimates:
p
0.25
Note
R does a continuity correction that the formula and the TI-83/84 calculator do not do. You can put in a command that says not to use the continuity correction, but it is correct to use it. Also, R doesn’t give the z test statistic, so you don’t need to worry about this. It does give a p-value that is slightly off from the formula and the calculator due to the continuity correction.
p-value = 0.05874
5. Since the p-value is more than 0.05, you fail to reject \(H_{o}\).
6. There is not enough evidence to show that the proportion of women who breastfeed in low-income countries is more than in high-income countries.
Notice, the conclusion is that there wasn't enough evidence to show what \(H_{1}\) said. The conclusion was not that you proved \(H_{o}\) true. There are many reasons why you can’t say that \(H_{o}\) is true. It could be that the countries you chose were not very representative of what truly happens. If you instead looked at all high-income countries and compared them to low-income countries, you might have different results. It could also be that the sample you collected in the low-income country was not representative. It could also be that income level is not an indication of breastfeeding habits. There could be other factors involved. This is why you can’t say that you have proven \(H_{o}\) is true. There are too many other factors that could be the reason that you failed to reject \(H_{o}\).
Homework
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
In each problem show all steps of the hypothesis test. If some of the assumptions are not met, note that the results of the test may not be correct and then continue the process of the hypothesis test.
- Eyeglassomatic manufactures eyeglasses for different retailers. They test to see how many defective lenses they made in a given time period and found that 11% of all lenses had defects of some type. Looking at the type of defects, they found in a three-month time period that out of 34,641 defective lenses, 5865 were due to scratches. Are there more defects from scratches than from all other causes? Use a 1% level of significance.
- In July of 1997, Australians were asked if they thought unemployment would increase, and 47% thought that it would increase. In November of 1997, they were asked again. At that time 284 out of 631 said that they thought unemployment would increase ("Morgan gallup poll," 2013). At the 5% level, is there enough evidence to show that the proportion of Australians in November 1997 who believe unemployment would increase is less than the proportion who felt it would increase in July 1997?
- According to the February 2008 Federal Trade Commission report on consumer fraud and identity theft, 23% of all complaints in 2007 were for identity theft. In that year, Arkansas had 1,601 complaints of identity theft out of 3,482 consumer complaints ("Consumer fraud and," 2008). Does this data provide enough evidence to show that Arkansas had a higher proportion of identity theft than 23%? Test at the 5% level.
- According to the February 2008 Federal Trade Commission report on consumer fraud and identity theft, 23% of all complaints in 2007 were for identity theft. In that year, Alaska had 321 complaints of identity theft out of 1,432 consumer complaints ("Consumer fraud and," 2008). Does this data provide enough evidence to show that Alaska had a lower proportion of identity theft than 23%? Test at the 5% level.
- In 2001, the Gallup poll found that 81% of American adults believed that there was a conspiracy in the death of President Kennedy. In 2013, the Gallup poll asked 1,039 American adults if they believe there was a conspiracy in the assassination, and found that 634 believe there was a conspiracy ("Gallup news service," 2013). Do the data show that the proportion of Americans who believe in this conspiracy has decreased? Test at the 1% level.
- In 2008, there were 507 children in Arizona out of 32,601 who were diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) ("Autism and developmental," 2008). Nationally 1 in 88 children are diagnosed with ASD ("CDC features -," 2013). Is there sufficient data to show that the incident of ASD is more in Arizona than nationally? Test at the 1% level.
- Answer
-
For all hypothesis tests, just the conclusion is given. See solutions for the entire answer.
1. Reject Ho.
3. Reject Ho.
5. Reject Ho.


4.11: Techniques of Phrase Rhythm - Internal Expansions
For many different reasons, a great deal of music written in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries exhibits metric patterning, at many different levels of hypermeter , that is duple in structure. Such was the tendency in the nineteenth century that William Rothstein, in Phrase Rhythm in Tonal Music , has memorably dubbed this “the Great Nineteenth-Century Rhythm Problem.” It is “a danger,” Rothstein says,
endemic in 19th-century music, of too unrelievedly duple a hypermetrical pattern, of too consistent and unvarying a phrase structure—the danger, in short, of submitting too complacently to 'the tyranny of the four-measure phrase.'
Music in the classical tradition was quite often less subservient to the two- and four-bar units. While this topic has been the subject of a great deal of musical theoretical exploration, here we will concentrate on a simple and common type of sub-phrase and phrase expansion .
##Sub-phrase Expansion##
When a two-measure basic idea or contrasting idea is expanded, that expansion is often accomplished through motivic repetition within the basic idea: a motive or other small melodic figure is repeated, either exactly or with simple embellishment, causing the overall length of the sub-phrase to be larger than the expected.
SUB-PHRASE EXPANSION: MOZART, RONDO, K. 494, MM. 1–12
Mozart’s Rondo in F begins with a period . A half cadence in m. 6 is followed by a consequent phrase that ends with a PAC in m. 12. The theme’s exceptional length is caused in part by an expansion of the initial basic idea: in m. 3, the piano repeats m. 2. One could imagine a simple recomposition of the passage, omitting m. 3, that would restore the sub-phrase to a normal, 2-bar length.
The contrasting idea is also three bars long. But in this case, it is less clear if the greater length is due to expansion. There is no repetition, and it’s difficult to imagine a two-measure recomposition of the contrasting idea that wouldn’t destroy some aspect of its melodic or harmonic structure.
In other words, irregular lengths don’t always indicate that an expansion has occurred.
##Phrase Expansion##
Phrases are often expanded by repetition as well—most often in the concluding portion of a theme as a means to delay cadential arrival.
