1.5: Distribution
The second stage of pharmacokinetics is the process known as drug distribution . Distribution is the process by which medication is dispersed throughout the body via the bloodstream. Once a drug enters into systemic circulation by absorption or direct administration, it must be distributed into interstitial and intracellular fluids to get to the target cells. The distribution of a drug throughout the body is dependent on common factors such as blood flow, plasma protein binding, lipid solubility, the blood-brain barrier, and the placental barrier. Other factors include capillary permeability, differences between blood/tissue, and volume of distribution.
Distribution of a medication can also cause unintended adverse or side effects. Drugs are designed to primarily cause one effect, meaning they bind more strongly to one specific receptor site and predictably cause or block an action. However, side effects can occur when the drug binds to other sites in addition to the target tissue, causing secondary side effects. These side effects can range from tolerable to unacceptable resulting in the discontinuation of the medication. For example, a person might take the pain reliever ibuprofen (Advil) to treat a sore leg muscle, and the pain may be subsequently relieved, but there may also be stomach irritation as a side effect that may cause the person to stop taking ibuprofen.
Blood Flow
The blood stream carries medications to their destinations in the body. Many factors can affect the blood flow and delivery of medication, such as decreased flow (due to dehydration), blocked vessels (due to atherosclerosis), constricted vessels (due to uncontrolled hypertension), or weakened pumping by the heart muscle (due to heart failure). As an example, when administering an antibiotic to a patient with diabetes with an infected toe, it may be difficult for the antibiotic to move through the blood vessels all the way to the cells of the toe that is infected.
Once the drug is in the bloodstream, a portion of it may exist as free drug, dissolved in plasma water. Some of the drug will be reversibly taken up by red cells, and some will be reversibly bound to plasma proteins. For many drugs, the bound forms can account for 95-98% of the total. This is important because it is the free drug that traverses cell membranes and produces the desired effect. It is also important because a protein-bound drug can act as a reservoir that releases the drug slowly and thus prolongs its action. With drug distribution, it is important to consider both the amount of free drug that is readily available to tissues, as well as the potential drug reserve that may be released over time.
Protein-Binding
A common factor impacting distribution of medication is plasma protein in the blood. Albumin is one of the most important proteins in the blood. Albumin levels can be decreased by several factors such as malnutrition and liver disease. A certain percentage of almost every drug gets bound to plasma proteins when it initially enters the bloodstream and starts to circulate. The portion of the drug that gets “protein-bound” is inactive while it is bound, but the portion of the drug that escapes initial protein binding becomes immediately “free” to bind to the target tissue and exert or block an action.
A patient taking several highly protein-bound medications often experiences greater side effects. Some drugs are able to competitively grab (or bind to) plasma proteins more easily than other drugs, thus taking up the available protein molecules first. This prevents secondary medications from binding strongly to protein and the intended target site. Instead, these medications float freely in the circulation without exerting action and increase the risk of side effects and toxicities.
Think of protein binding like a bus stop (see Figure 1.4 [1] ). Many passengers (or medication molecules) want to take a ride on the bus. Everyone is eager to get to their destination and interested in finding a seat. Some passengers are stronger and will get in the seats first (like drug molecules with greater protein-binding ability bind to the protein). Sometimes, there may not be enough seats on the bus, and some passengers are left at the bus stop. The passengers (medication molecules) who were left behind are “free” to move around and walk to their destination. They may strike out on their own and get “snatched” (connected to a target receptor site) while on foot. In a similar way, “free” drug particles that are not protein-bound are circulating in the bloodstream and connecting in a predictable fashion to receptor sites that have an affinity for that particular drug. These active drug molecules that did not bind to the protein (like those passengers that were unable to get a seat on the bus) will produce the first effect in the body. Over time, the medication molecules that are bound to the protein (like the passengers with seats on the bus) will get off the bus, start walking around, and get “snatched” to the receptor site that has affinity for them.
Blood-Brain Barrier
Medications destined for the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) face an even larger hurdle than protein-binding; they must also pass through a nearly impenetrable barricade called the blood-brain barrier . This blockade is built from a tightly woven mesh of capillaries that protect the brain from potentially dangerous substances, such as poisons or viruses. Only certain medications made of lipids (fats) or have a “carrier” can get through the blood-brain barrier.
Research scientists have devised ways for certain medications to penetrate the blood-brain barrier. An example of this is the brand-named medication Sinemet®, which is a combination of two drugs: carbidopa and levadopa. Carbidopa is designed to carry the levadopa medication across the blood-brain barrier, where it enters the brain and is converted into dopamine to exert its effect on Parkinson’s disease symptoms.
Some medications inadvertently bypass the blood-brain barrier and impact an individual’s central nervous system function. For example, diphenhydramine (Benadryl®) is an antihistamine used to decrease allergy symptoms. However, it can also cross the blood-brain barrier, depress the central nervous system, and cause the side effect of drowsiness. In the case of a person who has difficulty falling asleep, this drowsy side effect may be useful, but for another person it may be problematic, as they try to safely carry out daily activities.
Placental Barrier
It is always important to consider the effects of medication during pregnancy or for patients who may become pregnant. The placenta is permeable to some medications, while others have not been specifically studied in pregnant patients. Some drugs can cause harm to the unborn fetus during any trimester. Therefore, it is imperative to always consult a healthcare provider regarding the safety of medications for use during pregnancy. This imperative is assumed in the remaining chapters discussing medication classes, and nurses should always check the most recent, evidence-based drug references before administering medications during pregnancy. [2]
Lifespan Considerations
Neonate & Pediatric: Fat content in young patients is decreased because of greater total body water. Additionally, for the growing pediatric patient, the liver is still forming, and protein binding capacity is decreased and the developing blood-brain barrier allows more drugs to enter the brain. [3]
Older Adult: The aging adult patient will experience a decrease in total body water and muscle mass. Body fat may increase and subsequently result in a longer duration of action for many medications. Serum albumin often also decreases, resulting in more active free drug within the body. This is one reason why many older adult patients require lower levels of medication. [4]
Table 1.2 describes other factors that impact drug distribution.
Table 1.2. Other Factors that Impact Drug Distribution
1) Tissue differences in rates of uptake of drugs.
- Blood flow: distribution occurs most rapidly into tissues with a greater number of blood vessels that allow high blood flow (lungs, kidneys, liver, brain) and least rapidly in tissues with fewer numbers of blood vessels resulting in low blood flow (fat).
- Capillary permeability: permeability of capillaries is tissue-dependent. Distribution rates are relatively slower or non-existent into the CNS because of the tight junction between capillary endothelial cells and the blood-brain barrier. Capillaries of the liver and kidney are more porous, allowing for greater permeability.
2) Differences in tissue/blood ratios at equilibrium
- Dissolution of lipid-soluble drugs in adipose tissue
- Binding of drugs to intracellular sites
- Plasma protein-binding
3) Apparent Volume of Distribution
- Fluid compartments: plasma, extracellular water, total body water.
-
The plasma half-life of a drug
- Half-life is the amount of time it takes for half of the medication to be eliminated in the body. Half-life directly correlates to the duration of the therapeutic effect of a medication. Many factors can influence half-life, for example, liver disease or kidney dysfunction. [5]
- Information about half-life of a medication can be found in evidence-based medication references. For example, in the “Clinical Pharmacology” section of the Daily Med reference for furosemide, the half-life is approximately 2 hours.
-
'Renault Type r321 Service Bus' by Emslichter is licensed under
CC0 1.0
↵
-
This work is a derivative of Principles of Pharmacology by
LibreTexts
licensed under
CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
. ↵
-
Fernandez, E., Perez, R., Hernandez, A., Tejada, P., Arteta, M., & Ramos, J. T. (2011). Factors and mechanisms for pharmacokinetic differences between pediatric population and adults.
Pharmaceutics, 3
(1), 53–72.
https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics3010053
↵
-
Fernandez, E., Perez, R., Hernandez, A., Tejada, P., Arteta, M., & Ramos, J. T. (2011). Factors and mechanisms for pharmacokinetic differences between pediatric population and adults.
Pharmaceutics, 3
(1), 53–72. doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics3010053↵
-
This work is a derivative of Principles of Pharmacology by
LibreTexts
licensed under
CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
. ↵


1.3: Assignment- Narrative Essay—Final Draft
For this assignment, you will turn in your final draft of your narrative essay.
Narrative Essay Prompt
Choose one of the following topics to write your own narrative essay. The topic you decide on should be something you care about, and the narration should be a means of communicating an idea that ties to the essay’s theme. Remember in this essay, the narration is not an end in itself.
Friends
- Gaining independence
- A friend’s sacrifice
- A significant trip with your family
- A wedding or a funeral
- An incident from family legend
The World Around You
- A storm, a flood, an earthquake, or another natural event
- A school event
- The most important minutes of a sporting event
Lessons of Daily Life
- A time you confronted authority
- A time you had to deliver bad news
- Your biggest social blunder
Firsts
- Your first day of school
- The first performance you gave
- A first date
Assignment Instructions
- Review the grading rubric as listed on this page.
- Review feedback.
- Work through the revision and proofreading stages of the writing process.
-
Create a final version of your Narrative Essay according to the following formatting guidelines. Papers submitted that do not meet these requirements will be returned to you ungraded.
- 3–4 typed, double-spaced pages (about 600–750 words), 12 pt font size, Times New Roman
- MLA formatting
- Submit your final version of your Narrative Essay as a single file upload.
Requirements
Be sure to:
- Decide on something you care about so that the narration is a means of communicating an idea.
- Include characters, conflict, sensory details.
- Create a sequence of events in a plot.
- Develop an enticing title.
- Use the introduction to pull the reader into your singular experience.
- Avoid addressing the assignment directly. (don’t write “I am going to write about…”—this takes the fun out of reading the work!)
 Humorous? Matter-of-fact?)
- Avoid telling just what happens by making sure your essay reflects on why this experience is significant.
