1.4: Environmental Ethics
Most human societies today aim to protect biodiversity through rules and regulations (Chapter 12). An alternative approach is to change the fundamental materialistic values of modern society to values that prioritise genuine and lasting human well-being. This is the goal of environmental ethics, a discipline within philosophy that emphasises the ethical values of biodiversity. The foundation of environmental ethics lies in the philosophical principle that every organism of Earth has a right to exist, regardless of its usefulness to humans, so any action that negatively impacts biodiversity would be considered unethical.
Because human quality of life is intricately linked to the ability of the natural world to prosper (Chapter 4), the ethical arguments for biodiversity conservation hold even for people who value only human life. Or, in other words, respect for human life—even our instincts for self-preservation—should compel us to preserve biodiversity. In contrast, if we neglect our assumed responsibility to act as guardians of life on Earth, future generations will suffer with a lower quality of life. We can already see signs of this today: as species are lost and natural ecosystems replaced with sprawling cities, children are increasingly deprived of the wonderful experience of seeing a ‘new’ animal (Figure 1.4) or pretty flower. We can imagine that we are borrowing Earth from future generations, and that it is our responsibility to ensure that they receive it in good condition.
Because of this close link between nature and human well-being, the concept of nature preservation has permeated through the value systems of most human cultures, philosophies, and religions throughout history. This is especially relevant in Africa, where most (if not all) traditional societies have a deep connection with nature that is woven into their spiritual beliefs and customs (Figure 1.5). Our responsibility to protect animals is also explicitly described in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic traditions. Other major religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Taoism also strongly support the preservation of non-human life. In light of accelerated biodiversity losses, faith-based groups have recently started playing a more active role in conservation, particularly among urbanised people. They do this by informing adherents that it is wrong to allow the destruction of nature, and that such destructive activities can have negative consequences for all people on Earth. These links between faith-based organizations and conservation have given rise to consortiums such as the Forum on Religion and Ecology ( http://fore.yale.edu ), the Alliance of Religions and Conservation ( http://www.arcworld.org ), and the SCB’s Religion and Conservation Working Group ( https://twitter.com/ReligionConBio ), as well as the emerging field of spiritual ecology (Vaughan-Lee, 2016).
Environmental ethics has strong links to the environmental justice movement and has recently established strong ties to the social justice movement. Some of the most exciting developments in this direction involve initiatives that combine protection activities with community upliftment programs that improve the well-being of local peoples (Box 1.2; see also Section 14.3). These developments have shown that when poor and marginalised people are empowered to protect the environment, they may act as strong local guardians of forests, coastal areas, and other ecosystems that may have been destroyed otherwise.
Rosmarie Ruf & Marcel Enckoto
Okapi Conservation Project,
Okapi Wildlife Reserve,
Epulu, DRC.
https://www.okapiconservation.org
The Okapi Wildlife Reserve, a World Heritage Site in peril, is located within the dense, tropical Ituri Forest in north-eastern DRC. The reserve was created to protect the okapi (Okapia johnstoni, EN) (Stephenson and Newby, 1997). Researchers estimate that there are between 10,000 and 25,000 okapi (Figure 1.B) left in the wild, but with populations appearing to have declined by more than 50% over the last 15 years (Kümpel et al., 2015). The reserve also protects charismatic species like forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis), 14 species of primates, including chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes, EN), leopards, forest buffalo (Syncerus caffer nanus), and bongo antelope (Tragelaphus eurycerus, NT).
Since 1987, the Okapi Conservation Project has partnered with the Congo Institute for Conservation of Nature, the government agency responsible for the Okapi Wildlife Reserve’s management, to provide financial and technical support for the operation of the reserve and preservation of the surrounding Ituri Forest. The project is partially managed and funded by Wildlife Conservation Global, a non-profit NGO based in Florida, USA.
Despite the support, conservation managers in this region face various challenges due to political instability since the 1990s. This has led to the deaths and displacement of millions of residents and rampant poaching in the area and beyond. Epulu Station, the reserve’s headquarters, was tragically attacked in 2012, resulting in hostage taking, destruction and looting of the headquarters’ infrastructure, and the deaths of staff and families, as well as 14 okapis at the captive breeding station.
To meet its goals in this difficult environment, the Okapi Conservation Project has seven objectives aimed at enhancing conservation, safety, and community:
- Financially supporting the operation of the reserve, paying warden and guard bonuses, building informer and monitoring networks, and providing necessities, such as food rations for patrols, fuel and spare parts for travel and field equipment.
- Maintaining and building infrastructure in the region that includes an airstrip, okapi pens, patrol posts for rangers, and high-quality tourism facilities. The project has also outfitted 20 health centres with necessities and has overseen the refurbishment and setup of territory offices in Mambasa and Wamba, the construction of a primary school in Epulu, and rehabilitation of medical dispensaries in Sondo and Koki.
- Breeding okapi in captivity for release into their natural habitat to boost non-captive population numbers and genetic diversity. Between 1987 and 2012, the project succeeded in producing 11 calves.
- Promoting environmental education, public engagement, and public awareness. Project staff achieves this by developing and implementing school programs in and around the reserve, presenting seminars in primary and secondary schools, and producing radio broadcasts. They also facilitate focus group meetings with women and farmers, public meetings in villages, work with local committees, and produce outreach materials such as conservation films, calendars, leaflets, and posters. The Okapi Conservation Project has already supplied 112 schools with educational materials.
- Facilitating tourism activities, including visits around the Epulu Station and zoo, forest walks, and participation in traditional hunting.
- Promoting food security in local communities by providing seeds and farming tools to more than 900 farmers in and around the reserve. In addition, more than 142 women have benefited from sewing and embroidery materials, and participation in community farm fields.
- Offering medical care to more than 300 families, a total of more than 1,500 family members, who work at the reserve.
The work of staff at the Okapi Conservation Project and Congo Institute for Conservation of Nature is not easy due to political instability, breakdown of law and order, and lack of financial security. The Reserve and surrounding area also face increasing pressures from mining, poaching, and logging interests. But the project is necessary to help preserve the unique biodiversity of this Global Biodiversity Hotspot. In coming years, we hope that governance of the region will continue to improve and restore peace, justice, and the socio-economic status of local people. In such a situation, local communities and ecosystems, including the okapi, will benefit.
1.4.1 Conservation biology’s ethical principles
Conservation biology rests on a set of underlying ethical principles that is generally agreed upon (Soulé, 1985) and can be summarised as follows:
- The diversity of species and biological communities should be preserved: Most people appreciate biodiversity. Hundreds of millions of people visit national parks, game reserves, zoos, botanical gardens, and aquaria each year. They spend money and take actions to protect these places and species. People also recognize that biodiversity has economic value, whether through tourism, consumption, or other services.
- The untimely extinction of populations and species should be prevented: Throughout history, species have occasionally died off as a result of natural, non-human causes. The loss of a local population was generally temporary, until a new population established itself through dispersal. However, human activities have increased the rate at which species are going extinct by more than a hundredfold (Box 1.3). Meanwhile, there is no similar increase in the rate at which new populations and species are being created.
