9.4: Central Coast
The Central Coast is an area of California, roughly spanning the coastal region between Point Mugu and Monterey Bay and is part of the Central Coast American Viticultural Area, which is often referred to as the ’Wine Country’ of the state. It lies northwest of Los Angeles County and south of San Mateo and Santa Clara counties, and includes the rugged, undeveloped stretch of coastline known as Big Sur. From south to north, there are six counties that make up the Central Coast: Ventura, Santa Barbara, San Luis Obispo, Monterey, San Benito, and Santa Cruz.
Physical Geography
Geographically, the actual midpoint of the California coast lies north of Santa Cruz, near Año Nuevo State Park in San Mateo County. Neither the popular use of the term Central Coast nor that of the California North Coast include the San Francisco Peninsula counties of San Mateo and San Francisco.
The region is known primarily for agriculture and tourism. Major crops include wine grapes, lettuce, strawberries, and artichokes. The Salinas Valley is one of the most fertile farming regions in the United States. Tourist attractions include Cannery Row in Monterey, the Monterey Bay Aquarium, the theatres, galleries and white sand beaches of Carmel-by-the-Sea, the golf courses of Pebble Beach and the Monterey Peninsula, the rugged coastline of Big Sur and Hearst Castle in San Simeon. Further south is Morro Rock and the port city of Morro Bay, which is adjacent to college town San Luis Obispo. The Santa Ynez Valley is home to the Central Coast Film Society, which celebrates filmmakers, cinema and media arts that are from the region, also known as "Hollywood's Backyard."
University of California campuses are found in Santa Barbara and Santa Cruz, near the south and north edges of the region respectively. California State University, Monterey Bay, founded in 1994, uses facilities donated when Fort Ord was converted from military to civilian uses. California Polytechnic State University, in San Luis Obispo, was founded in 1901. California State University Channel Islands opened in Camarillo in 2002, as the 23rd campus in the California State University system.
Let’s head on field trip to Morro Bay and Morro Rock! Either scan the QR code or visit this link to see Professor Patrich explore Morro Bay in San Louis Obispo, California. (Video length: 6min).
Physical Geology - Case Study – Santa Barbara
The city of Santa Barbara is situated on a coastal plain between the Santa Ynez Mountains and the sea. This coastal plain consists of a complex array of Holocene and Pleistocene alluvial and colluvial deposits, marine terraces, debris flows, and estuarine deposits. Soils are mostly well drained brown fine sandy loam of the Milpitas series. Rapid geologic uplift is characteristic of the entire region, as evidenced by the coastal bluffs and narrow beaches that are present along most of the coastline.
Downtown Santa Barbara occupies a floodplain between two major geologic faults, the Mission Ridge Fault Zone to the north and the Mesa Fault to the south. The Mission Ridge Fault Zone runs along the range of hills known locally as the "Riviera", and the Mesa Fault defines the northern boundary of the band of hills called the "Mesa". These two faults converge near the Five Points Shopping Center at Los Positas and State Streets. Neither is well-exposed, with their locations being inferred from topography, springs, seeps, and well logs. The Mesa Fault continues southeast offshore into the Santa Barbara Channel; the portion of the fault offshore is believed to have been responsible for the destructive earthquake of 1925. The Mission Ridge Fault trends east–west, being named the More Ranch Fault west of Santa Barbara, and forms the northern boundary of the uplands which include Isla Vista, More Mesa, and the Hope Ranch Hills.
Three major sedimentary bedrock units underlie the coastal plain: the Monterey Formation, the Sisquoc Formation, and the Santa Barbara Formation. The Santa Barbara Formation is one of the main units in the aquifer underlying the city. Its coarse-grained freshwater-bearing portion, much of which is below sea level, is protected from seawater intrusion by the More Ranch Fault, which has shielded it by uplifting less-permeable rocks between it and the sea. Most water wells in the Santa Barbara-Goleta area pull from this geologic unit.
The Santa Ynez Mountains to the north of the city consist of multiple layers of sandstone and conglomerate units dating from the Jurassic Age to the present, uplifted rapidly since the Pliocene, upended, and in some areas completely overturned. Rapid uplift has given these mountains their craggy, scenic character, and numerous landslides and debris flows, which form some of the urban and suburban lowland area, are testament to their geologically active nature.
Let’s head on field trip to Avila Beach! Either scan the QR code or visit this link to see Professor Patrich explore pillow Basalts in San Louis Obispo, California. (Video length: 4min).
Cultural Geography - Santa Barbara Architecture
The first Monterey-style adobe in California was built on State Street of Santa Barbara by the wealthy merchant Alpheus Thompson. The dominant architectural themes of Santa Barbara are the Mediterranean Revival, Spanish Colonial Revival, and the related Mission Revival style, encouraged through design guidelines adopted by city leaders after the 1925 earthquake destroyed much of the downtown commercial district. Residential architectural styles in Santa Barbara reflect the era of their construction. Many late-1800s Victorian homes remain downtown and in the "Upper East" neighborhood. California bungalows are common, built in the early decades of the 20th century. Spanish Colonial Revival-style homes built after 1925 are common all over the city, especially in newer upscale residential areas like Montecito and Hope Ranch. Notable modernist and contemporary homes can be found as well.
Physical Geology - Case Study – Ventura County
Ventura county is on a tectonically active plate, since most of Coastal California is near the boundaries between the Pacific and North American Plates. The county of Ventura is made up of 10 incorporated cities: Camarillo, Fillmore, Moorpark, Ojai, Oxnard, Port Hueneme, Santa Paula, Simi Valley, Thousand Oaks, and San Buenaventura.
The San Andreas Fault, which demarcates this boundary, is about 40 miles away. One active fault that transverses the city of Oxnard is the Oak Ridge Fault, which straddles the Santa Clara River Valley westward from the Santa Susana Mountains, crosses the Oxnard Plain through Oxnard, and extends into the Santa Barbara Channel. The coastline is subject to inundation by a tsunami up to 23 feet in height. The San Andreas has proven to be a significant contributor to seismic activity in the Oxnard region and beyond. The 6.7 Mw Northridge earthquake that occurred on January 17, 1994, is believed to have occurred in the Santa Clarita extension of the Oak Ridge Fault. Landslides and ridge-top shattering resulting from the Northridge earthquake were observed above Moorpark, a city 19.6 mi (31.5 km) east of Oxnard
Running through the middle of the county is the Ventura Oil Field, which is a large and currently productive oil field in the hills just north of the city center of Ventura. The Ventura field, the large-scale structural feature responsible for petroleum accumulation is the Ventura Anticline, an east-west trending geologic structure 16 miles (26 km) long, visible in the numerous rock outcrops in the rugged topography of the area. This anticline dips steeply on both sides, with the dip angle ranging from 30 to 60 degrees, resulting in a series of rock beds resembling a long house with a gabled roof, under which oil and gas collect in abundance.
Within this feature, the primary petroleum-bearing unit is the Pico Formation, a sedimentary unit of turbidite sands of high porosity (16 to 20 percent). Additionally, oil is found in the underlying Santa Margarita Formation. Eight different oil-bearing zones have been identified by number, 1 st through 8 th based on depth, with the 2nd zone the first to be discovered, in March 1919 by the Shell Oil Company. The pools range in depth from 3,680 feet (1,120 m) to over 12,000 feet (3,700 m), although depth within each pool varies greatly; the discovery well into the 2nd zone, which has an average depth of 5,180 feet (1,580 m), had a total depth of only 3,500 feet (1,100 m).
The underlying Monterey Formation is presumed to be the source of the oil accumulations in the Ventura field, as well as the other two fields in the same geologic trend. The Monterey Formation is rich in organic matter, averaging 3-5 percent but reaching 23 percent in some areas. Oil likely migrated upwards during the late Pliocene, becoming trapped in the folds and structural traps of the higher rocks of the anticline which form an impermeable cap. Some of the oil-bearing zones, such as the 4th and 5th, are capped by the Barnard Fault, which provides an additional structural trap. Even with the impermeable caps and structural traps, there are enough breaks in the structure for significant natural tar seeps to occur; indeed, the entire region is riddled with natural seeps, and tar was used by the native Chumash peoples as a sealant for their watercraft.
Cultural Geography - Case Study – Ventura County
Pre-Colonial Period
Ventura County was historically inhabited by the Chumash people, who also settled much of Santa Barbara and San Luis Obispo Counties, with their presence dating back 10,000–12,000 years. The Chumash were hunter-gatherers, fishermen, and traders with the Mojave, Yokuts, and Tongva Indians. The Chumash are also known for their rock paintings and for their great basketry. The plank canoe, called a tomol in Chumash, was important to their way of life. Canoe launching points on the mainland for trade with the Chumash of the Channel Islands were located at the mouth of the Ventura River, Mugu Lagoon and Point Hueneme. This has led to speculations among archeologists of whether the Chumash could have had a pre-historic contact with Polynesians. According to diachronic linguistics, certain words such as tomolo’o (canoe) could be related to Polynesian languages. The dialect of the Chumash language that was spoken in Ventura County was Ventureño.
Several place names in the county have originated from Chumash, including Ojai, which means moon, and Simi Valley, which originates from the word Shimiyi and refers to the stringy, thread-like clouds that typify the region, also known as cirrus clouds. Other names include Point Mugu from the word Muwu meaning “beach”, Saticoy from the word Sa’aqtiko’y meaning “sheltered for the wind”, and Sespe Creek from the word S’eqp’e meaning “kneecap”.
Spanish Period
Mission San Buenaventura is a Spanish mission founded in 1782 by the Franciscan order.
In October 1542, the expedition led by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo anchored in an inlet near Point Mugu; its members were the first Europeans to arrive in the area that would become Ventura County.
Active occupation of California by Spain began in 1769. Gaspar de Portolà led a military expedition by land from San Diego to Monterey, passing through Ventura County in August of that year. A priest with the expedition, Father Juan Crespí, kept a journal of the trip and noted that the area was ideal for a mission to be established and it was a "good site to which nothing is lacking". Also on this expedition was Father Junípero Serra, who later founded a mission on this site.