If you developed your prewriting by hand on paper, scan or take a picture of your prewriting, load the image onto your computer, and then insert the image on a separate page after your draft.
Rubric
Grading Rubric: Narrative Essay—Final Draft |
||
| Criteria | Ratings | Point Total: 100 |
| Presentation | Paper is double-spaced throughout using Times New Roman 12 pt. font. Full name, class, Instructor’s name, your location, and time of class, date, and description of assignment are in upper-left-hand corner. The essay should be paginated (show page numbers) as well. Title should not be bolded or underlined. | __/8 pts |
| Title | The title is three or more words and hints at the essay’s main point. | __/2 pts |
| Introduction | Introduction sets up the problem the author struggles with. This could be internal, external or both. | __/20 pts |
| Essay body | The body presents the “complication” that sets the plot in motion. | __/20 pts |
| Transformation | Conclusion shows the transformation from the introduction and thus the “moral” of the story. | __/20 pts |
| Audience | The “moral” of the story is objective and reflects a universal lesson that all readers can benefit from. | __/10 pts |
| Show, don’t tell | Author “shows” the events with vivid and compelling language rather than simply tells the story. | __/20 pts |
Contributors and Attributions
- Narrative Essay. Authored by : Daryl Smith O' Hare and Susan C. Hines. Provided by : Chadron State College. Project : Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Authored by : Paul Powell. Provided by : Central Community College. Project : Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Modification, adaptation, and original content. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution


8: Environmental Hazards and Human Health
Learning Outcomes
- Define environmental health
- Categorize environmental health risks
- Explain the concept of emerging diseases
- Summarize the principles of environmental toxicology
- Classify environmental contaminants
-
- Page 8.1: The Impacts of Environmental Conditions
- Our industrialized society dumps huge amounts of pollutants and toxic wastes into the earth’s biosphere without fully considering the consequences. Such actions seriously degrade the health of the earth’s ecosystems, and this degradation ultimately affects the health and well-being of human populations.
-
- Page 8.2: Environmental Health
- Environmental health is concerned with preventing disease, death and disability by reducing exposure to adverse environmental conditions and promoting behavioral change. It focuses on the direct and indirect causes of diseases and injuries, and taps resources inside and outside the health care system to help improve health outcomes.
-
- Page 8.3: Environmental Toxicology
- Environmental toxicology is the scientific study of the health effects associated with exposure to toxic chemicals (Table 1) occurring in the natural, work, and living environments. The term also describes the management of environmental toxins and toxicity, and the development of protections for humans and the environment.
-
- Page 8.4: Bioremediation
- Bioremediation is a waste management technique that involves the use of organisms such as plants, bacteria, and fungi to remove or neutralize pollutants from a contaminated site. According to the United States EPA, bioremediation is a “treatment that uses naturally occurring organisms to break down hazardous substances into less toxic or non toxic substances”.
-
- Page 8.5: Case Study - The Love Canal Disaster
- One of the most famous and important examples of groundwater pollution in the U.S. is the Love Canal tragedy in Niagara Falls, New York. It is important because the pollution disaster at Love Canal, along with similar pollution calamities at that time (Times Beach, Missouri and Valley of Drums, Kentucky), helped to create Superfund, a federal program instituted in 1980 and designed to identify and clean up the worst of the hazardous chemical waste sites in the U.S.
Thumbnail image - Bayee Waqo (12) was named after her grandmother Bayee Chumee (82). When her son and his wife both died of AIDS, Chumee took on the care of their daughter who was just two years old. Some years later, after repeated illness, the young girl was diagnosed HIV positive, and she has been on treatment since. At 82, Chumee is getting too weak for all the household chores, so her granddaughter helps by collecting firewood, fetching water, making coffee and baking bread.


2.6: The Kinetic Theory of Gases (Summary)
Key Terms
| Avogadro’s number | \(N_A\), the number of molecules in one mole of a substance; \(N_A=6.02×10^{23}\) particles/mole |
| Boltzmann constant | \(k_B\), a physical constant that relates energy to temperature and appears in the ideal gas law; \(k_B=1.38×10^{−23}J/K\) |
| critical temperature | \(T_c\) at which the isotherm has a point with zero slope |
| Dalton’s law of partial pressures | physical law that states that the total pressure of a gas is the sum of partial pressures of the component gases |
|
degree o+f freedom |
independent kind of motion possessing energy, such as the kinetic energy of motion in one of the three orthogonal spatial directions |
| equipartition theorem | theorem that the energy of a classical thermodynamic system is shared equally among its degrees of freedom |
| ideal gas | gas at the limit of low density and high temperature |
| ideal gas law | physical law that relates the pressure and volume of a gas, far from liquefaction, to the number of gas molecules or number of moles of gas and the temperature of the gas |
| internal energy | sum of the mechanical energies of all of the molecules in it |
| kinetic theory of gases | theory that derives the macroscopic properties of gases from the motion of the molecules they consist of |
| Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution | function that can be integrated to give the probability of finding ideal gas molecules with speeds in the range between the limits of integration |
| mean free path | average distance between collisions of a particle |
| mean free time | average time between collisions of a particle |
| mole | quantity of a substance whose mass (in grams) is equal to its molecular mass |
| most probable speed | speed near which the speeds of most molecules are found, the peak of the speed distribution function |
| partial pressure | pressure a gas would create if it occupied the total volume of space available |
| peak speed | same as “most probable speed” |
| pV diagram | graph of pressure vs. volume |
| root-mean-square (rms) speed | square root of the average of the square (of a quantity) |
| supercritical | condition of a fluid being at such a high temperature and pressure that the liquid phase cannot exist |
| universal gas constant | R , the constant that appears in the ideal gas law expressed in terms of moles, given by \(R=N_Ak_B\) |
| van der Waals equation of state | equation, typically approximate, which relates the pressure and volume of a gas to the number of gas molecules or number of moles of gas and the temperature of the gas |
| vapor pressure | partial pressure of a vapor at which it is in equilibrium with the liquid (or solid, in the case of sublimation) phase of the same substance |
Key Equations
| Ideal gas law in terms of molecules | \(pV=Nk_BT\) |
| Ideal gas law ratios if the amount of gas is constant | \(\frac{p_1V_1}{T_1}=\frac{p_2V_2}{T_2}\) |
| Ideal gas law in terms of moles | \(pV=nRT\) |
| Van der Waals equation | \([p+a(\frac{n}{V})^2](V−nb)=nRT\) |
| Pressure, volume, and molecular speed | \(pV=\frac{1}{3}Nm\bar{v^2}\) |
| Root-mean-square speed | \(v_{rms}=\sqrt{\frac{3RT}{M}}=\sqrt{\frac{3k_BT}{m}}\) |
| Mean free path | \(λ=\frac{V}{4\sqrt{2}πr^2N}=\frac{k_BT}{4\sqrt{2}πr^2}\) |
| Mean free time | \(τ=\frac{k_BT}{4\sqrt{2}πr^2pv_{rms}}\) |
The following two equations apply only to a monatomic ideal gas:
| Average kinetic energy of a molecule | \(\bar{K}=\frac{3}{2}k_BT\) |
| Internal energy | \(E_{int}=\frac{3}{2}Nk_BT\). |
| Heat in terms of molar heat capacity at constant volume | \(Q=nCVΔT\) |
| Molar heat capacity at constant volume for an ideal gas with d degrees of freedom | \(C_V=\frac{d}{2}R\) |
| Maxwell–Boltzmann speed distribution | \(f(v)=\frac{4}{\sqrt{π}}(\frac{m}{2k_BT})^{3/2}v^2e^{−mv^2/2k_BT}\) |
| Average velocity of a molecule | \(\bar{v}=\sqrt{\frac{8}{π}\frac{k_BT}{m}}=\sqrt{\frac{8}{π}\frac{RT}{M}}\) |
| Peak velocity of a molecule | \(v_p=\sqrt{\frac{2k_BT}{m}}=\sqrt{\frac{2RT}{M}}\) |
Summary
2.2 Molecular Model of an Ideal Gas
- The ideal gas law relates the pressure and volume of a gas to the number of gas molecules and the temperature of the gas.
- A mole of any substance has a number of molecules equal to the number of atoms in a 12-g sample of carbon-12. The number of molecules in a mole is called Avogadro’s number \(N_A\),
\(N_A=6.02×10^{23}mol^{−1}\).
- A mole of any substance has a mass in grams numerically equal to its molecular mass in unified mass units, which can be determined from the periodic table of elements. The ideal gas law can also be written and solved in terms of the number of moles of gas:
\(pV=nRT\),
where n is the number of moles and R is the universal gas constant,
\(R=8.31J/mol⋅K\).
- The ideal gas law is generally valid at temperatures well above the boiling temperature.
- The van der Waals equation of state for gases is valid closer to the boiling point than the ideal gas law.
- Above the critical temperature and pressure for a given substance, the liquid phase does not exist, and the sample is “supercritical.”
2.3 Pressure, Temperature, and RMS Speed
- Kinetic theory is the atomic description of gases as well as liquids and solids. It models the properties of matter in terms of continuous random motion of molecules.
- The ideal gas law can be expressed in terms of the mass of the gas’s molecules and \(\bar{v^2}\), the average of the molecular speed squared, instead of the temperature.
- The temperature of gases is proportional to the average translational kinetic energy of molecules. Hence, the typical speed of gas molecules \(v_{rms}\) is proportional to the square root of the temperature and inversely proportional to the square root of the molecular mass.
- In a mixture of gases, each gas exerts a pressure equal to the total pressure times the fraction of the mixture that the gas makes up.
- The mean free path (the average distance between collisions) and the mean free time of gas molecules are proportional to the temperature and inversely proportional to the molar density and the molecules’ cross-sectional area.
2.4 Heat Capacity and Equipartition of Energy
- Every degree of freedom of an ideal gas contributes \(\frac{1}{2}k_BT\) per atom or molecule to its changes in internal energy.
- Every degree of freedom contributes \(\frac{1}{2}R\) to its molar heat capacity at constant volume \(C_V\).