- Ecological complexity should be maintained: In complex natural environments, biodiversity expresses many of its most valuable features and interactions. Although the biodiversity of species may be partially preserved in captivity, maintaining ecological complexity requires that natural areas be preserved.
- Evolution should continue: Evolution creates new species, increases biodiversity over time, and facilitates adaptation to changing environmental conditions. People can help preserve these evolutionary processes by maintaining genetic diversity in wild populations and allowing populations to exchange genetic material. In captivity, many natural evolutionary processes do not occur, which can hamper survival when species are reintroduced in the wild.
- Biodiversity has intrinsic value: The value of species, communities, and ecosystems does not depend on their utility to people. They are intrinsically valuable on their own, with unique evolutionary histories and ecological roles. There are certain iconic species that people simply want to have around, but other, lesser-known species or species seen as problematic to people are not less valuable.
Nkengifor Nkeshia Valery
Regina International Cameroon,
Member of Union Farms of Africa,
Yaoundé, Cameroon.
What happened over the past 200 years that we have arrived where we are? How did we get to this modern paradox? A society where we cherish comfort at the cost of the ever-increasing destruction of our planet. Never in the history of humanity has the environment been degraded to the point that even the air we breathe has become cancerous. Animals are exploited by industries at an alarming rate and those remaining are killed to enrich a privileged few.  Our inheritance from God, the source of all our nourishment, does not belong to us. Yet it has been bought and exploited by multinational corporations and financial markets that hinder us from cultivating sustainably. We are pushed to feed ourselves and our crops with chemical products that are dangerous to our long-term health. We are also experiencing the start of the sixth mass extinction episode of biodiversity (Ceballos et al., 2017). As a result, the natural world has declared World War III against humanity. This is a war fought not by nation against nation, but that the environment has declared against the whole human race.
This war condemns us to live in an illusion of freedom; we are, in fact, destroyed at an increasing rate by different dangerous diseases and rendered slaves of the polluted environments that we blindly accept. The question we need to ask is not whether we should act to save our planet, but what future and meaning we are going to give the word “HUMANITY”. We are all actors in a civilisation that we are constructing; to quote the Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi: “If we could change ourselves, the tendencies in the world would also change. As a man changes his own nature, so does the attitude of the world change towards him. […] We need not wait to see what others do”. Let us pause and ask ourselves what we want the future to say of us. Are we a destructive generation, or a generation that is ready to sustainably preserve its biodiversity? It is a question every reader needs to ponder. The future is judging no one and blaming no one, but it needs us to change our habits towards protecting the world’s biodiversity.
To change our attitude and make the world a better place, I drafted the following poem with passion to see my words become action for every lover of biodiversity
WORLD CHANGERS
WE ARE A PEOPLE OF PEACE CALLED FORTH OUT OF HUMANITY INTO RESTORING LIFE TO OUR NATURAL HABITAT.WE ARE GOVERNED AND GUIDED BY A SENSE OF SUSTAINABILITY.CONSERVATION AND PROTECTION IS OUR PRIORITY IN ALL THINGS AT ALL TIMES WE ARE LED AND DRIVEN BY THE SPIRIT OF AN ENVIRONMENT FREE OF POLLUTION WE ARE CALLED TO EFFECT AND AFFECT EVERY LIFE THAT WE COME IN CONTACT WITH TOWARDS THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT
WE ARE CALLED BY HUMANITY TO BE WORLD CHANGERS WE REFUSE TO CONFORM WITH THE THINKING PATTERN OF THE WORLD SYSTEM BECAUSE WE ARE WORLD CHANGERS
These principles are not absolute, nor are conservation biologists required to agree with them—they are actively discussed and debated. But many individuals and organizations agree with two, three, or all the principles, and support conservation efforts.


9.14: Current Issues in Corrections- Aging and Overcrowding
Aging Prisoners
https://www.prisonterminal.com/ .
Overcrowding
Rates of Correctional Control
[3] report details the volume of individuals with each state. Please take a moment to review the last portion of this report to see how many are under correctional control, found here: https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/correctionalcontrol2018.html#statedata
[4] This similar issue was presented in California over ten years ago. A three-judge panel ruled with the prisoners, citing the need for California to reduce its prison population to a level where the individuals could effectively be managed, and cared for [emphasis on the latter]. Dealing with overcrowding is a constant issue for most prisons and jails. Some have resolved to release more out into the community at a higher volume, on parole or just release. However, this too has its own set of problems, as reentry is now becoming the current issue within corrections.
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McKillop, M., & Boucher, A. (2018). Aging prison populations drive up costs. Older individuals have more chronic illnesses and other ailments that necessitate greater spending. Available at:
https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/articles/2018/02/20/aging-prison-populations-drive-up-costs
↵
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McKillop, M., & Boucher, A. (2018). Aging prison populations drive up costs. Older individuals have more chronic illnesses and other ailments that necessitate greater spending. Available at:
https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/articles/2018/02/20/aging-prison-populations-drive-up-costs
↵
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Jones, A. (2018). Correctional control 2018: Incarceration and supervision by state Prison Policy Initiative. Available at:
https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/correctionalcontrol2018.html#statedata
.
↵
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Estelle v. Gamble
, 429 U.S. 97 (1976).
↵


3.4: Immobility and Assisting Patients
When patients are recovering from illness, they may require assistance to move around in bed, to transfer from bed to wheelchair, or to ambulate. Changing patient positions in bed and mobilization are also vital to prevent contractures from immobility, maintain muscle strength, prevent pressure ulcers, and help body systems function properly for optimal health and healing (Perry et al., 2014). The amount of assistance each patient will require depends on the patient’s previous health status, age, type of illness, and length of stay (Perry et al., 2014).
Types of Assistance
At times, patients are assessed and given a “level of assistance” required for transferring. This is most common in residential care settings. The level of assistance is based on the patient’s ability to transfer and stand. The terms describing different levels of assistance are used by health care providers to communicate with each other so everyone understands what type of assistance is required. The assistance needed is usually charted on the patient’s Kardex, above the head of the bed, and/or on the patient’s chart. Table 3.4 describes different types of assistance in the hospital and community setting.
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Table 3.4 Level of Assistance |
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Level of Assistance |
Description |
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| Independent | The patient is able to transfer independently and safely. | ||
| Standby supervision |
The patient requires no physical assistance but may require verbal reminder.
This type of patient may also be learning to transfer independently using a wheelchair, walker, or cane. |
||
| Minimal assist | The patient is cooperative but needs minimal physical assistance with the transfer. | ||
| One-person standing pivot |
The patient can bear weight on one or both legs and is cooperative and predictable.
The patient also can sit with minimal support on the side of the bed. |
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| Two-person standing pivot |
The patient can assist with weight bearing, but may be inconsistent.
The patient is cooperative and predictable. |
||
| One-person assist with transfer board |
The patient is cooperative, follows directions, and has good trunk control.
The patient can use their arms, but cannot bear weight on both legs. |
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| Two-person assist with transfer board |
The patient is cooperative and can follow directions.