On March 31, 1782, the Mission San Buenaventura was founded by Father Serra. It is named after Saint Bonaventure, one of the early intellectual founders of the Franciscan order. The town that grew up around the mission was originally named San Buenaventura (and retains the name officially), it has been known as Ventura since 1891.
In the 1790s, the Spanish Governor of California began granting land concessions to Spanish Californians who were often retiring soldiers. These concessions were known as ranchos and consisted of thousands of acres of land that were used primarily as ranch land for livestock. In Ventura County, Rancho Simi was granted in 1795 and Rancho El Conejo in 1802. Fernando Tico was granted Ojai and part of Ventura by Gov. Alvarado.
Mexican Period
In 1822, California was notified of Mexico's independence from Spain and the Governor of California, the Junta, the military in Monterey and the priests and neophytes at Mission San Buenaventura swore allegiance to Mexico on April 11, 1822. California land that had been vested in the King of Spain was now owned by the nation of Mexico.
By the 1830s, Mission San Buenaventura was in a decline with fewer neophytes joining the mission. The number of cattle owned by the mission dropped from first to fifteenth ranking in the California Missions. The missions were secularized by the Mexican government in 1834. The Mexican governors began granting land rights to Mexican Californians, often retiring soldiers. By 1846, there were 19 rancho grants in Ventura County. In 1836, Mission San Buenaventura was transferred from the Church to a secular administrator. The natives who had been working at the mission gradually left to work on the ranchos. By 1839, only 300 Indians were left at the Mission and it slipped into neglect.
American Period
The Mexican-American War that began in 1846, had its’ effect in Ventura County. In January of 1847, when Captain John C. Frémont led the California Battalion into San Buenaventura, and found that the Europeans had fled, leaving only the Indians at the Mission. Fremont and the Battalion continued south to sign the Treaty of Cahuenga with General Andrés Pico. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo formally transferred California to the United States in 1848.
By 1849, California became a territory and was divided into 27 counties. The area that would become Ventura County was originally part of Santa Barbara County.
In the 1860s, the area experienced a drought and many of the ranchos were divided and sold. The town of San Buenaventura was incorporated in 1866, becoming the first officially recognized town in what would become Ventura County.
On January 1, 1873, Ventura County was officially split from Santa Barbara County. The Southern Pacific Railroad laid tracks through San Buenaventura in 1887. Other towns in the county were established in the late 19th century, including Oxnard, which was named after the Oxnard Brothers, who owned a sugar beet processing factory.
Other towns were starting in the county. A plan for Hueneme, later called Port Hueneme, was recorded in 1874, and Santa Paula's plan was recorded in 1875. The community of Nordhoff, later renamed Ojai, was started in 1874. Bardsdale, Fillmore, Piru, and Montalvo were established in 1887. 1892 saw Simi, later Simi Valley, Somis, Saticoy, and Moorpark. Oxnard was a latecomer, not being established until 1898.
The Southern Pacific Railroad laid tracks through San Buenaventura in 1887. For convenience in printing their timetables, Southern Pacific shortened San Buenaventura to Ventura. The Post Office soon followed suit. While the city remains officially known as San Buenaventura, it is more commonly referred to as Ventura. The rail line to Northern California originally went through Saugus, Fillmore, and Santa Paula, providing a boom to those communities along the line. In 1905, Tunnel #26 was completed between Chatsworth and Corriganville near Simi Valley, shortening the rail route. At a length of 7,369 feet (2,246 m), Tunnel #26 was the longest tunnel ever constructed in its day. This tunnel joined to the railroad spur coming the other direction from Montalvo through Camarillo, Moorpark, and Simi Valley, making the contemporary main line used today. One stop along the way, at a 90-degree turn, was at a sugar beet processing factory. The factory bore the name of its absentee owners, the Oxnard Brothers. A small community of farm and factory workers grew near the train stop. That community, now bearing the name of the factory shortened to the one-word train stop Oxnard, has become the largest city in Ventura County.
Oil has been known in Ventura County since before the arrival of the Europeans. The first oil well in the county was drilled in 1914, but it was not until 1916 that the large South Mountain Oil Field was discovered. At its peak, the Ventura Avenue oilfield was producing 90,000 barrels of oil a day. Other oil fields came online in the 1920s and 1930s.
Modern Period
Ventura County can be separated into two major parts, East County and West County, which are divided by the Conejo Grade. East County consists of all cities east of the Conejo Grade. Geographically East County is the end of the Santa Monica Mountains, in which the Conejo Valley is located, and where there is a considerable increase in elevation. Communities which are in the East County are Thousand Oaks, Newbury Park, Lake Sherwood, Hidden Valley, Santa Rosa Valley, part of Westlake Village, Oak Park, Moorpark, and Simi Valley. Most of these communities are in the Conejo Valley.
West County, which is everything west of the Conejo Grade, consists of communities such as Camarillo, Oxnard, Somis, Point Mugu, Port Hueneme, Ventura, Ojai, Santa Paula, and Fillmore. West County consists of some of the first developed cities in the county. The largest beach communities are in West County along the coastline between the Channel Islands Harbor and Ventura Harbor.
Starting in the mid-20 th century, there was a large growth in population in the East County, moving from the San Fernando Valley in Los Angeles and west into the Conejo and Simi Valleys. Part of the Conejo Valley is situated in Los Angeles County. This part consists of Calabasas, Hidden Hills, Agoura Hills, Agoura, and Westlake Village. The other half of the Conejo Valley, which belongs to Ventura County, consists of Lake Sherwood, Hidden Valley, Oak Park, Thousand Oaks, and Newbury Park, which was formerly an unincorporated area that is now the most westerly part of Thousand Oaks. Many working-class people migrated to this area during the 1960s and 1970s out of East and Central Los Angeles. As a result, there was a large growth in population into the Conejo Valley and into Ventura County through the U.S. Route 101 corridor. Making the U.S. 101 a full freeway in the 1960s, and the expansions that followed, helped make commuting to Los Angeles easier and opened the way for development westward. The communities that have seen the most substantial development are Calabasas, Hidden Hills, Agoura Hills, Westlake Village, Thousand Oaks, and Newbury Park. The neighboring East County area of Simi Valley saw its already considerable population of nearly 60,000 inhabitants in 1970 grow to over 100,000 over the following two decades.


5.2: What Makes it a Company
Building a company is an experience that varies widely, depending on the nature of the product or service. If you’re a student, your company may share some of the challenges encountered by other student organizations. This section describes some coming-together experiences of companies, both student and non-student.
Two E-Teams
The NCIIA supports the development of E-Teams—teams of faculty and students working to move an invention or innovation from creative idea to commercial venture. To illustrate some of the key factors in creating a successful business from a bare-bones idea, and how a company’s attributes can change as the company grows, we’ll look at two E-Team-based companies: the 2Cam Rock Anchor team, led by Seth Murray, and the Guardian 2000 team, led by Steven Rhodes.
These teams each originated in a class or program at their universities. Once the initial framework for the product was set for the class exercises, the teams began to evolve into serious, revenue-seeking ventures.
Being a student
“Being students has really helped us through the project,” claims Seth Murray. Both Murray and Guardian 2000’s Steven Rhodes said that access to campus facilities was key to their success. Both teams worked with specially trained faculty, used campus labs and machines, and could choose from a field of students with a broad range of backgrounds and talents. (Note: intellectual property rights vary from school to school, so make sure you’re clear on your school’s policies before you get started.)
Transition can be tough
The two teams agree that the transition from a student-run activity to a real-world business is difficult. Some institutions, like the University of Colorado at Boulder, have an entrepreneurship program that helps students find angel investors—affluent individuals who provide capital for a start-up, usually in exchange for ownership equity. But Rhodes points out that one of the more realistic challenges of the transition is that some of the students working on the project need paying, full-time jobs, and although the experience of working in an E-Team is unmatched, not everyone can afford to dedicate themselves full-time.
Team effort
A startup is a team effort. Hopefully you’re working with a group of people of diverse backgrounds and training. Initially, it’s likely that people on your team will share responsibilities. Starting out is a great time for team members to get familiar with all aspects of the business, and manage it together.
Lonely at the top
At some point—and you’ll know it when you reach it—the one-big-happy-team won’t be the best organizational model for your company. Someone needs to take charge and lead the pack. Steven Rhodes looked for a natural leader with motivating qualities, someone who wasn’t afraid to take on responsibility. Sometimes, leaders are chosen from the original team, but sometimes the right match comes from the outside.
The best leader may just need strong business experience. Or she may need to both reflect and complement the skills of the rest of the team. It’s crucial for the team to carefully determine what it needs in a leader.
Communication
Another essential component of your startup days is communication. This may seem obvious, but it can’t be overemphasized. The idea people and the action people need to work consistently to keep communication lines open. Rhodes encourages everyone on his team to remain in contact through email so that problems get immediate solutions, and don’t build up until they’re unmanageable.
Advisors and mentors
Mentoring plays a huge role in any young company. Faculty advisors or outside mentors can speak from experience on manufacturing, marketing, and other key issues. Rhodes says of his advisor, “He has allowed the group to remain independent and learn from our mistakes. If he senses anything catastrophic is going to happen, he’ll step in, but it has been a big plus to have someone who lets the group learn and grow on their own.”
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So what makes an innovative company?
How do they do it? All of the innovative companies (Apple, Google, and Toyota among them) share one trait: they focus on their employees, their customers, and the people who constitute the market in which they operate. They realize that innovation comes from people, that these people need to be supported, and that everyone with an idea should be heard. They encourage creativity and free-thinking, even if it means that company employees will wander down the wrong path now and again. After all, the harsh reality is that experience is the greatest teacher, and learning from mistakes is a heck of a lot better than not learning at all.