PHRASE EXPANSION: BEETHOVEN, PIANO SONATA, OP. 2, NO. 3
The main theme’s first eight measures form a simple sentence. But at the moment of expected PAC in m. 8, the melody find scale degree 3, creating an IAC. At the same time, the bass plays a descending link into a repetition of the continuation that leads to a PAC in m. 13. This phrase expansion, thus, adds five measures to the length of the basic phrase.
In the example above, the cadence in m. 8 gave rise to an expansion because as it was weaker than expected. ( Primary themes rarely conclude with IACs.) This is one of the most common musical motivations for a phrase expansion. In addition to IACs, deceptive cadences can lead to expanded phrases, and not uncommonly, an expected cadence never materializes at all—an event often called an “evaded cadence.”
PHRASE EXPANSION: MOZART, PIANO SONATA IN C MAJOR, K. 309, III
The primary theme of this sonata is a compound period made from two sentences. Following the half cadence in m. 8, the large consequent is expected to conclude with a PAC in m. 16. But the PAC never materializes: the leading tone in m. 15 is not resolved, the pianist’s right hand leaps up to A5 instead. The cadence, in other words, is evaded . The next four measures (mm. 16–19) are a varied repeat of mm. 13-15, “one more time,” culminating in a PAC in m. 19.
##Non-standard Lengths We often find expansions in places where the size of a sub-phrase or phrase has been increased. The phrase expansion described above created an 11-bar continuation, for example. But irregular phrase lengths do not necessarily indicate the presence of a phrase expansion.
For example, listen a few times to the first 30 seconds of the following passage, from Mozart’s String Quintet in C major, K. 515. Its main theme is a compound sentence . The theme’s presentation has three basic ideas (at 0:00, 0:09, and 0:16), each of which is constructed as a compound basic idea that contains a basic idea followed by a contrasting one:
We hear in this passage that the compound basic ideas are five measures long, each basic idea itself lasting three measures! But no phrase expansion has occurred here. The basic idea is simply longer than normal, and perhaps a bit looser feeling as a result. When in doubt, the central question is whether a passage might be recomposed, duple-fied without destroying its melodic, harmonic, and motivic structure. If you can, there is a case to be made that an expansion is present.


5.1: The Aegean Bronze Age
Sculpture of the Cyclades
Cycladic art during the Greek Bronze Age is noted for its abstract, geometric designs of male and female figures.
Discuss the form and function of the Cycladic marble figurines
Key Points
- The Cyclades are a chain of Greek islands in the middle of the Aegean Sea. They encircle the island of Delos.
- Cycladic marble figurines of abstract male and female forms have been found at burial sites. These figurines are small, abstract, and rely on geometric shapes and flat plans for their design and would have been painted.
- The female figurines depict a woman with her legs together and arms folded over her abdomen, with her breasts and pubic region emphasized.
- The male figures are often depicted sitting in a chair and playing a harp or a lyre .
Key Terms
- incised :To mark or cut the surface of an object for decoration.
- Cycladic :Of, or relating to the Cyclades.
The Cyclades are a group of Greek islands in the Aegean Sea that encircle the island of Delos. The islands were known for their white marble, mined during the Greek Bronze Age and throughout Classical history.
Their geographical location placed them, like the island of Crete, in the center of trade between Greece, Egypt, Asia Minor, and the Near East. The indigenous civilization on the Cyclades reached its high point during the Bronze Age. The islands were later occupied by the Minoans, Mycenaeans, and later the Greeks.
Cycladic Sculptures
Cycladic art is best known for its small-scale, marble figurines. From the late fourth millennium BCE to the early second millennium BCE, Cycladic sculptures went through a series of stylistic shifts, with their bodily forms varying from geometric to organic. The purpose of these figurines is unknown, although all that have been discovered were located in graves. While it is clear that they were regularly used in funerary practices, their precise function remains a mystery.
Some are found in graves completely intact, others are found broken into pieces, others show signs of being used during the lifetime of the deceased, but some graves do not contain the figurines. Furthermore, the figurines were buried equally between men and women. The male and female forms do not seem to be identified with a specific gender during burial. These figures are based in simple geometric shapes.
Cycladic Female Figures
The abstract female figures all follow the same mold. Each is a carved statuette of a nude woman with her arms crossed over her abdomen. The bodies are roughly triangular and the feet are kept together. The head of the women is an inverted triangle with a rounded chin and the nose of the figurine protrudes from the center.
Each figure has modeled breasts, and incised lines draw attention to the pubic region with a triangle. The swollen bellies on some figurines might indicate pregnancy or symbolic fertility. The incised lines also provide small details, such as toes on the feet, and to delineate the arms from each other and the stomach.
Their flat back and inability to stand on their carved feet suggest that these figures were meant to lie down. While today they are featureless and remain the stark white of the marble, traces of paint allow us to know that they were once colored. Paint would have been applied on the face to demarcate the eyes, mouth, and hair. Dots were used to decorate the figures with bracelets and necklaces.
Cycladic Male Figures
Male figures are also found in Cycladic grave sites. These figures differ from the females, as the male typically sits on a chair and plays a musical instrument, such as the pipes or a harp. Harp players, like the one in the example below, play the frame harp, a Near Eastern ancestor of the modern harp.
The figures, their chairs, and instruments are all carved into elegant, cylindrical shapes. Like the female figures, the shape of the male figure is reliant on geometric shapes and flat planes . The incised lines provide details (such as toes), and paint added distinctive features to the now-blank faces.
Other Cycladic Figures
While reclining female and seated male figurines are the most common Cycladic sculptures discovered, other forms were produced, such as animals and abstracted humanoid forms. Examples include the terra cotta figurines of bovine animals (possibly oxen or bulls) that date to 2200–2000 BCE, and small, flat sculptures that resemble female figures shaped like violins; these date to the Grotta–Pelos culture , also known as Early Cycladic I (c. 3300–2700 BCE). Like other Cycladic sculptures discovered to date, the purposes of these figurines remain unknown.