The patient can use their arms, but cannot bear weight on both legs. The patient does not have good trunk control. The patient’s wheelchair has removable arms. |
||
| Mechanical stand |
The patient may have some ability to stand, but is unreliable.
The patient may be unpredictable (due to cognitive changes, medications). The patient is a heavy two-person transfer and requires toileting or pericare. The patient does not have severe limb contractures or injuries where movement is medically contraindicated (e.g., spinal injury). Use of a mechanical lift. |
||
| Data source: Winnipeg Regional Health Authority (WRHA), 2008 |
Special considerations:
- Assess the patient every time before a move as a patient’s condition may worsen or improve throughout the hospital stay.
- Results of assessments should be properly documented according to agency policy to ensure safe transfers for all health care providers.
- Any patient-handling injuries must be reported using the British Columbia Patient Safety and Learning System (BCPSLS) , a web-based tool used to report and learn about safety events, near misses, and hazards in health care settings (BCPSLS, 2015).
If the patient is cooperative, able to bear weight, and has some balance to sit (see Checklist 24: Risk Assessment), the health care provider must decide how much assistance the patient needs. Table 3.5 provides guidelines to consider.
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Table 3.5 Assistance Required for Transfer |
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Assess |
Description |
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Minimal |
One-person transfer with gait belt The patient is able to perform 75% of the required activity on their own. |
||
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Moderate |
Two-person transfer with a gait belt, a stander, or a two-person transfer with a slide board and a gait belt The patient is able to perform 50% of the required activity on their own. |
||
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Maximum |
Stander or a two-person transfer with a slide board and gait belt The patient is able to perform 25% of the required activity on their own. |
||
| Data source: WRHA, 2008 |
Special considerations:
- The weight, height, and general physical, mental, or emotional condition of the patient all influence the potential for injury.
- If the patient is uncooperative or unable to follow commands, there is an increased risk for injury. It is recommended that a mechanical lift or assistive device be used to prevent injury to the health care provider and patient.
- If there is any question about the patient’s ability, always reassess.
Critical Thinking Exercises
- A patient requires no assistance from the health care provider except for the occasional reminder to lift feet while walking. Is the patient’s level of assistance considered independent or a minimal assist?
- A patient is assessed as a one-person pivot. As the health care provider begins the transfer, the patient suddenly becomes uncooperative. What should the health care provider do next?


4.4: Negative Stains Procedure
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Last updated
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Save as PDF
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Negative Stains Procedure
Name: _____________________________________________________
Course Section: ______________________________________________
The following activity will teach students how to complete a Negative Stain using bacteria that have different cell shapes and arrangements. Read the following procedure carefully before starting the activity.
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Materials
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2 Microscope Slides
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2 Microscope Slip Covers
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2 Stock Plates
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Stock plates will contain 1 of the following bacterial species:
Bacillus cereus
or
Micrococcus luteus
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DI Water
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Nigrosin Stain
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Staining Trays and Slide Stands
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Inoculation Loop
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Incinerators
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Microscopes: Lens Paper, Lens Cleaner, Immersion Oil
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Procedure
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Step 1: Prepare A Bacterial Smear
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Get into groups of 2.
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Label the edge of the microscope slide with 1 person's initials and the bacterial species. You may abbreviate the name of the bacteria so it fits on the slide. Try to write small.
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On the bottom of the slide, you may draw a circle in the middle of the slide with sharpie or wax pencil so you know where to make your smear. This is optional.
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Sterilize your inoculation loop and use it to pick up a small amount of DI water. Place the water on top of the slide, in the middle or in the circle if you drew one.
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Sterilize your loop again and pick up a small bacterial colony from the stock plate.
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Gently, mix the bacteria into the water drop on the slide. You want to spread the water and bacteria out to about the size of a coin.
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Let the water and bacteria smear completely air dry. The slide should look dry and "crusty" before moving to Step 2.
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Step 2: Negative Staining
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DO NOT Heat Fix.
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Once the bacterial smear is completely dry, add 1 or 2 drops of Nigrosin Stain to the end of the microscope slide.
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DO NOT add the Nigrosin Stain to the middle of your slide or on the smear.
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Preferably, add the stain directly below the area you labeled with a sharpie.
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Keep your slide on the stands in the staining tray.
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Place a clean cover slip into the stain at a 45° angle and drag the stain across the smear to the other end of the slide.
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Now, the entire slide should be black and left to air dry.
DO NOT Heat Fix.
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When the slide is completely dry, observe your specimen using oil immersion.
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Do Not use a wet nigrosin slide on the microscope. The nigrosin dye stains glass, which means it can stain the lens of the microscope objective (damaging it).
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Wait until the stain looks like dried paint or loses its "shiny" appearance.
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Repeat Steps 1 and 2 for the remaining bacterial species.
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When all 2 slides are done, clean your microscope and place it back in the cabinet.
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Rinse your staining tray in a sink and put all materials back in their labeled locations.
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Observation Results
General Questions
1. What are the advantages of using a Negative Stain instead of a Simple Stain?
2. Why do bacterial cells appear white after application of Nigrosin?
3. If you used heat application during a Negative Stain, what would you expect to happen to the bacterial cell body.
4. Why is it important to let the Nigrosin Stain dry completely before observing the slide under a microscope?
5. You prepare a negative stain of
Staphylococcus aureus.
What would you expect cells to look like under oil immersion?
6. When performing a negative staining technique on the fungi
C. neoformans
, why does it appear to have a white halo around it?
7. What is the name of the negative staining technique used to identify
Cryptococcus?
Attributions
"Microbiology Laboratory Manual: Labs, 1.13 Capsule Stain"
by
Dr. Rosanna Hartline
,
LibreTexts: Biology
, West Hills College Lemoore is licensed under
CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
"General Microbiology Lab Manual: Labs 3, Simple, Negative, and Gram Stain"
by
Nazzy Pakpour and Sharon Horgan
,
LibreTexts: Biology
,
Coastal State University, Easy Bay
is licensed under
CC BY-SA
"Microbiology Textbook: Chapter 2, How We See the Invisible World"
by
Openstax
, Digital ISBN 13: 978-1-947172-23-4 is licensed under
CC BY 4.0


1.22: Snips and Screenshots
Learning Objectives
- Take a screenshot.
You can take a snip , or a screenshot that is of only part of the screen, with the Snipping Tool, or you can take a screenshot of the entire screen with the Print Screen button.
Snipping Tool
In Windows 10, you can open the snipping tool by going to Start>Windows Accessories>Snipping Tool, or by opening the Start menu and typing “Snipping Tool.” In Windows 7, you can open the snipping tool by going to Start>All Programs>Accessories>Snipping Tool. Older versions of Windows might have the snipping tool in a similar location; however they may not have the snipping tool at all, in which case the Print Screen button should be used to take screenshots.
The snipping tool will open a small window with New, Cancel, and Options buttons. You can take rectangular, freeform, window, or full-screen snapshots. Windows 10’s snipping tool also has a Delay button, which can be helpful for capturing menus or dialog boxes.