The entrepreneurial passion
I started the magazine because I had a passion for what I was doing. That’s also why I went into the airline business, even though everybody I talked to told me that there was no money to be made there. I felt that I could make a difference. That’s the best reason to go into business—because you feel strongly that you can change things.” Richard Branson, Chairman of the Virgin Group. From “Training to Work: Unit of One,” by Jill Rosenfeld. Fast Company, August, 2000.
Comfortable work cultures
Nathan Baxter, Dean, Chief Priest, CEO of Washington National Cathedral. From “Training to Work: Unit of One,” by Jill Rosenfeld. Fast Company, August, 2000. |


13.9.3E: Exersices
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Practice Makes Perfect
Add Rational Expressions with a Common Denominator
In the following exercises, add.
Example \(\PageIndex{25}\)
\(\frac{2}{15}+\frac{7}{15}\)
- Answer
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\(\frac{3}{5}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{26}\)
\(\frac{4}{21}+\frac{3}{21}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{27}\)
\(\frac{7}{24}+\frac{11}{24}\)
- Answer
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\(\frac{3}{4}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{28}\)
\(\frac{7}{36}+\frac{13}{36}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{29}\)
\(\frac{3a}{a−b}+\frac{1}{a−b}\)
- Answer
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\(\frac{3a+1}{a-b}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{30}\)
\(\frac{3c}{4c−5}+\frac{5}{4c−5}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{31}\)
\(\frac{d}{d+8}+\frac{5}{d+8}\)
- Answer
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\(\frac{d+5}{d+8}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{32}\)
\(\frac{7m}{2m+n}+\frac{4}{2m+n}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{33}\)
\(\frac{p^2+10p}{p+2}+\frac{16}{p+2}\)
- Answer
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p+8
Example \(\PageIndex{34}\)
\(\frac{q^2+12q}{q+3}+\frac{27}{q+3}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{35}\)
\(\frac{2r^2}{2r−1}+\frac{15r−8}{2r−1}\)
- Answer
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r+8
Example \(\PageIndex{36}\)
\(\frac{3s^2}{3s−2}+\frac{13s−10}{3s−2}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{37}\)
\(\frac{8t^2}{t+4}+\frac{32t}{t+4}\)
- Answer
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8t
Example \(\PageIndex{38}\)
\(\frac{6v^2}{v+5}+\frac{30v}{v+5}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{39}\)
\(\frac{2w^2}{w^2−16}+\frac{8w}{w^2−16}\)
- Answer
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\(\frac{2w}{w−4}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{40}\)
\(\frac{7x^2}{x^2−9}+\frac{21x}{x^2−9}\)
In the following exercises, subtract.
Example \(\PageIndex{41}\)
\(\frac{y^2}{y+8}−\frac{64}{y+8}\)
- Answer
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y−8
Example \(\PageIndex{42}\)
\(\frac{z^2}{z+2}−\frac{4}{z+2}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{43}\)
\(\frac{9a^2}{3a−7}−\frac{49}{3a−7}\)
- Answer
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3a+7
Example \(\PageIndex{44}\)
\(\frac{25b^2}{5b−6}−\frac{36}{5b−6}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{45}\)
\(\frac{c^2}{c−8}−\frac{6c+16}{c−8}\)
- Answer
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c+2
Example \(\PageIndex{46}\)
\(\frac{d^2}{d−9}−\frac{6d+27}{d−9}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{47}\)
\(\frac{3m^2}{6m−30}−\frac{21m−30}{6m−30}\)
- Answer
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\(\frac{m−2}{3}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{48}\)
\(\frac{2n^2}{4n−32}−\frac{30n−16}{4n−32}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{49}\)
\(\frac{6p^2+3p+4}{p^2+4p−5}−\frac{5p^2+p+7}{p^2+4p−5}\)
- Answer
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\(\frac{p+3}{p+5}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{50}\)
\(\frac{5q^2+3q−9}{q^2+6q+8}−\frac{4q^2+9q+7}{q^2+6q+8}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{51}\)
\(\frac{5r^2+7r−33}{r^2−49}−\frac{4r^2−5r−30}{r^2−49}\)
- Answer
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\(\frac{r+9}{r+7}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{52}\)
\(\frac{7t^2−t−4}{t^2−25}−\frac{6t^2+2t−1}{t^2−25}\)
In the following exercises, add.
Example \(\PageIndex{53}\)
\(\frac{10v^2}{v−1}+\frac{2v+4}{1−2v}\)
- Answer
-
4
Example \(\PageIndex{54}\)
\(\frac{20w}{5w−2}+\frac{5w+6}{2−5w}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{55}\)
\(\frac{10x^2+16x−7}{8x−3}+\frac{2x^2+3x−1}{3−8x}\)
- Answer
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x+2
Example \(\PageIndex{56}\)
\(\frac{6y^2+2y−11}{3y−7}+\frac{3y^2−3y+17}{7−3y}\)
In the following exercises, subtract.
Example \(\PageIndex{57}\)
\(\frac{z^2+6z}{z^2−25}−\frac{3z+20}{25−z^2}\)
- Answer
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\(\frac{z+4}{z−5}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{58}\)
\(\frac{a^2+3a}{a^2−9}−\frac{3a−27}{9−a^2}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{59}\)
\(\frac{2b^2+30b−13}{b^2−49}−\frac{2b^2−5b−8}{49−b^2}\)
- Answer
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\(\frac{4b−3}{b−7}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{60}\)
\(\frac{c^2+5c−10}{c^2−16}−\frac{c^2−8c−10}{16−c^2}\)
Everyday Math
Example \(\PageIndex{61}\)
Sarah ran 8 miles and then biked 24 miles. Her biking speed is 4 mph faster than her running speed. If rr represents Sarah’s speed when she ran, then her running time is modeled by the expression \(\frac{8}{r}\) and her biking time is modeled by the expression \(\frac{24}{r+4}\). Add the rational expressions \(\frac{8}{r}+\frac{24}{r+4}\) to get an expression for the total amount of time Sarah ran and biked.
- Answer
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\(\frac{32r+32}{r(r+4)}\)
Example \(\PageIndex{62}\)
If Pete can paint a wall in pp hours, then in one hour he can paint \(\frac{1}{p}\) of the wall. It would take Penelope 3 hours longer than Pete to paint the wall, so in one hour she can paint \(\frac{1}{p+3}\) of the wall. Add the rational expressions \(\frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{p+3}\) to get an expression for the part of the wall Pete and Penelope would paint in one hour if they worked together.
Writing Exercises
Example \(\PageIndex{63}\)
Donald thinks that \(\frac{3}{x}+\frac{4}{x}\) is \(\frac{7}{2x}\). Is Donald correct? Explain.
Example \(\PageIndex{64}\)
Explain how you find the Least Common Denominator of \(x^2+5x+4\) and \(x^2−16\).
Self Check
ⓐ After completing the exercises, use this checklist to evaluate your mastery of the objectives of this section.
ⓑ What does this checklist tell you about your mastery of this section? What steps will you take to improve?


7: Finite-Difference Equations
One of the most common tasks in scientific computing is finding solutions to differential equations, because most physical theories are formulated using differential equations.
In order to describe continuous functions (and the differential equations that act on them), computational schemes usually adopt the strategy of discretization . Consider a general mathematical function of one real variable, \(\psi(x)\), where the domain of the input is \(\mathbb{R}\), or some finite interval. In principle, in order to fully specify the function, we have to enumerate its values for all possible inputs \(x\); but since \(x\) can vary continuously, the set is uncountably infinite, so such an enumeration is impossible on a digital computer with finite discrete memory. What we can do, instead, is to enumerate the function's values at a finite and discrete set of points,
\[\{x_n \;|\; n = 0, 1, 2, \dots, N-1\}.\]
We define the values at these points as
\[\psi_n \equiv \psi(x_n).\]
If \(x_{n}\) is appropriately chosen, the set of values \(\{\psi_n\}\) ought to describe \(\psi(x)\) quite accurately. One reason for this is that physical theories typically involve differential equations of low order (e.g., first, second, or third order, rather than, say, order \(1,000,000\)). Hence, if the discretization points are sufficiently finely-spaced, the value of the function, and all its higher-order derivatives , will vary only slightly between discretization points.
As we shall see, discretization converts differential equations into discrete systems of equations, called finite-difference equations . These can then be solved using the standard methods of numerical linear algebra.


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art
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the application of human creative skill and imagination to produce works intended to be appreciated primarily for their beauty or emotional power, typically but not exclusively in a visual form such as a painting or sculpture.
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body painting
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application of paint to the body
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cultural appropriation
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the adoption, usually without acknowledgment, of cultural identity markers from subcultures or minority communities into mainstream culture by people with a relatively privileged status.
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graffiti
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drawings, depictions, and writings on a wall typically without permission and meant for the public to see
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iconographic study
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the study of visual images, symbols, or modes of representation collectively associated with a person, cult, or movement.
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meme
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an image, video, piece of text, etc., typically humorous in nature, that is copied and spread rapidly by internet users, often with slight variations.
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performance
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a musical, dramatic, or other form of entertainment presented before an audience.
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rezball
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short for reservation ball, a style of basketball played in Native American reservation communities.
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scarification
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the branding, burning, or etching of designs into the skin.
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sociodemographic
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of, relating to, or involving a combination of social and demographic factors.
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tattooing
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a form of body art where a mark, symbol, picture or design is placed on the skin. Tattooing has been practiced for thousands of years.


3.10: Alignment, Justification, and Indentation
Learning Objectives
- Change alignment of text.
Alignment
To align or justify text, move your cursor into the paragraph you want to change, then click the left-align, right-align, centered, or justify buttons.
Alignment is how text flows in relation to the rest of the page (or column, table cell, text box, etc.). There are four main alignments: left, right, center, and justified.
- Left-aligned text is text that is aligned with a left edge. You can also left-align your text with the shortcut Ctrl+L ( Cmnd+L) .