- Curation and Revision. Provided by : Boundless.com. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- 640px-MuseAckrotiriItem70-6643-wpd.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2488131. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
- 640px-Violin-shaped_female_cycladic_figurines.jpg. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=23106250. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Cycladic harp player. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cycladic_harp_player.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Goulandris Master - Cycladic Female Figurine - Walters 23253. Provided by : Wikimedia. Located at : commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Goulandris_Master_-_Cycladic_Female_Figurine_-_Walters_23253.jpg. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Nomos Kykladon. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nomos_Kykladon.png. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Female Figure of the Late Spedos Type. Provided by : The J. Paul Getty Museum. Located at : http://www.getty.edu/art/collection/objects/13046/attributed-to-the-schuster-master-female-figure-of-the-late-spedos-type-cycladic-about-2400-bc/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
- History of the Cyclades. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Cyclades%23Cycladic_civilisation. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Cycladic art. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycladic_art. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Cycladic civilization. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycladic_civilization. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Cyclades. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclades. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- incised. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/incised. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Cycladic. Provided by : Wiktionary. Located at : en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Cycladic. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
- Male Harp Player of the Early Spedos Type. Provided by : The J. Paul Getty Museum. Located at : http://www.getty.edu/art/collection/objects/10949/unknown-maker-male-harp-player-of-the-early-spedos-type-cycladic-2700-2300-bc/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Grotta-Pelos Culture. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Grotta-Pelos_culture. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


12.9: Glossary
Absorption (ab-SORP-shŏn): The process in which nutrients enter the bloodstream after food molecules have been broken down during chemical digestion. (Chapter 12.5)
Adhesion (ad-HĒ-zhŏn): Scar tissue from disease or previous surgery that binds anatomical surfaces to each other. (Chapter 12.5)
Amino acids (Ā-mē-nō AS-idz): Molecules that combine to form proteins. (Chapter 12.5)
Amylase (ĀM-ĭ-lās): An enzyme, produced chiefly in the pancreas and salivary glands, that converts starch and glycogen into simple sugars. (Chapter 12.4)
Anal (ĀN-ăl): Pertaining to the anus, the opening at the end of the digestive tract from which feces exit the body. (Chapter 12.4)
Anastomosis (ăn-ăs-tō-MŌ-sĭs): A surgical connection between two tubes, vessels, or ducts. (Chapter 12.6)
Anus (Ā-nŭs): The opening at the end of the digestive tract where feces leave the body. (Chapter 12.4)
Appendectomy (ap-ĕn-DEK-tŏ-mē): Surgical removal of the appendix. (Chapter 12.4)
Appendicitis (ă-pen-dĭ-SĪT-ĭs): Inflammation of the appendix. (Chapter 12.4)
Appendix (ă-PEN-diks): A tube-shaped sac attached to and opening into the lower end of the large intestine. (Chapter 12.4)
Ascending colon (ă-SEN-ding KŌ-lŏn): The first part of the colon which travels upward on the right side of the abdomen. (Chapter 12.4)
Ascites (ă-SĪ-tēz): Abnormal fluid buildup in the abdominal cavity, causing abdominal swelling, often due to liver disease or cancer. (Chapter 12.5, Chapter 12.6)
Barium enema (BĀR-ē-ŭm EN-ĕ-mă): An X-ray exam that can detect changes or abnormalities in the large intestine (colon). (Chapter 12.7)
Barium swallow (BĀR-ē-ŭm SWŎL-ō): A test that checks for problems in the throat, esophagus, stomach, and small intestine. (Chapter 12.7)
Bile (BĪL): A bitter, greenish-brown alkaline fluid that aids digestion, secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. (Chapter 12.4)
Bilirubin (bil-ĭ-ROO-bin): A yellowish pigment formed in the liver by the breakdown of red blood cells. (Chapter 12.4)
Bolus (BŌL-ŭs): A soft mass of food that is an appropriate size for swallowing. (Chapter 12.5)
Cecum (SĒ-kŭm): The first section of the large intestine, into which the ileum opens. (Chapter 12.4)
Celiac disease (SĒ-lē-ăk dĭ-ZĒZ): A serious autoimmune disorder that can occur in genetically predisposed people where the ingestion of gluten leads to damage in the small intestine. (Chapter 12.6)
Cholecystectomy (kō-lĕ-sis-TEK-tŏ-mē): Surgical removal of the gallbladder. (Chapter 12.6)
Cholecystitis (kō-lĕ-sis-TĪT-ĭs): Inflammation of the gallbladder, often due to a gallstone blocking the cystic duct. (Chapter 12.4, Chapter 12.6)
Cholelithiasis (kō-li-lith-Ī-ă-sĭs): The formation of gallstones in the gallbladder. (Chapter 12.4, Chapter 12.6)
Chyme (KĪM): The pulpy acidic fluid that passes from the stomach to the small intestine, consisting of gastric juices and partly digested food. (Chapter 12.4)
Cirrhosis (sĭr-RŌ-sĭs): A chronic disease of the liver marked by degeneration of cells, inflammation, and fibrous thickening of tissue. It is often caused by alcoholism or hepatitis. (Chapter 12.6)