- Degrees of freedom do not contribute if the temperature is too low to excite the minimum energy of the degree of freedom as given by quantum mechanics. Therefore, at ordinary temperatures, d=3 for monatomic gases, d=5 for diatomic gases, and d≈6 for polyatomic gases.
2.5 Distribution of Molecular Speeds
- The motion of individual molecules in a gas is random in magnitude and direction. However, a gas of many molecules has a predictable distribution of molecular speeds, known as the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.
- The average and most probable velocities of molecules having the Maxwell-Boltzmann speed distribution, as well as the rms velocity, can be calculated from the temperature and molecular mass.


4.2: An Introduction to Plotting
-
- Last updated
- Save as PDF
Before I discuss any specialised graphics, let’s start by drawing a few very simple graphs just to get a feel for what it’s like to draw pictures using R. To that end, let’s create a small vector
Fibonacci
that contains a few numbers we’d like R to draw for us. Then, we’ll ask R to
plot()
those numbers:
> Fibonacci <- c( 1,1,2,3,5,8,13 )
> plot( Fibonacci )
The result is Figure 6.2.
As you can see, what R has done is plot the
values
stored in the
Fibonacci
variable on the vertical axis (y-axis) and the corresponding
index
on the horizontal axis (x-axis). In other words, since the 4th element of the vector has a value of 3, we get a dot plotted at the location (4,3). That’s pretty straightforward, and the image in Figure 6.2 is probably pretty close to what you would have had in mind when I suggested that we plot the
Fibonacci
data. However, there’s quite a lot of customisation options available to you, so we should probably spend a bit of time looking at some of those options. So, be warned: this ends up being a fairly long section, because there’s so many possibilities open to you. Don’t let it overwhelm you though… while all of the options discussed here are handy to know about, you can get by just fine only knowing a few of them. The only reason I’ve included all this stuff right at the beginning is that it ends up making the rest of the chapter a lot more readable!
tedious digression
Before we go into any discussion of customising plots, we need a little more background. The important thing to note when using the
plot()
function, is that it’s another example of a
generic
function (Section 4.11, much like
print()
and
summary()
, and so its behaviour changes depending on what kind of input you give it. However, the
plot()
function is somewhat fancier than the other two, and its behaviour depends on
two
arguments,
x
(the first input, which is required) and
y
(which is optional). This makes it (a) extremely powerful once you get the hang of it, and (b) hilariously unpredictable, when you’re not sure what you’re doing. As much as possible, I’ll try to make clear what type of inputs produce what kinds of outputs. For now, however, it’s enough to note that I’m only doing very basic plotting, and as a consequence all of the work is being done by the
plot.default()
function.
What kinds of customisations might we be interested in? If you look at the help documentation for the default plotting method (i.e., type
?plot.default
or
help("plot.default")
) you’ll see a very long list of arguments that you can specify to customise your plot. I’ll talk about several of them in a moment, but first I want to point out something that might seem quite wacky. When you look at all the different options that the help file talks about, you’ll notice that
some
of the options that it refers to are “proper” arguments to the
plot.default()
function, but it also goes on to mention a bunch of things that
look
like they’re supposed to be arguments, but they’re not listed in the “Usage” section of the file, and the documentation calls them
graphical parameters
instead. Even so, it’s usually possible to treat them as if they were arguments of the plotting function. Very odd. In order to stop my readers trying to find a brick and look up my home address, I’d better explain what’s going on; or at least give the basic gist behind it.
What exactly is a graphical parameter? Basically, the idea is that there are some characteristics of a plot which are pretty universal: for instance, regardless of what kind of graph you’re drawing, you probably need to specify what colour to use for the plot, right? So you’d expect there to be something like a
col
argument to every single graphics function in R? Well, sort of. In order to avoid having hundreds of arguments for every single function, what R does is refer to a bunch of these “graphical parameters” which are pretty general purpose. Graphical parameters can be changed directly by using the low-level
par()
function, which I discuss briefly in Section
??
though not in a lot of detail. If you look at the help files for graphical parameters (i.e., type
?par
) you’ll see that there’s
lots
of them. Fortunately, (a) the default settings are generally pretty good so you can ignore the majority of the parameters, and (b) as you’ll see as we go through this chapter, you very rarely need to use
par()
directly, because you can “pretend” that graphical parameters are just additional arguments to your high-level function (e.g.
plot.default()
). In short… yes, R does have these wacky “graphical parameters” which can be quite confusing. But in most basic uses of the plotting functions, you can act as if they were just undocumented additional arguments to your function.
Customising the title and the axis labels
One of the first things that you’ll find yourself wanting to do when customising your plot is to label it better. You might want to specify more appropriate axis labels, add a title or add a subtitle. The arguments that you need to specify to make this happen are:
-
main
. A character string containing the title. -
sub
. A character string containing the subtitle. -
xlab
. A character string containing the x-axis label. -
ylab
. A character string containing the y-axis label.
These aren’t graphical parameters, they’re arguments to the high-level function. However, because the high-level functions all rely on the same low-level function to do the drawing 90 the names of these arguments are identical for pretty much every high-level function I’ve come across. Let’s have a look at what happens when we make use of all these arguments. Here’s the command…
> plot( x = Fibonacci,
+ main = "You specify title using the 'main' argument",
+ sub = "The subtitle appears here! (Use the 'sub' argument for this)",
+ xlab = "The x-axis label is 'xlab'",
+ ylab = "The y-axis label is 'ylab'"
+ )
The picture that this draws is shown in Figure 6.3.
It’s more or less as you’d expect. The plot itself is identical to the one we drew in Figure 6.2, except for the fact that we’ve changed the axis labels, and added a title and a subtitle. Even so, there’s a couple of interesting features worth calling your attention to. Firstly, notice that the subtitle is drawn below the plot, which I personally find annoying; as a consequence I almost never use subtitles. You may have a different opinion, of course, but the important thing is that you remember where the subtitle actually goes. Secondly, notice that R has decided to use boldface text and a larger font size for the title. This is one of my most hated default settings in R graphics, since I feel that it draws too much attention to the title. Generally, while I do want my reader to look at the title, I find that the R defaults are a bit overpowering, so I often like to change the settings.  These four parameters control the font style used for the plot title (font.main
), the subtitle (font.sub
), the axis labels (font.lab
: note that you can’t specify separate styles for the x-axis and y-axis without using low level commands), and the numbers next to the tick marks on the axis (font.axis
). Somewhat irritatingly, these arguments are numbers instead of meaningful names: a value of 1 corresponds to plain text, 2 means boldface, 3 means italic and 4 means bold italic. -
Font colours:
col.main
,col.sub
,col.lab
,col.axis
. These parameters do pretty much what the name says: each one specifies a col our in which to type each of the different bits of text. Conveniently, R has a very large number of named colours (typecolours()
to see a list of over 650 colour names that R knows), so you can use the English language name of the colour to select it. 91 Thus, the parameter value here string like"red"
,"gray25"
or"springgreen4"
(yes, R really does recognise four different shades of “spring green”). -
Font size:
cex.main
,cex.sub
,cex.lab
,cex.axis
. Font size is handled in a slightly curious way in R. The “cex” part here is short for “ c haracter ex pansion”, and it’s essentially a magnification value. By default, all of these are set to a value of 1, except for the font title:cex.main
has a default magnification of 1.2, which is why the title font is 20% bigger than the others. -
Font family:
family
. This argument specifies a font family to use: the simplest way to use it is to set it to"sans"
,"serif"
, or"mono"
, corresponding to a san serif font, a serif font, or a monospaced font. If you want to, you can give the name of a specific font, but keep in mind that different operating systems use different fonts, so it’s probably safest to keep it simple. Better yet, unless you have some deep objections to the R defaults, just ignore this parameter entirely. That’s what I usually do.
To give you a sense of how you can use these parameters to customise your titles, the following command can be used to draw Figure 6.4:
> plot( x = Fibonacci, # the data to plot
+ main = "The first 7 Fibonacci numbers", # the title
+ xlab = "Position in the sequence", # x-axis label
+ ylab = "The Fibonacci number", # y-axis label
+ font.main = 1, # plain text for title
+ cex.main = 1, # normal size for title
+ font.axis = 2, # bold text for numbering
+ col.lab = "gray50" # grey colour for labels
+ )
Although this command is quite long, it’s not complicated: all it does is override a bunch of the default parameter values. The only difficult aspect to this is that you have to remember what each of these parameters is called, and what all the different values are. And in practice I never remember: I have to look up the help documentation every time, or else look it up in this book.
Changing the plot type
Adding and customising the titles associated with the plot is one way in which you can play around with what your picture looks like. Another thing that you’ll want to do is customise the appearance of the actual plot! To start with, let’s look at the single most important options that the
plot()
function (or, recalling that we’re dealing with a generic function, in this case the
plot.default()
function, since that’s the one doing all the work) provides for you to use, which is the
type
argument. The type argument specifies the visual style of the plot. The possible values for this are:
-
type = "p"
. Draw the p oints only. -
type = "l"
. Draw a l ine through the points. -
type = "o"
. Draw the line o ver the top of the points. -
type = "b"
. Draw b oth points and lines, but don’t overplot. -
type = "h"
. Draw “ h istogram-like” vertical bars. -
type = "s"
. Draw a s taircase, going horizontally then vertically. -
type = "S"
. Draw a S taircase, going vertically then horizontally. -
type = "c"
. Draw only the c onnecting lines from the “b” version. -
type = "n"
. Draw nothing. (Apparently this is useful sometimes?)
The simplest way to illustrate what each of these really looks like is just to draw them. To that end, Figure 6.5 shows the same Fibonacci data, drawn using six different
types
of plot. As you can see, by altering the type argument you can get a qualitatively different appearance to your plot. In other words, as far as R is concerned, the only difference between a scatterplot (like the ones we drew in Section 5.7 and a line plot is that you draw a scatterplot by setting
type = "p"
and you draw a line plot by setting
type = "l"
. However, that doesn’t imply that
you
should think of them as begin equivalent to each other. As you can see by looking at Figure 6.5, a line plot implies that there is some notion of continuity from one point to the next, whereas a scatterplot does not.