- Right-aligned text is text that is aligned with a right edge. You can also right-align your text with the shortcut Ctrl+R ( Cmnd+R ).
- Centered text is text that is centered between two edges. You can also center-align your text with the shortcut Ctrl+E ( Cmnd+E ).
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Left-aligned
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Centered |
Right-aligned
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Justification controls the spacing between words. A justified text increases the space between words to fill the entire line so that it is aligned with both the left and right edges. You can also center-align your text with the shortcut Ctrl+J ( Cmnd+J ).
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You can also change the alignment and justification settings in the paragraph dialog box.
Practice Question
Paragraph Dialog Box: Justification and Alignment
Open the paragraph dialog box by clicking the small arrow icon in the bottom-right corner of the Paragraph group.
The dropdown menu to change the alignment is near the top of the dialog box.
Indentation
In many documents, indenting is a good way to distinguish the start of a new paragraph, especially when there is no paragraph spacing.
To indent, hit the Tab key once on your keyboard at the start of a paragraph.
For more control over indentation settings, use the paragraph dialog box.
Paragraph Dialog Box: Indentation
Open the paragraph dialog box by clicking the small arrow icon in the bottom-right corner of the Paragraph group.
The indentation section is toward the middle of the dialog box.
The Left and Right settings indent the entire paragraph to the left and right.
| Indentation Comparison |
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The Special dropdown menu allows you to choose to indent the first line of the paragraph or to create a hanging indent. Upon choosing First or Hanging, another field will appear to let you choose how big the first line or hanging indent will be.
Practice Question
Contributors and Attributions
- Align Left. Authored by : Arthur Shlain. Located at : https://thenounproject.com/term/align-left/60845/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Align Center. Authored by : Arthur Shlain. Located at : https://thenounproject.com/term/align-center/60844/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Align Right. Authored by : Arthur Shlain. Located at : https://thenounproject.com/term/align-right/60847/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Justify Text. Authored by : Arthur Shlain. Located at : https://thenounproject.com/term/justify-text/60846/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
- Alignment and Line Spacing. Authored by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


16.4: The Collapse of Reconstruction
The effort to remake the South generated a brutal reaction among southern whites, who were committed to keeping blacks in a subservient position. To prevent blacks from gaining economic ground and to maintain cheap labor for the agricultural economy, an exploitative system of sharecropping spread throughout the South. Domestic terror organizations, most notably the Ku Klux Klan, employed various methods (arson, whipping, murder) to keep freed people from voting and achieving political, social, or economic equality with whites.
BUILDING BLACK COMMUNITIES
The degraded status of black men and women had placed them outside the limits of what antebellum southern whites considered appropriate gender roles and familial hierarchies. Slave marriages did not enjoy legal recognition. Enslaved men were humiliated and deprived of authority and of the ability to protect enslaved women, who were frequently exposed to the brutality and sexual domination of white masters and vigilantes alike. Slave parents could not protect their children, who could be bought, sold, put to work, brutally disciplined, and abused without their consent; parents, too, could be sold away from their children (Figure 16.4.1). Moreover, the division of labor idealized in white southern society, in which men worked the land and women performed the role of domestic caretaker, was null and void where slaves were concerned. Both slave men and women were made to perform hard labor in the fields.
In the Reconstruction era, African Americans embraced the right to enjoy the family bonds and the expression of gender norms they had been systematically denied. Many thousands of freed black men who had been separated from their families as slaves took to the road to find their long-lost spouses and children and renew their bonds. In one instance, a journalist reported having interviewed a freed slave who traveled over six hundred miles on foot in search of the family that was taken from him while in bondage. Couples that had been spared separation quickly set out to legalize their marriages, often by way of the Freedmen’s Bureau, now that this option was available. Those who had no families would sometimes relocate to southern towns and cities, so as to be part of the larger black community where churches and other mutual aid societies offered help and camaraderie.
SHARECROPPING
Most freed people stayed in the South on the lands where their families and loved ones had worked for generations as slaves. They hungered to own and farm their own lands instead of the lands of white plantation owners. In one case, former slaves on the Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina initially had hopes of owning the land they had worked for many decades after General Sherman directed that freed people be granted title to plots of forty acres.
The Freedmen’s Bureau provided additional cause for such hopes by directing that leases and titles to lands in the South be made available to former slaves. However, these efforts ran afoul of President Johnson. In 1865, he ordered the return of land to white landowners, a setback for those freed people, such as those on the South Carolina Sea Islands, who had begun to cultivate the land as their own. Ultimately, there was no redistribution of land in the South.
The end of slavery meant the transition to wage labor. However, this conversion did not entail a new era of economic independence for former slaves. While they no longer faced relentless toil under the lash, freed people emerged from slavery without any money and needed farm implements, food, and other basic necessities to start their new lives. Under the crop-lien system, store owners extended credit to farmers under the agreement that the debtors would pay with a portion of their future harvest. However, the creditors charged high interest rates, making it even harder for freed people to gain economic independence.
Throughout the South, sharecropping took root, a crop-lien system that worked to the advantage of landowners. Under the system, freed people rented the land they worked, often on the same plantations where they had been slaves. Some landless whites also became sharecroppers. Sharecroppers paid their landlords with the crops they grew, often as much as half their harvest. Sharecropping favored the landlords and ensured that freed people could not attain independent livelihoods. The year-to-year leases meant no incentive existed to substantially improve the land, and high interest payments siphoned additional money away from the farmers. Sharecroppers often became trapped in a never-ending cycle of debt, unable to buy their own land and unable to stop working for their creditor because of what they owed. The consequences of sharecropping affected the entire South for many generations, severely limiting economic development and ensuring that the South remained an agricultural backwater.
THE “INVISIBLE EMPIRE OF THE SOUTH”
Paramilitary white-supremacist terror organizations in the South helped bring about the collapse of Reconstruction, using violence as their primary weapon. The “Invisible Empire of the South,” or Ku Klux Klan, stands as the most notorious. The Klan was founded in 1866 as an oath-bound fraternal order of Confederate veterans in Tennessee, with former Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest as its first leader. The organization—its name likely derived from kuklos , a Greek word meaning circle—devised elaborate rituals and grandiose names for its ranking members: Grand Wizard, Grand Dragon, Grand Titan, and Grand Cyclops. Soon, however, this fraternal organization evolved into a vigilante terrorist group that vented southern whites’ collective frustration over the loss of the war and the course of Radical Reconstruction through acts of intimidation and violence.
The Klan terrorized newly freed blacks to deter them from exercising their citizenship rights and freedoms. Other anti-black vigilante groups around the South began to adopt the Klan name and perpetrate acts of unspeakable violence against anyone they considered a tool of Reconstruction. Indeed, as historians have noted, Klan units around the South operated autonomously and with a variety of motives. Some may have sincerely believed they were righting wrongs, others merely satisfying their lurid desires for violence. Nor was the Klan the only racist vigilante organization. Other groups, like the Red Shirts from Mississippi and the Knights of the White Camelia and the White League, both from Louisiana, also sprang up at this time. The Klan and similar organizations also worked as an extension of the Democratic Party to win elections.
Despite the great variety in Klan membership, on the whole, the group tended to direct its attention toward persecuting freed people and people they consideredcarpetbaggers, a term of abuse applied to northerners accused of having come to the South to acquire wealth through political power at the expense of southerners. The colorful term captured the disdain of southerners for these people, reflecting the common assumption that these men, sensing great opportunity, packed up all their worldly possessions in carpetbags, a then-popular type of luggage, and made their way to the South. Implied in this definition is the notion that these men came from little and were thus shiftless wanderers motivated only by the desire for quick money. In reality, these northerners tended to be young, idealistic, often well-educated men who responded to northern campaigns urging them to lead the modernization of the South. But the image of them as swindlers taking advantage of the South at its time of need resonated with a white southern population aggrieved by loss and economic decline. Southern whites who supported Reconstruction, known asscalawags, also generated great hostility as traitors to the South. They, too, became targets of the Klan and similar groups.
The Klan seized on the pervasive but largely fictional narrative of the northern carpetbagger as a powerful tool for restoring white supremacy and overturning Republican state governments in the South (Figure 16.4.2). To preserve a white-dominated society, Klan members punished blacks for attempting to improve their station in life or acting “uppity.” To prevent freed people from attaining an education, the Klan burned public schools. In an effort to stop blacks from voting, the Klan murdered, whipped, and otherwise intimidated freed people and their white supporters. It wasn’t uncommon for Klan members to intimidate Union League members and Freedmen’s Bureau workers. The Klan even perpetrated acts of political assassination, killing a sitting U.S. congressman from Arkansas and three state congressmen from South Carolina.
Klan tactics included riding out to victims’ houses, masked and armed, and firing into the homes or burning them down (Figure 16.4.3). Other tactics relied more on the threat of violence, such as happened in Mississippi when fifty masked Klansmen rode out to a local schoolteacher’s house to express their displeasure with the school tax and to suggest that she consider leaving. Still other tactics intimidated through imaginative trickery. One such method was to dress up as ghosts of slain Confederate soldiers and stage stunts designed to convince their victims of their supernatural abilities.
Regardless of the method, the general goal of reinstating white supremacy as a foundational principle and returning the South to a situation that largely resembled antebellum conditions remained a constant. The Klan used its power to eliminate black economic independence, decimate blacks’ political rights, reclaim white dominance over black women’s bodies and black men’s masculinity, tear apart black communities, and return blacks to earlier patterns of economic and political subservience and social deference. In this, they were largely successful.
Visit Freedmen’s Bureau Online to view digitized records of attacks on freed people that were reported in Albany, Georgia, between January 1 and October 31, 1868.