Colon cancer (KŌ-lŏn KAN-sĕr): A type of cancer that occurs in the colon or rectum, part of the large intestine, where malignant cells form in the tissues of the colon. (Chapter 12.6)
Colon polyps (KŌ-lŏn PŎL-ĭps): Small clumps of cells that form on the lining of the colon, which can become cancerous over time. (Chapter 12.6)
Colon resection surgery (KŌ-lŏn rĭ-SĔK-shŭn SUR-jĕr-ē): A surgical procedure to remove a section of the colon. (Chapter 12.6)
Colon resection with colostomy (KŌ-lŏn rĭ-SĔK-shŭn wĭth kŏl-ŌS-tŏ-mē): A surgical procedure where part of the colon is removed and the remaining colon is brought to the abdominal surface. (Chapter 12.6)
Colonoscopy (kŏl-ŏn-OS-kŏ-pē): A test that allows your doctor to look at the inner lining of your large intestine (rectum and colon) using a thin, flexible tube called a colonoscope. (Chapter 12.7)
Colorectal surgeon (kō-lō-REK-tăl SUR-jĕn): A doctor who specializes in the surgical treatment of conditions of the colon, rectum, and anus. (Chapter 12.7)
Colostomy (kŏ-LOS-tŏ-mē): A surgical procedure that brings one end of the large intestine out through the abdominal wall to carry stool out of the body. (Chapter 12.6)
Crohn’s disease (krōnz diz-ĒZ): A chronic inflammatory bowel disease that affects the lining of the digestive tract. (Chapter 12.6)
Defecation (dĕf-ĕ-KĀ-shŏn): The final step in digestion when undigested materials are expelled from the body as feces. (Chapter 12.5)
Descending colon (dĕ-SEN-ding KŌ-lŏn): The part of the colon that travels downward on the left side of the abdomen. (Chapter 12.4)
Digestion (dī-JĔS-tĭon): The process by which food is broken down into absorbable units. (Chapter 12.4)
Diverticula (dī-vĕr-TIK-yū-lă): Small, bulging pouches that can form in the lining of the digestive system. (Chapter 12.6)
Diverticulitis (dī-vĕr-tik-yŭ-LĪT-ĭs): Inflammation or infection of one or more diverticula in the digestive tract. (Chapter 12.6)
Diverticulosis (dī-vĕr-tik-yŭ-LŌ-sĭs): The condition of having diverticula in the colon. (Chapter 12.6)
Duodenum (dū-ō-DĒ-nŭm): The first section of the small intestine, immediately beyond the stomach, leading to the jejunum. (Chapter 12.4)
Dysentery (DIS-ĕn-ter-ē): An inflammatory disorder of the intestine, especially of the colon, that results in severe diarrhea containing blood and mucus in the feces with fever, abdominal pain, and rectal tenesmus. (Chapter 12.5)
Dyspepsia (dĭs-PEP-sē-ă): Indigestion or upset stomach, marked by epigastric pain, burning, and nausea. (Chapter 12.5)
Dysphagia (dĭs-FĀj-ē-ă): Difficulty or discomfort in swallowing. (Chapter 12.4)
Emesis (ĔM-ĕ-sĭs): The act of vomiting or ejecting stomach contents through the mouth. (Chapter 12.5)
Endocrine (EN-dŏ-krīn): Relating to glands which secrete hormones or other products directly into the blood. (Chapter 12.4)
Endoscope (EN-dŏ-skōp): An instrument used for visual examination of the interior of a hollow body organ. (Chapter 12.7)
Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (en-dŏ-SKOP-ik rĕ-trō-grād kō-LAN-jē-ō-pan-krē-ă-TŎG-ră-fē) (ERCP): A procedure used to diagnose and treat problems in the liver, gallbladder, bile ducts, and pancreas. (Chapter 12.6)
Enzymes (EN-zīmz): Substances produced by a living organism that act as a catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction. (Chapter 12.5)
Epiglottis (ĕp-ĭ-GLŎT-ĭs): A flap of cartilage at the root of the tongue, which is depressed during swallowing to cover the opening of the windpipe. (Chapter 12.4)
Esophageal cancer (ĭ-sŏf-ă-JĒ-ăl KAN-sĕr): A type of cancer that occurs in the esophagus, the long, hollow tube that runs from the throat to the stomach. (Chapter 12.6)
Esophageal varices (ĕ-sŏf-ă-JĒ-ăl VĀR-ĭ-sēz): Abnormally swollen veins in the lower part of the esophagus, often associated with liver disease. (Chapter 12.4)
Esophagectomy (ĕ-sŏf-ă-JĔK-tŏ-mē): A surgical procedure to remove part or all of the esophagus. (Chapter 12.6)
Esophagogastroduodenoscopy (ē-sof-ă-gō-gas-trō-doo-ŏ-dē-NOS-kŏ-pē) (EGD): A diagnostic test to examine the lining of the esophagus, stomach, and first part of the small intestine. (Chapter 12.7)
Esophagus (ĭ-SOF-ă-gŭs): The muscular tube that conveys food and liquids from the throat to the stomach. (Chapter 12.4)
Exocrine (ĔK-sŏ-krīn): Pertaining to the secretion of a substance out through a duct. (Chapter 12.4)
Fecal immunochemical test (FĒ-kăl im-yŭn-Ō-kĕm-ĭ-kăl tĕst): A test that checks stool for tiny amounts of blood released by polyps or colorectal cancer. (Chapter 12.7)
Fecal occult blood test (FĒ-kăl ŏ-KULT blŭd tĕst) (gFOBT): A test that checks stool samples for hidden (occult) blood using a chemical called guaiac. (Chapter 12.7)
Feces (FĒ-sēz): Waste matter discharged from the bowels after food has been digested. (Chapter 12.4)
Flatus (FLĀ-tŭs): Gas in the gastrointestinal tract, expelled through the anus. (Chapter 12.4, Chapter 12.5)
Gallbladder (GAWL-blăd-ĕr): A small organ where bile is stored, before it is released into the small intestine. (Chapter 12.4)
Gallstone (GAWL-stōn): A small, hard crystalline mass formed abnormally in the gallbladder or bile ducts from bile pigments, cholesterol, and calcium salts. (Chapter 12.6)
Gastric juice (GAS-trĭk JOOS): A digestive fluid secreted by the stomach, containing hydrochloric acid, pepsin, and other enzymes. (Chapter 12.4)
Gastroenteritis (GAS-trō-ĕn-tĕr-Ī-tĭs): Inflammation of the stomach and intestines, typically resulting from bacterial toxins or viral infection and causing vomiting and diarrhea. (Chapter 12.5)