Changing other features of the plot
In Section ?? we talked about a group of graphical parameters that are related to the formatting of titles, axis labels etc. The second group of parameters I want to discuss are those related to the formatting of the plot itself:
-
Colour of the plot
:
col
. As we saw with the previous colour-related parameters, the simplest way to specify this parameter is using a character string: e.g.,col = "blue"
. It’s a pretty straightforward parameter to specify: the only real subtlety is that every high-level function tends to draw a different “thing” as it’s output, and so this parameter gets interpreted a little differently by different functions. However, for theplot.default()
function it’s pretty simple: thecol
argument refers to the colour of the points and/or lines that get drawn! -
Character used to plot points
:
pch
. The p lot ch aracter parameter is a number, usually between 1 and 25. What it does is tell R what symbol to use to draw the points that it plots. The simplest way to illustrate what the different values do is with a picture. Figure 6.6 a shows the first 25 plotting characters. The default plotting character is a hollow circle (i.e.,pch = 1
). -
Plot size
:
cex
. This parameter describes a c haracter ex pansion factor (i.e., magnification) for the plotted characters. By defaultcex=1
, but if you want bigger symbols in your graph you should specify a larger value. -
Line type
:
lty
. The l ine ty pe parameter describes the kind of line that R draws. It has seven values which you can specify using a number between0
and7
, or using a meaningful character string:"blank"
,"solid"
,"dashed"
,"dotted"
,"dotdash"
,"longdash"
, or"twodash"
. Note that the “blank” version (value 0) just means that R doesn’t draw the lines at all. The other six versions are shown in Figure 6.6 b. -
Line width
:
lwd
. The last graphical parameter in this category that I want to mention is the l ine w i d th parameter, which is just a number specifying the width of the line. The default value is 1. Not surprisingly, larger values produce thicker lines and smaller values produce thinner lines. Try playing around with different values oflwd
to see what happens.
To illustrate what you can do by altering these parameters, let’s try the following command:
> plot( x = Fibonacci, # the data set
+ type = "b", # plot both points and lines
+ col = "blue", # change the plot colour to blue
+ pch = 19, # plotting character is a solid circle
+ cex = 5, # plot it at 5x the usual size
+ lty = 2, # change line type to dashed
+ lwd = 4 # change line width to 4x the usual
+ )
The output is shown in Figure 6.7.
plot( x = Fibonacci,
type = "b",
col = "blue",
pch = 19,
cex=5,
lty=2,
lwd=4)
Changing the appearance of the axes
There are several other possibilities worth discussing. Ignoring graphical parameters for the moment, there’s a few other arguments to the
plot.default()
function that you might want to use. As before, many of these are standard arguments that are used by a lot of high level graphics functions:
-
Changing the axis scales
:
xlim
,ylim
. Generally R does a pretty good job of figuring out where to set the edges of the plot. However, you can override its choices by setting thexlim
andylim
arguments. For instance, if I decide I want the vertical scale of the plot to run from 0 to 100, then I’d setylim = c(0, 100)
. -
Suppress labelling
:
ann
. This is a logical-valued argument that you can use if you don’t want R to include any text for a title, subtitle or axis label. To do so, setann = FALSE
. This will stop R from including any text that would normally appear in those places. Note that this will override any of your manual titles. For example, if you try to add a title using themain
argument, but you also specifyann = FALSE
, no title will appear. -
Suppress axis drawing
:
axes
. Again, this is a logical valued argument.  To suppress the axes, all you have to do is addaxes = FALSE
. This will remove the axes and the numbering, but not the axis labels (i.e. thexlab
andylab
text). Note that you can get finer grain control over this by specifying thexaxt
andyaxt
graphical parameters instead (see below). -
Include a framing box
:
frame.plot
. Suppose you’ve removed the axes by settingaxes = FALSE
, but you still want to have a simple box drawn around the plot; that is, you only wanted to get rid of the numbering and the tick marks, but you want to keep the box. To do that, you setframe.plot = TRUE
.
Note that this list isn’t exhaustive. There are a few other arguments to the
plot.default
function that you can play with if you want to, but those are the ones you are probably most likely to want to use. As always, however, if these aren’t enough options for you, there’s also a number of other graphical parameters that you might want to play with as well. That’s the focus of the next section. In the meantime, here’s a command that makes use of all these different options:
> plot( x = Fibonacci, # the data
+ xlim = c(0, 15), # expand the x-scale
+ ylim = c(0, 15), # expand the y-scale
+ ann = FALSE, # delete all annotations
+ axes = FALSE, # delete the axes
+ frame.plot = TRUE # but include a framing box
+ )
The output is shown in Figure 6.8, and it’s pretty much exactly as you’d expect. The axis scales on both the horizontal and vertical dimensions have been expanded, the axes have been suppressed as have the annotations, but I’ve kept a box around the plot.
plot( x = Fibonacci,
xlim = c(0, 15),
ylim = c(0, 15),
ann = FALSE,
axes = FALSE,
frame.plot = TRUE)
Before moving on, I should point out that there are several graphical parameters relating to the axes, the box, and the general appearance of the plot which allow finer grain control over the appearance of the axes and the annotations.
-
Suppressing the axes individually
:
xaxt
,yaxt
. These graphical parameters are basically just fancier versions of theaxes
argument we discussed earlier. If you want to stop R from drawing the vertical axis but you’d like it to keep the horizontal axis, setyaxt = "n"
. I trust that you can figure out how to keep the vertical axis and suppress the horizontal one! -
Box type
:
bty
. In the same way thatxaxt
,yaxt
are just fancy versions ofaxes
, the b ox ty pe parameter is really just a fancier version of theframe.plot
argument, allowing you to specify exactly which out of the four borders you want to keep. The way we specify this parameter is a bit stupid, in my opinion: the possible values are"o"
(the default),"l"
,"7"
,"c"
,"u"
, or"]"
, each of which will draw only those edges that the corresponding character suggests. That is, the letter"c"
has a top, a bottom and a left, but is blank on the right hand side, whereas"7"
has a top and a right, but is blank on the left and the bottom. Alternatively a value of"n"
means that no box will be drawn. -
Orientation of the axis labels
las
. I presume that the name of this parameter is an acronym of la bel s tyle or something along those lines; but what it actually does is govern the orientation of the text used to label the individual tick marks (i.e., the numbering, not thexlab
andylab
axis labels). There are four possible values forlas
: A value of 0 means that the labels of both axes are printed parallel to the axis itself (the default). A value of 1 means that the text is always horizontal. A value of 2 means that the labelling text is printed at right angles to the axis. Finally, a value of 3 means that the text is always vertical.
Again, these aren’t the only possibilities. There are a few other graphical parameters that I haven’t mentioned that you could use to customise the appearance of the axes, 92 but that’s probably enough (or more than enough) for now. To give a sense of how you could use these parameters, let’s try the following command:
> plot( x = Fibonacci, # the data
+ xaxt = "n", # don't draw the x-axis
+ bty = "]", # keep bottom, right and top of box only
+ las = 1 # rotate the text
+ )
The output is shown in Figure 6.9. As you can see, this isn’t a very useful plot at all. However, it does illustrate the graphical parameters we’re talking about, so I suppose it serves its purpose.
plot( x = Fibonacci,
xaxt = "n",
bty = "]",
las = 1 )
Don’t panic
At this point, a lot of readers will be probably be thinking something along the lines of, “if there’s this much detail just for drawing a simple plot, how horrible is it going to get when we start looking at more complicated things?” Perhaps, contrary to my earlier pleas for mercy, you’ve found a brick to hurl and are right now leafing through an Adelaide phone book trying to find my address. Well, fear not! And please, put the brick down. In a lot of ways, we’ve gone through the hardest part: we’ve already covered vast majority of the plot customisations that you might want to do. As you’ll see, each of the other high level plotting commands we’ll talk about will only have a smallish number of additional options. Better yet, even though I’ve told you about a billion different ways of tweaking your plot, you don’t usually need them. So in practice, now that you’ve read over it once to get the gist, the majority of the content of this section is stuff you can safely forget: just remember to come back to this section later on when you want to tweak your plot.


15.4: The Connection Between Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration
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Learning Objectives
- Derive the kinematic equations for constant acceleration using integral calculus.
- Use the integral formulation of the kinematic equations in analyzing motion.
- Find the functional form of velocity versus time given the acceleration function.
- Find the functional form of position versus time given the velocity function.
This section assumes you have enough background in calculus to be familiar with integration. In Instantaneous Velocity and Speed and Average and Instantaneous Acceleration we introduced the kinematic functions of velocity and acceleration using the derivative. By taking the derivative of the position function we found the velocity function, and likewise by taking the derivative of the velocity function we found the acceleration function. Using integral calculus, we can work backward and calculate the velocity function from the acceleration function, and the position function from the velocity function.
Kinematic Equations from Integral Calculus
Let’s begin with a particle with an acceleration a(t) is a known function of time. Since the time derivative of the velocity function is acceleration,
\[\frac{d}{dt} v(t) = a(t),\]
we can take the indefinite integral of both sides, finding
\[\int \frac{d}{dt} v(t) dt = \int a(t) dt + C_{1},\]
where C 1 is a constant of integration. Since \(\int \frac{d}{dt} v(t) dt = v(t)\), the velocity is given by
\[v(t) = \int a(t) dt + C_{1} \ldotp \label{3.18}\]
Similarly, the time derivative of the position function is the velocity function,
\[\frac{d}{dt} x(t) = v(t) \ldotp\]
Thus, we can use the same mathematical manipulations we just used and find
\[x(t) = \int v(t) dt + C_{2}, \label{3.19}\]
where C 2 is a second constant of integration.