The president and Congress, however, were not indifferent to the violence, and they worked to bring it to an end. In 1870, at the insistence of the governor of North Carolina, President Grant told Congress to investigate the Klan. In response, Congress in 1871 created the Joint Select Committee to Inquire into the Condition of Affairs in the Late Insurrectionary States. The committee took testimony from freed people in the South, and in 1872, it published a thirteen-volume report on the tactics the Klan used to derail democracy in the South through the use of violence.
The following statements are from the October 27, 1871, testimony of fifty-two-year-old former slave Abram Colby, which the joint select committee investigating the Klan took in Atlanta, Georgia. Colby had been elected to the lower house of the Georgia State legislature in 1868.
On the 29th of October, they came to my house and broke my door open, took me out of my bed and took me to the woods and whipped me three hours or more and left me in the woods for dead. They said to me, “Do you think you will ever vote another damned Radical ticket?”  They said, “No; don’t tell a lie.” . . . I said, “If there was an election to-morrow, I would vote the Radical ticket.” They set in and whipped me a thousand licks more, I suppose. . . .
They said I had influence with the negroes of other counties, and had carried the negroes against them. About two days before they whipped me they offered me $5,000 to turn and go with them, and said they would pay me $2,500 cash if I would turn and let another man go to the legislature in my place. . . .
I would have come before the court here last week, but I knew it was no use for me to try to get Ku-Klux condemned by Ku-Klux, and I did not come. Mr. Saunders, a member of the grand jury here last week, is the father of one of the very men I knew whipped me. . . .
They broke something inside of me, and the doctor has been attending to me for more than a year. Sometimes I cannot get up and down off my bed, and my left hand is not of much use to me.
—Abram Colby testimony, Joint Select Committee Report, 1872
Why did the Klan target Colby? What methods did they use?
Congress also passed a series of three laws designed to stamp out the Klan. Passed in 1870 and 1871, the Enforcement Acts or “Force Acts” were designed to outlaw intimidation at the polls and to give the federal government the power to prosecute crimes against freed people in federal rather than state courts. Congress believed that this last step, a provision in the third Enforcement Act, also called the Ku Klux Klan Act, was necessary in order to ensure that trials would not be decided by white juries in southern states friendly to the Klan. The act also allowed the president to impose martial law in areas controlled by the Klan and gave President Grant the power to suspend the writ of habeas corpus, a continuation of the wartime power granted to President Lincoln. The suspension meant individuals suspected of engaging in Klan activity could be jailed indefinitely.
President Grant made frequent use of the powers granted to him by Congress, especially in South Carolina, where federal troops imposed martial law in nine counties in an effort to derail Klan activities. However, the federal government faced entrenched local organizations and a white population firmly opposed to Radical Reconstruction. Changes came slowly or not at all, and disillusionment set in. After 1872, federal government efforts to put down paramilitary terror in the South waned.
“REDEEMERS” AND THE END OF RECONSTRUCTION
While the president and Congress may have seen the Klan and other clandestine white supremacist, terrorist organizations as a threat to stability and progress in the South, many southern whites saw them as an instrument of order in a world turned upside down. Many white southerners felt humiliated by the process of Radical Reconstruction and the way Republicans had upended southern society, placing blacks in positions of authority while taxing large landowners to pay for the education of former slaves. Those committed to rolling back the tide of Radical Reconstruction in the South called themselves redeemers, a label that expressed their desire to redeem their states from northern control and to restore the antebellum social order whereby blacks were kept safely under the boot heel of whites. They represented the Democratic Party in the South and worked tirelessly to end what they saw as an era of “negro misrule.” By 1877, they had succeeded in bringing about the “redemption” of the South, effectively destroying the dream of Radical Reconstruction.
Although Ulysses S. Grant won a second term in the presidential election of 1872, the Republican grip on national political power began to slip in the early 1870s. Three major events undermined Republican control. First, in 1873, the United States experienced the start of a long economic downturn, the result of economic instability in Europe that spread to the United States. In the fall of 1873, the bank of Jay Cooke & Company failed to meet its financial obligations and went bankrupt, setting off a panic in American financial markets. An economic depression ensued, which Democrats blamed on Republicans and which lasted much of the decade.
Second, the Republican Party experienced internal squabbles and divided into two factions. Some Republicans began to question the expansive role of the federal government, arguing for limiting the size and scope of federal initiatives. These advocates, known as Liberal Republicans because they followed classical liberalism in championing small government, formed their own breakaway party. Their ideas changed the nature of the debate over Reconstruction by challenging reliance on federal government help to bring about change in the South. Now some Republicans argued for downsizing Reconstruction efforts.
Third, the Grant administration became mired in scandals, further tarnishing the Republicans while giving Democrats the upper hand. One scandal arose over the siphoning off of money from excise taxes on whiskey. The “Whiskey Ring,” as it was called, involved people at the highest levels of the Grant administration, including the president’s personal secretary, Orville Babcock. Another scandal entangled Crédit Mobilier of America, a construction company and part of the important French Crédit Mobilier banking company. The Union Pacific Railroad company, created by the federal government during the Civil War to construct a transcontinental railroad, paid Crédit Mobilier to build the railroad. However, Crédit Mobilier used the funds it received to buy Union Pacific Railroad bonds and resell them at a huge profit. Some members of Congress, as well as Vice President Schuyler Colfax, had accepted funds from Crédit Mobilier in return for forestalling an inquiry. When the scam became known in 1872, Democratic opponents of Reconstruction pointed to Crédit Mobilier as an example of corruption in the Republican-dominated federal government and evidence that smaller government was better.
The Democratic Party in the South made significant advances in the 1870s in its efforts to wrest political control from the Republican-dominated state governments. The Ku Klux Klan, as well as other paramilitary groups in the South, often operated as military wings of the Democratic Party in former Confederate states. In one notorious episode following a contested 1872 gubernatorial election in Louisiana, as many as 150 freedmen loyal to the Republican Party were killed at the Colfax courthouse by armed members of the Democratic Party, even as many of them tried to surrender (Figure 16.4.4).
In other areas of the South, the Democratic Party gained control over state politics. Texas came under Democratic control by 1873, and in the following year Alabama and Arkansas followed suit. In national politics, too, the Democrats gained ground—especially during the 1874 elections, when they recaptured control of the House of Representatives for the first time since before the Civil War. Every other southern state, with the exception of Florida, South Carolina, and Louisiana—the states where federal troops remained a force—also fell to the Democratic Party and the restoration of white supremacy. Southerners everywhere celebrated their “redemption” from Radical Republican rule.
THE CONTESTED ELECTION OF 1876
By the time of the 1876 presidential election, Reconstruction had come to an end in most southern states. In Congress, the political power of the Radical Republicans had waned, although some continued their efforts to realize the dream of equality between blacks and whites. One of the last attempts to do so was the passage of the 1875 Civil Rights Act, which required equality in public places and on juries. This law was challenged in court, and in 1883 the Supreme Court ruled it unconstitutional, arguing that the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments did not prohibit discrimination by private individuals. By the 1870s, the Supreme Court had also undercut the letter and the spirit of the Fourteenth Amendment by interpreting it as affording freed people only limited federal protection from the Klan and other terror groups.
The country remained bitterly divided, and this was reflected in the contested election of 1876. While Grant wanted to run for a third term, scandals and Democratic successes in the South dashed those hopes. Republicans instead selected Rutherford B. Hayes, the three-time governor of Ohio. Democrats nominated Samuel Tilden, the reform governor of New York, who was instrumental in ending the Tweed Ring and Tammany Hall corruption in New York City. The November election produced an apparent Democratic victory, as Tilden carried the South and large northern states with a 300,000-vote advantage in the popular vote. However, disputed returns from Louisiana, South Carolina, Florida, and Oregon, whose electoral votes totaled twenty, threw the election into doubt.
Hayes could still win if he gained those twenty electoral votes. As the Constitution did not provide a method to determine the validity of disputed votes, the decision fell to Congress, where Republicans controlled the Senate and Democrats controlled the House of Representatives. In late January 1877, Congress tried to break the deadlock by creating a special electoral commission composed of five senators, five representatives, and five justices of the Supreme Court. The congressional delegation represented both parties equally, with five Democrats and five Republicans. The court delegation had two Democrats, two Republicans, and one independent—David Davis, who resigned from the Supreme Court (and from the commission) when the Illinois legislature elected him to the Senate. After Davis’s resignation, President Grant selected a Republican to take his place, tipping the scales in favor of Hayes. The commission then awarded the disputed electoral votes and the presidency to Hayes, voting on party lines, 8 to 7 (Figure 16.4.5). The Democrats called foul, threatening to hold up the commission’s decision in the courts.
In what became known as the Compromise of 1877, Republican Senate leaders worked with the Democratic leadership so they would support Hayes and the commission’s decision. The two sides agreed that one Southern Democrat would be appointed to Hayes’s cabinet, Democrats would control federal patronage (the awarding of government jobs) in their areas in the South, and there would be a commitment to generous internal improvements, including federal aid for the Texas and Pacific Railway. Perhaps most important, all remaining federal troops would be withdrawn from the South, a move that effectively ended Reconstruction. Hayes believed that southern leaders would obey and enforce the Reconstruction-era constitutional amendments that protected the rights of freed people. His trust was soon proved to be misguided, much to his dismay, and he devoted a large part of his life to securing rights for freedmen. For their part, the Democrats took over the remaining southern states, creating what became known as the “Solid South”—a region that consistently voted in a bloc for the Democratic Party.
Section Summary
The efforts launched by Radical Republicans in the late 1860s generated a massive backlash in the South in the 1870s as whites fought against what they considered “negro misrule.” Paramilitary terrorist cells emerged, committing countless atrocities in their effort to “redeem” the South from black Republican rule. In many cases, these organizations operated as an extension of the Democratic Party. Scandals hobbled the Republican Party, as did a severe economic depression. By 1875, Reconstruction had largely come to an end. The contested presidential election the following year, which was decided in favor of the Republican candidate, and the removal of federal troops from the South only confirmed the obvious: Reconstruction had failed to achieve its primary objective of creating an interracial democracy that provided equal rights to all citizens.