Gastroenterologist (găs-trō-ĕn-tĕr-ŎL-ŏ-jĭst): A physician who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the digestive system. (Chapter 12.7)
Gastroenterology (găs-trō-ĕn-tĕr-ŎL-ă-jē): The study of the digestive system and its disorders. (Chapter 12.7)
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GAS-trō-ĕ-sŏf-ă-JĒ-ăl REE-flŭks dĭ-ZĒZ) (GERD): A chronic condition where stomach acid or bile flows into the food pipe (esophagus) and irritates the lining. (Chapter 12.4, Chapter 12.6)
Gingivitis (jin-jĭ-VĪT-ĭs): Inflammation of the gums. (Chapter 12.4)
Glossitis (glo-SĪT-ĭs): Inflammation of the tongue. (Chapter 12.4)
Hard palate (HARD PAL-āt): The bony front part of the palate. (Chapter 12.4)
Hemorrhoid (HEM-ŏ-royd): A swollen vein or group of veins in the region of the anus. (Chapter 12.4)
Hepatitis (hep-ă-TĪT-ĭs): Inflammation of the liver, usually caused by a viral infection or liver toxins. (Chapter 12.6)
Hepatomegaly (hep-ăt-ō-MEG-ă-lē): An enlarged liver. (Chapter 12.4)
Hernia (HUR-nē-ă): A condition in which part of an organ is displaced and protrudes through the wall of the cavity containing it, often involving the intestine at a weak point in the abdominal wall. (Chapter 12.5, Chapter 12.6)
Hiatal hernia (hī-Ā-tăl HĔR-nē-ă): A type of hernia in which abdominal organs (typically the stomach) slip through the diaphragm into the middle compartment of the chest. (Chapter 12.6)
Hydrochloric acid (HĪ-drō-klōr-ĬK AS-id): A component of gastric juice that helps create the acidic environment in the stomach. (Chapter 12.4)
Ileocecal valve (ĬL-ē-ō-SĒ-kăl VALV): A sphincter muscle valve that separates the small intestine and the large intestine. (Chapter 12.4)
Ileostomy (IL-ē-OS-tŏ-mē): A surgical opening constructed by bringing the end of the small intestine (the ileum) out onto the surface of the skin. (Chapter 12.6)
Ileum (ĬL-ē-ŭm): The third portion of the small intestine, between the jejunum and the cecum of the large intestine. (Chapter 12.4)
Irritable bowel syndrome (ĬR-ĭ-tă-bl BOWL SĬN-drōm) (IBS): A common disorder affecting the large intestine, causing cramping, abdominal pain, bloating, gas, diarrhea, and constipation. (Chapter 12.6)
Jaundice (JAWN-dĭs): A medical condition with yellowing of the skin or whites of the eyes, arising from excess of the pigment bilirubin. (Chapter 12.4, Chapter 12.6)
Jejunum (jĭ-JŪ-num): The part of the small intestine between the duodenum and ileum. (Chapter 12.4)
Laparoscope (LAP-ă-rō-skōp): A thin tube with a camera and light at the end, used for viewing the interior of the abdominal or pelvic cavities. (Chapter 12.6)
Large bowel resection (LARJ BOW-ĕl rĭ-SĔK-shŭn): Surgical removal of part of the large intestine. (Chapter 12.6)
Large intestine (LARJ IN-tĕs-tĭn): The last part of the digestive system, absorbing water and electrolytes, forming and storing feces. (Chapter 12.4)
Lipase (LĪ-pās): An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of fats (lipids). (Chapter 12.4)
Liver (LIV-ĕr): A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen, involved in many metabolic processes. (Chapter 12.4)
Lower esophageal sphincter (LOH-ĕr ĭ-SOF-ă-gĕ-al SFINGK-tĕr): A ring of muscle at the end of the esophagus where it meets the stomach, which acts as a valve to prevent the backflow of stomach contents. (Chapter 12.4)
Melena (mĕ-LĒ-nă): Dark sticky feces containing partly digested blood, indicative of gastrointestinal bleeding. (Chapter 12.5)
Nausea (NAW-zē-ă): A feeling of sickness with an inclination to vomit. (Chapter 12.5)
NPO (en-pē-ō): A commonly used medical abbreviation for “nil per os,” the Latin phrase that means “nothing by mouth.” (Chapter 12.5)
Nutrients (NŪ-trē-ĕntz): Substances that provide nourishment to cells. (Chapter 12.5)
Obesity (ō-BĒ-sĭ-tē): A medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to an extent that it may have a negative effect on health. (Chapter 12.5)
Oral cavity (ŌR-ăl KAV-ĭ-tē): The mouth area, encompassing the lips, cheeks, palate, and floor of the mouth. (Chapter 12.4)
Ostomy appliance (ŎS-tŏ-mē ă-PLĪ-ăns): A device used to collect waste from a surgically diverted biological system (such as a colostomy, ileostomy). (Chapter 12.6)
Palpate (PAL-pāt): Examine (a part of the body) by touch, especially for medical purposes. (Chapter 12.5)
Pancreas (PAN-krē-ăs): A large gland behind the stomach which secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum. (Chapter 12.4)
Pancreatitis (păn-krē-a-TĪT-ĭs): Inflammation of the pancreas. (Chapter 12.6)
Paralytic Ileus (păr-ă-LĬT-ĭk Ī-lē-ŭs): A condition in which the intestine does not work properly and there is no movement of food or waste in the intestine. (Chapter 12.6)
Partial colectomy (păr-shul kō-LEK-tŏ-mē): A surgical procedure to remove part of the colon and is used to treat or prevent diseases and conditions that affect the colon. (Chapter 12.6)
Peptic ulcer disease (PĔP-tĭk UL-sĕr dĭ-ZĒZ) (PUD): A condition where ulcers form on the lining of the stomach, lower esophagus, or small intestine, typically caused by inflammation due to H. pylori bacteria and the use of NSAIDs. (Chapter 12.6)
Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (pûr-kū-TĀ-nē-ŭs ĕn-DŎS-kŏ-pĭk găs-TRŎS-tŏ-mē) (PEG): A medical procedure in which a tube is passed into a patient’s stomach through the abdominal wall, most commonly to provide a means of feeding when oral intake is not adequate. (Chapter 12.5)
Peristalsis (pĕr-ĭ-STAL-sĭs): The involuntary constriction and relaxation of the muscles in the intestine or another canal, creating wave-like movements that push the contents forward. (Chapter 12.4, Chapter 12.5)