Take a Rectangular Screenshot with the Snipping Tool
Click New, then click and drag over the portion of the screen you want to screenshot. The snipping tool window will disappear as soon as you start clicking and dragging to take your screenshot. (If you hit New by mistake you can cancel the snip by clicking the cancel button before you click and drag.)
Once you’ve captured the screenshot, the snipping tool window will reappear with some new options available.
- Save. Saves the current screenshot. If you do not save the screenshot, it will be automatically deleted when you take a new screenshot or close the snipping tool.
- Copy. Copies the current screenshot so you can paste it into an image editing program, like Paint, GIMP, or Photoshop.
- Send to. Opens Microsoft Outlook so you can email the screenshot to someone. Clicking the dropdown arrow to the right of the button allows you to choose whether to send the screenshot in the email or as an attachment.
- Pen. Allows you to draw on and mark the screenshot. Clicking the dropdown arrow to the right of the button allows you to change the color of the pen.
- Highlighter. Allows you to highlight anything on the screenshot.
- Eraser. Erases the effects of the pen and highlighter tools. (Note that Ctrl+Z does not work on the pen or highlighter tool; you must use the eraser to correct mistakes.)
Don’t forget to save your screenshot!
Other Screenshots with the Snipping Tool
By default, the snipping tool is set to take rectangular screenshots. You can change this by clicking the dropdown arrow to the right of the New button and choosing between free-form, rectangular, window, and full-screen snips.
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Free-form snip: Draw an irregularly shaped screenshot. |
Window snip: Pick a window to take a screenshot of it |
Screen snip: Take a screenshot of the entire screen. |
Timed Screenshots with the Snipping Tool
Some things, such as dialog menus, are hard to take a screenshot of. Timed screenshots are especially useful for taking screenshots of these dialog menus or other click-triggered items, since the delay gives you enough time to open those items.
To take a timed screenshot, click the arrow to the right of the Delay button, then select how many seconds you want the snipping tool to wait before taking the screenshot. The default setting is 0.
After setting the number of seconds to delay, click New to start the timer. For example, if you selected a 5-second delay, once you click the New button you have five seconds to get your screen ready for a screenshot. At the five-second mark, the screen will freeze in place and the snipping tool will reappear. You can then take a screenshot using whichever shape (free-form, rectangular, window, full-screen) you previously selected with the New dropdown menu.
Getting the timing right can be tricky, but don’t worry—you can always try again by taking a new screenshot. Only the screenshots you save using the Save button are kept.
Practice Question
NOTE
If you are running Windows 8 or older and do not have the Delay button, you can still take a screenshot of dialog menus or click-triggered items with the Print Screen button.
Print Screen
As previously mentioned in Keyboard Shortcuts, another way to take a screenshot is to use the Print Screen button (Prt Scn). Pressing just the Print Screen button will take a picture of everything visible on your computer screen; Pressing Prt Scn+Alt will take a picture of the currently active window (the window you last interacted with). Screenshots taken with the print screen button must be pasted (with Ctrl+V) into an image editing software such as Paint, GIMP, or Photoshop.
Screenshots on a Mac
On Mac computers, pushing Command+Shift+3 will take a full-screen screenshot. Pushing Command+Shift+4 then clicking and dragging will create a rectangular screenshot. Hitting Command+Shift+4+Space and then clicking a window will create a window screenshot. Mac users can also use the Grab tool, found in the Applications/Utilities folder. By default, Mac screenshots are saved to the desktop.
Contributors and Attributions
- Snips and Screenshots. Authored by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


11.9: Cultural Understandings of Personality
Learning Objectives
- Discuss personality differences of people from collectivist and individualist cultures
- Discuss the three approaches to studying personality in a cultural context
As you have learned in this chapter, personality is shaped by both genetic and environmental factors. The culture in which you live is one of the most important environmental factors that shapes your personality (Triandis & Suh, 2002). The term culture refers to all of the beliefs, customs, art, and traditions of a particular society. Culture is transmitted to people through language as well as through the modeling of culturally acceptable and nonacceptable behaviors that are either rewarded or punished (Triandis & Suh, 2002). With these ideas in mind, personality psychologists have become interested in the role of culture in understanding personality. They ask whether personality traits are the same across cultures or if there are variations. It appears that there are both universal and culture-specific aspects that account for variation in people’s personalities.
Why might it be important to consider cultural influences on personality? Western ideas about personality may not be applicable to other cultures (Benet-Martinez & Oishi, 2008). In fact, there is evidence that the strength of personality traits varies across cultures. Let’s take a look at some of the Big Five factors (conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness, and extroversion) across cultures. As you will learn when you study social psychology, Asian cultures are more collectivist, and people in these cultures tend to be less extroverted. People in Central and South American cultures tend to score higher on openness to experience, whereas Europeans score higher on neuroticism (Benet-Martinez & Karakitapoglu-Aygun, 2003).
According to this study, there also seem to be regional personality differences within the United States (See figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Researchers analyzed responses from over \(1.5\) million individuals in the United States and found that there are three distinct regional personality clusters: Cluster 1, which is in the Upper Midwest and Deep South, is dominated by people who fall into the “friendly and conventional” personality; Cluster 2, which includes the West, is dominated by people who are more relaxed, emotionally stable, calm, and creative; and Cluster 3, which includes the Northeast, has more people who are stressed, irritable, and depressed. People who live in Clusters 2 and 3 are also generally more open (Rentfrow et al., 2013).
One explanation for the regional differences is selective migration (Rentfrow et al., 2013). Selective migration is the concept that people choose to move to places that are compatible with their personalities and needs. For example, a person high on the agreeable scale would likely want to live near family and friends, and would choose to settle or remain in such an area. In contrast, someone high on openness would prefer to settle in a place that is recognized as diverse and innovative (such as California).
Personality in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures
Individualist cultures and collectivist cultures place emphasis on different basic values. People who live in individualist cultures tend to believe that independence, competition, and personal achievement are important. Individuals in Western nations such as the United States, England, and Australia score high on individualism (Oyserman, Coon, & Kemmelmier, 2002). People who live in collectivist cultures value social harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs. Individuals who live in countries in Asia, Africa, and South America score high on collectivism (Hofstede, 2001; Triandis, 1995). These values influence personality. For example, Yang (2006) found that people in individualist cultures displayed more personally oriented personality traits, whereas people in collectivist cultures displayed more socially oriented personality traits.
Approaches to Studying Personality in a Cultural Context
There are three approaches that can be used to study personality in a cultural context, the cultural-comparative approach ; the indigenous approach ; and the combined approach , which incorporates elements of both views. Since ideas about personality have a Western basis, the cultural-comparative approach seeks to test Western ideas about personality in other cultures to determine whether they can be generalized and if they have cultural validity (Cheung van de Vijver, & Leong, 2011). For example, recall from the previous section on the trait perspective that researchers used the cultural-comparative approach to test the universality of McCrae and Costa’s Five Factor Model. They found applicability in numerous cultures around the world, with the Big Five traits being stable in many cultures (McCrae & Costa, 1997; McCrae et al., 2005). The indigenous approach came about in reaction to the dominance of Western approaches to the study of personality in non-Western settings (Cheung et al., 2011). Because Western-based personality assessments cannot fully capture the personality constructs of other cultures, the indigenous model has led to the development of personality assessment instruments that are based on constructs relevant to the culture being studied (Cheung et al., 2011). The third approach to cross-cultural studies of personality is the combined approach, which serves as a bridge between Western and indigenous psychology as a way of understanding both universal and cultural variations in personality (Cheung et al., 2011).