We can derive the kinematic equations for a constant acceleration using these integrals. With a(t) = a, a constant, and doing the integration in Equation \ref{3.18}, we find
\[v(t) = \int a dt + C_{1} = at + C_{1} \ldotp\]
If the initial velocity is v(0) = v 0 , then
\[v_{0} = 0 + C_{1} \ldotp\]
Then, C 1 = v 0 and
\[v(t) = v_{0} + at,\]
which is Equation 3.5.12 . Substituting this expression into Equation \ref{3.19} gives
\[x(t) = \int (v_{0} + at) dt + C_{2} \ldotp\]
Doing the integration, we find
\[x(t) = v_{0} t + \frac{1}{2} at^{2} + C_{2} \ldotp\]
If x(0) = x 0 , we have
\[x_{0} = 0 + 0 + C_{2} \ldotp\]
so, C 2 = x 0 . Substituting back into the equation for x(t), we finally have
\[x(t) = x_{0} + v_{0} t + \frac{1}{2} at^{2} \ldotp\]
which is Equation 3.5.17 .
Example 3.17: Motion of a Motorboat
A motorboat is traveling at a constant velocity of 5.0 m/s when it starts to decelerate to arrive at the dock. Its acceleration is a(t) = \(-\frac{1}{4}\) t m/s 2 . (a) What is the velocity function of the motorboat? (b) At what time does the velocity reach zero? (c) What is the position function of the motorboat? (d) What is the displacement of the motorboat from the time it begins to decelerate to when the velocity is zero? (e) Graph the velocity and position functions.
Strategy
(a) To get the velocity function we must integrate and use initial conditions to find the constant of integration. (b) We set the velocity function equal to zero and solve for t. (c) Similarly, we must integrate to find the position function and use initial conditions to find the constant of integration. (d) Since the initial position is taken to be zero, we only have to evaluate the position function at t = 0 .
Solution
We take t = 0 to be the time when the boat starts to decelerate.
- From the functional form of the acceleration we can solve Equation \ref{3.18} to get v(t): $$v(t) = \int a(t) dt + C_{1} = \int - \frac{1}{4} tdt + C_{1} = - \frac{1}{8} t^{2} + C_{1} \ldotp$$At t = 0 we have v(0) = 5.0 m/s = 0 + C 1 , so C 1 = 5.0 m/s or v(t) = 5.0 m/s − \(\frac{1}{8}\) t 2 .
- v(t) = 0 = 5.0 m/s − \(\frac{1}{8}\) t 2 (\Rightarrow\) t = 6.3 s
- Solve Equation \ref{3.19}: $$x(t) = \int v(t) dt + C_{2} = \int (5.0 - \frac{1}{8} t^{2}) dt + C_{2} = 5.0t - \frac{1}{24}t^{3} + C_{2} \ldotp$$At t = 0, we set x(0) = 0 = x 0 , since we are only interested in the displacement from when the boat starts to decelerate. We have $$x(0) = 0 = C_{2} \ldotp$$Therefore, the equation for the position is $$x(t) = 5.0t - \frac{1}{24} t^{3} \ldotp$$
- Since the initial position is taken to be zero, we only have to evaluate x(t) when the velocity is zero. This occurs at t = 6.3 s. Therefore, the displacement is $$x(6.3) = 5.0(6.3) − \frac{1}{24}(6.3)^{3} = 21.1\; m \ldotp$$
Significance
The acceleration function is linear in time so the integration involves simple polynomials. In Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\), we see that if we extend the solution beyond the point when the velocity is zero, the velocity becomes negative and the boat reverses direction. This tells us that solutions can give us information outside our immediate interest and we should be careful when interpreting them.
Exercise 3.8
A particle starts from rest and has an acceleration function \(a(t)=\left(5-\left(10 \frac{1}{s}\right) t\right) \frac{m}{s^{2}}\). (a) What is the velocity function? (b) What is the position function? (c) When is the velocity zero?


1.1: Food Safety Regulations
In the United States, the required training for handling food safely varies from state to state and sometimes from county to county. Your local health department will be able to specify the regulations in your area.
According to
Premier Food Safety
: "In California, for example, the Food Manager Certification designates a state requirement mandating that at least one employee or owner per food establishment passes an accredited food safety examination, whereas the Food Handler Card refers to a less comprehensive training that is mandatory for all employees who come in direct contact with unpackaged food. Other states, however, use the term food handler certification to refer to the food manager certification."
ServSafe is a company that offers training and certification not only for handling unpackaged food, but also for managing food establishments, serving alcohol, and allergens found in foods. Getting certified with ServSafe is typically recognized across federal, state and local levels. The certificate earned after successfully completing the Food Handler course is valid for three years and the Food Managers Certification is valid for five years. Besides ServSafe, NRFSP, Always Food Safe, AboveTraining, 360 Training, and Prometric are all ANAB-CFP accredited examinations approved in California.


3.6: The Trait Approach to Leadership
- What are the trait perspectives on leadership?
Ancient Greek, Roman, Egyptian, and Chinese scholars were keenly interested in leaders and leadership. Their writings portray leaders as heroes. Homer, in his poem The Odyssey , portrays Odysseus during and after the Trojan War as a great leader who had vision and self-confidence. His son Telemachus, under the tutelage of Mentor, developed his father’s courage and leadership skills (Kramer, 1992). Out of such stories emerged the “great man” theory of leadership and a starting point for the contemporary study of leadership.
The great man theory of leadership states that some people are born with the necessary attributes to be great leaders. Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Joan of Arc, Catherine the Great, Napoleon, and Mahatma Gandhi are cited as naturally great leaders, born with a set of personal qualities that made them effective leaders. Even today, the belief that truly great leaders are born is common. For example, Kenneth Labich, writer for Fortune Magazine, commented that “the best leaders seem to possess a God-given spark" (Labich, 1988).
During the early 1900s, scholars endeavored to understand leaders and leadership. They wanted to know, from an organizational perspective, what characteristics leaders hold in common in the hope that people with these characteristics could be identified, recruited, and placed in key organizational positions. This gave rise to early research efforts and to what is referred to as the trait approach to leadership . Prompted by the great man theory of leadership and the emerging interest in understanding what leadership is, researchers focused on the leader—Who is a leader? What are the distinguishing characteristics of the great and effective leaders? The great man theory of leadership holds that some people are born with a set of personal qualities that make truly great leaders. Mahatma Gandhi is often cited as a naturally great leader.
Leader Trait Research
Ralph Stogdill (1948), while on the faculty at The Ohio State University, pioneered our modern (late 20th century) study of leadership. Scholars taking the trait approach attempted to identify physiological (appearance, height, and weight), demographic (age, education, and socioeconomic background), personality (dominance, self-confidence, and aggressiveness), intellective (intelligence, decisiveness, judgment, and knowledge), task-related (achievement drive, initiative, and persistence), and social characteristics (sociability and cooperativeness) with leader emergence and leader effectiveness. After reviewing several hundred studies of leader traits, Stogdill in 1974 described the successful leader this way:
The [successful] leader is characterized by a strong drive for responsibility and task completion, vigor and persistence in pursuit of goals, venturesomeness and originality in problem solving, drive to exercise initiative in social situations, self-confidence and sense of personal identity, willingness to accept consequences of decision and action, readiness to absorb interpersonal stress, willingness to tolerate frustration and delay, ability to influence other person’s behavior, and capacity to structure social interaction systems to the purpose at hand (Stogdill, 1948).
The last three decades of the 20th century witnessed continued exploration of the relationship between traits and leader emergence and effectiveness. Edwin Locke from the University of Maryland and a number of his research associates, in their recent review of the trait research, observed that successful leaders possess a set of core characteristics different from those of other people (Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991; Locke, 1991). Although these core traits do not solely determine whether a person will be a leader—or a successful leader—they are seen as preconditions that endow people with leadership potential. According to Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991), the core traits identified are:
- Drive —a high level of effort, including a strong desire for achievement, as well as high levels of ambition, energy, tenacity, and initiative
- Leadership motivation —an intense desire to lead others
- Honesty and integrity —a commitment to the truth, where word and deed correspond
- Self-confidence —an assurance in one’s self, one’s ideas, and one’s ability
- Cognitive ability —conceptually skilled, capable of exercising good judgment, having strong analytical abilities, possessing the capacity to think strategically and multidimensionally
- Knowledge of the business —a high degree of understanding of the company, industry, and technical matters
- Other traits —charisma, creativity/originality, and flexibility/adaptiveness
While leaders may be “people with the right stuff,” effective leadership requires more than simply possessing the correct set of motives and traits. Knowledge, skills, ability, vision, strategy, and effective vision implementation are all necessary for the person who has the “right stuff” to realize their leadership potential (Locke et al., 1991; Stewart, 1999). According to Locke, people endowed with these traits engage in behaviors associated with leadership. As followers, people are attracted to and inclined to follow individuals who display, for example, honesty and integrity, self-confidence, and the motivation to lead.
Personality psychologists remind us that behavior is a result of an interaction between the person and the situation—that is, Behavior =f[(Person) (Situation)]. To this, psychologist Walter Mischel (1973) adds the important observation that personality tends to be expressed through an individual’s behavior in “weak” situations and to be suppressed in “strong” situations. A strong situation has strong behavioral norms and rules, strong incentives, clear expectations, and rewards for a particular behavior. Our characterization of the mechanistic organization with its well-defined hierarchy of authority, jobs, and standard operating procedures exemplifies a strong situation. The organic social system exemplifies a weak situation. From a leadership perspective, a person’s traits play a stronger role in their leadership behavior and, ultimately, leader effectiveness when the situation permits the expression of their disposition. Thus, personality traits prominently shape leader behavior in weak situations.