Peritoneum (pĕr-ĭ-tō-NĒ-ŭm): A serous membrane lining the cavity of the abdomen and covering the abdominal organs. (Chapter 12.4)
Peritonitis (pĕr-ĭt-ŏ-NĪT-ĭs): Inflammation of the peritoneum, the tissue that lines the inner wall of the abdomen and covers and supports most of your abdominal organs. (Chapter 12.4, Chapter 12.6)
Pharynx (FAR-ĭnks): The muscular tube extending from the back of the nasal cavities and the mouth to the esophagus, known as the throat. (Chapter 12.4)
Polypectomy (pŏl-ĭ-PĔK-tō-mē): Surgical removal of polyps from the colon or rectum. (Chapter 12.6)
Probiotics (prō-bī-OT-ĭks): Live bacteria and yeasts that are good for your health, especially your digestive system. (Chapter 12.5)
Proctocolectomy (prŏk-tō-kō-LEK-tŏ-mē): Surgical removal of the rectum and all or part of the colon. (Chapter 12.6)
Proctologist (prŏk-TOL-ŏ-jĭst): A physician who specializes in diagnosing and treating disorders of the rectum and anus. (Chapter 12.7)
Proctoscope (PRŎK-tă-skōp): An instrument for examining the rectum. (Chapter 12.4)
Pyloric sphincter (pĭ-LOR-ĭk SFINGK-tĕr): A ring of smooth muscle at the end of the stomach, regulating the flow of partially digested food into the small intestine. (Chapter 12.4)
Radiofrequency ablation (RĀ-dē-ō-FRĒ-kwĕn-sē ă-blā-shŭn): A medical procedure in which part of the electrical conduction system of a tumor or other dysfunctional tissue is ablated using the heat generated from high-frequency alternating current. (Chapter 12.6)
Rectum (REK-tŭm): The final section of the large intestine, terminating at the anus. (Chapter 12.4)
Reflux (RĒ-flŭks): The backward flow of stomach contents into the esophagus or throat, causing heartburn or acid indigestion. (Chapter 12.5)
Salivary (SĂL-ĭ-văr-ē): Related to or producing saliva. (Chapter 12.4)
Sigmoid colon (SIG-moyd KŌ-lŏn): The S-shaped last part of the colon, leading into the rectum. (Chapter 12.4)
Sigmoidoscopy (sig-moy-DOS-kŏ-pē): A medical examination of the sigmoid colon by means of a sigmoidoscope. (Chapter 12.7)
Small bowel resection (SMOL BOW-ĕl rĭ-SĔK-shŭn): Surgical removal of part of the small intestine. (Chapter 12.6)
Small intestine (SMOL IN-tĕs-tĭn): The part of the intestine where most of the digestion and absorption of food occurs, extending between the stomach and large intestine. (Chapter 12.4)
Soft palate (SOFT PAL-āt): The fleshy, flexible part towards the back of the roof of the mouth. (Chapter 12.4)
Steatorrhea (stē-ăt-ō-RĒ-ă): The excretion of abnormal quantities of fat with the feces. (Chapter 12.4)
Stoma (STŌ-mă): An artificial opening made into a hollow organ, especially one on the surface of the body leading to the gut or trachea. (Chapter 12.6)
Stomach (STUM-ăk): A sac-like organ of the digestive system that mixes food with gastric juices to begin the digestion of proteins. (Chapter 12.4)
Stomatitis (stō-mă-TĪT-ĭs): Inflammation of the mouth and lips. (Chapter 12.4)
Stool culture (stōōl KUL-chŭr): A test to detect and identify bacteria that cause infections of the lower digestive tract. (Chapter 12.7)
Stool DNA test (stool dē-ĕn-ā tĕst): A test that checks stool samples for certain DNA markers that cells from colorectal cancer or polyps shed into the stool. (Chapter 12.7)
Sublingual (sŭb-LING-gwăl): Underneath the tongue. (Chapter 12.4)
Tongue (TUNG): A muscular organ in the mouth, aiding in tasting, swallowing, and speaking. (Chapter 12.4)
Transverse colon (trans-VURS KŌ-lŏn): The middle part of the colon which travels across the abdomen. (Chapter 12.4)
Ulcerative colitis (UL-sĕr-ă-tiv kō-LĪ-tĭs): A chronic, inflammatory bowel disease that causes inflammation in the digestive tract, specifically in the lining of the large intestine (colon) and rectum. (Chapter 12.6)
Upper gastrointestinal series (ŬP-ĕr GAS-trō-in-TĔS-tĭ-năl SĪR-ēz): A series of X-rays of the patient’s esophagus, stomach, and small intestine. (Chapter 12.7)
Upper GI endoscopy (ŬP-ĕr Jī ĕn-DŎS-kŏ-pē en-DOS-kŏ-pē): A procedure in which a thin scope with a light and camera at its tip is used to look inside the upper digestive tract — the esophagus, stomach, and the first part of the small intestine, called the duodenum. (Chapter 12.7)
Urea breath test (yoo-RĒ-ă brĕth tĕst): A diagnostic test for Helicobacter pylori using a special form of urea. (Chapter 12.6)
Uvula (YŪ-vyū-lă): A fleshy extension at the back of the soft palate that hangs above the throat. (Chapter 12.4)
Uvulitis (ū-vyŭ-LĪT-ĭs): Inflammation of the uvula. (Chapter 12.4)
Villi (VĬL-ī): Small, finger-like projections that protrude from the epithelial lining of the intestinal wall, increasing the surface area for absorption. (Chapter 12.4)
Visceral (VĬS-ĕr-ăl): Relating to the internal organs of the body, especially those in the abdomen. (Chapter 12.5)
Vomiting (VOM-ĭ-ting): Ejecting matter from the stomach through the mouth. (Chapter 12.5)
Xerostomia (zēr-ŏ-STŌ-mē-ă): Dry mouth, often due to a decrease in saliva production. (Chapter 12.4)


1.6: Chapter Summary
This chapter has provided a brief introduction to scholarly writing and its importance to the nursing profession. You will recognize that becoming a scholarly writer is a journey that evolves over the course of your post-secondary nursing program and your career as a nurse. You may be at the beginning of this journey or partway through it; either way, this textbook will help you along your journey. In future chapters, you will further explore how to enhance your scholarly writing ability by reading and writing.