Summary
The culture in which you live is one of the most important environmental factors that shapes your personality. Western ideas about personality may not be applicable to other cultures. In fact, there is evidence that the strength of personality traits varies across cultures. Individualist cultures and collectivist cultures place emphasis on different basic values. People who live in individualist cultures tend to believe that independence, competition, and personal achievement are important. People who live in collectivist cultures value social harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs. There are three approaches that can be used to study personality in a cultural context: the cultural-comparative approach, the indigenous approach, and the combined approach, which incorporates both elements of both views.
Glossary
- culture
- all of the beliefs, customs, art, and traditions of a particular society
- selective migration
- concept that people choose to move to places that are compatible with their personalities and needs
Contributors and Attributions
-
Rose M. Spielman with many significant contributors. The OpenStax name, OpenStax logo, OpenStax book covers, OpenStax CNX name, and OpenStax CNX logo are not subject to the creative commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written consent of Rice University. For questions regarding this license, please contact<EMAIL_ADDRESS>.Textbook content produced by OpenStax College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license. Download for free at<EMAIL_ADDRESS>.


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7.11: Critical Thinking Questions
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If you could choose to practice a mode of subsistence for just one year, which one would it be? What would be the advantages and disadvantages of your choice?
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Why is egalitarianism so prominent in one form of subsistence and less prominent in others? How could egalitarian behavior be encouraged in industrial and postindustrial societies?
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Programs that attempt to change the lifeways of gatherer-hunters, pastoralists, and horticulturalists are often called “development” programs. Do you think the target groups of such programs see them as development? What are the advantages and disadvantages of such programs? Do you view them as development?
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Have you or someone you know experienced precarity? What might be the solution to this widespread problem in contemporary societies?
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How can industrial and postindustrial societies learn the lessons of environmental sustainability from peoples who practice other, more environmentally friendly modes of subsistence? What needs to be done to promote the knowledge, values, and practices of environmentalism?


14.1: ‘Omics Technologies
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The complete set of DNA within an organism is called its genome . Genomics is therefore the large-scale description, using techniques of molecular biology of many genes or even whole genomes at once. This type of research is facilitated by technologies that increase throughput (i.e. rate of analysis), and decrease cost. The – omics suffix has been used to indicate high-throughput analysis of many types of molecules, including transcripts ( transcriptomics ), proteins ( proteomics ), and the products of enzymatic reactions, or metabolites ( metabolomics ; Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). Interpretation of the large data sets generated by –omics research depends on a combination of computational, biological, and statistical knowledge provided by experts in bioinformatics . Attempts to combine information from different types of –‘omics studies is sometimes called systems biology .


1.2C: Levels of Organization
Living organisms are made up of four levels of organization: cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems.
- Order the levels of organization for living organisms
Key Points
- Cells are the most basic unit of life at the smallest level of organization.
- Cells can be prokaryotic (without nucleus) or eukaroyotic (with nucleus).
- The four categories of tissues are connective, muscles, epithelial, and nervous tissues.
- Organs are made of different types of tissues and perform complex functions. They can be hollow or solid.
- Organ systems are groups of organs that perform similar functions or perform functions together.
- Many physiological functions are carried out by multiple organ systems working in tandem.
Key Terms
- cell : The smallest unit of life capable of independent reproduction. Generally contains nucleic acid, cytoplasm, a cell membrane, and many other proteins and structures.
- organ : A structure made of different tissues that work together to perform physiological functions.
- organ system : A group of organs and tissues that work together to perform specific functions.
- Tissues : A group of similar cells with the same origin that work together to perform the same function.
EXAMPLES
Using the circulatory system as an example, a cell in this system is a red blood cell, the heart’s cardiac muscle is a tissue, an organ is the heart itself, and the organ system is the circulatory system.
An organism is made up of four levels of organization: cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. These levels reduce complex anatomical structures into groups; this organization makes the components easier to understand.
Level 1: Cells
The first and most basic level of organization is the cellular level. A cell is the basic unit of life and the smallest unit capable of reproduction. While cells vary greatly in their structure and function based on the type of organism, all cells have a few things in common. Cells are made up of organic molecules, contain nucleic acids (such as DNA and RNA), are filled with fluid called cytoplasm, and have a membrane made out of lipids. Cells also contain many structures within the cytoplasm called organelles, which perform various cellular functions.
Cells may be prokaryotic (without a nucleus) in bacteria and archaea (single-celled organisms), or eukaryotic (with nucleus-enclosing DNA) in plants, animals, protists, and fungi. In humans, most cells combine to form tissues, but some cells are found independent of solid tissues and have their own functions. A red blood cell found circulating in the bloodstream carrying oxygen throughout the human body is an example of an independent cell.
Level 2: Tissues
Tissues are a group of similar cells of the same origin that carry out a specific function together. Humans have four different types of basic tissues. Connective tissues such as bone tissue are made up of fibrous cells and give shape and structure to organs. Muscle tissue is made up of cells that can contract together and allow animals to move. Epithelial tissues make up the outer layers of organs, such as the skin or the outer layer of the stomach. Nervous tissue is made of specialized cells that transmit information through electrochemical impulses, such as the tissue of nerves, the spinal cord, and the brain.
Level 3: Organs
An organ is a structure made up of different tissues that perform specific bodily functions. Most organs contain tissues such as parenchyma (used to perform the organ functions), stroma (connective tissue specific to organs) and epithelial. Organs may be solid or hollow, and vary considerably in size and complexity. The heart, lungs, and brain are all examples of organs.
Level 4: Organ Systems
An organ system is a collection of organs that that work together to perform a similar function. There are eleven different organ systems in the human body, each with its own specific functions. One example is digestive system, which is made up of many organs that work together to digest and absorb nutrients from food. While most organ systems control a few specific physiological processes, some processes are more complex and require multiple organ systems to work together. For example, blood pressure is controlled by a combination of the renal system (kidneys), the circulatory system, and the nervous system.
Levels of Organization in Animals : An organism contains organ systems made up of organs that consist of tissues, which are in turn made up of cells.