Review Questions
Which of the following is not one of the methods the Ku Klux Klan and other terrorist groups used to intimidate blacks and white sympathizers?
- burning public schools
- petitioning Congress
- murdering freedmen who tried to vote
- threatening, beating, and killing those who disagreed with them
B
Which of the following was the term southerners used for a white southerner who tried to overturn the changes of Reconstruction?
- scalawag
- carpetbagger
- redeemer
- white knight
C
Why was it difficult for southern free blacks to gain economic independence after the Civil War?
Southern blacks emerged from slavery with no money to begin their new lives, so they had to rely on the crop-lien and sharecropping systems. These systems enabled freed people to get tools and rent land to farm, but the high interest rate (paid in harvested crops) made it difficult for them to rise out of poverty.
Critical Thinking Questions
How do you think would history have been different if Lincoln had not been assassinated? How might his leadership after the war have differed from that of Andrew Johnson?
Was the Thirteenth Amendment a success or a failure? Discuss the reasons for your answer.
Consider the differences between the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments. What does the Fourteenth Amendment do that the Thirteenth does not?
Consider social, political, and economic equality. In what ways did Radical Reconstruction address and secure these forms of equality? Where did it fall short?
Consider the problem of terrorism during Radical Reconstruction. If you had been an adviser to President Grant, how would you propose to deal with the problem?
Glossary
- carpetbagger
- a term used for northerners working in the South during Reconstruction; it implied that these were opportunists who came south for economic or political gain
- Compromise of 1877
- the agreement between Republicans and Democrats, after the contested election of 1876, in which Rutherford B. Hayes was awarded the presidency in exchange for withdrawing the last of the federal troops from the South
- crop-lien system
- a loan system in which store owners extended credit to farmers for the purchase of goods in exchange for a portion of their future crops
- Ku Klux Klan
- a white vigilante organization that engaged in terroristic violence with the aim of stopping Reconstruction
- redeemers
- a term used for southern whites committed to rolling back the gains of Reconstruction
- scalawags
- a pejorative term used for southern whites who supported Reconstruction
- sharecropping
- a crop-lien system in which people paid rent on land they farmed (but did not own) with the crops they grew


2.5: Other Computing Devices
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- Ly-Huong T. Pham, Tejal Desai-Naik, Laurie Hammond, & Wael Abdeljabbar
- ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)
A personal computer is designed to be a general-purpose device. That is, it can be used to solve many different types of problems. As the technologies of the personal computer have become more commonplace, many of the components have been integrated into other devices that previously were purely mechanical. We have also seen an evolution in what defines a computer. Ever since the invention of the personal computer, users have clamored for a way to carry them around. Here we will examine several types of devices that represent the latest trends in personal computing.
Portable Computers
In 1983, Compaq Computer Corporation developed the first commercially successful portable personal computer. By today’s standards, the Compaq PC was not very portable: weighing in at 28 pounds, this computer was portable only in the most literal sense – it could be carried around. But this was no laptop; the computer was designed like a suitcase, to be lugged around and laid on its side to be used. Besides portability, the Compaq was successful because it was fully compatible with the software being run by the IBM PC, which was the standard for business.
In the years that followed, portable computing continued to improve, giving us laptop and notebook computers. The “luggable” computer has given way to a much lighter clamshell computer that weighs from 4 to 6 pounds and runs on batteries. In fact, the most recent advances in technology give us a new class of laptops that is quickly becoming the standard: these laptops are extremely light and portable and use less power than their larger counterparts. The screens are larger, and the weight of some can be less than three pounds.
The ACER SWIFT 7 is a good example of this. Its specification is:
- CPU: Intel Core i7-7Y75
- Graphics: Intel HD Graphics 615
- RAM: 8GB
- Screen: 14-inch Full HD
- Storage: 256GB SSD
- Weight: 1.179 kg (2.6 pounds)
This is simply amazing!
Finally, as more and more organizations and individuals are moving much of their computing to the Internet or cloud, laptops are being developed that use “the cloud” for all of their data and application storage. These laptops are also extremely light because they have no need for a hard disk at all! A good example of this type of laptop (sometimes called a netbook) is Samsung’s Chromebook.
Smartphones
The first modern-day mobile phone was invented in 1973. Resembling a brick and weighing in at two pounds, it was priced out of reach for most consumers at nearly four thousand dollars.  As mobile phones evolved, they became more like small walking computers. These smartphones have many of the same characteristics as a personal computer, such as an operating system and memory. The first smartphone was the IBM Simon , introduced in 1994.
In January of 2007, Apple introduced the iPhone. Its ease of use and intuitive interface made it an immediate success and solidified the future of smartphones. Running on an operating system called iOS, the iPhone was really a small computer with a touch-screen interface. In 2008, the first Android phone was released, with similar functionality.
C onsider the following data regarding mobile computing :
- There are 4.57 billion global mobile Internet users as of April 2020. (Statista, 2020)
- It is expected by 2024, approximately 187.5 million U.S. users will have made at least one purchase via a web browser or mobile app on their mobile device.(Clement, 2020)
- In 2020, U.S. mobile retail revenues were expected to amount to 339.03 billion U.S. dollars.(Clement, 2019)
- The average order value for online orders placed on Smartphones in the second quarter of 2019 is $86.47, while the average order value for orders placed on Tablets is $96.88.(Clement, 2020)
- As of 2020, there are 4.5 billion active social media users in the world; As of July 2019, there were an estimated 3.46 billion actively using their mobile devices for social media-related activities. (Clement, 2020)
- 90 percent of the time spent on mobile devices is spent on apps. (Saccomani, 2019)
- Mobile traffic is responsible for 51.9 percent of Internet traffic in the first quarter of 2020 — compared to 50.3 percent from 2017. (Clement, 2020)
- While the total percentage of mobile traffic is more than desktop, engagement on the desktop is 46.51 percent in 2020. (Petrov, 2020)
- 2020, mobile traffic is at 51.3, and desktop engagement is at 48.7 percent over the years, users are moving away from the desktop. (Broadband Search, 2020)
Tablet Computers
The tablet is larger than a smartphone and smaller than a notebook. A tablet uses a touch screen as its primary input and is small enough and light enough to be easily transported. They generally have no keyboard and are self-contained inside a rectangular case. Apple set the standard for tablet computing with the introduction of the iPad in 2010 using iOS, the operating system of the iPhone. After the success of the iPad, computer manufacturers began to develop new tablets that utilized operating systems that were designed for mobile devices, such as Android.
Global market share for tablets has changed since the early days of Apple’s dominance. Today the iPad has about 58.66%, Samsung at 21.73%, and Amazon at 5.55% as of June 2020 (Statistica: E-commerce, 2020). The market popularity of the tablet has been steadily declining in recent years.
Integrated Computing and Internet of Things (IoT)
Along with advances in computers themselves, computing technology is being integrated into many everyday products such as security systems, thermostats, refrigerators, airplanes, cars, electronic appliances, lights in the household, alarm clocks, speaker systems, vending machines, and commercial environments, just to name a few. Integrated computing technology has enhanced the capabilities of these devices and adds capabilities into our everyday lives, thanks in part to IoT.
These three short videos highlight some of the latest ways computing technologies are being integrated into everyday products through the Internet of Things (IoT):
- The video is about the internet of things.: The Internet of Things [video file: 3:21 minutes] Closed Captioned
- This video is about how to update your home to a smart home.: How to start a Smart Home in 2020 [video file: 2:01 minutes] Closed Captioned
- This video takes you for a drive in Tesla’s autopilot mode.: How Tesla’sAuto-pilot Mode Work [video file: 10:04 minutes] Closed Captioned
The Commoditization of the Personal Computer
Since the late 1970’s the personal computer has gone from a technical marvel to part of our everyday lives; it has also become a commodity. The PC has become a commodity in the sense that there is very little differentiation between computers, and the primary factor that controls their sale is their price. Hundreds of manufacturers all over the world now create parts for personal computers. Dozens of companies buy these parts and assemble the computers. As commodities, there are essentially no differences between computers made by these different companies. Profit margins for personal computers are razor-thin, leading hardware developers to find the lowest-cost manufacturing.
Apple has differentiated itself from the pack and achieved a competitive advantage in a challenging market. The cost of their product is significantly higher, but you are buying a high-quality product and design. Apple designs both the hardware as well as their software in-house. The hardware and software design of the Mac works seamlessly with its other products such as the iPhone and iPad. The engineers at Apple are constantly updating software apps and updating hardware in order to remain a leader in the PC world.
This is an interesting article on the newest innovation for smartphones (Stuff, 2020) .
Smartphone shipments are forecasted from 2010 to 2023 to grow from 304.7M units in 2010 to an estimate of 1.484 billion units in 2023 (Statista, 2019).
The Problem of Electronic Waste
Personal computers have become a common fixture in households since the early eighties. The average life span of many of these devices is between three to five years. Recycling has become a hot subject for companies who want to be viewed by consumers as Green companies. Consumers are demanding companies make a commitment to the environment. Worldwide, almost 45 million tons of electronics were tossed out in 2016 . Out of that staggering amount of electronic waste, only 20% has been recycled in some shape or form. The remaining 80% made its way to a more environmentally damaging end at the landfill. Mobile phones are now available in even the remotest parts of the world and, after a few years of use, they are discarded. Where does this electronic debris end up?
Many developing nations accept this e-waste. Abroad, these recyclers re-purpose parts and extract minerals, gold, and cobalt from these devices. These dumps have become health hazards for those living near them.
Proper safe practices are ignored, and whatever waste is not usable is dumped improperly. Consumers are trying to change this common practice by demanding companies be transparent as to how they are addressing e-waste. Though many manufacturers have made strides in using materials that can be recycled, electronic waste is a problem with which we must all deal with.