Your Writing Journey
By this time, you have reflected on your writing experience to date and how you have traditionally approached writing assignments. This chapter has explored the culture built around writing for scholarship in nursing. While you may have some experience writing formally or creatively, it is advantageous to learn early on in your post-secondary career how to write for scholarship.  This self-analysis will help you identify your current style in relation to what is needed to write in nursing.


Skip to main content
Definitions of Statistics, Probability, and Key Terms
-
The Data and Story Library, lib.stat.cmu.edu/DASL/Stories...stDummies.html (accessed May 1, 2013).
Data, Sampling, and Variation in Data and Sampling
-
Gallup-Healthways Well-Being Index.
http://www.well-beingindex.com/default.asp
(accessed May 1, 2013).
-
Gallup-Healthways Well-Being Index.
http://www.well-beingindex.com/methodology.asp
(accessed May 1, 2013).
-
Gallup-Healthways Well-Being Index.
http://www.gallup.com/poll/146822/ga...questions.aspx
(accessed May 1, 2013).
-
Data from www.bookofodds.com/Relationsh...-the-President
-
Dominic Lusinchi, “’President’ Landon and the 1936
Literary Digest
Poll: Were Automobile and Telephone Owners to Blame?” Social Science History 36, no. 1: 23-54 (2012), ssh.dukejournals.org/content/36/1/23.abstract (accessed May 1, 2013).
-
“The Literary Digest Poll,” Virtual Laboratories in Probability and Statistics
http://www.math.uah.edu/stat/data/LiteraryDigest.html
(accessed May 1, 2013).
-
“Gallup Presidential Election Trial-Heat Trends, 1936–2008,” Gallup Politics
http://www.gallup.com/poll/110548/ga...9362004.aspx#4
(accessed May 1, 2013).
-
The Data and Story Library, lib.stat.cmu.edu/DASL/Datafiles/USCrime.html (accessed May 1, 2013).
-
LBCC Distance Learning (DL) program data in 2010-2011,
http://de.lbcc.edu/reports/2010-11/f...hts.html#focus
(accessed May 1, 2013).
-
Data from San Jose Mercury News
Experimental Design and Ethics
-
“Vitamin E and Health,” Nutrition Source, Harvard School of Public Health,
http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritio...rce/vitamin-e/
(accessed May 1, 2013).
-
Stan Reents. “Don’t Underestimate the Power of Suggestion,” athleteinme.com, www.athleteinme.com/ArticleView.aspx?id=1053 (accessed May 1, 2013).
-
Ankita Mehta. “Daily Dose of Aspiring Helps Reduce Heart Attacks: Study,” International Business Times, July 21, 2011. Also available online at
http://www.ibtimes.com/daily-dose-as...s-study-300443
(accessed May 1, 2013).
-
The Data and Story Library, lib.stat.cmu.edu/DASL/Stories...dLearning.html (accessed May 1, 2013).
-
M.L. Jacskon et al., “Cognitive Components of Simulated Driving Performance: Sleep Loss effect and Predictors,” Accident Analysis and Prevention Journal, Jan no. 50 (2013),
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22721550
(accessed May 1, 2013).
-
“Earthquake Information by Year,” U.S. Geological Survey.
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquak...archives/year/
(accessed May 1, 2013).
-
“Fatality Analysis Report Systems (FARS) Encyclopedia,” National Highway Traffic and Safety Administration.
http://www-fars.nhtsa.dot.gov/Main/index.aspx
(accessed May 1, 2013).
-
Data from www.businessweek.com (accessed May 1, 2013).
-
Data from www.forbes.com (accessed May 1, 2013).
-
“America’s Best Small Companies,”
http://www.forbes.com/best-small-companies/list/
(accessed May 1, 2013).
-
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Code of Federal Regulations Title 45 Public Welfare Department of Health and Human Services Part 46 Protection of Human Subjects revised January 15, 2009. Section 46.111:Criteria for IRB Approval of Research.
-
“April 2013 Air Travel Consumer Report,” U.S. Department of Transportation, April 11 (2013),
http://www.dot.gov/airconsumer/april...onsumer-report
(accessed May 1, 2013).