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3.4: Atomic Phenomena
Variety is the spice of life, not of science. So far this chapter has focused on heat energy, kinetic energy, and gravitational energy, but it might seem that in addition to these there is a bewildering array of other forms of energy. Gasoline, chocolate bars, batteries, melting water --- in each case there seems to be a whole new type of energy. The physicist's psyche rebels against the prospect of a long laundry list of types of energy, each of which would require its own equations, concepts, notation, and terminology. The point at which we've arrived in the study of energy is analogous to the period in the 1960's when a half a dozen new subatomic particles were being discovered every year in particle accelerators. It was an embarrassment. Physicists began to speak of the “particle zoo,” and it seemed that the subatomic world was distressingly complex. The particle zoo was simplified by the realization that most of the new particles being whipped up were simply clusters of a previously unsuspected set of fundamental particles (which were whimsically dubbed quarks, a made-up word from a line of poetry by James Joyce, “Three quarks for Master Mark.”) The energy zoo can also be simplified, and it's the purpose of this section to demonstrate the hidden similarities between forms of energy as seemingly different as heat and motion.
Contributors and Attributions
Benjamin Crowell (Fullerton College). Conceptual Physics is copyrighted with a CC-BY-SA license.


When Olivia learned in August that they were pregnant, they joyfully anticipated the arrival of a baby the following April and hoped the baby might share their late father’s birthday. Olivia didn’t know the exact date of conception, because they had been trying to conceive for several months, so the obstetrician used the first day of the last menstrual period and added two weeks, given that ovulation typically occurs midcycle. However, Olivia's doctor warned her that pregnancies can vary in length, and that very few births occur on the baby’s due date (Declercq et al., 2023).
Pregnancies are often divided into three-month periods called trimesters. However, three developmental periods also occur, each marked by major changes and occurring on a different schedule than the trimesters (Figure 2.15). Each developmental period of pregnancy involves important aspects of maternal and paternal health that can influence the health of the pregnancy, environmental factors that can affect the health of an embryo or fetus during pregnancy, and education and behaviors parents can optimize to ensure a healthy pregnancy.
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3.2.5: Culture and the Dominant Ideology in the U.S.
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An Overview of U.S. Values
Despite certain consistent values (e.g. individualism, egalitarianism, freedom, democracy), American culture has a variety of expressions.
Learning Objectives
Defend the notion that America has both consistent values and a variety of expressions
Key Points
- Values are related to the norms of a culture, but they are more global and abstract than norms. Norms are rules for behavior in specific situations, while values identify what should be judged as good or evil.
- American culture includes both conservative and liberal elements, scientific and religious competitiveness, political structures, risk taking and free expression, materialist and moral elements.
- American culture has a variety of expressions due to its geographical scale and demographic diversity.
- Since the late 1970’s, the term ” traditional values ” has become synonymous with ” family values” in the U.S., and implies a congruence with mainstream Christianity. However “family values” is arguably a modern politicized subset of traditional values, which is a larger concept.
Key Terms
- traditional : Of or pertaining to tradition; derived from tradition; communicated from ancestors to descendants by word only; transmitted from age to age without writing; as, traditional opinions; traditional customs; traditional expositions of the Scriptures.
- liberal : Open to political or social changes and reforms associated with either classical or modern liberalism.
- conservative : A person who favors maintenance of the status quo or reversion to some earlier status.
Cultures have values that are largely shared by their members. The values of a society can often be identified by noting that which people receive, honor or respect.
Values are related to the norms of a culture, but they are more global and abstract than norms. Norms are rules for behavior in specific situations, while values identify what should be judged as either good or evil. Flying the national flag on a holiday is a norm, but it reflects the value of patriotism. Wearing dark clothing and appearing solemn are normative behaviors at a funeral; in certain cultures, they reflect the values of respect and support for friends and family.
Different cultures reflect different values. American culture includes both conservative and liberal elements, such as scientific and religious competitiveness, political structures, risk taking and free expression, materialist and moral elements. Aside from certain consistent ideological principles (e.g. individualism, egalitarianism and faith in freedom and democracy ), American culture’s geographical scale and demographic diversity has spawned a variety of expressions. The flexibility of U.S. culture and its highly symbolic nature lead some researchers to categorize American culture as a mythic identity, while others recognize it as American exceptionalism.
Since the late 1970’s, the terms “traditional values” and”family values” have become synonymous in the U.S., and imply a congruence with mainstream Christianity. However, the term “family values” is arguably a modern politicized subset of traditional values, which is a larger concept, anthropologically speaking. Although It is also not necessarily a political idea, it has become associated with both the particular correlation between Evangelicalism and politics (as embodied by American politicians such as Ronald Reagan, Dan Quayle and George W. Bush), as well as the broader Christianity movement (as exemplified by Pat Robertson).
Value Clusters
People from different backgrounds tend to have different value systems, which cluster together into a more or less consistent system.
Learning Objectives
Evaluate the separation of world values into the categories of ‘self-expression’ and ‘survival’
Key Points
- The World Values Survey is used to identify different clusters of values around the world.
- Traditional and survival values tend to cluster in developing countries.
- With industrialization, countries shift from traditional to secular values.
- With the rise of knowledge economies, countries tend to shift from survival to self-expression values.
- With the rise of knowledge economies, countries tend to shift from survival to self-expression values.
Key Terms
- Secular Values : Secular values, as opposed to traditional values, base morality on human faculties such as logic, reason, or moral intuition, rather than on purported supernatural revelation or guidance (which is the source of religious ethics).
- Traditional Values : Traditional values emphasize the importance of religion, parent-child ties, deference to authority and traditional family values. People who embrace these values also reject divorce, abortion, euthanasia, and suicide. These societies have high levels of national pride and a nationalistic outlook.
People from different backgrounds tend to have different sets of values, or value systems. Certain values may cluster together into a more or less consistent system. A communal or cultural value system is held by and applied to a community, group, or society. Some communal value systems are reflected in legal codes and laws.
World Values Survey
Some sociologists are interested in better defining and measuring value clusters in different countries. To do so, they have developed what is called the World Values Survey, a survey of questions given to people around the world and used to identify different clusters of values in different regions. Over the years, the World Values Survey has demonstrated that people’s beliefs play a key role in defining life in different countries—defining anything from a nation’s economic development to the emergence of democratic institutions to the rise of gender equality.
Trends
In general, the World Values Survey has revealed two major axes along which values cluster: (1) a continuum from traditional to secular values and (2) a continuum from survival to self-expression. Traditional values emphasize the importance of religion, parent-child ties, deference to authority, and traditional family values. People who embrace these values also reject divorce, abortion, euthanasia, and suicide. These societies have high levels of national pride and a nationalistic outlook. Secular values have the opposite preferences to the traditional values. These societies place less emphasis on religion, traditional family values, and authority. Divorce, abortion, euthanasia, and suicide are seen as relatively acceptable. Industrialization tends to bring a shift from traditional values to secular ones.
With the rise of the knowledge society, cultural change moves in a new direction. The transition from industrial society to knowledge society is linked to a shift from survival values to self-expression values. In knowledge societies, such as the United States, an increasing share of the population has grown up taking survival for granted. Survival values place emphasis on economic and physical security. It is linked with a relatively ethnocentric outlook and low levels of trust and tolerance. Self-expression values give high priority to environmental protection; tolerance of foreigners, gays, and lesbians; gender equality; and participation in decision-making as it relates to economic and political life.
Value Contradictions
Although various values often reinforce one another, these clusters of values may also include values that contradict one another.