In 2006 the Green Electronics Council launched the Electronic Product Environmental Assessment Tool (EPEAT). This tool helps purchasers of electronics to evaluate the effect of products on the environment. They give a ranking of how companies are doing in gold, silver, and bronze levels. When the first began, three manufactures of PC and electronic equipment manufactures participated with 60 products. The US government in 2007 then created the U.S. Federal Acquisition Regulations (FAR), requiring federal agencies to make purchases based on EPEAT status. In 2015 EPEAT added in Imaging Equipment and Television categories. Today many large companies are using EPEAT standards such as Amazon and Apple. EPEAT systems are widely accepted, and over 43 countries are participating, and the number continues to grow.
References
Broadband Search (2020). Mobile Vs. Desktop Internet Usage . Retrieved September 1, 2020, from https://www.broadbandsearch.net/blog/mobile-desktop-internet-usage-statistics
Statista (2019). Mobile share of website visits worldwide 2018 . Retrieved September 1, 2020, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/241462/global-mobile-phone-website-traffic-share
Clement, J. (2020, July 16). U.S. mobile buyers 2020 . Retrieved September 1, 2020, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/241471/number-of-mobile-buyers-in-the-us
Coldfusion. (2015). How Tesla’sAuto-pilot Mode Works . Youtube. [video file: 10:04 minutes] Closed Captioned
Edureka! (2020). The Internet of Things . Youtube. [video file: 3:21 minutes] Closed Captioned
Petrov, C. (2020, August 11). 55+ Mobile Vs. Desktop Usage Stats You Should Know in 2020 . Retrieved September 1, 2020, from https://techjury.net/blog/mobile-vs-desktop-usage/
Six Months later reviews. (2020). How to start a Smart Home in 2020 . Youtube. [video file: 2:01 minutes] Closed Captioned
Statista (2020). Key Figures in E-Commerce . Retrieved September 1, 2020, from https://www.statista.com/search/?q=+Key+Figures+of+E-Commerce&qKat=search
Striapunina, K. (2020, June 08). E-commerce revenue in China 2017-2024 . Retrieved September 1, 2020, from https://www.statista.com/forecasts/246041/e-commerce-revenue-forecast-in-china


3.5: Multi-channel Factors to Consider
- Identify the factors that need to be adjusted depending on the channel
As you’ve read, organizational discipline and infrastructure is critical to managing a multi-channel marketing strategy. Specifically, firms need to ensure that consumers, regardless of channels, receive consistency and service during their shopping experience and beyond. Common areas where this can go awry are pricing, promotion, analytics, and technology.
It begins with the customer journey. That is, the specific path to purchase taken by a shopper as they consider, research and ultimately make a purchase. This path is rarely a straight-line. More likely is that it includes multiple iterations, activities, technology and channels. It might be useful to think about a shopping experience to add context to the customer journey.
Let’s plan a trip to Disneyworld in Orlando, FL. We need to consider flights. Where should we look for the best options? Should we go directly to the airline? Delta.com? What about an aggregator like orbitz.com or expedia.com? Would it make sense to search for travel packages? Maybe we should look at Disney’s Facebook page to see if there are special offers or programs being promoted. How would the search be different for hotels? Would we search marriott.com or hilton.com? What about Disney properties? Or, is our best option an aggregator? The same ones or should we include hotels.com? Should we check Google to find out how far it is from the parks? Maybe we should consider on-line reviews also. There are a lot of blogs to read, if we want. Do we know anyone who has visited recently? Let’s e-mail them to get their recommendations. Think about the questions that arise and the searches that they’ve inspired. Imagine the screen of your phone, tablet or computer. How many browsers, search tabs, or apps are open? Do you see where this customer journey has carried you, before we even consider thinking about the park tickets, rides and characters?
The Customer Journey helps us understand the multiple touch-points consumers have, before they transact. And, equally important, the instances when they could leave the path to purchase, preferring a different channel instead. With this as the backdrop, let’s think through again the factors to consider in multi-channel marketing.
Pricing
For our imagined trip to Orlando, we considered shopping for flights on delta.com, orbitz.com and expedia.com. What were we shopping for? The most convenient schedule or the lowest fare? Let’s assume it’s the latter, and we wanted to find the cheapest possible flights for our trip. What’s the message you get if you’re able to find cheaper flights on orbitz.com than on the carrier’s own website? What would this mean for Delta if flights purchased outside their system were less expensive?
While our planned trip is a simple example of how prices can change across channels and outlets, it underscores the challenges in managing pricing. Firms can manage around this, if they invest and engage in product information management (PIM). These systems help firms by managing product information, which is released to other media, like web sites, print catalogs, and data feeds to trading partners. Without them, however, firms will have difficulty maintaining price consistency across channels.
Promotion
Like our consideration of pricing, firms need to be conscious of how promotions are delivered across channels. Consider our hotel room search. How would we react if we found an offer on hotels.com that wasn’t consistent or available from hilton.com?
Firms have finite marketing budgets and a growing number of channels in which to spend them. However, without a clear understanding of the path to purchase, channel roles in each step, and attribution of what each channel contributes, marketers are left making uninformed promotional investments. With better data, firms can target promotional activity in the correct channel at the correct point in the customer journey to support the overall path to purchase.
Analytics
Let’s move forward in our planning for Disneyworld. We’ve purchased a vacation package through a travel agency we found on-line. The firm continually invests in search engine optimization to ensure that their site is easily found, when shoppers search for vacation packages. They engage in search engine marketing to ensure that they are a top listing on specific consumer searches like Orlando + Disney + Packages. They maintain a Facebook site, where they share the comments of happy customers who have booked through them. They have an Instagram feed where they do the same, posting others’ vacation pictures.
With all these channels and all this activity, which requires investment, how does the travel agency know what interaction with a shopper tipped the shopper to visit or to call or to buy? Did a shopper visit each channel or only some? Did they spend time equally at each or not? Are they all equally important, or does one matter most?
The challenge of analysis and attribution is important because it helps you understand shopper behavior throughout the customer journey and illustrates where and how to make investments by channel. Further, attribution can help you understand how each channel performs, which can help you optimize for the best possible customer experience to support conversion, repeat purchases, and loyalty.
Technology
Technology underpins so much in supporting a multi-channel marketing strategy. As you’ve read, a PIM system manages product information to be shared with other media. In the same way, inventory management systems add transparency in product availability—inventory control, shipping and distribution. And, attribution models help firms understand how consumers engage across different channels, media and assets. In using these tools, and others, firms can ensure consistency and service even across multiple channels.
Firms pursuing a multi-channel marketing strategy need to ensure that consumers, regardless of channels, receive consistency and service during their shopping experience and beyond. This requires a full understanding of the customer journey, so that the firm understands all possible points of interaction with the customer and their needs at each point. To have consistency and good service, firms must maintain focus on pricing, promotion, analytics, and technology.
Contributors and Attributions
- Multi-channel Factors to Consider. Authored by : Patrick Williams. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Disneyworld Castle. Authored by : Clement Bardot. Provided by : Wikimedia Commons. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Magic_Kingdom,_Disney_World.jpg . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike


6.4: Units manufactured less than units sold
The following is a side-by-side comparison of variable and absorption costing income statements when 10,000 units have been manufactured and 15,000 units have been sold.
|
Variable Costing Income Statement |
|||
|
Sales |
$750,000 |
15,000 x $50 |
|
|
Variable cost of goods sold |
375,000 |
15,000 x $25 |
|
|
Manufacturing margin |
$375,000 |
||
|
Variable selling and administrative expenses |
75,000 |
15,000 x $5 |
|
|
Contribution margin |
$300,000 |
||
|
Fixed costs: |
|||
|
Fixed manufacturing costs |
$150,000 |
||
|
Fixed selling and administrative expenses |
50,000 |
||
|
Total fixed costs |
200,000 |
||
|
Operating income |
$100,000 |
|
Absorption Costing Income Statement |
|||
|
Sales |
$750,000 |
15,000 x $50 |
• Cost of goods sold equals the 15,000 units sold times the sum of the variable manufacturing cost per unit of $25 plus the fixed manufacturing cost per unit of $15 ($150,000 total fixed cost / 10,000 units produced.) |
|
Cost of goods sold |
575,000 |
5,000 x ($25 + $10) + 10,000 x ($25 + $15) |
|
|
Gross profit |
$175,000 |
||
|
Selling and administrative expenses |
125,000 |
(15,000 x $5) + 50,000 |
|
|
Operating income |
$50,000 |
What is unchanged at 10,000 vs. 15,000 units manufactured:
- The entire variable costing income statement
- Selling and administrative expenses on the absorption costing income statement
When more units are sold than are manufactured, there are fewer units in ending inventory than there were in beginning inventory. Some of the beginning inventory had to be sold to fulfill the order for more than what was produced. In this case, 5,000 of the units sold came from beginning inventory. Operating income under variable costing is higher than under absorption costing when inventory decreases. This is because under variable costing the fixed factory overhead that is expensed off during the period is only for units produced, even if more units are sold than were produced. Under absorption costing, the fixed overhead is included in the higher number of units sold, resulting in higher overall expenses and therefore lower operating income.


41.0: Appendix A- International System of Units
The International System of Units (abbreviated SI for Système Internationale ) is a system of units of measurement that was established in 1960 and consists of base units and derived units of measurement. This system, more commonly known as the metric system, is periodically updated and maintained by the General Conference on Weights and Measures (GCWM).
The SI system is the most widely used measurement system internationally; however, the United States has not fully adopted the system. It continues to use the U.S. customary system of measurement, except in health care. The common base units and derived units include body mass index, length, mass, temperature, and volume. Table A1 shows the common units derived from the SI and used in health care. Table A2 shows the common prefixes for this system.