-
Lori Alden, “Statistics can be Misleading,” econoclass.com,
http://www.econoclass.com/misleadingstats.html
(accessed May 1, 2013).
-
Maria de los A. Medina, “Ethics in Statistics,” Based on “Building an Ethics Module for Business, Science, and Engineering Students” by Jose A. Cruz-Cruz and William Frey, Connexions,
http://cnx.org/content/m15555/latest/
(accessed May 1, 2013).


4.22: Increasing Sales with Limited Problem Solving
- Describe how a retailer can increase sales from customers engaged in limited problem solving
By contrast, consumers with a limited problem solving mindset put in little consideration before arriving at a decision. Because of the minimal time and energy committed to the search, this mindset is most common with the selection and purchase of low-consideration or low-value items. These may also be purchases that have little to no emotional significance. Simply, the consumer is unwilling to over-invest time or effort in a decision that has little importance or where a “bad” decision has no lingering negative effects.
These shoppers don’t need a high level of engagement. Instead, they need to be cued to make a purchase. Thus, advertising, promotion and in-store merchandising can be especially helpful in influencing the decision. Think again about your local grocery store, imagining that you’re walking down the dental care aisle. Each item on-shelf, through its packaging—the images and words, the colors and fonts—is trying to communicate to you a reason to buy. The displays, floor or shelf graphics and special tags are doing the same. And, given the low relative price-point of the items and the low risk of making a mistake in buying the “wrong” product,” shoppers can make purchase decisions with a limited problem solving mindset.
Contributors and Attributions
- Increasing Sales with Limited Problem Solving. Authored by : Patrick Williams. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


11.3: Sales Contract Formation
The common law expects parties to form a contract by making an offer, with an acceptance that mirrors the offer and includes all material terms. Modern business transactions, however, frequently do not follow that pattern. As a result, UCC §2-204 provides that a contract may be formed in any manner that shows the parties reached an agreement.
The terms of sales contracts are supplied by three sources:
- The express agreement of the parties;
- Course of dealing, usage of trade, and course of performance; and
- The UCC.
Express Agreement
The general rule is that parties are free to make their own sales contract. When parties agree on terms–especially for quality, quantity, price, delivery and payment–those terms control over UCC provisions. The parties’ freedom to contract, however, is not limitless. Parties cannot disclaim their obligation of good faith, diligence, and due care. Similarly, liquidated damages provisions must be based on the value of the contract and cannot be a penalty for breach of contract. Further, limitations on consequential damages cannot be unconscionable.
Course of Dealing, Usage of Trade & Course of Performance
The parties’ agreement may be based on their actions. Course of dealing is an established pattern of prior conduct between the parties to a particular transaction. If a dispute arises, the parties’ course of dealing can be used as evidence of how they intended to carry out the transaction. In other words, the current contract is interpreted based on past contracts.
Course of performance relates to the conduct of the parties under the contract in question after its formation. It occurs when a contract involves repeated performance and looks at how the parties have acted when performing this particular contract, not contracts in the past.
Usage of trade is a practice or custom in a particular trade used so frequently that it justifies the expectation that it will be followed in the current transaction. It is industry standards and customs related to a particular industry.
UCC Provisions
When sales contracts do not have all the necessary terms, the UCC “fills in the gaps” of the contract. The most important UCC gap-filler provisions relate to price, quantity, delivery, and time of performance.
Figure 11.2 UCC Gap-Filler Provisions
| Provision | Subject | Description |
| §2-305 | Price |
Price can be left open to be fixed at later time;
Reasonable price determined upon delivery |
| §2-306 | Quantity |
“Output” and “Requirement” amounts can be determined at a later time;
No quantity that is unreasonably disproportionate to the estimate will be enforced; Reasonable amount in keeping with normal or prior comparable output or requirements is implied |
| §2-507 & §2-308 | Delivery | Delivery occurs at seller’s place of business unless contract provides otherwise |
| §2-309 | Time | Reasonable time for performance |
When these sources of contract terms are in conflict, the UCC applies the following hierarchy:
- Express terms;
- Course of performance;
- Course of dealing;
- Usage of trade; and
- UCC gap-filler provisions.
The logic is that the parties are free to contract the terms they would like. In absence of an express agreement, the parties’ conduct shows their intent. In practical terms, usage of trade and UCC provisions often go hand-in-hand. For example, what constitutes “reasonable time” for performance is often based on relevant industry standards. Although the UCC identifies a hierarchy, in practice it is not rigidly applied by the courts when determining usage of trade and UCC provisions.
Additional and Different Terms
Under UCC §2-207, an acceptance that adds or alters terms will often create a contract. Unlike the common law that treats modifications as a counter-offer, the UCC has a more flexible concept of acceptance. This is to address the “battle of the forms” that happens when merchants buy and sell goods with pre-printed forms. Frequently buyers use pre-printed forms to place an order that are then acknowledged by the seller on its own pre-printed forms. These forms typically contain language favorable to the party sending it and rarely agree.
Section 2-207 still requires the parties to intend to create a contract. If the differing forms show that the parties never reached an agreement, then no contract exists.
However, if the acceptance contains an additional term, then a contract is usually formed. An additional term is a proposed contract term that addresses issues not included in the offer. Additional terms expand the offer to cover more essential terms to ensure a meeting of the minds.
If both parties are merchants, the additional terms usually become part of the contract unless:
- The offer states that it cannot be accepted with additional or different terms;
- The additional terms materially alter the offer; or
- The party making the offer promptly rejects the additional terms.
A different term is a proposed contract term that contradicts the term(s) in the offer. Under the UCC, different terms cancel each other out. In most states, different terms are replaced by UCC gap-filler provisions.