Learning Objectives
Analyze a scenario in which a value system, either individual or collective, is shown to be internally inconsistent, and then resolve the conflict
Key Points
- Value systems may contain value contradictions. A value system by itself is internally inconsistent if its values contradict each other, and its exceptions are highly situational and inconsistently applied.
- Value contradictions can also arise within systems of personal or communal values.
- Often, conflicts arise due to value systems contradictions. Society tries to resolve value contradictions in order to reduce conflict.
- Society tries to resolve value contradictions.
Key Terms
- Value Contradictions : A value system by itself is internally inconsistent or contradictory if its values contradict each other, and its exceptions are highly situational and inconsistently applied.
- Value Consistency : A value system in its own right is internally consistent when its values do not contradict each other, and its exceptions are abstract enough to be used in all situations and consistently applied.
- Communal Values : A communal or cultural value system is held by and applied to a community/ group/society. Some communal value systems are reflected in the form of legal codes or law.
Although value clusters generally work together so that various values reinforce one another, at times, these clusters of values may also include values that contradict one another. Value contradictions can arise between individual and communal value systems. That is, as a member of a society, group, or community, an individual can hold both a personal value system and a communal value system at the same time. In this case, the two value systems (one personal and one communal) are externally consistent provided they bear no contradictions or situational exceptions between them.
Value contradictions can also arise within individual or communal value systems. A value system is internally consistent (value consistency) when its values do not contradict each other and its exceptions are abstract enough to be used in all situations and consistently applied. Conversely, a value system by itself is internally inconsistent if its values contradict each other and its exceptions are highly situational and inconsistently applied. A value contradiction could be based on a difference in how people rank the value of things, or on fundamental value conflict. For example, although sharing a set of common values, such as hockey is better than baseball or ice cream is better than fruit, two different parties might not rank those values equally. Also, two parties might disagree as to whether certain actions are right or wrong, both in theory and in practice, and find themselves in an ideological or physical conflict.
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Personal value contradictions : Individuals may have inconsistent personal values. For example, Donald Trump claims to be pro-life and also an avid supporter of the death penalty.
Conflicts are often a result of differing value systems. An example conflict would be a value system based on individualism pitted against a value system based on collectivism. A rational value system organized to resolve the conflict between two such value systems might take this form: Individuals may act freely unless their actions harm others or interfere with others’ freedom or with functions of society that individuals need, provided those functions do not themselves interfere with these proscribed individual rights and were agreed to by a majority of the individuals.
Emerging Values
Values tend to change over time, and the dominant values in a country might shift as that country undergoes economic and social change.
Learning Objectives
Criticize materialist values for the sake of argument
Key Points
- Millennials and Baby Boomers grew up under different conditions and therefore have different values.
- People who grow up worrying about meeting their basic material needs will tend to have materialist values that emphasize survival and meeting basic needs.
- People who grow up without having to worry about meeting basic material needs will tend to have post-materialist values such as self-expression.
Key Terms
- autonomy : Self-government; freedom to act or function independently.
- values : A collection of guiding principles; what one deems to be correct and desirable in life, especially regarding personal conduct.
Values tend to change over time. The dominant values in a country may shift as that country undergoes economic and social change. Often, such value change can be observed in generational differences. For example, most young adults today share similar values. They are sometimes referred to as Generation Y or Milliennials. This generation was born in the 1980s and 1990s, and raised in a much more technologically advanced environment.
Milliennials tend to have different values than the previous generation. Some common, notable tendencies are:
- wanting to “make a difference” or have purpose
- wanting to balance work with the rest of life
- excessive seeking of fun and variety
- questioning authority or refusal to respond to authority without “good reason”
- unlimited ambition coupled with overly demanding, confrontational personality
- lack of commitment in the face of unmet expectations
- extreme sense of loyalty to family, friends, and self
By contrast, their parents or grandparents tend to belong to the Baby Boom generation, born between 1946 and 1964. Baby Boomers did not grow up with the same technologies as today’s youth. Instead, they came of age during the 1960s and 1970s, and their values were often formed in support of or reaction to the political and social issues of the time. Whereas the generation before the Baby Boom was concerned with economic and physical security, Boomers tend to have what are referred to as post-materialist values.
Post-materialist values emphasize non-material values like freedom and the ability to express oneself. The rising prosperity of the post-WWII years fostered these values by liberating people from the overriding concern for material security. Sociologists explain the rise of post-materialist values in two ways. First, they argue that individuals pursue various goals in order of basic necessity. While people may universally aspire to freedom and autonomy, the most pressing material needs like hunger, thirst, and physical security have to be satisfied first, since they are immediately linked with survival. These materialistic goals will have priority over post-materialist goals like belonging, esteem, and aesthetic and intellectual satisfaction. Once satisfaction has been achieved from these material survival needs, focus will gradually shift to the nonmaterial.
Second, sociologists suggest that people’s basic values are largely fixed when they reach adulthood, and change relatively little thereafter. For example, those who experience economic scarcity in childhood may as adults place a high value on meeting economic needs (such as valuing economic growth above protecting the environment) and on safety needs (such as supporting more authoritarian styles of leadership or exhibiting strong feelings of national pride—e.g., maintaining a strong army or willingness to sacrifice civil liberties for the sake of law and order). On the other hand, those who mainly experienced sustained material affluence during youth might give high priority to values such as individual improvement, personal freedom, citizen input in government decisions, the ideal of a society based on humanism, and maintaining a clean and healthy environment. Because values are set when people are young, value change can be slow. The values we see emerging today may depend on material conditions nearly a generation ago.
Culture Wars
In American usage, “culture war” refers to the claim that there is a conflict between those conservative and liberal values.
Learning Objectives
Support the notion of a culture war by giving an example from your own contemporary society
Key Points
- A culture war is a struggle between two sets of conflicting cultural values.
- Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci argued for a culture war in which anti-capitalist elements seek to gain a dominant voice in the mass media, education, and other mass institutions.
- Members of the religious right accused their political opponents of undermining tradition, Western civilization, and family values.
- James Davison Hunter argued that on an increasing number of “hot-button” defining issues, such as abortion, gun politics, separation of church and state, privacy, recreational drug use, homosexuality, and censorship issues, there existed two definable polarities.
- James Davison Hunter argued that on an increasing number of “hot-button” defining issues — abortion, gun politics, separation of church and state, privacy, recreational drug use, homosexuality, censorship issues — there existed two definable polarities.
Key Terms
- progressive : Favoring or promoting progress; advanced.
- religious right : The religious or Christian right is a term used in the United States to describe right-wing Christian political groups that are characterized by their strong support of socially conservative policies. Christian conservatives principally seek to apply their understanding of the teachings of Christianity to politics and public policy by proclaiming the value of those teachings and/or by seeking to use those teachings to influence law and public policy.
- kulturkampf : A conflict between secular and religious authorities, especially the struggle between the Roman Catholic Church and the German government under Bismarck.