Finally, regarding the validity of the “great person approach to leadership,” evidence accumulated to date does not provide a strong base of support for the notion that leaders are born. Yet, the study of twins at the University of Minnesota leaves open the possibility that part of the answer might be found in our genes. Many personality traits and vocational interests (which might be related to one’s interest in assuming responsibility for others and the motivation to lead) have been found to be related to our “genetic dispositions” as well as to our life experiences (House & Aditya, 1997; Bouchard, Jr. et al., 1990). Each core trait recently identified by Locke and his associates traces a significant part of its existence to life experiences. Thus, a person is not born with self-confidence. Self-confidence is developed, honesty and integrity are a matter of personal choice, motivation to lead comes from within the individual and is within his control, and knowledge of the business can be acquired. While cognitive ability does in part find its origin in the genes, it still needs to be developed. Finally, drive, as a dispositional trait, may also have a genetic component, but it too can be self- and other-encouraged. It goes without saying that none of these ingredients are acquired overnight.
Other Leader Traits
Sex and gender, disposition, and self-monitoring also play an important role in leader emergence and leader style.
Sex and Gender Role
Much research has gone into understanding the role of sex and gender in leadership (Helgesen, 1990). Two major avenues have been explored: sex and gender roles in relation to leader emergence and whether style differences exist across the sexes.
Evidence supports the observation that men emerge as leaders more frequently than women (Chapman, 1975; Fagenson, 1990). Throughout history, few women have been in positions where they could develop or exercise leadership behaviors. In contemporary society, being perceived as experts appears to play an important role in the emergence of women as leaders. Yet, gender role is more predictive than sex. Individuals with “masculine” (for example, assertive, aggressive, competitive, willing to take a stand) as opposed to “feminine” (cheerful, affectionate, sympathetic, gentle) characteristics are more likely to emerge in leadership roles (Kent & Moss, 1994). In our society, males are frequently socialized to possess masculine characteristics, whereas females are more frequently socialized to possess feminine characteristics.
Recent evidence, however, suggests that individuals who are androgynous (that is, who simultaneously possess both masculine and feminine characteristics) are as likely to emerge in leadership roles as individuals with only masculine characteristics. This suggests that possessing feminine qualities does not distract from the attractiveness of the individual as a leader (Kent & Moss, 1994).
Regarding leadership style, researchers have looked to see if male-female differences exist in task and interpersonal styles and whether or not differences exist in how autocratic or democratic men and women are. The answer is that differences between men and women appear to be marginal when it comes to interpersonal versus task orientation. Women are somewhat more concerned with meeting the group’s interpersonal needs, whereas men are somewhat more concerned with meeting the group’s task needs. Big differences emerge in terms of democratic versus autocratic leadership styles. Men tend to be more autocratic or directive, whereas women are more likely to adopt a more democratic/participative leadership style (Early & Johnson, 1990). In fact, it may be because men are more directive that they are seen as key to goal attainment and they are turned to more often as leaders (Dobbins et al., 1990).
Dispositional Trait
Psychologists often use the terms disposition and mood to describe and differentiate people. Individuals characterized by a positive affective state exhibit a mood that is active, strong, excited, enthusiastic, peppy, and elated. A leader with this mood state exudes confidence and optimism and is seen as enjoying work-related activities.
Recent work conducted at the University of California-Berkeley demonstrates that leaders (managers) with positive affectivity (a positive mood state) tend to be more competent interpersonally, contribute more to group activities, and be able to function more effectively in their leadership role (Staw & Barsade, 1993) Their enthusiasm and high energy levels appear to be infectious, transferring from leader to followers. Thus, such leaders promote group cohesiveness and productivity. This mood state is also associated with low levels of group turnover and is positively associated with followers who engage in acts of good group citizenship (George & Bellenhausen, 1990).
Self-Monitoring
Self-monitoring as a personality trait refers to the strength of an individual’s ability and willingness to read verbal and nonverbal cues and to alter one’s behavior so as to manage the presentation of the self and the images that others form of the individual. “High self-monitors” are particularly astute at reading social cues and regulating their self-presentation to fit a particular situation. “Low self-monitors” are less sensitive to social cues; they may lack either the motivation or the ability to manage how they come across to others.
Some evidence supports the position that high self-monitors emerge more often as leaders. In addition, they appear to exert more influence on group decisions and initiate more structure than low self-monitors. Perhaps high self-monitors emerge as leaders because in group interaction they are the individuals who attempt to organize the group and provide it with the structure needed to move the group toward goal attainment (Dobbins et al., 1990).
- What are the trait perspectives on leadership?


1.6: Concepts Explored in Later Chapters
1.6.1 The Structure of Art: Form and Design
In order to read this you have spent considerable time and effort learning individual letters, combinations that form a word, the structure of a sentence, and the organization of multiple sentences to move from one idea to the next. You use all of those skills to make sense of and understand the written word. And from there, you can introduce your own ideas, knowledge, and experiences to expand upon and bring additional meanings to what you have read.
We follow a similar process in learning how to look at and understand art. In Chapter Two: The Structure of Art–Form and Design, we will first define forms of art and the materials and processes used in creating them. We will then examine the elements of art, such as line, color, and form, as well as the principles of design, or how those elements are combined to create a composition. With this new vocabulary we can better understand and talk about what we are looking at, enriching our experiences interacting with art and architecture in the world around us.
1.6.2 Significance of Materials Used in Art
One of the basic choices in creating any work of art is the material from which it will be made. The materials might make it more or less important, more or less valuable, or might bring a variety of associations not inherent in the actual form of the work. In Chapter Three: Significance of Materials Used in Art, we will examine both the monetary value and the cultural value of works of art based upon the media—the materials—employed, and some of the many sources from which those values are determined.
1.6.3 Describing Art: Formal Analysis, Types, and Styles
Taking the building blocks of the vocabulary we built in reading Chapter Two: The Structure of Art–Form and Design, in Chapter Four: Describing Art: Formal Analysis, Types, and Styles we will discuss how to critically analyze, or systematically describe, a work of art. We will examine the elements and principles of its design, the category in which it falls based on the relative representation of the natural world, and how we might group that work with others, or the work of other artists based on its appearance, or style. These tools not only help us learn more about the work of art, they enhance our appreciation of art by providing us with a greater understanding of the individual work’s components and its relationship with art in the same or other cultures and time periods.
1.6.4 Meaning in Art: Socio-Cultural Contexts, Symbolism, and Iconography
Studying the historical, social, personal, political, or scientific reasons a work of art was made provides us with further, and key, information in understanding its meaning and symbolism. A work of art is part of the culture in which it was made; all artists, even those who wish to rebel against some aspect of the time in which they live, are influenced (and perhaps constrained) by the world around them. In Chapter Five: Meaning in Art– Socio-Cultural Context, Symbolism, and Iconography, we will consider the many factors that influence the creation and our comprehension of works of art. And, we will explore meanings within a work, its symbolism, as a way of providing us with deeper understanding of what the work meant within the culture it was made.
1.6.5 Connecting Art to Our Lives
For art to have meaning, it must have some connection to us and our lives. Artists and those who hire them to create works of art have myriad reasons for doing so. In Chapter Six: Connecting Art to Our Lives, we will first look at aesthetics, the study of the principles and appreciation of beauty in art, from an historical perspective to gain an understanding of another way in which the value of art has traditionally been determined. We will also explore roles that art plays: it can be a means of expression, a symbol of inclusion or exclusion, a tool of communication, or a medium of education. When we find our connection to a work of art, we are engaged with and enriched by it.
1.6.6 Form in Architecture
Human beings have created a wide variety of architecture forms from pre-historic times to the present across the entire world. The continuous presence of architecture in human history indicates the vital and numerous roles structures play for both the individual and the society in which they are made. In Chapter Seven: Form in Architecture, we will examine purpose, function, and meaning in design and construction of sites and buildings within a variety of cultures. What can the history of constructed forms tell us about the needs, beliefs, and principles of our near and distant ancestors? Answering these questions sheds light on the role of architecture throughout history, as well as how it functions in our own time.
1.6.7 Art and Identity
Often today, when we think of art and identity, we are referring to the artist’s identity, and what we mean is the artist’s personal identity and what the artist is trying to communicate on a personal level. The notion of personal identity quickly expands, however, to include aspects that link the artist to others with similar characteristics, such as gender, ethnicity, spiritual beliefs, and nationality. From there, we can begin to talk about identity within a clan, culture, nation, and other groups that share like traits and properties.
In Chapter Eight: Art and Identity, we will look at how notions of identity influence artists and the art they create. Whether artists are attempting to express individual, private feelings, or capture the personality of a nation, they must first define what the characteristics are and determine how those chosen will be represented in the work of art. We will look at these visualizations of identity in a variety of forms, from small hand-held objects to large-scale works of architecture, to discuss the impact of materials, size, and audience. And, we will examine the circumstances surrounding the creation of these objects to investigate the role social, religious, and political forces play in defining and assigning identity in art.
1.6.8 Art and Power
Throughout history, art has been used as a means of communication by those in power. When rulers commission depictions of themselves, for example, they may or may not want them to be recognizable portraits, but the sculpture or painting will certainly communicate what the ruler wants those who see the work to know about the ruler’s position, wealth, and attributes, that is, indications of the ruler’s power. These signs of power can be used to reassure the ruler’s own people or to warn potential adversaries of the forces at the ruler’s disposal. Rulers and others in authority have the ability to enlarge a show of power beyond a bodily display of physical strength and dominance to more potent and permanent monuments such as murals, sculpture, and buildings.
The power of art extends far beyond uses by those in control. Art can be used to build influence, increase leverage, and give hope to those who possess little authority. It can be used as a form of protest against those in command. And, it can be used to induce change. In Chapter Nine: Art and Power, we will look at art as a tool to comment upon and garner power, and as a means of communicating power and power relations. We will identify common visual strategies, and note similarities and differences over time and in different cultures
1.6.9 Art and Ritual Life: Symbolism of Space and Ritual Objects
Human beings possess the ability to project our thoughts forward to speculate about what will happen in our future. We can contemplate our own mortality and reflect on existence beyond our own lives. Doing so can plunge us into despair or elevate us to heights of exultation. In times of desperation, art can serve as a talisman, an object believed to have power to bring luck or offer protection, against those things or events we fear in hope the occurrence can be warded off. In the case of the inevitable, such as sickness and death, art is used to give comfort to the suffering and solace to the survivors. We also employ art to pay tribute to what we cherish and honor; with works made of the finest materials, crafted with ingenuity and the utmost skill we give expression not only to our fears, but also to our hopes.