For additional information on the SI system, refer to the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) website.
| Measurement | Name | Symbol |
|---|---|---|
| Body mass index | Kilogram per meter squared | kg/m 2 |
| Length | Meter | m |
| Mass | Gram | g |
| Temperature | Degrees Celsius | °C |
| Volume | Liter | L |
| Whole Units | Decimal Units | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Thousands | Hundreds | Tens | SI Unit | Tenths | Hundredths | Thousandths |
| 1000 | 100 | 10 | 1 | 0.1 | 0.01 | 0.001 |
| Kilo– | Hecto– | Deka– |
Meter
Gram Liter |
Deci– | Centi– | Milli– |


6.2: Comparing Location Benefits
- Compare and contrast the benefits of various retail locations
Where are you going to locate your business? A mall? Main Street? Or off the beaten path somewhere? Each potential area has pros and cons to consider! Let’s take a look at some of these spaces.
Unplanned shopping areas, also called central business districts (CBD), are spaces that have simply developed over time. A downtown area in a small town, neighborhood districts or strips along highways would be considered unplanned locations. These were not intentionally create as areas for retail to be located, but have morphed and developed into shopping spaces. These unplanned shopping spaces may be freestanding, isolated stores in rural locations too. Unplanned shopping areas have their pros and cons. Typically, they have developed out of need. They may have high pedestrian traffic or be located near public transportation. Unfortunately they also have parking issues, security issues (each business would need their own) and a potentially high shoplifting rate.
These unplanned spaces have some of the coolest non-traditional spaces. A farm store that sells products from the farm in a rural location, or a restaurant that is off the beaten path. These fun little places that are most likely freestanding, potentially in isolated areas have several advantages. The cost of occupancy may be quite low. They are separate from competition and there may be few restrictions for them to operate. Parking can be pretty easy too. Unfortunately, these types of locations won’t get any foot traffic and there are no other stores drawing business to them. They need to stand out and have something worth travelling to get!
Planned shopping areas include malls, which were architecturally designed for shopping. Many have anchor stores, or large retail stores, with smaller stores between them. These locations can be strip malls, enclosed malls (like the Mall of America), or any other intentionally created space for retail. Typically, these places are owned by a property development firm, with many tenants, shared common spaces. These planned spaces typically have high visibility and customer traffic. Once shoppers come in, they walk around, right? Parking is usually in a lot format, so lots of space to park, but the cost of occupancy in these planned areas can be high. This can be offset with greater sales, due to the additional foot traffic, but it is definitely something to consider.
There are a variety of planned shopping areas including:
- Omnicenters are large planned centers that may include a variety of retail formats in a single shopping location. Usually put in larger population areas, they are intended to meet the needs of cross-shopping consumers.
- Lifestyle centers are located in upscale areas and have specialty chain stores, restaurants and even theatres.
- Outlet centers are another form of planned shopping area. Originally, these locations were used to sell damaged, discontinued or surplus merchandise, but they are now selling product made by retailers specifically for the outlet stores. These products may be of a lower quality than sold at their regular retail outlets.
- Mixed use developments may have shopping, restaurants, hotels and residential space all within one planned space. People can live, work and eat in a proximal area.
So whether you do all of your analysis and end up in a planned or unplanned space, each will have benefits and negatives. It will depend on what your product or service is, your price point and a variety of other demographics to determine the best location for your business. Finding this information using the U.S. Census Bureau, GIS analysis and other sources of information to determine a good fit.
Contributors and Attributions
- Comparing Location Benefits. Authored by : Freedom Learning Group. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


3.1: Electromagnetic Induction
What is this electromagnetic induction of which you speak?
Electromagnetic induction is when a voltage is created by passing a conductor through a magnetic field.
The size of the voltage can be varied by three factors:
- The size of the magnetic field. The more flux lines there are, the more flux lines there are for the conductor to cut. The strength of flux is directly proportional to the induced voltage.
- The active length of the conductor. Active length meaning the part of the conductor that actually passes through the field. The active length is directly proportional to the induced voltage.
- The speed at which the conductor passes through the field. The faster the conductor passed through the field, the greater the voltage induced. The speed is directly proportional to the induced voltage.
These relationships to voltage can be broken into this formula:
\[e = βlv.\]
Where:
- \(e\) = peak voltage induced in the inductor (volts)
- \(B\) = field strength between the poles (Tesla)
- \(l\) = active length of conductor (meters)
- \(v\) = velocity of the conductor through the field (m/sec)
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\):
A conductor that has an active length of 4 meters passes through a field of 5 Tesla at a speed of 15 meters per second. Determine the peak voltage induced on this conductor.
Solution
(4 m)(5 T)(15 m/sec) = 300 volts peak
That’s crazy! Who discovered that? The discovery of electromagnetic induction is attributed to Michael Faraday who discovered that when he passed a magnetic field through a conductor a current would flow. As long as there was motion between the field and the conductor, a voltage could be induced. This could mean the conductor passes through a field or a field passed through a conductor.


1.1: Personal Responsibility
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One of our favorite topics in this course is “personal responsibility.” There is so much power in believing that we have control over many of the choices and outcomes that we experience in our lives. Of course there will be events that are out of our control. For the purposes of this chapter, we are concentrating on those events over which we do have control. For example, a pandemic occurring is completely out of our control. None of us are responsible for that event happening. How we choose to respond to the pandemic, however, is within our control. Personal responsibility involves choices and focuses on making good decisions which help to further our personal and professional goals.
We want to introduce this topic by telling you a story about two students:
Erica is taking nine credits this semester. She works 20 hours a week and also has three children ages four, six and ten. Her life is very hectic, and when she decided to go back to school, she was not even sure how she would fit everything in. At the start of the semester, Erica made a plan that allows her to fit in a little school work and study time each day. She wakes up at 5 AM Monday through Friday to allow herself to get two hours of schoolwork in before her kids wake up.
Ronnie is taking 12 credits this semester. He does not work or have children. He is finding himself falling behind in his classes because he spends a lot of time playing video games and scrolling through social media. He does not have a concrete plan for how he approaches completing his schoolwork, and he often procrastinates and waits until the last minute to complete assignments.
Looking at both of these students, whom would you say has more “personal responsibility?” Who seems to be taking control of the situation and making decisions to get closer to achieving goals? The answer is easy to see - Erica is. Even though Erica has much more on her plate than Ronnie, she is making choices that put her in a better situation. She is choosing to make school a priority. She is taking responsibility for herself by waking up early and completing schoolwork. With all that Erica has on her plate, she easily could make excuses. However, Erica knows that excuses do not help anything and only bring temporary gratification.
Although Ronnie and Erica are not real people, we see students like this every day. Some students make choices that lead them on a path to success, while other students self-sabotage by making destructive choices. Successful students take personal responsibility for their actions and believe that their success in college is within their control.
Time management is the key to success. Take out your phone on day one. Schedule 1 hour a day for 6 days a week (do this for each class you are taking). Have your phone notify you when the time approaches. Leave your phone in another room when it goes off so you don't get distracted. Work completely on HACC for that one hour. Within 10 days you will have created a habit of studying for 6 hours a week.
- Kristy Vukoder, Adjunct Instructor, Foundational Studies


1: General concept- Newton's 2nd law
The wind blowing over your house, the Gulf Stream flowing through the North Atlantic Ocean from Florida to Europe, the jet stream at 10 km altitude... All these different flows in the atmosphere and in the ocean can be understood using ideas from the physics of fluids.
A fluid is any substance that is able to flow which can be a gas, a liquid, or in some cases even a solid. In reality, fluids consist of molecules, particles that interact with each other. However, fluid mechanics deals with very large collections of such particles and it would be impossible to describe all the interactions between them. Therefore, the individual particles and their interactions are not taken into account: fluids are considered as a continuum. Essentially, fluid mechanics is the application of Newton's 2nd law of motion to a flowing continuum. Newton's 2nd law succinctly states:
\[F =m \dfrac{dv}{dt} \label{1.1}\]
Or, the time rate of change in velocity (\(v\)) of a body is proportional to the net force (\(F\)) applied to that body. As a result, the change in the velocity of a small (infinitesimal) parcel of fluid is given by the sum of all the forces that operate on this fluid parcel. The picture on top of this page shows the example of blowing wind, but the same principles apply to ocean flows. All the time, various forces act on the flow; how the flow will develop, depends on all the forces taken together. For flows in the atmosphere and ocean, the collection of forces boils down to:
- Acceleration = pressure gradient force + Coriolis force + friction (horizontal)
- Acceleration = pressure gradient force + gravity + friction (vertical)
Or in mathematical terms:
\[\dfrac{du}{dt}=-\dfrac{\left(\dfrac{dp}{dx}\right)}{\rho}+f * v +K_h \left(\dfrac{d^2u}{dx^2}+\dfrac{d^2u}{dy^2}\right)+K_v\dfrac{d^2u}{dz^2} \label{1.2a}\]
\[\dfrac{dv}{dt}=-\dfrac{\left(\dfrac{dp}{dy}\right)}{\rho}-f * u +K_h \left(\dfrac{d^2v}{dx^2}+\dfrac{d^2v}{dy^2}\right)+K_v\dfrac{d^2v}{dz^2} \label{1.2b}\]
\[\dfrac{dw}{dt}=-\dfrac{\left(\dfrac{dp}{dz}\right)}{\rho}-g+K_h \left(\dfrac{d^2w}{dx^2}+\dfrac{d^2w}{dy^2}\right)+K_v\dfrac{d^2w}{dz^2} \label{1.2c}\]
Here, \(u\) is the velocity in the zonal (West to East) direction, \(v\) is the velocity in the meridional (South to North) direction, and \(w\) is the velocity in the vertical direction. Furthermore, \(p\) is the pressure, \(\rho\) is the density of the fluid, \(f\) the Coriolis parameter, and \(g\) is the gravitational acceleration. \(K_h\) and \(K_v\) are the horizontal and vertical friction coefficients; these are different, because on the large atmospheric and oceanic scales, momentum dispersion is primarily due to turbulence , rather than molecular diffusion. In the following sections, each of these different forces will be discussed in more detail.