A culture war is a struggle between two sets of conflicting cultural values. This can be framed to describe west versus east, rural versus urban, or traditional values versus progressive secularism. The concept of a culture war has been in use in English since at least its adoption as a calque (loan translation) to refer to the German “Kulturkampf.”
Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci presented in the 1920s a theory of cultural hegemony. He stated that a culturally diverse society can be dominated by one class who has a monopoly over the mass media and popular culture, and Gramsci argued for a culture war in which anti-capitalist elements seek to gain a dominant voice in the mass media, education, and other mass institutions.
As an American phenomenon, it originated in the 1920s when urban and rural American values came into clear conflict. In American usage, the term culture war is used to claim that there is a conflict between those values considered traditionalist or conservative and those considered progressive or liberal. In the 1980s, the culture war in America was characterized by the conservative climate during the presidency of Ronald Reagan. Members of the religious right often criticized academics and artists, and their works, in a struggle against what they considered indecent, subversive, and blasphemous. They often accused their political opponents of undermining tradition, Western civilization and family values.
The expression was introduced again by the 1991 publication of Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America by James Davison Hunter, a sociologist at the University of Virginia. Hunter described what he saw as a dramatic realignment and polarization that had transformed American politics and culture. He argued that on an increasing number of “hot-button” defining issues, such as abortion, gun politics, separation of church and state, privacy, recreational drug use, homosexuality, and censorship issues, there existed two definable polarities. Furthermore, not only were there a number of divisive issues, but society had divided along essentially the same lines on these issues, so as to constitute two warring groups, defined primarily not by religion, ethnicity, social class, or even political affiliation, but rather by ideological world views.
Values as Binders
Cultures hold values that are largely shared by their members, thereby binding members together.
Learning Objectives
Compose a scenario which illustrates a potential clash between personal and cultural/societal values
Key Points
- Values and value systems are guidelines that determine what is important in a society, reflecting a person’s sense of right and wrong, or what “ought” to be.
- Types of values include ethical/moral value, doctrinal/ideological (religious or political) values, social values, and aesthetic values.
- While a personal value system is held by and applied to one individual only, a communal or cultural value system is held by and applied to a community / group /society.
- Cultures have values that are largely shared by their members, thereby binding members together. Members take part in a culture even if each member’s personal values do not entirely agree with some of the normative values sanctioned in the culture.
- Values are related to the norms of a culture, but they are more global and abstract than norms.
- Values can act as blinders if people take their own personal values (or their society’s values) as universal truths and fail to recognize the diversity of values held across people and societies.
Key Terms
- value system : a set of consistent personal and cultural values used for the purpose of ethical or ideological integrity.
- value : The degree of importance given to something.
Values and value systems are guidelines that determine what is important in a society. They can be defined as broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of action or outcomes. Values reflect a person’s sense of right and wrong, or what “ought” to be. “Equal rights for all,” “Excellence deserves admiration,” and “People should be treated with respect and dignity” are representative of values. Types of values include ethical/moral value, doctrinal/ideological (religious, political, etc.) values, social values, and aesthetic values.
Values tend to influence attitudes and behavior. For example, if you value equal rights for all and you work for an organization that treats some employees markedly better than others, this may cause internal conflict. A value system is a set of consistent personal and cultural values used for the purpose of ethical or ideological integrity. While a personal value system is held by and applied to one individual only, a communal or cultural value system is held by and applied to a community/group/society. Some communal value systems are reflected in the form of legal codes or law. As a member of a society, group, or community, an individual can hold both a personal value system and a communal value system at the same time. In this case, the two value systems (one personal and one communal) are externally consistent provided they bear no contradictions or situational exceptions between them.
Cultures have values that are largely shared by their members, thereby binding members together. Members take part in a culture even if each member’s personal values do not entirely agree with some of the normative values sanctioned in the culture. This reflects an individual’s ability to synthesize and extract aspects valuable to them from the multiple subcultures to which they belong. Values vary across individuals and cultures, and change over time; in many ways, they are aligned with belief and belief systems. Noting which people receive honor or respect can often identify the values of a society. In the US, for example, professional athletes at the top levels in some sports are honored (in the form of monetary payment) more than college professors. Surveys show that voters in the United States would be reluctant to elect an atheist as a president, suggesting that belief in God is a value.
Values are related to the norms of a culture, but they are more global and abstract than norms. Normsare rules for behavior in specific situations, while values identify what should be judged as right or wrong. Flying the national flag on a holiday is a norm, but it reflects the value of patriotism. Wearing dark clothing and appearing solemn are normative behaviors at a funeral. In certain cultures, they reflect the values of respect and support of friends and family. If a group member expresses a value that is in serious conflict with the group’s norms, the group’s authority may carry out various ways of encouraging conformity or stigmatizing the non-conforming behavior of its members. For example, transgender individuals hold the value of freedom to identify and express their gender as they choose; however this value is not shared by much of society, and discriminatory laws and practices prevent this freedom.
Values can act as blinders if people take their own personal values (or their society’s values) as universal truths and fail to recognize the diversity of values held across people and societies. They may believe their values determine the only way to understand and act in the world, when, in fact, different people and different societies may have widely divergent values.
Ideal vs. Real Culture
Any given culture contains a set of values that determine what is important to the society; these values can be idealized or realized.
Learning Objectives
Compare the idea of an idealized and a realized value system
Key Points
- Ideal values are absolute; they bear no exceptions. These values can be codified as a strict set of proscriptions on behavior.
- A realized value system contains exceptions to resolve the contradictions between ideal values and practical realities in everyday circumstances.
- Whereas we might refer to ideal values when listing American values (or even our own values), the values that we uphold in daily life tend to be real values.
Key Terms
- real values : values that contain exceptions to resolve the contradictions inherent between ideal values and practical realities.
- ideal values : absolute values that bear no exceptions and can be codified as a strict set of proscriptions on behavior.
Any given culture contains a set of values and value systems that determine what is important to the society as a whole. When we talk about American values, we often have in mind a set of ideal values. Ideal values are absolute; they bear no exceptions. These values can be codified as a strict set of proscriptions on behavior, and those who hold to their idealized value system and claim no exceptions are often referred to as absolutists.
An example of an ideal value is the idea of marriage and monogamy based on romantic love. In reality, many marriages are based on things other than romantic love (such as money, convenience, or social expectation), and many end in divorce. While monogamous marriages based on romantic love certainly do exist, such marriages are not universal, despite our value ideals.
Few things in life exist without exception. Along with every value system comes exceptions to those values. Abstract exceptions serve to reinforce the ranking of values; their definitions are generalized enough to be relevant to any and all situations. Situational exceptions, on the other hand, are ad hoc and pertain only to specific situations. With these exceptions, real values emerge. A realized value system, as opposed to an ideal value system, contains exceptions to resolve the contradictions between ideal values and practical realities in everyday circumstances.
Whereas we might refer to ideal values when listing American values (or even our own values), the values that we uphold in daily life tend to be real values. The difference between these two types of systems can be seen when people state that they hold one value system, yet in practice deviate from it, thus holding a different value system. For example, a religion lists an absolute set of values, while the practice of that religion may include exceptions.
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