In Chapter Ten: Art and Ritual Life–Symbolism of Space and Ritual Objects, we will look at how art helps us to understand ourselves as mortal creatures, and the role it plays in our spiritual lives as we strive to locate meaning and purpose in existence as a finite or infinite concept.
1.6.10 Art and Ethics
Art can introduce us to new ideas, and it can influence what we think about ourselves and others. Art informs us and it can change us. Does this potential for tremendous impact place an obligation upon the artist, the photojournalist, or the museum curator to act under certain guidelines of originality or truthfulness, for example? If so, how do we define what original art is, and whose truth are we telling?
Chapter Eleven: Art and Ethics introduces us to some of the issues facing artists and others in the world of art in how they present themselves and their art.


10.4.5: Using a Sociological Perspective
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Organizations hire sociological practitioners to design new programs or evaluate existing ones. As a practitioner, you will need to use a sociological imagination to analyze a program’s social condition or situation, its parts, and possible solutions. You will be responsible for examining the condition from the perspective of others including organizational administrators, staff, clients, and community affected to assist you in designing or evaluating the program. To accomplish this task, you must be able to complete an objective evaluation or needs assessment and communicate your findings to those involved.
To apply a sociological perspective you will need to examine the social arrangement of the condition or situation from a macro, meso, and micro level of analysis. To begin, identify the structure and make-up of the organization and systems involved in or around the issue that the program is working to address. Next, assess the social groups involved in the organization or system. Understand what input and impact these groups have on persons both involved within and served by the program. Finally, investigate the relationships and interactions among the organization, groups, and individuals involved in the program and condition it is addressing.
To construct a fishbone diagram, complete the following steps:
- Identify the social condition or situation.
- Brainstorm potential variables (categories or factors) influencing the condition including policies, resources, culture, etc.
- Start a fishbone diagram with an arrow leading to the condition and variables branched off.
- Write the categories or factors of the variables identified in item 3. Include the categories or factors above and below the arrow pointing to the condition. Be sure to connect the variable to specific names. For example:
- Interpret the results and identify the primary issues influencing the current condition or situation. Consider how the theoretical paradigms can help you make sense of what is happening.
- Write a summary of your findings by presenting the condition or situation, then explain the factors influencing the problem.
- Plan the steps for implementing a solution or resolving the problem.
A useful way to understand a program or organization’s needs is to chart the social condition or situation using a fishbone diagram . This tool constructs a visual representation of the social impact on a condition and identifies the primary issues affecting the problem. Results assist in developing a written summary of the factors influencing the condition and used to plan the next steps in solving or resolving any issues.
The mayor is working with city council leaders to improve waste management services to local residents in the area. The city is considering a private-public partnership to provide waste removal and recycling services to the community. Use your sociological imagination to identify the pros and cons of the city embarking on this partnership with a private, for-profit company. The partnership will require an annual contract with a fee for services. How will this type of partnership impact local residents? Consider the impact five (5) years from now.
- Use a fishbone diagram to structure the issue.
- Apply the six (6) theoretical paradigms in sociology to identify variables that may influence the issue.
- Write a summary of your analysis.


5.2: The Stamp Act and the Sons and Daughters of Liberty
In 1765, the British Parliament moved beyond the efforts during the previous two years to better regulate westward expansion and trade by putting in place the Stamp Act. As a direct tax on the colonists, the Stamp Act imposed an internal tax on almost every type of printed paper colonists used, including newspapers, legal documents, and playing cards. While the architects of the Stamp Act saw the measure as a way to defray the costs of the British Empire, it nonetheless gave rise to the first major colonial protest against British imperial control as expressed in the famous slogan “no taxation without representation.” The Stamp Act reinforced the sense among some colonists that Parliament was not treating them as equals of their peers across the Atlantic.
THE STAMP ACT AND THE QUARTERING ACT
Prime Minister Grenville, author of the Sugar Act of 1764, introduced the Stamp Actin the early spring of 1765. Under this act, anyone who used or purchased anything printed on paper had to buy a revenue stamp (Figure 5.2.1) for it. In the same year, 1765, Parliament also passed the Quartering Act, a law that attempted to solve the problems of stationing troops in North America. The Parliament understood the Stamp Act and the Quartering Act as an assertion of their power to control colonial policy.
The Stamp Act signaled a shift in British policy after the French and Indian War. Before the Stamp Act, the colonists had paid taxes to their colonial governments or indirectly through higher prices, not directly to the Crown’s appointed governors. This was a time-honored liberty of representative legislatures of the colonial governments. The passage of the Stamp Act meant that starting on November 1, 1765, the colonists would contribute £60,000 per year—17 percent of the total cost—to the upkeep of the ten thousand British soldiers in North America (Figure 5.2.2). Because the Stamp Act raised constitutional issues, it triggered the first serious protest against British imperial policy.
Parliament also asserted its prerogative in 1765 with the Quartering Act. The Quartering Act of 1765 addressed the problem of housing British soldiers stationed in the American colonies. It required that they be provided with barracks or places to stay in public houses, and that if extra housing were necessary, then troops could be stationed in barns and other uninhabited private buildings. In addition, the costs of the troops’ food and lodging fell to the colonists. Since the time of James II, who ruled from 1685 to 1688, many British subjects had mistrusted the presence of a standing army during peacetime, and having to pay for the soldiers’ lodging and food was especially burdensome. Widespread evasion and disregard for the law occurred in almost all the colonies, but the issue was especially contentious in New York, the headquarters of British forces. When fifteen hundred troops arrived in New York in 1766, the New York Assembly refused to follow the Quartering Act.
COLONIAL PROTEST: GENTRY, MERCHANTS, AND THE STAMP ACT CONGRESS
For many British colonists living in America, the Stamp Act raised many concerns. As a direct tax, it appeared to be an unconstitutional measure, one that deprived freeborn British subjects of their liberty, a concept they defined broadly to include various rights and privileges they enjoyed as British subjects, including the right to representation. According to the unwritten British Constitution, only representatives for whom British subjects voted could tax them. Parliament was in charge of taxation, and although it was a representative body, the colonies did not have “actual” (or direct) representation in it. Parliamentary members who supported the Stamp Act argued that the colonists had virtual representation, because the architects of the British Empire knew best how to maximize returns from its possessions overseas. However, this argument did not satisfy the protesters, who viewed themselves as having the same right as all British subjects to avoid taxation without their consent. With no representation in the House of Commons, where bills of taxation originated, they felt themselves deprived of this inherent right.
The British government knew the colonists might object to the Stamp Act’s expansion of parliamentary power, but Parliament believed the relationship of the colonies to the Empire was one of dependence, not equality. However, the Stamp Act had the unintended and ironic consequence of drawing colonists from very different areas and viewpoints together in protest. In Massachusetts, for instance, James Otis, a lawyer and defender of British liberty, became the leading voice for the idea that “Taxation without representation is tyranny.” In the Virginia House of Burgesses, firebrand and slaveholder Patrick Henry introduced the Virginia Stamp Act Resolutions, which denounced the Stamp Act and the British crown in language so strong that some conservative Virginians accused him of treason (Figure 5.2.3). Henry replied that Virginians were subject only to taxes that they themselves—or their representatives—imposed. In short, there could be no taxation without representation.
The colonists had never before formed a unified political front, so Grenville and Parliament did not fear true revolt. However, this was to change in 1765. In response to the Stamp Act, the Massachusetts Assembly sent letters to the other colonies, asking them to attend a meeting, or congress, to discuss how to respond to the act. Many American colonists from very different colonies found common cause in their opposition to the Stamp Act. Representatives from nine colonial legislatures met in New York in the fall of 1765 to reach a consensus. Could Parliament impose taxation without representation? The members of this first congress, known as the Stamp Act Congress, said no. These nine representatives had a vested interest in repealing the tax. Not only did it weaken their businesses and the colonial economy, but it also threatened their liberty under the British Constitution. They drafted a rebuttal to the Stamp Act, making clear that they desired only to protect their liberty as loyal subjects of the Crown. The document, called the Declaration of Rights and Grievances, outlined the unconstitutionality of taxation without representation and trials without juries. Meanwhile, popular protest was also gaining force.
Browse the collection of the Massachusetts Historical Society to examine digitized primary sources of the documents that paved the way to the fight for liberty.
MOBILIZATION: POPULAR PROTEST AGAINST THE STAMP ACT
The Stamp Act Congress was a gathering of landowning, educated white men who represented the political elite of the colonies and was the colonial equivalent of the British landed aristocracy. While these gentry were drafting their grievances during the Stamp Act Congress, other colonists showed their distaste for the new act by boycotting British goods and protesting in the streets. Two groups, the Sons of Liberty and the Daughters of Liberty, led the popular resistance to the Stamp Act. Both groups considered themselves British patriots defending their liberty, just as their forebears had done in the time of James II.
Forming in Boston in the summer of 1765, the Sons of Liberty were artisans, shopkeepers, and small-time merchants willing to adopt extralegal means of protest. Before the act had even gone into effect, the Sons of Liberty began protesting. On August 14, they took aim at Andrew Oliver, who had been named the Massachusetts Distributor of Stamps. After hanging Oliver in effigy—that is, using a crudely made figure as a representation of Oliver—the unruly crowd stoned and ransacked his house, finally beheading the effigy and burning the remains. Such a brutal response shocked the royal governmental officials, who hid until the violence had spent itself. Andrew Oliver resigned the next day. By that time, the mob had moved on to the home of Lieutenant Governor Thomas Hutchinson who, because of his support of Parliament’s actions, was considered an enemy of English liberty. The Sons of Liberty barricaded Hutchinson in his home and demanded that he renounce the Stamp Act; he refused, and the protesters looted and burned his house. Furthermore, the Sons (also called “True Sons” or “True-born Sons” to make clear their commitment to liberty and distinguish them from the likes of Hutchinson) continued to lead violent protests with the goal of securing the resignation of all appointed stamp collectors (Figure 5.2.4).
Starting in early 1766, the Daughters of Liberty protested the Stamp Act by refusing to buy British goods and encouraging others to do the same. They avoided British tea, opting to make their own teas with local herbs and berries. They built a community—and a movement—around creating homespun cloth instead of buying British linen. Well-born women held “spinning bees,” at which they competed to see who could spin the most and the finest linen. An entry in The Boston Chronicle of April 7, 1766, states that on March 12, in Providence, Rhode Island, “18 Daughters of Liberty, young ladies of good reputation, assembled at the house of Doctor Ephraim Bowen, in this town. . . . There they exhibited a fine example of industry, by spinning from sunrise until dark, and displayed a spirit for saving their sinking country rarely to be found among persons of more age and experience.” At dinner, they “cheerfully agreed to omit tea, to render their conduct consistent. Besides this instance of their patriotism, before they separated, they unanimously resolved that the Stamp Act was unconstitutional, that they would purchase no more British manufactures unless it be repealed, and that they would not even admit the addresses of any gentlemen should they have the opportunity, without they determined to oppose its execution to the last extremity, if the occasion required.”
The Daughters’ non-importation movement broadened the protest against the Stamp Act, giving women a new and active role in the political dissent of the time. Women were responsible for purchasing goods for the home, so by exercising the power of the purse, they could wield more power than they had in the past. Although they could not vote, they could mobilize others and make a difference in the political landscape.
From a local movement, the protests of the Sons and Daughters of Liberty soon spread until there was a chapter in every colony. The Daughters of Liberty promoted the boycott on British goods while the Sons enforced it, threatening retaliation against anyone who bought imported goods or used stamped paper. In the protest against the Stamp Act, wealthy, lettered political figures like John Adams supported the goals of the Sons and Daughters of Liberty, even if they did not engage in the Sons’ violent actions. These men, who were lawyers, printers, and merchants, ran a propaganda campaign parallel to the Sons’ campaign of violence. In newspapers and pamphlets throughout the colonies, they published article after article outlining the reasons the Stamp Act was unconstitutional and urging peaceful protest. They officially condemned violent actions but did not have the protesters arrested; a degree of cooperation prevailed, despite the groups’ different economic backgrounds. Certainly, all the protesters saw themselves as acting in the best British tradition, standing up against the corruption (especially the extinguishing of their right to representation) that threatened their liberty (Figure 5.2.5).
THE DECLARATORY ACT
Back in Great Britain, news of the colonists’ reactions worsened an already volatile political situation. Grenville’s imperial reforms had brought about increased domestic taxes and his unpopularity led to his dismissal by King George III. While many in Parliament still wanted such reforms, British merchants argued strongly for their repeal. These merchants had no interest in the philosophy behind the colonists’ desire for liberty; rather, their motive was that the non-importation of British goods by North American colonists was hurting their business. Many of the British at home were also appalled by the colonists’ violent reaction to the Stamp Act. Other Britons cheered what they saw as the manly defense of liberty by their counterparts in the colonies.
In March 1766, the new prime minister, Lord Rockingham, compelled Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act. Colonists celebrated what they saw as a victory for their British liberty; in Boston, merchant John Hancock treated the entire town to drinks. However, to appease opponents of the repeal, who feared that it would weaken parliamentary power over the American colonists, Rockingham also proposed the Declaratory Act. This stated in no uncertain terms that Parliament’s power was supreme and that any laws the colonies may have passed to govern and tax themselves were null and void if they ran counter to parliamentary law.
Visit USHistory.org to read the full text of the Declaratory Act, in which Parliament asserted the supremacy of parliamentary power.
Section Summary
Though Parliament designed the 1765 Stamp Act to deal with the financial crisis in the Empire, it had unintended consequences. Outrage over the act created a degree of unity among otherwise unconnected American colonists, giving them a chance to act together both politically and socially. The crisis of the Stamp Act allowed colonists to loudly proclaim their identity as defenders of British liberty. With the repeal of the Stamp Act in 1766, liberty-loving subjects of the king celebrated what they viewed as a victory.
Review Questions
Which of the following was not a goal of the Stamp Act?
- to gain control over the colonists
- to raise revenue for British troops stationed in the colonies
- to raise revenue to pay off British debt from the French and Indian War
- to declare null and void any laws the colonies had passed to govern and tax themselves
D
For which of the following activities were the Sons of Liberty responsible?
- the Stamp Act Congress
- the hanging and beheading of a stamp commissioner in effigy
- the massacre of Conestoga in Pennsylvania
- the introduction of the Virginia Stamp Act Resolutions
B
Glossary
- Daughters of Liberty
- well-born British colonial women who led a non-importation movement against British goods
- direct tax
- a tax that consumers pay directly, rather than through merchants’ higher prices
- no taxation without representation
- the principle, first articulated in the Virginia Stamp Act Resolutions, that the colonists needed to be represented in Parliament if they were to be taxed
- non-importation movement
- a widespread colonial boycott of British goods
- Sons of Liberty
- artisans, shopkeepers, and small-time merchants who opposed the Stamp Act and considered themselves British patriots


8.1: Liberal Approaches
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The writings of liberal political economists have become so broad a church that they can include advocates of uncontrolled markets as well as supporters of strong state intervention in the market. This is a reflection of some of the practical contradictions that Karl Polanyi (1957) first discovered in different historical manifestations of liberal ideas in the aftermath of the industrial revolution in the nineteenth century. Consider, in this respect, whether government policy takes freedom of choice away from individuals, or if the state should establish a legal order that enables individuals to make choices and function as participants in a market system. Polanyi’s reasoning offers an insight into the globalising economy of the twenty-first century. In this account, markets are not just abstract constructs that settle demand and supply for goods through a specific price, as economists would make us believe. Markets are, and always have been, much more. They are social phenomena embedded in broader communities and directly connected with deliberate forms of state action. As a consequence, economic, social and political life is always interconnected. In particular, the widely held belief in the advantage of a self-regulating market process carries with it a basic contradiction in so far as it leads inevitably to a severe disruption of the social fabric in different countries. This disruption can occur because of rising levels of income inequality (why some are paid more than others), foreign takeovers of companies, or fundamental disagreement on what needs to be done during economic recessions to prevent social decay.
Essentially, Polanyi observed two interrelated processes that explain change in the international system. At first, free market principles dominate and the winners from liberal economic policies exert their influence for further political change. Over time, however, the political pressures created will inevitably generate a counter-movement that is opposed to the direction of reform. Other social groups within society will articulate their interests, slow down the speed of modernisation and demand a different form of economic management and policy making. Seen from this angle, the global political economy of the twenty-first century is an attempt to embed globalising markets in transnational social relations – quite similar to what we observed historically in terms of social and economic development at the level of the nation-state.
The early heroes of the liberal approach were Adam Smith and David Ricardo. Smith argued in favour of government non-interference and the superiority of market exchanges guided by the ‘invisible hand’ of the price mechanism. This is a process whereby consumers seek the best quality for the lowest price and this, in turn, compels successful producers to find the lowest-cost method of production. Ricardo explicitly added the gains deriving from a system of free trade built around the principle of comparative advantage. Accordingly, ‘under a system of perfectly free commerce, each country naturally devotes its capital and labour to such employments as are most beneficial to each’. And, ‘this pursuit of individual advantage is admirably connected with the universal good of the whole’ (Ricardo 1817). From this point, international trade liberalisation has been seen as a useful mechanism allocating labour to its most productive uses allowing in turn a much greater consumption of goods than what would be possible in the absence of such a system.
For Smith, the specialisation in working patterns and the division of labour also created new opportunities for employees to achieve personal growth and professional careers. In the classic example, ten people working to produce pins could produce more in total if they worked together, dividing up tasks and performing each one better than if they all worked separately. Where Karl Marx identified repetitive work patterns and exploitation, early liberal political economy found skills, self-love and natural propensity (O’Brien and Williams 2010, 259). Taking these arguments into the modern era, if governments across the world de-regulated economic activity, cut taxes for the wealthy, privatised and contracted out traditional state services, then unprecedented levels of economic growth would follow. By allowing the free movement of capital, many more people can benefit from high levels of direct investment even if employees are less mobile and more tied to a particular workplace. Thus, in the modern liberal world view, often called neoliberalism, governments are expected to be active promoters and supporters of globalisation. Only left-leaning liberals, by contrast, recognise the increasingly global division of labour as responsible for rising levels of inequality.
What unifies liberal thinking in terms of global economics is an analytical inclusion of a variety of state and non-state actors that form relationships of mutual dependence. Therefore, the historical focus of one country being dependent on another due to a surplus in a vital commodity, like oil or gas, has gradually given way to a much more complex understanding. This does not mean that the classic interaction between states has become obsolete, rather that it is enriched by including and explicitly recognising an everincreasing number of other international actors such as those explored in chapters five, six and seven. Hence, the policies of one international or regional organisation may rely on the policies of another. This has been the case with the European Union and the International Monetary Fund in the management of the 2008 global financial crisis as they adopted joint programmes to assist states such as Ireland. Another example is the successful implementation of a global environmental policy by the United Nations that benefitted significantly from collaboration with Greenpeace, an international non-governmental organisation. In the literature, however, it has been the multinational corporation (a private business operation with facilities and assets in at least two countries) that has received the most attention in the search for interdependent relationships across borders. Here, as elsewhere, the liberal account does show its broad remit, leaving room for positive evaluation as well as critical reflection. Some liberals praise the overall benefit from competition for international investments played out on the back of the rivalry between states and multinational corporations. Others, by contrast, stress the comparative disadvantage and limited success of less well-funded civil society actors when trying to change corporate behaviour on a global scale.